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All Rights Reserved. * * Licensed under the W3C SOFTWARE AND DOCUMENT NOTICE AND LICENSE. * * https://www.w3.org/Consortium/Legal/2015/copyright-software-and-document * */ (function() { 'use strict'; // Exit early if we're not running in a browser. if (typeof window !== 'object') { return; } // Exit early if all IntersectionObserver and IntersectionObserverEntry // features are natively supported. if ('IntersectionObserver' in window && 'IntersectionObserverEntry' in window && 'intersectionRatio' in window.IntersectionObserverEntry.prototype) { // Minimal polyfill for Edge 15's lack of `isIntersecting` // See: https://github.com/w3c/IntersectionObserver/issues/211 if (!('isIntersecting' in window.IntersectionObserverEntry.prototype)) { Object.defineProperty(window.IntersectionObserverEntry.prototype, 'isIntersecting', { get: function () { return this.intersectionRatio > 0; } }); } return; } /** * Returns the embedding frame element, if any. * @param {!Document} doc * @return {!Element} */ function getFrameElement(doc) { try { return doc.defaultView && doc.defaultView.frameElement || null; } catch (e) { // Ignore the error. return null; } } /** * A local reference to the root document. */ var document = (function(startDoc) { var doc = startDoc; var frame = getFrameElement(doc); while (frame) { doc = frame.ownerDocument; frame = getFrameElement(doc); } return doc; })(window.document); /** * An IntersectionObserver registry. This registry exists to hold a strong * reference to IntersectionObserver instances currently observing a target * element. Without this registry, instances without another reference may be * garbage collected. */ var registry = []; /** * The signal updater for cross-origin intersection. When not null, it means * that the polyfill is configured to work in a cross-origin mode. * @type {function(DOMRect|ClientRect, DOMRect|ClientRect)} */ var crossOriginUpdater = null; /** * The current cross-origin intersection. Only used in the cross-origin mode. * @type {DOMRect|ClientRect} */ var crossOriginRect = null; /** * Creates the global IntersectionObserverEntry constructor. * https://w3c.github.io/IntersectionObserver/#intersection-observer-entry * @param {Object} entry A dictionary of instance properties. * @constructor */ function IntersectionObserverEntry(entry) { this.time = entry.time; this.target = entry.target; this.rootBounds = ensureDOMRect(entry.rootBounds); this.boundingClientRect = ensureDOMRect(entry.boundingClientRect); this.intersectionRect = ensureDOMRect(entry.intersectionRect || getEmptyRect()); this.isIntersecting = !!entry.intersectionRect; // Calculates the intersection ratio. var targetRect = this.boundingClientRect; var targetArea = targetRect.width * targetRect.height; var intersectionRect = this.intersectionRect; var intersectionArea = intersectionRect.width * intersectionRect.height; // Sets intersection ratio. if (targetArea) { // Round the intersection ratio to avoid floating point math issues: // https://github.com/w3c/IntersectionObserver/issues/324 this.intersectionRatio = Number((intersectionArea / targetArea).toFixed(4)); } else { // If area is zero and is intersecting, sets to 1, otherwise to 0 this.intersectionRatio = this.isIntersecting ? 1 : 0; } } /** * Creates the global IntersectionObserver constructor. * https://w3c.github.io/IntersectionObserver/#intersection-observer-interface * @param {Function} callback The function to be invoked after intersection * changes have queued. The function is not invoked if the queue has * been emptied by calling the `takeRecords` method. * @param {Object=} opt_options Optional configuration options. * @constructor */ function IntersectionObserver(callback, opt_options) { var options = opt_options || {}; if (typeof callback != 'function') { throw new Error('callback must be a function'); } if ( options.root && options.root.nodeType != 1 && options.root.nodeType != 9 ) { throw new Error('root must be a Document or Element'); } // Binds and throttles `this._checkForIntersections`. this._checkForIntersections = throttle( this._checkForIntersections.bind(this), this.THROTTLE_TIMEOUT); // Private properties. this._callback = callback; this._observationTargets = []; this._queuedEntries = []; this._rootMarginValues = this._parseRootMargin(options.rootMargin); // Public properties. this.thresholds = this._initThresholds(options.threshold); this.root = options.root || null; this.rootMargin = this._rootMarginValues.map(function(margin) { return margin.value + margin.unit; }).join(' '); /** @private @const {!Array<!Document>} */ this._monitoringDocuments = []; /** @private @const {!Array<function()>} */ this._monitoringUnsubscribes = []; } /** * The minimum interval within which the document will be checked for * intersection changes. */ IntersectionObserver.prototype.THROTTLE_TIMEOUT = 100; /** * The frequency in which the polyfill polls for intersection