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class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2</span> <span>Origin and development of folklore studies</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Origin_and_development_of_folklore_studies-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Definition_of_"folk"" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Definition_of_"folk""> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3</span> <span>Definition of "folk"</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Definition_of_"folk"-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Folklore_genres" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Folklore_genres"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> <span>Folklore genres</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Folklore_genres-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Folklore genres subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Folklore_genres-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Verbal_tradition" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Verbal_tradition"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.1</span> <span>Verbal tradition</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Verbal_tradition-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Material_culture" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Material_culture"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.2</span> <span>Material culture</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Material_culture-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Customs" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Customs"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.3</span> <span>Customs</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Customs-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Childlore_and_games" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Childlore_and_games"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.4</span> <span>Childlore and games</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Childlore_and_games-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Folk_history" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Folk_history"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.5</span> <span>Folk history</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Folk_history-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Folklore_performance_in_context" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Folklore_performance_in_context"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>Folklore performance in context</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Folklore_performance_in_context-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Folklore performance in context subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Folklore_performance_in_context-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Backstory" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Backstory"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.1</span> <span>Backstory</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Backstory-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Tradition-bearer_and_audience" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Tradition-bearer_and_audience"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.2</span> <span>Tradition-bearer and audience</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Tradition-bearer_and_audience-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Framing_the_performance" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Framing_the_performance"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.3</span> <span>Framing the performance</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Framing_the_performance-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-In_the_subjunctive_voice" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#In_the_subjunctive_voice"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.4</span> <span>In the subjunctive voice</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-In_the_subjunctive_voice-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Anderson's_law_of_auto-correction" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Anderson's_law_of_auto-correction"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.5</span> <span>Anderson's law of auto-correction</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Anderson's_law_of_auto-correction-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Context_of_material_lore" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Context_of_material_lore"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.6</span> <span>Context of material lore</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Context_of_material_lore-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Toelken's_conservative-dynamic_continuum" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Toelken's_conservative-dynamic_continuum"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.7</span> <span>Toelken's conservative-dynamic continuum</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Toelken's_conservative-dynamic_continuum-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-In_the_electronic_age" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#In_the_electronic_age"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.8</span> <span>In the electronic age</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-In_the_electronic_age-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6</span> <span>See also</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Notes" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Notes"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7</span> <span>Notes</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Notes-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8</span> <span>References</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-References-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle References subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Bibliography" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Bibliography"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8.1</span> <span>Bibliography</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Bibliography-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Further_reading" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Further_reading"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9</span> <span>Further reading</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Further_reading-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Further_reading_2" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Further_reading_2"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">10</span> <span>Further reading</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Further_reading_2-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">11</span> <span>External links</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-listBullet mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-listBullet"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Toggle the table of contents</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading"><span class="mw-page-title-main">Folklore</span></h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. Available in 127 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-127" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-language-progressive mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-language-progressive"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">127 languages</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-af mw-list-item"><a href="https://af.wikipedia.org/wiki/Folklore" title="Folklore – Afrikaans" lang="af" hreflang="af" data-title="Folklore" data-language-autonym="Afrikaans" data-language-local-name="Afrikaans" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Afrikaans</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AA%D8%B1%D8%A7%D8%AB_%D8%B4%D8%B9%D8%A8%D9%8A" title="تراث شعبي – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="تراث شعبي" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>العربية</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-an mw-list-item"><a href="https://an.wikipedia.org/wiki/Folklore" title="Folklore – Aragonese" lang="an" hreflang="an" data-title="Folklore" data-language-autonym="Aragonés" data-language-local-name="Aragonese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Aragonés</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-as mw-list-item"><a href="https://as.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A6%B2%E0%A7%8B%E0%A6%95%E0%A6%95%E0%A6%A5%E0%A6%BE" title="লোককথা – Assamese" lang="as" hreflang="as" data-title="লোককথা" data-language-autonym="অসমীয়া" data-language-local-name="Assamese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>অসমীয়া</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ast mw-list-item"><a href="https://ast.wikipedia.org/wiki/Folclor" title="Folclor – Asturian" lang="ast" hreflang="ast" data-title="Folclor" data-language-autonym="Asturianu" data-language-local-name="Asturian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Asturianu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gn mw-list-item"><a href="https://gn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tavarandu" title="Tavarandu – Guarani" lang="gn" hreflang="gn" data-title="Tavarandu" data-language-autonym="Avañe'ẽ" data-language-local-name="Guarani" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Avañe'ẽ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-az mw-list-item"><a href="https://az.wikipedia.org/wiki/Folklor" title="Folklor – Azerbaijani" lang="az" hreflang="az" data-title="Folklor" data-language-autonym="Azərbaycanca" data-language-local-name="Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Azərbaycanca</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-azb mw-list-item"><a href="https://azb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%81%D9%88%D9%84%DA%A9%D9%84%D9%88%D8%B1" title="فولکلور – South Azerbaijani" lang="azb" hreflang="azb" data-title="فولکلور" data-language-autonym="تۆرکجه" data-language-local-name="South Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>تۆرکجه</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ban mw-list-item"><a href="https://ban.wikipedia.org/wiki/Satua_Bali" title="Satua Bali – Balinese" lang="ban" hreflang="ban" data-title="Satua Bali" data-language-autonym="Basa Bali" data-language-local-name="Balinese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Basa Bali</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bn mw-list-item"><a href="https://bn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A6%B2%E0%A7%8B%E0%A6%95%E0%A6%9C%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%9E%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%A8" title="লোকজ্ঞান – Bangla" lang="bn" hreflang="bn" data-title="লোকজ্ঞান" data-language-autonym="বাংলা" data-language-local-name="Bangla" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>বাংলা</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-min-nan mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh-min-nan.wikipedia.org/wiki/B%C3%AEn-sio%CC%8Dk" title="Bîn-sio̍k – Minnan" lang="nan" hreflang="nan" data-title="Bîn-sio̍k" data-language-autonym="閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gú" data-language-local-name="Minnan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gú</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be mw-list-item"><a href="https://be.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A4%D0%B0%D0%BB%D1%8C%D0%BA%D0%BB%D0%BE%D1%80" title="Фальклор – Belarusian" lang="be" hreflang="be" data-title="Фальклор" data-language-autonym="Беларуская" data-language-local-name="Belarusian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Беларуская</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be-x-old mw-list-item"><a href="https://be-tarask.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A4%D0%B0%D0%BB%D1%8C%D0%BA%D0%BB%D1%91%D1%80" title="Фальклёр – Belarusian (Taraškievica orthography)" lang="be-tarask" hreflang="be-tarask" data-title="Фальклёр" data-language-autonym="Беларуская (тарашкевіца)" data-language-local-name="Belarusian (Taraškievica orthography)" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Беларуская (тарашкевіца)</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bg mw-list-item"><a href="https://bg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9D%D0%B0%D1%80%D0%BE%D0%B4%D0%BD%D0%BE_%D1%82%D0%B2%D0%BE%D1%80%D1%87%D0%B5%D1%81%D1%82%D0%B2%D0%BE" title="Народно творчество – Bulgarian" lang="bg" hreflang="bg" data-title="Народно творчество" data-language-autonym="Български" data-language-local-name="Bulgarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Български</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bs mw-list-item"><a href="https://bs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Folklor" title="Folklor – Bosnian" lang="bs" hreflang="bs" data-title="Folklor" data-language-autonym="Bosanski" data-language-local-name="Bosnian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bosanski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-br mw-list-item"><a href="https://br.wikipedia.org/wiki/Folklor" title="Folklor – Breton" lang="br" hreflang="br" data-title="Folklor" data-language-autonym="Brezhoneg" data-language-local-name="Breton" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Brezhoneg</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Folklore" title="Folklore – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Folklore" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Català</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cv mw-list-item"><a href="https://cv.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A4%D0%BE%D0%BB%D1%8C%D0%BA%D0%BB%D0%BE%D1%80" title="Фольклор – Chuvash" lang="cv" hreflang="cv" data-title="Фольклор" data-language-autonym="Чӑвашла" data-language-local-name="Chuvash" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Чӑвашла</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs mw-list-item"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Folkl%C3%B3r" title="Folklór – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="Folklór" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="Czech" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Čeština</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sn mw-list-item"><a href="https://sn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ngano" title="Ngano – Shona" lang="sn" hreflang="sn" data-title="Ngano" data-language-autonym="ChiShona" data-language-local-name="Shona" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ChiShona</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cy mw-list-item"><a href="https://cy.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ll%C3%AAn_gwerin" title="Llên gwerin – Welsh" lang="cy" hreflang="cy" data-title="Llên gwerin" data-language-autonym="Cymraeg" data-language-local-name="Welsh" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Cymraeg</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-da mw-list-item"><a href="https://da.wikipedia.org/wiki/Folkeminde" title="Folkeminde – Danish" lang="da" hreflang="da" data-title="Folkeminde" data-language-autonym="Dansk" data-language-local-name="Danish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Dansk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Folklore" title="Folklore – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Folklore" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Deutsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-dv mw-list-item"><a href="https://dv.wikipedia.org/wiki/%DE%82%DE%A7%DE%91%DE%AA%DE%86%DE%A6%DE%8C%DE%A7" title="ނާޑުކަތާ – Divehi" lang="dv" hreflang="dv" data-title="ނާޑުކަތާ" data-language-autonym="ދިވެހިބަސް" data-language-local-name="Divehi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ދިވެހިބަސް</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-et mw-list-item"><a href="https://et.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rahvaluule" title="Rahvaluule – Estonian" lang="et" hreflang="et" data-title="Rahvaluule" data-language-autonym="Eesti" data-language-local-name="Estonian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Eesti</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-el mw-list-item"><a href="https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%9B%CE%B1%CE%BF%CE%B3%CF%81%CE%B1%CF%86%CE%AF%CE%B1" title="Λαογραφία – Greek" lang="el" hreflang="el" data-title="Λαογραφία" data-language-autonym="Ελληνικά" data-language-local-name="Greek" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ελληνικά</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-myv mw-list-item"><a href="https://myv.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A4%D0%BE%D0%BB%D1%8C%D0%BA%D0%BB%D0%BE%D1%80" title="Фольклор – Erzya" lang="myv" hreflang="myv" data-title="Фольклор" data-language-autonym="Эрзянь" data-language-local-name="Erzya" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Эрзянь</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Folclore" title="Folclore – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Folclore" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Español</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eo mw-list-item"><a href="https://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Folkloro" title="Folkloro – Esperanto" lang="eo" hreflang="eo" data-title="Folkloro" data-language-autonym="Esperanto" data-language-local-name="Esperanto" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Esperanto</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eu mw-list-item"><a href="https://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Folklore" title="Folklore – Basque" lang="eu" hreflang="eu" data-title="Folklore" data-language-autonym="Euskara" data-language-local-name="Basque" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Euskara</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%81%D9%88%D9%84%DA%A9%D9%84%D9%88%D8%B1" title="فولکلور – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="فولکلور" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>فارسی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fo mw-list-item"><a href="https://fo.wikipedia.org/wiki/F%C3%B3lkatr%C3%BAgv" title="Fólkatrúgv – Faroese" lang="fo" hreflang="fo" data-title="Fólkatrúgv" data-language-autonym="Føroyskt" data-language-local-name="Faroese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Føroyskt</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Folklore" title="Folklore – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Folklore" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Français</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fy mw-list-item"><a href="https://fy.wikipedia.org/wiki/Folkloare" title="Folkloare – Western Frisian" lang="fy" hreflang="fy" data-title="Folkloare" data-language-autonym="Frysk" data-language-local-name="Western Frisian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Frysk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fur mw-list-item"><a href="https://fur.wikipedia.org/wiki/Folcl%C3%B4r" title="Folclôr – Friulian" lang="fur" hreflang="fur" data-title="Folclôr" data-language-autonym="Furlan" data-language-local-name="Friulian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Furlan</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ga mw-list-item"><a href="https://ga.wikipedia.org/wiki/B%C3%A9aloideas" title="Béaloideas – Irish" lang="ga" hreflang="ga" data-title="Béaloideas" data-language-autonym="Gaeilge" data-language-local-name="Irish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Gaeilge</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gv mw-list-item"><a href="https://gv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Beeal-arrish" title="Beeal-arrish – Manx" lang="gv" hreflang="gv" data-title="Beeal-arrish" data-language-autonym="Gaelg" data-language-local-name="Manx" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Gaelg</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gag mw-list-item"><a href="https://gag.wikipedia.org/wiki/Folklor" title="Folklor – Gagauz" lang="gag" hreflang="gag" data-title="Folklor" data-language-autonym="Gagauz" data-language-local-name="Gagauz" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Gagauz</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gl mw-list-item"><a href="https://gl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Folclore" title="Folclore – Galician" lang="gl" hreflang="gl" data-title="Folclore" data-language-autonym="Galego" data-language-local-name="Galician" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Galego</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EB%AF%BC%EC%86%8D" title="민속 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="민속" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>한국어</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hy mw-list-item"><a href="https://hy.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D5%96%D5%B8%D5%AC%D5%AF%D5%AC%D5%B8%D6%80" title="Ֆոլկլոր – Armenian" lang="hy" hreflang="hy" data-title="Ֆոլկլոր" data-language-autonym="Հայերեն" data-language-local-name="Armenian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Հայերեն</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hi mw-list-item"><a href="https://hi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%B2%E0%A5%8B%E0%A4%95_%E0%A4%B8%E0%A4%82%E0%A4%B8%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%95%E0%A5%83%E0%A4%A4%E0%A4%BF" title="लोक संस्कृति – Hindi" lang="hi" hreflang="hi" data-title="लोक संस्कृति" data-language-autonym="हिन्दी" data-language-local-name="Hindi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>हिन्दी</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hr mw-list-item"><a href="https://hr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Folklor" title="Folklor – Croatian" lang="hr" hreflang="hr" data-title="Folklor" data-language-autonym="Hrvatski" data-language-local-name="Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Hrvatski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-io mw-list-item"><a href="https://io.wikipedia.org/wiki/Folkloro" title="Folkloro – Ido" lang="io" hreflang="io" data-title="Folkloro" data-language-autonym="Ido" data-language-local-name="Ido" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ido</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Folklor" title="Folklor – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Folklor" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Indonesia</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ia mw-list-item"><a href="https://ia.wikipedia.org/wiki/Folklore" title="Folklore – Interlingua" lang="ia" hreflang="ia" data-title="Folklore" data-language-autonym="Interlingua" data-language-local-name="Interlingua" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Interlingua</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-is mw-list-item"><a href="https://is.wikipedia.org/wiki/Al%C3%BE%C3%BD%C3%B0umenning" title="Alþýðumenning – Icelandic" lang="is" hreflang="is" data-title="Alþýðumenning" data-language-autonym="Íslenska" data-language-local-name="Icelandic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Íslenska</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Folclore" title="Folclore – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Folclore" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Italiano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he mw-list-item"><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%A4%D7%95%D7%9C%D7%A7%D7%9C%D7%95%D7%A8" title="פולקלור – Hebrew" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="פולקלור" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="Hebrew" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>עברית</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-jv mw-list-item"><a href="https://jv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Folklor" title="Folklor – Javanese" lang="jv" hreflang="jv" data-title="Folklor" data-language-autonym="Jawa" data-language-local-name="Javanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Jawa</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ka mw-list-item"><a href="https://ka.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%A4%E1%83%9D%E1%83%9A%E1%83%99%E1%83%9A%E1%83%9D%E1%83%A0%E1%83%98" title="ფოლკლორი – Georgian" lang="ka" hreflang="ka" data-title="ფოლკლორი" data-language-autonym="ქართული" data-language-local-name="Georgian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ქართული</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-csb mw-list-item"><a href="https://csb.wikipedia.org/wiki/F%C3%B2lklor" title="Fòlklor – Kashubian" lang="csb" hreflang="csb" data-title="Fòlklor" data-language-autonym="Kaszëbsczi" data-language-local-name="Kashubian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Kaszëbsczi</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kk mw-list-item"><a href="https://kk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A4%D0%BE%D0%BB%D1%8C%D0%BA%D0%BB%D0%BE%D1%80" title="Фольклор – Kazakh" lang="kk" hreflang="kk" data-title="Фольклор" data-language-autonym="Қазақша" data-language-local-name="Kazakh" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Қазақша</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kw mw-list-item"><a href="https://kw.