CINXE.COM

<!DOCTYPE html> <html class="client-nojs vector-feature-language-in-header-enabled vector-feature-language-in-main-page-header-disabled vector-feature-sticky-header-disabled vector-feature-page-tools-pinned-disabled vector-feature-toc-pinned-clientpref-1 vector-feature-main-menu-pinned-disabled vector-feature-limited-width-clientpref-1 vector-feature-limited-width-content-enabled vector-feature-custom-font-size-clientpref-1 vector-feature-appearance-pinned-clientpref-1 vector-feature-night-mode-enabled skin-theme-clientpref-day vector-toc-available" lang="en" dir="ltr"> <head> <meta charset="UTF-8"> <title>Yolmo language - Wikipedia</title> <script>(function(){var className="client-js vector-feature-language-in-header-enabled vector-feature-language-in-main-page-header-disabled vector-feature-sticky-header-disabled vector-feature-page-tools-pinned-disabled vector-feature-toc-pinned-clientpref-1 vector-feature-main-menu-pinned-disabled vector-feature-limited-width-clientpref-1 vector-feature-limited-width-content-enabled vector-feature-custom-font-size-clientpref-1 vector-feature-appearance-pinned-clientpref-1 vector-feature-night-mode-enabled skin-theme-clientpref-day vector-toc-available";var cookie=document.cookie.match(/(?:^|; )enwikimwclientpreferences=([^;]+)/);if(cookie){cookie[1].split('%2C').forEach(function(pref){className=className.replace(new RegExp('(^| )'+pref.replace(/-clientpref-\w+$|[^\w-]+/g,'')+'-clientpref-\\w+( |$)'),'$1'+pref+'$2');});}document.documentElement.className=className;}());RLCONF={"wgBreakFrames":false,"wgSeparatorTransformTable":["",""],"wgDigitTransformTable":["",""],"wgDefaultDateFormat":"dmy", "wgMonthNames":["","January","February","March","April","May","June","July","August","September","October","November","December"],"wgRequestId":"6352bcd0-d446-43ab-bfb6-cbc39aada29b","wgCanonicalNamespace":"","wgCanonicalSpecialPageName":false,"wgNamespaceNumber":0,"wgPageName":"Yolmo_language","wgTitle":"Yolmo language","wgCurRevisionId":1246118442,"wgRevisionId":1246118442,"wgArticleId":28904321,"wgIsArticle":true,"wgIsRedirect":false,"wgAction":"view","wgUserName":null,"wgUserGroups":["*"],"wgCategories":["Pages containing links to subscription-only content","Language articles citing Ethnologue 18","CS1 French-language sources (fr)","Articles with short description","Short description is different from Wikidata","Articles with ambiguous glossing abbreviations","Wikipedia articles incorporating text from open access publications","Wikipedia articles published in peer-reviewed literature","Wikipedia articles published in WikiJournal of Humanities","Externally peer reviewed articles", "Wikipedia articles published in peer-reviewed literature (W2J)","Languages of Nepal","South Bodish languages","Languages of Sikkim","Languages of Tibet","Languages written in Devanagari"],"wgPageViewLanguage":"en","wgPageContentLanguage":"en","wgPageContentModel":"wikitext","wgRelevantPageName":"Yolmo_language","wgRelevantArticleId":28904321,"wgIsProbablyEditable":true,"wgRelevantPageIsProbablyEditable":true,"wgRestrictionEdit":[],"wgRestrictionMove":[],"wgNoticeProject":"wikipedia","wgCiteReferencePreviewsActive":false,"wgFlaggedRevsParams":{"tags":{"status":{"levels":1}}},"wgMediaViewerOnClick":true,"wgMediaViewerEnabledByDefault":true,"wgPopupsFlags":0,"wgVisualEditor":{"pageLanguageCode":"en","pageLanguageDir":"ltr","pageVariantFallbacks":"en"},"wgMFDisplayWikibaseDescriptions":{"search":true,"watchlist":true,"tagline":false,"nearby":true},"wgWMESchemaEditAttemptStepOversample":false,"wgWMEPageLength":90000,"wgRelatedArticlesCompat":[],"wgCentralAuthMobileDomain":false, "wgEditSubmitButtonLabelPublish":true,"wgULSPosition":"interlanguage","wgULSisCompactLinksEnabled":false,"wgVector2022LanguageInHeader":true,"wgULSisLanguageSelectorEmpty":false,"wgWikibaseItemId":"Q19841092","wgCheckUserClientHintsHeadersJsApi":["brands","architecture","bitness","fullVersionList","mobile","model","platform","platformVersion"],"GEHomepageSuggestedEditsEnableTopics":true,"wgGETopicsMatchModeEnabled":false,"wgGEStructuredTaskRejectionReasonTextInputEnabled":false,"wgGELevelingUpEnabledForUser":false};RLSTATE={"ext.globalCssJs.user.styles":"ready","site.styles":"ready","user.styles":"ready","ext.globalCssJs.user":"ready","user":"ready","user.options":"loading","ext.cite.styles":"ready","skins.vector.search.codex.styles":"ready","skins.vector.styles":"ready","skins.vector.icons":"ready","jquery.makeCollapsible.styles":"ready","ext.wikimediamessages.styles":"ready","ext.visualEditor.desktopArticleTarget.noscript":"ready","ext.uls.interlanguage":"ready", "wikibase.client.init":"ready","ext.wikimediaBadges":"ready"};RLPAGEMODULES=["ext.cite.ux-enhancements","mediawiki.page.media","ext.scribunto.logs","site","mediawiki.page.ready","jquery.makeCollapsible","mediawiki.toc","skins.vector.js","ext.centralNotice.geoIP","ext.centralNotice.startUp","ext.gadget.ReferenceTooltips","ext.gadget.switcher","ext.urlShortener.toolbar","ext.centralauth.centralautologin","mmv.bootstrap","ext.popups","ext.visualEditor.desktopArticleTarget.init","ext.visualEditor.targetLoader","ext.echo.centralauth","ext.eventLogging","ext.wikimediaEvents","ext.navigationTiming","ext.uls.interface","ext.cx.eventlogging.campaigns","ext.cx.uls.quick.actions","wikibase.client.vector-2022","ext.checkUser.clientHints","ext.quicksurveys.init","ext.growthExperiments.SuggestedEditSession","wikibase.sidebar.tracking"];</script> <script>(RLQ=window.RLQ||[]).push(function(){mw.loader.impl(function(){return["user.options@12s5i",function($,jQuery,require,module){mw.user.tokens.set({"patrolToken":"+\\","watchToken":"+\\","csrfToken":"+\\"}); }];});});</script> <link rel="stylesheet" href="/w/load.php?lang=en&modules=ext.cite.styles%7Cext.uls.interlanguage%7Cext.visualEditor.desktopArticleTarget.noscript%7Cext.wikimediaBadges%7Cext.wikimediamessages.styles%7Cjquery.makeCollapsible.styles%7Cskins.vector.icons%2Cstyles%7Cskins.vector.search.codex.styles%7Cwikibase.client.init&only=styles&skin=vector-2022"> <script async="" src="/w/load.php?lang=en&modules=startup&only=scripts&raw=1&skin=vector-2022"></script> <meta name="ResourceLoaderDynamicStyles" content=""> <link rel="stylesheet" href="/w/load.php?lang=en&modules=site.styles&only=styles&skin=vector-2022"> <meta name="generator" content="MediaWiki 1.44.0-wmf.4"> <meta name="referrer" content="origin"> <meta name="referrer" content="origin-when-cross-origin"> <meta name="robots" content="max-image-preview:standard"> <meta name="format-detection" content="telephone=no"> <meta property="og:image" content="https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/8e/Yolmo_Map_2016.png"> <meta property="og:image:width" content="1200"> <meta property="og:image:height" content="824"> <meta property="og:image" content="https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8e/Yolmo_Map_2016.png/800px-Yolmo_Map_2016.png"> <meta property="og:image:width" content="800"> <meta property="og:image:height" content="549"> <meta property="og:image" content="https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8e/Yolmo_Map_2016.png/640px-Yolmo_Map_2016.png"> <meta property="og:image:width" content="640"> <meta property="og:image:height" content="439"> <meta name="viewport" content="width=1120"> <meta property="og:title" content="Yolmo language - Wikipedia"> <meta property="og:type" content="website"> <link rel="preconnect" href="//upload.wikimedia.org"> <link rel="alternate" media="only screen and (max-width: 640px)" href="//en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yolmo_language"> <link rel="alternate" type="application/x-wiki" title="Edit this page" href="/w/index.php?title=Yolmo_language&action=edit"> <link rel="apple-touch-icon" href="/static/apple-touch/wikipedia.png"> <link rel="icon" href="/static/favicon/wikipedia.ico"> <link rel="search" type="application/opensearchdescription+xml" href="/w/rest.php/v1/search" title="Wikipedia (en)"> <link rel="EditURI" type="application/rsd+xml" href="//en.wikipedia.org/w/api.php?action=rsd"> <link rel="canonical" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yolmo_language"> <link rel="license" href="https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/deed.en"> <link rel="alternate" type="application/atom+xml" title="Wikipedia Atom feed" href="/w/index.php?title=Special:RecentChanges&feed=atom"> <link rel="dns-prefetch" href="//meta.wikimedia.org" /> <link rel="dns-prefetch" href="//login.wikimedia.org"> </head> <body class="skin--responsive skin-vector skin-vector-search-vue mediawiki ltr sitedir-ltr mw-hide-empty-elt ns-0 ns-subject mw-editable page-Yolmo_language rootpage-Yolmo_language skin-vector-2022 action-view"><a class="mw-jump-link" href="#bodyContent">Jump to content</a> <div class="vector-header-container"> <header class="vector-header mw-header"> <div class="vector-header-start"> <nav class="vector-main-menu-landmark" aria-label="Site"> <div id="vector-main-menu-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown vector-main-menu-dropdown vector-button-flush-left vector-button-flush-right" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-main-menu-dropdown-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-main-menu-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Main menu" > <label id="vector-main-menu-dropdown-label" for="vector-main-menu-dropdown-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-menu mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-menu"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Main menu</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-main-menu-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> <div id="vector-main-menu" class="vector-main-menu vector-pinnable-element"> <div class="vector-pinnable-header vector-main-menu-pinnable-header vector-pinnable-header-unpinned" data-feature-name="main-menu-pinned" data-pinnable-element-id="vector-main-menu" data-pinned-container-id="vector-main-menu-pinned-container" data-unpinned-container-id="vector-main-menu-unpinned-container" > <div class="vector-pinnable-header-label">Main menu</div> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-pin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-main-menu.pin">move to sidebar</button> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-unpin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-main-menu.unpin">hide</button> </div> <div id="p-navigation" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-navigation" > <div class="vector-menu-heading"> Navigation </div> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="n-mainpage-description" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Main_Page" title="Visit the main page [z]" accesskey="z"><span>Main page</span></a></li><li id="n-contents" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Contents" title="Guides to browsing Wikipedia"><span>Contents</span></a></li><li id="n-currentevents" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Portal:Current_events" title="Articles related to current events"><span>Current events</span></a></li><li id="n-randompage" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Special:Random" title="Visit a randomly selected article [x]" accesskey="x"><span>Random article</span></a></li><li id="n-aboutsite" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:About" title="Learn about Wikipedia and how it works"><span>About Wikipedia</span></a></li><li id="n-contactpage" class="mw-list-item"><a href="//en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Contact_us" title="How to contact Wikipedia"><span>Contact us</span></a></li> </ul> </div> </div> <div id="p-interaction" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-interaction" > <div class="vector-menu-heading"> Contribute </div> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="n-help" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Help:Contents" title="Guidance on how to use and edit Wikipedia"><span>Help</span></a></li><li id="n-introduction" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Help:Introduction" title="Learn how to edit Wikipedia"><span>Learn to edit</span></a></li><li id="n-portal" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Community_portal" title="The hub for editors"><span>Community portal</span></a></li><li id="n-recentchanges" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Special:RecentChanges" title="A list of recent changes to Wikipedia [r]" accesskey="r"><span>Recent changes</span></a></li><li id="n-upload" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:File_upload_wizard" title="Add images or other media for use on Wikipedia"><span>Upload file</span></a></li> </ul> </div> </div> </div> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <a href="/wiki/Main_Page" class="mw-logo"> <img class="mw-logo-icon" src="/static/images/icons/wikipedia.png" alt="" aria-hidden="true" height="50" width="50"> <span class="mw-logo-container skin-invert"> <img class="mw-logo-wordmark" alt="Wikipedia" src="/static/images/mobile/copyright/wikipedia-wordmark-en.svg" style="width: 7.5em; height: 1.125em;"> <img class="mw-logo-tagline" alt="The Free Encyclopedia" src="/static/images/mobile/copyright/wikipedia-tagline-en.svg" width="117" height="13" style="width: 7.3125em; height: 0.8125em;"> </span> </a> </div> <div class="vector-header-end"> <div id="p-search" role="search" class="vector-search-box-vue vector-search-box-collapses vector-search-box-show-thumbnail vector-search-box-auto-expand-width vector-search-box"> <a href="/wiki/Special:Search" class="cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only search-toggle" title="Search Wikipedia [f]" accesskey="f"><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-search mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-search"></span> <span>Search</span> </a> <div class="vector-typeahead-search-container"> <div class="cdx-typeahead-search cdx-typeahead-search--show-thumbnail cdx-typeahead-search--auto-expand-width"> <form action="/w/index.php" id="searchform" class="cdx-search-input cdx-search-input--has-end-button"> <div id="simpleSearch" class="cdx-search-input__input-wrapper" data-search-loc="header-moved"> <div class="cdx-text-input cdx-text-input--has-start-icon"> <input class="cdx-text-input__input" type="search" name="search" placeholder="Search Wikipedia" aria-label="Search Wikipedia" autocapitalize="sentences" title="Search Wikipedia [f]" accesskey="f" id="searchInput" > <span class="cdx-text-input__icon cdx-text-input__start-icon"></span> </div> <input type="hidden" name="title" value="Special:Search"> </div> <button class="cdx-button cdx-search-input__end-button">Search</button> </form> </div> </div> </div> <nav class="vector-user-links vector-user-links-wide" aria-label="Personal tools"> <div class="vector-user-links-main"> <div id="p-vector-user-menu-preferences" class="vector-menu mw-portlet emptyPortlet" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> </ul> </div> </div> <div id="p-vector-user-menu-userpage" class="vector-menu mw-portlet emptyPortlet" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> </ul> </div> </div> <nav class="vector-appearance-landmark" aria-label="Appearance"> <div id="vector-appearance-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown " title="Change the appearance of the page's font size, width, and color" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-appearance-dropdown-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-appearance-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Appearance" > <label id="vector-appearance-dropdown-label" for="vector-appearance-dropdown-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-appearance mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-appearance"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Appearance</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-appearance-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <div id="p-vector-user-menu-notifications" class="vector-menu mw-portlet emptyPortlet" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> </ul> </div> </div> <div id="p-vector-user-menu-overflow" class="vector-menu mw-portlet" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="pt-sitesupport-2" class="user-links-collapsible-item mw-list-item user-links-collapsible-item"><a data-mw="interface" href="https://donate.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:FundraiserRedirector?utm_source=donate&utm_medium=sidebar&utm_campaign=C13_en.wikipedia.org&uselang=en" class=""><span>Donate</span></a> </li> <li id="pt-createaccount-2" class="user-links-collapsible-item mw-list-item user-links-collapsible-item"><a data-mw="interface" href="/w/index.php?title=Special:CreateAccount&returnto=Yolmo+language" title="You are encouraged to create an account and log in; however, it is not mandatory" class=""><span>Create account</span></a> </li> <li id="pt-login-2" class="user-links-collapsible-item mw-list-item user-links-collapsible-item"><a data-mw="interface" href="/w/index.php?title=Special:UserLogin&returnto=Yolmo+language" title="You're encouraged to log in; however, it's not mandatory. [o]" accesskey="o" class=""><span>Log in</span></a> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </div> <div id="vector-user-links-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown vector-user-menu vector-button-flush-right vector-user-menu-logged-out" title="Log in and more options" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-user-links-dropdown-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-user-links-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Personal tools" > <label id="vector-user-links-dropdown-label" for="vector-user-links-dropdown-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-ellipsis mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-ellipsis"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Personal tools</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="p-personal" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-personal user-links-collapsible-item" title="User menu" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="pt-sitesupport" class="user-links-collapsible-item mw-list-item"><a href="https://donate.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:FundraiserRedirector?utm_source=donate&utm_medium=sidebar&utm_campaign=C13_en.wikipedia.org&uselang=en"><span>Donate</span></a></li><li id="pt-createaccount" class="user-links-collapsible-item mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Special:CreateAccount&returnto=Yolmo+language" title="You are encouraged to create an account and log in; however, it is not mandatory"><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-userAdd mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-userAdd"></span> <span>Create account</span></a></li><li id="pt-login" class="user-links-collapsible-item mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Special:UserLogin&returnto=Yolmo+language" title="You're encouraged to log in; however, it's not mandatory. [o]" accesskey="o"><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-logIn mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-logIn"></span> <span>Log in</span></a></li> </ul> </div> </div> <div id="p-user-menu-anon-editor" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-user-menu-anon-editor" > <div class="vector-menu-heading"> Pages for logged out editors <a href="/wiki/Help:Introduction" aria-label="Learn more about editing"><span>learn more</span></a> </div> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="pt-anoncontribs" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Special:MyContributions" title="A list of edits made from this IP address [y]" accesskey="y"><span>Contributions</span></a></li><li id="pt-anontalk" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Special:MyTalk" title="Discussion about edits from this IP address [n]" accesskey="n"><span>Talk</span></a></li> </ul> </div> </div> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </header> </div> <div class="mw-page-container"> <div class="mw-page-container-inner"> <div class="vector-sitenotice-container"> <div id="siteNotice"></div> </div> <div class="vector-column-start"> <div class="vector-main-menu-container"> <div id="mw-navigation"> <nav id="mw-panel" class="vector-main-menu-landmark" aria-label="Site"> <div id="vector-main-menu-pinned-container" class="vector-pinned-container"> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="vector-sticky-pinned-container"> <nav id="mw-panel-toc" aria-label="Contents" data-event-name="ui.sidebar-toc" class="mw-table-of-contents-container vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-toc-pinned-container" class="vector-pinned-container"> <div id="vector-toc" class="vector-toc vector-pinnable-element"> <div class="vector-pinnable-header vector-toc-pinnable-header vector-pinnable-header-pinned" data-feature-name="toc-pinned" data-pinnable-element-id="vector-toc" > <h2 class="vector-pinnable-header-label">Contents</h2> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-pin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-toc.pin">move to sidebar</button> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-unpin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-toc.unpin">hide</button> </div> <ul class="vector-toc-contents" id="mw-panel-toc-list"> <li id="toc-mw-content-text" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a href="#" class="vector-toc-link"> <div class="vector-toc-text">(Top)</div> </a> </li> <li id="toc-Language_name" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Language_name"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1</span> <span>Language name</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Language_name-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Language_family" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Language_family"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2</span> <span>Language family</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Language_family-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-History" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#History"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3</span> <span>History</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-History-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Dialects" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Dialects"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> <span>Dialects</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Dialects-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Dialects subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Dialects-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Melamchi_Valley_Yolmo" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Melamchi_Valley_Yolmo"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.1</span> <span>Melamchi Valley Yolmo</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Melamchi_Valley_Yolmo-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Langtang" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Langtang"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.2</span> <span>Langtang</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Langtang-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Lamjung_Yolmo" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Lamjung_Yolmo"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.3</span> <span>Lamjung Yolmo</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Lamjung_Yolmo-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Ilam_Yolmo" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Ilam_Yolmo"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.4</span> <span>Ilam Yolmo</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Ilam_Yolmo-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Syuba_(Kagate)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Syuba_(Kagate)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.5</span> <span>Syuba (Kagate)</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Syuba_(Kagate)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Language_vitality" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Language_vitality"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>Language vitality</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Language_vitality-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Language_contact" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Language_contact"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6</span> <span>Language contact</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Language_contact-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Orthography" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Orthography"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7</span> <span>Orthography</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Orthography-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Orthography subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Orthography-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Devanagari" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Devanagari"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7.1</span> <span>Devanagari</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Devanagari-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Roman" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Roman"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7.2</span> <span>Roman</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Roman-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Grammatical_overview" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Grammatical_overview"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8</span> <span>Grammatical overview</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Grammatical_overview-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Phonology" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Phonology"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9</span> <span>Phonology</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Phonology-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Phonology subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Phonology-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Consonants" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Consonants"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9.1</span> <span>Consonants</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Consonants-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Vowels" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Vowels"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9.2</span> <span>Vowels</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Vowels-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Tone" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Tone"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9.3</span> <span>Tone</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Tone-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Syllable_structure" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Syllable_structure"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9.4</span> <span>Syllable structure</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Syllable_structure-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Morphophonemic_processes" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Morphophonemic_processes"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9.5</span> <span>Morphophonemic processes</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Morphophonemic_processes-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Nouns/nominals" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Nouns/nominals"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">10</span> <span>Nouns/nominals</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Nouns/nominals-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Nouns/nominals subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Nouns/nominals-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Determiners" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Determiners"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">10.1</span> <span>Determiners</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Determiners-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Pronouns" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Pronouns"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">10.2</span> <span>Pronouns</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Pronouns-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Interrogative_pronouns" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Interrogative_pronouns"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">10.2.1</span> <span>Interrogative pronouns</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Interrogative_pronouns-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Proper_nouns" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Proper_nouns"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">10.3</span> <span>Proper nouns</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Proper_nouns-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Plural" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Plural"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">10.4</span> <span>Plural</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Plural-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Focus_marker" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Focus_marker"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">10.5</span> <span>Focus marker</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Focus_marker-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Case_marking" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Case_marking"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">10.6</span> <span>Case marking</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Case_marking-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Ergative_case" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Ergative_case"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">10.6.1</span> <span>Ergative case</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Ergative_case-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Dative_case" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Dative_case"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">10.6.2</span> <span>Dative case</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Dative_case-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Number" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Number"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">10.7</span> <span>Number</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Number-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Numeral_classifiers" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Numeral_classifiers"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">10.7.1</span> <span>Numeral classifiers</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Numeral_classifiers-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Adjectives" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Adjectives"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">10.8</span> <span>Adjectives</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Adjectives-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Verbs" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Verbs"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">11</span> <span>Verbs</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Verbs-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Verbs subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Verbs-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Copula_verbs" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Copula_verbs"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">11.1</span> <span>Copula verbs</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Copula_verbs-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Egophoric" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Egophoric"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">11.1.1</span> <span>Egophoric</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Egophoric-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Dubitative" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Dubitative"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">11.1.2</span> <span>Dubitative</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Dubitative-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Perceptual" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Perceptual"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">11.1.3</span> <span>Perceptual</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Perceptual-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-General_fact" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#General_fact"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">11.1.4</span> <span>General fact</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-General_fact-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Lexical_verb_stems" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Lexical_verb_stems"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">11.2</span> <span>Lexical verb stems</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Lexical_verb_stems-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Auxiliary_verbs" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Auxiliary_verbs"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">11.3</span> <span>Auxiliary verbs</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Auxiliary_verbs-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Tense" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Tense"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">11.4</span> <span>Tense</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Tense-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Past_tense" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Past_tense"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">11.4.1</span> <span>Past tense</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Past_tense-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Non-past_tense" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Non-past_tense"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">11.4.2</span> <span>Non-past tense</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Non-past_tense-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Aspect" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Aspect"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">11.5</span> <span>Aspect</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Aspect-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Imperfective" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Imperfective"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">11.5.1</span> <span>Imperfective</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Imperfective-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Perfective" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Perfective"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">11.5.2</span> <span>Perfective</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Perfective-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Habitual" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Habitual"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">11.5.3</span> <span>Habitual</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Habitual-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Mood" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Mood"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">11.6</span> <span>Mood</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Mood-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Imperative" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Imperative"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">11.6.1</span> <span>Imperative</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Imperative-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Hortative" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Hortative"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">11.6.2</span> <span>Hortative</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Hortative-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Optative" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Optative"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">11.6.3</span> <span>Optative</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Optative-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Dubitative_2" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Dubitative_2"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">11.6.4</span> <span>Dubitative</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Dubitative_2-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Negation" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Negation"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">11.7</span> <span>Negation</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Negation-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Verb_paradigm" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Verb_paradigm"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">11.8</span> <span>Verb paradigm</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Verb_paradigm-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Clause_structure" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Clause_structure"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">12</span> <span>Clause structure</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Clause_structure-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Clause structure subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Clause_structure-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Nominalisation" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Nominalisation"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">12.1</span> <span>Nominalisation</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Nominalisation-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Adverbials" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Adverbials"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">12.2</span> <span>Adverbials</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Adverbials-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Temporal_adverbial_subordination" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Temporal_adverbial_subordination"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">12.2.1</span> <span>Temporal adverbial subordination</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Temporal_adverbial_subordination-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Manner_adverbs" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Manner_adverbs"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">12.2.2</span> <span>Manner adverbs</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Manner_adverbs-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Conditional" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Conditional"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">12.3</span> <span>Conditional</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Conditional-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Complementation" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Complementation"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">12.4</span> <span>Complementation</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Complementation-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Relativisation" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Relativisation"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">12.5</span> <span>Relativisation</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Relativisation-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Clause_chaining" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Clause_chaining"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">12.6</span> <span>Clause chaining</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Clause_chaining-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Question_formation" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Question_formation"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">12.7</span> <span>Question formation</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Question_formation-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Reported_speech" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Reported_speech"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">12.8</span> <span>Reported speech</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Reported_speech-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Lexical_verb" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Lexical_verb"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">12.8.1</span> <span>Lexical verb</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Lexical_verb-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Reported_speech_evidential" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Reported_speech_evidential"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">12.8.2</span> <span>Reported speech evidential</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Reported_speech_evidential-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Lexical_emphasis" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Lexical_emphasis"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">12.9</span> <span>Lexical emphasis</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Lexical_emphasis-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Clause_final_particles" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Clause_final_particles"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">12.10</span> <span>Clause final particles</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Clause_final_particles-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Honorifics" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Honorifics"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">13</span> <span>Honorifics</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Honorifics-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-100_word_Swadesh_list" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#100_word_Swadesh_list"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">14</span> <span>100 word Swadesh list</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-100_word_Swadesh_list-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">15</span> <span>See also</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_resources" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_resources"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">16</span> <span>External resources</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_resources-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Key_references" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Key_references"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">17</span> <span>Key references</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Key_references-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">18</span> <span>References</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-listBullet mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-listBullet"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Toggle the table of contents</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading"><span class="mw-page-title-main">Yolmo language</span></h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. Available in 10 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-10" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-language-progressive mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-language-progressive"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">10 languages</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-awa mw-list-item"><a href="https://awa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%B9%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AF%E0%A5%8B%E0%A4%B2%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AE%E0%A5%8B_%E0%A4%AD%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B7%E0%A4%BE" title="ह्योल्मो भाषा – Awadhi" lang="awa" hreflang="awa" data-title="ह्योल्मो भाषा" data-language-autonym="अवधी" data-language-local-name="Awadhi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>अवधी</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-br mw-list-item"><a href="https://br.wikipedia.org/wiki/Helambou-cherpeg" title="Helambou-cherpeg – Breton" lang="br" hreflang="br" data-title="Helambou-cherpeg" data-language-autonym="Brezhoneg" data-language-local-name="Breton" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Brezhoneg</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hr mw-list-item"><a href="https://hr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Helambu_Sherpa_jezik" title="Helambu Sherpa jezik – Croatian" lang="hr" hreflang="hr" data-title="Helambu Sherpa jezik" data-language-autonym="Hrvatski" data-language-local-name="Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Hrvatski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sw mw-list-item"><a href="https://sw.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kihelambu" title="Kihelambu – Swahili" lang="sw" hreflang="sw" data-title="Kihelambu" data-language-autonym="Kiswahili" data-language-local-name="Swahili" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Kiswahili</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mai mw-list-item"><a href="https://mai.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%B9%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AF%E0%A5%8B%E0%A4%B2%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AE%E0%A5%8B_%E0%A4%AD%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B7%E0%A4%BE" title="ह्योल्मो भाषा – Maithili" lang="mai" hreflang="mai" data-title="ह्योल्मो भाषा" data-language-autonym="मैथिली" data-language-local-name="Maithili" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>मैथिली</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ne mw-list-item"><a href="https://ne.