changes. * this can be updated on a per instance basis and must be set prior to * calling `observe` on the first target. */ IntersectionObserver.prototype.POLL_INTERVAL = null; /** * Use a mutation observer on the root element * to detect intersection changes. */ IntersectionObserver.prototype.USE_MUTATION_OBSERVER = true; /** * Sets up the polyfill in the cross-origin mode. The result is the * updater function that accepts two arguments: `boundingClientRect` and * `intersectionRect` - just as these fields would be available to the * parent via `IntersectionObserverEntry`. This function should be called * each time the iframe receives intersection information from the parent * window, e.g. via messaging. * @return {function(DOMRect|ClientRect, DOMRect|ClientRect)} */ IntersectionObserver._setupCrossOriginUpdater = function() { if (!crossOriginUpdater) { /** * @param {DOMRect|ClientRect} boundingClientRect * @param {DOMRect|ClientRect} intersectionRect */ crossOriginUpdater = function(boundingClientRect, intersectionRect) { if (!boundingClientRect || !intersectionRect) { crossOriginRect = getEmptyRect(); } else { crossOriginRect = convertFromParentRect(boundingClientRect, intersectionRect); } registry.forEach(function(observer) { observer._checkForIntersections(); }); }; } return crossOriginUpdater; }; /** * Resets the cross-origin mode. */ IntersectionObserver._resetCrossOriginUpdater = function() { crossOriginUpdater = null; crossOriginRect = null; }; /** * Starts observing a target element for intersection changes based on * the thresholds values. * @param {Element} target The DOM element to observe. */ IntersectionObserver.prototype.observe = function(target) { var isTargetAlreadyObserved = this._observationTargets.some(function(item) { return item.element == target; }); if (isTargetAlreadyObserved) { return; } if (!(target && target.nodeType == 1)) { throw new Error('target must be an Element'); } this._registerInstance(); this._observationTargets.push({element: target, entry: null}); this._monitorIntersections(target.ownerDocument); this._checkForIntersections(); }; /** * Stops observing a target element for intersection changes. * @param {Element} target The DOM element to observe. */ IntersectionObserver.prototype.unobserve = function(target) { this._observationTargets = this._observationTargets.filter(function(item) { return item.element != target; }); this._unmonitorIntersections(target.ownerDocument); if (this._observationTargets.length == 0) { this._unregisterInstance(); } }; /** * Stops observing all target elements for intersection changes. */ IntersectionObserver.prototype.disconnect = function() { this._observationTargets = []; this._unmonitorAllIntersections(); this._unregisterInstance(); }; /** * Returns any queue entries that have not yet been reported to the * callback and clears the queue. This can be used in conjunction with the * callback to obtain the absolute most up-to-date intersection information. * @return {Array} The currently queued entries. */ IntersectionObserver.prototype.takeRecords = function() { var records = this._queuedEntries.slice(); this._queuedEntries = []; return records; }; /** * Accepts the threshold value from the user configuration object and * returns a sorted array of unique threshold values. If a value is not * between 0 and 1 and error is thrown. * @private * @param {Array|number=} opt_threshold An optional threshold value or * a list of threshold values, defaulting to [0]. * @return {Array} A sorted list of unique and valid threshold values. */ IntersectionObserver.prototype._initThresholds = function(opt_threshold) { var threshold = opt_threshold || [0]; if (!Array.isArray(threshold)) threshold = [threshold]; return threshold.sort().filter(function(t, i, a) { if (typeof t != 'number' || isNaN(t) || t < 0 || t > 1) { throw new Error('threshold must be a number between 0 and 1 inclusively'); } return t !== a[i - 1]; }); }; /** * Accepts the rootMargin value from the user configuration object * and returns an array of the four margin values as an object containing * the value and unit properties. If any of the values are not properly * formatted or use a unit other than px or %, and error is thrown. * @private * @param {string=} opt_rootMargin An optional rootMargin value, * defaulting to '0px'. * @return {Array<Object>} An array of margin objects with the keys * value and unit. */ IntersectionObserver.prototype._parseRootMargin = function(opt_rootMargin) { var marginString = opt_rootMargin || '0px'; var margins = marginString.split(/\s+/).map(function(margin) { var parts = /^(-?\d*\.?