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lien_gwerin" title="Lien gwerin – Cornish" lang="kw" hreflang="kw" data-title="Lien gwerin" data-language-autonym="Kernowek" data-language-local-name="Cornish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Kernowek</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kv mw-list-item"><a href="https://kv.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A4%D0%BE%D0%BB%D1%8C%D0%BA%D0%BB%D0%BE%D1%80" title="Фольклор – Komi" lang="kv" hreflang="kv" data-title="Фольклор" data-language-autonym="Коми" data-language-local-name="Komi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Коми</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ht mw-list-item"><a href="https://ht.wikipedia.org/wiki/F%C3%B2lkl%C3%B2" title="Fòlklò – Haitian Creole" lang="ht" hreflang="ht" data-title="Fòlklò" data-language-autonym="Kreyòl ayisyen" data-language-local-name="Haitian Creole" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Kreyòl ayisyen</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ku mw-list-item"><a href="https://ku.wikipedia.org/wiki/Folklor" title="Folklor – Kurdish" lang="ku" hreflang="ku" data-title="Folklor" data-language-autonym="Kurdî" data-language-local-name="Kurdish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Kurdî</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ky mw-list-item"><a href="https://ky.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A4%D0%BE%D0%BB%D1%8C%D0%BA%D0%BB%D0%BE%D1%80" title="Фольклор – Kyrgyz" lang="ky" hreflang="ky" data-title="Фольклор" data-language-autonym="Кыргызча" data-language-local-name="Kyrgyz" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Кыргызча</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lad mw-list-item"><a href="https://lad.wikipedia.org/wiki/Folklor" title="Folklor – Ladino" lang="lad" hreflang="lad" data-title="Folklor" data-language-autonym="Ladino" data-language-local-name="Ladino" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ladino</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-la mw-list-item"><a href="https://la.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gentilicii_mores" title="Gentilicii mores – Latin" lang="la" hreflang="la" data-title="Gentilicii mores" data-language-autonym="Latina" data-language-local-name="Latin" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Latina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lv mw-list-item"><a href="https://lv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Folklora" title="Folklora – Latvian" lang="lv" hreflang="lv" data-title="Folklora" data-language-autonym="Latviešu" data-language-local-name="Latvian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Latviešu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lt mw-list-item"><a href="https://lt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Folkloras" title="Folkloras – Lithuanian" lang="lt" hreflang="lt" data-title="Folkloras" data-language-autonym="Lietuvių" data-language-local-name="Lithuanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Lietuvių</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-li mw-list-item"><a href="https://li.wikipedia.org/wiki/Folklore" title="Folklore – Limburgish" lang="li" hreflang="li" data-title="Folklore" data-language-autonym="Limburgs" data-language-local-name="Limburgish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Limburgs</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hu mw-list-item"><a href="https://hu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Folkl%C3%B3r" title="Folklór – Hungarian" lang="hu" hreflang="hu" data-title="Folklór" data-language-autonym="Magyar" data-language-local-name="Hungarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Magyar</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mk mw-list-item"><a href="https://mk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A4%D0%BE%D0%BB%D0%BA%D0%BB%D0%BE%D1%80" title="Фолклор – Macedonian" lang="mk" hreflang="mk" data-title="Фолклор" data-language-autonym="Македонски" data-language-local-name="Macedonian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Македонски</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ml mw-list-item"><a href="https://ml.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B4%A8%E0%B4%BE%E0%B4%9F%E0%B5%8D%E0%B4%9F%E0%B4%B1%E0%B4%BF%E0%B4%B5%E0%B5%8D" title="നാട്ടറിവ് – Malayalam" lang="ml" hreflang="ml" data-title="നാട്ടറിവ്" data-language-autonym="മലയാളം" data-language-local-name="Malayalam" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>മലയാളം</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mt mw-list-item"><a href="https://mt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Folklor" title="Folklor – Maltese" lang="mt" hreflang="mt" data-title="Folklor" data-language-autonym="Malti" data-language-local-name="Maltese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Malti</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mr mw-list-item"><a href="https://mr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%B2%E0%A5%8B%E0%A4%95%E0%A4%95%E0%A4%A5%E0%A4%BE" title="लोककथा – Marathi" lang="mr" hreflang="mr" data-title="लोककथा" data-language-autonym="मराठी" data-language-local-name="Marathi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>मराठी</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-xmf mw-list-item"><a href="https://xmf.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%A4%E1%83%9D%E1%83%9A%E1%83%99%E1%83%9A%E1%83%9D%E1%83%A0%E1%83%98" title="ფოლკლორი – Mingrelian" lang="xmf" hreflang="xmf" data-title="ფოლკლორი" data-language-autonym="მარგალური" data-language-local-name="Mingrelian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>მარგალური</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-arz mw-list-item"><a href="https://arz.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A7%D8%AB%D9%86%D9%88%D9%84%D9%88%D8%AC%D9%8A%D8%A7_%D8%A7%D9%82%D9%84%D9%8A%D9%85%D9%8A%D9%87" title="اثنولوجيا اقليميه – Egyptian Arabic" lang="arz" hreflang="arz" data-title="اثنولوجيا اقليميه" data-language-autonym="مصرى" data-language-local-name="Egyptian Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>مصرى</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mnw mw-list-item"><a href="https://mnw.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%80%95%E1%80%B1%E1%80%AB%E1%80%99%E1%80%BA" title="ပေါမ် – Mon" lang="mnw" hreflang="mnw" data-title="ပေါမ်" data-language-autonym="ဘာသာမန်" data-language-local-name="Mon" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ဘာသာမန်</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ms mw-list-item"><a href="https://ms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Budaya_rakyat" title="Budaya rakyat – Malay" lang="ms" hreflang="ms" data-title="Budaya rakyat" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Melayu" data-language-local-name="Malay" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Melayu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mdf mw-list-item"><a href="https://mdf.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A4%D0%BE%D0%BB%D1%8C%D0%BA%D0%BB%D0%BE%D1%80%D1%81%D1%8C" title="Фольклорсь – Moksha" lang="mdf" hreflang="mdf" data-title="Фольклорсь" data-language-autonym="Мокшень" data-language-local-name="Moksha" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Мокшень</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mn mw-list-item"><a href="https://mn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%90%D1%80%D0%B4%D1%8B%D0%BD_%D0%B0%D0%BC%D0%B0%D0%BD_%D0%B7%D0%BE%D1%85%D0%B8%D0%BE%D0%BB" title="Ардын аман зохиол – Mongolian" lang="mn" hreflang="mn" data-title="Ардын аман зохиол" data-language-autonym="Монгол" data-language-local-name="Mongolian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Монгол</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Folklore" title="Folklore – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Folklore" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Nederlands</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ne mw-list-item"><a href="https://ne.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%B2%E0%A5%8B%E0%A4%95%E0%A4%95%E0%A4%A5%E0%A4%BE" title="लोककथा – Nepali" lang="ne" hreflang="ne" data-title="लोककथा" data-language-autonym="नेपाली" data-language-local-name="Nepali" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>नेपाली</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E4%BC%9D%E6%89%BF" title="伝承 – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="伝承" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>日本語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nap mw-list-item"><a href="https://nap.wikipedia.org/wiki/Folklore" title="Folklore – Neapolitan" lang="nap" hreflang="nap" data-title="Folklore" data-language-autonym="Napulitano" data-language-local-name="Neapolitan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Napulitano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ce mw-list-item"><a href="https://ce.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A4%D0%BE%D0%BB%D1%8C%D0%BA%D0%BB%D0%BE%D1%80" title="Фольклор – Chechen" lang="ce" hreflang="ce" data-title="Фольклор" data-language-autonym="Нохчийн" data-language-local-name="Chechen" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Нохчийн</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pih mw-list-item"><a href="https://pih.wikipedia.org/wiki/Foeklor" title="Foeklor – Norfuk / Pitkern" lang="pih" hreflang="pih" data-title="Foeklor" data-language-autonym="Norfuk / Pitkern" data-language-local-name="Norfuk / Pitkern" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norfuk / Pitkern</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-no mw-list-item"><a href="https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Folkeminne" title="Folkeminne – Norwegian Bokmål" lang="nb" hreflang="nb" data-title="Folkeminne" data-language-autonym="Norsk bokmål" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Bokmål" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk bokmål</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nn mw-list-item"><a href="https://nn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Folkeminne" title="Folkeminne – Norwegian Nynorsk" lang="nn" hreflang="nn" data-title="Folkeminne" data-language-autonym="Norsk nynorsk" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Nynorsk" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk nynorsk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-oc mw-list-item"><a href="https://oc.wikipedia.org/wiki/Folcl%C3%B2re" title="Folclòre – Occitan" lang="oc" hreflang="oc" data-title="Folclòre" data-language-autonym="Occitan" data-language-local-name="Occitan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Occitan</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-om mw-list-item"><a href="https://om.wikipedia.org/wiki/Afoola" title="Afoola – Oromo" lang="om" hreflang="om" data-title="Afoola" data-language-autonym="Oromoo" data-language-local-name="Oromo" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Oromoo</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uz mw-list-item"><a href="https://uz.wikipedia.org/wiki/Folklor" title="Folklor – Uzbek" lang="uz" hreflang="uz" data-title="Folklor" data-language-autonym="Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча" data-language-local-name="Uzbek" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pa mw-list-item"><a href="https://pa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A8%B2%E0%A9%8B%E0%A8%95%E0%A8%A7%E0%A8%BE%E0%A8%B0%E0%A8%BE" title="ਲੋਕਧਾਰਾ – Punjabi" lang="pa" hreflang="pa" data-title="ਲੋਕਧਾਰਾ" data-language-autonym="ਪੰਜਾਬੀ" data-language-local-name="Punjabi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ਪੰਜਾਬੀ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pnb mw-list-item"><a href="https://pnb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%84%D9%88%DA%A9_%D8%B1%DB%8C%D8%AA" title="لوک ریت – Western Punjabi" lang="pnb" hreflang="pnb" data-title="لوک ریت" data-language-autonym="پنجابی" data-language-local-name="Western Punjabi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>پنجابی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pap mw-list-item"><a href="https://pap.wikipedia.org/wiki/Folklor" title="Folklor – Papiamento" lang="pap" hreflang="pap" data-title="Folklor" data-language-autonym="Papiamentu" data-language-local-name="Papiamento" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Papiamentu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ps mw-list-item"><a href="https://ps.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%81%D9%88%DA%A9%D9%84%D9%88%D8%B1_%D9%BE%DB%90%DA%98%D9%86%D8%AF%D9%86%D9%87" title="فوکلور پېژندنه – Pashto" lang="ps" hreflang="ps" data-title="فوکلور پېژندنه" data-language-autonym="پښتو" data-language-local-name="Pashto" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>پښتو</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Folklor" title="Folklor – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="Folklor" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Polish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Polski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Folclore" title="Folclore – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Folclore" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Português</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kaa mw-list-item"><a href="https://kaa.wikipedia.org/wiki/Folklor" title="Folklor – Kara-Kalpak" lang="kaa" hreflang="kaa" data-title="Folklor" data-language-autonym="Qaraqalpaqsha" data-language-local-name="Kara-Kalpak" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Qaraqalpaqsha</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ro mw-list-item"><a href="https://ro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Folclor" title="Folclor – Romanian" lang="ro" hreflang="ro" data-title="Folclor" data-language-autonym="Română" data-language-local-name="Romanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Română</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-rue mw-list-item"><a href="https://rue.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A4%D0%BE%D0%BB%D0%BA%D0%BB%D0%BE%D1%80" title="Фолклор – Rusyn" lang="rue" hreflang="rue" data-title="Фолклор" data-language-autonym="Русиньскый" data-language-local-name="Rusyn" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Русиньскый</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A4%D0%BE%D0%BB%D1%8C%D0%BA%D0%BB%D0%BE%D1%80" title="Фольклор – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Фольклор" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Русский</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sco mw-list-item"><a href="https://sco.wikipedia.org/wiki/Define:Fowklair" title="Define:Fowklair – Scots" lang="sco" hreflang="sco" data-title="Define:Fowklair" data-language-autonym="Scots" data-language-local-name="Scots" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Scots</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sq mw-list-item"><a href="https://sq.wikipedia.org/wiki/Folklori" title="Folklori – Albanian" lang="sq" hreflang="sq" data-title="Folklori" data-language-autonym="Shqip" data-language-local-name="Albanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Shqip</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-scn mw-list-item"><a href="https://scn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Folklori" title="Folklori – Sicilian" lang="scn" hreflang="scn" data-title="Folklori" data-language-autonym="Sicilianu" data-language-local-name="Sicilian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Sicilianu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-si mw-list-item"><a href="https://si.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B6%A2%E0%B6%B1%E0%B6%B4%E0%B7%8A%E2%80%8D%E0%B6%BB%E0%B7%80%E0%B7%8F%E0%B6%AF%E2%80%8C" title="ජනප්‍රවාද‌ – Sinhala" lang="si" hreflang="si" data-title="ජනප්‍රවාද‌" data-language-autonym="සිංහල" data-language-local-name="Sinhala" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>සිංහල</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-simple mw-list-item"><a href="https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Folklore" title="Folklore – Simple English" lang="en-simple" hreflang="en-simple" data-title="Folklore" data-language-autonym="Simple English" data-language-local-name="Simple English" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Simple English</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sk mw-list-item"><a href="https://sk.wikipedia.org/wiki/Folkl%C3%B3r_(kult%C3%BAra)" title="Folklór (kultúra) – Slovak" lang="sk" hreflang="sk" data-title="Folklór (kultúra)" data-language-autonym="Slovenčina" data-language-local-name="Slovak" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Slovenčina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ckb mw-list-item"><a href="https://ckb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%81%DB%86%D9%84%DA%A9%D9%84%DB%86%D8%B1" title="فۆلکلۆر – Central Kurdish" lang="ckb" hreflang="ckb" data-title="فۆلکلۆر" data-language-autonym="کوردی" data-language-local-name="Central Kurdish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>کوردی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sr mw-list-item"><a href="https://sr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A4%D0%BE%D0%BB%D0%BA%D0%BB%D0%BE%D1%80" title="Фолклор – Serbian" lang="sr" hreflang="sr" data-title="Фолклор" data-language-autonym="Српски / srpski" data-language-local-name="Serbian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Српски / srpski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sh mw-list-item"><a href="https://sh.wikipedia.org/wiki/Folklor" title="Folklor – Serbo-Croatian" lang="sh" hreflang="sh" data-title="Folklor" data-language-autonym="Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски" data-language-local-name="Serbo-Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-su mw-list-item"><a href="https://su.wikipedia.org/wiki/Folklor" title="Folklor – Sundanese" lang="su" hreflang="su" data-title="Folklor" data-language-autonym="Sunda" data-language-local-name="Sundanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Sunda</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fi mw-list-item"><a href="https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kansanperinne" title="Kansanperinne – Finnish" lang="fi" hreflang="fi" data-title="Kansanperinne" data-language-autonym="Suomi" data-language-local-name="Finnish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Suomi</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sv mw-list-item"><a href="https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Folklore" title="Folklore – Swedish" lang="sv" hreflang="sv" data-title="Folklore" data-language-autonym="Svenska" data-language-local-name="Swedish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Svenska</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tl mw-list-item"><a href="https://tl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kuwentong-bayan" title="Kuwentong-bayan – Tagalog" lang="tl" hreflang="tl" data-title="Kuwentong-bayan" data-language-autonym="Tagalog" data-language-local-name="Tagalog" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Tagalog</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ta mw-list-item"><a href="https://ta.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%AE%A8%E0%AE%BE%E0%AE%9F%E0%AF%8D%E0%AE%9F%E0%AE%BE%E0%AE%B0%E0%AF%8D_%E0%AE%B5%E0%AE%B4%E0%AE%95%E0%AF%8D%E0%AE%95%E0%AE%BE%E0%AE%B1%E0%AF%8D%E0%AE%B1%E0%AE%BF%E0%AE%AF%E0%AE%B2%E0%AF%8D" title="நாட்டார் வழக்காற்றியல் – Tamil" lang="ta" hreflang="ta" data-title="நாட்டார் வழக்காற்றியல்" data-language-autonym="தமிழ்" data-language-local-name="Tamil" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>தமிழ்</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tt mw-list-item"><a href="https://tt.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A4%D0%BE%D0%BB%D1%8C%D0%BA%D0%BB%D0%BE%D1%80" title="Фольклор – Tatar" lang="tt" hreflang="tt" data-title="Фольклор" data-language-autonym="Татарча / tatarça" data-language-local-name="Tatar" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Татарча / tatarça</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-te mw-list-item"><a href="https://te.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B0%9C%E0%B0%BE%E0%B0%A8%E0%B0%AA%E0%B0%A6_%E0%B0%B8%E0%B0%BE%E0%B0%B9%E0%B0%BF%E0%B0%A4%E0%B1%8D%E0%B0%AF%E0%B0%82" title="జానపద సాహిత్యం – Telugu" lang="te" hreflang="te" data-title="జానపద సాహిత్యం" data-language-autonym="తెలుగు" data-language-local-name="Telugu" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>తెలుగు</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-th mw-list-item"><a href="https://th.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B8%84%E0%B8%95%E0%B8%B4%E0%B8%8A%E0%B8%99" title="คติชน – Thai" lang="th" hreflang="th" data-title="คติชน" data-language-autonym="ไทย" data-language-local-name="Thai" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ไทย</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tg mw-list-item"><a href="https://tg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A4%D0%BE%D0%BB%D0%BA%D0%BB%D0%BE%D1%80" title="Фолклор – Tajik" lang="tg" hreflang="tg" data-title="Фолклор" data-language-autonym="Тоҷикӣ" data-language-local-name="Tajik" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Тоҷикӣ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tr mw-list-item"><a href="https://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Folklor" title="Folklor – Turkish" lang="tr" hreflang="tr" data-title="Folklor" data-language-autonym="Türkçe" data-language-local-name="Turkish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Türkçe</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kcg mw-list-item"><a href="https://kcg.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tashikum" title="Tashikum – Tyap" lang="kcg" hreflang="kcg" data-title="Tashikum" data-language-autonym="Tyap" data-language-local-name="Tyap" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Tyap</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-udm mw-list-item"><a href="https://udm.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A4%D0%BE%D0%BB%D1%8C%D0%BA%D0%BB%D0%BE%D1%80" title="Фольклор – Udmurt" lang="udm" hreflang="udm" data-title="Фольклор" data-language-autonym="Удмурт" data-language-local-name="Udmurt" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Удмурт</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uk mw-list-item"><a href="https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A4%D0%BE%D0%BB%D1%8C%D0%BA%D0%BB%D0%BE%D1%80" title="Фольклор – Ukrainian" lang="uk" hreflang="uk" data-title="Фольклор" data-language-autonym="Українська" data-language-local-name="Ukrainian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Українська</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ur mw-list-item"><a href="https://ur.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%84%D9%88%DA%A9_%DA%A9%DB%81%D8%A7%D9%86%DB%8C" title="لوک کہانی – Urdu" lang="ur" hreflang="ur" data-title="لوک کہانی" data-language-autonym="اردو" data-language-local-name="Urdu" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>اردو</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vi mw-list-item"><a href="https://vi.wikipedia.org/wiki/V%C4%83n_h%C3%B3a_d%C3%A2n_gian" title="Văn hóa dân gian – Vietnamese" lang="vi" hreflang="vi" data-title="Văn hóa dân gian" data-language-autonym="Tiếng Việt" data-language-local-name="Vietnamese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Tiếng Việt</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fiu-vro mw-list-item"><a href="https://fiu-vro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rahvaluul%C3%B5q" title="Rahvaluulõq – Võro" lang="vro" hreflang="vro" data-title="Rahvaluulõq" data-language-autonym="Võro" data-language-local-name="Võro" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Võro</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-wa mw-list-item"><a href="https://wa.wikipedia.org/wiki/Foclore" title="Foclore – Walloon" lang="wa" hreflang="wa" data-title="Foclore" data-language-autonym="Walon" data-language-local-name="Walloon" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Walon</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-war mw-list-item"><a href="https://war.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bungtohanon_nga_susmatanon" title="Bungtohanon nga susmatanon – Waray" lang="war" hreflang="war" data-title="Bungtohanon nga susmatanon" data-language-autonym="Winaray" data-language-local-name="Waray" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Winaray</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-wuu mw-list-item"><a href="https://wuu.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E6%B0%91%E4%BF%97" title="民俗 – Wu" lang="wuu" hreflang="wuu" data-title="民俗" data-language-autonym="吴语" data-language-local-name="Wu" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>吴语</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-yi mw-list-item"><a href="https://yi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%A4%D7%90%D7%9C%D7%A7%D7%9C%D7%90%D7%A8" title="פאלקלאר – Yiddish" lang="yi" hreflang="yi" data-title="פאלקלאר" data-language-autonym="ייִדיש" data-language-local-name="Yiddish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ייִדיש</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-yue mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh-yue.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E6%B0%91%E4%BF%97" title="民俗 – Cantonese" lang="yue" hreflang="yue" data-title="民俗" data-language-autonym="粵語" data-language-local-name="Cantonese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>粵語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bat-smg mw-list-item"><a href="https://bat-smg.