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%AF%E0%A5%8B%E0%A4%B2%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AE%E0%A5%8B_%E0%A4%AD%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B7%E0%A4%BE" title="योल्मो भाषा – Nepali" lang="ne" hreflang="ne" data-title="योल्मो भाषा" data-language-autonym="नेपाली" data-language-local-name="Nepali" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>नेपाली</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pms mw-list-item"><a href="https://pms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lenga_Helambu_Sherpa" title="Lenga Helambu Sherpa – Piedmontese" lang="pms" hreflang="pms" data-title="Lenga Helambu Sherpa" data-language-autonym="Piemontèis" data-language-local-name="Piedmontese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Piemontèis</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/L%C3%ADngua_Yolmo" title="Língua Yolmo – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Língua Yolmo" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Português</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%99%D0%BE%D0%BB%D0%BC%D0%BE_(%D1%8F%D0%B7%D1%8B%D0%BA)" title="Йолмо (язык) – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Йолмо (язык)" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Русский</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fi mw-list-item"><a href="https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Helambun%C5%A1erpa" title="Helambunšerpa – Finnish" lang="fi" hreflang="fi" data-title="Helambunšerpa" data-language-autonym="Suomi" data-language-local-name="Finnish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Suomi</span></a></li> </ul> <div class="after-portlet after-portlet-lang"><span class="wb-langlinks-edit wb-langlinks-link"><a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Special:EntityPage/Q19841092#sitelinks-wikipedia" title="Edit interlanguage links" class="wbc-editpage">Edit links</a></span></div> </div> </div> </div> </header> <div class="vector-page-toolbar"> <div class="vector-page-toolbar-container"> <div id="left-navigation"> <nav aria-label="Namespaces"> <div id="p-associated-pages" class="vector-menu vector-menu-tabs mw-portlet mw-portlet-associated-pages" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="ca-nstab-main" class="selected vector-tab-noicon mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Yolmo_language" title="View the content page [c]" accesskey="c"><span>Article</span></a></li><li id="ca-talk" class="vector-tab-noicon mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Talk:Yolmo_language" rel="discussion" title="Discuss improvements to the content page [t]" accesskey="t"><span>Talk</span></a></li> </ul> </div> </div> <div id="vector-variants-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown emptyPortlet" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-variants-dropdown-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-variants-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Change language variant" > <label id="vector-variants-dropdown-label" for="vector-variants-dropdown-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">English</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="p-variants" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-variants emptyPortlet" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> </ul> </div> </div> </div> </div> </nav> </div> <div id="right-navigation" class="vector-collapsible"> <nav aria-label="Views"> <div id="p-views" class="vector-menu vector-menu-tabs mw-portlet mw-portlet-views" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="ca-view" class="selected vector-tab-noicon mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Yolmo_language"><span>Read</span></a></li><li id="ca-edit" class="vector-tab-noicon mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Yolmo_language&action=edit" title="Edit this page [e]" accesskey="e"><span>Edit</span></a></li><li id="ca-history" class="vector-tab-noicon mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Yolmo_language&action=history" title="Past revisions of this page [h]" accesskey="h"><span>View history</span></a></li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> <nav class="vector-page-tools-landmark" aria-label="Page tools"> <div id="vector-page-tools-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-tools-dropdown" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-tools-dropdown-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-tools-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Tools" > <label id="vector-page-tools-dropdown-label" for="vector-page-tools-dropdown-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Tools</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-tools-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> <div id="vector-page-tools" class="vector-page-tools vector-pinnable-element"> <div class="vector-pinnable-header vector-page-tools-pinnable-header vector-pinnable-header-unpinned" data-feature-name="page-tools-pinned" data-pinnable-element-id="vector-page-tools" data-pinned-container-id="vector-page-tools-pinned-container" data-unpinned-container-id="vector-page-tools-unpinned-container" > <div class="vector-pinnable-header-label">Tools</div> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-pin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-page-tools.pin">move to sidebar</button> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-unpin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-page-tools.unpin">hide</button> </div> <div id="p-cactions" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-cactions emptyPortlet vector-has-collapsible-items" title="More options" > <div class="vector-menu-heading"> Actions </div> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="ca-more-view" class="selected vector-more-collapsible-item mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Yolmo_language"><span>Read</span></a></li><li id="ca-more-edit" class="vector-more-collapsible-item mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Yolmo_language&action=edit" title="Edit this page [e]" accesskey="e"><span>Edit</span></a></li><li id="ca-more-history" class="vector-more-collapsible-item mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Yolmo_language&action=history"><span>View history</span></a></li> </ul> </div> </div> <div id="p-tb" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-tb" > <div class="vector-menu-heading"> General </div> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="t-whatlinkshere" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Special:WhatLinksHere/Yolmo_language" title="List of all English Wikipedia pages containing links to this page [j]" accesskey="j"><span>What links here</span></a></li><li id="t-recentchangeslinked" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Special:RecentChangesLinked/Yolmo_language" rel="nofollow" title="Recent changes in pages linked from this page [k]" accesskey="k"><span>Related changes</span></a></li><li id="t-upload" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:File_Upload_Wizard" title="Upload files [u]" accesskey="u"><span>Upload file</span></a></li><li id="t-specialpages" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Special:SpecialPages" title="A list of all special pages [q]" accesskey="q"><span>Special pages</span></a></li><li id="t-permalink" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Yolmo_language&oldid=1246118442" title="Permanent link to this revision of this page"><span>Permanent link</span></a></li><li id="t-info" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Yolmo_language&action=info" title="More information about this page"><span>Page information</span></a></li><li id="t-cite" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Special:CiteThisPage&page=Yolmo_language&id=1246118442&wpFormIdentifier=titleform" title="Information on how to cite this page"><span>Cite this page</span></a></li><li id="t-urlshortener" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Special:UrlShortener&url=https%3A%2F%2Fen.wikipedia.org%2Fwiki%2FYolmo_language"><span>Get shortened URL</span></a></li><li id="t-urlshortener-qrcode" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Special:QrCode&url=https%3A%2F%2Fen.wikipedia.org%2Fwiki%2FYolmo_language"><span>Download QR code</span></a></li> </ul> </div> </div> <div id="p-coll-print_export" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-coll-print_export" > <div class="vector-menu-heading"> Print/export </div> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="coll-download-as-rl" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Special:DownloadAsPdf&page=Yolmo_language&action=show-download-screen" title="Download this page as a PDF file"><span>Download as PDF</span></a></li><li id="t-print" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Yolmo_language&printable=yes" title="Printable version of this page [p]" accesskey="p"><span>Printable version</span></a></li> </ul> </div> </div> <div id="p-wikibase-otherprojects" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-wikibase-otherprojects" > <div class="vector-menu-heading"> In other projects </div> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="wb-otherproject-link wb-otherproject-commons mw-list-item"><a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Yolmo_language" hreflang="en"><span>Wikimedia Commons</span></a></li><li class="wb-otherproject-link wb-otherproject-wikibooks mw-list-item"><a href="https://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/Research_on_Hyolmo" hreflang="en"><span>Wikibooks</span></a></li><li id="t-wikibase" class="wb-otherproject-link wb-otherproject-wikibase-dataitem mw-list-item"><a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Special:EntityPage/Q19841092" title="Structured data on this page hosted by Wikidata [g]" accesskey="g"><span>Wikidata item</span></a></li> </ul> </div> </div> </div> </div> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> </div> <div class="vector-column-end"> <div class="vector-sticky-pinned-container"> <nav class="vector-page-tools-landmark" aria-label="Page tools"> <div id="vector-page-tools-pinned-container" class="vector-pinned-container"> </div> </nav> <nav class="vector-appearance-landmark" aria-label="Appearance"> <div id="vector-appearance-pinned-container" class="vector-pinned-container"> <div id="vector-appearance" class="vector-appearance vector-pinnable-element"> <div class="vector-pinnable-header vector-appearance-pinnable-header vector-pinnable-header-pinned" data-feature-name="appearance-pinned" data-pinnable-element-id="vector-appearance" data-pinned-container-id="vector-appearance-pinned-container" data-unpinned-container-id="vector-appearance-unpinned-container" > <div class="vector-pinnable-header-label">Appearance</div> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-pin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-appearance.pin">move to sidebar</button> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-unpin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-appearance.unpin">hide</button> </div> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div id="bodyContent" class="vector-body" aria-labelledby="firstHeading" data-mw-ve-target-container> <div class="vector-body-before-content"> <div class="mw-indicators"> <div id="mw-indicator-Journal_Icon.svg" class="mw-indicator"><div class="mw-parser-output"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="https://doi.org/10.15347/WJH/2019.002" title="This article has been published in the peer-reviewed journal WikiJournal of Humanities (2019). Click to view the published version." rel="nofollow"><img alt="This article has been published in the peer-reviewed journal WikiJournal of Humanities (2019). Click to view the published version." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/63/Journal_Icon.svg/20px-Journal_Icon.svg.png" decoding="async" width="20" height="18" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/63/Journal_Icon.svg/30px-Journal_Icon.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/63/Journal_Icon.svg/40px-Journal_Icon.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="525" data-file-height="479" /></a></span></div></div> </div> <div id="siteSub" class="noprint">From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia</div> </div> <div id="contentSub"><div id="mw-content-subtitle"></div></div> <div id="mw-content-text" class="mw-body-content"><div class="mw-content-ltr mw-parser-output" lang="en" dir="ltr"><div class="shortdescription nomobile noexcerpt noprint searchaux" style="display:none">Sino-Tibetan language of Nepal</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1126788409">.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul{line-height:inherit;list-style:none;margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol li,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul li{margin-bottom:0}</style><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1257001546">.mw-parser-output .infobox-subbox{padding:0;border:none;margin:-3px;width:auto;min-width:100%;font-size:100%;clear:none;float:none;background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .infobox-3cols-child{margin:auto}.mw-parser-output .infobox .navbar{font-size:100%}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data:not(.notheme)>div:not(.notheme)[style]{background:#1f1f23!important;color:#f8f9fa}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data:not(.notheme) div:not(.notheme){background:#1f1f23!important;color:#f8f9fa}}@media(min-width:640px){body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table{display:table!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table>caption{display:table-caption!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table>tbody{display:table-row-group}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table tr{display:table-row!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table th,body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table td{padding-left:inherit;padding-right:inherit}}</style><table class="infobox vevent infobox-has-images-with-white-backgrounds"><tbody><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-above above" style="font-size:125%; color: black; background-color: salmon;">Hyolmo</th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-subheader" style="font-size:110%; color: black; background-color: salmon;">Helambu Sherpa</td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-subheader" style="font-size:110%; color: black; background-color: salmon;"><i>Hyolmo</i></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="white-space:nowrap;padding-right:0.65em;">Native to</th><td class="infobox-data" style="line-height:1.3em;"><a href="/wiki/Nepal" title="Nepal">Nepal</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="white-space:nowrap;padding-right:0.65em;">Ethnicity</th><td class="infobox-data" style="line-height:1.3em;"><a href="/wiki/Hyolmo_people" class="mw-redirect" title="Hyolmo people">Hyolmo</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="white-space:nowrap;padding-right:0.65em;"><div style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0;">Native speakers</div></th><td class="infobox-data" style="line-height:1.3em;">10,000 (2011 census)<sup id="cite_ref-e18_1-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-e18-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="white-space:nowrap;padding-right:0.65em;"><div style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0;"><span class="wrap"><a href="/wiki/Language_family" title="Language family">Language family</a></span></div></th><td class="infobox-data" style="line-height:1.3em;"><div style="text-align:left;"><a href="/wiki/Sino-Tibetan_languages" title="Sino-Tibetan languages">Sino-Tibetan</a> <ul style="line-height:100%; margin-left:1.35em;padding-left:0"><li> <a href="/wiki/Tibeto-Kanauri_languages" title="Tibeto-Kanauri languages">Tibeto-Kanauri</a> ?<ul style="line-height:100%;margin-left:0.45em;padding-left:0;"><li><a href="/wiki/Bodish_languages" title="Bodish languages">Bodish</a><ul style="line-height:100%;margin-left:0.45em;padding-left:0;"><li><a href="/wiki/Tibetic_languages" title="Tibetic languages">Tibetic</a><ul style="line-height:100%;margin-left:0.45em;padding-left:0;"><li><a href="/wiki/Kyirong-Kagate_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Kyirong-Kagate language">Kyirong-Kagate</a><ul style="line-height:100%;margin-left:0.45em;padding-left:0;"><li><b>Hyolmo</b></li></ul></li></ul></li></ul></li></ul></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr class="plainlist"><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="white-space:nowrap;padding-right:0.65em;">Dialects</th><td class="infobox-data" style="line-height:1.3em;"> <ul><li>Eastern Yolmo (Sermathang, Chhimi)</li> <li>Western Yolmo (Nuwakot District)</li> <li>Lamjung Yolmo</li> <li>Ilam Yolmo</li></ul> </td></tr><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header" style="color: black; background-color: salmon;">Language codes</th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="white-space:nowrap;padding-right:0.65em;"><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/ISO_639-3" title="ISO 639-3">ISO 639-3</a></span></th><td class="infobox-data" style="line-height:1.3em;"><code><a href="https://iso639-3.sil.org/code/scp" class="extiw" title="iso639-3:scp">scp</a></code></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="white-space:nowrap;padding-right:0.65em;"><i><a href="/wiki/Glottolog" title="Glottolog">Glottolog</a></i></th><td class="infobox-data" style="line-height:1.3em;"><code><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://glottolog.org/resource/languoid/id/hela1238">hela1238</a></code></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="white-space:nowrap;padding-right:0.65em;"><a href="/wiki/Endangered_Languages_Project" title="Endangered Languages Project">ELP</a></th><td class="infobox-data" style="line-height:1.3em;"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.endangeredlanguages.com/lang/5710">Helambu Sherpa</a></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data" style="line-height:1.3em;"><span class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Frameless"><a href="/wiki/File:Yolmo_Map_2016.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8e/Yolmo_Map_2016.png/320px-Yolmo_Map_2016.png" decoding="async" width="320" height="220" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8e/Yolmo_Map_2016.png/480px-Yolmo_Map_2016.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8e/Yolmo_Map_2016.png/640px-Yolmo_Map_2016.png 2x" data-file-width="947" data-file-height="650" /></a></span></td></tr></tbody></table><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236303919">@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .infobox-has-images-with-white-backgrounds img{background:white}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .infobox-has-images-with-white-backgrounds img{background:white}}</style> <p><b>Yolmo</b> (Hyolmo) or <b>Helambu Sherpa</b>, is a <a href="/wiki/Tibeto-Burman_languages" title="Tibeto-Burman languages">Tibeto-Burman language</a> of the <a href="/wiki/Yolmo_people" title="Yolmo people">Hyolmo people</a> of <a href="/wiki/Nepal" title="Nepal">Nepal</a> (ISO 639-3: <a href="https://iso639-3.sil.org/code/scp" class="extiw" title="iso639-3:scp">scp</a>, GlottoCode:<sup id="cite_ref-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://glottolog.org/resource/languoid/id/yolm1234">yolm1234</a>). Yolmo is spoken predominantly in the <a href="/wiki/Helambu" title="Helambu">Helambu</a> and <a href="/wiki/Melamchi" title="Melamchi">Melamchi</a> valleys in northern <a href="/wiki/Nuwakot_District" title="Nuwakot District">Nuwakot District</a> and northwestern <a href="/wiki/Sindhupalchowk_District" title="Sindhupalchowk District">Sindhupalchowk District</a>. Dialects are also spoken by smaller populations in <a href="/wiki/Lamjung_District" title="Lamjung District">Lamjung District</a> and <a href="/wiki/Ilam_District" title="Ilam District">Ilam District</a> and also in <a href="/wiki/Ramechhap_District" title="Ramechhap District">Ramecchap District</a> (where it is known as <a href="/wiki/Kagate_language" title="Kagate language">Syuba</a>). It is very similar to <a href="/wiki/Kyirong_language" title="Kyirong language">Kyirong Tibetan</a><sup id="cite_ref-:10_3-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:10-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and less similar to <a href="/wiki/Standard_Tibetan" class="mw-redirect" title="Standard Tibetan">Standard Tibetan</a> and <a href="/wiki/Sherpa_language" title="Sherpa language">Sherpa</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-:15_4-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:15-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> There are approximately 10,000 Yolmo speakers,<sup id="cite_ref-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> although some dialects have larger populations than others. </p> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r886046785">.mw-parser-output .toclimit-2 .toclevel-1 ul,.mw-parser-output .toclimit-3 .toclevel-2 ul,.mw-parser-output .toclimit-4 .toclevel-3 ul,.mw-parser-output .toclimit-5 .toclevel-4 ul,.mw-parser-output .toclimit-6 .toclevel-5 ul,.mw-parser-output .toclimit-7 .toclevel-6 ul{display:none}</style><div class="toclimit-2"><meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Language_name">Language name</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Yolmo_language&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Language name"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Yolmo is both the name of the language (<a href="/wiki/Glottonym" class="mw-redirect" title="Glottonym">glottonym</a>), and the ethnic group of <a href="/wiki/Yolmo_people" title="Yolmo people">people who speak the language</a> (<a href="/wiki/Ethnonym" title="Ethnonym">ethnonym</a>). Yolmo is also written <i>Hyolmo, Yholmo</i> or <i>Yohlmo</i>. The 'h' in all of these spellings marks that the word has <a class="mw-selflink-fragment" href="#Tone">low tone</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Gawne_6-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Gawne-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Sometimes the language is referred to as <i>Yolmo Tam</i>, <i>tam</i> is the Yolmo word for 'language'.<sup id="cite_ref-:3_7-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:3-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The language is also referred to as Helambu Sherpa. This usage was common in the 1970s (see, for example, Clarke's work from the early 1980s).<sup id="cite_ref-:4_8-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:4-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This name appears to have been an attempt by Yolmo speakers to align themselves with the widely recognised and prosperous <a href="/wiki/Sherpa_people" title="Sherpa people">Sherpas</a> of the <a href="/wiki/Solukhumbu_District" title="Solukhumbu District">Solu-Khumbu</a> district. While there are many cultural affinities between the two groups, the <a href="/wiki/Sherpa_language" title="Sherpa language">Sherpa language</a> is not mutually intelligible with Yolmo.<sup id="cite_ref-:15_4-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:15-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> With a growing recognition of Nepal's ethnic minorities (<a href="/wiki/Adivasi" title="Adivasi">Janajati</a>), Yolmo people have moved away from associating themselves with the Sherpas in recent decades.<sup id="cite_ref-:2_9-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:2-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Language_family">Language family</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Yolmo_language&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Language family"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Yolmo is part of the family of languages called <a href="/wiki/Kyirong%E2%80%93Kagate_languages" title="Kyirong–Kagate languages">Kyirong-Kagate</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-:12_10-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:12-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The languages of this family are located along the Himalayan hills and mountains mostly on the Nepal side of the border, although Kyirong is in the <a href="/wiki/Tibet_Autonomous_Region" title="Tibet Autonomous Region">Tibet Antonymous Region</a>. Along with Yolmo, <a href="/wiki/Kyirong_language" title="Kyirong language">Kyirong</a> and <a href="/wiki/Kagate_language" title="Kagate language">Syuba</a>, other languages in the family include <a href="/wiki/Tsum_language" title="Tsum language">Tsum</a>, <a href="/wiki/Nubri_language" title="Nubri language">Nubri</a> and <a href="/wiki/Gyalsumdo_language" title="Gyalsumdo language">Gyalsumdo</a>. </p><p>The language family is better considered be Kyirong-Yolmo.<sup id="cite_ref-Gawne_6-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Gawne-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Yolmo has far more speakers (at least 10,000) than Kagate (Syuba) (1,500), Yolmo speakers are found in multiple districts, including Melamchi, Lamjung and Ilam, while Kagate speakers are based in Ramechhap. Also, <i>Kagate</i> is an <a href="/wiki/Exonym_and_endonym" class="mw-redirect" title="Exonym and endonym">exonym</a>, and speakers now prefer the <a href="/wiki/Exonym_and_endonym" class="mw-redirect" title="Exonym and endonym">endonym</a> <i>Syuba</i>, which carries less pejorative stigma than the <a href="/wiki/Caste" title="Caste">caste</a>-associated term <i>Kagate</i> ('papermaker'). </p><p>This is part of a larger cluster of <a href="/wiki/Tibetic_languages" title="Tibetic languages">Tibetic languages</a>, which all have their roots in the language that was the basis for <a href="/wiki/Classical_Tibetan" title="Classical Tibetan">Classical Tibetan</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="History">History</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Yolmo_language&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: History"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Yolmo speakers traditionally reside in the <a href="/wiki/Helambu" title="Helambu">Helambu</a> and Melamchi Valley regions in the <a href="/wiki/Nuwakot_District" title="Nuwakot District">Nuwakot</a> and <a href="/wiki/Sindhupalchowk_District" title="Sindhupalchowk District">Sindhupalchowk</a> districts of Nepal. Yolmo speakers migrated to the area, across the <a href="/wiki/Himalayas" title="Himalayas">Himalaya</a>, from the <a href="/wiki/Gyirong_County" title="Gyirong County">Kyriong</a>, in what is now Southwest Tibet, over 300 years ago.<sup id="cite_ref-:4_8-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:4-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This migration appears to have occurred slowly over multiple generations, rather than one large migration event.<sup id="cite_ref-12" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Main villages where Yolmo speakers reside include Melamchi Ghyang, Tarke Ghyang, Nakote, Kangyul, <a href="/wiki/Sermathang" title="Sermathang">Sermathang</a>, Norbugoun, Timbu, and Kutumsang. </p><p>Yolmo speakers are <a href="/wiki/Buddhism" title="Buddhism">Buddhist</a>, with the role of head Lama <a href="/wiki/Patrilineality" title="Patrilineality">patrilineal</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-:4_8-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:4-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Yolmo Lamas are called upon to perform religious rituals for the <a href="/wiki/Tamang_people" title="Tamang people">Tamang</a>-speaking communities that live in villages below the Yolmo-inhabited areas. This has created a strong socio-cultural link between the two groups that is reflected in traditional marriage practice where Tamang women marry into Yolmo villages.<sup id="cite_ref-:18_13-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:18-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> There is also a distinct local tradition of <i>pòmbo</i> (often referred to as 'shamanism' in the literature on this topic<sup id="cite_ref-:2_9-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:2-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-14" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>). The <i>pòmbo</i> tradition, passed from father to son, is focused on healing, particularly with regard to 'soul loss'.<sup id="cite_ref-:2_9-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:2-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This practice appears to be evolving fit with the modern focus on Buddhism among Yolmo people. For example, <i>pòmbo</i> blood sacrifices are no longer performed as commonly.<sup id="cite_ref-15" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> While there are similarities, including a shared etymology, these local practitioners are not formally associated with the <a href="/wiki/Bon" title="Bon">Bon</a> of Tibet. </p><p>Traditionally Yolmo people were yak herders and traders.<sup id="cite_ref-16" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> They currently practice a combination of mixed agriculture involving livestock herding, hotel management, restaurants, and trading. Although outward migrants would often return to village life,<sup id="cite_ref-17" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> speakers of Yolmo are increasing settling in Kathmandu, or moving overseas, which has an effect on transmission of the language as speakers move towards dominant languages of formal education such as Nepal and English.<sup id="cite_ref-18" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>For more on the history of Yolmo speakers, see the <a href="/wiki/Yolmo_people" title="Yolmo people">Yolmo people</a> page. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Dialects">Dialects</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Yolmo_language&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Dialects"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>There are a number of <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Dialect" class="mw-redirect" title="Wikipedia:Dialect">dialects</a> of Yolmo, spread throughout Nepal, thanks to migration in recent centuries, including in Lamjung<sup id="cite_ref-:5_19-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:5-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and Ilam.<sup id="cite_ref-:7_20-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:7-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> There are also closely related languages that should be considered when discussing Yolmo, including <a href="/wiki/Kagate_language" title="Kagate language">Kagate (Syuba)</a> and Langtang. Some of these varieties have been documented in more detail than others. Some of the dialects also have more <a href="/wiki/Mutual_intelligibility" title="Mutual intelligibility">mutual intelligibility</a>, which means it is easier for the speakers to understand each other. Below is a list of established dialects, including what is known about each. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Melamchi_Valley_Yolmo">Melamchi Valley Yolmo</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Yolmo_language&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Melamchi Valley Yolmo"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:IMG_3726_Sermathang.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/36/IMG_3726_Sermathang.jpg/220px-IMG_3726_Sermathang.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/36/IMG_3726_Sermathang.jpg/330px-IMG_3726_Sermathang.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/36/IMG_3726_Sermathang.jpg/440px-IMG_3726_Sermathang.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2592" data-file-height="1944" /></a><figcaption>Sermathang Village, Melamchi Valley, Nepal</figcaption></figure> <p>The variety of Yolmo documented by Anna Marie Hari is mostly spoken in the Melamchi Valley area. Hari documented the variety of Yolmo mostly spoken around the villages of <a href="/wiki/Sermathang" title="Sermathang">Sermathang</a> and Chhimi. Hari also encountered speakers from other areas in the Melamchi and Helambu valleys, and suggested there are two dialects across this area. mostly distinguished by vocabulary. The two dialects are the 'western' dialect, mostly in <a href="/wiki/Nuwakot_District" title="Nuwakot District">Nuwakot</a> district and the 'eastern' dialect, which Hari's work focuses on.<sup id="cite_ref-:15_4-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:15-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> While discussing these dialects Hari also observes that the variety spoken around Tarkeghyang is different again, suggesting there may be more than two dialects spoken in the area. </p><p>Hari produced a Yolmo-Nepali-English dictionary of the language with Chhegu Lama,<sup id="cite_ref-:3_7-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:3-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and a sketch grammar.<sup id="cite_ref-:15_4-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:15-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Hari also translated the <a href="/wiki/New_Testament" title="New Testament">New Testament</a> of the <a href="/wiki/Bible" title="Bible">Bible</a> into Yolmo.<sup id="cite_ref-21" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Original cassette recordings of her work have been digitised and archived with <a href="/wiki/Paradisec" class="mw-redirect" title="Paradisec">PARADISEC</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-22" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Unless otherwise stated, all discussion of the grammar of Yolmo on this page is drawn from the work on Melamchi Valley Yolmo. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Langtang">Langtang</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Yolmo_language&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Langtang"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Northwest of the Yolmo-speaking areas in the Langtang valley of the <a href="/wiki/Rasuwa_District" title="Rasuwa District">Rasuwa District</a> are three villages that speak a language that is mutually intelligible with Yolmo.<sup id="cite_ref-:8_23-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:8-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This language also shares features with <a href="/wiki/Kyirong_language" title="Kyirong language">Kyirong</a> and is likely part of a <a href="/wiki/Dialect_continuum" title="Dialect continuum">dialect continuum</a> between Yolmo and Kyirong. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Lamjung_Yolmo">Lamjung Yolmo</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Yolmo_language&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Lamjung Yolmo"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:LG1-PICS-9025.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7b/LG1-PICS-9025.jpg/220px-LG1-PICS-9025.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7b/LG1-PICS-9025.jpg/330px-LG1-PICS-9025.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7b/LG1-PICS-9025.jpg/440px-LG1-PICS-9025.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3264" data-file-height="2448" /></a><figcaption>Nayagaun, Lamjung, Nepal</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Gawne2016-YolmoGrammar.pdf" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/20/Gawne2016-YolmoGrammar.pdf/page1-220px-Gawne2016-YolmoGrammar.pdf.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="318" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/20/Gawne2016-YolmoGrammar.pdf/page1-330px-Gawne2016-YolmoGrammar.pdf.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/20/Gawne2016-YolmoGrammar.pdf/page1-440px-Gawne2016-YolmoGrammar.pdf.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1125" data-file-height="1625" /></a><figcaption>Gawne 2016</figcaption></figure> <p>Lamjung Yolmo is spoken by around 700 people in five villages of the <a href="/wiki/Lamjung_District" title="Lamjung District">Lamjung District</a> of Nepal.<sup id="cite_ref-:5_19-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:5-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Yolmo speakers have been residing in this area for over a century.<sup id="cite_ref-Gawne_6-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Gawne-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Gawne has written a sketch grammar<sup id="cite_ref-:5_19-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:5-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and a Lamjung Yolmo-Nepali-English dictionary.<sup id="cite_ref-:1_24-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:1-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> There is also a digital archive of Lamjung Yolmo recordings archived with <a href="/wiki/Paradisec" class="mw-redirect" title="Paradisec">PARADISEC</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-25" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Ilam_Yolmo">Ilam Yolmo</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Yolmo_language&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Ilam Yolmo"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>A dialect of Yolmo is reportedly spoken in the <a href="/wiki/Ilam_District" title="Ilam District">Ilam District</a> of far east Nepal.<sup id="cite_ref-:7_20-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:7-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> There is very little documentation of this variety, but it is mutually intelligible with Syuba.<sup id="cite_ref-:6_26-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:6-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Recordings from the dialect are available as a subset of an online collection of Syuba materials archived with <a href="/wiki/Paradisec" class="mw-redirect" title="Paradisec">PARADISEC</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_27-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Syuba_(Kagate)"><span id="Syuba_.28Kagate.29"></span>Syuba (Kagate)</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Yolmo_language&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Syuba (Kagate)"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Although <a href="/wiki/Kagate_language" title="Kagate language">Syuba</a> has a distinct name, and a separate <a href="/wiki/ISO_639_code_list" class="mw-redirect" title="ISO 639 code list">ISO 639-3 code</a> (SYW), linguistically it can be considered a dialect of Yolmo.<sup id="cite_ref-:6_26-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:6-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Syuba speakers say their families migrated to the area more than a century ago.<sup id="cite_ref-:6_26-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:6-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Hari, who worked on both Yolmo<sup id="cite_ref-:15_4-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:15-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and Syuba<sup id="cite_ref-:9_28-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:9-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> observes that "to quite a large extent they are mutually intelligible dialects".<sup id="cite_ref-:15_4-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:15-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The lexical similarity between Syuba and Melamchi Valley Yolmo is at least 79%, with the similarity between Syuba and Lamjung Yolmo even higher (88%). There is a higher level of similarity between Yolmo and Syuba than there is between either of these languages and Kyirong.<sup id="cite_ref-:10_3-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:10-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This all suggests that the separated dialects may have more in common with each other than with the main dialect area.<sup id="cite_ref-29" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In 2016 the Syuba community published a Syuba-Nepali-English dictionary.<sup id="cite_ref-:03_30-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:03-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Three open access collections of Syuba, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://catalog.paradisec.org.au/collections/MH1">MH1</a> digitised from Monika Hölig's 1970s recordings,<sup id="cite_ref-31" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://catalog.paradisec.org.au/collections/SUY1">SUY1</a> documentation by Lauren Gawne (2009-2016),<sup id="cite_ref-:0_27-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://catalog.paradisec.org.au/collections/MTC1">MTC1</a> a 2013 BOLD documentation by the Mother Tongue Centre Nepal.<sup id="cite_ref-32" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Language_vitality">Language vitality</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Yolmo_language&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Language vitality"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Using the <a href="/wiki/Ethnologue" title="Ethnologue">Expanded Graded Intergenerational Disruption Scale</a> (EGIDS), Ethnologue gives Yolmo a vitality rating of 6a 'Vigorous', but does not cite a source for this claim.<sup id="cite_ref-:17_33-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:17-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The vitality of the language varies depending on the location. In the Melamchi Valley area the language is spoken mostly by older adults. The younger generations having largely shifted to Nepali, though the language is being maintained for religious practices.<sup id="cite_ref-:15_4-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:15-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The shift towards Nepali for younger speakers has also been observed in Lamjung, as this is the language used in schools.<sup id="cite_ref-:11_34-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:11-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Syuba variety in Ramechhap is currently still spoken across all generations, including children. Mitchell & Eichentopf give it an EGIDS rating of 6a 'Vigorous', which is the likely reference for the Ethnologue rating.<sup id="cite_ref-:17_33-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:17-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-:022_35-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:022-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This is a recent survey with primary data presented, and is in concord with the first author's own observations of this community. There is insufficient data on the Ilam or Langtang variety to assess their vitality at this stage. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Language_contact">Language contact</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Yolmo_language&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Language contact"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The majority of Yolmo speakers are minimally bilingual in the national language Nepali. For older speakers Nepali was mostly used for interaction with people outside their community, and they may be less proficient, while younger speakers are likely to have attended school in Nepali and are proficient. </p><p>While there is relatively little influence of Nepali on basic vocabulary (such as the Swadesh list below), Nepali words are commonly adopted into Yolmo. In Hari & Lama's dictionary of over 4000 entries there are over 200 entries marked with some kind of Nepali influence.<sup id="cite_ref-:3_7-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:3-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The extent to which Nepali words have been reconfigured to Yolmo phonology has not been systematically studied. One observation is that Nepali verbs take a suffix <i>-ti</i> before any tense or aspect marking. This suffix is not voiced in any environment, unlike the <a href="/wiki/Perfective_aspect" title="Perfective aspect">perfective aspect</a> marker <i>-ti</i>.<sup id="cite_ref-:5_19-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:5-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In the Helambu area Tamang women would marry into the villages, but they appeared to move to Yolmo-speaking when they married in<sup id="cite_ref-:18_13-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:18-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> (although contact with Tamang may account for some features of Yolmo, such as the general fact evidential, below).<sup id="cite_ref-36" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Individuals may also have other languages in their personal repertoire, through marriage to someone from a different language group, international work or engagement with tourists from different countries. English is increasingly common as a language of education. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Orthography">Orthography</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Yolmo_language&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Orthography"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Hyolmo does not have a written tradition although there are attempts to develop an orthography based on <a href="/wiki/Devanagari" title="Devanagari">Devanagari</a>, the script used to write the national language <a href="/wiki/Nepali_language" title="Nepali language">Nepali</a>, as seen in the publication of two dictionaries.<sup id="cite_ref-:3_7-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:3-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-:1_24-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:1-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Syuba speakers also settled on a Devanagari orthography for their dictionary.<sup id="cite_ref-:03_30-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:03-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> All of these dictionaries also present the languages in <a href="/wiki/Romanization" title="Romanization">Roman</a> orthographies. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Devanagari">Devanagari</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Yolmo_language&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: Devanagari"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The modifications to <a href="/wiki/Devanagari" title="Devanagari">Devanagari</a> are minor, and are intended to ensure that all sounds in the language can be represented. None of the orthographies use the '<a href="/wiki/Devanagari#Principle" title="Devanagari">inherent schwa vowel</a>', meaning that a consonant without an overt vowel is not treated as having an implied vowel. Consonants remain the same as in the existing Devanagari tradition, with the use of joined <a href="/wiki/Digraph_(orthography)" title="Digraph (orthography)">digraphs</a> to represent additional sounds in the language, such as the combination of क (k) and य (y) for the palatal stop क्य ([c] 'kh'), स (s) and य (y) for the palatal fricative स्य ([ʃ] 'sh'), र and ह for the voiceless liquid र्ह ([r̥] 'rh'), and ल and ह for the voiceless lateral ल्ह ([l̥] 'lh') ह्य ('hy'). </p><p>Vowel length is unmarked in the Syuba dictionary, in the two Yolmo dictionaries the standard Devanagari length distinctions are made, with the addition of a small diacritic below the 'a' vowel ( ा) to indicate a longer vowel. The Hari & Lama<sup id="cite_ref-:3_7-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:3-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and Gawne<sup id="cite_ref-:1_24-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:1-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> dictionaries both use ह (h) after the vowel to mark low tone (e.g. टाह <i>ʈà</i> 'pheasant'), while in (the Syuba orthography a <a href="/w/index.php?title=Wikipedia:Visarga&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Wikipedia:Visarga (page does not exist)">visarga</a> represents the low tone (टाः <i>ʈà</i> 'pheasant'). High tone is left unmarked. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Roman">Roman</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Yolmo_language&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: Roman"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>All three dictionaries also make use of variations on a Romanised orthography, although this does not appear to be used or preferred by Hyolmo speakers, and is intended for the English-literate audience of the dictionaries. Consonants predominantly take their form from the <a href="/wiki/International_Phonetic_Alphabet" title="International Phonetic Alphabet">International Phonetic Alphabet</a>, with some exception where there is a more common preference in English, such as digraphs for the palatal stops ([c] 'ky', [c<sup>h</sup>] 'khy', [ɟ] 'gy') and non-superscript for aspiration (e.g. <i>phá</i> 'pig'). This is represented in the <a href="/wiki/Hyolmo_language#Consonants" class="mw-redirect" title="Hyolmo language">consonant chart</a> in the Phonology section. </p><p>The vowels in Hyolmo follow the <a href="/wiki/International_Phonetic_Alphabet" title="International Phonetic Alphabet">International Phonetic Alphabet</a>, except for [ɔ] which uses 'o' for ease of typing. Long vowels are represented by double characters, e.g. [ɲíː] 'two' is represented as <i>ɲíi</i>, except in the Syuba dictionary<sup id="cite_ref-:03_30-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:03-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> where vowel length is not indicated in either the Devanagari or Roman scripts. For tone Hari<sup id="cite_ref-:15_4-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:15-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-:3_7-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:3-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> uses a 'h' after the vowel to represent low tone, (e.g. <i>toh</i> 'stone') with high tone unmarked (e.g. <i>to</i> 'rice'), Gawne<sup id="cite_ref-:1_24-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:1-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> uses the <a href="/wiki/International_Phonetic_Alphabet" title="International Phonetic Alphabet">International Phonetic Alphabet</a> convention of using accents over the vowel to mark high and low tone (e.g. <i>tó</i> 'rice' and <i>tò</i> 'stone'), while the Syuba dictionary uses a superscript <sup>L</sup> at the start of the syllable to mark low tone (e.g. <i><sup>L</sup>to</i> 'stone') with high tone unmarked.<sup id="cite_ref-:03_30-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:03-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>On this page the orthography mostly follows Hari's transcription,<sup id="cite_ref-:15_4-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:15-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-:3_7-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:3-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> as outlined in the phonology. Unlike Hari, representation of tone follows the <a href="/wiki/International_Phonetic_Alphabet" title="International Phonetic Alphabet">International Phonetic Alphabet</a>, with accents to mark high and low tone (e.g. <i>tó</i> 'rice' and <i>tò</i> 'stone' respectively). This avoids Hari's use of 'h' to represent both low tone and the sound [h].<sup id="cite_ref-:11_34-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:11-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Grammatical_overview">Grammatical overview</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Yolmo_language&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: Grammatical overview"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The sections below contain an overview of the key features of the grammar of Hyolmo. Information is mostly drawn from Hari's grammar of the language,<sup id="cite_ref-:15_4-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:15-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> supplemented by the Yohlmo-Nepali-English dictionary she co-wrote with Chhegu Lama.<sup id="cite_ref-:3_7-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:3-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Differences between this variety and other documented dialects are indicated where relevant. Links to other related languages will also be made where relevant. </p><p>All example sentences are presented with an interlinear gloss. This breaks down the words on a <a href="/wiki/Morpheme" title="Morpheme">morpheme</a> level, giving information about the meaning of each morpheme using a standard set of <a href="/wiki/List_of_glossing_abbreviations" title="List of glossing abbreviations">glossing abbreviations</a>. All examples are cited back to the original publication they are drawn from. Some glossing has been regularised, or added where it was not included in the original. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Phonology">Phonology</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Yolmo_language&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: Phonology"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Consonants">Consonants</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Yolmo_language&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: Consonants"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>There are 36 consonants in Yolmo, which are summarized in the table below. The form is given in IPA and then to the right in brackets is given the form used in this article, if different.