\d+)(px|%)$/.exec(margin); if (!parts) { throw new Error('rootMargin must be specified in pixels or percent'); } return {value: parseFloat(parts[1]), unit: parts[2]}; }); // Handles shorthand. margins[1] = margins[1] || margins[0]; margins[2] = margins[2] || margins[0]; margins[3] = margins[3] || margins[1]; return margins; }; /** * Starts polling for intersection changes if the polling is not already * happening, and if the page's visibility state is visible. * @param {!Document} doc * @private */ IntersectionObserver.prototype._monitorIntersections = function(doc) { var win = doc.defaultView; if (!win) { // Already destroyed. return; } if (this._monitoringDocuments.indexOf(doc) != -1) { // Already monitoring. return; } // Private state for monitoring. var callback = this._checkForIntersections; var monitoringInterval = null; var domObserver = null; // If a poll interval is set, use polling instead of listening to // resize and scroll events or DOM mutations. if (this.POLL_INTERVAL) { monitoringInterval = win.setInterval(callback, this.POLL_INTERVAL); } else { addEvent(win, 'resize', callback, true); addEvent(doc, 'scroll', callback, true); if (this.USE_MUTATION_OBSERVER && 'MutationObserver' in win) { domObserver = new win.MutationObserver(callback); domObserver.observe(doc, { attributes: true, childList: true, characterData: true, subtree: true }); } } this._monitoringDocuments.push(doc); this._monitoringUnsubscribes.push(function() { // Get the window object again. When a friendly iframe is destroyed, it // will be null. var win = doc.defaultView; if (win) { if (monitoringInterval) { win.clearInterval(monitoringInterval); } removeEvent(win, 'resize', callback, true); } removeEvent(doc, 'scroll', callback, true); if (domObserver) { domObserver.disconnect(); } }); // Also monitor the parent. var rootDoc = (this.root && (this.root.ownerDocument || this.root)) || document; if (doc != rootDoc) { var frame = getFrameElement(doc); if (frame) { this._monitorIntersections(frame.ownerDocument); } } }; /** * Stops polling for intersection changes. * @param {!Document} doc * @private */ IntersectionObserver.prototype._unmonitorIntersections = function(doc) { var index = this._monitoringDocuments.indexOf(doc); if (index == -1) { return; } var rootDoc = (this.root && (this.root.ownerDocument || this.root)) || document; // Check if any dependent targets are still remaining. var hasDependentTargets = this._observationTargets.some(function(item) { var itemDoc = item.element.ownerDocument; // Target is in this context. if (itemDoc == doc) { return true; } // Target is nested in this context. while (itemDoc && itemDoc != rootDoc) { var frame = getFrameElement(itemDoc); itemDoc = frame && frame.ownerDocument; if (itemDoc == doc) { return true; } } return false; }); if (hasDependentTargets) { return; } // Unsubscribe. var unsubscribe = this._monitoringUnsubscribes[index]; this._monitoringDocuments.splice(index, 1); this._monitoringUnsubscribes.splice(index, 1); unsubscribe(); // Also unmonitor the parent. if (doc != rootDoc) { var frame = getFrameElement(doc); if (frame) { this._unmonitorIntersections(frame.ownerDocument); } } }; /** * Stops polling for intersection changes. * @param {!Document} doc * @private */ IntersectionObserver.prototype._unmonitorAllIntersections = function() { var unsubscribes = this._monitoringUnsubscribes.slice(0); this._monitoringDocuments.length = 0; this._monitoringUnsubscribes.length = 0; for (var i = 0; i < unsubscribes.length; i++) { unsubscribes[i](); } }; /** * Scans each observation target for intersection changes and adds them * to the internal entries queue. If new entries are found, it * schedules the callback to be invoked. * @private */ IntersectionObserver.prototype._checkForIntersections = function() { if (!this.root && crossOriginUpdater && !crossOriginRect) { // Cross origin monitoring, but no initial data available yet. return; } var rootIsInDom = this._rootIsInDom(); var rootRect = rootIsInDom ? this._getRootRect() : getEmptyRect(); this._observationTargets.forEach(function(item) { var target = item.element; var targetRect = getBoundingClientRect(target); var rootContainsTarget = this._rootContainsTarget(target); var oldEntry = item.entry; var intersectionRect = rootIsInDom && rootContainsTarget && this._computeTargetAndRootIntersection(target, targetRect, rootRect); var rootBounds = null; if (!this._rootContainsTarget(target)) { rootBounds = getEmptyRect(); } else if (!crossOriginUpdater || this.root) { rootBounds = rootRect; } var newEntry = item.entry = new IntersectionObserverEntry({ time: now(), target: target, boundingClientRect: targetRect, rootBounds: rootBounds, intersectionRect: intersectionRect }); if (!oldEntry) { this._queuedEntries.push(newEntry); } else if (rootIsInDom && rootContainsTarget) { // If the new entry intersection ratio has crossed any of the // thresholds, add a new entry. if (this._hasCrossedThreshold(oldEntry, newEntry)) { this._queuedEntries.push(newEntry); } } else { // If the root is not in the DOM or target is not contained within // root but the previous entry for this target had an intersection, // add a new record indicating removal. if (oldEntry && oldEntry.isIntersecting) { this._queuedEntries.push(newEntry); } } }, this); if (this._queuedEntries.length) { this._callback(this.takeRecords(), this); } }; /** * Accepts