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fuolkluors" title="Fuolkluors – Samogitian" lang="sgs" hreflang="sgs" data-title="Fuolkluors" data-language-autonym="Žemaitėška" data-language-local-name="Samogitian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Žemaitėška</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E6%B0%91%E4%BF%97" title="民俗 – Chinese" lang="zh" hreflang="zh" data-title="民俗" data-language-autonym="中文" data-language-local-name="Chinese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>中文</span></a></li> </ul> <div class="after-portlet after-portlet-lang"><span class="wb-langlinks-edit wb-langlinks-link"><a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Special:EntityPage/Q36192#sitelinks-wikipedia" title="Edit interlanguage links" class="wbc-editpage">Edit links</a></span></div> </div> </div> </div> </header> <div class="vector-page-toolbar"> <div class="vector-page-toolbar-container"> <div id="left-navigation"> <nav aria-label="Namespaces"> <div id="p-associated-pages" class="vector-menu vector-menu-tabs mw-portlet mw-portlet-associated-pages" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="ca-nstab-main" class="selected vector-tab-noicon mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Folklore" title="View the content page [c]" accesskey="c"><span>Article</span></a></li><li id="ca-talk" class="vector-tab-noicon mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Talk:Folklore" rel="discussion" title="Discuss 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<div class="mw-indicators"> </div> <div id="siteSub" class="noprint">From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia</div> </div> <div id="contentSub"><div id="mw-content-subtitle"></div></div> <div id="mw-content-text" class="mw-body-content"><div class="mw-content-ltr mw-parser-output" lang="en" dir="ltr"><div class="shortdescription nomobile noexcerpt noprint searchaux" style="display:none">Expressive culture shared by particular groups</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">For other uses, see <a href="/wiki/Folklore_(disambiguation)" class="mw-disambig" title="Folklore (disambiguation)">Folklore (disambiguation)</a>.</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Little_Red_Riding_Hood_-_J._W._Smith.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b4/Little_Red_Riding_Hood_-_J._W._Smith.jpg/220px-Little_Red_Riding_Hood_-_J._W._Smith.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="317" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b4/Little_Red_Riding_Hood_-_J._W._Smith.jpg/330px-Little_Red_Riding_Hood_-_J._W._Smith.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b4/Little_Red_Riding_Hood_-_J._W._Smith.jpg/440px-Little_Red_Riding_Hood_-_J._W._Smith.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1900" data-file-height="2734" /></a><figcaption>Illustration of <a href="/wiki/Little_Red_Riding_Hood" title="Little Red Riding Hood">Little Red Riding Hood</a> by <a href="/wiki/Jessie_Willcox_Smith" title="Jessie Willcox Smith">Jessie Willcox Smith</a>, from the book <i>A Child's Book of Stories</i>, 1911</figcaption></figure> <p><b>Folklore</b> is the body of expressive culture shared by a particular group of <a href="/wiki/People" title="People">people</a>, <a href="/wiki/Culture" title="Culture">culture</a> or <a href="/wiki/Subculture" title="Subculture">subculture</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESchlinkert200730_1-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESchlinkert200730-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This includes <a href="/wiki/Oral_traditions" class="mw-redirect" title="Oral traditions">oral traditions</a> such as <a href="/wiki/Narrative" title="Narrative">tales</a>, <a href="/wiki/Myth" title="Myth">myths</a>, <a href="/wiki/Legend" title="Legend">legends</a>, <a href="/wiki/Proverbs" class="mw-redirect" title="Proverbs">proverbs</a>, <a href="/wiki/Poetry" title="Poetry">poems</a>, <a href="/wiki/Jokes" class="mw-redirect" title="Jokes">jokes</a>, and other oral traditions.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDundes19653_2-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDundes19653-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESchlinkert200733_3-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESchlinkert200733-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This also includes <a href="/wiki/Material_culture" title="Material culture">material culture</a>, such as traditional building styles common to the group. Folklore also encompasses customary lore, taking actions for folk beliefs, and the forms and rituals of celebrations such as <a href="/wiki/Christmas" title="Christmas">Christmas</a>, weddings, <a href="/wiki/Folk_dance" title="Folk dance">folk dances</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Rite_of_passage" title="Rite of passage">initiation rites</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDundes19653_2-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDundes19653-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Each one of these, either singly or in combination, is considered a <a href="/wiki/Cultural_artifact" title="Cultural artifact">folklore artifact</a> or <a href="/wiki/Cultural_expressions" title="Cultural expressions">traditional cultural expression</a>. Just as essential as the form, folklore also encompasses the transmission of these artifacts from one region to another or from one generation to the next. Folklore is not something one can typically gain from a formal school curriculum or study in the <a href="/wiki/Fine_arts" class="mw-redirect" title="Fine arts">fine arts</a>. Instead, these traditions are passed along informally from one individual to another, either through verbal instruction or demonstration.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESchlinkert200737_4-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESchlinkert200737-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The academic study of folklore is called <a href="/wiki/Folklore_studies" title="Folklore studies">folklore studies</a> or folkloristics, and it can be explored at the undergraduate, graduate, and Ph.D. levels.<sup id="cite_ref-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Overview">Overview</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Folklore&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Overview"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Indian_Folk_Worship.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/73/Indian_Folk_Worship.jpg/220px-Indian_Folk_Worship.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/73/Indian_Folk_Worship.jpg/330px-Indian_Folk_Worship.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/73/Indian_Folk_Worship.jpg/440px-Indian_Folk_Worship.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2272" data-file-height="1704" /></a><figcaption>Indian Folk Worship at <a href="/wiki/Batu_Caves" title="Batu Caves">Batu Caves</a>, <a href="/wiki/Selangor" title="Selangor">Selangor</a>, Malaysia</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Folk_dancing_Plovdiv_Bulgaria_12.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/90/Folk_dancing_Plovdiv_Bulgaria_12.jpg/220px-Folk_dancing_Plovdiv_Bulgaria_12.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/90/Folk_dancing_Plovdiv_Bulgaria_12.jpg/330px-Folk_dancing_Plovdiv_Bulgaria_12.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/90/Folk_dancing_Plovdiv_Bulgaria_12.jpg/440px-Folk_dancing_Plovdiv_Bulgaria_12.jpg 2x" data-file-width="4160" data-file-height="3120" /></a><figcaption>Folk dancing, <a href="/wiki/Plovdiv" title="Plovdiv">Plovdiv</a>, Bulgaria</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Serbian_Folk_Group,_Music_and_Costume.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cc/Serbian_Folk_Group%2C_Music_and_Costume.jpg/220px-Serbian_Folk_Group%2C_Music_and_Costume.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cc/Serbian_Folk_Group%2C_Music_and_Costume.jpg/330px-Serbian_Folk_Group%2C_Music_and_Costume.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cc/Serbian_Folk_Group%2C_Music_and_Costume.jpg/440px-Serbian_Folk_Group%2C_Music_and_Costume.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2570" data-file-height="1926" /></a><figcaption>Serbian Folk Group, Music and Costume. A group of performers sharing traditional Serbian folk music on the streets of <a href="/wiki/Belgrade" title="Belgrade">Belgrade</a>, Serbia.</figcaption></figure> <p>The word <i>folklore</i>, a compound of <i>folk</i> and <i>lore</i>, was coined in 1846 by the Englishman <a href="/wiki/William_Thoms" title="William Thoms">William Thoms</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> who contrived the term as a replacement for the contemporary terminology of "popular antiquities" or "popular literature". The second half of the word, <i><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/lore" class="extiw" title="wikt:lore">lore</a></i>, comes from Old English lār 'instruction'. It is the knowledge and traditions of a particular group frequently passed along by word of mouth.<sup id="cite_ref-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESchlinkert200730–37_8-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESchlinkert200730–37-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The concept of <i><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/folk" class="extiw" title="wikt:folk">folk</a></i> has varied over time. When Thoms first created this term, <i>folk</i> applied only to rural, frequently poor, and illiterate peasants. A more modern definition of <i>folk</i> is a social group that includes two or more people with common traits who express their shared identity through distinctive traditions. "Folk is a flexible concept which can refer to a nation as in <a href="/wiki/Folklore_of_the_United_States" title="Folklore of the United States">American folklore</a> or to a <a href="/wiki/Family_folklore" title="Family folklore">single family.</a>"<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDundes196913,_footnote_34_9-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDundes196913,_footnote_34-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This expanded social definition of <i>folk</i> supports a broader view of the material, i.e., the lore, considered to be <i>folklore artifacts</i>. These now include all "things people make with words (verbal lore), things they make with their hands (material lore), and things they make with their actions (customary lore)".<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWilson200685_10-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWilson200685-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Folklore are no longer considered to be limited to that which is old or obsolete. These <a href="/wiki/Cultural_artifacts" class="mw-redirect" title="Cultural artifacts">folk artifacts</a> continue to be passed along informally, as a rule anonymously, and always in multiple variants. The folk group is not individualistic; it is community-based and nurtures its lore in community. "As new groups emerge, new folklore is created… surfers, motorcyclists, <a href="/wiki/Category:Computer_folklore" title="Category:Computer folklore">computer programmers</a>".<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDundes19807_11-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDundes19807-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In direct contrast to <a href="/wiki/High_culture" title="High culture">high culture</a>, where any single work of a named artist is protected by <a href="/wiki/Copyright_law" class="mw-redirect" title="Copyright law">copyright law</a>, folklore is a function of shared identity within a common social group.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBauman1971_12-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBauman1971-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Having identified folk artifacts, the professional folklorist strives to understand the <i>significance</i> of these beliefs, customs, and objects for the group, since these cultural units<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDundes1971_13-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDundes1971-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> would not be passed along unless they had some continued relevance within the group. That meaning can, however, shift and morph; for example, the <a href="/wiki/Halloween" title="Halloween">Halloween</a> celebration of the 21st century is not the All Hallows' Eve of the Middle Ages and even gives rise to its own set of <a href="/wiki/Poisoned_candy_myths" title="Poisoned candy myths">urban legends</a> independent of the historical celebration; the cleansing rituals of <a href="/wiki/Orthodox_Judaism" title="Orthodox Judaism">Orthodox Judaism</a> were originally good public health in a land with little water, but now these customs signify for some people identification as an Orthodox Jew. By comparison, a common action such as <a href="/wiki/Tooth_brushing" title="Tooth brushing">tooth brushing</a>, which is also transmitted within a group, remains a practical hygiene and health issue and does not rise to the level of a group-defining tradition.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDundes19651_14-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDundes19651-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Tradition is initially remembered behavior; once it loses its practical purpose, there is no reason for further transmission unless it has been imbued with meaning beyond the initial practicality of the action. This meaning is at the core of folkloristics, the study of folklore.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESchreiter2015[[Category:Wikipedia_articles_needing_page_number_citations_from_August_2021]]<sup_class="noprint_Inline-Template_"_style="white-space:nowrap;">&#91;<i>[[Wikipedia:Citing_sources|<span_title="This_citation_requires_a_reference_to_the_specific_page_or_range_of_pages_in_which_the_material_appears.&#32;(August_2021)">page&nbsp;needed</span>]]</i>&#93;</sup>_15-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESchreiter2015[[Category:Wikipedia_articles_needing_page_number_citations_from_August_2021]]<sup_class="noprint_Inline-Template_"_style="white-space:nowrap;">&#91;<i>[[Wikipedia:Citing_sources|<span_title="This_citation_requires_a_reference_to_the_specific_page_or_range_of_pages_in_which_the_material_appears.&#32;(August_2021)">page&nbsp;needed</span>]]</i>&#93;</sup>-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>With the increasing theoretical sophistication of the <a href="/wiki/Social_science" title="Social science">social sciences</a>, it has become evident that folklore is a naturally occurring and necessary component of any social group; it is indeed all around us.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESimsStephens20057–8_16-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESimsStephens20057–8-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Folklore does not have to be old or antiquated; it continues to be created and transmitted, and in any group, it is used to differentiate between "us" and "them." </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Origin_and_development_of_folklore_studies">Origin and development of folklore studies</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Folklore&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Origin and development of folklore studies"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Folklore_studies#History" title="Folklore studies">History of folklore studies</a></div> <p>Folklore began to distinguish itself as an autonomous discipline during the period of romantic nationalism in Europe. A particular figure in this development was <a href="/wiki/Johann_Gottfried_von_Herder" class="mw-redirect" title="Johann Gottfried von Herder">Johann Gottfried von Herder</a>, whose writings in the 1770s presented oral traditions as organic processes grounded in the locale. After the German states were invaded by <a href="/wiki/Napoleonic_France" class="mw-redirect" title="Napoleonic France">Napoleonic France</a>, Herder's approach was adopted by many of his fellow Germans, who systematized the recorded folk traditions and used them in their process of <a href="/wiki/Nation_building" class="mw-redirect" title="Nation building">nation building</a>. This process was enthusiastically embraced by smaller nations, like Finland, Estonia, and Hungary, which were seeking political independence from their dominant neighbors.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTENoyes201220_17-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENoyes201220-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Folklore, as a field of study, further developed among 19th-century European scholars, who were contrasting <a href="/wiki/Tradition" title="Tradition">tradition</a> with the newly developing <a href="/wiki/Modernity" title="Modernity">modernity</a>. Its focus was the oral folklore of the rural peasant populations, which were considered as residues and survivals of the past that continued to exist within the lower strata of society.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTENoyes201215–16_18-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENoyes201215–16-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The "<a href="/wiki/Kinder-_und_Hausm%C3%A4rchen" class="mw-redirect" title="Kinder- und Hausmärchen">Kinder- und Hausmärchen</a>" of the <a href="/wiki/Brothers_Grimm" title="Brothers Grimm">Brothers Grimm</a> (first published 1812) is the best known but by no means only collection of verbal folklore of the European peasantry of that time. This interest in stories, sayings, and songs continued throughout the 19th century and aligned the fledgling discipline of folkloristics with literature and mythology. By the turn of the 20th century, the number and sophistication of folklore studies and folklorists had grown both in Europe and North America. Whereas <a href="/wiki/European_folklore" title="European folklore">European folklorists</a> remained focused on the oral folklore of the homogenous peasant populations in their regions, the American folklorists, led by <a href="/wiki/Franz_Boas" title="Franz Boas">Franz Boas</a> and <a href="/wiki/Ruth_Benedict" title="Ruth Benedict">Ruth Benedict</a>, chose to consider <a href="/wiki/Native_Americans_in_the_United_States" title="Native Americans in the United States">Native American</a> cultures in their research, and included the totality of their customs and beliefs as folklore. This distinction aligned American folkloristics with <a href="/wiki/Cultural_anthropology" title="Cultural anthropology">cultural anthropology</a> and <a href="/wiki/Ethnology" title="Ethnology">ethnology</a>, using the same techniques of data collection in their field research. This divided alliance of folkloristics between the humanities in Europe and the social sciences in America offers a wealth of theoretical vantage points and research tools to the field of folkloristics as a whole, even as it continues to be a point of discussion within the field itself.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEZumwaltDundes1988_19-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEZumwaltDundes1988-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The term <i>folkloristics</i>, along with the alternative name <i>folklore studies</i>,<sup id="cite_ref-20" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>a<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> became widely used in the 1950s to distinguish the academic study of traditional culture from the <a href="/wiki/Cultural_artifacts" class="mw-redirect" title="Cultural artifacts">folklore artifacts</a> themselves. When the American Folklife Preservation Act (Public Law 94-201) was passed by the U.S. Congress in January 1976,<sup id="cite_ref-21" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> to coincide with the <a href="/wiki/United_States_Bicentennial" title="United States Bicentennial">Bicentennial Celebration</a>, folkloristics in the United States came of age. </p> <blockquote><p>"…[Folklife] means the traditional expressive culture shared within the various groups in the United States: familial, ethnic, occupational, religious, regional; expressive culture includes a wide range of creative and symbolic forms such as custom, belief, technical skill, language, literature, art, architecture, music, play, dance, drama, ritual, pageantry, handicraft; these expressions are mainly learned orally, by imitation, or in performance, and are generally maintained without benefit of formal instruction or institutional direction." </p></blockquote> <p>Added to the extensive array of other legislation designed to protect the natural and <a href="/wiki/Cultural_heritage" title="Cultural heritage">cultural heritage</a> of the United States, this law also marks a shift in national awareness. It gives voice to a growing understanding that cultural diversity is a national strength and a resource worthy of protection. Paradoxically, it is a unifying feature, not something that separates the citizens of a country. "We no longer view cultural difference as a problem to be solved, but as a tremendous opportunity. In the diversity of American folklife, we find a marketplace teeming with the exchange of traditional forms and cultural ideas, a rich resource for Americans".<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHufford1991_22-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHufford1991-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This diversity is celebrated annually at the <a href="/wiki/Smithsonian_Folklife_Festival" title="Smithsonian Folklife Festival">Smithsonian Folklife Festival</a> and many other <a href="/wiki/List_of_folk_festivals" title="List of folk festivals">folklife fests</a> around the country. </p><p>There are numerous other definitions. According to <a href="/wiki/William_Bascom" title="William Bascom">William Bascom</a> major article on the topic, there are "four functions to folklore":<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBascom1954_23-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBascom1954-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <ul><li>Folklore lets people escape from repressions imposed upon them by society.</li> <li>Folklore validates culture, justifying its rituals and institutions to those who perform and observe them.</li> <li>Folklore is a pedagogic device which reinforces morals and values and builds wit.</li> <li>Folklore is a means of applying <a href="/wiki/Social_pressure" class="mw-redirect" title="Social pressure">social pressure</a> and exercising <a href="/wiki/Social_control" title="Social control">social control</a>.</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Definition_of_"folk""><span id="Definition_of_.22folk.22"></span>Definition of "folk"</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Folklore&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Definition of "folk""><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Friends_in_the_farm.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e4/Friends_in_the_farm.jpg/220px-Friends_in_the_farm.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="147" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e4/Friends_in_the_farm.jpg/330px-Friends_in_the_farm.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e4/Friends_in_the_farm.jpg/440px-Friends_in_the_farm.jpg 2x" data-file-width="5595" data-file-height="3735" /></a><figcaption>Friends in a farm</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Folklore_theater_in_Mansoura.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/Folklore_theater_in_Mansoura.jpg/220px-Folklore_theater_in_Mansoura.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="124" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/Folklore_theater_in_Mansoura.jpg/330px-Folklore_theater_in_Mansoura.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/Folklore_theater_in_Mansoura.jpg/440px-Folklore_theater_in_Mansoura.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1280" data-file-height="720" /></a><figcaption>Folklore theater in <a href="/wiki/Mansoura,_Egypt" title="Mansoura, Egypt">Mansoura</a>, Egypt</figcaption></figure> <p>The folk of the 19th century, the social group identified in the <a href="/wiki/Folklore_studies#From_antiquities_to_lore" title="Folklore studies">original term "folklore"</a>, was characterized by being rural, illiterate, and poor. They were the peasants living in the countryside, in contrast to the urban populace of the cities. Only toward the end of the century did the urban proletariat (on the coattails of Marxist theory) become included with the rural poor as folk. The common feature in this expanded definition of folk was their identification as the underclass of society.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDundes19808_24-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDundes19808-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Moving forward into the 20th century, in tandem with new thinking in the <a href="/wiki/History_of_sociology#20th_century:_functionalism,_structuralism,_critical_theory,_and_globalization" title="History of sociology">social sciences</a>, folklorists also revised and expanded their concept of the folk group. By the 1960s, it was understood that <a href="/wiki/Social_groups" class="mw-redirect" title="Social groups">social groups</a>, i.e., folk groups, were all around us; each individual is enmeshed in a multitude of differing identities and their concomitant social groups. The first group that each of us is born into is the family, and each family has its own unique <a href="/wiki/Family_folklore" title="Family folklore">family folklore</a>. As a child grows into an individual, its identities also increase to include age, language, ethnicity, occupation, etc. Each of these cohorts has its own folklore, and as one folklorist points out, this is "not idle speculation… Decades of fieldwork have demonstrated conclusively that these groups do have their own folklore."