<sup id="cite_ref-:15_4-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:15-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <dl><dd><table class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;"> <tbody><tr> <th colspan="2"> </th> <th><a href="/wiki/Labial_consonant" title="Labial consonant">Labial</a> </th> <th><a href="/wiki/Dental_consonant" title="Dental consonant">Dental</a> </th> <th><a href="/wiki/Postalveolar_consonant" title="Postalveolar consonant">Post-<br />alveolar</a> </th> <th><a href="/wiki/Retroflex_consonant" title="Retroflex consonant">Retroflex</a> </th> <th><a href="/wiki/Palatal_consonant" title="Palatal consonant">Palatal</a> </th> <th><a href="/wiki/Velar_consonant" title="Velar consonant">Velar</a> </th> <th><a href="/wiki/Glottal_consonant" title="Glottal consonant">Glottal</a> </th></tr> <tr> <th rowspan="3"><a href="/wiki/Plosive" title="Plosive">Plosive</a> </th> <th style="font-size:x-small">voiceless </th> <td><span class="IPA" lang="und-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Voiceless_bilabial_plosive" title="Voiceless bilabial plosive">p</a></span> </td> <td><span class="IPA" lang="und-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Voiceless_alveolar_plosive" class="mw-redirect" title="Voiceless alveolar plosive">t</a></span> </td> <td> </td> <td><span class="IPA" lang="und-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Voiceless_retroflex_plosive" title="Voiceless retroflex plosive">ʈ</a></span> </td> <td><span class="IPA" lang="und-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Voiceless_palatal_plosive" title="Voiceless palatal plosive">c</a></span> <span class="nowrap">⟨ky⟩</span> </td> <td><span class="IPA" lang="und-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Voiceless_velar_plosive" title="Voiceless velar plosive">k</a></span> </td> <td> </td></tr> <tr> <th style="font-size:x-small">aspirated </th> <td><span class="IPA" lang="und-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Aspirated_consonant" title="Aspirated consonant">pʰ</a></span> <span class="nowrap">⟨ph⟩</span> </td> <td><span class="IPA" lang="und-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Aspirated_consonant" title="Aspirated consonant">tʰ</a></span> <span class="nowrap">⟨th⟩</span> </td> <td> </td> <td><span class="IPA" lang="und-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Aspirated_consonant" title="Aspirated consonant">ʈʰ</a></span> <span class="nowrap">⟨ʈh⟩</span> </td> <td><span class="IPA" lang="und-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Aspirated_consonant" title="Aspirated consonant">cʰ</a></span> <span class="nowrap">⟨khy⟩</span> </td> <td><span class="IPA" lang="und-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Aspirated_consonant" title="Aspirated consonant">kʰ</a></span> <span class="nowrap">⟨kh⟩</span> </td> <td> </td></tr> <tr> <th style="font-size:x-small">voiced </th> <td><span class="IPA" lang="und-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Voiced_bilabial_plosive" title="Voiced bilabial plosive">b</a></span> </td> <td><span class="IPA" lang="und-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Voiced_alveolar_plosive" class="mw-redirect" title="Voiced alveolar plosive">d</a></span> </td> <td> </td> <td><span class="IPA" lang="und-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Voiced_retroflex_plosive" title="Voiced retroflex plosive">ɖ</a></span> </td> <td><span class="IPA" lang="und-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Voiced_palatal_plosive" title="Voiced palatal plosive">ɟ</a></span> <span class="nowrap">⟨gy⟩</span> </td> <td><span class="IPA" lang="und-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Voiced_velar_plosive" title="Voiced velar plosive">ɡ</a></span> </td> <td> </td></tr> <tr> <th rowspan="2"><a href="/wiki/Fricative" title="Fricative">Fricative</a> </th> <th style="font-size:x-small">voiceless </th> <td> </td> <td><span class="IPA" lang="und-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Voiceless_alveolar_fricative" title="Voiceless alveolar fricative">s</a></span> </td> <td><span class="IPA" lang="und-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Voiceless_alveolo-palatal_fricative" title="Voiceless alveolo-palatal fricative">ɕ</a></span> </td> <td> </td> <td> </td> <td> </td> <td><span class="IPA" lang="und-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Voiceless_glottal_fricative" title="Voiceless glottal fricative">h</a></span> </td></tr> <tr> <th style="font-size:x-small">voiced </th> <td> </td> <td><span class="IPA" lang="und-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Voiced_alveolar_fricative" title="Voiced alveolar fricative">z</a></span> </td> <td><span class="IPA" lang="und-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Voiced_alveolo-palatal_fricative" title="Voiced alveolo-palatal fricative">ʑ</a></span> </td> <td> </td> <td> </td> <td> </td> <td> </td></tr> <tr> <th rowspan="3"><a href="/wiki/Affricate" title="Affricate">Affricate</a> </th> <th style="font-size:x-small">voiceless </th> <td> </td> <td><span class="IPA" lang="und-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Voiceless_alveolar_affricate" title="Voiceless alveolar affricate">ts</a></span> </td> <td><span class="IPA" lang="und-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Voiceless_alveolo-palatal_affricate" title="Voiceless alveolo-palatal affricate">tɕ</a></span> </td> <td> </td> <td> </td> <td> </td> <td> </td></tr> <tr> <th style="font-size:x-small">aspirated </th> <td> </td> <td><span class="IPA" lang="und-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Aspirated_consonant" title="Aspirated consonant">tsʰ</a></span> <span class="nowrap">⟨tsh⟩</span> </td> <td><span class="IPA" lang="und-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Aspirated_consonant" title="Aspirated consonant">tɕʰ</a></span> <span class="nowrap">⟨tɕh⟩</span> </td> <td> </td> <td> </td> <td> </td> <td> </td></tr> <tr> <th style="font-size:x-small">voiced </th> <td> </td> <td><span class="IPA" lang="und-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Voiced_alveolar_affricate" title="Voiced alveolar affricate">dz</a></span> </td> <td><span class="IPA" lang="und-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Voiced_alveolo-palatal_affricate" title="Voiced alveolo-palatal affricate">dʑ</a></span> </td> <td> </td> <td> </td> <td> </td> <td> </td></tr> <tr> <th colspan="2"><a href="/wiki/Nasal_consonant" title="Nasal consonant">Nasal</a> </th> <td><span class="IPA" lang="und-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Voiced_bilabial_nasal" title="Voiced bilabial nasal">m</a></span> </td> <td><span class="IPA" lang="und-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Voiced_alveolar_nasal" class="mw-redirect" title="Voiced alveolar nasal">n</a></span> </td> <td> </td> <td> </td> <td><span class="IPA" lang="und-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Voiced_palatal_nasal" title="Voiced palatal nasal">ɲ</a></span> </td> <td><span class="IPA" lang="und-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Voiced_velar_nasal" title="Voiced velar nasal">ŋ</a></span> </td> <td> </td></tr> <tr> <th rowspan="2"><a href="/wiki/Rhotic_consonant" title="Rhotic consonant">Rhotic</a> </th> <th style="font-size:x-small">voiceless </th> <td> </td> <td><span class="IPA" lang="und-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Voiceless_alveolar_trill" title="Voiceless alveolar trill">r̥</a></span> <span class="nowrap">⟨rh⟩</span> </td> <td> </td> <td> </td> <td> </td> <td> </td> <td> </td></tr> <tr> <th style="font-size:x-small">voiced </th> <td> </td> <td><span class="IPA" lang="und-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Voiced_alveolar_trill" class="mw-redirect" title="Voiced alveolar trill">r</a></span> </td> <td> </td> <td> </td> <td> </td> <td> </td> <td> </td></tr> <tr> <th rowspan="2"><a href="/wiki/Lateral_consonant" title="Lateral consonant">Lateral</a> </th> <th style="font-size:x-small">voiceless </th> <td> </td> <td><span class="IPA" lang="und-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Voiceless_alveolar_lateral_approximant" class="mw-redirect" title="Voiceless alveolar lateral approximant">l̥</a></span> <span class="nowrap">⟨lh⟩</span> </td> <td> </td> <td> </td> <td> </td> <td> </td> <td> </td></tr> <tr> <th style="font-size:x-small">voiced </th> <td> </td> <td><span class="IPA" lang="und-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Voiced_alveolar_lateral_approximant" class="mw-redirect" title="Voiced alveolar lateral approximant">l</a></span> </td> <td> </td> <td> </td> <td> </td> <td> </td> <td> </td></tr> <tr> <th colspan="2"><a href="/wiki/Semivowel" title="Semivowel">Semivowel</a> </th> <td><span class="IPA" lang="und-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Voiced_labial%E2%80%93velar_approximant" title="Voiced labial–velar approximant">w</a></span> </td> <td> </td> <td> </td> <td> </td> <td><span class="IPA" lang="und-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Voiced_palatal_approximant" title="Voiced palatal approximant">j</a></span> <span class="nowrap">⟨y⟩</span> </td> <td> </td> <td> </td></tr></tbody></table></dd></dl> <p>Not all consonants are equally frequent. In particular [h], [r̥] and [l̥] are not particularly frequent, nor are vowel-initial words. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Vowels">Vowels</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Yolmo_language&action=edit&section=18" title="Edit section: Vowels"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>There are five places of articulation for vowels. There is a length distinction at each place of articulation. The form of each vowel is given in IPA and then to the right in brackets is given the form used in this article, if different. </p> <dl><dd><table class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;"> <tbody><tr> <th> </th> <th><a href="/wiki/Front_vowel" title="Front vowel">Front</a> </th> <th><a href="/wiki/Mid_vowel" title="Mid vowel">Mid</a> </th> <th><a href="/wiki/Back_vowel" title="Back vowel">Back</a> </th></tr> <tr> <th><a href="/wiki/High_vowel" class="mw-redirect" title="High vowel">High</a> </th> <td><span class="IPA" lang="und-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Close_front_unrounded_vowel" title="Close front unrounded vowel">i</a></span>   <span class="IPA" lang="und-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Close_front_unrounded_vowel" title="Close front unrounded vowel">iː</a></span> <span class="nowrap">⟨ii⟩</span> </td> <td> </td> <td><span class="IPA" lang="und-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Close_back_rounded_vowel" title="Close back rounded vowel">u</a></span>   <span class="IPA" lang="und-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Close_back_rounded_vowel" title="Close back rounded vowel">uː</a></span> <span class="nowrap">⟨uu⟩</span> </td></tr> <tr> <th><a href="/wiki/Mid_vowel" title="Mid vowel">Mid</a> </th> <td><span class="IPA" lang="und-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Close-mid_front_unrounded_vowel" title="Close-mid front unrounded vowel">e</a></span>   <span class="IPA" lang="und-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Close-mid_front_unrounded_vowel" title="Close-mid front unrounded vowel">eː</a></span> <span class="nowrap">⟨ee⟩</span> </td> <td> </td> <td><span class="IPA" lang="und-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Open-mid_back_rounded_vowel" title="Open-mid back rounded vowel">ɔ</a></span> <span class="nowrap">⟨o⟩</span>   <span class="IPA" lang="und-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Open-mid_back_rounded_vowel" title="Open-mid back rounded vowel">ɔː</a></span> <span class="nowrap">⟨oo⟩</span> </td></tr> <tr> <th><a href="/wiki/Low_vowel" class="mw-redirect" title="Low vowel">Low</a> </th> <td> </td> <td><span class="IPA" lang="und-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Open_front_unrounded_vowel" title="Open front unrounded vowel">a</a></span>   <span class="IPA" lang="und-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Open_front_unrounded_vowel" title="Open front unrounded vowel">aː</a></span> <span class="nowrap">⟨aa⟩</span> </td> <td> </td></tr></tbody></table></dd></dl> <p>Below are some minimal pairs that demonstrate the vowel length distinction. The diacritic above the vowel is the tone marker, the acute accent indicates that all of these examples are high tone. This is explained in more detail in the section on <a href="/w/index.php?title=WikiJournal_Preprints/A_grammatical_overview_of_Yolmo_(Tibeto-Burman)&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="WikiJournal Preprints/A grammatical overview of Yolmo (Tibeto-Burman) (page does not exist)">tone</a>. </p> <dl><dd><table> <tbody><tr> <td><i>tɕí</i> </td> <td>'one' </td></tr> <tr> <td><i>tɕíi</i> </td> <td>'what' </td></tr> <tr> <td><i>tó</i> </td> <td>‘rice (cooked)' </td></tr> <tr> <td><i>tóo</i> </td> <td>'be hungry' </td></tr></tbody></table></dd></dl> <p>Vowel-length distinctions are not common across Tibetic language, but they are also attested in Syuba<sup id="cite_ref-:9_28-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:9-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> (although Syuba speakers do not consider them salient enough to encode in the orthography<sup id="cite_ref-:03_30-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:03-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>) and in Kyirong for open syllables.<sup id="cite_ref-:16_37-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:16-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Unlike many other Tibetic languages, including <a href="/wiki/Kyirong_language" title="Kyirong language">Kyirong</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Standard_Tibetan" class="mw-redirect" title="Standard Tibetan">Standard Tibetan</a>, Yolmo does not have a <a href="/wiki/Front_rounded_vowel" title="Front rounded vowel">front rounded</a> [y]. This is true for all dialects of Yolmo documented to date, including Syuba. Langtang, however, does have this vowel.<sup id="cite_ref-:8_23-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:8-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Tone">Tone</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Yolmo_language&action=edit&section=19" title="Edit section: Tone"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Like other Tibetic languages, Yolmo has tone, which is located on the first vowel of a word.<sup id="cite_ref-38" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Hari presents a four tone contrast of Melamchi Valley Yolmo; high level, high falling, low level and low falling.<sup id="cite_ref-:15_4-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:15-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Acoustic evidence from Lamjung Yolmo and Kagate indicates that there is only acoustic evidence for a contrast between two tones; low and high.<sup id="cite_ref-:1_24-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:1-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Below are some examples of tone minimal pairs: </p> <dl><dd><table> <tbody><tr> <td><i>pú</i> </td> <td>'body hair' </td></tr> <tr> <td><i>pù</i> </td> <td>‘son’ </td></tr> <tr> <td><i>kómba</i> </td> <td>‘thirsty’ </td></tr> <tr> <td><i>kòmba</i> </td> <td>‘temple’ </td></tr></tbody></table></dd></dl> <p>Low tone words can be marked with <a href="/wiki/Breathy_voice" title="Breathy voice">breathy voice</a>, but this is not always the case. The practice of indicating low tone with a 'h' following the vowel in <a class="mw-selflink-fragment" href="#Orthography">some orthographies</a> is related to this breathy property of low-tone vowels. The high tone, which uses <a href="/wiki/Modal_voice" title="Modal voice">modal voice</a>, is left unmarked. </p><p>Tone is predictable in some environments. It is always high following <a href="/wiki/Aspirated_consonant" title="Aspirated consonant">aspirated</a> <a href="/wiki/Stop_consonant" class="mw-redirect" title="Stop consonant">stops</a>, aspirated <a href="/wiki/Affricate_consonant" class="mw-redirect" title="Affricate consonant">affricates</a> and <a href="/wiki/Voicelessness" title="Voicelessness">voiceless</a> <a href="/wiki/Liquid_consonant" title="Liquid consonant">liquids</a> (which speakers treat as equivalent to aspirated). Examples of all of these include: </p> <dl><dd><table> <tbody><tr> <td><i>pháa</i> </td> <td>'pig' </td></tr> <tr> <td><i>thí</i> </td> <td>'ruler (for measuring)' </td></tr> <tr> <td><i>ʈháa</i> </td> <td>'blood' </td></tr> <tr> <td><i>khyá</i> </td> <td>'you, plural' </td></tr> <tr> <td><i>khá</i> </td> <td>'mouth' </td></tr> <tr> <td><i>tshá</i> </td> <td>'salt' </td></tr> <tr> <td><i>tɕhá</i> </td> <td>'pair' </td></tr> <tr> <td><i>rhílmu</i> </td> <td>'round' </td></tr> <tr> <td><i>lhá</i> </td> <td>'god' </td></tr></tbody></table></dd></dl> <p>Tone is always low following <a href="/wiki/Voice_(phonetics)" title="Voice (phonetics)">voiced</a> stops, voiced fricatives and voiced affricates. Examples of all of these include: </p> <dl><dd><table> <tbody><tr> <td><i>bù</i> </td> <td>'insect' </td></tr> <tr> <td><i>dà</i> </td> <td>'arrow' </td></tr> <tr> <td><i>ɖù</i> </td> <td>'grain' </td></tr> <tr> <td><i>gyàa</i> </td> <td>'place' </td></tr> <tr> <td><i>gùri</i> </td> <td>'cat' </td></tr> <tr> <td><i>dzàdi</i> </td> <td>'nutmeg' </td></tr> <tr> <td><i>dʑùbu</i> </td> <td>'huge/much' </td></tr> <tr> <td><i>zà</i> </td> <td>'rainbow' </td></tr> <tr> <td><i>ʑèe</i> </td> <td>'udder' </td></tr></tbody></table></dd></dl> <p>On words with more than one syllable the tone is marked on the initial syllable. Subsequent syllables eventually level off. Tone on all words is influenced by prosody, and may become more or less neutralised in running speech.<sup id="cite_ref-39" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-39"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The only prefixes in the language are the <a class="mw-selflink-fragment" href="#Negation">negator</a> prefixes <i>mà-</i> and <i>mè-</i>. Both have low tone, however if the following root has high tone it will not change tone because of the preceding low suffix.<sup id="cite_ref-:15_4-12" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:15-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>There are no morpho-phonemic variations discussed for the language. The only related feature are a small set of verb minimal pairs where transitivity is distinguished by tone: </p> <dl><dd><table> <tbody><tr> <td><i>làŋ</i> </td> <td>'to rise' </td></tr> <tr> <td><i>láŋ</i> </td> <td>'to raise' </td></tr> <tr> <td><i>tàp</i> </td> <td>'to fall' </td></tr> <tr> <td><i>táp</i> </td> <td>'to be scattered' </td></tr> <tr> <td><i>ròp</i> </td> <td>'to break' </td></tr> <tr> <td><i>róp</i> </td> <td>'to break something' </td></tr></tbody></table></dd></dl> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Syllable_structure">Syllable structure</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Yolmo_language&action=edit&section=20" title="Edit section: Syllable structure"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Yolmo has the <a href="/wiki/Syllable_structure" class="mw-redirect" title="Syllable structure">syllable structure</a> (C)(C)V(C).<sup id="cite_ref-:5_19-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:5-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This means that the minimum a syllable needs is a <a href="/wiki/Vowel" title="Vowel">vowel</a>. Syllables can also have up to two consonants before the vowel and one after the vowel. </p> <dl><dd><table> <tbody><tr> <td>V </td> <td><i>òo</i> </td> <td>'there' </td></tr> <tr> <td>VC </td> <td><i>ùr</i> </td> <td>'fly' </td></tr> <tr> <td>CV </td> <td><i>pù</i> </td> <td>'son' </td></tr> <tr> <td>CVC </td> <td><i>pùp</i> </td> <td>'keep warm' </td></tr> <tr> <td>CCV </td> <td><i>prù</i> </td> <td>'write' </td></tr> <tr> <td>CCVC </td> <td><i>prùl</i> </td> <td>'snake' </td></tr></tbody></table></dd></dl> <p>All consonants and vowels can occur word-initial, with a restricted set able to occur in the second syllable. The set of syllable initial consonant clusters includes /pr, br, kr, py, phy, sw, kw, thw, rw/. </p><p>All vowels can occur syllable-final, and final consonants include voiceless unaspirated bilabial /b/ and velar stops /k/, voiced liquids /l,r/, the voiced labio-velar /w/ and all nasals except the palatal /m, n, ng/. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Morphophonemic_processes">Morphophonemic processes</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Yolmo_language&action=edit&section=21" title="Edit section: Morphophonemic processes"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>There is a regular process by which the suffixes undergo a change depending on the nature of the verb that they are attached to. Suffixes that begin with a <a href="/wiki/Voicelessness" title="Voicelessness">voiceless</a> <a href="/wiki/Stop_consonant" class="mw-redirect" title="Stop consonant">stop</a>, such as the <a class="mw-selflink-fragment" href="#Non-past_Tense">non-past <i>-ke</i></a>, the <a class="mw-selflink-fragment" href="#Imperative">imperative <i>-toŋ</i></a> or the <a class="mw-selflink-fragment" href="#Hortative">hortative <i>-ka</i></a><i>,</i> all undergo regular morphophonological processes. If they occur after a syllable with a final sound that is voiced they will also be voiced, if they occur after an unvoiced final sound, or an /r/ the start of the suffix will be unvoiced. The examples below are with the <a class="mw-selflink-fragment" href="#Non-past_Tense">non-past <i>-ke</i></a><i>:</i> </p> <dl><dd><table> <tbody><tr> <td><i>tá-ge</i> </td> <td>watch-<style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r920966791">.mw-parser-output span.smallcaps{font-variant:small-caps}.mw-parser-output span.smallcaps-smaller{font-size:85%}</style><span class="smallcaps">non.pst</span> </td></tr> <tr> <td><i>tén-ge</i> </td> <td>show-<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r920966791"><span class="smallcaps">non.pst</span> </td></tr> <tr> <td><i>zàp-ke</i> </td> <td>dress.up-<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r920966791"><span class="smallcaps">non.pst</span> </td></tr> <tr> <td><i>mùr-ke</i> </td> <td>chew-<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r920966791"><span class="smallcaps">non.pst</span> </td></tr></tbody></table></dd></dl> <p>The only forms that cannot be predicted by this process is if the suffix is after /i/ or /e/, both of which are <a href="/wiki/Vowel" title="Vowel">high front vowels</a>. The voicing cannot be predicted in this context, and the suffix is sometimes voiced and sometimes unvoiced. Below are examples of verbs with both /i/ and /e/: </p> <dl><dd><table> <tbody><tr> <td><i>pí-ge</i> </td> <td>pull.out-<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r920966791"><span class="smallcaps">non.pst</span> </td></tr> <tr> <td><i>ɕí-ge</i> </td> <td>die-<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r920966791"><span class="smallcaps">non.pst</span> </td></tr> <tr> <td><i>ɕé-ke</i> </td> <td>tell-<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r920966791"><span class="smallcaps">non.pst</span> </td></tr> <tr> <td><i>kyé-ke</i> </td> <td>give.birth-<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r920966791"><span class="smallcaps">non.pst</span> </td></tr></tbody></table></dd></dl> <p>There is also a tendency for suffixes that begin with -k/ -g to omit the initial sound after a vowel. This is not as regular a process as the voicing alterations described above. Below are some examples of this process: </p> <dl><dd><table class="wikitable"> <tbody><tr> <td><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1209690778">.mw-parser-output .interlinear .bold{font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output .interlinear .smallcaps{text-transform:uppercase;font-size:smaller}</style><div class="interlinear"><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">ŋà=i</p><p style="margin: 0px;"><abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="first person" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">1</abbr>=<abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="singular number" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">SG</abbr>=<abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="genitive case" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">GEN</abbr></p></div><p style="display: none;">ŋà=i</p><p style="display: none;">1=SG=GEN</p><p style="clear: left;">'my'</p><div style="clear: left; display: block;"></div> </div> </td> <td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1209690778"><div class="interlinear"><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">ɖò-en</p><p style="margin: 0px;">go-<abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="non-past tense" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">NPST</abbr></p></div><p style="display: none;">ɖò-en</p><p style="display: none;">go-NPST</p><p style="clear: left;">'go'</p><div style="clear: left; display: block;"></div> </div> </td></tr></tbody></table></dd></dl> <p>Tappu LAMA </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Nouns/nominals"><span id="Nouns.2Fnominals"></span>Nouns/nominals</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Yolmo_language&action=edit&section=22" title="Edit section: Nouns/nominals"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The <a href="/wiki/Noun_phrase" title="Noun phrase">noun phrase</a> in Yolmo includes either a <a href="/wiki/Noun" title="Noun">noun</a> or a <a href="/wiki/Pronoun" title="Pronoun">pronoun</a>. The noun phrase with a noun can also include a <a href="/wiki/Determiner" title="Determiner">determiner</a>, <a href="/wiki/Adjective" title="Adjective">adjective</a> and <a href="/wiki/Numeral_classifier" class="mw-redirect" title="Numeral classifier">number marker</a>, while the options are more limited with a pronoun or <a href="/wiki/Proper_noun" title="Proper noun">proper noun</a>. Noun suffixes include <a href="/wiki/Case_marker" class="mw-redirect" title="Case marker">case markers</a>, <a href="/wiki/Plural" title="Plural">plural marker</a> and numeral classifiers. </p><p>The order of the noun phrase is (Determiner) <b>Noun</b>=Plural(-Focus Marker)(=Case) (Numeral Classifier) (Number) (Adjective).<sup id="cite_ref-:5_19-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:5-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Determiners">Determiners</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Yolmo_language&action=edit&section=23" title="Edit section: Determiners"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The Yolmo <a href="/wiki/Definiteness" title="Definiteness">definite</a> <a href="/wiki/Determiner" title="Determiner">determiner</a> is <i>dì</i> the same as the third person inanimate pronoun 'it/this'. It occurs before the noun: </p> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1209690778"><div class="interlinear" style="margin-left:3em"><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;"><b>dì</b></p><p style="margin: 0px;"><b><abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="determiner" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">DET</abbr></b></p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">pèza</p><p style="margin: 0px;">child</p></div><p style="display: none;"><b>dì</b> pèza</p><p style="display: none;"><b>DET</b> child</p><p style="clear: left;">'The child' (Hari 2010: 31)</p><div style="clear: left; display: block;"></div> </div> <p>The <a href="/wiki/Definiteness" title="Definiteness">indefinite</a> is marked using the numeral <i>tɕíi</i> 'one', which comes after the noun, like other numbers: </p> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1209690778"><div class="interlinear" style="margin-left:3em"><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">mì</p><p style="margin: 0px;">person</p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;"><b>tɕíi</b></p><p style="margin: 0px;"><b>one</b></p></div><p style="display: none;">mì <b>tɕíi</b></p><p style="display: none;">person <b>one</b></p><p style="clear: left;">'A person' (Hari 2010: 91)</p><div style="clear: left; display: block;"></div> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Pronouns">Pronouns</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Yolmo_language&action=edit&section=24" title="Edit section: Pronouns"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Yolmo pronouns are presented in the table below. There is an <a href="/wiki/Clusivity" title="Clusivity">inclusive/exclusive</a> distinction for first person plural pronouns, a <a href="/wiki/Grammatical_gender" title="Grammatical gender">gender</a> distinction for third person singular and an <a href="/wiki/Animacy" title="Animacy">animacy</a> distinction for third person. </p> <dl><dd><table class="wikitable"> <tbody><tr> <th colspan="2"> </th> <th>Singular </th> <th>Plural </th></tr> <tr> <th rowspan="2">1st person </th> <th>exclusive </th> <td rowspan="2">ŋà </td> <td>ɲì </td></tr> <tr> <th>inclusive </th> <td>òraŋ/ùu </td></tr> <tr> <th colspan="2">2nd person </th> <td>khyé </td> <td>khyá </td></tr> <tr> <th rowspan="3">3rd Person </th> <th>masc. </th> <td>khó </td> <td rowspan="2">khúŋ </td></tr> <tr> <th>fem. </th> <td>mò </td></tr> <tr> <th>inanimate </th> <td>dì </td> <td>dìya </td></tr> <tr> <th colspan="2">Reflexive </th> <td>ràŋ </td> <td> </td></tr></tbody></table></dd></dl> <p>The first person plural <i>òraŋ</i> is more commonly found in the Western dialects of Melamchi and Helambu Valley Yolmo, as well as Lamjung Yolmo, while <i>ùu</i> is more common in the Eastern dialects. It is possible to create a dual form by adding <i>ɲíi</i> to the plural form (e.g. <i>khyá ɲíi</i> 'you two'), although this is optional. </p><p>The third person plural <i>khúŋ</i> can also be used as a polite form for a single third person. </p><p>Pronouns do not take determiners, number, or adjectives. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Interrogative_pronouns">Interrogative pronouns</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Yolmo_language&action=edit&section=25" title="Edit section: Interrogative pronouns"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Interrogative_word" title="Interrogative word">Interrogative pronouns</a> are used to form questions. Yolmo has the following attested interrogative pronouns: </p> <dl><dd><table> <tbody><tr> <td><i>sú</i></td> <td>'who' </td></tr> <tr> <td><i>nàm</i></td> <td>'when' </td></tr> <tr> <td><i>kàla</i> </td> <td>'where' </td></tr> <tr> <td><i>tɕípe, tɕíle, tɕí mée</i> </td> <td>'why' </td></tr> <tr> <td><i>tɕí</i> </td> <td>'what' </td></tr> <tr> <td><i>kàndi</i> </td> <td>'which one' </td></tr> <tr> <td><i>súgi</i> </td> <td>'whose' </td></tr> <tr> <td><i>súla</i> </td> <td>'whom' </td></tr> <tr> <td><i>kànɖu, kànmu</i> </td> <td>'how' </td></tr></tbody></table></dd></dl> <p>Hari gives both <i>kà</i> and <i>kàla (kà</i> with the dative suffix) as forms for 'where' in Melamchi Valley Yolmo, but only <i>kàla</i> is attested in Lamjung Yolmo.<sup id="cite_ref-:1_24-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:1-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> There are also a number of forms for 'why', <i>tɕípe</i> and <i>tɕíle</i> are attested in both Melamchi Valley Yolmo and Lamjung Yolmo, but only <i>tɕí mée</i> in Melamchi Valley Yolmo. This is because it uses the verb <i>mée</i> 'say' as part of the construction, which is not in Lamjung Yolmo (see the section on <a class="mw-selflink-fragment" href="#Reported_speech">reported speech</a>, as well as the <a class="mw-selflink-fragment" href="#100_Word_Swadesh_List">word list</a>). The <i>kànmu</i> form of 'how' is attested in Lamjung Yolmo, while <i>kànɖu</i> is used in Melamchi Valley Yolmo, with an optional <i>-mu</i> suffix to make <i>kànɖu-mu.</i> Hari and Lama also note the form <i>kànɖu-bar</i> in the Western regions.<sup id="cite_ref-:13_40-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:13-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Note that the words <i>súgi</i> and <i>súla</i> are complex forms, <i>súgi</i> is <i>sú</i> 'who' with the genitive case suffix, and <i>súla</i> is <i>sú</i> with the dative case suffix. </p><p>For more on the structure of interrogative clauses, see the section on <a class="mw-selflink-fragment" href="#Question_formation">question formation</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Proper_nouns">Proper nouns</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Yolmo_language&action=edit&section=26" title="Edit section: Proper nouns"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Proper nouns include people's names, place names and the names of deities. They do not take determiners, number, or adjectives. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Plural">Plural</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Yolmo_language&action=edit&section=27" title="Edit section: Plural"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The <a href="/wiki/Plural" title="Plural">plural</a> marker in Melamchi and Lamjung Yolmo is <i>=ya</i>. The plural is treated as a <a href="/wiki/Clitic" title="Clitic">clitic</a> as it occurs after an <a href="/wiki/Adjective" title="Adjective">adjective</a> if there is one, rather than always attaching directly to the noun: </p> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1209690778"><div class="interlinear" style="margin-left:3em"><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">kháŋba</p><p style="margin: 0px;">house</p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">tɕímbu</p><p style="margin: 0px;">big</p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">tɕhímbu=<b>ya</b></p><p style="margin: 0px;">big=<b><abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="plural number" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">PL</abbr></b></p></div><p style="display: none;">kháŋba tɕímbu tɕhímbu=<b>ya</b></p><p style="display: none;">house big big=<b>PL</b></p><p style="clear: left;">'The big houses' (Hari 2010: 28)</p><div style="clear: left; display: block;"></div> </div> <p>Plural marking is optional if an overt number is used with the noun, or if the number is clear from context: </p> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1209690778"><div class="interlinear" style="margin-left:3em"><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">pèmpiʑa</p><p style="margin: 0px;">women</p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;"><b>súm</b></p><p style="margin: 0px;"><b>three</b></p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">dù</p><p style="margin: 0px;"><abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="copula" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">COP</abbr>.<abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="perceptual" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">PE</abbr></p></div><p style="display: none;">pèmpiʑa <b>súm</b> dù</p><p style="display: none;">women <b>three</b> COP.PE</p><p style="clear: left;">'There are three women' (Gawne 2016: 55)</p><div style="clear: left; display: block;"></div> </div> <p>The plural form in Syuba is =<i>kya</i>,<sup id="cite_ref-:9_28-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:9-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> which is more similar to the Kyirong form,<sup id="cite_ref-:16_37-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:16-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> suggesting the Yolmo <i>=ya</i> is an innovation. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Focus_marker">Focus marker</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Yolmo_language&action=edit&section=28" title="Edit section: Focus marker"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Yolmo has a nominal focus marker <i>-ti</i>. The focus marker gives prominence to the noun it is attached to. In the example below, the older brother is singled out, contrasted with other relatives who perhaps did not obtain such wealth: </p> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1209690778"><div class="interlinear" style="margin-left:3em"><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">áda-<b>di</b></p><p style="margin: 0px;">older.brother-<b><abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="focus" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">FOC</abbr></b></p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">ɲìma</p><p style="margin: 0px;">day</p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">ɲèdzen</p><p style="margin: 0px;">every</p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">tɕhúkpu</p><p style="margin: 0px;">rich</p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">kàl-di</p><p style="margin: 0px;">went-<abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="perfective aspect" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">PFV</abbr></p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">oŋ-sin</p><p style="margin: 0px;">come-<abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="past tense" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">PST</abbr></p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">dù</p><p style="margin: 0px;"><abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="auxiliary verb" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">AUX</abbr>.<abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="perceptual" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">PE</abbr></p></div><p style="display: none;">áda-<b>di</b> ɲìma ɲèdzen tɕhúkpu kàl-di oŋ-sin dù</p><p style="display: none;">older.brother-<b>FOC</b> day every rich went-PFV come-PST AUX.PE</p><p style="clear: left;">'The older brother became richer every day.' (Hari & Lama 2004: 271)</p><div style="clear: left; display: block;"></div> </div> <p>Hari also notes for Melamchi Valley Yolmo that there is a focus marker <i>-ka</i>, which is used specifically to mark something as contrary to expectation. </p> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1209690778"><div class="interlinear" style="margin-left:3em"><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">kháŋba</p><p style="margin: 0px;">house</p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">tɕhímbu</p><p style="margin: 0px;">big</p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">tɕhímbu=ya-la-<b>ga</b></p><p style="margin: 0px;">big=<abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="plural number" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">PL</abbr>-<abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="locative case" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">LOC</abbr>-<b><abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="focus" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">FOC</abbr></b></p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">tè-ku</p><p style="margin: 0px;">reside-<abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="imperfective aspect" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">IPFV</abbr></p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">dù</p><p style="margin: 0px;"><abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="auxiliary verb" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">AUX</abbr>.<abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="perceptual" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">PE</abbr></p></div><p style="display: none;">kháŋba tɕhímbu tɕhímbu=ya-la-<b>ga</b> tè-ku dù</p><p style="display: none;">house big big=PL-LOC-<b>FOC</b> reside-IPFV AUX.PE</p><p style="clear: left;">'I realize that they are living in big houses.' (Hari 2010: 27)</p><div style="clear: left; display: block;"></div> </div> <p>Nouns can also take the emphatic suffixes <i>-ni</i> and <i>-raŋ</i>, which are also used for other parts of speech (see section on <a class="mw-selflink-fragment" href="#Lexical_emphasis">lexical emphasis</a>). </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Case_marking">Case marking</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Yolmo_language&action=edit&section=29" title="Edit section: Case marking"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Yolmo uses <a href="/wiki/Postpositional_case" class="mw-redirect" title="Postpositional case">post-positional</a> suffixes to mark the <a href="/wiki/Case_marking" class="mw-redirect" title="Case marking">case</a> of nouns. Similar to other <a href="/wiki/Tibetic_languages" title="Tibetic languages">Tibetic</a> languages, Yolmo uses a single case form for multiple functions. Case marking is treated as a <a href="/wiki/Clitic" title="Clitic">clitic</a>, as clitics come at the end of the whole noun phrase, rather than directly attaching to only the noun. Below the cases are listed with their functions. </p> <dl><dd><table class="wikitable"> <tbody><tr> <th>Case marker </th> <th>Function </th></tr> <tr> <td>=ki </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Genitive_case" title="Genitive case">genitive</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ergative_case" title="Ergative case">ergative</a>, <a href="/wiki/Instrumental_case" title="Instrumental case">instrumental</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td>=la </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Locative_case" title="Locative case">locative</a>, <a href="/wiki/Allative_case" title="Allative case">allative</a>, <a href="/wiki/Dative_case" title="Dative case">dative</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td>=le(gi) </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Ablative_case" title="Ablative case">ablative</a> </td></tr></tbody></table></dd></dl> <p>The case markers are phonologically bound, with the =<i>ki</i> form becoming voiced in some environments, it is also reduced to =<i>i</i> in some environments. See the section on <a class="mw-selflink-fragment" href="#Morphophonemic_processes">morphophonemic processes</a> for more on this. </p><p>Where there is also a plural the case marker comes after the plural, as in the example below: </p> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1209690778"><div class="interlinear" style="margin-left:3em"><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">tɕàmu=ya=<b>gi</b></p><p style="margin: 0px;">hen=<abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="plural number" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">PL</abbr>=<b><abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="ergative case" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">ERG</abbr></b></p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">kòŋa</p><p style="margin: 0px;">egg</p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">tɕú</p><p style="margin: 0px;">ten</p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">thál</p><p style="margin: 0px;"><abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="numeral" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">NUM</abbr>.<abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="classifier" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">CLF</abbr></p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">kyée</p><p style="margin: 0px;">lay</p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">dù</p><p style="margin: 0px;"><abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="copula" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">COP</abbr>.<abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="perceptual" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">PE</abbr></p></div><p style="display: none;">tɕàmu=ya=<b>gi</b> kòŋa tɕú thál kyée dù</p><p style="display: none;">hen=PL=<b>ERG</b> egg ten NUM.CLF lay COP.PE</p><p style="clear: left;">'The hens laid ten eggs' (Hari 2010: 23)</p><div style="clear: left; display: block;"></div> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Ergative_case">Ergative case</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Yolmo_language&action=edit&section=30" title="Edit section: Ergative case"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Yolmo has optional <a href="/wiki/Ergative_case" title="Ergative case">ergative</a> case-marking. Ergative marking means that <a href="/wiki/Grammatical_subject" class="mw-redirect" title="Grammatical subject">subjects</a> of <a href="/wiki/Intransitive_verb" title="Intransitive verb">intransitive verbs</a> are unmarked, the same as <a href="/wiki/Object_(grammar)" title="Object (grammar)">objects</a> of <a href="/wiki/Transitive_verb" title="Transitive verb">transitive verbs</a>. Subjects of transitive verbs are distinguished from both of these with the <i>=ki</i> marker (in contrast to <a href="/wiki/Nominative%E2%80%93accusative_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Nominative–accusative language">nominative-accusative</a> languages like English, where the subjects of both intransitive and transitive verbs are marked in contrast with objects of transitive verbs). </p><p>Below is an intransitive sentence, with the subject <i>ŋà</i> taking no marking: </p> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1209690778"><div class="interlinear" style="margin-left:3em"><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">ŋà</p><p style="margin: 0px;"><abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="first person, singular" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">1SG</abbr></p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">ŋù-sin</p><p style="margin: 0px;">cry-<abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="past tense" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">PST</abbr></p></div><p style="display: none;">ŋà ŋù-sin</p><p style="display: none;">1SG cry-PST</p><p style="clear: left;">'I cried'</p><div style="clear: left; display: block;"></div> </div> <p>In contrast with this ergative-marked transitive, where the subject <i>ŋà</i> is marked with the ergative: </p> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1209690778"><div class="interlinear" style="margin-left:3em"><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">ŋà=<b>gi</b></p><p style="margin: 0px;"><abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="first person, singular" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">1SG</abbr>=<b><abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="ergative case" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">ERG</abbr></b></p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">ɕò</p><p style="margin: 0px;">yoghurt</p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">úp-sin</p><p style="margin: 0px;">cover-<abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="past tense" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">PST</abbr></p></div><p style="display: none;">ŋà=<b>gi</b> ɕò úp-sin</p><p style="display: none;">1SG=<b>ERG</b> yoghurt cover-PST</p><p style="clear: left;">'I covered the yoghurt' (Hari 2010: 39)</p><div style="clear: left; display: block;"></div> </div> <p>Speakers do not always use the ergative case, which is why it is considered 'optional': </p> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1209690778"><div class="interlinear" style="margin-left:3em"><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">ŋà</p><p style="margin: 0px;"><abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="first person, singular" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">1SG</abbr></p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">tó</p><p style="margin: 0px;">rice.cooked</p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">sà-ke</p><p style="margin: 0px;">eat-<abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="non-past tense" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">NPST</abbr></p></div><p style="display: none;">ŋà tó sà-ke</p><p style="display: none;">1SG rice.cooked eat-NPST</p><p style="clear: left;">'I eat rice' (Gawne 2016: 69)</p><div style="clear: left; display: block;"></div> </div> <p>Ergative marking is more common for <a href="/wiki/Past_tense" title="Past tense">past tense</a>, and non-<a href="/wiki/Habitual_aspect" title="Habitual aspect">habitual</a> actions. There also appears to be some effect of animacy, and the ergative appears to be used as a strategy in discourse to mark <a href="/wiki/Agent_(grammar)" title="Agent (grammar)">agentivity</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-41" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-41"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>41<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This form of optional ergativity is common across the Tibeto-Burman family.<sup id="cite_ref-42" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-42"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>42<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Dative_case">Dative case</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Yolmo_language&action=edit&section=31" title="Edit section: Dative case"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Dative_case" title="Dative case">Dative case</a> is typically used to indicate, broadly, the noun to which something is given. The Yolmo dative has this function, but it also has a function in 'dative subject' constructions. The dative subject occurs with a small set of <a href="/wiki/Intransitive_verb" title="Intransitive verb">intransitive verbs</a>, and denote personal, and usually internal, states. </p> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1209690778"><div class="interlinear" style="margin-left:3em"><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">ŋà=<b>la</b></p><p style="margin: 0px;"><abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="first person, singular" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">1SG</abbr>=<b><abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="dative case" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">DAT</abbr></b></p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">hé</p><p style="margin: 0px;">potatoes</p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">kà-en</p><p style="margin: 0px;">like-<abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="non-past tense" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">NPST</abbr></p></div><p style="display: none;">ŋà=<b>la</b> hé kà-en</p><p style="display: none;">1SG=<b>DAT</b> potatoes like-NPST</p><p style="clear: left;">'I like potatoes.' (Hari 2010: 42)</p><div style="clear: left; display: block;"></div> </div> <p>The use of dative subjects is common in languages of this area, and is also <a href="/wiki/Dative_construction" title="Dative construction">attested more broadly</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Number">Number</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Yolmo_language&action=edit&section=32" title="Edit section: Number"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Yolmo has a base-20 counting system.