a target and root rect computes the intersection between then * following the algorithm in the spec. * TODO(philipwalton): at this time clip-path is not considered. * https://w3c.github.io/IntersectionObserver/#calculate-intersection-rect-algo * @param {Element} target The target DOM element * @param {Object} targetRect The bounding rect of the target. * @param {Object} rootRect The bounding rect of the root after being * expanded by the rootMargin value. * @return {?Object} The final intersection rect object or undefined if no * intersection is found. * @private */ IntersectionObserver.prototype._computeTargetAndRootIntersection = function(target, targetRect, rootRect) { // If the element isn't displayed, an intersection can't happen. if (window.getComputedStyle(target).display == 'none') return; var intersectionRect = targetRect; var parent = getParentNode(target); var atRoot = false; while (!atRoot && parent) { var parentRect = null; var parentComputedStyle = parent.nodeType == 1 ? window.getComputedStyle(parent) : {}; // If the parent isn't displayed, an intersection can't happen. if (parentComputedStyle.display == 'none') return null; if (parent == this.root || parent.nodeType == /* DOCUMENT */ 9) { atRoot = true; if (parent == this.root || parent == document) { if (crossOriginUpdater && !this.root) { if (!crossOriginRect || crossOriginRect.width == 0 && crossOriginRect.height == 0) { // A 0-size cross-origin intersection means no-intersection. parent = null; parentRect = null; intersectionRect = null; } else { parentRect = crossOriginRect; } } else { parentRect = rootRect; } } else { // Check if there's a frame that can be navigated to. var frame = getParentNode(parent); var frameRect = frame && getBoundingClientRect(frame); var frameIntersect = frame && this._computeTargetAndRootIntersection(frame, frameRect, rootRect); if (frameRect && frameIntersect) { parent = frame; parentRect = convertFromParentRect(frameRect, frameIntersect); } else { parent = null; intersectionRect = null; } } } else { // If the element has a non-visible overflow, and it's not the <body> // or <html> element, update the intersection rect. // Note: <body> and <html> cannot be clipped to a rect that's not also // the document rect, so no need to compute a new intersection. var doc = parent.ownerDocument; if (parent != doc.body && parent != doc.documentElement && parentComputedStyle.overflow != 'visible') { parentRect = getBoundingClientRect(parent); } } // If either of the above conditionals set a new parentRect, // calculate new intersection data. if (parentRect) { intersectionRect = computeRectIntersection(parentRect, intersectionRect); } if (!intersectionRect) break; parent = parent && getParentNode(parent); } return intersectionRect; }; /** * Returns the root rect after being expanded by the rootMargin value. * @return {ClientRect} The expanded root rect. * @private */ IntersectionObserver.prototype._getRootRect = function() { var rootRect; if (this.root && !isDoc(this.root)) { rootRect = getBoundingClientRect(this.root); } else { // Use <html>/<body> instead of window since scroll bars affect size. var doc = isDoc(this.root) ? this.root : document; var html = doc.documentElement; var body = doc.body; rootRect = { top: 0, left: 0, right: html.clientWidth || body.clientWidth, width: html.clientWidth || body.clientWidth, bottom: html.clientHeight || body.clientHeight, height: html.clientHeight || body.clientHeight }; } return this._expandRectByRootMargin(rootRect); }; /** * Accepts a rect and expands it by the rootMargin value. * @param {DOMRect|ClientRect} rect The rect object to expand. * @return {ClientRect} The expanded rect. * @private */ IntersectionObserver.prototype._expandRectByRootMargin = function(rect) { var margins = this._rootMarginValues.map(function(margin, i) { return margin.unit == 'px' ? margin.value : margin.value * (i % 2 ? rect.width : rect.height) / 100; }); var newRect = { top: rect.top - margins[0], right: rect.right + margins[1], bottom: rect.bottom + margins[2], left: rect.left - margins[3] }; newRect.width = newRect.right - newRect.left; newRect.height = newRect.bottom - newRect.top; return newRect; }; /** * Accepts an old and new entry and returns true if at least one of the * threshold values has been crossed. * @param {?IntersectionObserverEntry} oldEntry The previous entry for a * particular target element or null if no previous entry exists. * @param {IntersectionObserverEntry} newEntry The current entry for a * particular target element. * @return {boolean} Returns true if a any threshold has been crossed. * @private */ IntersectionObserver.prototype._hasCrossedThreshold = function(oldEntry, newEntry) { // To make comparing easier, an entry that has a ratio of 0 // but does not actually intersect is given a value of -1 var oldRatio = oldEntry && oldEntry.isIntersecting ? oldEntry.intersectionRatio || 0 : -1; var newRatio = newEntry.isIntersecting ? newEntry.intersectionRatio || 0 : -1; // Ignore unchanged ratios if (oldRatio === newRatio) return; for (var i = 0; i < this.thresholds.length; i++) { var threshold = this.thresholds[i]; // Return true if an entry matches a threshold or if the new ratio // and the old ratio are on the opposite sides of a threshold. if (threshold == oldRatio || threshold == newRatio || threshold < oldRatio !