<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDundes19807_11-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDundes19807-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In this modern understanding, folklore is a function of shared identity within any social group.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBauman1971_12-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBauman1971-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>This folklore can include jokes, sayings, and expected behavior in multiple variants, always transmitted in an informal manner. For the most part, it will be learned by observation, imitation, repetition, or correction by other group members. This informal knowledge is used to confirm and reinforce the identity of the group. It can be used both internally within the group to express their common identity, for example in an initiation ceremony for new members. It can also be used externally to differentiate the group from outsiders, like a folk dance demonstration at a community festival. Significant to folklorists here is that there are two opposing but equally valid ways to use this in the study of a group: you can start with an identified group in order to explore its folklore, or you can identify folklore items and use them to identify the social group.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBauman197141_25-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBauman197141-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Beginning in the 1960s, a further expansion of the concept of folk began to unfold through the study of folklore. Individual researchers identified folk groups that had previously been overlooked and ignored. One notable example of this is found in an issue of the <i><a href="/wiki/Journal_of_American_Folklore" title="Journal of American Folklore">Journal of American Folklore</a></i>, published in 1975, which is dedicated exclusively to articles on women's folklore, with approaches that had not come from a man's perspective. <sup id="cite_ref-26" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>b<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Other groups that were highlighted as part of this broadened understanding of the folk group were <a href="/wiki/Family_folklore#Family_as_a_folk_group" title="Family folklore">non-traditional families</a>, occupational groups, and families that pursued the production of folk items over multiple generations. </p><p>Folklorist <a href="/wiki/Richard_Dorson" title="Richard Dorson">Richard Dorson</a> explained in 1976 that the study of folklore is "concerned with the study of traditional culture, or the unofficial culture" that is the folk culture, "as opposed to the elite culture, not for the sake of proving a thesis but to learn about the mass of [humanity] overlooked by the conventional disciplines."<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDorson1976_27-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDorson1976-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Folklore_genres">Folklore genres</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Folklore&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Folklore genres"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:UAE_Folk_Dance-_Khaliji.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d9/UAE_Folk_Dance-_Khaliji.jpg/220px-UAE_Folk_Dance-_Khaliji.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="276" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d9/UAE_Folk_Dance-_Khaliji.jpg/330px-UAE_Folk_Dance-_Khaliji.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d9/UAE_Folk_Dance-_Khaliji.jpg/440px-UAE_Folk_Dance-_Khaliji.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2219" data-file-height="2779" /></a><figcaption>United Arab Emirates' traditional folk dance; the women flip their hair sideways in brightly coloured traditional dress.</figcaption></figure> <p>Individual folklore artifacts are commonly classified as one of three types: material, verbal or customary lore. For the most part self-explanatory, these categories include physical objects (<b>material folklore</b>), common sayings, expressions, stories and songs (<b>verbal folklore</b>), and beliefs and ways of doing things (<b>customary folklore</b>). There is also a fourth major subgenre defined for <a href="/wiki/Childlore" title="Childlore">children's folklore</a> and games (<b>childlore</b>), as the collection and interpretation of this fertile topic is particular to school yards and neighborhood streets.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEOpieOpie1969_28-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEOpieOpie1969-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Each of these genres and their subtypes is intended to organize and categorize the folklore artifacts; they provide common vocabulary and consistent labeling for folklorists to communicate with each other. </p><p>That said, each artifact is unique; in fact, one of the characteristics of all folklore artifacts is their variation within genres and types.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGeorgesJones199510–12_29-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGeorgesJones199510–12-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This is in direct contrast to manufactured goods, where the goal in production is to create identical products, and any variations are considered mistakes. It is, however, just this required variation that makes identification and classification of the defining features a challenge. While this classification is essential for the subject area of folkloristics, it remains just labeling and adds little to an understanding of the traditional development and meaning of the artifacts themselves.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEToelken1996184_30-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEToelken1996184-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Necessary as they are, genre classifications are misleading in their oversimplification of the subject area. Folklore artifacts are never self-contained, they do not stand in isolation but are particulars in the self-representation of a community. Different genres are frequently combined with each other to mark an event.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESimsStephens200517_31-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESimsStephens200517-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> So a birthday celebration might include a song or formulaic way of greeting the birthday child (verbal), presentation of a cake and wrapped presents (material), as well as customs to honor the individual, such as sitting at the head of the table and blowing out the candles with a wish. There might also be special games played at birthday parties, which are not generally played at other times. Adding to the complexity of the interpretation, the birthday party for a seven-year-old will not be identical to the birthday party for that same child as a six-year-old, even though they follow the same model. For each artifact embodies a single variant of a performance in a given time and space. The task of the folklorist becomes to identify within this surfeit of variables the constants and the expressed meaning that shimmer through all variations: honoring of the individual within the circle of family and friends, gifting to express their value and worth to the group, and of course, the festival food and drink as <a href="/wiki/Signified_and_signifier" title="Signified and signifier">signifiers</a> of the event. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Verbal_tradition">Verbal tradition</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Folklore&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Verbal tradition"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Prince_Salim_(the_future_Jahangir)_and_his_legendary_illicit_love.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b8/Prince_Salim_%28the_future_Jahangir%29_and_his_legendary_illicit_love.jpg/220px-Prince_Salim_%28the_future_Jahangir%29_and_his_legendary_illicit_love.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="141" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b8/Prince_Salim_%28the_future_Jahangir%29_and_his_legendary_illicit_love.jpg/330px-Prince_Salim_%28the_future_Jahangir%29_and_his_legendary_illicit_love.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b8/Prince_Salim_%28the_future_Jahangir%29_and_his_legendary_illicit_love.jpg/440px-Prince_Salim_%28the_future_Jahangir%29_and_his_legendary_illicit_love.jpg 2x" data-file-width="850" data-file-height="545" /></a><figcaption>The story of <a href="/wiki/Jahangir" title="Jahangir">Jahangir</a> and <a href="/wiki/Anarkali" title="Anarkali">Anarkali</a> is popular folklore in the former territories of the <a href="/wiki/Mughal_Empire" title="Mughal Empire">Mughal Empire</a>.</figcaption></figure> <p>The formal definition of verbal lore is words, both written and oral, that are "spoken, sung, voiced forms of traditional utterance that show repetitive patterns."<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDorson19722_32-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDorson19722-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Crucial here are the repetitive patterns. Verbal lore is not just any conversation, but words and phrases conforming to a traditional configuration recognized by both the speaker and the audience. For <a href="/wiki/Narratology" title="Narratology">narrative types</a>, by definition, they have a consistent structure and follow an existing model in their narrative form.<sup id="cite_ref-33" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>c<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> As just one simple example, in English, the phrase "An elephant walks into a bar…" instantaneously flags the following text as a <a href="/wiki/Joke#Telling_jokes" title="Joke">joke</a>. It might be one you have already heard, but it might be one that the speaker has just thought up within the current context. Another example is the child's song <a href="/wiki/Old_MacDonald_Had_a_Farm" title="Old MacDonald Had a Farm">Old MacDonald Had a Farm</a>, where each performance is distinctive in the animals named, their order, and their sounds. Songs such as this are used to express cultural values (farms are important, farmers are old and weather-beaten) and teach children about different domesticated animals.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESimsStephens200513_34-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESimsStephens200513-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Verbal folklore was the <a href="/wiki/Folklore_studies#From_antiquities_to_lore" title="Folklore studies">original folklore</a>, the artifacts defined by <a href="/wiki/William_Thoms" title="William Thoms">William Thoms</a> as older, oral cultural traditions of the rural populace. In his 1846 published call for help in documenting antiquities, Thoms was echoing scholars from across the European continent to collect artifacts of verbal lore. By the beginning of the 20th century, these collections had grown to include artifacts from around the world and across several centuries. A system to organize and categorize them became necessary.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGeorgesJones1995112–113_35-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGeorgesJones1995112–113-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Antti_Aarne" title="Antti Aarne">Antti Aarne</a> published the first classification system for folktales in 1910. This was later expanded into the <a href="/wiki/Aarne%E2%80%93Thompson_classification_system" class="mw-redirect" title="Aarne–Thompson classification system">Aarne–Thompson classification system</a> by <a href="/wiki/Stith_Thompson" title="Stith Thompson">Stith Thompson</a> and remains the standard classification system for European folktales and other types of oral literature. As the number of classified oral artifacts grew, similarities were noted in items that had been collected from very different geographic regions, ethnic groups, and epochs, giving rise to the <a href="/wiki/Folklore_studies#Aarne–Thompson_and_the_historic–geographic_method" title="Folklore studies">Historic–Geographic Method</a>, a methodology that dominated folkloristics in the first half of the 20th century. </p><p>When William Thoms first published his appeal to document the verbal lore of the rural populations, it was believed these folk artifacts would die out as the population became literate. Over the past two centuries, this belief has proven to be wrong; folklorists continue to collect verbal lore in both written and spoken form from all social groups. Some variants might have been captured in published collections, but much of it is still transmitted orally and, indeed, continues to be generated in new forms and variants at an alarming rate. </p><p>Below is listed a small sampling of types and examples of verbal lore. </p> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1184024115">.mw-parser-output .div-col{margin-top:0.3em;column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .div-col-small{font-size:90%}.mw-parser-output .div-col-rules{column-rule:1px solid #aaa}.mw-parser-output .div-col dl,.mw-parser-output .div-col ol,.mw-parser-output .div-col ul{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .div-col li,.mw-parser-output .div-col dd{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}</style><div class="div-col" style="column-width: 13em;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Aloha" title="Aloha">Aloha</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ballads" class="mw-redirect" title="Ballads">Ballads</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Blessing" title="Blessing">Blessings</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bluegrass_music" title="Bluegrass music">Bluegrass</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chants" class="mw-redirect" title="Chants">Chants</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spell_(paranormal)" class="mw-redirect" title="Spell (paranormal)">Charms</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cinderella" title="Cinderella">Cinderella</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Country_music" title="Country music">Country music</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cowboy_poetry" title="Cowboy poetry">Cowboy poetry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Creation_stories" class="mw-redirect" title="Creation stories">Creation stories</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Curses" class="mw-redirect" title="Curses">Curses</a></li> <li><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/Category:English_similes" class="extiw" title="wikt:Category:English similes">English similes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Epic_poetry" title="Epic poetry">Epic poetry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fable" title="Fable">Fable</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fairy_tale" title="Fairy tale">Fairy tale</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Folk_belief" title="Folk belief">Folk belief</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Folk_etymologies" class="mw-redirect" title="Folk etymologies">Folk etymologies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Metaphor" title="Metaphor">Folk metaphors</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethnopoetics" title="Ethnopoetics">Folk poetry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Folk_music" title="Folk music">Folk music</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Folksongs" class="mw-redirect" title="Folksongs">Folksongs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slang" title="Slang">Folk speech</a></li> <li>Folktales of <a href="/wiki/Oral_tradition" title="Oral tradition">oral tradition</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ghostlore" title="Ghostlore">Ghostlore</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Greetings" class="mw-redirect" title="Greetings">Greetings</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hog-calling" class="mw-redirect" title="Hog-calling">Hog-calling</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Insults" class="mw-redirect" title="Insults">Insults</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jokes" class="mw-redirect" title="Jokes">Jokes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Keening" title="Keening">Keening</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Latrinalia" title="Latrinalia">Latrinalia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Legend" title="Legend">Legends</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Limericks" class="mw-redirect" title="Limericks">Limericks</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lullabies" class="mw-redirect" title="Lullabies">Lullabies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Myth" title="Myth">Myth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oaths" class="mw-redirect" title="Oaths">Oaths</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Parting_phrase" title="Parting phrase">Leave-taking formulas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fakelore" class="mw-redirect" title="Fakelore">Fakelore</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Place_name_origins" title="Place name origins">Place names</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Now_I_Lay_Me_Down_to_Sleep" title="Now I Lay Me Down to Sleep">Prayers at bedtime</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Proverb" title="Proverb">Proverbs</a></li> <li>Retorts</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Riddle" title="Riddle">Riddle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roast_(comedy)" title="Roast (comedy)">Roasts</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sagas" class="mw-redirect" title="Sagas">Sagas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sea_shanty" title="Sea shanty">Sea shanties</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hawker_(trade)" title="Hawker (trade)">Street vendors</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Superstition" title="Superstition">Superstition</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tall_tale" title="Tall tale">Tall tale</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Taunting" title="Taunting">Taunts</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Toast_(honor)" title="Toast (honor)">Toasts</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tongue-twisters" class="mw-redirect" title="Tongue-twisters">Tongue-twisters</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Urban_legends" class="mw-redirect" title="Urban legends">Urban legends</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Word_games" class="mw-redirect" title="Word games">Word games</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yodeling" title="Yodeling">Yodeling</a></li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Material_culture">Material culture</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Folklore&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Material culture"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Horse_and_Sulky_weathervane_-_SAAM_-_DSC00796.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0e/Horse_and_Sulky_weathervane_-_SAAM_-_DSC00796.JPG/220px-Horse_and_Sulky_weathervane_-_SAAM_-_DSC00796.JPG" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0e/Horse_and_Sulky_weathervane_-_SAAM_-_DSC00796.JPG/330px-Horse_and_Sulky_weathervane_-_SAAM_-_DSC00796.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0e/Horse_and_Sulky_weathervane_-_SAAM_-_DSC00796.JPG/440px-Horse_and_Sulky_weathervane_-_SAAM_-_DSC00796.JPG 2x" data-file-width="4320" data-file-height="3240" /></a><figcaption>Horse and <a href="/wiki/Sulky" title="Sulky">sulky</a> weathervane, Smithsonian American Art Museum</figcaption></figure> <p>The genre of <a href="/wiki/Material_culture" title="Material culture">material culture</a> includes all artifacts that can be touched, held, lived in, or eaten. They are tangible objects with a physical or mental presence, either intended for permanent use or to be used at the next meal. Most of these folklore artifacts are single objects that have been created by hand for a specific purpose; however, folk artifacts can also be mass-produced, such as <a href="/wiki/Dreidel" title="Dreidel">dreidels</a> or Christmas decorations. These items continue to be considered folklore because of their long (pre-industrial) history and their customary use. All of these material objects "existed prior to and continue alongside mechanized industry. … [They are] transmitted across the generations and subject to the same forces of conservative tradition and individual variation"<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDorson19722_32-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDorson19722-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> that are found in all folk artifacts. Folklorists are interested in the physical form, the method of manufacture or construction, the pattern of use, as well as the procurement of the raw materials.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEVlach1997_36-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEVlach1997-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The meaning to those who both make and use these objects is important. Of primary significance in these studies is the complex balance of continuity over change in both their design and their decoration. </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><span><video id="mwe_player_0" poster="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/26/At_a_goldsmith%27s_workshop_Podhale_region.webm/220px--At_a_goldsmith%27s_workshop_Podhale_region.webm.jpg" controls="" preload="none" data-mw-tmh="" class="mw-file-element" width="220" height="176" data-durationhint="45" data-mwtitle="At_a_goldsmith's_workshop_Podhale_region.webm" data-mwprovider="wikimediacommons" resource="/wiki/File:At_a_goldsmith%27s_workshop_Podhale_region.webm"><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/2/26/At_a_goldsmith%27s_workshop_Podhale_region.webm/At_a_goldsmith%27s_workshop_Podhale_region.webm.480p.vp9.webm" type="video/webm; codecs="vp9, opus"" data-transcodekey="480p.vp9.webm" data-width="600" data-height="480" /><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/26/At_a_goldsmith%27s_workshop_Podhale_region.webm" type="video/webm; codecs="vp8, vorbis"" data-width="720" data-height="576" /><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/2/26/At_a_goldsmith%27s_workshop_Podhale_region.webm/At_a_goldsmith%27s_workshop_Podhale_region.webm.144p.mjpeg.mov" type="video/quicktime" data-transcodekey="144p.mjpeg.mov" data-width="180" data-height="144" /><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/2/26/At_a_goldsmith%27s_workshop_Podhale_region.webm/At_a_goldsmith%27s_workshop_Podhale_region.webm.240p.vp9.webm" type="video/webm; codecs="vp9, opus"" data-transcodekey="240p.vp9.webm" data-width="300" data-height="240" /><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/2/26/At_a_goldsmith%27s_workshop_Podhale_region.webm/At_a_goldsmith%27s_workshop_Podhale_region.webm.360p.vp9.webm" type="video/webm; codecs="vp9, opus"" data-transcodekey="360p.vp9.webm" data-width="450" data-height="360" /><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/2/26/At_a_goldsmith%27s_workshop_Podhale_region.webm/At_a_goldsmith%27s_workshop_Podhale_region.webm.360p.webm" type="video/webm; codecs="vp8, vorbis"" data-transcodekey="360p.webm" data-width="450" data-height="360" /></video></span><figcaption>Traditional highlanders' pins hand-made by a goldsmith in <a href="/wiki/Podhale" title="Podhale">Podhale</a>, Poland</figcaption></figure> <p>In Europe, prior to the <a href="/wiki/Industrial_Revolution" title="Industrial Revolution">Industrial Revolution</a>, everything was made by hand. While some folklorists of the 19th century wanted to secure the oral traditions of the rural folk before the populace became literate, other folklorists sought to identify hand-crafted objects before their production processes were lost to industrial manufacturing. Just as verbal lore continues to be actively created and transmitted in today's culture, so these <a href="/wiki/Handicrafts" class="mw-redirect" title="Handicrafts">handicrafts</a> can still be found all around us, with possibly a shift in purpose and meaning. There are many reasons for continuing to handmake objects for use, for example these skills may be needed to repair manufactured items, or a unique design might be required which is not (or cannot be) found in the stores. Many crafts are considered as simple home maintenance, such as cooking, sewing and carpentry. For many people, handicrafts have also become an enjoyable and satisfying hobby. Handmade objects are often regarded as prestigious, where extra time and thought is spent in their creation and their uniqueness is valued.