<sup id="cite_ref-:13_40-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:13-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> As can be seen in the examples above, <a href="/wiki/Cardinal_number_(linguistics)" class="mw-redirect" title="Cardinal number (linguistics)">cardinal numbers</a> can be used in noun phrases. </p><p>The Yolmo number system is very similar to that of Standard Tibetan and other Tibetan varieties. In the table below is the Yolmo number, taken from Hari's dictionary.<sup id="cite_ref-:3_7-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:3-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <table class="wikitable"> <tbody><tr> <th>Yolmo </th> <th>English </th> <th> </th> <th>Yolmo </th> <th>English </th> <th> </th> <th>Yolmo </th> <th>English </th></tr> <tr> <td>tɕíi </td> <td>1 </td> <td> </td> <td>khál tɕíi tɕíi </td> <td>21 </td> <td> </td> <td>ʑìpkha </td> <td>400 </td></tr> <tr> <td>ɲíi </td> <td>2 </td> <td> </td> <td>khál tɕíi ɲíi </td> <td>22 </td> <td> </td> <td>ŋápkya </td> <td>500 </td></tr> <tr> <td>súm </td> <td>3 </td> <td> </td> <td>khál tɕíi súm </td> <td>23 </td> <td> </td> <td>ʈùpkya </td> <td>600 </td></tr> <tr> <td>ʑì </td> <td>4 </td> <td> </td> <td>khál tɕíi ʑì </td> <td>24 </td> <td> </td> <td>tìngya </td> <td>700 </td></tr> <tr> <td>ŋá </td> <td>5 </td> <td> </td> <td>khál tɕíi ŋá </td> <td>25 </td> <td> </td> <td>kyèkya </td> <td>800 </td></tr> <tr> <td>ʈùu </td> <td>6 </td> <td> </td> <td>khál tɕíi ʈúu </td> <td>26 </td> <td> </td> <td>kùpkya </td> <td>900 </td></tr> <tr> <td>tìn </td> <td>7 </td> <td> </td> <td>kál tɕíi tìn </td> <td>27 </td> <td> </td> <td>tóŋra </td> <td>1000 </td></tr> <tr> <td>kyèe </td> <td>8 </td> <td> </td> <td>khál tɕíi kyèe </td> <td>28 </td> <td> </td> <td> </td> <td> </td></tr> <tr> <td>kù </td> <td>9 </td> <td> </td> <td>khál tɕíi kù </td> <td>29 </td> <td> </td> <td> </td> <td> </td></tr> <tr> <td>tɕú </td> <td>10 </td> <td> </td> <td>khál tɕíi tɕú </td> <td>30 </td> <td> </td> <td> </td> <td> </td></tr> <tr> <td>tɕúuʑi </td> <td>11 </td> <td> </td> <td>khál ɲíi </td> <td>40 </td> <td> </td> <td> </td> <td> </td></tr> <tr> <td>tɕíŋii </td> <td>12 </td> <td> </td> <td>khál tɕú </td> <td>50 </td> <td> </td> <td> </td> <td> </td></tr> <tr> <td>tɕúusum </td> <td>13 </td> <td> </td> <td>khál súm </td> <td>60 </td> <td> </td> <td> </td> <td> </td></tr> <tr> <td>tɕúpɕi </td> <td>14 </td> <td> </td> <td>khál súm tɕú </td> <td>70 </td> <td> </td> <td> </td> <td> </td></tr> <tr> <td>tɕéeŋa </td> <td>15 </td> <td> </td> <td>khál ʑì </td> <td>80 </td> <td> </td> <td> </td> <td> </td></tr> <tr> <td>tɕíiru </td> <td>16 </td> <td> </td> <td>khál ʑì tɕú </td> <td>90 </td> <td> </td> <td> </td> <td> </td></tr> <tr> <td>tɕúptin </td> <td>17 </td> <td> </td> <td>khál ŋá </td> <td>100 </td> <td> </td> <td> </td> <td> </td></tr> <tr> <td>tɕápkye </td> <td>18 </td> <td> </td> <td>khál tìn tɕú </td> <td>150 </td> <td> </td> <td> </td> <td> </td></tr> <tr> <td>tɕúrku </td> <td>19 </td> <td> </td> <td>khál tɕú </td> <td>200 </td> <td> </td> <td> </td> <td> </td></tr> <tr> <td>khál ɕíi </td> <td>20 </td> <td> </td> <td>khál tɕéeŋa </td> <td>300 </td> <td> </td> <td> </td> <td> </td></tr></tbody></table><p>In Lamjung Yolmo, the base-20 system is only used by a small number of older speakers, with others using a base-10 system. For example, 'twenty' is <i>ɲídʑu</i>, 'thirty' is <i>súmdʑu</i>, 'forty' is <i>ɕíptɕu</i>, etc. Even then, once people reach 20 the usually switch to counting in Nepali.<sup id="cite_ref-:5_19-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:5-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Ordinal numbers are formed by addition of the suffix <i>-pa</i>, or alternatively with the suffix <i>-pu</i> for ordinals relating to people, in Melamchi Yolmo. Ordinals are typically only formed up to 20. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Numeral_classifiers">Numeral classifiers</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Yolmo_language&action=edit&section=33" title="Edit section: Numeral classifiers"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Yolmo also has an optional <a href="/wiki/Classifier_(linguistics)" title="Classifier (linguistics)">numeral classifier</a> <i>thál</i>. This is used to emphasise number. In the example in the <a class="mw-selflink-fragment" href="#Case_marking">section on case marking</a> above, the speaker is emphasising that the hens laid a large number of eggs. </p><p>Lamjung Yolmo also has the classifier <i>mènda</i> which can only be used with humans.<sup id="cite_ref-:5_19-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:5-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Adjectives">Adjectives</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Yolmo_language&action=edit&section=34" title="Edit section: Adjectives"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Adjective" title="Adjective">Adjectives</a> occur within the <a href="/wiki/Noun_phrase" title="Noun phrase">noun phrase</a>. Adjectives usually come after the noun so 'small child' would be <i>pìʑa tɕháme</i> (lit. 'child small'). Adjectives can also occur before the noun, especially in casual speech.<sup id="cite_ref-:5_19-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:5-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Many adjectives are derived from verb forms, and often end with <i>-pu, -po, -pa</i> or <i>-mu</i>, but they do not act as verbs, as we see in languages like Magar and Manage.<sup id="cite_ref-43" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-43"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>43<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Hari also notes that there are some adjectives that appear to not have a known verbal origin.<sup id="cite_ref-:04_44-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:04-44"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>44<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Adjectives can occur as the head of a noun phrase, but this is very uncommon. </p> <table class="wikitable"> <tbody><tr> <td><i>tɕhómbo</i> </td> <td>'big' </td></tr> <tr> <td><i>rìŋbu</i> </td> <td>'long' </td></tr> <tr> <td><i>màrmu, màrpu</i> </td> <td>'red' </td></tr> <tr> <td><i>kárpu, kármu</i> </td> <td>'white' </td></tr> <tr> <td><i>dzìba</i> </td> <td>'afraid' </td></tr> <tr> <td><i>ʈòmbo</i> </td> <td>'warm' </td></tr></tbody></table> <p>It is possible to create a new adjective from a verb, using the <i>-pa</i> <a href="/w/index.php?title=WikiJournal_Preprints/A_grammatical_overview_of_Yolmo_(Tibeto-Burman)&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="WikiJournal Preprints/A grammatical overview of Yolmo (Tibeto-Burman) (page does not exist)">nominalising</a> suffix. The verb stem is often reduplicated; <i>rùl-</i> 'to rot' becomes <i>rùl rùlba</i> 'rotten' and <i>pàŋ-</i> 'to be wet' becomes <i>pàŋ pàŋba</i> 'wet'.<sup id="cite_ref-:5_19-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:5-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Verbs">Verbs</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Yolmo_language&action=edit&section=35" title="Edit section: Verbs"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>There are three main types of verbs in Yolmo, <a href="/wiki/Lexical_verb" title="Lexical verb">lexical verbs</a>, <a href="/wiki/Auxiliary_verb" title="Auxiliary verb">auxiliary verbs</a> and <a href="/wiki/Copula_(linguistics)" title="Copula (linguistics)">copula verbs</a>. The lexical verbs inflect for <a href="/wiki/Grammatical_tense" title="Grammatical tense">tense</a>, <a href="/wiki/Grammatical_aspect" title="Grammatical aspect">aspect</a>, <a href="/wiki/Grammatical_mood" title="Grammatical mood">mood</a> and <a href="/wiki/Evidentiality" title="Evidentiality">evidence</a> and can take <a href="/wiki/Negation_(grammar)" class="mw-redirect" title="Negation (grammar)">negation</a>. The <a href="/wiki/Infinitive" title="Infinitive">infinitive</a> form of verbs takes the suffix -<i>tɕe.</i> The infinitive is used in a number of constructions, including the <a class="mw-selflink-fragment" href="#Habitual">habitual</a> and <a class="mw-selflink-fragment" href="#Complementation">complementation</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Copula_verbs">Copula verbs</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Yolmo_language&action=edit&section=36" title="Edit section: Copula verbs"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The copula verbs and their functions are given in the table below. Copulas are not inflected for person, number or politeness level and many do not distinguish tense:<sup id="cite_ref-:15_4-13" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:15-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Gawne_6-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Gawne-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <dl><dd><dl><dd><table class="wikitable"> <tbody><tr> <th> </th> <th>Egophoric </th> <th>Dubitative </th> <th>Perceptual </th> <th>General Fact </th></tr> <tr> <th>Equation </th> <td><i>yìn/yìngen/yìmba</i> </td> <td><i>yìnɖo</i> </td> <td rowspan="2"><i>dù</i> <p><i>dùba</i> </p> </td> <td> </td></tr> <tr> <th>Existential </th> <td><i>yè/yèba</i> <p><i>yèken/yèba</i> (past tense) </p> </td> <td><i>yèʈo</i> </td> <td><i>òŋgen/òŋge</i> </td></tr></tbody></table></dd></dl></dd></dl> <p>Equation copulas are used to link two noun phrases, while existential copulas are used for functions of existence, location, attribution and possession.<sup id="cite_ref-Gawne_6-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Gawne-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Hari describes the forms that end in <i>-pa</i> (voiced in this environment so they become <i>-ba)</i> as more emphatic, unlike lexical verbs with a <i>-pa</i> suffix they do not indicate <a class="mw-selflink-fragment" href="#Past_Tense">past tense</a>, and are not used exclusively in <a class="mw-selflink-fragment" href="#Question_formation">question structures</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-:15_4-14" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:15-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Some copula verbs can also be used as verbal auxiliaries, particularly in constructions <a class="mw-selflink-fragment" href="#Aspect">marked for aspect</a>, where they contribute evidential, tense or epistemic information. The negative forms of each copula are given in the section on <a class="mw-selflink-fragment" href="#Negation">negation</a>. </p><p>Below the different <a href="/wiki/Evidentiality" title="Evidentiality">evidential</a> and <a href="/wiki/Epistemic_modality" title="Epistemic modality">epistemic</a> functions of each copula type are discussed. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Egophoric">Egophoric</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Yolmo_language&action=edit&section=37" title="Edit section: Egophoric"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The <a href="/wiki/Egophoricity" title="Egophoricity">egophoric</a>, or personal,<sup id="cite_ref-45" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-45"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>45<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> is used to indicate that the speaker has personal knowledge about the information. In the example below, the speaker would not be reading the name of the book, but already know the name as they show it to someone else: </p> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1209690778"><div class="interlinear" style="margin-left:3em"><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">òo</p><p style="margin: 0px;">that</p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">tɕhée=gi</p><p style="margin: 0px;">book=<abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="genitive case" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">GEN</abbr></p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">mìn</p><p style="margin: 0px;">name</p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">gyàldzen</p><p style="margin: 0px;">gyaldzen</p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">tsému</p><p style="margin: 0px;">tsemu</p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">púŋgyen</p><p style="margin: 0px;">puŋgyen</p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">má-ẽ</p><p style="margin: 0px;">say-<abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="non-past tense" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">NPST</abbr></p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;"><b>yìmba</b></p><p style="margin: 0px;"><b><abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="copula" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">COP</abbr>.<abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="egophoric" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">EGO</abbr></b></p></div><p style="display: none;">òo tɕhée=gi mìn gyàldzen tsému púŋgyen má-ẽ <b>yìmba</b></p><p style="display: none;">that book=GEN name gyaldzen tsemu puŋgyen say-NPST <b>COP.EGO</b></p><p style="clear: left;">'This book is called 'Gyaldzen Tsemu Punggyen.' (Hari 2010: 66)</p><div style="clear: left; display: block;"></div> </div> <p>Unlike in Standard Tibetan,<sup id="cite_ref-46" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-46"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>46<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> the speaker does not need to be personally close to an individual to use the egophoric while talking about them. </p><p>Different varieties of Yolmo prefer different forms of the egophoric as the default; In Helambu they prefer <i>yìn</i>, in Lamjung <i>yìmba</i> and Ilam <i>yìŋge</i>. <i>yèken</i> is past tense forms of the existential (<i>yèke</i> in Lamjung), with the form <i>yèba</i> also often used in past tense structures, as well as questions. The past form cannot be further decomposed, as the form <i>-ken/-ke</i> is the <a class="mw-selflink-fragment" href="#Non-past_Tense">non-past tense suffix</a> for lexical verbs. </p><p>There are some structures where the egophoric is used as the default, such as <a class="mw-selflink-fragment" href="#Conditional">conditionals</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Dubitative">Dubitative</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Yolmo_language&action=edit&section=38" title="Edit section: Dubitative"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Unlike the other copulas, which mark evidential distinctions, the dubitative copulas are epistemic forms used for reduced certainty. They are related to the <a class="mw-selflink-fragment" href="#Dubitative"><i>-ʈo</i> dubitative suffixes</a> for lexical verbs. In the example below, the speaker does not have any direct evidence that Rijan is in the house, but thinks that is where he might be: </p> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1209690778"><div class="interlinear" style="margin-left:3em"><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">rídʑan</p><p style="margin: 0px;">Rijan</p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">khím=la</p><p style="margin: 0px;">house=<abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="dative case" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">DAT</abbr></p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;"><b>yèʈo</b></p><p style="margin: 0px;"><b><abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="copula" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">COP</abbr>.<abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="dubitative mood" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">DUB</abbr></b></p></div><p style="display: none;">rídʑan khím=la <b>yèʈo</b></p><p style="display: none;">Rijan house=DAT <b>COP.DUB</b></p><p style="clear: left;">'Rijan is probably in the house.' (Gawne 2016: 88)</p><div style="clear: left; display: block;"></div> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Perceptual">Perceptual</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Yolmo_language&action=edit&section=39" title="Edit section: Perceptual"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The perceptual, or sensory, evidential is used to mark information acquired through direct sensory evidence, either through sight, one of the other <a href="/wiki/Sense" title="Sense">senses</a>, or internal state (such as feeling an ache). </p> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1209690778"><div class="interlinear" style="margin-left:3em"><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">dèla</p><p style="margin: 0px;">here</p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">ʈháa</p><p style="margin: 0px;">blood</p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;"><b>dù</b></p><p style="margin: 0px;"><b><abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="copula" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">COP</abbr>.<abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="perceptual" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">PE</abbr></b></p></div><p style="display: none;">dèla ʈháa <b>dù</b></p><p style="display: none;">here blood <b>COP.PE</b></p><p style="clear: left;">'I see there is some blood here.' (Hari 2010: 60)</p><div style="clear: left; display: block;"></div> </div> <p>Hari calls the perceptual forms <a href="/wiki/Mirative" class="mw-redirect" title="Mirative">mirative</a>, as indicating knowledge through sense often occurs for information recently acquired. Only the <i>dùba</i> form, with the emphatic suffix <i>-pa</i>, appears to indicate some amount of surprise or counter-expectation. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="General_fact">General fact</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Yolmo_language&action=edit&section=40" title="Edit section: General fact"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The general fact form is used for uncontroversial and universally known facts. This verb is used in functions of existence, location, attribution and possession, and is not used in equational structures. </p> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1209690778"><div class="interlinear" style="margin-left:3em"><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">ɲì</p><p style="margin: 0px;"><abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="second person, plural" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">2PL</abbr>.<abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="exclusive person" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">EX</abbr></p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">yùl=gi</p><p style="margin: 0px;">village=<abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="genitive case" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">GEN</abbr></p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">hé</p><p style="margin: 0px;">potato</p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">ɕìmbu</p><p style="margin: 0px;">tasty</p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;"><b>òŋgen</b></p><p style="margin: 0px;"><b><abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="copula" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">COP</abbr>.<abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="dubitative mood" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">DUB</abbr></b></p></div><p style="display: none;">ɲì yùl=gi hé ɕìmbu <b>òŋgen</b></p><p style="display: none;">2PL.EX village=GEN potato tasty <b>COP.DUB</b></p><p style="clear: left;">'The potatoes of our village are tasty.' (Hari 2010: 52)</p><div style="clear: left; display: block;"></div> </div> <p>The form is <i>òŋgen</i> in Melamchi Valley Yolmo and <i>òŋge</i> in Lamjung Yolmo, demonstrating a link with the <a class="mw-selflink-fragment" href="#Non-past_Tense">non-past tense suffix</a>. The verb itself is from the lexical verb <i>òŋ-</i> 'come'. It cannot be used for facts about the past. This copula is not attested in <a href="/wiki/Standard_Tibetan" class="mw-redirect" title="Standard Tibetan">Standard Tibetan</a> or any other Tibetic language outside of Yolmo. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Lexical_verb_stems">Lexical verb stems</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Yolmo_language&action=edit&section=41" title="Edit section: Lexical verb stems"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The Melamchi Valley variety of Yolmo exhibit verb stem alterations in the context of some verb structures. </p><p>Verb stems with short front vowels have their vowels lengthened (e.g. /i/→/ii/), short back vowels are fronted and lengthened (e.g. /o/ and /a/→/ee/, /u/→/i/). These changes occur mostly with <a href="/wiki/Perfective_aspect" title="Perfective aspect">perfective</a> structures and <a href="/wiki/Imperative_mood" title="Imperative mood">imperatives</a>. Below are some examples of this alternation using the verb <i>má-</i> 'say': </p> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1209690778"><div class="interlinear" style="margin-left:3em"><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">ŋà</p><p style="margin: 0px;"><abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="first person, singular" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">1SG</abbr></p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;"><b>má</b>-ke</p><p style="margin: 0px;"><b>say</b>-<abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="non-past tense" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">NPST</abbr></p></div><p style="display: none;">ŋà <b>má</b>-ke</p><p style="display: none;">1SG <b>say</b>-NPST</p><p style="clear: left;">'I say' (Hari 2010: 35)</p><div style="clear: left; display: block;"></div> </div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1209690778"><div class="interlinear" style="margin-left:3em"><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">ŋà</p><p style="margin: 0px;"><abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="first person, singular" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">1SG</abbr></p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;"><b>mée</b>-di</p><p style="margin: 0px;"><b>say</b>-<abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="perfective aspect" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">PFV</abbr></p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">yè</p><p style="margin: 0px;"><abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="auxiliary verb" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">AUX</abbr>.<abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="egophoric" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">EGO</abbr></p></div><p style="display: none;">ŋà <b>mée</b>-di yè</p><p style="display: none;">1SG <b>say</b>-PFV AUX.EGO</p><p style="clear: left;">'I have said' (Hari 2010: 35)</p><div style="clear: left; display: block;"></div> </div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1209690778"><div class="interlinear" style="margin-left:3em"><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;"><b>mée</b>-doŋ</p><p style="margin: 0px;"><b>say</b>-<abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="imperative mood" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">IMP</abbr></p></div><p style="display: none;"><b>mée</b>-doŋ</p><p style="display: none;"><b>say</b>-IMP</p><p style="clear: left;">'say it!' (Hari 2010: 35)</p><div style="clear: left; display: block;"></div> </div> <p>When these structures are negated, the negative prefix is lengthened rather than the verb stem, which maintains the vowel change (this does not occur in the imperative). </p> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1209690778"><div class="interlinear" style="margin-left:3em"><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">ŋà</p><p style="margin: 0px;"><abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="first person, singular" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">1SG</abbr></p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;"><b>màa</b>-mé</p><p style="margin: 0px;">say-<abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="perfective aspect" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">PFV</abbr></p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">yè</p><p style="margin: 0px;"><abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="auxiliary verb" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">AUX</abbr>.<abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="egophoric" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">EGO</abbr></p></div><p style="display: none;">ŋà <b>màa</b>-mé yè</p><p style="display: none;">1SG say-PFV AUX.EGO</p><p style="clear: left;">'I have not said' (Hari 2010: 35)</p><div style="clear: left; display: block;"></div> </div> <p>These alterations do not occur in Lamjung Yolmo<sup id="cite_ref-:5_19-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:5-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> or Syuba.<sup id="cite_ref-Gawne_6-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Gawne-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Auxiliary_verbs">Auxiliary verbs</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Yolmo_language&action=edit&section=42" title="Edit section: Auxiliary verbs"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>There is a small set of auxiliary verbs in Yolmo. The auxiliary <i>tè</i>- is the same as the lexical verb <i>tè</i>- 'sit' and is used to add imperfective aspect:<sup id="cite_ref-:15_4-15" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:15-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1209690778"><div class="interlinear" style="margin-left:3em"><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">mò</p><p style="margin: 0px;">she</p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">sà</p><p style="margin: 0px;">eat</p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;"><b>tè</b>-ku</p><p style="margin: 0px;"><b><abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="auxiliary verb" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">AUX</abbr></b>-<abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="imperfective aspect" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">IPFV</abbr></p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">dù</p><p style="margin: 0px;"><abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="auxiliary verb" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">AUX</abbr>.<abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="perceptual" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">PE</abbr></p></div><p style="display: none;">mò sà <b>tè</b>-ku dù</p><p style="display: none;">she eat <b>AUX</b>-IPFV AUX.PE</p><p style="clear: left;">'she is eating'</p><div style="clear: left; display: block;"></div> </div> <p>A subset of the copulas can also be used as verbal auxiliaries; <i>yìn, yè, yèken </i>and<i> dù</i>. These contribute evidential information and for <span title="Hyolmo-language romanization"><i lang="scp-Latn">yè/yèken</i></span> also some tense information. As you can see in the example above the <i>dù</i> copula is being used as an auxiliary, so they can co-occur with the other auxiliaries. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Tense">Tense</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Yolmo_language&action=edit&section=43" title="Edit section: Tense"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Yolmo has a major tense distinction between past and non-past. These are marked with suffixes on the lexical verb, <i>-sin </i>is the past tense marker and -<i>ke</i> or -<i>ken </i>is the non-past marker.<sup id="cite_ref-:15_4-16" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:15-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Past_tense">Past tense</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Yolmo_language&action=edit&section=44" title="Edit section: Past tense"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The past tense form is <i>-sin.</i> </p> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1209690778"><div class="interlinear" style="margin-left:3em"><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">ŋà=gi</p><p style="margin: 0px;"><abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="first person, singular" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">1SG</abbr>=<abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="ergative case" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">ERG</abbr></p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">ɕò</p><p style="margin: 0px;">yoghurt</p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">úp-<b>sin</b>.</p><p style="margin: 0px;">cover-<b><abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="past tense" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">PST</abbr></b></p></div><p style="display: none;">ŋà=gi ɕò úp-<b>sin</b>.</p><p style="display: none;">1SG=ERG yoghurt cover-<b>PST</b></p><p style="clear: left;">'I covered up the yoghurt.' (Hari 2010: 23)</p><div style="clear: left; display: block;"></div> </div> <p>The past tense form <i>-sin</i> can also occur with the <a class="mw-selflink-fragment" href="#Perceptual">perceptual evidential</a> <i>dú</i> in an auxiliary position. This is not possible with the non-past tense suffix, nor can any other copula be used as an auxiliary with the past tense suffix. Hari suggests this structure is inferential, in that the speaker did not have to witness the event,<sup id="cite_ref-:15_4-17" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:15-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Gawne describes it as 'narrative past'.<sup id="cite_ref-:5_19-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:5-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1209690778"><div class="interlinear" style="margin-left:3em"><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">tɕhú-kúla</p><p style="margin: 0px;">water channel</p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">tshúr</p><p style="margin: 0px;">this.side</p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">gyùr-<b>sin</b></p><p style="margin: 0px;">change-<b><abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="past tense" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">PST</abbr></b></p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;"><b>dù</b></p><p style="margin: 0px;"><b><abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="auxiliary verb" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">AUX</abbr>.<abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="perceptual" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">PE</abbr></b></p></div><p style="display: none;">tɕhú-kúla tshúr gyùr-<b>sin</b> <b>dù</b></p><p style="display: none;">{water channel} this.side change-<b>PST</b> <b>AUX.PE</b></p><p style="clear: left;">'I see, the water channel has changed course to this side.' (Hari 2010: 45)</p><div style="clear: left; display: block;"></div> </div> <p>Melamchi Valley Yolmo also has a past tense form <i>-kyo</i> that Hari refers to as the 'main-point past/ telling past’,<sup id="cite_ref-:15_4-18" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:15-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> this form is not found in Lamjung Yolmo. </p><p>There is also the form <i>-pa</i>, which Hari says is always used in <a class="mw-selflink-fragment" href="#Question_formation">question structures</a>. In Lamjung Yolmo there are some examples where it is used in declaratives rather than questions, with a past-tense meaning. </p> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1209690778"><div class="interlinear" style="margin-left:3em"><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">ŋà</p><p style="margin: 0px;"><abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="first person, singular" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">1SG</abbr></p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">tɕhám-<b>pa</b></p><p style="margin: 0px;">dance-<b><abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="past tense" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">PST</abbr></b></p></div><p style="display: none;">ŋà tɕhám-<b>pa</b></p><p style="display: none;">1SG dance-<b>PST</b></p><p style="clear: left;">'I danced.' (Gawne 2016: 107)</p><div style="clear: left; display: block;"></div> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Non-past_tense">Non-past tense</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Yolmo_language&action=edit&section=45" title="Edit section: Non-past tense"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The non-past tense is used for both present and future constructions. Hari gives the forms <i>-ke</i> and -<i>ken </i>for Melamchi Valley Yolmo, but only <i>-ke</i> is attested in Lamjung Yolmo. </p> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1209690778"><div class="interlinear" style="margin-left:3em"><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">ŋà=<b>la</b></p><p style="margin: 0px;"><abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="first person, singular" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">1SG</abbr>=<b><abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="dative case" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">DAT</abbr></b></p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">hé</p><p style="margin: 0px;">potatoes</p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">kà-<b>en</b></p><p style="margin: 0px;">like-<b><abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="non-past tense" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">NPST</abbr></b></p></div><p style="display: none;">ŋà=<b>la</b> hé kà-<b>en</b></p><p style="display: none;">1SG=<b>DAT</b> potatoes like-<b>NPST</b></p><p style="clear: left;">'I like potatoes.' (Hari 2010: 42)</p><div style="clear: left; display: block;"></div> </div> <p>Hari refers to this form as the 'intentional present' but it can also be used in future constructions: </p> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1209690778"><div class="interlinear" style="margin-left:3em"><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">dì</p><p style="margin: 0px;">this</p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">kyée-di</p><p style="margin: 0px;">be.born-<abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="perfect" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">PERF</abbr></p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">ɲì-ti</p><p style="margin: 0px;"><abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="second person, plural" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">2PL</abbr>-<abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="emphatic" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">EMPH</abbr></p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">pèza</p><p style="margin: 0px;">child</p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">ɕi</p><p style="margin: 0px;">four</p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">ɖò-<b>en</b></p><p style="margin: 0px;">go-<b><abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="non-past tense" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">NPST</abbr></b></p></div><p style="display: none;">dì kyée-di ɲì-ti pèza ɕi ɖò-<b>en</b></p><p style="display: none;">this be.born-PERF 2PL-EMPH child four go-<b>NPST</b></p><p style="clear: left;">'After this one is born we will have four children.' (Hari 2010: 53)</p><div style="clear: left; display: block;"></div> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Aspect">Aspect</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Yolmo_language&action=edit&section=46" title="Edit section: Aspect"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>There are a number of verb suffixes that are used to mark aspect, these broadly fall into categories of <a href="/wiki/Imperfective_aspect" title="Imperfective aspect">imperfective</a> and <a href="/wiki/Perfective_aspect" title="Perfective aspect">perfective</a>, as well as <a href="/wiki/Habitual_aspect" title="Habitual aspect">habitual</a>. When an aspect form is used, a <a class="mw-selflink-fragment" href="#Copula_verbs">copula verb</a> is also used. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Imperfective">Imperfective</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Yolmo_language&action=edit&section=47" title="Edit section: Imperfective"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The imperfective is used for events that are ongoing or not complete. The <i>-ku</i> suffix is attested in both Melamchi Valley and Lamjung Yolmo. It can only be used with the <i>dù</i> <a class="mw-selflink-fragment" href="#Copula_verbs">copula verb</a>. </p> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1209690778"><div class="interlinear" style="margin-left:3em"><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">tìriŋ</p><p style="margin: 0px;">today</p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">kháwa là</p><p style="margin: 0px;">snow mountains</p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">thóŋ-<b>gu</b></p><p style="margin: 0px;">be.seen-<abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="imperfective aspect" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">IPFV</abbr></p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">dù</p><p style="margin: 0px;"><abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="auxiliary verb" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">AUX</abbr>.<abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="perceptual" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">PE</abbr></p></div><p style="display: none;">tìriŋ {kháwa là} thóŋ-<b>gu</b> dù</p><p style="display: none;">today {snow mountains} be.seen-IPFV AUX.PE</p><p style="clear: left;">'Today the snow mountains can be seen.' (Hari 2010: 43)</p><div style="clear: left; display: block;"></div> </div> <p>The imperfective form -<i>teraŋ</i> can be used with either the <i>dù</i> or <i>yè</i> <a class="mw-selflink-fragment" href="#Copula_verbs">copula verb</a>. In Lumjung Yolmo some speakers pronounce it as <i>-tiraŋ.</i><sup id="cite_ref-:5_19-12" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:5-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Hari refers to the -<i>teraŋ</i> construction as the 'perfect continuous aspect', because it can be used to refer to something that was ongoing until a particular point, as per this first example: </p> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1209690778"><div class="interlinear" style="margin-left:3em"><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">tànda</p><p style="margin: 0px;">now</p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">sámma-ni</p><p style="margin: 0px;">until-<abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="focus" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">FOC</abbr></p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">ɖìbu</p><p style="margin: 0px;">money</p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">tér-<b>teraŋ</b></p><p style="margin: 0px;">give-<b><abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="imperfective aspect" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">IPFV</abbr></b></p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">yè</p><p style="margin: 0px;"><abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="auxiliary verb" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">AUX</abbr>.<abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="egophoric" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">EGO</abbr></p></div><p style="display: none;">tànda sámma-ni ɖìbu tér-<b>teraŋ</b> yè</p><p style="display: none;">now until-FOC money give-<b>IPFV</b> AUX.EGO</p><p style="clear: left;">'Up to now he has been giving money.' (Hari & Lama 2004: 278)</p><div style="clear: left; display: block;"></div> </div> <p>Gawne describes it as an imperfective, as it does not appear to have this perfect aspect function in Lamjung Yolmo, as per this example: </p> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1209690778"><div class="interlinear" style="margin-left:3em"><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">mò</p><p style="margin: 0px;"><abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="third person, singular" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">3SG</abbr>.<abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="feminine gender" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">F</abbr></p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">kòlela</p><p style="margin: 0px;">slowly</p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">tè-<b>teraŋ</b></p><p style="margin: 0px;">sit-<b><abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="imperfective aspect" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">IPFV</abbr></b></p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">dù</p><p style="margin: 0px;"><abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="auxiliary verb" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">AUX</abbr>.<abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="perceptual" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">PE</abbr></p></div><p style="display: none;">mò kòlela tè-<b>teraŋ</b> dù</p><p style="display: none;">3SG.F slowly sit-<b>IPFV</b> AUX.PE</p><p style="clear: left;">'She is slowly sitting down.' (Gawne 2016: 109)</p><div style="clear: left; display: block;"></div> </div> <p>The <a class="mw-selflink-fragment" href="#Auxiliary_verbs">auxiliary verb <i>tè</i></a> can also be used to mark an imperfective construction. Neither <i>-ku</i> nor -<i>teraŋ</i> are used if the negative prefix is on the main verb. The auxiliary verb can be used in negative constructions, and takes the negative prefix, rather than the main verb. In the example below, the -<i>teraŋ</i> imperfective is used as the negative prefix is on the auxiliary: </p> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1209690778"><div class="interlinear" style="margin-left:3em"><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">ŋà</p><p style="margin: 0px;"><abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="first person, singular" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">1SG</abbr></p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">lèn-<b>diraŋ</b></p><p style="margin: 0px;">sing-<b><abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="imperfective aspect" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">IPFV</abbr></b></p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">mà-tè</p><p style="margin: 0px;"><abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="negation/negative" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">NEG</abbr>.<abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="past tense" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">PST</abbr>-<abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="auxiliary verb" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">AUX</abbr></p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">yè</p><p style="margin: 0px;"><abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="auxiliary verb" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">AUX</abbr>.<abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="egophoric" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">EGO</abbr></p></div><p style="display: none;">ŋà lèn-<b>diraŋ</b> mà-tè yè</p><p style="display: none;">1SG sing-<b>IPFV</b> NEG.PST-AUX AUX.EGO</p><p style="clear: left;">'I was not singing.' (Gawne 2016: 111)</p><div style="clear: left; display: block;"></div> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Perfective">Perfective</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Yolmo_language&action=edit&section=48" title="Edit section: Perfective"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The <a href="/wiki/Perfective_aspect" title="Perfective aspect">perfective aspect</a> suffix is used for events that can be described as whole, without reference to the duration like the imperfective. The perfective form in Yolmo is <i>-ti.</i> </p> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1209690778"><div class="interlinear" style="margin-left:3em"><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">mèŋgaŋ-la-ni</p><p style="margin: 0px;">cooking.shed-<abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="locative case" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">LOC</abbr>-<abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="focus" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">FOC</abbr></p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">thóola</p><p style="margin: 0px;">above</p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">tɕhám</p><p style="margin: 0px;">board</p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">tɕhímbu</p><p style="margin: 0px;">large</p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">káp-<b>ti</b></p><p style="margin: 0px;">cover-<b><abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="perfective aspect" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">PFV</abbr></b></p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">yè</p><p style="margin: 0px;"><abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="auxiliary verb" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">AUX</abbr>.<abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="egophoric" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">EGO</abbr></p></div><p style="display: none;">mèŋgaŋ-la-ni thóola tɕhám tɕhímbu káp-<b>ti</b> yè</p><p style="display: none;">cooking.shed-LOC-FOC above board large cover-<b>PFV</b> AUX.EGO</p><p style="clear: left;">'The cooking shed was covered with large boards.' (Hari & Lama 2004: 270)</p><div style="clear: left; display: block;"></div> </div> <p>Multiple verbs with perfective aspect can be used together to create a <a class="mw-selflink-fragment" href="#Clause_chaining">clause chaining</a> structure. It is distinct from the <a class="mw-selflink-fragment" href="#Focus_marker">nominal focus suffix</a> <i>-ti.</i> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Habitual">Habitual</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Yolmo_language&action=edit&section=49" title="Edit section: Habitual"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Habitual_aspect" title="Habitual aspect">Habitual aspect</a> marks that an event is usual, customary or frequent. There is no specific habitual aspect suffix for Yolmo. Speakers will either use a verb with an infinitive, or with no suffix. </p> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1209690778"><div class="interlinear" style="margin-left:3em"><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">ŋà</p><p style="margin: 0px;"><abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="first person, singular" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">1SG</abbr></p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">ɲìma</p><p style="margin: 0px;">day</p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">ʈàŋmaraŋ</p><p style="margin: 0px;">every</p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">khúra</p><p style="margin: 0px;">bread</p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">sà</p><p style="margin: 0px;">eat</p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">yè</p><p style="margin: 0px;"><abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="auxiliary verb" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">AUX</abbr>.<abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="egophoric" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">EGO</abbr></p></div><p style="display: none;">ŋà ɲìma ʈàŋmaraŋ khúra sà yè</p><p style="display: none;">1SG day every bread eat AUX.EGO</p><p style="clear: left;">'I eat bread every day.' (Gawne 2016: 112)</p><div style="clear: left; display: block;"></div> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Mood">Mood</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Yolmo_language&action=edit&section=50" title="Edit section: Mood"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Mood is marked in Yolmo with a set of verb suffixes. The main mood suffixes are given in the table below </p> <dl><dd><table class="wikitable"> <tbody><tr> <th>Particle </th> <th>Function </th></tr> <tr> <td>-<i>toŋ</i> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Imperative_mood" title="Imperative mood">Imperative</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td><i>-ka </i>or <i>-tɕo/tɕu</i> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Hortative" title="Hortative">Hortative</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td><i>-ɲi</i> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Optative_mood" title="Optative mood">Optative</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td><i>-ʈo</i> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Dubitative_mood" title="Dubitative mood">Dubitative</a> </td></tr></tbody></table></dd></dl> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Imperative">Imperative</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Yolmo_language&action=edit&section=51" title="Edit section: Imperative"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The polite imperative suffix is -<i>toŋ</i> (voiced as <i>-doŋ</i> after voiced codas and some vowels). An overt subject is not used, and the same imperative form is used regardless of person or number: </p> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1209690778"><div class="interlinear" style="margin-left:3em"><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">mée-<b>doŋ</b>!</p><p style="margin: 0px;">speak-<b><abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="imperative mood" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">IMP</abbr></b></p></div><p style="display: none;">mée-<b>doŋ</b>!</p><p style="display: none;">speak-<b>IMP</b></p><p style="clear: left;">'Speak!' (Hari 2010: 46)</p><div style="clear: left; display: block;"></div> </div> <p>The less polite form of the imperative consists of an unmarked verb stem: </p> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1209690778"><div class="interlinear" style="margin-left:3em"><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">mée!</p><p style="margin: 0px;">speak.<abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="imperative mood" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">IMP</abbr></p></div><p style="display: none;">mée!