== threshold < newRatio) { return true; } } }; /** * Returns whether or not the root element is an element and is in the DOM. * @return {boolean} True if the root element is an element and is in the DOM. * @private */ IntersectionObserver.prototype._rootIsInDom = function() { return !this.root || containsDeep(document, this.root); }; /** * Returns whether or not the target element is a child of root. * @param {Element} target The target element to check. * @return {boolean} True if the target element is a child of root. * @private */ IntersectionObserver.prototype._rootContainsTarget = function(target) { var rootDoc = (this.root && (this.root.ownerDocument || this.root)) || document; return ( containsDeep(rootDoc, target) && (!this.root || rootDoc == target.ownerDocument) ); }; /** * Adds the instance to the global IntersectionObserver registry if it isn't * already present. * @private */ IntersectionObserver.prototype._registerInstance = function() { if (registry.indexOf(this) < 0) { registry.push(this); } }; /** * Removes the instance from the global IntersectionObserver registry. * @private */ IntersectionObserver.prototype._unregisterInstance = function() { var index = registry.indexOf(this); if (index != -1) registry.splice(index, 1); }; /** * Returns the result of the performance.now() method or null in browsers * that don't support the API. * @return {number} The elapsed time since the page was requested. */ function now() { return window.performance && performance.now && performance.now(); } /** * Throttles a function and delays its execution, so it's only called at most * once within a given time period. * @param {Function} fn The function to throttle. * @param {number} timeout The amount of time that must pass before the * function can be called again. * @return {Function} The throttled function. */ function throttle(fn, timeout) { var timer = null; return function () { if (!timer) { timer = setTimeout(function() { fn(); timer = null; }, timeout); } }; } /** * Adds an event handler to a DOM node ensuring cross-browser compatibility. * @param {Node} node The DOM node to add the event handler to. * @param {string} event The event name. * @param {Function} fn The event handler to add. * @param {boolean} opt_useCapture Optionally adds the even to the capture * phase. Note: this only works in modern browsers. */ function addEvent(node, event, fn, opt_useCapture) { if (typeof node.addEventListener == 'function') { node.addEventListener(event, fn, opt_useCapture || false); } else if (typeof node.attachEvent == 'function') { node.attachEvent('on' + event, fn); } } /** * Removes a previously added event handler from a DOM node. * @param {Node} node The DOM node to remove the event handler from. * @param {string} event The event name. * @param {Function} fn The event handler to remove. * @param {boolean} opt_useCapture If the event handler was added with this * flag set to true, it should be set to true here in order to remove it. */ function removeEvent(node, event, fn, opt_useCapture) { if (typeof node.removeEventListener == 'function') { node.removeEventListener(event, fn, opt_useCapture || false); } else if (typeof node.detatchEvent == 'function') { node.detatchEvent('on' + event, fn); } } /** * Returns the intersection between two rect objects. * @param {Object} rect1 The first rect. * @param {Object} rect2 The second rect. * @return {?Object|?ClientRect} The intersection rect or undefined if no * intersection is found. */ function computeRectIntersection(rect1, rect2) { var top = Math.max(rect1.top, rect2.top); var bottom = Math.min(rect1.bottom, rect2.bottom); var left = Math.max(rect1.left, rect2.left); var right = Math.min(rect1.right, rect2.right); var width = right - left; var height = bottom - top; return (width >= 0 && height >= 0) && { top: top, bottom: bottom, left: left, right: right, width: width, height: height } || null; } /** * Shims the native getBoundingClientRect for compatibility with older IE. * @param {Element} el The element whose bounding rect to get. * @return {DOMRect|ClientRect} The (possibly shimmed) rect of the element. */ function getBoundingClientRect(el) { var rect; try { rect = el.getBoundingClientRect(); } catch (err) { // Ignore Windows 7 IE11 "Unspecified error" // https://github.com/w3c/IntersectionObserver/pull/205 } if (!rect) return getEmptyRect(); // Older IE if (!