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTERoberts1972236_ff_37-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERoberts1972236_ff-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> For the folklorist, these hand-crafted objects embody multifaceted relationships in the lives of the craftspeople and the users, a concept that has been lost with mass-produced items that have no connection to an individual craftsperson.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESchiffer2000_38-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESchiffer2000-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Many traditional crafts, such as ironworking and glass-making, have been elevated to the <a href="/wiki/Fine_art" title="Fine art">fine</a> or <a href="/wiki/Applied_arts" title="Applied arts">applied arts</a> and taught in art schools;<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTERoberts1972236_ff,_250_39-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERoberts1972236_ff,_250-39"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> or they have been repurposed as <a href="/wiki/Folk_art" title="Folk art">folk art</a>, characterized as objects whose decorative form supersedes their utilitarian needs. Folk art is found in hex signs on Pennsylvania Dutch barns, tin man sculptures made by metalworkers, front yard Christmas displays, decorated school lockers, carved gun stocks, and tattoos. "Words such as naive, self-taught, and individualistic are used to describe these objects, and the exceptional rather than the representative creation is featured."<sup id="cite_ref-40" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This is in contrast to the understanding of folklore artifacts that are nurtured and passed along within a community.<sup id="cite_ref-41" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-41"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>d<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Many objects of material folklore are challenging to classify, difficult to archive, and unwieldy to store. The assigned task of museums is to preserve and make use of these bulky artifacts of material culture. To this end, the concept of the <a href="/wiki/Living_museum" title="Living museum">living museum</a> has developed, beginning in Scandinavia at the end of the 19th century. These open-air museums not only display the artifacts, but also teach visitors how the items were used, with actors reenacting the everyday lives of people from all segments of society, relying heavily on the material artifacts of a pre-industrial society. Many locations even duplicate the processing of the objects, thus creating new objects of an earlier historic time period. Living museums are now found throughout the world as part of a thriving <a href="/wiki/Heritage_industry" class="mw-redirect" title="Heritage industry">heritage industry</a>. </p><p>This list represents just a small sampling of objects and skills that are included in studies of material culture. </p> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1184024115"><div class="div-col" style="column-width: 14em;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Autograph_book" title="Autograph book">Autograph books</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bunad" title="Bunad">Bunad</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Embroidery" title="Embroidery">Embroidery</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Folk_art" title="Folk art">Folk art</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Folk_costume" title="Folk costume">Folk costume</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_herbalism" title="History of herbalism">Folk medicines</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Challah" title="Challah">Food recipes and presentation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Foodways" title="Foodways">Foodways</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Handicraft#List_of_common_handicrafts" title="Handicraft">Common handicrafts</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_wooden_toys" title="List of wooden toys">Handmade toys</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hay#Stacking" title="Hay">Haystacks</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hex_signs" class="mw-redirect" title="Hex signs">Hex signs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ironwork" title="Ironwork">Decorative ironworks</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pottery" title="Pottery">Pottery</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quilting" title="Quilting">Quilting</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stone_carving" title="Stone carving">Stone sculpting</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tipis" class="mw-redirect" title="Tipis">Tipis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wattle_(construction)" title="Wattle (construction)">Traditional fences</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vernacular_architecture" title="Vernacular architecture">Vernacular architecture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Weather_vane" title="Weather vane">Weather vanes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Woodworking" title="Woodworking">Woodworking</a></li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Customs">Customs</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Folklore&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Customs"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Tradition" title="Tradition">Customary culture</a> is remembered enactment, i.e. re-enactment. It is the patterns of expected behavior within a group, the "traditional and expected way of doing things"<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESweterlitsch1997168_42-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESweterlitsch1997168-42"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESimsStephens200516_43-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESimsStephens200516-43"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> A custom can be a <a href="/wiki/List_of_gestures" title="List of gestures">single gesture</a>, such as <a href="/wiki/Thumbs_down" class="mw-redirect" title="Thumbs down">thumbs down</a> or a <a href="/wiki/Handshake" title="Handshake">handshake</a>. It can also be a complex interaction of multiple folk customs and artifacts as seen in a child's birthday party, including verbal lore (<a href="/wiki/Happy_Birthday_to_you" class="mw-redirect" title="Happy Birthday to you">Happy Birthday song</a>), material lore (presents and a birthday cake), special games (<a href="/wiki/Musical_chairs" title="Musical chairs">Musical chairs</a>) and individual customs (making a wish as you blow out the candles). Each of these is a folklore artifact in its own right, potentially worthy of investigation and cultural analysis. Together they combine to build the custom of a birthday party celebration, a scripted combination of multiple artifacts which have meaning within their social group. </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Pvt._Evan_Allen_Dancer,_center,_smiles_as_Santa_Claus,_right,_hands_gifts_to_Destiny_Hawley_and_her_brother_Justin_Hawley_of_Scipio,_Ind.,_during_the_3rd_Annual_Operation_Christmas_Blessing_event_at_Muscatatuck_111212-A-QU728-005.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/38/Pvt._Evan_Allen_Dancer%2C_center%2C_smiles_as_Santa_Claus%2C_right%2C_hands_gifts_to_Destiny_Hawley_and_her_brother_Justin_Hawley_of_Scipio%2C_Ind.%2C_during_the_3rd_Annual_Operation_Christmas_Blessing_event_at_Muscatatuck_111212-A-QU728-005.jpg/220px-thumbnail.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="176" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/38/Pvt._Evan_Allen_Dancer%2C_center%2C_smiles_as_Santa_Claus%2C_right%2C_hands_gifts_to_Destiny_Hawley_and_her_brother_Justin_Hawley_of_Scipio%2C_Ind.%2C_during_the_3rd_Annual_Operation_Christmas_Blessing_event_at_Muscatatuck_111212-A-QU728-005.jpg/330px-thumbnail.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/38/Pvt._Evan_Allen_Dancer%2C_center%2C_smiles_as_Santa_Claus%2C_right%2C_hands_gifts_to_Destiny_Hawley_and_her_brother_Justin_Hawley_of_Scipio%2C_Ind.%2C_during_the_3rd_Annual_Operation_Christmas_Blessing_event_at_Muscatatuck_111212-A-QU728-005.jpg/440px-thumbnail.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2250" data-file-height="1800" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Santa_Claus" title="Santa Claus">Santa Claus</a> giving gifts to children, a common folk practice associated with <a href="/wiki/Christmas" title="Christmas">Christmas</a> in Western nations</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Haji_Firuz_on_the_road.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/40/Haji_Firuz_on_the_road.jpg/220px-Haji_Firuz_on_the_road.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="161" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/40/Haji_Firuz_on_the_road.jpg/330px-Haji_Firuz_on_the_road.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/40/Haji_Firuz_on_the_road.jpg/440px-Haji_Firuz_on_the_road.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3920" data-file-height="2872" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Hajji_Firuz" title="Hajji Firuz">Hajji Firuz</a> is a fictional character in Iranian folklore who appears in the streets by the beginning of <a href="/wiki/Nowruz" title="Nowruz">Nowruz</a>, dances through the streets while singing and playing tambourine.</figcaption></figure> <p>Folklorists divide customs into several different categories.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESweterlitsch1997168_42-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESweterlitsch1997168-42"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> A custom can be a <b>seasonal celebration</b>, such as <a href="/wiki/Thanksgiving" title="Thanksgiving">Thanksgiving</a> or <a href="/wiki/New_Year%27s_Day" title="New Year's Day">New Year's</a>. It can be a <b>life cycle celebration</b> for an individual, such as baptism, birthday or wedding. A custom can also mark a <b>community festival</b> or event; examples of this are <a href="/wiki/Cologne_Carnival" title="Cologne Carnival">Carnival in Cologne</a> or <a href="/wiki/New_Orleans_Mardi_Gras" class="mw-redirect" title="New Orleans Mardi Gras">Mardi Gras in New Orleans</a>. This category also includes the <a href="/wiki/Smithsonian_Folklife_Festival" title="Smithsonian Folklife Festival">Smithsonian Folklife Festival</a> celebrated each summer on the Mall in Washington, DC. A fourth category includes customs related to <b>folk beliefs</b>. Walking under a ladder is just one of many <a href="/wiki/List_of_unlucky_symbols" class="mw-redirect" title="List of unlucky symbols">symbols considered unlucky</a>. <b>Occupational groups</b> tend to have a rich history of customs related to their life and work, so the <a href="/wiki/Sailors%27_superstitions" title="Sailors' superstitions">traditions of sailors</a> or <a href="/wiki/Lumberjack#Culture" title="Lumberjack">lumberjacks</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-44" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-44"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>e<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The area of <a href="/wiki/Folk_religion" title="Folk religion">ecclesiastical folklore</a>, which includes modes of worship not sanctioned by the established church<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDorson19724_45-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDorson19724-45"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> tends to be so large and complex that it is usually treated as a specialized area of folk customs; it requires considerable expertise in standard church ritual in order to adequately interpret folk customs and beliefs that originated in official church practice. </p><p>Customary folklore is always a performance, be it a single gesture or a complex of scripted customs, and participating in the custom, either as performer or audience, signifies acknowledgment of that social group. Some customary behavior is intended to be performed and understood only within the group itself, so the <a href="/wiki/Handkerchief_code" title="Handkerchief code">handkerchief code</a> sometimes used in the gay community or the <a href="/wiki/Masonic_ritual_and_symbolism" title="Masonic ritual and symbolism">initiation rituals</a> of the Freemasons. Other customs are designed specifically to represent a social group to outsiders, those who do not belong to this group. The <a href="/wiki/Saint_Patrick%27s_Day_in_the_United_States#New_York_City" title="Saint Patrick's Day in the United States">St. Patrick's Day Parade</a> in New York and in other communities across the continent is a single example of an ethnic group parading their separateness (differential behavior<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBauman197145_46-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBauman197145-46"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>41<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>), and encouraging Americans of all stripes to show alliance to this colorful ethnic group. </p> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Deal_Hoodeners,_1909.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/0/06/Deal_Hoodeners%2C_1909.jpg/220px-Deal_Hoodeners%2C_1909.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="164" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/0/06/Deal_Hoodeners%2C_1909.jpg/330px-Deal_Hoodeners%2C_1909.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/0/06/Deal_Hoodeners%2C_1909.jpg/440px-Deal_Hoodeners%2C_1909.jpg 2x" data-file-width="500" data-file-height="373" /></a><figcaption>Practitioners of <a href="/wiki/Hoodening" title="Hoodening">hoodening</a>, a folk custom found in <a href="/wiki/Kent" title="Kent">Kent</a>, southeastern England, in 1909</figcaption></figure> <p>These festivals and parades, with a target audience of people who do not belong to the social group, intersect with the interests and mission of <a href="/wiki/Public_folklore" title="Public folklore">public folklorists</a>, who are engaged in the documentation, preservation, and presentation of traditional forms of folklife. With a swell in popular interest in folk traditions, these <a href="/wiki/List_of_folk_festivals" title="List of folk festivals">community celebrations</a> are becoming more numerous throughout the western world. While ostensibly parading the diversity of their community, economic groups have discovered that these folk parades and festivals are good for business. All shades of people are out on the streets, eating, drinking and spending. This attracts support not only from the business community, but also from federal and state organizations for these local street parties.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESweterlitsch1997170_47-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESweterlitsch1997170-47"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>42<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Paradoxically, in parading diversity within the community, these events have come to authenticate true community, where business interests ally with the varied (folk) social groups to promote the interests of the community as a whole. </p><p>This is just a small sampling of types and examples of customary lore. </p> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1184024115"><div class="div-col" style="column-width: 13em;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Amish" title="Amish">Amish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Barn_raising" title="Barn raising">Barn raising</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Birthday" title="Birthday">Birthday</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cakewalk" title="Cakewalk">Cakewalk</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cat%27s_cradle" title="Cat's cradle">Cat's cradle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chaharshanbe_Suri" title="Chaharshanbe Suri">Chaharshanbe Suri</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christmas" title="Christmas">Christmas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crossed_fingers" title="Crossed fingers">Crossed fingers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Folk_dance" title="Folk dance">Folk dance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Folk_drama" class="mw-redirect" title="Folk drama">Folk drama</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Folk_medicine" class="mw-redirect" title="Folk medicine">Folk medicine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Giving_the_finger" class="mw-redirect" title="Giving the finger">Giving the finger</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Halloween" title="Halloween">Halloween</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hoodening" title="Hoodening">Hoodening</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_gestures" title="List of gestures">Gestures</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Groundhog_Day" title="Groundhog Day">Groundhog Day</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Louisiana_Creole_people" title="Louisiana Creole people">Louisiana Creole people</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mime" class="mw-redirect" title="Mime">Mime</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Culture_of_the_Native_Hawaiians" title="Culture of the Native Hawaiians">Native Hawaiians</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ouiji" class="mw-redirect" title="Ouiji">Ouiji board</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Powwow" title="Powwow">Powwows</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Practical_jokes" class="mw-redirect" title="Practical jokes">Practical jokes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Saint_John%27s_Eve" title="Saint John's Eve">Saint John's Eve</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shakers" title="Shakers">Shakers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Symbols" class="mw-redirect" title="Symbols">Symbols</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thanksgiving" title="Thanksgiving">Thanksgiving</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thumbs_down" class="mw-redirect" title="Thumbs down">Thumbs down</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trick_or_Treating" class="mw-redirect" title="Trick or Treating">Trick or Treating</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yo-yo" title="Yo-yo">Yo-yos</a></li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Childlore_and_games">Childlore and games</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Folklore&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Childlore and games"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Pieter_Bruegel_d._%C3%84._041b.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e5/Pieter_Bruegel_d._%C3%84._041b.jpg/300px-Pieter_Bruegel_d._%C3%84._041b.jpg" decoding="async" width="300" height="217" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e5/Pieter_Bruegel_d._%C3%84._041b.jpg/450px-Pieter_Bruegel_d._%C3%84._041b.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e5/Pieter_Bruegel_d._%C3%84._041b.jpg/600px-Pieter_Bruegel_d._%C3%84._041b.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3000" data-file-height="2165" /></a><figcaption><i><a href="/wiki/Children%27s_Games_(Bruegel)" title="Children's Games (Bruegel)">Children's Games</a></i> by <a href="/wiki/Pieter_Bruegel_the_Elder" title="Pieter Bruegel the Elder">Pieter Bruegel the Elder</a>, 1560; there are five boys playing a game of <a href="/wiki/Buck_buck" title="Buck buck">buck buck</a> in the lower right-hand corner of the painting.</figcaption></figure> <p><a href="/wiki/Childlore" title="Childlore">Childlore</a> is a distinct branch of folklore that deals with activities passed on by children to other children, away from the influence or supervision of an adult.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGrider1997123_48-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGrider1997123-48"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>43<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Children's folklore contains artifacts from all the standard folklore genres of verbal, material, and customary lore; it is however the <b>child-to-child conduit</b> that distinguishes these artifacts. For childhood is a social group where children teach, learn and share their own traditions, flourishing in a <a href="/wiki/Children%27s_street_culture" title="Children's street culture">street culture</a> outside the purview of adults. This is also ideal where it needs to be collected; as <a href="/wiki/Iona_and_Peter_Opie" title="Iona and Peter Opie">Iona and Peter Opie</a> demonstrated in their pioneering book <i>Children's Games in Street and Playground</i>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEOpieOpie1969_28-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEOpieOpie1969-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Here the social group of children is studied on its own terms, not as a derivative of adult social groups. It is shown that the <a href="/wiki/Childlore" title="Childlore">culture of children</a> is quite distinctive; it is generally unnoticed by the sophisticated world of adults, and quite as little affected by it.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGrider1997125_49-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGrider1997125-49"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>44<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Of particular interest to folklorists here is the mode of transmission of these artifacts; this lore circulates exclusively within an informal pre-literate children's network or folk group. It does not include artifacts taught to children by adults. However children can take the taught and teach it further to other children, turning it into childlore. Or they can take the artifacts and turn them into something else; so Old McDonald's farm is transformed from animal noises to the scatological version of animal poop. This childlore is characterized by "its lack of dependence on literary and fixed form. Children…operate among themselves in a world of informal and oral communication, unimpeded by the necessity of maintaining and transmitting information by written means".<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGrider1997_50-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGrider1997-50"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>45<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This is as close as folklorists can come to observing the transmission and social function of this folk knowledge before the spread of literacy during the 19th century. </p><p>As we have seen with the other genres, the original collections of children's lore and games in the 19th century was driven by a fear that the culture of childhood would die out.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGrider1997127_51-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGrider1997127-51"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>46<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Early folklorists, among them <a href="/wiki/Alice_Gomme" title="Alice Gomme">Alice Gomme</a> in Britain and <a href="/wiki/William_Wells_Newell" title="William Wells Newell">William Wells Newell</a> in the United States, felt a need to capture the unstructured and unsupervised street life and activities of children before it was lost. This fear proved to be unfounded. In a comparison of any modern school playground during recess and the painting of "Children's Games" by <a href="/wiki/Pieter_Breugel_the_Elder" class="mw-redirect" title="Pieter Breugel the Elder">Pieter Breugel the Elder</a> we can see that the activity level is similar, and many of the games from the 1560 painting are recognizable and comparable to modern variations still played today. </p><p>These same artifacts of childlore, in innumerable variations, also continue to serve the same function of learning and practicing skills needed for growth. So bouncing and swinging rhythms and rhymes encourage development of <a href="/wiki/Vestibular_system" title="Vestibular system">balance and coordination</a> in infants and children. Verbal rhymes like <a href="/wiki/Peter_Piper" title="Peter Piper">Peter Piper picked...</a> serve to increase both the oral and aural acuity of children. Songs and chants, accessing a different part of the brain, are used to memorize series (<a href="/wiki/Alphabet_song" class="mw-redirect" title="Alphabet song">Alphabet song</a>). They also provide the necessary beat to complex physical rhythms and movements, be it hand-clapping, jump roping, or ball bouncing. Furthermore, many physical games are used to develop strength, coordination and endurance of the players. For some team games, negotiations about the rules can run on longer than the game itself as social skills are rehearsed.