</p><p style="display: none;">speak.IMP</p><p style="clear: left;">'Speak!' (Hari 2010: 46)</p><div style="clear: left; display: block;"></div> </div> <p>There are also a small number of irregular imperatives that are formed without the imperative suffix, particularly <i>sò</i> 'eat!', from <i>sà</i>- 'eat'. </p><p>If there is an honorific form of the verb it can be used, unmarked, as the most polite form of the imperative: </p> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1209690778"><div class="interlinear" style="margin-left:3em"><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">ɕè</p><p style="margin: 0px;">eat.<abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="honorific" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">HON</abbr></p></div><p style="display: none;">ɕè</p><p style="display: none;">eat.HON</p><p style="clear: left;">'Please eat' (Hari 2010: 113)</p><div style="clear: left; display: block;"></div> </div> <p>The negative form of the imperative (the <a href="/wiki/Prohibitive" class="mw-redirect" title="Prohibitive">prohibitive</a>) uses the <i>mà-</i> form of the <a class="mw-selflink-fragment" href="#Negation">negator prefix</a> with the verb stem. The imperative suffix is not included. </p> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1209690778"><div class="interlinear" style="margin-left:3em"><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;"><b>mà</b>-má!</p><p style="margin: 0px;"><b><abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="negation/negative" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">NEG</abbr></b>-speak</p></div><p style="display: none;"><b>mà</b>-má!</p><p style="display: none;"><b>NEG</b>-speak</p><p style="clear: left;">'Don't speak!' (Hari 2010: 46)</p><div style="clear: left; display: block;"></div> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Hortative">Hortative</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Yolmo_language&action=edit&section=52" title="Edit section: Hortative"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Gawne notes two verbal suffix forms for the hortative in Lamjung Yolmo, a <i>-ka</i> and a <i>-tɕo.</i> </p><p>The <i>-ka</i> form is used with all persons except first person singular. </p> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1209690778"><div class="interlinear" style="margin-left:3em"><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">òraŋ</p><p style="margin: 0px;"><abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="first person, plural" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">1PL</abbr>.<abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="inclusive person" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">INCL</abbr></p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">sà-<b>ka</b></p><p style="margin: 0px;">eat-<b><abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="hortative" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">HORT</abbr></b></p></div><p style="display: none;">òraŋ sà-<b>ka</b></p><p style="display: none;">1PL.INCL eat-<b>HORT</b></p><p style="clear: left;">‘Let's eat!’ (Gawne 2016: 114)</p><div style="clear: left; display: block;"></div> </div> <p>The suffix remains in negated horatitves: </p> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1209690778"><div class="interlinear" style="margin-left:3em"><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">ɲì</p><p style="margin: 0px;"><abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="first person, plural" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">1PL</abbr>.<abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="exclusive person" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">EXCL</abbr></p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;"><b>mà</b>-tɕhám-<b>ka</b></p><p style="margin: 0px;"><b><abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="negation/negative" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">NEG</abbr></b>-dance-<b><abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="hortative" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">HORT</abbr></b></p></div><p style="display: none;">ɲì <b>mà</b>-tɕhám-<b>ka</b></p><p style="display: none;">1PL.EXCL <b>NEG</b>-dance-<b>HORT</b></p><p style="clear: left;">‘Let's not dance!’ (Gawne 2016: 114)</p><div style="clear: left; display: block;"></div> </div> <p>The <i>-tɕo</i> form is used with first person singular, as well as with other persons. It also remains in negative constructions. </p> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1209690778"><div class="interlinear" style="margin-left:3em"><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">ŋà</p><p style="margin: 0px;"><abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="first person, plural" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">1PL</abbr>.<abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="exclusive person" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">EXCL</abbr></p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">khím=ki</p><p style="margin: 0px;">house=<abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="genitive case" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">GEN</abbr></p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">lè</p><p style="margin: 0px;">work</p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">pè-<b>tɕo</b></p><p style="margin: 0px;">do-<b><abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="hortative" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">HORT</abbr></b></p></div><p style="display: none;">ŋà khím=ki lè pè-<b>tɕo</b></p><p style="display: none;">1PL.EXCL house=GEN work do-<b>HORT</b></p><p style="clear: left;">‘Let me do the house work!’ (Gawne 2016: 114)</p><div style="clear: left; display: block;"></div> </div> <p><i>-tɕo</i> appears to be less strong, and tends to be used more frequently. Hari gives the form as <i>-tɕo</i> (she also calls it an optative, but it appears to be a hortative) </p> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1209690778"><div class="interlinear" style="margin-left:3em"><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">tìriŋ</p><p style="margin: 0px;">today</p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">khó</p><p style="margin: 0px;"><abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="third person, singular" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">3SG</abbr>.<abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="masculine gender" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">M</abbr></p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">dèla-raŋ</p><p style="margin: 0px;">here-<abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="emphatic" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">EMPH</abbr></p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">tè-<b>tɕo</b></p><p style="margin: 0px;">sit-<b><abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="hortative" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">HORT</abbr></b></p></div><p style="display: none;">tìriŋ khó dèla-raŋ tè-<b>tɕo</b></p><p style="display: none;">today 3SG.M here-EMPH sit-<b>HORT</b></p><p style="clear: left;">‘Let him stay here today.’ (Hari & Lama 2004: 174)</p><div style="clear: left; display: block;"></div> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Optative">Optative</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Yolmo_language&action=edit&section=53" title="Edit section: Optative"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Hari does not list an <a href="/wiki/Optative_mood" title="Optative mood">optative</a> suffix.<sup id="cite_ref-:15_4-19" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:15-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Gawne gives the optative -<i>ɲi</i> in Lamjung Yolmo.<sup id="cite_ref-:5_19-13" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:5-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1209690778"><div class="interlinear" style="margin-left:3em"><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">ŋà</p><p style="margin: 0px;"><abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="first person, singular" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">1SG</abbr></p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">ɲàl-<b>ɲi</b></p><p style="margin: 0px;">sleep=<b><abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="optative mood" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">OPT</abbr></b></p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">tè-ku</p><p style="margin: 0px;"><abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="auxiliary verb" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">AUX</abbr>-<abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="imperfective aspect" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">IPFV</abbr></p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">dù</p><p style="margin: 0px;"><abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="auxiliary verb" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">AUX</abbr>.<abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="perceptual" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">PE</abbr></p></div><p style="display: none;">ŋà ɲàl-<b>ɲi</b> tè-ku dù</p><p style="display: none;">1SG sleep=<b>OPT</b> AUX-IPFV AUX.PE</p><p style="clear: left;">‘I want to sleep.’ (Gawne 2016: 115)</p><div style="clear: left; display: block;"></div> </div> <p>Hari & Lama (2004: 146) list <i>ɲi-</i> as a verb that expresses a 'strong wish’, clearly linking to the Lamjung Yolmo optative form. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Dubitative_2">Dubitative</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Yolmo_language&action=edit&section=54" title="Edit section: Dubitative"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Hari describes the <a href="/wiki/Dubitative_mood" title="Dubitative mood">dubitative</a> as 'probable future',<sup id="cite_ref-:15_4-20" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:15-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> indicating the sense of decreased certainty that the dubitative mood marks. The forms <i>-ʈo, -ɖo</i> and <i>-ro</i> are found in Melamchi Valley Yolmo as part of the <a class="mw-selflink-fragment" href="#Morphophonemic_processes">morphophonemic voicing process</a>, but the <i>-ro</i> form is not found in Lamjung Yolmo.<sup id="cite_ref-:5_19-14" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:5-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1209690778"><div class="interlinear" style="margin-left:3em"><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">khúŋ-gi</p><p style="margin: 0px;"><abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="third person, plural" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">3PL</abbr>-<abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="ergative case" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">ERG</abbr></p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">sèn</p><p style="margin: 0px;">corn.mash</p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">sà-<b>ro</b></p><p style="margin: 0px;">eat-<b><abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="dubitative mood" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">DUB</abbr></b></p></div><p style="display: none;">khúŋ-gi sèn sà-<b>ro</b></p><p style="display: none;">3PL-ERG corn.mash eat-<b>DUB</b></p><p style="clear: left;">'they will probably eat corn mash’ (Hari & Lama 2004: 237)</p><div style="clear: left; display: block;"></div> </div> <p>This verb suffix is related to the dubitative form of the copula. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Negation">Negation</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Yolmo_language&action=edit&section=55" title="Edit section: Negation"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Negation is marked on lexical verbs by <a href="/wiki/Prefix" title="Prefix">prefix</a>. There are two prefix forms, <i>mè-</i> is for negation in <a href="/wiki/Nonpast_tense" title="Nonpast tense">non-past tense</a> (present and future), while <i>mà</i>- is used for past tense, as well as negation of imperatives (<i>mà-tàp!</i> 'don't fall'!). </p> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1209690778"><div class="interlinear" style="margin-left:3em"><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">ŋà</p><p style="margin: 0px;"><abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="first person, singular">1sg</abbr></p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;"><b>mè</b>-tàp</p><p style="margin: 0px;"><b><abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="negation/negative" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">NEG</abbr>.<abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="non-past tense" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">NPST</abbr></b>-fill</p></div><p style="display: none;">ŋà <b>mè</b>-tàp</p><p style="display: none;">1sg <b>NEG.NPST</b>-fill</p><p style="clear: left;">'I do not/will not fall.' (Hari 2010: 132)</p><div style="clear: left; display: block;"></div> </div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1209690778"><div class="interlinear" style="margin-left:3em"><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">ŋà</p><p style="margin: 0px;"><abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="first person, singular">1sg</abbr></p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;"><b>mà</b>-tàp</p><p style="margin: 0px;"><b><abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="negation/negative" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">NEG</abbr>.<abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="past tense" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">PST</abbr></b>-fill</p></div><p style="display: none;">ŋà <b>mà</b>-tàp</p><p style="display: none;">1sg <b>NEG.PST</b>-fill</p><p style="clear: left;">'I did not fall.' (Hari 2010: 132)</p><div style="clear: left; display: block;"></div> </div> <p>The negated forms of copulas are slightly irregular. They are listed in the table below in brackets underneath the regular forms: </p> <dl><dd><table class="wikitable"> <tbody><tr> <th> </th> <th>Egophoric </th> <th>Dubitative </th> <th>Perceptual </th> <th>General Fact </th></tr> <tr> <th>Equation </th> <td><i>yìn/yìngen/yìmba</i> <p><i>(mìn/mìngen/mìmba)</i> </p> </td> <td><i>yìnɖo</i> <p><i>(mìnɖo)</i> </p> </td> <td> </td> <td> </td></tr> <tr> <th>Existential </th> <td><i>yè/yèba</i> <p><i>(mè/mèba)</i> </p><p><i>yèken/yèba</i> (past tense) </p><p><i>(mèke/méba)</i> (past tense) </p> </td> <td><i>yèʈo</i> <p><i>(mèʈo)</i> </p> </td> <td><i>dù</i> <p><i>(mìndu)</i> </p><p><i>dùba</i> </p><p><i>(mìnduba)</i> </p> </td> <td><i>òŋge</i> <p><i>(mèoŋge)</i> </p> </td></tr></tbody></table></dd></dl> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Verb_paradigm">Verb paradigm</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Yolmo_language&action=edit&section=56" title="Edit section: Verb paradigm"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Below are verb paradigms for two verbs, the first is the intransitive verb <i>ŋù</i> 'cry' and the second is the transitive verb <i>sà</i> 'eat'. Both are given mostly with third person subject, although this is not particularly important as subject person does not affect the form of the verb. For both verbs you can see the change in verb stem. For dialect specific variation, click on the link back to each specific form. </p> <table class="wikitable"> <caption> </caption> <tbody><tr> <th>Form </th> <th>Syuba </th> <th>English </th> <th> </th> <th>Syuba </th> <th>English </th></tr> <tr> <td><a class="mw-selflink-fragment" href="#Verbs">Infinitive</a> </td> <td><i>ŋù-dʑe</i> </td> <td>'to cry' </td> <td> </td> <td><i>sà-tɕe</i> </td> <td>'to eat' </td></tr> <tr> <td><a class="mw-selflink-fragment" href="#Tense">Simple non-past</a> </td> <td><i>khó ŋù-en</i> </td> <td>'he cries' </td> <td> </td> <td><i>khói tó sà-en</i> </td> <td>'he eats rice' </td></tr> <tr> <td><a class="mw-selflink-fragment" href="#Tense">Simple past</a> </td> <td><i>khó ŋù-sin</i> </td> <td>'he cried' </td> <td> </td> <td><i>khói tó sà-sin</i> </td> <td>'he ate rice' </td></tr> <tr> <td><a class="mw-selflink-fragment" href="#Tense">'Telling' past</a> </td> <td><i>khó ŋù-gyo</i> </td> <td>'he cried' </td> <td> </td> <td><i>khói tó sà-gyo</i> </td> <td>'he ate rice' </td></tr> <tr> <td><a class="mw-selflink-fragment" href="#Tense">Past/question form</a> </td> <td><i>khó ŋìi-ba</i> </td> <td>'did he cry?'/'he cried' </td> <td> </td> <td><i>khói tó sèe-ba</i> </td> <td>'did he eat rice?'/'he ate rice' </td></tr> <tr> <td><a class="mw-selflink-fragment" href="#Aspect">Imperfective</a> </td> <td><i>khó ŋù-gu dù</i> </td> <td>'he is crying' </td> <td> </td> <td><i>khói tó sà-gu dù</i> </td> <td>'he is eating rice </td></tr> <tr> <td><a class="mw-selflink-fragment" href="#Aspect">Imperfective</a> </td> <td><i>khó ŋìi-deraŋ yè</i> </td> <td>'he is crying' </td> <td> </td> <td><i>khói tó sèe-deraŋ yè</i> </td> <td>'he is eating rice </td></tr> <tr> <td><a class="mw-selflink-fragment" href="#Auxiliary_verbs">Imperfective (Aux)</a> </td> <td>khó ŋìi tè-ku dù </td> <td>'he is crying' </td> <td> </td> <td>khói tó sèe tè-ku dù </td> <td>'he is eating rice </td></tr> <tr> <td><a class="mw-selflink-fragment" href="#Aspect">Perfective</a> </td> <td><i>khó ŋìi-deraŋ yè</i> </td> <td>'he has cried' </td> <td> </td> <td><i>khói tó sèe-di yè</i> </td> <td>'he has eaten rice' </td></tr> <tr> <td><a class="mw-selflink-fragment" href="#Aspect">Habitual</a> </td> <td><i>khó ŋù yè</i> </td> <td>'he cries (every day)' </td> <td> </td> <td><i>khói tó sà yè</i> </td> <td>'he eats rice (every day)' </td></tr> <tr> <td><a class="mw-selflink-fragment" href="#Mood">Imperative</a> </td> <td><i>ŋíi</i> </td> <td>'cry!' </td> <td> </td> <td><i>tó sò</i> </td> <td>'eat the rice!' </td></tr> <tr> <td><a class="mw-selflink-fragment" href="#Mood">Hortative</a> </td> <td><i>ŋù-ka / ŋù-tɕo</i> </td> <td>'let's cry!' </td> <td> </td> <td><i>sà-ka / sà-tɕo</i> </td> <td>'let's eat!' </td></tr> <tr> <td><a class="mw-selflink-fragment" href="#Mood">Optative</a> </td> <td><i>ŋù-ɲi</i> </td> <td>'I want to cry' </td> <td> </td> <td><i>sa-ɲi</i> </td> <td>'I want to eat' </td></tr> <tr> <td><a class="mw-selflink-fragment" href="#Mood">Dubitative</a> </td> <td><i>khó ŋù-ʈo</i> </td> <td>'he is probably crying' </td> <td> </td> <td><i>khói tó sà-ro</i> </td> <td>'he is probably eating rice' </td></tr> <tr> <td><a class="mw-selflink-fragment" href="#Negation">Negative, non-past</a> </td> <td><i>khó mà-ŋì</i> </td> <td>'he is not crying' </td> <td> </td> <td><i>khói tó mè-sà</i> </td> <td>'he is not eating rice' </td></tr> <tr> <td><a class="mw-selflink-fragment" href="#Negation">Negative, past</a> </td> <td><i>khó mà-ŋì</i> </td> <td>'he did not cry' </td> <td> </td> <td><i>khói tó mà-sèe</i> </td> <td>'he did not eat rice' </td></tr></tbody></table> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Clause_structure">Clause structure</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Yolmo_language&action=edit&section=57" title="Edit section: Clause structure"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>This section outlines some of the main features of the structure of <a href="/wiki/Sentence_clause_structure" title="Sentence clause structure">clauses</a> in Yolmo. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Nominalisation">Nominalisation</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Yolmo_language&action=edit&section=58" title="Edit section: Nominalisation"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Nominalization" title="Nominalization">Nominalisation</a> is the process by which words undergo a change that allows them to act as nouns. While nominalisation is common process, it is particularly pervasive in <a href="/wiki/Bodic_languages" class="mw-redirect" title="Bodic languages">Bodic languages</a>, where it can be used for a variety of functions, including the formation of <a href="/wiki/Complement_clause" class="mw-redirect" title="Complement clause">complement clauses</a> and <a href="/wiki/Relative_clause" title="Relative clause">relative clauses</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-47" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-47"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>47<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The common Bodic nominaliser <i>-pa <sup id="cite_ref-48" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-48"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>48<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></i> productively functions in Yolmo as a suffix that can mark <a class="mw-selflink-fragment" href="#Past_Tense">past tense</a>, <a class="mw-selflink-fragment" href="#Question_formation">question structures</a> or <a class="mw-selflink-fragment" href="#Copula_verbs">emphasis</a>. There are other nominalising forms in Yolmo. </p><p>Hari describes a number of nominalisers in Melamchi Valley Yolmo. The first is the nominalising suffix <i>-ka</i>: </p> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1209690778"><div class="interlinear" style="margin-left:3em"><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">dì</p><p style="margin: 0px;">this</p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">saudʑi</p><p style="margin: 0px;">shopkeeper</p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">kár-<b>ka</b></p><p style="margin: 0px;">weight-<b><abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="nominalizer/nominalization" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">NMLZ</abbr></b></p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">yàabu</p><p style="margin: 0px;">good</p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">tér-ku</p><p style="margin: 0px;">give-<abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="imperfective aspect" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">IPFV</abbr></p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">dù</p><p style="margin: 0px;"><abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="auxiliary verb" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">AUX</abbr>.<abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="perceptual" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">PE</abbr></p></div><p style="display: none;">dì saudʑi kár-<b>ka</b> yàabu tér-ku dù</p><p style="display: none;">this shopkeeper weight-<b>NMLZ</b> good give-IPFV AUX.PE</p><p style="clear: left;">‘This shop keeper gives good weight.’ (Hari 2010: 30)</p><div style="clear: left; display: block;"></div> </div> <p>A number of other nominalising suffixes that attach to verbs have more specific functions: </p> <dl><dd><table class="wikitable"> <tbody><tr> <th>Suffix </th> <th>Function </th></tr> <tr> <td><i>-naŋ</i> </td> <td>appearance of state or action </td></tr> <tr> <td><i>-taŋ</i> </td> <td>displaying a forceful show </td></tr> <tr> <td><i>-luŋ</i> </td> <td>have time for an activity </td></tr> <tr> <td><i>-lu</i> </td> <td>way of doing something </td></tr></tbody></table></dd></dl> <p>In Lamjung Yolmo the most productive nominaliser is <i>-kandi</i>.<sup id="cite_ref-:5_19-15" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:5-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> None of the others described above have been attested. This form is not attested in Hari's description of Melamchi Valley Yolmo, but is probably related to the <i>-ka</i> form described above. </p> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1209690778"><div class="interlinear" style="margin-left:3em"><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">ŋà=ki</p><p style="margin: 0px;"><abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="first person, singular" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">1SG</abbr>=<abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="ergative case" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">ERG</abbr></p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">ʈìlbu</p><p style="margin: 0px;">bell</p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">yúŋ-<b>kandi</b></p><p style="margin: 0px;">ring-<b><abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="nominalizer/nominalization" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">NMLZ</abbr></b></p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">thé-ku</p><p style="margin: 0px;">hear-<abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="imperfective aspect" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">IPFV</abbr></p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">dù</p><p style="margin: 0px;"><abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="auxiliary verb" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">AUX</abbr>.<abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="perceptual" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">PE</abbr></p></div><p style="display: none;">ŋà=ki ʈìlbu yúŋ-<b>kandi</b> thé-ku dù</p><p style="display: none;">1SG=ERG bell ring-<b>NMLZ</b> hear-IPFV AUX.PE</p><p style="clear: left;">‘I hear the ringing of bells.’ (Gawne 2016: 132)</p><div style="clear: left; display: block;"></div> </div> <p>There is also a locative nominaliser <i>-sa</i>, which creates a noun that denotes location: </p> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1209690778"><div class="interlinear" style="margin-left:3em"><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">ŋà</p><p style="margin: 0px;"><abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="first person, singular" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">1SG</abbr></p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">dzàra</p><p style="margin: 0px;">snack</p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">sà-<b>sa</b>=la</p><p style="margin: 0px;">eat-<b><abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="nominalizer/nominalization" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">NMLZ</abbr>.<abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="locative case" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">LOC</abbr></b>=<abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="locative case" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">LOC</abbr></p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">ɖò-en</p><p style="margin: 0px;">go-<abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="non-past tense" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">NPST</abbr></p></div><p style="display: none;">ŋà dzàra sà-<b>sa</b>=la ɖò-en</p><p style="display: none;">1SG snack eat-<b>NMLZ.LOC</b>=LOC go-NPST</p><p style="clear: left;">‘I want to go to the snack place.’ (Hari 2010: 33)</p><div style="clear: left; display: block;"></div> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Adverbials">Adverbials</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Yolmo_language&action=edit&section=59" title="Edit section: Adverbials"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>An <a href="/wiki/Adverbial" title="Adverbial">adverbial structure</a> modifies the verb in some way. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Temporal_adverbial_subordination">Temporal adverbial subordination</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Yolmo_language&action=edit&section=60" title="Edit section: Temporal adverbial subordination"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Temporal adverbs can create subordinated clauses. </p> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1209690778"><div class="interlinear" style="margin-left:3em"><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">sà-kandi</p><p style="margin: 0px;">eat-<abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="nominalizer/nominalization" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">NMLZ</abbr></p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;"><b>tòŋla</b></p><p style="margin: 0px;"><b>before</b></p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">ŋà</p><p style="margin: 0px;"><abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="first person, singular" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">1SG</abbr></p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">làkpa</p><p style="margin: 0px;">hand</p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">ʈhú-ke</p><p style="margin: 0px;">wash-<abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="non-past tense" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">NPST</abbr></p></div><p style="display: none;">sà-kandi <b>tòŋla</b> ŋà làkpa ʈhú-ke</p><p style="display: none;">eat-NMLZ <b>before</b> 1SG hand wash-NPST</p><p style="clear: left;">‘I wash my hands before eating.’ (Gawne 2016: 130)</p><div style="clear: left; display: block;"></div> </div> <p>Below is the list of temporal adverbs observed in Yolmo to date, some are independent words, and others are verbal suffixes: </p> <dl><dd><table class="wikitable"> <tbody><tr> <th>Adverb </th> <th>Translation </th> <th>Additional information </th></tr> <tr> <td><i>nàm</i> </td> <td>'when' </td> <td> </td></tr> <tr> <td><i>gàrila</i> </td> <td>'at the time' </td> <td>Nepali loanword </td></tr> <tr> <td><i>bèlala</i> </td> <td>'at the time' </td> <td>Nepali loanword </td></tr> <tr> <td>-<i>kamu</i> </td> <td>'at the time' </td> <td>only attested in Lamjung Yolmo </td></tr> <tr> <td><i>tòŋla</i> </td> <td>'before' </td> <td> </td></tr> <tr> <td><i>tíŋla</i> </td> <td>'after' </td> <td> </td></tr> <tr> <td><i>-tile</i> </td> <td>'after' </td> <td> </td></tr> <tr> <td><i>-timaraŋ</i> </td> <td>'after' </td> <td> </td></tr> <tr> <td><i>yìndʑu</i> </td> <td>'since' </td> <td>only attested in Melamchi Valley Yolmo </td></tr></tbody></table></dd></dl> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Manner_adverbs">Manner adverbs</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Yolmo_language&action=edit&section=61" title="Edit section: Manner adverbs"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Manner adverbs create a subordinated clause that expresses the manner of an action. The manner adverb is <i>lèemu</i> (<i>lìmu</i> in Lamjung). </p> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1209690778"><div class="interlinear" style="margin-left:3em"><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">khúŋ</p><p style="margin: 0px;"><abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="third person, plural" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">3PL</abbr></p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">tábu</p><p style="margin: 0px;">house</p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;"><b>límu</b></p><p style="margin: 0px;"><b>like</b></p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">gyùbu</p><p style="margin: 0px;">fast</p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">tɕóŋ-ku</p><p style="margin: 0px;">run-<abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="nominalizer/nominalization" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">NMLZ</abbr></p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">dù</p><p style="margin: 0px;"><abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="auxiliary verb" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">AUX</abbr>.<abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="perceptual" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">PE</abbr></p></div><p style="display: none;">khúŋ tábu <b>límu</b> gyùbu tɕóŋ-ku dù</p><p style="display: none;">3PL house <b>like</b> fast run-NMLZ AUX.PE</p><p style="clear: left;">‘He runs fast like a horse.’ (Gawne 2016: 129)</p><div style="clear: left; display: block;"></div> </div> <p>The forms <i>tíle</i> and <i>dènmu</i> are also found in Lamjung Yolmo,<sup id="cite_ref-:5_19-16" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:5-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> but not yet attested in other varieties. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Conditional">Conditional</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Yolmo_language&action=edit&section=62" title="Edit section: Conditional"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Conditional_sentence" title="Conditional sentence">Conditional constructions</a> are formed through the use of the suffix <i>-na</i> on the verb in the <a href="/wiki/Protasis_(linguistics)" class="mw-redirect" title="Protasis (linguistics)">protasis</a> clause (the 'if' clause). Speakers will either use the <i>-na</i> suffix directly on the verb, or leave the verb unmarked at attach the <i>-na</i> suffix to the verb meaning ‘say’ (<i>mée</i> in Melamchi Valley Yolmo, <i>làp</i> in Lamjung Yolmo). </p> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1209690778"><div class="interlinear" style="margin-left:3em"><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">nám</p><p style="margin: 0px;">rain</p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">mà-kyàp</p><p style="margin: 0px;"><abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="negation/negative" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">NEG</abbr>.<abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="past tense" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">PST</abbr>-fall</p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">làp-<b>na</b></p><p style="margin: 0px;">say-<b><abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="conditional mood" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">COND</abbr></b></p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">ŋà</p><p style="margin: 0px;"><abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="first person, singular" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">1SG</abbr></p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">phíla</p><p style="margin: 0px;">outside</p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">ɖò-ke</p><p style="margin: 0px;">go-<abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="non-past tense" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">NPST</abbr></p></div><p style="display: none;">nám mà-kyàp làp-<b>na</b> ŋà phíla ɖò-ke</p><p style="display: none;">rain NEG.PST-fall say-<b>COND</b> 1SG outside go-NPST</p><p style="clear: left;">‘If it doesn't rain I will go outside.’ (Gawne 2016: 130)</p><div style="clear: left; display: block;"></div> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Complementation">Complementation</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Yolmo_language&action=edit&section=63" title="Edit section: Complementation"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>A <a href="/wiki/Complement_clause" class="mw-redirect" title="Complement clause">complement clause</a> is a clause that functions as an argument of another clause. In Yolmo the embedded complement clause takes the infinitive suffix <i>-tɕe</i>. </p> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1209690778"><div class="interlinear" style="margin-left:3em"><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">ɲì=la</p><p style="margin: 0px;"><abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="first person, plural" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">1PL</abbr>.<abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="exclusive person" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">EXCL</abbr>=<abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="dative case" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">DAT</abbr></p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">yìgi</p><p style="margin: 0px;">letter</p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">prù-<b>tɕe</b></p><p style="margin: 0px;">write-<b><abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="infinitive" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">INF</abbr></b></p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">ʈèmba sàl-toŋ</p><p style="margin: 0px;">remember-<abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="imperative mood" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">IMP</abbr></p></div><p style="display: none;">ɲì=la yìgi prù-<b>tɕe</b> {ʈèmba sàl-toŋ}</p><p style="display: none;">1PL.EXCL=DAT letter write-<b>INF</b> remember-IMP</p><p style="clear: left;">‘Remember to write us a letter!’ (Gawne 2016: 134)</p><div style="clear: left; display: block;"></div> </div> <p>The <a class="mw-selflink-fragment" href="#Optative">optative mood suffix <i>-ɲi</i></a> in Yolmo can also be said to be acting as a complementiser. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Relativisation">Relativisation</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Yolmo_language&action=edit&section=64" title="Edit section: Relativisation"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>A <a href="/wiki/Relative_clause" title="Relative clause">relative clause</a> is depended on a main clause. Different relativising strategies are used in the two described varieties of Yolmo. In Melamchi Valley Yolmo the non-past tense form <i>-ken(-gi)</i> is used for non-past constructions, and the past tense form <i>-kyo(-gi)</i> is used for past tense constructions (for each the <i>-gi</i> is optional). Similarly, in Lamjung Yolmo, <i>-ke-ki</i> can be used for non-past relativised clauses and -<i>pa-ki f</i>or past relativised clauses. This difference reflects the fact that the past tense form <a class="mw-selflink-fragment" href="#Past_Tense">-<i>kyo</i> is not found</a> in Lamjung Yolmo. </p> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1209690778"><div class="interlinear" style="margin-left:3em"><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">òze</p><p style="margin: 0px;">that</p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">bèle</p><p style="margin: 0px;">time</p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">aʑi=gi</p><p style="margin: 0px;">sister=<abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="genitive case" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">GEN</abbr></p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">gòo</p><p style="margin: 0px;">head</p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">thóo=la</p><p style="margin: 0px;">above=<abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="locative case" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">LOC</abbr></p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">tɕáŋ-<b>gyo-gi</b></p><p style="margin: 0px;">hang-<b><abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="relative(izer)" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">REL</abbr></b></p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">làawor</p><p style="margin: 0px;">mill.stone</p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">phók</p><p style="margin: 0px;"><abbr class="gloss-abbr gloss-abbr-ambiguous" title="intensifier" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">INT</abbr></p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">táŋ-sin</p><p style="margin: 0px;">send-<abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="past tense" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">PST</abbr></p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">dù</p><p style="margin: 0px;"><abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="auxiliary verb" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">AUX</abbr>.<abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="perceptual" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">PE</abbr></p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">ló</p><p style="margin: 0px;"><abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="reported speech marker" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">RS</abbr></p></div><p style="display: none;">òze bèle aʑi=gi gòo thóo=la tɕáŋ-<b>gyo-gi</b> làawor phók táŋ-sin dù ló</p><p style="display: none;">that time sister=GEN head above=LOC hang-<b>REL</b> mill.stone INT send-PST AUX.PE RS</p><p style="clear: left;">'At that moment (the monster) swiftly loosened the mill stone which was hanging just above the head of the elder sister.' (Hari 2010: 76)</p><div style="clear: left; display: block;"></div> </div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1209690778"><div class="interlinear" style="margin-left:3em"><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">khyá=ki</p><p style="margin: 0px;"><abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="second person, plural" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">2PL</abbr>=<abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="genitive case" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">GEN</abbr></p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">prù-prù-<b>pa-ki</b></p><p style="margin: 0px;">write-write-<b><abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="relative(izer)" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">REL</abbr></b></p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">yìgi</p><p style="margin: 0px;">letter</p></div><p style="display: none;">khyá=ki prù-prù-<b>pa-ki</b> yìgi</p><p style="display: none;">2PL=GEN write-write-<b>REL</b> letter</p><p style="clear: left;">'The letter that you wrote.' (Gawne 2016: 134)</p><div style="clear: left; display: block;"></div> </div> <p>In Lamjung Yolmo, the nominaliser <i>-kandi</i> can be used to make a relative clause: </p> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1209690778"><div class="interlinear" style="margin-left:3em"><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">khím</p><p style="margin: 0px;">house</p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">sáŋma</p><p style="margin: 0px;">clean</p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">pè-<b>kandi</b></p><p style="margin: 0px;">do=<b><abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="nominalizer/nominalization" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">NMLZ</abbr></b></p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">mì</p><p style="margin: 0px;">person</p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">nà-sin</p><p style="margin: 0px;">ill-<abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="past tense" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">PST</abbr></p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">dù</p><p style="margin: 0px;"><abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="auxiliary verb" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">AUX</abbr>.<abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="perceptual" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">PE</abbr></p></div><p style="display: none;">khím sáŋma pè-<b>kandi</b> mì nà-sin dù</p><p style="display: none;">house clean do=<b>NMLZ</b> person ill-PST AUX.PE</p><p style="clear: left;">'The person who cleans the house is ill.' (Gawne 2016: 135)</p><div style="clear: left; display: block;"></div> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Clause_chaining">Clause chaining</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Yolmo_language&action=edit&section=65" title="Edit section: Clause chaining"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The <a class="mw-selflink-fragment" href="#Perfective">perfective suffix <i>-ti</i></a> is used to chain clauses together. Multiple verbs with this suffix can be stacked to create a complex series of events. </p> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1209690778"><div class="interlinear" style="margin-left:3em"><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">tɕádzuŋma</p><p style="margin: 0px;">bird</p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">tɕíi</p><p style="margin: 0px;">one</p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">òŋ-<b>ti</b></p><p style="margin: 0px;">come-<b><abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="perfective aspect" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">PFV</abbr></b></p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">ʈúu-<b>ti</b></p><p style="margin: 0px;">pick.up-<b><abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="perfective aspect" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">PFV</abbr></b></p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">khér-sin</p><p style="margin: 0px;">carry.away-<abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="past tense" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">PST</abbr></p></div><p style="display: none;">tɕádzuŋma tɕíi òŋ-<b>ti</b> ʈúu-<b>ti</b> khér-sin</p><p style="display: none;">bird one come-<b>PFV</b> pick.up-<b>PFV</b> carry.away-PST</p><p style="clear: left;">'A bird came, picked up (a fish) and took (it) away.' (Gawne 2016: 136)</p><div style="clear: left; display: block;"></div> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Question_formation">Question formation</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Yolmo_language&action=edit&section=66" title="Edit section: Question formation"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Word order does not change to form questions in Yolmo. Rising intonation at the end of the utterance can indicate it is a question. <a class="mw-selflink-fragment" href="#Interrogative_pronouns">A set of interrogative pronouns</a> are used for open content questions. </p><p>The <i>-pa</i> suffix, which was introduced in the section on <a class="mw-selflink-fragment" href="#Past_Tense">past tense</a> is used in question structures. </p> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1209690778"><div class="interlinear" style="margin-left:3em"><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">khé</p><p style="margin: 0px;"><abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="second person, singular" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">2SG</abbr></p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">tó</p><p style="margin: 0px;">rice.cooked</p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">sà-<b>pa</b></p><p style="margin: 0px;">eat-<b><abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="question word" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">Q</abbr></b></p></div><p style="display: none;">khé tó sà-<b>pa</b></p><p style="display: none;">2SG rice.cooked eat-<b>Q</b></p><p style="clear: left;">‘Did you eat cooked rice?’ (Gawne 2016: 139)</p><div style="clear: left; display: block;"></div> </div> <p>The reply would be with the regular past tense, and not the <i>-pa</i> suffix: </p> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1209690778"><div class="interlinear" style="margin-left:3em"><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">ŋà</p><p style="margin: 0px;"><abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="first person, singular" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">1SG</abbr></p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">tó</p><p style="margin: 0px;">rice.cooked</p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">sà-<b>sin</b></p><p style="margin: 0px;">eat-<b><abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="past tense" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">PST</abbr></b></p></div><p style="display: none;">ŋà tó sà-<b>sin</b></p><p style="display: none;">1SG rice.cooked eat-<b>PST</b></p><p style="clear: left;">‘I ate rice.’ (Gawne 2016: 139)</p><div style="clear: left; display: block;"></div> </div> <p>The <a class="mw-selflink-fragment" href="#Copula_verbs">copula form</a> used in a question matches the form the question-asked anticipates the question-answerer will use in their answer. That is, if they anticipate the answer will use the perceptual evidential <i>dù</i>, this is the form they will use in asking the question.<sup id="cite_ref-49" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-49"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>49<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Reported_speech">Reported speech</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Yolmo_language&action=edit&section=67" title="Edit section: Reported speech"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Yolmo has two strategies for reporting speech, the first is using the lexical verb <i>má</i> or <i>làp</i> 'say', the second is using the <a class="mw-selflink-fragment" href="#Clause_final_particles">clause final evidential particle</a> <i>ló.</i><sup id="cite_ref-:14_50-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:14-50"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>50<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Lexical_verb">Lexical verb</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Yolmo_language&action=edit&section=68" title="Edit section: Lexical verb"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In Melamchi Valley Yolmo the main lexical verb of saying is <i>má,</i> in Lamjung Yolmo it is <i>làp</i>. Hari and Lama note that <i>làp</i> is found in Melamchi Valley Yolmo, but in restricted use.<sup id="cite_ref-:3_7-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:3-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> If the speaker, and the person the speech is directed at are overtly marked, these usually proceed the reported content (although they are frequently not overt in natural speech). The 'say' verb prototypically occurs after the reported content, although if the reported content is quite long the verb may occasionally come before it.<sup id="cite_ref-:14_50-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:14-50"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>50<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1209690778"><div class="interlinear" style="margin-left:3em"><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">khó-ni</p><p style="margin: 0px;"><abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="third person, singular" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">3SG</abbr>-<abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="focus" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">FOC</abbr></p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">níŋdʑi</p><p style="margin: 0px;">love</p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">ɕóŋ-gen-gi</p><p style="margin: 0px;">feel</p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">pèza-raŋ</p><p style="margin: 0px;">child-<abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="emphatic" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">EMPH</abbr></p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">mìmba</p><p style="margin: 0px;"><abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="copula" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">COP</abbr>.<abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="negation/negative" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">NEG</abbr>.<abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="emphatic" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">EMPH</abbr></p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">áma-gi</p><p style="margin: 0px;">mother-<abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="ergative case" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">ERG</abbr></p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">mì</p><p style="margin: 0px;">people</p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">pò-la</p><p style="margin: 0px;">near-<abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="dative case" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">DAT</abbr></p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;"><b>má</b>-en</p><p style="margin: 0px;"><b>say</b>-<abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="non-past tense" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">NPST</abbr></p></div><p style="display: none;">khó-ni níŋdʑi ɕóŋ-gen-gi pèza-raŋ mìmba áma-gi mì pò-la <b>má</b>-en</p><p style="display: none;">3SG-FOC love feel child-EMPH COP.NEG.EMPH mother-ERG people near-DAT <b>say</b>-NPST</p><p style="clear: left;">'Mother says to people nearby, "He is not a lovable child!"' (Hari & Lama 2004: 383)</p><div style="clear: left; display: block;"></div> </div> <p>The lexical verb 'say' is also used in a number of other constructions, including <a class="mw-selflink-fragment" href="#Conditional">conditionals</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Reported_speech_evidential">Reported speech evidential</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Yolmo_language&action=edit&section=69" title="Edit section: Reported speech evidential"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The reported speech particle also indicates that the speaker is reporting a prior utterance, but has a different focus. The reported speech particle does not account for who the speaker way, but instead primarily serves to focus on the fact the information is reported, and not directly witnessed by the speaker. In the example below from Syuba, it is not made explicit if the report comes from Maila, or another person. The reported speech evidential occurs frequently in narratives. </p> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1209690778"><div class="interlinear" style="margin-left:3em"><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">tíriŋ</p><p style="margin: 0px;">today</p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">Maila</p><p style="margin: 0px;">Maila</p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">tóm</p><p style="margin: 0px;">bear</p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">phré-si</p><p style="margin: 0px;">meet-<abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="past tense" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">PST</abbr></p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">ló</p><p style="margin: 0px;"><abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="reported speech marker" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">RS</abbr></p></div><p style="display: none;">tíriŋ Maila tóm phré-si ló</p><p style="display: none;">today Maila bear meet-PST RS</p><p style="clear: left;">‘Today Maila met a bear.’ (Höhlig 1978: 22)<sup id="cite_ref-51" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-51"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>51<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></p><div style="clear: left; display: block;"></div> </div> <p>This is part of the wider evidential system of Yolmo, which is also found in the <a class="mw-selflink-fragment" href="#Copula_verbs">copula verbs</a> above. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Lexical_emphasis">Lexical emphasis</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Yolmo_language&action=edit&section=70" title="Edit section: Lexical emphasis"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>There are two emphatic suffixes that can be used with a number of word classes. This is in contrast to the <a class="mw-selflink-fragment" href="#Focus_marker">emphatic form <i>-ti</i></a>, which is only used with nouns. The first is <i>-ni, and</i> the second is <i>-raŋ</i>, which Hari & Lama note is a frequently used emphatic marker in informal speech.<sup id="cite_ref-:3_7-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:3-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The distinction between all of these forms is unclear, although Hari refers to the <i>-ni</i> form as used for 'moderate focus',<sup id="cite_ref-:04_44-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:04-44"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>44<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> so it is perhaps less emphatic for nouns than the <i>-ti</i> suffix. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Clause_final_particles">Clause final particles</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Yolmo_language&action=edit&section=71" title="Edit section: Clause final particles"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Yolmo has a series of sentence final <a href="/wiki/Grammatical_particle" title="Grammatical particle">particles</a> that can be used to achieve a range of effects. The table below gives some of the particles in Yolmo and a brief description of their function.<sup id="cite_ref-:15_4-21" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:15-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Gawne_6-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Gawne-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <dl><dd><dl><dd><table class="wikitable"> <tbody><tr> <th>Particle </th> <th>Function </th></tr> <tr> <td><i>ló</i> </td> <td>reported speech </td></tr> <tr> <td><i>nà</i> </td> <td>emphasis/insistence </td></tr> <tr> <td><i>yàŋ</i> </td> <td>emphasis/focus </td></tr> <tr> <td><i>làa</i> </td> <td>polite </td></tr> <tr> <td><i>lé</i> </td> <td>pleading </td></tr> <tr> <td><i>lò</i> </td> <td>friendly/encouraging </td></tr> <tr> <td><i>óo</i> </td> <td>invoking/encouraging </td></tr></tbody></table></dd></dl></dd></dl> <p>The reported speech marker <i>ló </i>is an <a href="/wiki/Evidentiality" title="Evidentiality">evidential</a> form, as it indicates the source of the information as someone else. This structure is described in the section on <a class="mw-selflink-fragment" href="#Reported_speech">reported speech</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Honorifics">Honorifics</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Yolmo_language&action=edit&section=72" title="Edit section: Honorifics"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Yolmo has a subset of <a href="/wiki/Honorifics_(linguistics)" title="Honorifics (linguistics)">honorific</a> vocabulary which is used when talking to, or about, people of higher social status, particularly <a href="/wiki/Buddhism" title="Buddhism">Buddhist</a> <a href="/wiki/Lama" title="Lama">Lamas</a>. Honorific lexicon includes nouns, verbs and adjectives. The table below gives some examples, including the regular word, the honorific form, and the English translation.<sup id="cite_ref-:15_4-22" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:15-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <dl><dd><table class="wikitable"> <tbody><tr> <th>Regular form </th> <th>Honorific form </th> <th>English </th></tr> <tr> <td><i>tér</i> </td> <td><i>nàŋ</i> </td> <td>'give' </td></tr> <tr> <td><i>ɲí lòo</i> </td> <td><i>zìm</i> </td> <td>'sleep' </td></tr> <tr> <td><i>sà</i> </td> <td><i>ɕè</i> </td> <td>'eat' </td></tr> <tr> <td><i>ába</i> </td> <td><i>yàp</i> </td> <td>'father' </td></tr> <tr> <td><i>áma</i> </td> <td><i>yùm</i> </td> <td>'mother' </td></tr> <tr> <td><i>káŋba</i> </td> <td><i>ɕàp</i> </td> <td>'foot/leg' </td></tr> <tr> <td><i>gòo</i> </td> <td><i>ú</i> </td> <td>'head' </td></tr> <tr> <td><i>ɕìmbu</i> </td> <td><i>ɲéebu</i> </td> <td>'tasty' </td></tr></tbody></table></dd></dl> <p>The use of honorifics in Syuba and Lamjung Yolmo is not as common, although some speakers still recognise and use these forms.<sup id="cite_ref-Gawne_6-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Gawne-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="100_word_Swadesh_list">100 word Swadesh list</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Yolmo_language&action=edit&section=73" title="Edit section: 100 word Swadesh list"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Below is a 100 word <a href="/wiki/Swadesh_list" title="Swadesh list">Swadesh list</a> in Yolmo. The Yolmo forms are taken from Hari and Lama,<sup id="cite_ref-:3_7-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:3-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> who note some variation between the Eastern (E) and Western (W) varieties in the Melamchi and Helambu Valley area. Where the form is different in other varieties this is indicated in the right-hand column of the table. This variation shows that the Lamjung variety and Syuba have more in common with each other lexically than they do with the Melamchi Valley variety. </p> <dl><dd><table class="wikitable"> <tbody><tr> <th>Swadesh <p>item </p> </th> <th>English </th> <th>Yolmo </th> <th>Variation </th></tr> <tr> <td>1. </td> <td>I </td> <td><i>ŋà</i> </td> <td> </td></tr> <tr> <td>2. </td> <td>thou </td> <td><i>khyá</i> </td> <td> </td></tr> <tr> <td>3. </td> <td>we </td> <td><i>ɲì</i> </td> <td> </td></tr> <tr> <td>4. </td> <td>this </td> <td><i>dì</i> </td> <td> </td></tr> <tr> <td>5. </td> <td>that </td> <td><i>òo</i> </td> <td><i>òodi</i> in Lamjung Yolmo and Syuba </td></tr> <tr> <td>6. </td> <td>who? </td> <td><i>sú</i> </td> <td> </td></tr> <tr> <td>7. </td> <td>what? </td> <td><i>tɕí</i> </td> <td> </td></tr> <tr> <td>8. </td> <td>not </td> <td><i>mè-, mì-</i> </td> <td> </td></tr> <tr> <td>9. </td> <td>all </td> <td><i>thámdʑi</i> </td> <td><i>dzàmma</i> in Lamjung Yolmo, <i>t<sup>h</sup>ámdze</i> in Syuba </td></tr> <tr> <td>10. </td> <td>many </td> <td><i>màŋbu</i> </td> <td> </td></tr> <tr> <td>11. </td> <td>one </td> <td><i>tɕíi</i> </td> <td> </td></tr> <tr> <td>12. </td> <td>two </td> <td><i>ŋyíi</i> </td> <td> </td></tr> <tr> <td>13. </td> <td>a </td> <td><i>tɕhímbu, tɕhómbo</i> </td> <td>only <i>tɕ<sup>h</sup>ómbo</i> reported in Lamjung Yolmo and Syuba </td></tr> <tr> <td>14. </td> <td>long </td> <td><i>rìŋbu</i> </td> <td> </td></tr> <tr> <td>15. </td> <td>small </td> <td><i>tɕhéemu</i> </td> <td><i>tɕéemi</i> in Lamjung YOlmo </td></tr> <tr> <td>16. </td> <td>woman </td> <td><i>pìihmi</i> </td> <td><i>pèmpiʑa</i> in Lamjung Yolmo and Syuba [ pèmpiʑa' occurs in Melamchi Hyolmo where it means woman collectively whereas pìihmi refers to woman ] </td></tr> <tr> <td>17. </td> <td>man </td> <td><i>khyówa</i> </td> <td><i>k<sup>h</sup>yópiʑa</i> in Lamjung Yolmo and Syuba [ Khyopiza occurs in Melamchi Hyolmo where it means men collectively, whereas khyowa refers to husband] <p>[Source/ I speak the language] </p> </td></tr> <tr> <td>18. </td> <td>person </td> <td><i>mì</i> </td> <td> </td></tr> <tr> <td>19. </td> <td>fish </td> <td><i>ɲà</i> </td> <td> </td></tr> <tr> <td>20. </td> <td>bird </td> <td><i>tɕà-tɕìwa</i> </td> <td><i>tɕádzuŋma</i> in Lamjung Yolmo and Syuba </td></tr> <tr> <td>21. </td> <td>dog </td> <td><i>kyíbu, khyí</i> </td> <td><i>khí</i> in Lamjung Yolmo and Syuba </td></tr> <tr> <td>22. </td> <td>louse </td> <td><i>kiɕíkpa, kyíɕi</i> </td> <td><i>ɕí</i> in Lamjung Yolmo and Syuba </td></tr> <tr> <td>23. </td> <td>tree </td> <td><i>tòŋbo, tùŋbu</i> </td> <td>only <i>tòŋbo</i> reported in Lamjung Yolmo and Syuba </td></tr> <tr> <td>24. </td> <td>seed </td> <td><i>sén</i> </td> <td> </td></tr> <tr> <td>25. </td> <td>leaf </td> <td><i>làpti, lòma</i> </td> <td> </td></tr> <tr> <td>26. </td> <td>root </td> <td><i>tsárkyi, tsárŋyi, tsárnɲe</i> </td> <td> </td></tr> <tr> <td>27. </td> <td>bark </td> <td><i>páko, phíko, kóldaŋ</i> </td> <td><i>phába</i> in Lamjung Yolmo </td></tr> <tr> <td>28. </td> <td>skin </td> <td><i>páaba</i> (E)<i>, páko</i> (W) </td> <td><i>gòoba</i> in Lamjung Yolmo and Syuba </td></tr> <tr> <td>29. </td> <td>lesh </td> <td><i>ɕá</i> </td> <td> </td></tr> <tr> <td>30. </td> <td>blood </td> <td><i>ʈháa</i> </td> <td> </td></tr> <tr> <td>31. </td> <td>bone </td> <td><i>rèko, rìiba</i> (E) </td> <td><i>ròko</i> in Lamjung Yolmo and Syuba </td></tr> <tr> <td>32. </td> <td>grease </td> <td><i>khyákpa tɕháa</i> </td> <td> </td></tr> <tr> <td>33. </td> <td>egg </td> <td><i>tɕàmu kòŋa</i> </td> <td> </td></tr> <tr> <td>34. </td> <td>horn </td> <td><i>ròwa</i> </td> <td><i>rùwa</i> in Syuba </td></tr> <tr> <td>35. </td> <td>tail </td> <td><i>ŋáma, ŋéma</i> </td> <td><i>ŋámaŋ</i> in Lamjung Yolmo </td></tr> <tr> <td>36. </td> <td>feather </td> <td><i>ʈò</i> (E), <i>ʈòo</i> (W) </td> <td><i>ɕókpa</i> in Lamjung Yolmo </td></tr> <tr> <td>37. </td> <td>hair </td> <td><i>ʈá</i> </td> <td> </td></tr> <tr> <td>38. </td> <td>head </td> <td><i>gòo</i> </td> <td> </td></tr> <tr> <td>39. </td> <td>ear </td> <td><i>námdʑo</i> </td> <td> </td></tr> <tr> <td>40. </td> <td>eye </td> <td><i>míi</i> </td> <td> </td></tr> <tr> <td>41. </td> <td>nose </td> <td><i>náasum</i> (E), <i>nárko</i> (W) </td> <td>only <i>náasum</i> reported in Lamjung Yolmo and Syuba </td></tr> <tr> <td>42. </td> <td>mouth </td> <td><i>khá</i> </td> <td> </td></tr> <tr> <td>43. </td> <td>tooth </td> <td><i>só</i> </td> <td> </td></tr> <tr> <td>44. </td> <td>tongue </td> <td><i>tɕéle</i> </td> <td><i>tɕé</i> in Lamjung Yolmo and Syuba </td></tr> <tr> <td>45. </td> <td>fingernail </td> <td><i>sému</i> </td> <td> </td></tr> <tr> <td>46. </td> <td>foot </td> <td><i>káŋba</i> </td> <td> </td></tr> <tr> <td>47. </td> <td>knee </td> <td><i>káŋba-tshíi</i> </td> <td><i>tshíiŋgor</i> in Lamjung Yolmo, pìmu in Syuba </td></tr> <tr> <td>48. </td> <td>hand </td> <td><i>làkpa</i> </td> <td> </td></tr> <tr> <td>49. </td> <td>belly </td> <td><i>ʈèpa</i> </td> <td> </td></tr> <tr> <td>50. </td> <td>neck </td> <td><i>dzìŋba</i> </td> <td> </td></tr> <tr> <td>51. </td> <td>breast </td> <td><i>òma</i> </td> <td> </td></tr> <tr> <td>52. </td> <td>heart </td> <td><i>níŋ</i> </td> <td> </td></tr> <tr> <td>53. </td> <td>liver </td> <td><i>tɕìmba</i> </td> <td> </td></tr> <tr> <td>54. </td> <td>drink </td> <td><i>thúŋ-</i> </td> <td> </td></tr> <tr> <td>55. </td> <td>eat </td> <td><i>sà-</i> </td> <td> </td></tr> <tr> <td>56. </td> <td>bite </td> <td><i>kàp-, áa táp-</i> </td> <td> </td></tr> <tr> <td>57. </td> <td>see </td> <td><i>tá, thóŋ-</i> </td> <td> </td></tr> <tr> <td>58. </td> <td>hear </td> <td><i>thée-, ɲìn-</i> </td> <td><i>thée-, ɲèn</i> in Lamjung Yolmo and Syuba </td></tr> <tr> <td>59. </td> <td>know </td> <td><i>ɕée-</i> </td> <td> </td></tr> <tr> <td>60. </td> <td>sleep </td> <td><i>ɲí lòo-</i> </td> <td><i>ɲàl-</i> in Lamjung Yolmo and Syuba </td></tr> <tr> <td>61. </td> <td>die </td> <td><i>ɕí-</i> </td> <td> </td></tr> <tr> <td>62. </td> <td>kill </td> <td><i>sé-</i> </td> <td> </td></tr> <tr> <td>63. </td> <td>swim </td> <td><i>tɕál kyàp-</i> </td> <td> </td></tr> <tr> <td>64. </td> <td>fly </td> <td><i>ùr-</i> </td> <td> </td></tr> <tr> <td>65. </td> <td>walk </td> <td><i>ɖò-</i> </td> <td> </td></tr> <tr> <td>66. </td> <td>come </td> <td><i>òŋ-</i> </td> <td> </td></tr> <tr> <td>67. </td> <td>lie </td> <td><i>ɲàl-</i> </td> <td> </td></tr> <tr> <td>68. </td> <td>sit </td> <td><i>tè-</i> </td> <td> </td></tr> <tr> <td>69. </td> <td>stand </td> <td><i>làŋ-di té-</i> </td> <td> </td></tr> <tr> <td>70. </td> <td>give </td> <td><i>tér-</i> </td> <td> </td></tr> <tr> <td>71. </td> <td>say </td> <td><i>má-, làp-</i> </td> <td>only <i>làp-</i> in Lamjung Yolmo and Syuba </td></tr> <tr> <td>72. </td> <td>sun </td> <td><i>ɲìma</i> </td> <td> </td></tr> <tr> <td>73. </td> <td>moon </td> <td><i>dàwa, dàyum</i> </td> <td><i>dàgarmu</i> in Lamjung Yolmo and Syuba </td></tr> <tr> <td>74. </td> <td>star </td> <td><i>kárma</i> </td> <td> </td></tr> <tr> <td>75. </td> <td>water </td> <td><i>tɕhú</i> </td> <td> </td></tr> <tr> <td>76. </td> <td>rain </td> <td><i>nám kyàp-</i> </td> <td> </td></tr> <tr> <td>77. </td> <td>stone </td> <td><i>tò</i> </td> <td> </td></tr> <tr> <td>78. </td> <td>sand </td> <td><i>pèma</i> </td> <td> </td></tr> <tr> <td>79. </td> <td>earth </td> <td><i>sása, thása, sáʑa, sáptɕi</i> </td> <td><i>sébi</i> in Syuba </td></tr> <tr> <td>80. </td> <td>cloud </td> <td><i>múkpa</i> </td> <td> </td></tr> <tr> <td>81. </td> <td>smoke </td> <td><i>tìpa, tèpa</i> </td> <td>only <i>tìpa</i> reported in Lamjung Yolmo and Syuba </td></tr> <tr> <td>82. </td> <td>fire </td> <td><i>mè</i> </td> <td> </td></tr> <tr> <td>83. </td> <td>ash </td> <td><i>thála</i> </td> <td> </td></tr> <tr> <td>84. </td> <td>burn </td> <td><i>tìi-, bàr-, tshíi-</i> </td> <td> </td></tr> <tr> <td>85. </td> <td>path </td> <td><i>làm</i> </td> <td> </td></tr> <tr> <td>86. </td> <td>mountain </td> <td><i>kàŋ</i> </td> <td> </td></tr> <tr> <td>87. </td> <td>red </td> <td><i>màrmu, màrpu</i> </td> <td> </td></tr> <tr> <td>88. </td> <td>green </td> <td><i>ŋòmbo, ŋùmbu</i> </td> <td> </td></tr> <tr> <td>89. </td> <td>yellow </td> <td><i>sérpu</i> </td> <td> </td></tr> <tr> <td>90. </td> <td>white </td> <td><i>kárpu, kármu</i> </td> <td> </td></tr> <tr> <td>91. </td> <td>black </td> <td><i>nàkpu</i> </td> <td> </td></tr> <tr> <td>92. </td> <td>night </td> <td><i>kùŋmu</i> </td> <td> </td></tr> <tr> <td>93. </td> <td>hot </td> <td><i>ʈòmo</i> </td> <td><i>ʈòmbo</i> in Lamjung Yolmo and Syuba </td></tr> <tr> <td>94. </td> <td>cold </td> <td><i>ʈàŋmu</i> </td> <td> </td></tr> <tr> <td>95. </td> <td>full </td> <td><i>kàŋ</i> </td> <td> </td></tr> <tr> <td>96. </td> <td>new </td> <td><i>sámba</i> </td> <td> </td></tr> <tr> <td>97. </td> <td>good </td> <td><i>yàabu</i> </td> <td> </td></tr> <tr> <td>98. </td> <td>round </td> <td><i>kòrmu</i> (circular), <i>rhílmu</i> (spherical) </td> <td> </td></tr> <tr> <td>99. </td> <td>dry </td> <td><i>kámbu</i> </td> <td> </td></tr> <tr> <td>100. </td> <td>name </td> <td><i>mìn</i> </td> <td>Unlike almost all other Tibetic languages, this word is <i>mìn</i> and not <i>mìŋ</i> </td></tr></tbody></table></dd></dl> <dl><dd></dd></dl> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Yolmo_language&action=edit&section=74" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Kyirong%E2%80%93Kagate_languages" title="Kyirong–Kagate languages">Kyirong–Kagate languages</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kyirong_language" title="Kyirong language">Kyirong language</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kagate_language" title="Kagate language">Kagate language</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tibetic_languages" title="Tibetic languages">Tibetic languages</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_resources">External resources</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Yolmo_language&action=edit&section=75" title="Edit section: External resources"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li>Open access digital collection of Anna Marie Hari's <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://catalog.paradisec.org.au/collections/AH1">cassette recordings of Melamchi Valley Yolmo</a> from the 1970s and 1980s at <a href="/wiki/Paradisec" class="mw-redirect" title="Paradisec">PARADISEC</a>.</li> <li>Digital collection of Lauren Gawne's <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://catalog.paradisec.org.au/collections/LG1">documentation of Lamjung Yolmo</a> (2009-2016) at <a href="/wiki/Paradisec" class="mw-redirect" title="Paradisec">PARADISEC</a> (partly open access)</li> <li>Three open access collections of Syuba, a dialect closely related to Yolmo, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://catalog.paradisec.org.au/collections/MH1">MH1</a> digitised from 1970s recordings, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://catalog.paradisec.org.au/collections/SUY1">SUY1</a> documentation by Lauren Gawne (2009-2016), <a href="/w/index.php?title=Catalog.paradisec.org.au/collections/MTC1&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Catalog.paradisec.org.au/collections/MTC1 (page does not exist)">MTC1</a> a 2013 <a href="/w/index.php?title=Basic_oral_language_documentation&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Basic oral language documentation (page does not exist)">BOLD</a> documentation by the Mother Tongue Centre Nepal.</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Key_references">Key references</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Yolmo_language&action=edit&section=76" title="Edit section: Key references"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite class="citation journal cs1">Clarke, Graham E. (1980). "A Helambu History". <i>Journal of the Nepal Research Centre</i>. <b>4</b>: 1–38.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+the+Nepal+Research+Centre&rft.atitle=A+Helambu+History&rft.volume=4&rft.pages=1-38&rft.date=1980&rft.aulast=Clarke&rft.aufirst=Graham+E.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AYolmo+language" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li>Clarke, Graham E. (1980). "Lama and Tamang in Yolmo." <i>Tibetan Studies in honor of Hugh Richardson</i>. M. Aris and A. S. S. Kyi (eds). Warminster, Aris and Phillips: 79-86.</li> <li>Gawne, Lauren (2011). <i>Lamjung Yolmo-Nepali-English dictionary.</i> Melbourne, Custom Book Centre; The University of Melbourne.</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGawne2016" class="citation book cs1">Gawne, Lauren (2016). <i>A Sketch Grammar of Lamjung Yolmo</i>. Canberra: Asia Pacific Linguistics. <a href="/wiki/Hdl_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Hdl (identifier)">hdl</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://hdl.handle.net/1885%2F110258">1885/110258</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781922185341" title="Special:BookSources/9781922185341"><bdi>9781922185341</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/961180469">961180469</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+Sketch+Grammar+of+Lamjung+Yolmo&rft.place=Canberra&rft.pub=Asia+Pacific+Linguistics&rft.date=2016&rft_id=info%3Ahdl%2F1885%2F110258&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F961180469&rft.isbn=9781922185341&rft.aulast=Gawne&rft.aufirst=Lauren&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AYolmo+language" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li>Hari, Anna Maria & Chhegu Lama (2004). <i>Dictionary Yolhmo-Nepali-English</i>. Kathmandu: Central Department of Linguistics, Tribhuvan University.</li> <li>Hari, Anna Maria (2010). <i>Yohlmo Sketch Grammar</i>. Kathmandu: Ekta books.</li> <li>Hedlin, Matthew (2011). <i>An Investigation of the relationship between the Kyirong, Yòlmo, and Standard Spoken Tibetan speech varieties</i>. Masters thesis, Payap University, Chiang Mai</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Yolmo_language&action=edit&section=77" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Open_Access_logo_PLoS_transparent.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/77/Open_Access_logo_PLoS_transparent.svg/9px-Open_Access_logo_PLoS_transparent.svg.png" decoding="async" width="9" height="14" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/77/Open_Access_logo_PLoS_transparent.svg/14px-Open_Access_logo_PLoS_transparent.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/77/Open_Access_logo_PLoS_transparent.svg/18px-Open_Access_logo_PLoS_transparent.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="640" data-file-height="1000" /></a></span> This article was submitted to <i>WikiJournal of Humanities</i> for external <a href="/wiki/Scholarly_peer_review" title="Scholarly peer review">academic peer review</a> in 2018 (<a class="external text" href="https://en.wikiversity.org/wiki/talk:WikiJournal_of_Humanities/A_grammatical_overview_of_Yolmo_(Tibeto-Burman)">reviewer reports</a>). The updated content was reintegrated into the Wikipedia page under a <a href="//creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/3.0/" class="extiw" title="creativecommons:by-sa/3.0/">CC-BY-SA-3.0</a> license (<span class="plainlinks"><a class="external text" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Yolmo_language&action=history&date-range-to=2019-05-16">2019</a></span>). The version of record as reviewed is: <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation journal cs1"><a href="/wiki/Lauren_Gawne" title="Lauren Gawne">Lauren Gawne</a>; et al. (25 April 2019). <a class="external text" href="https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/e/ea/A_grammatical_overview_of_Yolmo_%28Tibeto-Burman%29.pdf">"A grammatical overview of Yolmo (Tibeto-Burman)"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. <i>WikiJournal of Humanities</i>. <b>2</b> (1): 2. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.15347%2FWJH%2F2019.002">10.15347/WJH/2019.002</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/2639-5347">2639-5347</a>. <a href="/wiki/WDQ_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="WDQ (identifier)">Wikidata</a> <a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q71424678" class="extiw" title="d:Q71424678">Q71424678</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=WikiJournal+of+Humanities&rft.atitle=A+grammatical+overview+of+Yolmo+%28Tibeto-Burman%29&rft.volume=2&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=2&rft.date=2019-04-25&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.15347%2FWJH%2F2019.002&rft.issn=2639-5347&rft.au=Lauren+Gawne&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fupload.wikimedia.org%2Fwikipedia%2Fcommons%2Fe%2Fea%2FA_grammatical_overview_of_Yolmo_%2528Tibeto-Burman%2529.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AYolmo+language" class="Z3988"></span> </p> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-e18-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-e18_1-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ethnologue.com/18/language/scp/">Hyolmo</a> at <i><a href="/wiki/Ethnologue" title="Ethnologue">Ethnologue</a></i> (18th ed., 2015) <span style="font-size:0.95em; font-size:95%; color: var( --color-subtle, #555 )">(subscription required)</span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-2">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHammarströmForkel,_RobertHaspelmath,_Martin2017" class="citation web cs1">Hammarström, Harald; Forkel, Robert; Haspelmath, Martin, eds. (2017). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://glottolog.org/resource/languoid/id/yolm1234">"Helambu Sherpa"</a>. <i>Glottolog 3.0</i>. Jena, Germany: Max Planck Institute for the Science of Human History<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2018-08-22</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Glottolog+3.0&rft.atitle=Helambu+Sherpa&rft.date=2017&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fglottolog.org%2Fresource%2Flanguoid%2Fid%2Fyolm1234&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AYolmo+language" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-:10-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:10_3-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:10_3-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHedlin2011" class="citation book cs1">Hedlin, Matthew (2011). <i>An investigation of the relationship between the Kyirong, Yòlmo, and Standard Spoken Tibetan speech varieties (unpublished MA thesis)</i>. Chiang Mai, Thailand: Payap University.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=An+investigation+of+the+relationship+between+the+Kyirong%2C+Y%C3%B2lmo%2C+and+Standard+Spoken+Tibetan+speech+varieties+%28unpublished+MA+thesis%29&rft.place=Chiang+Mai%2C+Thailand&rft.pub=Payap+University&rft.date=2011&rft.aulast=Hedlin&rft.aufirst=Matthew&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AYolmo+language" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-:15-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:15_4-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:15_4-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:15_4-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:15_4-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:15_4-4"><sup><i><b>e</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:15_4-5"><sup><i><b>f</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:15_4-6"><sup><i><b>g</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:15_4-7"><sup><i><b>h</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:15_4-8"><sup><i><b>i</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:15_4-9"><sup><i><b>j</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:15_4-10"><sup><i><b>k</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:15_4-11"><sup><i><b>l</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:15_4-12"><sup><i><b>m</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:15_4-13"><sup><i><b>n</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:15_4-14"><sup><i><b>o</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:15_4-15"><sup><i><b>p</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:15_4-16"><sup><i><b>q</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:15_4-17"><sup><i><b>r</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:15_4-18"><sup><i><b>s</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:15_4-19"><sup><i><b>t</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:15_4-20"><sup><i><b>u</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:15_4-21"><sup><i><b>v</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:15_4-22"><sup><i><b>w</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHari2010" class="citation book cs1">Hari, Anna Maria (2010). <i>Yohlmo grammar sketch</i>. SIL International. Kathmandu: Ekta Books. p. 4. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9789937101080" title="Special:BookSources/9789937101080"><bdi>9789937101080</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/707486953">707486953</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Yohlmo+grammar+sketch&rft.place=Kathmandu&rft.pages=4&rft.pub=Ekta+Books&rft.date=2010&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F707486953&rft.isbn=9789937101080&rft.aulast=Hari&rft.aufirst=Anna+Maria&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AYolmo+language" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-5">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLewisGary_F._SimonsCharles_D._Fennig2015" class="citation news cs1">Lewis, M. Paul; Gary F. Simons; Charles D. Fennig, eds. (2015). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20190425230950/https://www.ethnologue.com/18/language/scp/index.html">"Helambu Sherpa"</a>. <i>Ethnologue: Languages of the World (18th Edition)</i>. Dallas, Texas: SIL International. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ethnologue.com/18/language/scp/index.html">the original</a> on 2019-04-25<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2018-08-22</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Ethnologue%3A+Languages+of+the+World+%2818th+Edition%29&rft.atitle=Helambu+Sherpa&rft.date=2015&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ethnologue.com%2F18%2Flanguage%2Fscp%2Findex.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AYolmo+language" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Gawne-6"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Gawne_6-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Gawne_6-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Gawne_6-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Gawne_6-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Gawne_6-4"><sup><i><b>e</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Gawne_6-5"><sup><i><b>f</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Gawne_6-6"><sup><i><b>g</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Gawne_6-7"><sup><i><b>h</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGawne2013" class="citation journal cs1">Gawne, Lauren (2013). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.linguistics.ucsb.edu/HimalayanLinguistics/articles/2013/PDF/HLJ1202A.pdf">"Report on the relationship between Yolmo and Kagate"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. <i>Himalayan Linguistics</i>. <b>12</b> (2): 1–27. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.5070%2Fh912223716">10.5070/h912223716</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:60243555">60243555</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Himalayan+Linguistics&rft.atitle=Report+on+the+relationship+between+Yolmo+and+Kagate&rft.volume=12&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=1-27&rft.date=2013&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.5070%2Fh912223716&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A60243555%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.aulast=Gawne&rft.aufirst=Lauren&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.linguistics.ucsb.edu%2FHimalayanLinguistics%2Farticles%2F2013%2FPDF%2FHLJ1202A.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AYolmo+language" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-:3-7"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:3_7-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:3_7-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:3_7-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:3_7-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:3_7-4"><sup><i><b>e</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:3_7-5"><sup><i><b>f</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:3_7-6"><sup><i><b>g</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:3_7-7"><sup><i><b>h</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:3_7-8"><sup><i><b>i</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:3_7-9"><sup><i><b>j</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:3_7-10"><sup><i><b>k</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:3_7-11"><sup><i><b>l</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHariLama,_C.2004" class="citation book cs1">Hari, Anne Marie; Lama, C. (2004). <i>Yolmo-Nepali-English Dictionary</i>. Kathmandu: Central Dept. of Linguistics, Tribhnvan University.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Yolmo-Nepali-English+Dictionary&rft.place=Kathmandu&rft.pub=Central+Dept.+of+Linguistics%2C+Tribhnvan+University&rft.date=2004&rft.aulast=Hari&rft.aufirst=Anne+Marie&rft.au=Lama%2C+C.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AYolmo+language" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-:4-8"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:4_8-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:4_8-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:4_8-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFClarke1980" class="citation journal cs1">Clarke, Graham E. (1980). "A Helambu History". <i>Journal of the Nepal Research Centre</i>. <b>4</b>: 1–38.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+the+Nepal+Research+Centre&rft.atitle=A+Helambu+History&rft.volume=4&rft.pages=1-38&rft.date=1980&rft.aulast=Clarke&rft.aufirst=Graham+E.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AYolmo+language" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-:2-9"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:2_9-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:2_9-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:2_9-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDesjarlais2003" class="citation book cs1">Desjarlais, Robert (2003). <i>Sensory biographies : lives and deaths among Nepal's Yolmo Buddhists</i>. Berkeley, CA.: University of California Press. p. 8. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780520936744" title="Special:BookSources/9780520936744"><bdi>9780520936744</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/52872722">52872722</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Sensory+biographies+%3A+lives+and+deaths+among+Nepal%27s+Yolmo+Buddhists&rft.place=Berkeley%2C+CA.&rft.pages=8&rft.pub=University+of+California+Press&rft.date=2003&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F52872722&rft.isbn=9780520936744&rft.aulast=Desjarlais&rft.aufirst=Robert&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AYolmo+language" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-:12-10"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-:12_10-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFTournadre2005" class="citation journal cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">Tournadre, Nicholas (2005). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.nicolas-tournadre.net/wp-content/uploads/multimedia/2005-aire.pdf">"L'aire linguistique tibétaine et ses divers dialectes"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. <i>Lalies</i> (in French). <b>25</b>: 7–56.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Lalies&rft.atitle=L%27aire+linguistique+tib%C3%A9taine+et+ses+divers+dialectes&rft.volume=25&rft.pages=7-56&rft.date=2005&rft.aulast=Tournadre&rft.aufirst=Nicholas&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.nicolas-tournadre.net%2Fwp-content%2Fuploads%2Fmultimedia%2F2005-aire.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AYolmo+language" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-11"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-11">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFTournadre2014" class="citation book cs1">Tournadre, Nicolas (2014). "The Tibetic languages and their classification". In Owen-Smith, Thomas; Hill, Nathan W. (eds.). <i>Trans-Himalayan Linguistics: Historical and Descriptive Linguistics of the Himalayan Area</i>. De Gruyter. pp. 103–129. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3-11-031074-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-3-11-031074-0"><bdi>978-3-11-031074-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=The+Tibetic+languages+and+their+classification&rft.btitle=Trans-Himalayan+Linguistics%3A+Historical+and+Descriptive+Linguistics+of+the+Himalayan+Area&rft.pages=103-129&rft.pub=De+Gruyter&rft.date=2014&rft.isbn=978-3-11-031074-0&rft.aulast=Tournadre&rft.aufirst=Nicolas&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AYolmo+language" class="Z3988"></span> (<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.nicolas-tournadre.net/wp-content/uploads/multimedia/2014-The_Tibetic_languages.pdf">preprint</a>)</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-12"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-12">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPokharel2005" class="citation journal cs1">Pokharel, Binod (2005). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.3126%2Fopsa.v9i0.1137">"Adaptation and identity of Yolmo"</a>. <i>Occasional Papers in Sociology and Anthropology</i>. <b>9</b>: 91–119. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.3126%2Fopsa.v9i0.1137">10.3126/opsa.v9i0.1137</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/2091-0312">2091-0312</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Occasional+Papers+in+Sociology+and+Anthropology&rft.atitle=Adaptation+and+identity+of+Yolmo&rft.volume=9&rft.pages=91-119&rft.date=2005&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.3126%2Fopsa.v9i0.1137&rft.issn=2091-0312&rft.aulast=Pokharel&rft.aufirst=Binod&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.3126%252Fopsa.v9i0.1137&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AYolmo+language" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-:18-13"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:18_13-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:18_13-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFClarke1980" class="citation book cs1">Clarke, Graham E. (1980). "Lama and Tamang in Yolmo". In Richardson, Hugh; Aris & Phillip, Michael; Aung San Suu Kyi (eds.). <i>Tibetan Studies in honor of Hugh Richardson</i>. Warminster: Phillip. pp. 79–86.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Lama+and+Tamang+in+Yolmo&rft.btitle=Tibetan+Studies+in+honor+of+Hugh+Richardson&rft.place=Warminster&rft.pages=79-86&rft.pub=Phillip&rft.date=1980&rft.aulast=Clarke&rft.aufirst=Graham+E.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AYolmo+language" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-14"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-14">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFTorri2016" class="citation journal cs1">Torri, Davide (2016). "To Kill or not to Kill? Helambu valley as a no kill zone, the issue of blood sacrifice and the transformation of ritual patterns in Hyolmo shamanism". <i>European Bulletin of Himalayan Research</i>. <b>47</b>: 15–39.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=European+Bulletin+of+Himalayan+Research&rft.atitle=To+Kill+or+not+to+Kill%3F+Helambu+valley+as+a+no+kill+zone%2C+the+issue+of+blood+sacrifice+and+the+transformation+of+ritual+patterns+in+Hyolmo+shamanism&rft.volume=47&rft.pages=15-39&rft.date=2016&rft.aulast=Torri&rft.aufirst=Davide&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AYolmo+language" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-15"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-15">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFTorri2015" class="citation book cs1">Torri, Davide (2015-01-12). <i>Il Lama e il Bombo : sciamanismo e buddhismo tra gli Hyolmo del Nepal</i>. Rome: Sapienza Sciamanica. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9788868123536" title="Special:BookSources/9788868123536"><bdi>9788868123536</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/903903900">903903900</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Il+Lama+e+il+Bombo+%3A+sciamanismo+e+buddhismo+tra+gli+Hyolmo+del+Nepal&rft.place=Rome&rft.pub=Sapienza+Sciamanica&rft.date=2015-01-12&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F903903900&rft.isbn=9788868123536&rft.aulast=Torri&rft.aufirst=Davide&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AYolmo+language" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-16"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-16">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBishop1989" class="citation journal cs1">Bishop, Naomi H. (1989). "From zomo to yak: Change in a Sherpa village". <i>Human Ecology</i>. <b>17</b> (2): 177–204. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1989HumEc..17..177B">1989HumEc..17..177B</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1007%2FBF00889712">10.1007/BF00889712</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:154399059">154399059</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Human+Ecology&rft.atitle=From+zomo+to+yak%3A+Change+in+a+Sherpa+village&rft.volume=17&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=177-204&rft.date=1989&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A154399059%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1007%2FBF00889712&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F1989HumEc..17..177B&rft.aulast=Bishop&rft.aufirst=Naomi+H.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AYolmo+language" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-17"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-17">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBishop1993" class="citation journal cs1">Bishop, Naomi H. (1993). "Circular migration and families: A Hyolmo Sherpa example". <i><a href="/wiki/South_Asia_Bulletin" class="mw-redirect" title="South Asia Bulletin">South Asia Bulletin</a></i>. <b>13</b> (1/2): 59–66. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1215%2F07323867-13-1_and_2-59">10.1215/07323867-13-1_and_2-59</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=South+Asia+Bulletin&rft.atitle=Circular+migration+and+families%3A+A+Hyolmo+Sherpa+example&rft.volume=13&rft.issue=1%2F2&rft.pages=59-66&rft.date=1993&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1215%2F07323867-13-1_and_2-59&rft.aulast=Bishop&rft.aufirst=Naomi+H.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AYolmo+language" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-18"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-18">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHariLama2004" class="citation book cs1">Hari, Anna Maria; Lama, Chhegu (2004). <i>Yolmo-Nepali-English Dictionary</i>. Kathmandu: Central Dept. of Linguistics, Tribhnvan University. p. 702.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Yolmo-Nepali-English+Dictionary&rft.place=Kathmandu&rft.pages=702&rft.pub=Central+Dept.+of+Linguistics%2C+Tribhnvan+University&rft.date=2004&rft.aulast=Hari&rft.aufirst=Anna+Maria&rft.au=Lama%2C+Chhegu&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AYolmo+language" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-:5-19"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:5_19-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:5_19-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:5_19-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:5_19-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:5_19-4"><sup><i><b>e</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:5_19-5"><sup><i><b>f</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:5_19-6"><sup><i><b>g</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:5_19-7"><sup><i><b>h</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:5_19-8"><sup><i><b>i</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:5_19-9"><sup><i><b>j</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:5_19-10"><sup><i><b>k</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:5_19-11"><sup><i><b>l</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:5_19-12"><sup><i><b>m</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:5_19-13"><sup><i><b>n</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:5_19-14"><sup><i><b>o</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:5_19-15"><sup><i><b>p</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:5_19-16"><sup><i><b>q</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFGawne2016">Gawne (2016)</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-:7-20"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:7_20-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:7_20-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFThokar2009" class="citation journal cs1">Thokar, Rajendra (2009). "Linguistic fieldwork in Jhapa and Ilam districts". <i>Paper Presented at the Linguistics Society of Nepal Annual Conference, Kathmandu, Nepal</i>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Paper+Presented+at+the+Linguistics+Society+of+Nepal+Annual+Conference%2C+Kathmandu%2C+Nepal&rft.atitle=Linguistic+fieldwork+in+Jhapa+and+Ilam+districts&rft.date=2009&rft.aulast=Thokar&rft.aufirst=Rajendra&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AYolmo+language" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-21"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-21">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHari2000" class="citation book cs1">Hari, Anna Maria (2000). <i>Good news, the New Testament in Helambu Sherpa</i>. Kathmandu: Samdan Publishers.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Good+news%2C+the+New+Testament+in+Helambu+Sherpa&rft.place=Kathmandu&rft.pub=Samdan+Publishers&rft.date=2000&rft.aulast=Hari&rft.aufirst=Anna+Maria&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AYolmo+language" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-22"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-22">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHari1980" class="citation journal cs1">Hari, Anna Maria (1980). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://catalog.paradisec.org.au/collections/AH1">"Hyolmo songs, stories and grammar drills"</a>. <i>Digital collection managed by PARADISEC</i>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.4225%2F72%2F56E9795C3C78B">10.4225/72/56E9795C3C78B</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Digital+collection+managed+by+PARADISEC.&rft.atitle=Hyolmo+songs%2C+stories+and+grammar+drills&rft.date=1980&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.4225%2F72%2F56E9795C3C78B&rft.aulast=Hari&rft.aufirst=Anna+Maria&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fcatalog.paradisec.org.au%2Fcollections%2FAH1&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AYolmo+language" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-:8-23"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:8_23-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:8_23-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKvicalovaSladeGawne2017" class="citation journal cs1">Kvicalova, Radka; Slade, Rebekha; Gawne, Lauren (2017). "BOLD documentation of the Langtang language (Rasuwa)". <i>Nepalese Linguistics</i>. <b>32</b>: 33–39.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Nepalese+Linguistics&rft.atitle=BOLD+documentation+of+the+Langtang+language+%28Rasuwa%29.&rft.volume=32&rft.pages=33-39&rft.date=2017&rft.aulast=Kvicalova&rft.aufirst=Radka&rft.au=Slade%2C+Rebekha&rft.au=Gawne%2C+Lauren&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AYolmo+language" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-:1-24"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:1_24-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:1_24-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:1_24-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:1_24-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:1_24-4"><sup><i><b>e</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:1_24-5"><sup><i><b>f</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGawne2011" class="citation book cs1">Gawne, Lauren (2011). <i>Lamjung Yolmo - Nepali - English Dictionary</i>. Melbourne: Custom Book Centre, The University of Melbourne.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Lamjung+Yolmo+-+Nepali+-+English+Dictionary&rft.place=Melbourne&rft.pub=Custom+Book+Centre%2C+The+University+of+Melbourne&rft.date=2011&rft.aulast=Gawne&rft.aufirst=Lauren&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AYolmo+language" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-25"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-25">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGawne2009–2016" class="citation journal cs1">Gawne, Lauren (2009–2016). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://catalog.paradisec.org.au/collections/LG1">"Yolmo (also known as Helambu Sherpa, Nepal)"</a>. <i>Paradisec</i>. Digital collection managed by PARADISEC. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.4225%2F72%2F56E825B0B80EA">10.4225/72/56E825B0B80EA</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Paradisec&rft.atitle=Yolmo+%28also+known+as+Helambu+Sherpa%2C+Nepal%29&rft.date=2009%2F2016&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.4225%2F72%2F56E825B0B80EA&rft.aulast=Gawne&rft.aufirst=Lauren&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fcatalog.paradisec.org.au%2Fcollections%2FLG1&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AYolmo+language" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-:6-26"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:6_26-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:6_26-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:6_26-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGawne2017" class="citation journal cs1">Gawne, Lauren (2017). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.elpublishing.org/itempage/147">"Syuba (Kagate)"</a>. <i>Language Documentation and Description</i>. <b>13</b>: 65–93.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Language+Documentation+and+Description&rft.atitle=Syuba+%28Kagate%29&rft.volume=13&rft.pages=65-93&rft.date=2017&rft.aulast=Gawne&rft.aufirst=Lauren&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.elpublishing.org%2Fitempage%2F147&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AYolmo+language" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-:0-27"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:0_27-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:0_27-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGawne2009" class="citation journal cs1">Gawne, Lauren (2009). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://catalog.paradisec.org.au/collections/SUY1">"Kagate (Nepal)"</a>. <i>catalog.paradisec.org.au</i>. Digital collection managed by PARADISEC. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.4225%2F72%2F56E976A071650">10.4225/72/56E976A071650</a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2018-08-21</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=catalog.paradisec.org.au&rft.atitle=Kagate+%28Nepal%29&rft.date=2009&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.4225%2F72%2F56E976A071650&rft.aulast=Gawne&rft.aufirst=Lauren&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fcatalog.paradisec.org.au%2Fcollections%2FSUY1&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AYolmo+language" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-:9-28"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:9_28-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:9_28-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:9_28-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHöhligHari1976" class="citation book cs1">Höhlig, Monika; Hari, Anna Maria (1976). <i>Kagate phonemic summary</i>. Kathmandu: Summer Institute of Linguistics Institute of Nepal and Asian Studies.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Kagate+phonemic+summary&rft.place=Kathmandu&rft.pub=Summer+Institute+of+Linguistics+Institute+of+Nepal+and+Asian+Studies&rft.date=1976&rft.aulast=H%C3%B6hlig&rft.aufirst=Monika&rft.au=Hari%2C+Anna+Maria&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AYolmo+language" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-29"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-29">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGawne2010" class="citation journal cs1">Gawne, Lauren (2010). "Lamjung Yolmo: a dialect of Yolmo, also known as Helambu Sherpa". <i>Nepalese Linguistics</i>. <b>25</b>: 34–41.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Nepalese+Linguistics&rft.atitle=Lamjung+Yolmo%3A+a+dialect+of+Yolmo%2C+also+known+as+Helambu+Sherpa&rft.volume=25&rft.pages=34-41&rft.date=2010&rft.aulast=Gawne&rft.aufirst=Lauren&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AYolmo+language" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-:03-30"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:03_30-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:03_30-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:03_30-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:03_30-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:03_30-4"><sup><i><b>e</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSIL_International_and_HIS_Nepal2015" class="citation book cs1">SIL International and HIS Nepal (2015). <i>Syuba-Nepali-English Dictionary</i>. Kathmandu: Himalayan Indigenous Society Nepal.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Syuba-Nepali-English+Dictionary&rft.place=Kathmandu&rft.pub=Himalayan+Indigenous+Society+Nepal&rft.date=2015&rft.au=SIL+International+and+HIS+Nepal&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AYolmo+language" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-31"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-31">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHölig1972" class="citation journal cs1">Hölig, Monika (1972). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://catalog.paradisec.org.au/collections/SUY1">"Kagate (Nepal)"</a>. <i>catalog.paradisec.org.au</i>. Digital collection managed by PARADISEC. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.4225%2F72%2F5a2aa8fa3fde0">10.4225/72/5a2aa8fa3fde0</a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2018-08-21</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=catalog.paradisec.org.au&rft.atitle=Kagate+%28Nepal%29&rft.date=1972&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.4225%2F72%2F5a2aa8fa3fde0&rft.aulast=H%C3%B6lig&rft.aufirst=Monika&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fcatalog.paradisec.org.au%2Fcollections%2FSUY1&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AYolmo+language" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-32"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-32">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMother_Tongue_Centre_Nepal2013" class="citation journal cs1">Mother Tongue Centre Nepal (2013). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://catalog.paradisec.org.au/collections/MTC1">"Syuba audio recordings from the Mother Tongue Centre Nepal (MTCN)"</a>. <i>catalog.paradisec.org.au</i>. Digital collection managed by PARADISEC. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.4225%2F72%2F5a2aa8fe9880e">10.4225/72/5a2aa8fe9880e</a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2018-08-21</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=catalog.paradisec.org.au&rft.atitle=Syuba+audio+recordings+from+the+Mother+Tongue+Centre+Nepal+%28MTCN%29&rft.date=2013&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.4225%2F72%2F5a2aa8fe9880e&rft.au=Mother+Tongue+Centre+Nepal&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fcatalog.paradisec.org.au%2Fcollections%2FMTC1&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AYolmo+language" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-:17-33"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:17_33-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:17_33-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSimonsFennig" class="citation web cs1">Simons, Gary F.; Fennig, Charles D. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.ethnologue.com/">"Ethnologue: Languages of the World"</a>. <i>Ethnologue</i> (Twenty-first ed.). Dallas, Texas: SIL International<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2018-11-14</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Ethnologue&rft.atitle=Ethnologue%3A+Languages+of+the+World&rft.aulast=Simons&rft.aufirst=Gary+F.&rft.au=Fennig%2C+Charles+D.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.ethnologue.com%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AYolmo+language" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-:11-34"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:11_34-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:11_34-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFGawne2016">Gawne (2016)</a>, pp. 5–6</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-:022-35"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-:022_35-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMitchell,_Jessica_R._&_Stephanie_R._Eichentopf2013" class="citation book cs1">Mitchell, Jessica R. & Stephanie R. Eichentopf (2013). <i>Sociolinguistic survey of Kagate: Language vitality and community desires</i>. Kathmandu: Central Department of Linguistics Tribhuvan University, Nepal and SIL International.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Sociolinguistic+survey+of+Kagate%3A+Language+vitality+and+community+desires.&rft.place=Kathmandu&rft.pub=Central+Department+of+Linguistics+Tribhuvan+University%2C+Nepal+and+SIL+International&rft.date=2013&rft.au=Mitchell%2C+Jessica+R.+%26+Stephanie+R.+Eichentopf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AYolmo+language" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-36"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-36">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Lauren Gawne & Thomas Owen-Smith. 2016. The ‘General Fact’ copula in Yolmo and the influence of Tamang. <i>2016 Annual Meeting of the Linguistics Association of Great Britain (LAGB)</i>. University of York<b>:</b> September 6–9.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-:16-37"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:16_37-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:16_37-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHuber2005" class="citation book cs1">Huber, Brigitte (2005). <i>The Tibetan dialect of Lende (Kyirong) : a grammatical description with historical annotations</i>. Bonn: VGH Wissenschaftsverlag. pp. 20–21. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/3882800690" title="Special:BookSources/3882800690"><bdi>3882800690</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/60613565">60613565</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Tibetan+dialect+of+Lende+%28Kyirong%29+%3A+a+grammatical+description+with+historical+annotations&rft.place=Bonn&rft.pages=20-21&rft.pub=VGH+Wissenschaftsverlag&rft.date=2005&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F60613565&rft.isbn=3882800690&rft.aulast=Huber&rft.aufirst=Brigitte&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AYolmo+language" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-38"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-38">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Hildebrandt, Kristine A. and Amos B. Teo (2016). Tibeto-Burman Tone Typology. <i>International Workshop on the Typological Profiles of Language Families of South Asia</i>. Uppsala, Sweden, September 16, 2016.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-39"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-39">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFTeoGawneBaese-Berk2015" class="citation journal cs1">Teo, Amos; Gawne, Lauren; Baese-Berk, Melissa (2015). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.internationalphoneticassociation.org/icphs-proceedings/ICPhS2015/Papers/ICPHS0893.pdf">"Tone and intonation: A case study in two Tibetic languages"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. <i>Proceedings of the 18th International Conference on Phonetic Sciences</i>. Glasgow, UK: University of Glasgow. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-85261-941-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-85261-941-4"><bdi>978-0-85261-941-4</bdi></a>. Paper number 0893.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Proceedings+of+the+18th+International+Conference+on+Phonetic+Sciences&rft.atitle=Tone+and+intonation%3A+A+case+study+in+two+Tibetic+languages&rft.date=2015&rft.isbn=978-0-85261-941-4&rft.aulast=Teo&rft.aufirst=Amos&rft.au=Gawne%2C+Lauren&rft.au=Baese-Berk%2C+Melissa&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.internationalphoneticassociation.org%2Ficphs-proceedings%2FICPhS2015%2FPapers%2FICPHS0893.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AYolmo+language" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-:13-40"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:13_40-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:13_40-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHariLama2004" class="citation book cs1">Hari, Anna Maria; Lama, Chhegu (2004). <i>Yohlmo-Nepali-English Dictionary</i>. Kathmandu: Central Department of Linguistics. p. 710.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Yohlmo-Nepali-English+Dictionary&rft.place=Kathmandu&rft.pages=710&rft.pub=Central+Department+of+Linguistics&rft.date=2004&rft.aulast=Hari&rft.aufirst=Anna+Maria&rft.au=Lama%2C+Chhegu&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AYolmo+language" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-41"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-41">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFGawne2016">Gawne (2016)</a>, pp. 66–68</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-42"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-42">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFChelliahHyslop2011" class="citation journal cs1">Chelliah, Shobhana L.; Hyslop, Gwendolyn (2011). "Introduction to Special Issue on Optional Case Marking in Tibeto-Burman". <i>Linguistics of the Tibeto-Burman Area</i>. <b>34</b> (2): 1–7. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.15144%2FLTBA-34.2.1">10.15144/LTBA-34.2.1</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Linguistics+of+the+Tibeto-Burman+Area&rft.atitle=Introduction+to+Special+Issue+on+Optional+Case+Marking+in+Tibeto-Burman&rft.volume=34&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=1-7&rft.date=2011&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.15144%2FLTBA-34.2.1&rft.aulast=Chelliah&rft.aufirst=Shobhana+L.&rft.au=Hyslop%2C+Gwendolyn&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AYolmo+language" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-43"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-43">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Genetti, C. and K.A. Hildebrandt. 2004. The two adjective classes in Manange. In R.M.W. Dixon and A.Y. Aikhenvald (eds.) Adjective Classes: A Cross-Linguistic Typology. 74-97. Oxford University Press.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-:04-44"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:04_44-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:04_44-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHari2010" class="citation book cs1">Hari, Anne Marie (2010). <i>Yolmo Sketch Grammar</i>. Kathmandu: Ekta Books.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Yolmo+Sketch+Grammar&rft.place=Kathmandu&rft.pub=Ekta+Books&rft.date=2010&rft.aulast=Hari&rft.aufirst=Anne+Marie&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AYolmo+language" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-45"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-45">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGawne2017" class="citation journal cs1">Gawne, Lauren (2017-01-24). Gawne, Lauren; Hill, Nathan W (eds.). "Egophoric evidentiality in Bodish languages". <i>Evidential Systems of Tibetan Languages</i>: 61–94. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1515%2F9783110473742">10.1515/9783110473742</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9783110473742" title="Special:BookSources/9783110473742"><bdi>9783110473742</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Evidential+Systems+of+Tibetan+Languages&rft.atitle=Egophoric+evidentiality+in+Bodish+languages&rft.pages=61-94&rft.date=2017-01-24&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1515%2F9783110473742&rft.isbn=9783110473742&rft.aulast=Gawne&rft.aufirst=Lauren&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AYolmo+language" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-46"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-46">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFTournadre2008" class="citation book cs1">Tournadre, N. (2008). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20110720224934/http://tournadre.nicolas.free.fr/fichiers/2008-Conjunct.pdf">"Arguments against the Concept of 'Conjunct'/'Disjunct' in Tibetan"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. In B. Huber; M. Volkart; P. Widmer; P. Schwieger (eds.). <i>Chomolangma, Demawend und Kasbek. Festschrift für Roland Bielmeier zu seinem 65. Geburtstag</i>. Vol. 1. pp. 281–308. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://tournadre.nicolas.free.fr/fichiers/2008-Conjunct.pdf">the original</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span> on 2011-07-20.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Arguments+against+the+Concept+of+%E2%80%98Conjunct%E2%80%99%2F%E2%80%98Disjunct%E2%80%99+in+Tibetan&rft.btitle=Chomolangma%2C+Demawend+und+Kasbek.+Festschrift+f%C3%BCr+Roland+Bielmeier+zu+seinem+65.+Geburtstag&rft.pages=281-308&rft.date=2008&rft.aulast=Tournadre&rft.aufirst=N.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Ftournadre.nicolas.free.fr%2Ffichiers%2F2008-Conjunct.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AYolmo+language" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-47"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-47">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFNoonan2008" class="citation cs2">Noonan, Michael (2008), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://crossasia-repository.ub.uni-heidelberg.de/216/1/Nominalizations_Bodic_Languages.pdf">"Nominalizations in Bodic languages"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>, <i>Rethinking Grammaticalization</i>, Typological Studies in Language, vol. 76, John Benjamins Publishing Company, pp. 219–237, <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1075%2Ftsl.76.11noo">10.1075/tsl.76.11noo</a>, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9789027229885" title="Special:BookSources/9789027229885"><bdi>9789027229885</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Nominalizations+in+Bodic+languages&rft.btitle=Rethinking+Grammaticalization&rft.series=Typological+Studies+in+Language&rft.pages=219-237&rft.pub=John+Benjamins+Publishing+Company&rft.date=2008&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1075%2Ftsl.76.11noo&rft.isbn=9789027229885&rft.aulast=Noonan&rft.aufirst=Michael&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fcrossasia-repository.ub.uni-heidelberg.de%2F216%2F1%2FNominalizations_Bodic_Languages.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AYolmo+language" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-48"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-48">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDe_Lancey2002" class="citation journal cs1">De Lancey, Scott (2002). "Relativization and Nominalization in Bodic". <i>Proceedings of the Twenty-Eighth Annual Meeting of the Berkeley Linguistics Society: Special Session on Tibeto-Burman and Southeast Asian Linguistics</i>: 55–72.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Proceedings+of+the+Twenty-Eighth+Annual+Meeting+of+the+Berkeley+Linguistics+Society%3A+Special+Session+on+Tibeto-Burman+and+Southeast+Asian+Linguistics&rft.atitle=Relativization+and+Nominalization+in+Bodic&rft.pages=55-72&rft.date=2002&rft.aulast=De+Lancey&rft.aufirst=Scott&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AYolmo+language" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-49"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-49">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGawne2016a" class="citation journal cs1">Gawne, Lauren (2016a). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://eprints.soas.ac.uk/23716/1/questions-answers-lamjung-yolmo-gawne.pdf">"Questions and answers in Lamjung Yolmo"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. <i>Journal of Pragmatics</i>. <b>101</b>: 31–53. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.pragma.2016.04.002">10.1016/j.pragma.2016.04.002</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0378-2166">0378-2166</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+Pragmatics&rft.atitle=Questions+and+answers+in+Lamjung+Yolmo&rft.volume=101&rft.pages=31-53&rft.date=2016&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1016%2Fj.pragma.2016.04.002&rft.issn=0378-2166&rft.aulast=Gawne&rft.aufirst=Lauren&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Feprints.soas.ac.uk%2F23716%2F1%2Fquestions-answers-lamjung-yolmo-gawne.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AYolmo+language" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-:14-50"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:14_50-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:14_50-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGawne2015" class="citation journal cs1">Gawne, Lauren (2015). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://eprints.soas.ac.uk/22695/1/Gawne%202015%20RSTB.pdf">"The reported speech evidential particle in Lamjung Yolmo"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. <i>Linguistics of the Tibeto-Burman Area</i>. <b>38</b> (2): 292–318. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1075%2Fltba.38.2.09gaw">10.1075/ltba.38.2.09gaw</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0731-3500">0731-3500</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Linguistics+of+the+Tibeto-Burman+Area&rft.atitle=The+reported+speech+evidential+particle+in+Lamjung+Yolmo&rft.volume=38&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=292-318&rft.date=2015&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1075%2Fltba.38.2.09gaw&rft.issn=0731-3500&rft.aulast=Gawne&rft.aufirst=Lauren&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Feprints.soas.ac.uk%2F22695%2F1%2FGawne%25202015%2520RSTB.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AYolmo+language" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-51"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-51">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHöhlig1978" class="citation journal cs1">Höhlig, Monika (1978). Grimes, Joseph E (ed.). "Speaker orientation in Syuwa (Kagate)". <i>Papers on Discourse</i>. <b>50</b>. Kathmandu: Summer Institute of Linguistics: 19–24.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Papers+on+Discourse&rft.atitle=Speaker+orientation+in+Syuwa+%28Kagate%29&rft.volume=50&rft.pages=19-24&rft.date=1978&rft.aulast=H%C3%B6hlig&rft.aufirst=Monika&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AYolmo+language" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> </ol></div></div> <div style="display:none;"> <p>EGO:egophoric PE:perceptual RS:reported speech marker </p> </div> <div class="navbox-styles"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1129693374">.mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul{margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt,.mw-parser-output .hlist li{margin:0;display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul ul{display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist .mw-empty-li{display:none}.mw-parser-output .hlist dt::after{content:": "}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li::after{content:" · ";font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li:last-child::after{content:none}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd dd:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dd dt:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dd li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt dd:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt dt:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dd:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dt:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li li:first-child::before{content:" (";font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dd dt:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dd li:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt dt:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt li:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dt:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li li:last-child::after{content:")";font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .hlist ol{counter-reset:listitem}.mw-parser-output .hlist ol>li{counter-increment:listitem}.mw-parser-output .hlist ol>li::before{content:" "counter(listitem)"\a0 "}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd ol>li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt ol>li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li ol>li:first-child::before{content:" ("counter(listitem)"\a0 "}</style><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236075235">.mw-parser-output .navbox{box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #a2a9b1;width:100%;clear:both;font-size:88%;text-align:center;padding:1px;margin:1em auto 0}.mw-parser-output .navbox .navbox{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .navbox+.navbox,.mw-parser-output .navbox+.navbox-styles+.navbox{margin-top:-1px}.mw-parser-output .navbox-inner,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup{width:100%}.mw-parser-output .navbox-group,.mw-parser-output .navbox-title,.mw-parser-output .navbox-abovebelow{padding:0.25em 1em;line-height:1.5em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .navbox-group{white-space:nowrap;text-align:right}.mw-parser-output .navbox,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup{background-color:#fdfdfd}.mw-parser-output .navbox-list{line-height:1.5em;border-color:#fdfdfd}.mw-parser-output .navbox-list-with-group{text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid}.mw-parser-output tr+tr>.navbox-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output tr+tr>.navbox-group,.mw-parser-output tr+tr>.navbox-image,.mw-parser-output tr+tr>.navbox-list{border-top:2px solid #fdfdfd}.mw-parser-output .navbox-title{background-color:#ccf}.mw-parser-output .navbox-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output .navbox-group,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup .navbox-title{background-color:#ddf}.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup .navbox-group,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup .navbox-abovebelow{background-color:#e6e6ff}.mw-parser-output .navbox-even{background-color:#f7f7f7}.mw-parser-output .navbox-odd{background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td dl,.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td ol,.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td ul,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist ul{padding:0.125em 0}.mw-parser-output .navbox .navbar{display:block;font-size:100%}.mw-parser-output .navbox-title .navbar{float:left;text-align:left;margin-right:0.5em}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .navbox-image img{max-width:none!important}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .navbox{display:none!important}}</style></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Sino-Tibetan_branches" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="3"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239400231">.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar ul{display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::before{margin-right:-0.125em;content:"[ "}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::after{margin-left:-0.125em;content:" ]"}.mw-parser-output .navbar li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .navbar a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini abbr{font-variant:small-caps;border-bottom:none;text-decoration:none;cursor:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-full{font-size:114%;margin:0 7em}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-mini{font-size:114%;margin:0 4em}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}}</style><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Sino-Tibetan_branches" title="Template:Sino-Tibetan branches"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Sino-Tibetan_branches" title="Template talk:Sino-Tibetan branches"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Sino-Tibetan_branches" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Sino-Tibetan branches"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Sino-Tibetan_branches" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Sino-Tibetan_languages" title="Sino-Tibetan languages">Sino-Tibetan</a> branches</div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Western <a href="/wiki/Himalayas" title="Himalayas">Himalayas</a> (<a href="/wiki/Himachal_Pradesh" title="Himachal Pradesh">Himachal</a>,<br /><a href="/wiki/Uttarakhand" title="Uttarakhand">Uttarakhand</a>, <a href="/wiki/Nepal" title="Nepal">Nepal</a>, <a href="/wiki/Sikkim" title="Sikkim">Sikkim</a>)</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><b><a href="/wiki/West_Himalayish_languages" title="West Himalayish languages">West Himalayish</a></b></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/Tamangic_languages" title="Tamangic languages">Tamangic</a></b></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Newaric_languages" title="Newaric languages">Newaric</a> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Newar_language" title="Newar language">Newar</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Baram%E2%80%93Thangmi_languages" title="Baram–Thangmi languages">Baram–Thangmi</a></li></ul></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/Kiranti_languages" title="Kiranti languages">Kiranti</a></b></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dhimalish_languages" title="Dhimalish languages">Dhimalish</a> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Dhimal_language" title="Dhimal language">Dhimal</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Toto_language" title="Toto language">Toto</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Lhokpu_language" title="Lhokpu language">Lhokpu</a></i></li></ul></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Lepcha_language" title="Lepcha language">Lepcha</a></i></li></ul> </div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th id="Greater_Magaric" scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Greater_Magaric_languages" title="Greater Magaric languages">Greater Magaric</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Magaric_languages" title="Magaric languages">Magaric</a> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Magar_language" title="Magar language">Magar</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Kham_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Kham language">Kham</a></i></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chepangic_languages" title="Chepangic languages">Chepangic</a> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Chepang_language" title="Chepang language">Chepang</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Bhujel_language" title="Bhujel language">Bhujel</a></i></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Raji%E2%80%93Raute_languages" title="Raji–Raute languages">Raji–Raute</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Dura_language" title="Dura language">Dura</a></i>–<i><a href="/wiki/Tandrange_language" title="Tandrange language">Tandrange</a></i></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div> </div></td><td class="noviewer navbox-image" rowspan="7" style="width:1px;padding:0 0 0 2px"><div><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Sino-Tibetan_Languages_Map.png" class="mw-file-description" title="Map of Sino-Tibetan languages"><img alt="Map of Sino-Tibetan languages" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/17/Sino-Tibetan_Languages_Map.png/200px-Sino-Tibetan_Languages_Map.png" decoding="async" width="200" height="264" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/17/Sino-Tibetan_Languages_Map.png/300px-Sino-Tibetan_Languages_Map.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/17/Sino-Tibetan_Languages_Map.png/400px-Sino-Tibetan_Languages_Map.png 2x" data-file-width="2115" data-file-height="2792" /></a></span></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Eastern <a href="/wiki/Himalayas" title="Himalayas">Himalayas</a><br />(<a href="/wiki/Tibet" title="Tibet">Tibet</a>, <a href="/wiki/Bhutan" title="Bhutan">Bhutan</a>, <a href="/wiki/Arunachal_Pradesh" title="Arunachal Pradesh">Arunachal</a>)</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><b><a href="/wiki/Bodish_languages" title="Bodish languages">Bodish</a></b> <ul><li><b><a href="/wiki/Tibetic_languages" title="Tibetic languages">Tibetic</a></b></li> <li><a href="/wiki/East_Bodish_languages" title="East Bodish languages">East Bodish</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Tshangla_language" title="Tshangla language">Tshangla</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Basum_language" title="Basum language">Basum</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Nam_language" title="Nam language">Nam</a></i>?</li></ul></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Gongduk_language" title="Gongduk language">Gongduk</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/%CA%BCOle_language" title="ʼOle language">ʼOle</a></i></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/Tani_languages" title="Tani languages">Tani</a></b></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chamdo_languages" title="Chamdo languages">Chamdo</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Myanmar" title="Myanmar">Myanmar</a> and Indo-<br />Burmese border</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Karbi_language" title="Karbi language">Karbi</a></i></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/Kuki-Chin_languages" title="Kuki-Chin languages">Kuki-Chin</a></b></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mruic_languages" title="Mruic languages">Mruic</a> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Mru_language" title="Mru language">Mru</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Anu-Hkongso_language" title="Anu-Hkongso language">Hkongso</a></i></li></ul></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Pyu_language_(Sino-Tibetan)" title="Pyu language (Sino-Tibetan)">Pyu</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Taman_language_(Myanmar)" title="Taman language (Myanmar)">Taman</a></i></li></ul> </div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">"<a href="/wiki/Naga_languages" title="Naga languages">Naga</a>"</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ao_languages" title="Ao languages">Ao</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Angami%E2%80%93Pochuri_languages" title="Angami–Pochuri languages">Angami–Pochuri</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Meitei_language" title="Meitei language">Meitei</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tangkhulic_languages" title="Tangkhulic languages">Tangkhulic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zemeic_languages" title="Zemeic languages">Zeme</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Sal_languages" title="Sal languages">Sal</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Boro%E2%80%93Garo_languages" title="Boro–Garo languages">Boro–Garo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Konyak_languages" title="Konyak languages">Konyak</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jingpho%E2%80%93Luish_languages" title="Jingpho–Luish languages">Jingpho–Luish</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/East_Asia" title="East Asia">East</a> and <a href="/wiki/Southeast_Asia" title="Southeast Asia">Southeast Asia</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><b><a href="/wiki/Sinitic_languages" title="Sinitic languages">Sinitic</a></b></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Bai_language" title="Bai language">Bai</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Tujia_language" title="Tujia language">Tujia</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nungish_languages" title="Nungish languages">Nungish</a></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/Karenic_languages" title="Karenic languages">Karenic</a></b></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Gong_language" title="Gong language">Gong</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Kathu_language" title="Kathu language">Kathu</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cai%E2%80%93Long_languages" title="Cai–Long languages">Cai–Long</a> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Caijia_language" title="Caijia language">Caijia</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Longjia_language" title="Longjia language">Longjia</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Luren_language" title="Luren language">Luren</a></i></li></ul></li></ul> </div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th id="Burmo-Qiangic" scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Burmo-Qiangic_languages" title="Burmo-Qiangic languages">Burmo-Qiangic</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><b><a href="/wiki/Qiangic_languages" title="Qiangic languages">Qiangic</a></b> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Gyalrongic_languages" title="Gyalrongic languages">Gyalrongic</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ersuic_languages" title="Ersuic languages">Ersuic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Naic_languages" title="Naic languages">Naic</a></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/Lolo-Burmese_languages" title="Lolo-Burmese languages">Lolo-Burmese</a></b> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Mondzish_languages" title="Mondzish languages">Mondzish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Burmish_languages" title="Burmish languages">Burmish</a></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/Loloish_languages" title="Loloish languages">Loloish</a></b></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Language_isolates_and_independent_language_families_in_Arunachal" class="mw-redirect" title="Language isolates and independent language families in Arunachal">Dubious</a> (possible<br /><a href="/wiki/Language_isolate" title="Language isolate">isolates</a>) (<a href="/wiki/Language_isolates_and_independent_language_families_in_Arunachal" class="mw-redirect" title="Language isolates and independent language families in Arunachal">Arunachal</a>)</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hrusish_languages" title="Hrusish languages">Hrusish</a> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Hruso_language" title="Hruso language">Hruso</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Mijiic_languages" title="Mijiic languages">Mijiic</a></i></li></ul></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/Kho-Bwa_languages" title="Kho-Bwa languages">Kho-Bwa</a></b> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Puroik_language" title="Puroik language">Puroik</a></i></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Miju_languages" title="Miju languages">Miju–Meyor</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Songlin_language" title="Songlin language">Songlin</a></i></li></ul> </div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th id="Greater_Siangic" scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Greater_Siangic_languages" title="Greater Siangic languages">Greater Siangic</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Siangic_languages" title="Siangic languages">Siangic</a> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Koro_language_(India)" title="Koro language (India)">Koro</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Milang_language" title="Milang language">Milang</a></i></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Digaro_languages" title="Digaro languages">Idu–Taraon</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Proposed groupings</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Central_Tibeto-Burman_languages" title="Central Tibeto-Burman languages">Central Tibeto-Burman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kuki-Chin%E2%80%93Naga_languages" title="Kuki-Chin–Naga languages">Kuki-Chin–Naga</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Macro-Bai_languages" title="Macro-Bai languages">Macro-Bai</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mahakiranti_languages" title="Mahakiranti languages">Mahakiranti</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rung_languages" title="Rung languages">Rung</a></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/Tibeto-Burman_languages" title="Tibeto-Burman languages">Tibeto-Burman</a></b></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tibeto-Kanauri_languages" title="Tibeto-Kanauri languages">Tibeto-Kanauri</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Proto-language" title="Proto-language">Proto-languages</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Proto-Sino-Tibetan_language" title="Proto-Sino-Tibetan language">Proto-Sino-Tibetan</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Proto-Tibeto-Burman_language" title="Proto-Tibeto-Burman language">Proto-Tibeto-Burman</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Proto-Loloish_language" title="Proto-Loloish language">Proto-Loloish</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Proto-Karenic_language" title="Proto-Karenic language">Proto-Karenic</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Proto-Min" title="Proto-Min">Proto-Min</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Proto-Hakka" title="Proto-Hakka">Proto-Hakka</a></i></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="3"><div><i>Italics</i> indicates single languages that are also considered to be separate branches.</div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Bodic_(Tibeto-Kanauri)_languages" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Bodic_languages" title="Template:Bodic languages"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Bodic_languages" title="Template talk:Bodic languages"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Bodic_languages" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Bodic languages"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Bodic_(Tibeto-Kanauri)_languages" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Tibeto-Kanauri_languages" title="Tibeto-Kanauri languages">Bodic (Tibeto-Kanauri) languages</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/West_Himalayish_languages" title="West Himalayish languages">West Himalayish<br />(Kanauric)</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Western</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Kinnauric</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Kinnauri_language" title="Kinnauri language">Kinnauri</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chitkuli_Kinnauri_language" title="Chitkuli Kinnauri language">Chitkuli Kinnauri</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sunam_language" title="Sunam language">Sunam</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Lahaulic</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Pattani_language" title="Pattani language">Pattani</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tinani_language" title="Tinani language">Tinani</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Eastern</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Central</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bunan_language" title="Bunan language">Bunan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rongpo_language" title="Rongpo language">Rongpo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sunam_language" title="Sunam language">Sunam</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Zhangzhung_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Zhangzhung language">Zhangzhung</a></i></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Almora</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Rangas_language" title="Rangas language">Rangas</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Darmiya_language" title="Darmiya language">Darmiya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Byangsi_language" title="Byangsi language">Byangsi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dhuleli_language" title="Dhuleli language">Dhuleli</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chaudangsi_language" title="Chaudangsi language">Chaudangsi</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Bodish_languages" title="Bodish languages">Bodish</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Tibetic_languages" title="Tibetic languages">Tibetic</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Central Tibetan</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Central_Tibetan_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Central Tibetan language">Central Tibetan (Ü-Tsang)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Standard_Tibetan" class="mw-redirect" title="Standard Tibetan">Standard Tibetan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mugom_dialect" title="Mugom dialect">Mugom</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Amdo</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Amdo_Tibetan" title="Amdo Tibetan">Amdo Tibetan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gserpa_language" title="Gserpa language">Gserpa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Khalong_Tibetan_language" title="Khalong Tibetan language">Khalong</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/MDungnag_language" title="MDungnag language">mDungnag</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Kham (Eastern)</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Khams_Tibetan" title="Khams Tibetan">Khams Tibetan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tseku_language" title="Tseku language">Tseku</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Baima_language" title="Baima language">Baima</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Choni_language" title="Choni language">Choni</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zhongu_Tibetan_language" title="Zhongu Tibetan language">Zhongu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dongwang_Tibetan_language" title="Dongwang Tibetan language">Dongwang</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Drugchu_language" title="Drugchu language">Drugchu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zitsadegu_language" title="Zitsadegu language">Zitsadegu</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Southern</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Sikkimese_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Sikkimese language">Sikkimese</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dzongkha" title="Dzongkha">Dzongkha (Bhutanese)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Khamba_language" title="Khamba language">Khamba</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Laya_dialect" title="Laya dialect">Laya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lunana_dialect" title="Lunana dialect">Lunana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Groma_language" title="Groma language">Groma</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Brokkat_language" title="Brokkat language">Brokkat</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Brokpa_language" title="Brokpa language">Brokpa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chochangachakha_language" title="Chochangachakha language">Chochangachakha</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lakha_language" title="Lakha language">Lakha</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Naapa_language" title="Naapa language">Naapa</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Western</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Ladakhi%E2%80%93Balti_languages" title="Ladakhi–Balti languages">Ladakhi–Balti (Western Archaic)</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ladakhi_language" title="Ladakhi language">Ladakhi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zangskari_language" title="Zangskari language">Zangskari</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Changthang_language" title="Changthang language">Changthang</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Purgi_language" title="Purgi language">Purgi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Balti_language" title="Balti language">Balti</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Lahuli%E2%80%93Spiti_languages" title="Lahuli–Spiti languages">Lahuli–Spiti (Western Innovative)</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Stod_Bhoti" title="Stod Bhoti">Lahuli (Stod Bhoti)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spiti_Bhoti" title="Spiti Bhoti">Spiti Bhoti</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nyamkat_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Nyamkat language">Nyamkat</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bhoti_Kinnauri" title="Bhoti Kinnauri">Bhoti Kinnauri</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tukpa_language" title="Tukpa language">Tukpa</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Sherpa-Jirel</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Sherpa_language" title="Sherpa language">Sherpa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jirel_language" title="Jirel language">Jirel</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Kyirong%E2%80%93Kagate_languages" title="Kyirong–Kagate languages">Kyirong–Kagate</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Kyirong_language" title="Kyirong language">Kyirong</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kagate_language" title="Kagate language">Kagate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tsum_language" title="Tsum language">Tsum</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Yolmo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nubri_language" title="Nubri language">Nubri</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gyalsumdo_language" title="Gyalsumdo