(rect.width && rect.height)) { rect = { top: rect.top, right: rect.right, bottom: rect.bottom, left: rect.left, width: rect.right - rect.left, height: rect.bottom - rect.top }; } return rect; } /** * Returns an empty rect object. An empty rect is returned when an element * is not in the DOM. * @return {ClientRect} The empty rect. */ function getEmptyRect() { return { top: 0, bottom: 0, left: 0, right: 0, width: 0, height: 0 }; } /** * Ensure that the result has all of the necessary fields of the DOMRect. * Specifically this ensures that `x` and `y` fields are set. * * @param {?DOMRect|?ClientRect} rect * @return {?DOMRect} */ function ensureDOMRect(rect) { // A `DOMRect` object has `x` and `y` fields. if (!rect || 'x' in rect) { return rect; } // A IE's `ClientRect` type does not have `x` and `y`. The same is the case // for internally calculated Rect objects. 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href="/web/20211219193829/https://www.lexico.com/" data-behaviour="ga-event" data-value="Primary breadcrumb">Home</a><span class="chevron"></span> <a data-behaviour="ga-event" data-value="secondary breadcrumb" href="/web/20211219193829/https://www.lexico.com/grammar">Grammar</a> <span class="chevron"></span> <a data-behaviour="ga-event" data-value="secondary breadcrumb" href="/web/20211219193829/https://www.lexico.com/grammar/punctuation">Punctuation</a></p></div><div class="textBlock layout"><h1><span>Punctuation</span></h1><p><p>Punctuation marks are <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20211219193829/https://www.lexico.com/definition/essential">essential</a> when you are writing. They show the reader where sentences start and finish and if they are used properly they make your writing easy to understand. This section gives practical guidance on how to use commas, semicolons, and other types of punctuation correctly, so that your writing will always be clear and <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20211219193829/https://www.lexico.com/definition/effective">effective</a>. There are also sections which offer advice on using punctuation when writing <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20211219193829/https://www.lexico.com/definition/direct_speech">direct speech</a>, lists, or abbreviations.</p><p>You may find some <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20211219193829/https://www.lexico.com/definition/aspect">aspects</a> of punctuation harder to grasp than others (for example, when to use a semicolon or a colon). Clicking on each heading will take you to a page with more details and full information.</p></p></div><div class="categories"></div><div class="categories pages"><section class="record" data-time="2019-12-09 11:59:48 +0000"><a href="/web/20211219193829/https://www.lexico.com/grammar/colon" data-behaviour="ga-event" data-value="Story 1"><div class="box-img" data-ratiox="16" data-ratioy="9.5"><img src="https://web.archive.org/web/20211219193829im_/https://lexico.useremarkable.com/production/images/uploads/7086/original/colon.jpg"/></div><article><h2>How to use a colon (:)</h2><h4>Those two little dots have three main uses: learn what a colon’s job is and where it can be used with our helpful guide. Can you spot how it is being used here?</h4></article></a></section><section class="record" data-time="2021-01-15 22:56:48 +0000"><a href="/web/20211219193829/https://www.lexico.com/grammar/comma" data-behaviour="ga-event" data-value="Story 2"><div class="box-img" data-ratiox="16" data-ratioy="9.5"><img src="https://web.archive.org/web/20211219193829im_/https://lexico.useremarkable.com/production/images/uploads/7087/original/comma.jpg"/></div><article><h2>How to use a comma (,)</h2><h4>Don’t struggle with whether or not to use an Oxford comma: our guide will teach you this, plus much more about the humble comma and its many uses.</h4></article></a></section><section class="record" data-time="2019-12-09 11:59:43 +0000"><a href="/web/20211219193829/https://www.lexico.com/grammar/period-full-stop" data-behaviour="ga-event" data-value="Story 3"><div class="box-img" data-ratiox="16" data-ratioy="9.5"><img src="https://web.archive.org/web/20211219193829im_/https://lexico.useremarkable.com/production/images/uploads/7088/original/full-stop-period.jpg"/></div><article><h2>How To Use A Full Stop/Period (.)</h2><h4>Don’t let your confidence in using a full stop be stopped: take a look at our guide to when this fundamental punctuation mark is needed.</h4></article></a></section><section class="record" data-time="2019-12-09 11:59:45 +0000"><a href="/web/20211219193829/https://www.lexico.com/grammar/hyphen" data-behaviour="ga-event" data-value="Story 4"><div class="box-img" data-ratiox="16" data-ratioy="9.5"><img src="https://web.archive.org/web/20211219193829im_/https://lexico.useremarkable.com/production/images/uploads/7089/original/hyphen.jpg"/></div><article><h2>How to use a hyphen (-)</h2><h4>Hyphens can be tricky to use, but there are three times where you should consider using them. This article shows you when to use them, and how.