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGeorgesJones1995243–254_52-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGeorgesJones1995243–254-52"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>47<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Even as we are just now uncovering the <a href="/wiki/Neuroscience" title="Neuroscience">neuroscience</a> that undergirds the developmental function of this childlore, the artifacts themselves have been in play for centuries. </p><p>Below is listed just a small sampling of types and examples of childlore and games. </p> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1184024115"><div class="div-col" style="column-width: 14em;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Buck_buck" title="Buck buck">Buck buck</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Children%27s_song" title="Children's song">Counting rhymes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Children%27s_song" title="Children's song">Dandling rhymes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Children%27s_song" title="Children's song">Finger and toe rhymes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Counting-out_game" title="Counting-out game">Counting-out games</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dreidel" title="Dreidel">Dreidel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eeny,_meeny,_miny,_moe" title="Eeny, meeny, miny, moe">Eeny, meeny, miny, moe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Games" class="mw-redirect" title="Games">Games</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_traditional_children%27s_games" class="mw-redirect" title="List of traditional children's games">Traditional games</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/London_Bridge_Is_Falling_Down" title="London Bridge Is Falling Down">London Bridge Is Falling Down</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lullabies" class="mw-redirect" title="Lullabies">Lullabies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nursery_rhymes" class="mw-redirect" title="Nursery rhymes">Nursery rhymes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Playground_song" class="mw-redirect" title="Playground song">Playground songs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Playground_song" class="mw-redirect" title="Playground song">Ball-bouncing rhymes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rhymes" class="mw-redirect" title="Rhymes">Rhymes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Riddle" title="Riddle">Riddles</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ring_a_Ring_o%27_Roses" title="Ring a Ring o' Roses">Ring a Ring o Roses</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Skipping-rope_rhyme" title="Skipping-rope rhyme">Jump-rope rhymes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stickball" title="Stickball">Stickball</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Street_games" class="mw-redirect" title="Street games">Street games</a></li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Folk_history">Folk history</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Folklore&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Folk history"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style 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.sidebar-list-title,html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle{background:transparent!important}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle a{color:var(--color-progressive)!important}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-list-title,html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle{background:transparent!important}html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle a{color:var(--color-progressive)!important}}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .sidebar{display:none!important}}</style><table class="sidebar sidebar-collapse nomobile nowraplinks hlist"><tbody><tr><th class="sidebar-title" style="background:#ccccff;"><a href="/wiki/Myth" title="Myth">Mythology</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/List_of_mythologies" title="List of mythologies">Mythologies</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Albanian_mythology" class="mw-redirect" title="Albanian mythology">Albanian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arabian_mythology" class="mw-redirect" title="Arabian mythology">Arabian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Armenian_mythology" title="Armenian mythology">Armenian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Australian_Aboriginal_religion_and_mythology" title="Australian Aboriginal religion and mythology">Aboriginal Australian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Traditional_Berber_religion" title="Traditional Berber religion">Berber</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Baltic_mythology" title="Baltic mythology">Baltic</a> (<a href="/wiki/Latvian_mythology" title="Latvian mythology">Latvian</a> - <a href="/wiki/Lithuanian_mythology" title="Lithuanian mythology">Lithuanian</a> - <a href="/wiki/Prussian_mythology" title="Prussian mythology">Prussian</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Basque_mythology" title="Basque mythology">Basque</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bantu_mythology" class="mw-redirect" title="Bantu mythology">Bantu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Brazilian_mythology" title="Brazilian mythology">Brazilian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhist_mythology" title="Buddhist mythology">Buddhist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Catalan_mythology" class="mw-redirect" title="Catalan mythology">Catalan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cantabrian_mythology" title="Cantabrian mythology">Cantabrian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Celtic_mythology" title="Celtic mythology">Celtic</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Breton_mythology" title="Breton mythology">Breton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cornish_mythology" title="Cornish mythology">Cornish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Irish_mythology" title="Irish mythology">Irish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scottish_mythology" title="Scottish mythology">Scottish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Welsh_mythology" title="Welsh mythology">Welsh</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_mythology" title="Chinese mythology">Chinese</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Efik_mythology" title="Efik mythology">Efik</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Egyptian_mythology" title="Egyptian mythology">Egyptian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/English_mythology" title="English mythology">English</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Estonian_mythology" title="Estonian mythology">Estonian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Etruscan_religion" title="Etruscan religion">Etruscan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Finnish_mythology" title="Finnish mythology">Finnish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mythology_in_France" title="Mythology in France">French</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Georgian_mythology" title="Georgian mythology">Georgian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Germanic_mythology" title="Germanic mythology">Germanic</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Frankish_paganism" title="Frankish paganism">Frankish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Continental_Germanic_mythology" title="Continental Germanic mythology">Continental Germanic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Norse_mythology" title="Norse mythology">Norse</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anglo-Saxon_paganism" title="Anglo-Saxon paganism">Anglo-Saxon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gothic_paganism" title="Gothic paganism">Gothic</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Greek_mythology" title="Greek mythology">Greek</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Guanches#Religion_and_mythology" title="Guanches">Guanche</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hindu_mythology" title="Hindu mythology">Hindu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hittite_mythology_and_religion" title="Hittite mythology and religion">Hittite</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hungarian_mythology" title="Hungarian mythology">Hungarian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mythology_of_Indonesia" title="Mythology of Indonesia">Indonesian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mythology_of_Italy" title="Mythology of Italy">Italian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Japanese_mythology" title="Japanese mythology">Japanese</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kongo_religion" title="Kongo religion">Kongo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Korean_mythology" title="Korean mythology">Korean</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lugbara_mythology" title="Lugbara mythology">Lugbara</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lusitanian_mythology" title="Lusitanian mythology">Lusitanian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maasai_mythology" class="mw-redirect" title="Maasai mythology">Maasai</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Malagasy_mythology" title="Malagasy mythology">Malagasy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/M%C4%81ori_mythology" title="Māori mythology">Māori</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mbuti_mythology" title="Mbuti mythology">Mbuti</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Meitei_mythology" title="Meitei mythology">Meitei</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Melanesian_mythology" title="Melanesian mythology">Melanesian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mesopotamian_mythology" title="Mesopotamian mythology">Mesopotamian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Micronesian_mythology" title="Micronesian mythology">Micronesian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mongol_mythology" title="Mongol mythology">Mongol</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Native_American_mythology" class="mw-redirect" title="Native American mythology">Native American</a> <ul><li>Algonquian <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Abenaki_mythology" title="Abenaki mythology">Abenaki</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Blackfoot_mythology" title="Blackfoot mythology">Blackfoot</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lenape_mythology" title="Lenape mythology">Lenape</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aztec_mythology" title="Aztec mythology">Aztec</a></li> <li>Californian <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Miwok_mythology" title="Miwok mythology">Miwok</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ohlone_mythology" title="Ohlone mythology">Ohlone</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chan%C3%A1_mythology" title="Chaná mythology">Chaná</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chilote_mythology" title="Chilote mythology">Chilote</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Choctaw_mythology" title="Choctaw mythology">Choctaw</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Creek_mythology" title="Creek mythology">Creek</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Guarani_mythology" title="Guarani mythology">Guarani</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Haida_mythology" title="Haida mythology">Haida</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Inca_mythology" title="Inca mythology">Inca</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Inuit_mythology" class="mw-redirect" title="Inuit mythology">Inuit</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iroquois_mythology" title="Iroquois mythology">Iroquois</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maya_mythology" title="Maya mythology">Maya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Muisca_mythology" title="Muisca mythology">Muisca</a></li> <li>Pacific Northwest <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Kwakwaka%CA%BCwakw_mythology" title="Kwakwakaʼwakw mythology">Kwakwakaʼwakw</a></li></ul></li> <li>Plains Indians <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ho-Chunk_mythology" title="Ho-Chunk mythology">Ho-Chunk</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lakota_mythology" title="Lakota mythology">Lakota</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pawnee_mythology" title="Pawnee mythology">Pawnee</a></li></ul></li> <li>Puebloan <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hopi_mythology" title="Hopi mythology">Hopi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zuni_mythology" title="Zuni mythology">Zuni</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Selk%27nam_mythology" title="Selk'nam mythology">Selk'nam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Talamancan_mythology" title="Talamancan mythology">Talamancan</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ossetian_mythology" title="Ossetian mythology">Ossetian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Papuan_mythology" title="Papuan mythology">Papuan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Persian_mythology" title="Persian mythology">Persian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philippine_mythology" title="Philippine mythology">Philippine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Polynesian_mythology" title="Polynesian mythology">Polynesian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Proto-Indo-European_mythology" title="Proto-Indo-European mythology">Proto-Indo-European</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Proto-Uralic_religion" title="Proto-Uralic religion">Proto-Uralic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_mythology" title="Roman mythology">Roman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Romanian_mythology" class="mw-redirect" title="Romanian mythology">Romanian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/S%C3%A1mi_shamanism" title="Sámi shamanism">Sámi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavic_mythology" class="mw-redirect" title="Slavic mythology">Slavic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Somali_mythology" title="Somali mythology">Somali</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Talysh_mythology" title="Talysh mythology">Talysh</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tai_folk_religion" title="Tai folk religion">Tai</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Thai_folklore" title="Thai folklore">Thai</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tibetan_mythology" title="Tibetan mythology">Tibetan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Turkic_mythology" title="Turkic mythology">Turkic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vietnamese_mythology" title="Vietnamese mythology">Vietnamese</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/West_African_religion" class="mw-redirect" title="West African religion">West African</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yoruba_religion" title="Yoruba religion">Yoruba</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)">Types</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Creation_myth" title="Creation myth">Creation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Flood_myth" title="Flood myth">Flood</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_myth" title="National myth">National</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Origin_myth" title="Origin myth">Origin</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)">Lists</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_creation_myths" title="List of creation myths">Creations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lists_of_legendary_creatures" title="Lists of legendary creatures">Creatures</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lists_of_deities" title="Lists of deities">Deities</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_fictional_feral_children" title="List of fictional feral children">Feral children</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_flood_myths" title="List of flood myths">Floods</a></li> <li>Heroes <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_culture_heroes" title="List of culture heroes">Culture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_folk_heroes" title="List of folk heroes">Folk</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_mythological_objects" title="List of mythological objects">Objects</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_mythological_pairs" title="List of mythological pairs">Pairs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_mythological_places" title="List of mythological places">Places</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_mythology_books_and_sources" title="List of mythology books and sources">Sources</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)">Related concepts</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Deity" title="Deity">Deity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Legendary_creature" title="Legendary creature">Legendary creature</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_legendary_creatures_by_type" title="List of legendary creatures by type">Type</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Legendary_progenitor" title="Legendary progenitor">Legendary progenitor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Twins_in_mythology" title="Twins in mythology">Twins</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Culture_hero" title="Culture hero">Culture hero</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Folk_hero" title="Folk hero">Folk hero</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)">See also</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Comparative_mythology" title="Comparative mythology">Comparative mythology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Comparative_religion" title="Comparative religion">Comparative religion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Euhemerism" title="Euhemerism">Euhemerism</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Folklore</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_world_folk-epics" title="List of world folk-epics">Epics</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lower_mythology" title="Lower mythology">Lower mythology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pseudo-mythology" title="Pseudo-mythology">Pseudo-mythology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_and_mythology" title="Religion and mythology">Religion and mythology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Symbol" title="Symbol">Symbolism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theology" title="Theology">Theology</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-navbar"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239400231">.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar ul{display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::before{margin-right:-0.125em;content:"[ "}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::after{margin-left:-0.125em;content:" ]"}.mw-parser-output .navbar li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .navbar a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini abbr{font-variant:small-caps;border-bottom:none;text-decoration:none;cursor:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-full{font-size:114%;margin:0 7em}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-mini{font-size:114%;margin:0 4em}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}}</style><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Mythology" title="Template:Mythology"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Mythology" title="Template talk:Mythology"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Mythology" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Mythology"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Ethnohistory" title="Ethnohistory">Ethnohistory</a></div> <p>A case has been made for considering folk history as a distinct sub-category of folklore, an idea that has received attention from such folklorists as Richard Dorson. This field of study is represented in <i>The Folklore Historian</i>, an annual journal sponsored by the History and Folklore Section of the <a href="/wiki/American_Folklore_Society" title="American Folklore Society">American Folklore Society</a> and concerned with the connections of folklore with history, as well as the history of folklore studies.<sup id="cite_ref-53" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-53"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>48<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Folklore_performance_in_context">Folklore performance in context</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Folklore&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Folklore performance in context"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Folk-dance-kalash.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/32/Folk-dance-kalash.jpg/220px-Folk-dance-kalash.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/32/Folk-dance-kalash.jpg/330px-Folk-dance-kalash.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/32/Folk-dance-kalash.jpg/440px-Folk-dance-kalash.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="768" /></a><figcaption>Folk-dance-kalash in Pakistan</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Slovene_Folklore_Dancers_7.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6e/Slovene_Folklore_Dancers_7.jpg/220px-Slovene_Folklore_Dancers_7.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="146" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6e/Slovene_Folklore_Dancers_7.jpg/330px-Slovene_Folklore_Dancers_7.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6e/Slovene_Folklore_Dancers_7.jpg/440px-Slovene_Folklore_Dancers_7.jpg 2x" data-file-width="4912" data-file-height="3264" /></a><figcaption>Slovene folklore dancers</figcaption></figure> <p>Lacking context, folklore artifacts would be uninspiring objects without any life of their own. It is only through performance that the artifacts come alive as an active and meaningful component of a social group; the intergroup communication arises in the performance and this is where transmission of these cultural elements takes place. American folklorist <a href="/wiki/Roger_D._Abrahams" title="Roger D. Abrahams">Roger D. Abrahams</a> has described it thus: "Folklore is folklore only when performed. As organized entities of performance, items of folklore have a sense of control inherent in them, a power that can be capitalized upon and enhanced through effective performance."<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAbrahams197235_54-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAbrahams197235-54"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>49<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Without transmission, these items are not folklore, they are just individual quirky tales and objects. </p><p>This understanding in folkloristics only occurred in the second half of the 20th century, when the two terms "<a href="/wiki/Performance_studies" title="Performance studies">folklore performance</a>" and "text and context" dominated discussions among folklorists. These terms are not contradictory or even mutually exclusive. As borrowings from other fields of study, one or the other linguistic formulation is more appropriate to any given discussion. Performance is frequently tied to verbal and customary lore, whereas context is used in discussions of material lore. Both formulations offer different perspectives on the same folkloric understanding, specifically that folklore artifacts need to remain embedded in their cultural environment if we are to gain insight into their meaning for the community. </p><p>The concept of cultural (folklore) performance is shared with <a href="/wiki/Ethnography" title="Ethnography">ethnography</a> and <a href="/wiki/Anthropology" title="Anthropology">anthropology</a> among other social sciences. The cultural anthropologist <a href="/wiki/Victor_Turner" title="Victor Turner">Victor Turner</a> identified four universal characteristics of cultural performance: playfulness, <a href="/wiki/Framing_(social_sciences)" title="Framing (social sciences)">framing</a>, the use of symbolic language, and employing the <a href="/wiki/Subjunctive_mood" title="Subjunctive mood">subjunctive mood</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBen-Amos1997a633–634_55-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBen-Amos1997a633–634-55"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>50<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In viewing the performance, the audience leaves the daily reality to move into a mode of make-believe, or "what if?" It is self-evident that this fits well with all types of verbal lore, where reality has no place among the symbols, fantasies, and nonsense of traditional tales, proverbs, and jokes. Customs and the lore of children and games also fit easily into the language of a folklore performance. </p><p>Material culture requires some moulding to turn it into a performance. Should we consider the performance of the creation of the artifact, as in a quilting party, or the performance of the recipients who use the quilt to cover their marriage bed? Here the language of context works better to describe the quilting of patterns copied from the grandmother, quilting as a social event during the winter months, or the gifting of a quilt to signify the importance of the event. Each of these—the traditional pattern chosen, the social event, and the gifting—occur within the broader context of the community. Even so, when considering context, the structure and characteristics of performance can be recognized, including an audience, a framing event, and the use of decorative figures and symbols, all of which go beyond the utility of the object. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Backstory">Backstory</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Folklore&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Backstory"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Before the <a href="/wiki/World_War_II" title="World War II">Second World War</a>, folk artifacts had been understood and collected as cultural shards of an earlier time. They were considered individual vestigial artifacts, with little or no function in the contemporary culture. Given this understanding, the goal of the folklorist was to capture and document them before they disappeared. They were collected with no supporting data, bound in books, archived and classified more or less successfully. The <a href="/wiki/Folklore_studies#Aarne–Thompson_and_the_historic–geographic_method" title="Folklore studies">Historic–Geographic Method</a> worked to isolate and track these collected artifacts, mostly verbal lore, across space and time. </p><p>Following the Second World War, folklorists began to articulate a more holistic approach toward their subject matter. In tandem with the growing sophistication in the <a href="/wiki/History_of_sociology#20th_century:_functionalism,_structuralism,_critical_theory_and_globalization" title="History of sociology">social sciences</a>, attention was no longer limited to the isolated artifact, but extended to include the artifact embedded in an active cultural environment. One early proponent was <a href="/wiki/Alan_Dundes" title="Alan Dundes">Alan Dundes</a> with his essay "Texture, Text and Context", first published 1964.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDundes1980_56-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDundes1980-56"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>51<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> A public presentation in 1967 by <a href="/wiki/Dan_Ben-Amos" title="Dan Ben-Amos">Dan Ben-Amos</a> at the American Folklore Society brought the behavioral approach into open debate among folklorists. In 1972 Richard Dorson called out the "young Turks" for their movement toward a behavioral approach to folklore. This approach "shifted the conceptualization of folklore as an extractable item or 'text' to an emphasis on folklore as a kind of human behavior and communication. Conceptualizing folklore as behavior redefined the job of folklorists..."<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGabbert1999119_57-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGabbert1999119-57"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>52<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-58" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-58"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>f<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Folklore became a verb, an action, something that people do, not just something that they have.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBaumanParedes1972xv_59-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBaumanParedes1972xv-59"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>53<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It is in the performance and the active context that folklore artifacts get transmitted in informal, direct communication, either verbally or in demonstration. Performance includes all the different modes and manners in which this transmission occurs. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Tradition-bearer_and_audience">Tradition-bearer and audience</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Folklore&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Tradition-bearer and audience"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><span><video id="mwe_player_1" poster="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1c/Walaskie_fujary.webm/220px--Walaskie_fujary.webm.jpg" controls="" preload="none" data-mw-tmh="" class="mw-file-element" width="220" height="176" data-durationhint="52" data-mwtitle="Walaskie_fujary.webm" data-mwprovider="wikimediacommons" resource="/wiki/File:Walaskie_fujary.webm"><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/1/1c/Walaskie_fujary.webm/Walaskie_fujary.webm.480p.vp9.webm" type="video/webm; codecs="vp9, opus"" data-transcodekey="480p.vp9.webm" data-width="600" data-height="480" /><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/1c/Walaskie_fujary.webm" type="video/webm; codecs="vp8, vorbis"" data-width="720" data-height="576" /><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/1/1c/Walaskie_fujary.webm/Walaskie_fujary.webm.240p.vp9.webm" type="video/webm; codecs="vp9, opus"" data-transcodekey="240p.vp9.webm" data-width="300" data-height="240" /><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/1/1c/Walaskie_fujary.webm/Walaskie_fujary.webm.360p.vp9.webm" type="video/webm; codecs="vp9, opus"" data-transcodekey="360p.vp9.webm" data-width="450" data-height="360" /><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/1/1c/Walaskie_fujary.webm/Walaskie_fujary.webm.360p.webm" type="video/webm; codecs="vp8, vorbis"" data-transcodekey="360p.webm" data-width="450" data-height="360" /></video></span><figcaption>Presentation of traditional Wallachian pipes at the <a href="/wiki/Wallachian_Open_Air_Museum" title="Wallachian Open Air Museum">Wallachian Open Air Museum</a>, Rožnov pod Radhoštěm, Czech Republic, 2017</figcaption></figure> <p>Transmission is a communicative process requiring a binary: one individual or group who actively transmits information in some form to another individual or group. Each of these is a defined role in the folklore process. The tradition-bearer<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBen-Amos1997b_60-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBen-Amos1997b-60"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>54<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> is the individual who actively passes along the knowledge of an artifact; this can be either a mother singing a lullaby to her baby, or an Irish dance troupe performing at a local festival. They are named individuals, usually well known in the community as knowledgeable in their traditional lore. They are not the anonymous "folk", the nameless mass without of history or individuality. </p><p>The audience of this performance is the other half in the transmission process; they listen, watch, and remember. Few of them will become active tradition-bearers; many more will be passive tradition-bearers who maintain a memory of this specific traditional artifact, in both its presentation and its content. </p><p>There is active communication between the audience and the performer. The performer is presenting to the audience; the audience in turn, through its actions and reactions, is actively communicating with the performer.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESimsStephens2005127_61-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESimsStephens2005127-61"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>55<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The purpose of this performance is not to create something new but to re-create something that already exists; the performance is words and actions which are known, recognized and valued by both the performer and the audience. For folklore is first and foremost remembered behavior. As members of the same cultural <a href="/wiki/Reference_group" class="mw-redirect" title="Reference group">reference group</a>, they identify and value this performance as a piece of shared cultural knowledge. </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Bikkessy_Heinbucher_T%C3%A1ncol%C3%B3_magyarok.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Bikkessy_Heinbucher_T%C3%A1ncol%C3%B3_magyarok.jpg/180px-Bikkessy_Heinbucher_T%C3%A1ncol%C3%B3_magyarok.jpg" decoding="async" width="180" height="233" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Bikkessy_Heinbucher_T%C3%A1ncol%C3%B3_magyarok.jpg/270px-Bikkessy_Heinbucher_T%C3%A1ncol%C3%B3_magyarok.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Bikkessy_Heinbucher_T%C3%A1ncol%C3%B3_magyarok.jpg/360px-Bikkessy_Heinbucher_T%C3%A1ncol%C3%B3_magyarok.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1358" data-file-height="1756" /></a><figcaption><i>Dancing Hungarians</i> by <span class="nowrap">J. B. Heinbucher</span>, 1816</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:XIX_%C3%BCldtantsupidu_13.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1a/XIX_%C3%BCldtantsupidu_13.JPG/300px-XIX_%C3%BCldtantsupidu_13.JPG" decoding="async" width="300" height="151" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1a/XIX_%C3%BCldtantsupidu_13.JPG/450px-XIX_%C3%BCldtantsupidu_13.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1a/XIX_%C3%BCldtantsupidu_13.JPG/600px-XIX_%C3%BCldtantsupidu_13.JPG 2x" data-file-width="6016" data-file-height="3036" /></a><figcaption>Some elements of folk culture might be in the center of local culture and an import part of self-identity. For instance <a href="/wiki/Folk_dance" title="Folk dance">folk dance</a> is highly popular in <a href="/wiki/Estonia" title="Estonia">Estonia</a> and it has evolved into a sort of a national sport.<sup id="cite_ref-62" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-62"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>g<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> XIX Estonian Dance Celebration in 2015 that was held together with <a href="/wiki/Estonian_Song_Festival" title="Estonian Song Festival">Estonian Song Festival</a>.</figcaption></figure> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Framing_the_performance">Framing the performance</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Folklore&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: Framing the performance"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>To initiate the performance, there must be a <a href="/wiki/Framing_(social_sciences)" title="Framing (social sciences)">frame</a> of some sort to indicate that what is to follow is indeed performance. The frame brackets it as outside of normal discourse. In customary lore such as life cycle celebrations (ex. birthday) or dance performances, the framing occurs as part of the event, frequently marked by location. The audience goes to the event location to participate. Games are defined primarily by rules,<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBeresin1997393_63-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBeresin1997393-63"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>56<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> it is with the initiation of the rules that the game is framed. The folklorist <a href="/wiki/Barre_Toelken" title="Barre Toelken">Barre Toelken</a> describes an evening spent in a Navaho family playing <a href="/wiki/String_figure" title="String figure">string figure</a> games, with each of the members shifting from performer to audience as they create and display different figures to each other.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEToelken1996118_ff_64-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEToelken1996118_ff-64"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>57<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In verbal lore, the performer will start and end with recognized linguistic formulas. An easy example is seen in the common introduction to a joke: "Have you heard the one...", "Joke of the day...", or "An elephant walks into a bar". Each of these signals to the listeners that the following is a <a href="/wiki/Joke" title="Joke">joke</a>, not to be taken literally. The joke is completed with the <a href="/wiki/Punch_line" title="Punch line">punch line</a> of the joke. Another traditional narrative marker in English is the framing of a fairy tale between the phrases "<a href="/wiki/Once_upon_a_time" title="Once upon a time">Once upon a time</a>" and "They all lived happily ever after." Many languages have <a href="/wiki/Once_upon_a_time#Other_languages" title="Once upon a time">similar phrases</a> which are used to frame a traditional tale. Each of these linguistic formulas removes the bracketed text from ordinary discourse, and marks it as a recognized form of stylized, formulaic communication for both the performer and the audience. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="In_the_subjunctive_voice">In the subjunctive voice</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Folklore&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: In the subjunctive voice"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Framing as a narrative device serves to signal to both the story teller and the audience that the narrative which follows is indeed a fiction (verbal lore), and not to be understood as historical fact or reality. It moves the framed narration into the <a href="/wiki/Subjunctive_mood" title="Subjunctive mood">subjunctive mood</a>, and marks a space in which "fiction, history, story, tradition, art, teaching, all exist within the narrated or performed expressive 'event' outside the normal realms and constraints of reality or time."<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESimsStephens2005141_65-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESimsStephens2005141-65"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>58<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This shift from the <a href="/wiki/Realis_mood" title="Realis mood">realis</a> to the <a href="/wiki/Irrealis_mood" title="Irrealis mood">irrealis mood</a> is understood by all participants within the reference group. It enables these fictional events to contain meaning for the group, and can lead to very real consequences.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBen-Amos1997a_66-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBen-Amos1997a-66"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>59<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="margin-left:0.1em; white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Please_clarify" title="Wikipedia:Please clarify"><span title=""very real consequences" is somewhat vague and abstract (May 2023)">clarification needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Anderson's_law_of_auto-correction"><span id="Anderson.27s_law_of_auto-correction"></span>Anderson's law of auto-correction</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Folklore&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: Anderson's law of auto-correction"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The theory of self-correction in folklore transmission was first articulated by the folklorist <a href="/wiki/Walter_Anderson_(folklorist)" title="Walter Anderson (folklorist)">Walter Anderson</a> in the 1920s; this posits a feedback mechanism which would keep folklore variants closer to the original form.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDorst2016131_67-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDorst2016131-67"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>60<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-68" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-68"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>h<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This theory addresses the question about how, with multiple performers and multiple audiences, the artifact maintains its identity across time and geography. Anderson credited the audience with censoring narrators who deviated too far from the known (traditional) text.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEEl-Shamy1997_69-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEEl-Shamy1997-69"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>61<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Any performance is a two-way communication process. The performer addresses the audience with words and actions; the audience in turn actively responds to the performer. If this performance deviates too far from audience expectations of the familiar folk artifact, they will respond with negative feedback. Wanting to avoid more negative reaction, the performer will adjust his performance to conform to audience expectations. "Social reward by an audience [is] a major factor in motivating narrators..."<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEEl-Shamy199771_70-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEEl-Shamy199771-70"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>62<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It is this dynamic feedback loop between performer and audience which gives stability to the text of the performance.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESimsStephens2005127_61-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESimsStephens2005127-61"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>55<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In reality, this model is not so simplistic; there are multiple redundancies in the active folklore process. The performer has heard the tale multiple times, he has heard it from different story tellers in multiple versions. In turn, he tells the tale multiple times to the same or a different audience, and they expect to hear the version they know. This expanded model of redundancy in a non-linear narrative process makes it difficult to innovate during any single performance; corrective feedback from the audience will be immediate.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDorst2016131–132_71-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDorst2016131–132-71"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>63<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> "At the heart of both autopoetic self-maintenance and the 'virality' of meme transmission... it is enough to assume that some sort of recursive action maintains a degree of integrity [of the artifact] in certain features ... sufficient to allow us to recognize it as an instance of its type."<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDorst2016138_72-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDorst2016138-72"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>64<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Context_of_material_lore">Context of material lore</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Folklore&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: Context of material lore"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>For material folk artifacts, it becomes more fruitful to return to the terminology of Alan Dundes: text and context. Here the text designates the physical artifact itself, the single item made by an individual for a specific purpose. The context is then unmasked by observation and questions concerning both its production and its usage. Why was it made, how was it made, who will use it, how will they use it, where did the raw materials come from, who designed it, etc. These questions are limited only by the skill of the interviewer. </p><p>In his study of southeastern Kentucky chair makers, Michael Owen Jones describes production of a chair within the context of the life of the craftsman.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEJones1975[[Category:Wikipedia_articles_needing_page_number_citations_from_August_2021]]<sup_class="noprint_Inline-Template_"_style="white-space:nowrap;">&#91;<i>[[Wikipedia:Citing_sources|<span_title="This_citation_requires_a_reference_to_the_specific_page_or_range_of_pages_in_which_the_material_appears.&#32;(August_2021)">page&nbsp;needed</span>]]</i>&#93;</sup>_73-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEJones1975[[Category:Wikipedia_articles_needing_page_number_citations_from_August_2021]]<sup_class="noprint_Inline-Template_"_style="white-space:nowrap;">&#91;<i>[[Wikipedia:Citing_sources|<span_title="This_citation_requires_a_reference_to_the_specific_page_or_range_of_pages_in_which_the_material_appears.&#32;(August_2021)">page&nbsp;needed</span>]]</i>&#93;</sup>-73"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>65<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> For <a href="/wiki/Henry_Glassie" title="Henry Glassie">Henry Glassie</a> in his study of Folk Housing in Middle Virginia, the investigation concerns the historical pattern he finds repeated in the dwellings of this region: the house is planted in the landscape just as the landscape completes itself with the house.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGlassie1983125_74-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGlassie1983125-74"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>66<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The artisan in his roadside stand or shop in the nearby town wants to make and display products which appeal to customers. There is "a craftsperson's eagerness to produce 'satisfactory items' due to a close personal contact with the customer and expectations to serve the customer again." Here the role of consumer "... is the basic force responsible for the continuity and discontinuity of behavior."<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEEl-Shamy199771_70-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEEl-Shamy199771-70"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>62<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In material culture the context becomes the cultural environment in which the object is made (chair), used (house), and sold (wares). None of these artisans is "anonymous" folk; they are individuals making a living with the tools and skills learned within and valued in the context of their community. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Toelken's_conservative-dynamic_continuum"><span id="Toelken.27s_conservative-dynamic_continuum"></span>Toelken's conservative-dynamic continuum</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Folklore&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: Toelken's conservative-dynamic continuum"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>No two performances are identical. The performer attempts to keep the performance within expectations, but this happens despite a multitude of changing variables. He has given this performance one time more or less, the audience is different, the social and political environment has changed. In the context of material culture, no two hand-crafted items are identical. Sometimes these deviations in the performance and the production are unintentional, just part of the process. But sometimes these deviations are intentional; the performer or artisan want to play with the boundaries of expectation and add their own creative touch. They perform within the tension of conserving the recognized form and adding innovation. </p><p>The folklorist Barre Toelken identifies this tension as "a combination of both changing ('dynamic') and static ('conservative') elements that evolve and change through sharing, communication and performance."<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESimsStephens200510_75-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESimsStephens200510-75"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>67<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Over time, the cultural context shifts and morphs: new leaders, new technologies, new values, new awareness. As the context changes, so must the artifact, for without modifications to map existing artifacts into the evolving cultural landscape, they lose their meaning. <a href="/wiki/Joke" title="Joke">Joking</a> as an active form of verbal lore makes this tension visible as <a href="/wiki/Joke#Joke_cycles" title="Joke">joke cycles</a> come and go to reflect new issues of concern. Once an artifact is no longer applicable to the context, transmission becomes a nonstarter; it loses relevancy for a contemporary audience. If it is not transmitted, then it is no longer folklore and becomes instead an historic relic.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEEl-Shamy199771_70-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEEl-Shamy199771-70"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>62<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="In_the_electronic_age">In the electronic age</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Folklore&action=edit&section=18" title="Edit section: In the electronic age"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Folklorists have begun to identify how the advent of electronic communications will modify and change the performance and transmission of folklore artifacts. It is clear that the internet is modifying folkloric process, not killing it, as despite the historic association between folklore and anti-modernity, people continue to use traditional expressive forms in new media, including the internet.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBlankHoward20134,_9,_11_76-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBlankHoward20134,_9,_11-76"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>68<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Jokes and joking are as plentiful as ever both in traditional face-to-face interactions and through electronic transmission. New communication modes are also transforming traditional stories into many different configurations.