language">Gyalsumdo</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Tshangla-East Bodish</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Tshangla</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Tshangla_language" title="Tshangla language">Tshangla</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/East_Bodish_languages" title="East Bodish languages">East Bodish</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Takpa_language" title="Takpa language">Takpa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dzala_language" title="Dzala language">Dzala</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nyen_language" title="Nyen language">Nyen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chali_language" title="Chali language">Chali</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bumthang_language" title="Bumthang language">Bumthang</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kheng_language" title="Kheng language">Kheng</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kurt%C3%B6p_language" title="Kurtöp language">Kurtöp</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nupbi_language" title="Nupbi language">Nupbi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%CA%BCOle_language" title="ʼOle language">ʼOle</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Basum</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Basum_language" title="Basum language">Basum</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Tamangic_languages" title="Tamangic languages">Tamangic</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">TGTM</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Tamang_language" title="Tamang language">Tamang</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gurung_language" title="Gurung language">Gurung</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thakali_language" title="Thakali language">Thakali</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Manang_language" title="Manang language">Manang</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chantyal_language" title="Chantyal language">Chantyal</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Ghale_languages" title="Ghale languages">Ghale</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ghale_language" title="Ghale language">Ghale</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kutang_language" title="Kutang language">Kutang</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Kaike</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Kaike_language" title="Kaike language">Kaike</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Languages_of_Northeast_India" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Languages_of_Northeast_India" title="Template:Languages of Northeast India"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Languages_of_Northeast_India" title="Template talk:Languages of Northeast India"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Languages_of_Northeast_India" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Languages of Northeast India"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Languages_of_Northeast_India" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Northeast_India#Languages" title="Northeast India">Languages</a> of <a href="/wiki/Northeast_India" title="Northeast India">Northeast India</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Languages_of_Arunachal_Pradesh" class="mw-redirect" title="Languages of Arunachal Pradesh">Arunachal<br />Pradesh</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Sal_languages" title="Sal languages">Sal</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Deori_language" title="Deori language">Deori</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nocte_language" title="Nocte language">Nocte</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Singpho_dialect" title="Singpho dialect">Singpho</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tangsa_language" title="Tangsa language">Tangsa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tutsa_language" title="Tutsa language">Tutsa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wancho_language" title="Wancho language">Wancho</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Tani_languages" title="Tani languages">Tani</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Adi_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Adi language">Adi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Apatani_language" title="Apatani language">Apatani</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bori_language" title="Bori language">Bori</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gallong_language" title="Gallong language">Gallong</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nishi_language" title="Nishi language">Nishi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tangam_language" title="Tangam language">Tangam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yano_language" title="Yano language">Yano</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Other</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Assamese_language" title="Assamese language">Assamese</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hajong_language" title="Hajong language">Hajong</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Karbi_language" title="Karbi language">Karbi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Milang_language" title="Milang language">Milang</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nefamese" title="Nefamese">Nefamese</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Puimei_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Puimei language">Puimei</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Languages_of_Assam" class="mw-redirect" title="Languages of Assam">Assam</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Indo-Aryan_languages" title="Indo-Aryan languages">Indo-Aryan</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Assamese_language" title="Assamese language">Assamese‎</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bengali_language" title="Bengali language">Bengali</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bishnupriya_Manipuri_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Bishnupriya Manipuri language">Bishnupriya Manipuri</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Haflong_Hindi" title="Haflong Hindi">Haflong Hindi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sylheti_language" title="Sylheti language">Sylheti</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Sino-Tibetan_languages" title="Sino-Tibetan languages">Sino-Tibetan</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Kuki-Chin_languages" title="Kuki-Chin languages">Kuki-Chin</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Amri_language" title="Amri language">Amri</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bawm_language" title="Bawm language">Bawm</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biate_language" title="Biate language">Biate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chiru_language" title="Chiru language">Chiru</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gangte_language" title="Gangte language">Gangte</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hmar_language" title="Hmar language">Hmar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hrangkhol_language" title="Hrangkhol language">Hrangkhol</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Karbi_language" title="Karbi language">Karbi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paite_language" title="Paite language">Paite</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ranglong_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Ranglong language">Ranglong</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Saihriem_language" title="Saihriem language">Saihriem</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sakachep_language" title="Sakachep language">Sakachep</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vaiphei_language" title="Vaiphei language">Vaiphei</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Sal_languages" title="Sal languages">Sal</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Barman_language" title="Barman language">Barman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bodo_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Bodo language">Bodo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deori_language" title="Deori language">Deori</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dimasa_language" title="Dimasa language">Dimasa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Garo_language" title="Garo language">Garo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kachari_language" title="Kachari language">Kachari</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Koch_language" title="Koch language">Koch</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kokborok" title="Kokborok">Kokborok</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Moran_language" title="Moran language">Moran</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nocte_language" title="Nocte language">Nocte</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rabha_language" title="Rabha language">Rabha</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Singpho_dialect" title="Singpho dialect">Singpho</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tangsa_language" title="Tangsa language">Tangsa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tiwa_language_(India)" title="Tiwa language (India)">Tiwa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Turung_language" title="Turung language">Turung</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tutsa_language" title="Tutsa language">Tutsa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wancho_language" title="Wancho language">Wancho</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Tani_languages" title="Tani languages">Tani</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Adi_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Adi language">Adi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bangni-Tagin_language" title="Bangni-Tagin language">Bangni-Tagin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bokar_language" title="Bokar language">Bokar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hill_Miri_dialect" title="Hill Miri dialect">Hill Miri</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mising_language" title="Mising language">Mising</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Na_dialect" title="Na dialect">Na</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nishi_language" title="Nishi language">Nishi</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Zemeic_languages" title="Zemeic languages">Zeme</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Inpui_language" title="Inpui language">Inpui</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Khoirao_language" title="Khoirao language">Khoirao</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maram_language" title="Maram language">Maram</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rongmei_language" title="Rongmei language">Rongmei</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zeme_language" title="Zeme language">Zeme</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Other</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hajong_language" title="Hajong language">Hajong</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Meitei_language" title="Meitei language">Meitei</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Kra%E2%80%93Dai_languages" title="Kra–Dai languages">Kra-Dai</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ahom_language" title="Ahom language">Ahom</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Khamti_language" title="Khamti language">Khamti</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Khamyang_language" title="Khamyang language">Khamyang</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aiton_language" title="Aiton language">Tai Aiton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tai_Phake_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Tai Phake language">Tai Phake</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Languages_of_Manipur" class="mw-redirect" title="Languages of Manipur">Manipur</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Kuki-Chin_languages" title="Kuki-Chin languages">Kuki-Chin</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Northern</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anal_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Anal language">Anal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biate_language" title="Biate language">Biate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chiru_language" title="Chiru language">Chiru</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chothe_language" title="Chothe language">Chothe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gangte_language" title="Gangte language">Gangte</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hrangkhol_language" title="Hrangkhol language">Hrangkhol</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kom_language_(India)" title="Kom language (India)">Kom</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lamkang_language" title="Lamkang language">Lamkang</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Moyon_language" title="Moyon language">Moyon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paite_language" title="Paite language">Paite</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Purum_language" title="Purum language">Purum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ralte_language" title="Ralte language">Ralte</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Simte_language" title="Simte language">Simte</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thadou_language" title="Thadou language">Thadou</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vaiphei_language" title="Vaiphei language">Vaiphei</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zou_language" title="Zou language">Zou</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Other</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hmar_language" title="Hmar language">Hmar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mizo_language" title="Mizo language">Mizo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Monsang_language" title="Monsang language">Monsang</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sakachep_language" title="Sakachep language">Sakachep</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sorbung_language" title="Sorbung language">Sorbung</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tarao_language" title="Tarao language">Tarao</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Zemeic_languages" title="Zemeic languages">Zeme</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Inpui_language" title="Inpui language">Inpui</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Khoirao_language" title="Khoirao language">Khoirao</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maram_language" title="Maram language">Maram</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Puimei_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Puimei language">Puimei</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rongmei_language" title="Rongmei language">Rongmei</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zeme_language" title="Zeme language">Zeme</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Other</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Chairel_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Chairel language">Chairel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maring_language_(India)" title="Maring language (India)">Maring</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Uipo_language" title="Uipo language">Uipo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Meitei_language" title="Meitei language">Meitei</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sopvoma_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Sopvoma language">Sopvoma</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tangkhul_language" title="Tangkhul language">Tangkhul</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Languages_of_Meghalaya" class="mw-redirect" title="Languages of Meghalaya">Meghalaya</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Kuki-Chin_languages" title="Kuki-Chin languages">Kuki-Chin</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Amri_language" title="Amri language">Amri</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biate_language" title="Biate language">Biate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gangte_language" title="Gangte language">Gangte</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Karbi_language" title="Karbi language">Karbi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sakachep_language" title="Sakachep language">Khelma</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mizo_language" title="Mizo language">Mizo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vaiphei_language" title="Vaiphei language">Vaiphei</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Khasic_languages" title="Khasic languages">Khasic</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Khasi_language" title="Khasi language">Khasi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lyngngam_language" title="Lyngngam language">Lyngngam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pnar_language" title="Pnar language">Pnar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/War_language" title="War language">War</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Other</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Atong_language_(Sino-Tibetan)" title="Atong language (Sino-Tibetan)">Atong</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Garo_language" title="Garo language">Garo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hajong_language" title="Hajong language">Hajong</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Koch_language" title="Koch language">Koch</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Languages_of_Mizoram" class="mw-redirect" title="Languages of Mizoram">Mizoram</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Biate_language" title="Biate language">Biate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Falam_language" title="Falam language">Falam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hakha_Chin_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Hakha Chin language">Hakha Chin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hmar_language" title="Hmar language">Hmar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sakachep_language" title="Sakachep language">Khelma</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kokborok" title="Kokborok">Kokborok</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mara_language" title="Mara language">Mara</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mizo_language" title="Mizo language">Mizo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nga_La_language" title="Nga La language">Nga La</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ranglong_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Ranglong language">Ranglong</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paite_language" title="Paite language">Paite</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ralte_language" title="Ralte language">Ralte</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tedim_language" title="Tedim language">Tedim</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zyphe_language" title="Zyphe language">Zyphe</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Languages_of_Nagaland" class="mw-redirect" title="Languages of Nagaland">Nagaland</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Sino-Tibetan_languages" title="Sino-Tibetan languages">Sino-<br />Tibetan</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Angami%E2%80%93Pochuri_languages" title="Angami–Pochuri languages">Angami-<br />Pochuri</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Angami_language" title="Angami language">Angami</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chokri_language" title="Chokri language">Chokri</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kuzhami_language" title="Kuzhami language">Kuzhami</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Moyon_language" title="Moyon language">Moyon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ntenyi_language" title="Ntenyi language">Ntenyi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pochuri_language" title="Pochuri language">Pochuri</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rengma_language" title="Rengma language">Rengma</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sumi_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Sumi language">Sema</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sopvoma_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Sopvoma language">Sopvoma</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Ao_languages" title="Ao languages">Ao</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ao_language" title="Ao language">Ao</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lotha_language" title="Lotha language">Lotha</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mongsen_Ao_language" title="Mongsen Ao language">Mongsen Ao</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sangtam_language" title="Sangtam language">Sangtam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wui_language" title="Wui language">Wui</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yimkhiungr%C3%BC_language" title="Yimkhiungrü language">Yimchungrü</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Sal_languages" title="Sal languages">Sal</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Chang_language" title="Chang language">Chang</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dimasa_language" title="Dimasa language">Dimasa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Khiamniungan_language" title="Khiamniungan language">Khiamniungan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Konyak_language" title="Konyak language">Konyak</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nocte_language" title="Nocte language">Nocte</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phom_language" title="Phom language">Phom</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wancho_language" title="Wancho language">Wancho</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Zemeic_languages" title="Zemeic languages">Zeme</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Inpui_language" title="Inpui language">Inpui</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lamkang_language" title="Lamkang language">Lamkang</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mzieme_language" title="Mzieme language">Mzieme</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rongmei_language" title="Rongmei language">Rongmei</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zeme_language" title="Zeme language">Zeme</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Other</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Chiru_language" title="Chiru language">Chiru</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chothe_language" title="Chothe language">Chothe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sakachep_language" title="Sakachep language">Khelma</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Makury_language" title="Makury language">Makury</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tangkhul_language" title="Tangkhul language">Tangkhul</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Other</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Assamese_language" title="Assamese language">Assamese</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nagamese_creole" title="Nagamese creole">Nagamese creole</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Languages_of_Sikkim" class="mw-redirect" title="Languages of Sikkim">Sikkim</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Gurung_language" title="Gurung language">Gurung</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lepcha_language" title="Lepcha language">Lepcha‎</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Limbu_language" title="Limbu language">Limbu‎</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Magar_language" title="Magar language">Magar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nepali_language" title="Nepali language">Nepali</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Newar_language" title="Newar language">Newar‎</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sherpa_language" title="Sherpa language">Sherpa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sikkimese_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Sikkimese language">Sikkimese</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sunwar_language" title="Sunwar language">Sunwar‎</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tamang_language" title="Tamang language">Tamang</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yakkha_language" title="Yakkha language">Yakkha</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Yolmo</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Languages_of_Tripura" title="Languages of Tripura">Tripura</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Indo-Aryan_languages" title="Indo-Aryan languages">Indo-Aryan</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bengali_language" title="Bengali language">Bengali</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bishnupriya_Manipuri_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Bishnupriya Manipuri language">Bishnupriya Manipuri</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sylheti_language" title="Sylheti language">Sylheti</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Sino-Tibetan_languages" title="Sino-Tibetan languages">Sino-Tibetan</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bawm_language" title="Bawm language">Bawm</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Darlong_language" title="Darlong language">Darlong</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Koch_language" title="Koch language">Koch</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kokborok" title="Kokborok">Kokborok</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Meitei_language" title="Meitei language">Meitei</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mizo_language" title="Mizo language">Mizo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paite_language" title="Paite language">Paite</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ralte_language" title="Ralte language">Ralte</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ranglong_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Ranglong language">Ranglong</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tangkhul_language" title="Tangkhul language">Tangkhul</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thadou_language" title="Thadou language">Thadou</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vaiphei_language" title="Vaiphei language">Vaiphei</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zeme_language" title="Zeme language">Zeme</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1259569809">.mw-parser-output .portalbox{padding:0;margin:0.5em 0;display:table;box-sizing:border-box;max-width:175px;list-style:none}.mw-parser-output .portalborder{border:1px solid var(--border-color-base,#a2a9b1);padding:0.1em;background:var(--background-color-neutral-subtle,#f8f9fa)}.mw-parser-output .portalbox-entry{display:table-row;font-size:85%;line-height:110%;height:1.9em;font-style:italic;font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output .portalbox-image{display:table-cell;padding:0.2em;vertical-align:middle;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .portalbox-link{display:table-cell;padding:0.2em 0.2em 0.2em 0.3em;vertical-align:middle}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .portalleft{clear:left;float:left;margin:0.5em 1em 0.5em 0}.mw-parser-output .portalright{clear:right;float:right;margin:0.5em 0 0.5em 1em}}</style></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Languages_of_Nepal" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="3"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Languages_of_Nepal" title="Template:Languages of Nepal"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Languages_of_Nepal" title="Template talk:Languages of Nepal"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Languages_of_Nepal" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Languages of Nepal"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Languages_of_Nepal" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Languages_of_Nepal" title="Languages of Nepal">Languages of Nepal</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Official language</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Nepali_language" title="Nepali language">Nepali</a></li></ul> </div></td><td class="noviewer navbox-image" rowspan="2" style="width:1px;padding:0 0 0 2px"><div><ul role="navigation" aria-label="Portals" class="noprint portalbox portalborder portalright"> <li class="portalbox-entry"><span class="portalbox-image"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="flag" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9b/Flag_of_Nepal.svg/23px-Flag_of_Nepal.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="28" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9b/Flag_of_Nepal.svg/34px-Flag_of_Nepal.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9b/Flag_of_Nepal.svg/46px-Flag_of_Nepal.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="726" data-file-height="885" /></span></span></span><span class="portalbox-link"><a href="/wiki/Portal:Nepal" title="Portal:Nepal">Nepal portal</a></span></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Indigenous<br />languages</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Sino-Tibetan_languages" title="Sino-Tibetan languages">Sino-Tibetan</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Kiranti_languages" title="Kiranti languages">Kiranti</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bahing_language" title="Bahing language">Bahing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bantawa_language" title="Bantawa language">Bantawa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Belhare_language" title="Belhare language">Belhare</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chamling_language" title="Chamling language">Chamling</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dumi_language" title="Dumi language">Dumi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Limbu_language" title="Limbu language">Limbu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sampang_language" title="Sampang language">Sampang</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sunwar_language" title="Sunwar language">Sunwar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thulung_language" title="Thulung language">Thulung</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vayu_language" title="Vayu language">Vayu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Waling_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Waling language">Waling</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yakkha_language" title="Yakkha language">Yakkha</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Magaric_languages" title="Magaric languages">Magaric</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bhujel_language" title="Bhujel language">Bhujel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chepang_language" title="Chepang language">Chepang</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dura_language" title="Dura language">Dura</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kham_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Kham language">Kham</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Magar_language" title="Magar language">Magar</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Tamangic_languages" title="Tamangic languages">Tamangic</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Chantyal_language" title="Chantyal language">Chantyal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gurung_language" title="Gurung language">Gurung</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Manang_language" title="Manang language">Manang</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tamang_language" title="Tamang language">Tamang</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Tibetic_languages" title="Tibetic languages">Tibetic</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Jirel_language" title="Jirel language">Jirel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kagate_language" title="Kagate language">Kagate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kyirong_language" title="Kyirong language">Kyirong</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lepcha_language" title="Lepcha language">Lepcha</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mugom_dialect" title="Mugom dialect">Mugomt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Naapa_language" title="Naapa language">Naapa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nubri_(language)" class="mw-redirect" title="Nubri (language)">Nubri</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sherpa_language" title="Sherpa language">Sherpa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sikkimese_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Sikkimese language">Sikkimese</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Yolmo</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Other</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Baram_language" title="Baram language">Baram</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dhimal_language" title="Dhimal language">Dhimal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kaike_language" title="Kaike language">Kaike</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lepcha_language" title="Lepcha language">Lepcha</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Newar_language" title="Newar language">Newar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Raji_language" title="Raji language">Raji</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Raute_language" title="Raute language">Raute</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thangmi_language" title="Thangmi language">Thangmi</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Indo-Aryan_languages" title="Indo-Aryan languages">Indo-Aryan</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Angika_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Angika language">Angika</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Awadhi_language" title="Awadhi language">Awadhi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bajjika" title="Bajjika">Bajjika</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bhojpuri_language" title="Bhojpuri language">Bhojpuri</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Danwar_language" title="Danwar language">Danwar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Doteli_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Doteli language">Doteli</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hindi" title="Hindi">Hindi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jumli_language" title="Jumli language">Jumli</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maithili_language" title="Maithili language">Maithili</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Majhi_language" title="Majhi language">Majhi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marwari_language" title="Marwari language">Marwari</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rangpuri_language" title="Rangpuri language">Rangpuri</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tharu_languages" title="Tharu languages">Tharu</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Kochila_Tharu" title="Kochila Tharu">Kochila</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Urdu" title="Urdu">Urdu</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Sign_language" title="Sign language">Sign language</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ghandruk_Sign_Language" title="Ghandruk Sign Language">Ghandruk Sign Language</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jhankot_Sign_Language" title="Jhankot Sign Language">Jhankot Sign Language</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jumla_Sign_Language" title="Jumla Sign Language">Jumla Sign Language</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maunabudhuk%E2%80%93Bodhe_Sign_Language" title="Maunabudhuk–Bodhe Sign Language">Maunabudhuk–Bodhe Sign Language</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nepali_Sign_Language" title="Nepali Sign Language">Nepali Sign Language</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Other</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Nepalese_English" title="Nepalese English">English</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kusunda_language" title="Kusunda language">Kusunda</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kurukh_language" title="Kurukh language">Kurukh</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Majhwar_language" title="Majhwar language">Majhwar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mundari_language" title="Mundari language">Mundari</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Santali_language" title="Santali language">Santali</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div>    </div><noscript><img src="https://login.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:CentralAutoLogin/start?type=1x1" alt="" width="1" height="1" style="border: none; position: absolute;"></noscript> <div class="printfooter" data-nosnippet="">Retrieved from "<a dir="ltr" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Yolmo_language&oldid=1246118442">https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Yolmo_language&oldid=1246118442</a>"</div></div> <div id="catlinks" class="catlinks" data-mw="interface"><div id="mw-normal-catlinks" class="mw-normal-catlinks"><a href="/wiki/Help:Category" title="Help:Category">Categories</a>: <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Wikipedia_articles_published_in_peer-reviewed_literature" title="Category:Wikipedia articles published in peer-reviewed literature">Wikipedia articles published in peer-reviewed literature</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Wikipedia_articles_published_in_WikiJournal_of_Humanities" title="Category:Wikipedia articles published in WikiJournal of Humanities">Wikipedia articles published in WikiJournal of Humanities</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Externally_peer_reviewed_articles" title="Category:Externally peer reviewed articles">Externally peer reviewed articles</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Wikipedia_articles_published_in_peer-reviewed_literature_(W2J)" title="Category:Wikipedia articles published in peer-reviewed literature (W2J)">Wikipedia articles published in peer-reviewed literature (W2J)</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Languages_of_Nepal" title="Category:Languages of Nepal">Languages of Nepal</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:South_Bodish_languages" title="Category:South Bodish languages">South Bodish languages</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Languages_of_Sikkim" title="Category:Languages of Sikkim">Languages of Sikkim</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Languages_of_Tibet" title="Category:Languages of Tibet">Languages of Tibet</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Languages_written_in_Devanagari" title="Category:Languages written in Devanagari">Languages written in Devanagari</a></li></ul></div><div id="mw-hidden-catlinks" class="mw-hidden-catlinks mw-hidden-cats-hidden">Hidden categories: <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Pages_containing_links_to_subscription-only_content" title="Category:Pages containing links to subscription-only content">Pages containing links to subscription-only content</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Language_articles_citing_Ethnologue_18" title="Category:Language articles citing Ethnologue 18">Language articles citing Ethnologue 18</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:CS1_French-language_sources_(fr)" title="Category:CS1 French-language sources (fr)">CS1 French-language sources (fr)</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Articles_with_short_description" title="Category:Articles with short description">Articles with short description</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Short_description_is_different_from_Wikidata" title="Category:Short description is different from Wikidata">Short description is different from Wikidata</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Articles_with_ambiguous_glossing_abbreviations" title="Category:Articles with ambiguous glossing abbreviations">Articles with ambiguous glossing abbreviations</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Wikipedia_articles_incorporating_text_from_open_access_publications" title="Category:Wikipedia articles incorporating text from open access publications">Wikipedia articles incorporating text from open access publications</a></li></ul></div></div> </div> </main> </div> <div class="mw-footer-container"> <footer id="footer" class="mw-footer" > <ul id="footer-info"> <li id="footer-info-lastmod"> This page was last edited on 17 September 2024, at 00:32<span class="anonymous-show"> (UTC)</span>.</li> <li id="footer-info-copyright">Text is available under the <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Text_of_the_Creative_Commons_Attribution-ShareAlike_4.0_International_License" title="Wikipedia:Text of the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 International License">Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 License</a>; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the <a href="https://foundation.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:MyLanguage/Policy:Terms_of_Use" class="extiw" title="foundation:Special:MyLanguage/Policy:Terms of Use">Terms of Use</a> and <a href="https://foundation.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:MyLanguage/Policy:Privacy_policy" class="extiw" title="foundation:Special:MyLanguage/Policy:Privacy policy">Privacy Policy</a>. Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://wikimediafoundation.org/">Wikimedia Foundation, Inc.</a>, a non-profit organization.</li> </ul> <ul id="footer-places"> <li id="footer-places-privacy"><a href="https://foundation.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:MyLanguage/Policy:Privacy_policy">Privacy policy</a></li> <li id="footer-places-about"><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:About">About Wikipedia</a></li> <li id="footer-places-disclaimers"><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:General_disclaimer">Disclaimers</a></li> <li id="footer-places-contact"><a href="//en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Contact_us">Contact Wikipedia</a></li> <li id="footer-places-wm-codeofconduct"><a href="https://foundation.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:MyLanguage/Policy:Universal_Code_of_Conduct">Code of Conduct</a></li> <li id="footer-places-developers"><a href="https://developer.wikimedia.org">Developers</a></li> <li id="footer-places-statslink"><a href="https://stats.wikimedia.org/#/en.wikipedia.org">Statistics</a></li> <li id="footer-places-cookiestatement"><a href="https://foundation.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:MyLanguage/Policy:Cookie_statement">Cookie statement</a></li> <li id="footer-places-mobileview"><a href="//en.m.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Yolmo_language&mobileaction=toggle_view_mobile" class="noprint stopMobileRedirectToggle">Mobile view</a></li> </ul> <ul id="footer-icons" class="noprint"> <li id="footer-copyrightico"><a href="https://wikimediafoundation.org/" class="cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button--enabled"><img src="/static/images/footer/wikimedia-button.svg" width="84" height="29" alt="Wikimedia Foundation" loading="lazy"></a></li> <li id="footer-poweredbyico"><a href="https://www.mediawiki.org/" class="cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button--enabled"><img src="/w/resources/assets/poweredby_mediawiki.svg" alt="Powered by MediaWiki" width="88" height="31" loading="lazy"></a></li> </ul> </footer> </div> </div> </div> <div class="vector-settings" id="p-dock-bottom"> <ul></ul> </div><script>(RLQ=window.RLQ||[]).push(function(){mw.config.set({"wgHostname":"mw-web.codfw.main-6d67bf974d-zjtd5","wgBackendResponseTime":162,"wgPageParseReport":{"limitreport":{"cputime":"1.727","walltime":"2.154","ppvisitednodes":{"value":37496,"limit":1000000},"postexpandincludesize":{"value":524432,"limit":2097152},"templateargumentsize":{"value":11776,"limit":2097152},"expansiondepth":{"value":22,"limit":100},"expensivefunctioncount":{"value":4,"limit":500},"unstrip-depth":{"value":1,"limit":20},"unstrip-size":{"value":232819,"limit":5000000},"entityaccesscount":{"value":4,"limit":400},"timingprofile":["100.00% 1649.603 1 -total"," 27.91% 460.431 60 Template:Interlinear"," 17.60% 290.276 1 Template:Reflist"," 15.75% 259.749 1 Template:Academic_peer_reviewed"," 14.56% 240.243 27 Template:Navbox"," 13.17% 217.225 1 Template:Talk_other"," 13.07% 215.675 1 Template:Academic_peer_reviewed/other"," 11.36% 187.464 24 Template:Cite_journal"," 7.57% 124.803 1 Template:Infobox_language"," 6.77% 111.659 1 Template:Cite_Q_EtAl"]},"scribunto":{"limitreport-timeusage":{"value":"0.994","limit":"10.000"},"limitreport-memusage":{"value":18797564,"limit":52428800},"limitreport-logs":"1 1 Lauren Gawne\nanchor_id_list = table#1 {\n [\"CITEREFBishop1989\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBishop1993\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFChelliahHyslop2011\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFClarke1980\"] = 2,\n [\"CITEREFDe_Lancey2002\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFDesjarlais2003\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGawne2009\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGawne2009–2016\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGawne2010\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGawne2011\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGawne2013\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGawne2015\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGawne2016\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGawne2016a\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGawne2017\"] = 2,\n [\"CITEREFHammarströmForkel,_RobertHaspelmath,_Martin2017\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHari1980\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHari2000\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHari2010\"] = 2,\n [\"CITEREFHariLama,_C.2004\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHariLama2004\"] = 2,\n [\"CITEREFHedlin2011\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHuber2005\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHöhlig1978\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHöhligHari1976\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHölig1972\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKvicalovaSladeGawne2017\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLewisGary_F._SimonsCharles_D._Fennig2015\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMitchell,_Jessica_R._\u0026amp;_Stephanie_R._Eichentopf2013\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMother_Tongue_Centre_Nepal2013\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFNoonan2008\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFPokharel2005\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSIL_International_and_HIS_Nepal2015\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSimonsFennig\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFTeoGawneBaese-Berk2015\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFThokar2009\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFTorri2015\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFTorri2016\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFTournadre2005\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFTournadre2008\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFTournadre2014\"] = 1,\n}\ntemplate_list = table#1 {\n [\"=\"] = 41,\n [\"Academic peer reviewed\"] = 1,\n [\"Angbr\"] = 18,\n [\"Bodic languages\"] = 1,\n [\"Citation\"] = 1,\n [\"Cite book\"] = 18,\n [\"Cite journal\"] = 24,\n [\"Cite news\"] = 1,\n [\"Cite web\"] = 2,\n [\"Harvp\"] = 3,\n [\"IPA link\"] = 10,\n [\"IPAlink\"] = 36,\n [\"Infobox language\"] = 1,\n [\"Interlinear\"] = 60,\n [\"Languages of Nepal\"] = 1,\n [\"Languages of Northeast India\"] = 1,\n [\"Reflist\"] = 1,\n [\"Short description\"] = 1,\n [\"Sigfig\"] = 1,\n [\"Sino-Tibetan languages\"] = 1,\n [\"Smallcaps\"] = 8,\n [\"TOC limit\"] = 1,\n [\"Transliteration\"] = 1,\n}\narticle_whitelist = table#1 {\n}\n"},"cachereport":{"origin":"mw-web.codfw.main-6df7948d6c-qtdwg","timestamp":"20241127205010","ttl":2592000,"transientcontent":false}}});});</script> <script type="application/ld+json">{"@context":"https:\/\/schema.org","@type":"Article","name":"Yolmo language","url":"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Yolmo_language","sameAs":"http:\/\/www.wikidata.org\/entity\/Q19841092","mainEntity":"http:\/\/www.wikidata.org\/entity\/Q19841092","author":{"@type":"Organization","name":"Contributors to Wikimedia projects"},"publisher":{"@type":"Organization","name":"Wikimedia Foundation, Inc.","logo":{"@type":"ImageObject","url":"https:\/\/www.wikimedia.org\/static\/images\/wmf-hor-googpub.png"}},"datePublished":"2010-09-21T18:12:42Z","dateModified":"2024-09-17T00:32:11Z","image":"https:\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/8\/8e\/Yolmo_Map_2016.png","headline":"Sino-Tibetan language"}</script> </body> </html>