</h4></article></a></section><section class="record" data-time="2021-06-17 15:40:20 +0100"><a href="/web/20211219193829/https://www.lexico.com/grammar/apostrophe" data-behaviour="ga-event" data-value="Story 5"><div class="box-img" data-ratiox="16" data-ratioy="9.5"><img src="https://web.archive.org/web/20211219193829im_/https://lexico.useremarkable.com/production/images/uploads/7004/original/GettyImages-1060623770.jpg"/></div><article><h2>How To Use An Apostrophe (’)</h2><h4>Many people have difficulties with using the apostrophe correctly. We're here to eliminate the uncertainty surrounding this punctuation mark. </h4></article></a></section><section class="record" data-time="2021-02-05 15:53:11 +0000"><a href="/web/20211219193829/https://www.lexico.com/grammar/dash-and-em-dash" data-behaviour="ga-event" data-value="Story 6"><div class="box-img" data-ratiox="16" data-ratioy="9.5"><img src="https://web.archive.org/web/20211219193829im_/https://lexico.useremarkable.com/production/images/uploads/7090/original/em-dash.jpg"/></div><article><h2>How To Use An Em Dash (—)</h2><h4>Dashes are often found in informal writing, but how often should you use this punctuation?</h4></article></a></section><section class="record" data-time="2019-12-09 11:59:45 +0000"><a href="/web/20211219193829/https://www.lexico.com/grammar/question-mark" data-behaviour="ga-event" data-value="Story 7"><div class="box-img" data-ratiox="16" data-ratioy="9.5"><img src="https://web.archive.org/web/20211219193829im_/https://lexico.useremarkable.com/production/images/uploads/7091/original/question-mark.jpg"/></div><article><h2>How to use a question mark (?)</h2><h4>When should you use a question mark? The answer isn’t quite as simple as ‘when a question is involved’ – so we’ll take you through the rules.</h4></article></a></section><section class="record" data-time="2019-12-09 11:59:48 +0000"><a href="/web/20211219193829/https://www.lexico.com/grammar/semicolon" data-behaviour="ga-event" data-value="Story 8"><div class="box-img" data-ratiox="16" data-ratioy="9.5"><img src="https://web.archive.org/web/20211219193829im_/https://lexico.useremarkable.com/production/images/uploads/7092/original/semi-colon.jpg"/></div><article><h2>How to use a semicolon (;)</h2><h4>Semicolons can cause some confusion, particularly if you’re not entirely sure when they should be used. Fear not! We have all your punctuation solutions.</h4></article></a></section><section class="record" data-time="2021-02-05 15:57:24 +0000"><a href="/web/20211219193829/https://www.lexico.com/grammar/bullet-points" data-behaviour="ga-event" data-value="Story 9"><div class="box-img" data-ratiox="16" data-ratioy="9.5"><img src="https://web.archive.org/web/20211219193829im_/https://lexico.useremarkable.com/production/images/uploads/7085/original/bullet-points.jpg"/></div><article><h2>How To Use Bullet Points (:)</h2><h4>Although there are no fixed rules about how to use bullet points, here are a few things you need to consider. </h4></article></a></section><section class="record" data-time="2019-12-09 11:59:47 +0000"><a href="/web/20211219193829/https://www.lexico.com/grammar/parentheses-and-brackets" data-behaviour="ga-event" data-value="Story 10"><div class="box-img" data-ratiox="16" data-ratioy="9.5"><img src="https://web.archive.org/web/20211219193829im_/https://lexico.useremarkable.com/production/images/uploads/7093/original/parentheses.jpg"/></div><article><h2>How to use parentheses and brackets ( ) [ ]</h2><h4>Round brackets and square brackets are the two main types of brackets. Read this quick guide to learn how to use them correctly.</h4></article></a></section><section class="record" data-time="2019-12-09 11:59:48 +0000"><a href="/web/20211219193829/https://www.lexico.com/grammar/punctuation-in-abbreviations" data-behaviour="ga-event" data-value="Story 11"><div class="box-img" data-ratiox="16" data-ratioy="9.5"><img src="https://web.archive.org/web/20211219193829im_/https://lexico.useremarkable.com/production/images/uploads/7231/original/how-to-use-punctuation-abbreviatinos.jpg"/></div><article><h2>How to use punctuation in abbreviations</h2><h4>If you’re not sure whether it’s ‘Mr’ or ‘Mr.’, then check out our guidelines setting out the different rules of punctuation in abbreviations.</h4></article></a></section><section class="record" data-time="2019-12-09 11:59:48 +0000"><a href="/web/20211219193829/https://www.lexico.com/grammar/punctuation-in-direct-speech" data-behaviour="ga-event" data-value="Story 12"><div class="box-img" data-ratiox="16" data-ratioy="9.5"><img src="https://web.archive.org/web/20211219193829im_/https://lexico.useremarkable.com/production/images/uploads/7232/original/how-to-use-punctuation-in-direct-speech.jpg"/></div><article><h2>How to use punctuation in direct speech</h2><h4>Does the comma go inside speech marks? Do you use single (‘) or double (“) inverted commas? The answers are all in our guide to punctuation in direct speech.</h4></article></a></section><section class="record" data-time="2021-02-05 15:55:35 +0000"><a href="/web/20211219193829/https://www.lexico.com/grammar/punctuation-in-lists" data-behaviour="ga-event" data-value="Story 13"><div class="box-img" data-ratiox="16" data-ratioy="9.5"><img src="https://web.archive.org/web/20211219193829im_/https://lexico.useremarkable.com/production/images/uploads/7233/original/how-to-use-punctuation-in-lists.jpg"/></div><article><h2>How to use punctuation in lists</h2><h4>Any list will need the help of punctuation to make it clear. Do you know which punctuation marks are used for lists, and how to use them?</h4></article></a></section><section class="record" data-time="2019-12-09 11:59:47 +0000"><a href="/web/20211219193829/https://www.lexico.com/grammar/exclamation-mark-point" data-behaviour="ga-event" data-value="Story 14"><div class="box-img" data-ratiox="16" data-ratioy="9.5"><img src="https://web.archive.org/web/20211219193829im_/https://lexico.useremarkable.com/production/images/uploads/7221/original/exclamation-mark-or-exclamation%5Bpoint.jpg"/></div><article><h2>Is it "exclamation mark" or "exclamation point" (!)?</h2><h4>The exclamation mark comes in handy in various situations – but are there times you should or shouldn’t use it? We explore this controversial punctuation mark. </h4></article></a></section><section class="record" data-time="2020-09-18 14:57:17 +0100"><a href="/web/20211219193829/https://www.lexico.com/grammar/types-of-punctuation" data-behaviour="ga-event" data-value="Story 15"><div class="box-img" data-ratiox="16" data-ratioy="9.5"><img src="https://web.archive.org/web/20211219193829im_/https://lexico.useremarkable.com/production/images/uploads/7272/original/types-of-punctuation.jpg"/></div><article><h2>Types Of Punctuation</h2><h4>Without punctuation, it would be very difficult to understand any piece of writing. Explore all common punctuation marks, from semicolons to bullet points.</h4></article></a></section><section class="record" data-time="2019-12-09 11:59:47 +0000"><a href="/web/20211219193829/https://www.lexico.com/grammar/inverted-commas-quotation-marks" data-behaviour="ga-event" data-value="Story 16"><div class="box-img" data-ratiox="16" data-ratioy="9.5"><img src="https://web.archive.org/web/20211219193829im_/https://lexico.useremarkable.com/production/images/uploads/7274/original/what-are-inverted-commas-quotation-marks.jpg"/></div><article><h2>What are inverted commas?</h2><h4>Inverted commas are used for a number of reasons, and also have different names. This guide shows you the differences between them, and how to use them.</h4></article></a></section></div><div class="sitemap_pagination category_pagination"></div><div class="load_more_container"><a class="seemore" data-behaviour="ga-event" data-value="see more in cat" href="/web/20211219193829/https://www.lexico.com/grammar">See more from Grammar</a></div><div class="coachGrammarBanner"><a target="_blank" data-behaviour="ga-event-coach-grammar" data-value="click coach grammar banner" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20211219193829/https://www.thesaurus.com/writingtool?utm_source=lexico&utm_medium=blog&utm_campaign=grammarcoach"><img src="/web/20211219193829im_/https://www.lexico.com/assets/dcom/cg-330973c456f4cdb40afc136644fef6646febe6e155c45b0725df1c0a92d0f42b.png"/></a></div></div></div><aside class="sideBanner"><div class="sideBannerWrap"><div class="banner adUnit"><div id="lexi_serp_dkt_atf_160x600_1"></div><div id=""></div></div></div></aside><aside id="sidebar" class="sidebar extend"><div class="sidebar-content"><aside class="banbox-mini ad-placeholder" id="top_right_rail"><div class="banner adUnit"><div id="lexi_serp_dkt_btf_300x250_20"></div><div id=""></div></div></aside><div class="dayword"><section><div class="daywordmain"><span class="wotd-title">Word of the day</span><div class="word_spacer"></div><div><div><strong><a class="linkword" id="7a95571c-71d0-4862-98eb-e8667b007c96" href="/web/20211219193829/https://www.lexico.com/definition/tippet" data-behaviour="ga-event-wotd" data-value="Word">tippet</a></strong><p class="word_type phonetic_spelling">/ ˈtɪpɪt /</p><p class="word_type pos">noun</p></div></div><div class="cta"><a id="7a95571c-71d0-4862-98eb-e8667b007c96" href="/web/20211219193829/https://www.lexico.com/definition/tippet" data-behaviour="ga-event-wotd" data-value="Word">See definitions & examples</a></div></div></section></div><div class="news layout"><section><a href="/web/20211219193829/https://www.lexico.com/explore/word-of-the-year" data-behaviour="ga-event" data-value="Sidebar - story 1"><div class="box-img" data-ratiox="2.35" data-ratioy="1"><img src="https://web.archive.org/web/20211219193829im_/https://raw.githubusercontent.com/entropyhub/entropyhub.github.io/master/assets/images/reexternalwotypage/202012_semicolon_lexico_WOTY_english_748x482.jpg" loading="lazy" class="lazy"></div><article><span class="article-title">It's here! 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