<sup id="cite_ref-77" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-77"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>69<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The fairy tale <a href="/wiki/Snow_White" title="Snow White">Snow White</a> is now offered in <a href="/wiki/Snow_White_(disambiguation)" class="mw-disambig" title="Snow White (disambiguation)">multiple media forms</a> for both children and adults, including a television show and video game. </p><p>Yeh et al. (2023) suggest that user-generated content (UGC) should be considered as folklore, especially in mental health communities, because it conveys informal, unofficial knowledge through first-hand stories of treatment experiences. These narratives, often shared on YouTube, serve to educate and transmit culture, much like traditional folklore. They provide insight into mental health consumers' experiences with antidepressants, highlighting where they obtain information, gaps in their knowledge, and obstacles to seeking or continuing treatment. UGC in the form of YouTube reviews reflects dynamic, recurring expressions that function as a modern-day method of passing on informal knowledge.<sup id="cite_ref-78" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-78"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>70<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Folklore&action=edit&section=19" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">For a list of folklore of countries, see <a href="/wiki/Category:Folklore_by_country" title="Category:Folklore by country">Category:Folklore by country</a>.</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">For a list of folklore of European countries, see <a href="/wiki/European_folklore" title="European folklore">European folklore</a>.</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">For a list of folklore by region, see <a href="/wiki/Category:Folklore_by_region" title="Category:Folklore by region">Category:Folklore by region</a>.</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">For a list of folklore by ethnicity, see <a href="/wiki/Category:Folklore_by_ethnicity" title="Category:Folklore by ethnicity">Category:Folklore by ethnicity</a>.</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1184024115"><div class="div-col" style="column-width: 30em;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Applied_folklore" title="Applied folklore">Applied folklore</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Costumbrismo" title="Costumbrismo">Costumbrismo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Intangible_cultural_heritage" title="Intangible cultural heritage">Intangible cultural heritage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Memetics" title="Memetics">Memetics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_law_of_conservation_of_misery" title="The law of conservation of misery">The law of conservation of misery</a></li></ul></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Notes">Notes</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Folklore&action=edit&section=20" title="Edit section: Notes"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist reflist-columns references-column-width reflist-lower-alpha" style="column-width: 30em;"> <ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-20"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-20">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">The word <i>folkloristics</i> is favored by Alan Dundes, and used in the title of his publication <a href="#CITEREFDundes1978">Dundes 1978</a>; the term <i>folklore studies</i> is defined and used by <a href="/wiki/Simon_Bronner" class="mw-redirect" title="Simon Bronner">Simon Bronner</a>, see <a href="#CITEREFBronner1986">Bronner 1986</a>, p. xi.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-26"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-26">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Contributors of this issue were, among others, Claire Farrer, Joan N. Radner, Susan Lanser, Elaine Lawless, and Jeannie B. Thomas.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-33"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-33">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="/wiki/Vladimir_Propp" title="Vladimir Propp">Vladimir Propp</a> first defined a uniform structure in Russian fairy tales in his groundbreaking monograph <i>Morphology of the Folktale</i>, published in Russian in 1928. See <a href="#CITEREFPropp1968">Propp 1968</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-41"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-41">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="/wiki/Henry_Glassie" title="Henry Glassie">Henry Glassie</a>, a distinguished folklorist studying technology in cultural context, notes that in Turkish one word, sanat, refers to all objects, not distinguishing between art and craft. The latter distinction, Glassie emphasizes, is not based on medium but on social class. This raises the question as to the difference between arts and crafts; is the difference found merely in the labeling?</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-44"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-44">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">The folklorist <a href="/wiki/Archie_Green" title="Archie Green">Archie Green</a> specialized in workers' traditions and the lore of labor groups.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-58"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-58">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">A more extensive discussion of this can be found in "The 'Text/Context' Controversy and the Emergence of Behavioral Approaches in Folklore", <a href="#CITEREFGabbert1999">Gabbert 1999</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-62"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-62">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">See <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20160303215849/http://www.estonica.org/en/Culture/The_art_of_dance/Folk_dance/">"Folk dance"</a>. <i>Estonica</i>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.estonica.org/en/Culture/The_art_of_dance/Folk_dance/">the original</a> on 2016-03-03.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Estonica&rft.atitle=Folk+dance&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.estonica.org%2Fen%2FCulture%2FThe_art_of_dance%2FFolk_dance%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFolklore" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-68"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-68">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Anderson is best known for his monograph <i><a href="/wiki/King_John_and_the_Bishop" title="King John and the Bishop">Kaiser und Abt</a></i> (Folklore Fellows' Communications 42, Helsinki 1923) on folktales of type AT 922.</span> </li> </ol></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Folklore&action=edit&section=21" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239543626"><div class="reflist reflist-columns references-column-width" style="column-width: 20em;"> <ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESchlinkert200730-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESchlinkert200730_1-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFSchlinkert2007">Schlinkert 2007</a>, p. 30.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEDundes19653-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDundes19653_2-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDundes19653_2-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFDundes1965">Dundes 1965</a>, p. 3.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESchlinkert200733-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESchlinkert200733_3-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFSchlinkert2007">Schlinkert 2007</a>, p. 33.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESchlinkert200737-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESchlinkert200737_4-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFSchlinkert2007">Schlinkert 2007</a>, p. 37.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-5">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20181108025803/https://cfs.osu.edu/about/resources/programs">"Folklore Programs in the US and Canada"</a>. <i>Center for Folklore Studies</i>. <a href="/wiki/Ohio_State_University" title="Ohio State University">Ohio State University</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://cfs.osu.edu/about/resources/programs">the original</a> on 8 November 2018<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">21 August</span> 2020</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Center+for+Folklore+Studies&rft.atitle=Folklore+Programs+in+the+US+and+Canada&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fcfs.osu.edu%2Fabout%2Fresources%2Fprograms&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFolklore" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-6"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-6">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://folklore-society.com/about/william-john-thoms/">"William John Thoms"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/The_Folklore_Society" title="The Folklore Society">The Folklore Society</a></i>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20200715184703/https://folklore-society.com/about/william-john-thoms/">Archived</a> from the original on 15 July 2020<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">15 July</span> 2020</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=The+Folklore+Society&rft.atitle=William+John+Thoms&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Ffolklore-society.com%2Fabout%2Fwilliam-john-thoms%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFolklore" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-7"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-7">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20190327184253/https://en.oxforddictionaries.com/definition/lore">"lore – Definition of lore in English"</a>. <i>Oxford Dictionaries</i>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://en.oxforddictionaries.com/definition/lore">the original</a> on 27 March 2019<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">8 October</span> 2017</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Oxford+Dictionaries&rft.atitle=lore+%E2%80%93+Definition+of+lore+in+English&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fen.oxforddictionaries.com%2Fdefinition%2Flore&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFolklore" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESchlinkert200730–37-8"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESchlinkert200730–37_8-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFSchlinkert2007">Schlinkert 2007</a>, pp. 30–37.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEDundes196913,_footnote_34-9"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDundes196913,_footnote_34_9-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFDundes1969">Dundes 1969</a>, p. 13, footnote 34.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEWilson200685-10"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWilson200685_10-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFWilson2006">Wilson 2006</a>, p. 85.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEDundes19807-11"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDundes19807_11-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDundes19807_11-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFDundes1980">Dundes 1980</a>, p. 7.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBauman1971-12"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBauman1971_12-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBauman1971_12-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBauman1971">Bauman 1971</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEDundes1971-13"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDundes1971_13-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFDundes1971">Dundes 1971</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEDundes19651-14"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDundes19651_14-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFDundes1965">Dundes 1965</a>, p. 1.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESchreiter2015[[Category:Wikipedia_articles_needing_page_number_citations_from_August_2021]]<sup_class="noprint_Inline-Template_"_style="white-space:nowrap;">&#91;<i>[[Wikipedia:Citing_sources|<span_title="This_citation_requires_a_reference_to_the_specific_page_or_range_of_pages_in_which_the_material_appears.&#32;(August_2021)">page&nbsp;needed</span>]]</i>&#93;</sup>-15"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESchreiter2015[[Category:Wikipedia_articles_needing_page_number_citations_from_August_2021]]<sup_class="noprint_Inline-Template_"_style="white-space:nowrap;">&#91;<i>[[Wikipedia:Citing_sources|<span_title="This_citation_requires_a_reference_to_the_specific_page_or_range_of_pages_in_which_the_material_appears.&#32;(August_2021)">page&nbsp;needed</span>]]</i>&#93;</sup>_15-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFSchreiter2015">Schreiter 2015</a>, p. <sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources"><span title="This citation requires a reference to the specific page or range of pages in which the material appears. (August 2021)">page needed</span></a></i>]</sup>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESimsStephens20057–8-16"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESimsStephens20057–8_16-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFSimsStephens2005">Sims & Stephens 2005</a>, pp. 7–8.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTENoyes201220-17"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTENoyes201220_17-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFNoyes2012">Noyes 2012</a>, p. 20.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTENoyes201215–16-18"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTENoyes201215–16_18-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFNoyes2012">Noyes 2012</a>, pp. 15–16.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEZumwaltDundes1988-19"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEZumwaltDundes1988_19-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFZumwaltDundes1988">Zumwalt & Dundes 1988</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-21"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-21">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.loc.gov/folklife/public_law.html">"Public Law 94-201: The Creation of the American Folklife Center"</a>. <i>American Folklife Center</i>. <a href="/wiki/Library_of_Congress" title="Library of Congress">Library of Congress</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20170928191517/https://www.loc.gov/folklife/public_law.html">Archived</a> from the original on 28 September 2017<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">8 October</span> 2017</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=American+Folklife+Center&rft.atitle=Public+Law+94-201%3A+The+Creation+of+the+American+Folklife+Center&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.loc.gov%2Ffolklife%2Fpublic_law.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFolklore" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHufford1991-22"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHufford1991_22-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFHufford1991">Hufford 1991</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBascom1954-23"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBascom1954_23-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBascom1954">Bascom 1954</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEDundes19808-24"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDundes19808_24-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFDundes1980">Dundes 1980</a>, p. 8.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBauman197141-25"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBauman197141_25-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBauman1971">Bauman 1971</a>, p. 41.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEDorson1976-27"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDorson1976_27-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFDorson1976">Dorson 1976</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEOpieOpie1969-28"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEOpieOpie1969_28-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEOpieOpie1969_28-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFOpieOpie1969">Opie & Opie 1969</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEGeorgesJones199510–12-29"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGeorgesJones199510–12_29-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFGeorgesJones1995">Georges & Jones 1995</a>, pp. 10–12.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEToelken1996184-30"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEToelken1996184_30-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFToelken1996">Toelken 1996</a>, p. 184.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESimsStephens200517-31"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESimsStephens200517_31-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFSimsStephens2005">Sims & Stephens 2005</a>, p. 17.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEDorson19722-32"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDorson19722_32-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDorson19722_32-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFDorson1972">Dorson 1972</a>, p. 2.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESimsStephens200513-34"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESimsStephens200513_34-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFSimsStephens2005">Sims & Stephens 2005</a>, p. 13.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEGeorgesJones1995112–113-35"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGeorgesJones1995112–113_35-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFGeorgesJones1995">Georges & Jones 1995</a>, pp. 112–113.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEVlach1997-36"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEVlach1997_36-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFVlach1997">Vlach 1997</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTERoberts1972236_ff-37"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERoberts1972236_ff_37-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFRoberts1972">Roberts 1972</a>, pp. 236 ff.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESchiffer2000-38"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESchiffer2000_38-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFSchiffer2000">Schiffer 2000</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTERoberts1972236_ff,_250-39"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERoberts1972236_ff,_250_39-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFRoberts1972">Roberts 1972</a>, pp. 236 ff, 250.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-40"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-40">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.loc.gov/folklife/guide/materialculture.html">"Material Culture"</a>. <i>American Folklife Center</i>. <a href="/wiki/Library_of_Congress" title="Library of Congress">Library of Congress</a>. 29 October 2010. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20170820221339/https://www.loc.gov/folklife/guide/materialculture.html">Archived</a> from the original on 20 August 2017<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">8 October</span> 2017</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=American+Folklife+Center&rft.atitle=Material+Culture&rft.date=2010-10-29&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.loc.gov%2Ffolklife%2Fguide%2Fmaterialculture.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFolklore" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESweterlitsch1997168-42"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESweterlitsch1997168_42-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESweterlitsch1997168_42-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFSweterlitsch1997">Sweterlitsch 1997</a>, p. 168.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESimsStephens200516-43"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESimsStephens200516_43-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFSimsStephens2005">Sims & Stephens 2005</a>, p. 16.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEDorson19724-45"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDorson19724_45-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFDorson1972">Dorson 1972</a>, p. 4.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBauman197145-46"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBauman197145_46-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBauman1971">Bauman 1971</a>, p. 45.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESweterlitsch1997170-47"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESweterlitsch1997170_47-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFSweterlitsch1997">Sweterlitsch 1997</a>, p. 170.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEGrider1997123-48"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGrider1997123_48-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFGrider1997">Grider 1997</a>, p. 123.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEGrider1997125-49"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGrider1997125_49-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFGrider1997">Grider 1997</a>, p. 125.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEGrider1997-50"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGrider1997_50-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFGrider1997">Grider 1997</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEGrider1997127-51"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGrider1997127_51-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFGrider1997">Grider 1997</a>, p. 127.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEGeorgesJones1995243–254-52"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGeorgesJones1995243–254_52-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFGeorgesJones1995">Georges & Jones 1995</a>, pp. 243–254.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-53"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-53">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.afsnet.org/page/TFH">"The Folklore Historian"</a>. <a href="/wiki/American_Folklore_Society" title="American Folklore Society">American Folklore Society</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20201008205743/https://www.afsnet.org/page/TFH">Archived</a> from the original on 8 October 2020<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">30 September</span> 2020</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=The+Folklore+Historian&rft.pub=American+Folklore+Society&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.afsnet.org%2Fpage%2FTFH&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFolklore" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEAbrahams197235-54"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAbrahams197235_54-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFAbrahams1972">Abrahams 1972</a>, p. 35.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBen-Amos1997a633–634-55"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBen-Amos1997a633–634_55-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBen-Amos1997a">Ben-Amos 1997a</a>, pp. 633–634.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEDundes1980-56"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDundes1980_56-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFDundes1980">Dundes 1980</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEGabbert1999119-57"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGabbert1999119_57-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFGabbert1999">Gabbert 1999</a>, p. 119.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBaumanParedes1972xv-59"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBaumanParedes1972xv_59-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBaumanParedes1972">Bauman & Paredes 1972</a>, p. xv.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBen-Amos1997b-60"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBen-Amos1997b_60-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBen-Amos1997b">Ben-Amos 1997b</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESimsStephens2005127-61"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESimsStephens2005127_61-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESimsStephens2005127_61-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFSimsStephens2005">Sims & Stephens 2005</a>, p. 127.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBeresin1997393-63"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBeresin1997393_63-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBeresin1997">Beresin 1997</a>, p. 393.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEToelken1996118_ff-64"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEToelken1996118_ff_64-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFToelken1996">Toelken 1996</a>, pp. 118 ff.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESimsStephens2005141-65"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESimsStephens2005141_65-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFSimsStephens2005">Sims & Stephens 2005</a>, p. 141.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBen-Amos1997a-66"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBen-Amos1997a_66-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBen-Amos1997a">Ben-Amos 1997a</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEDorst2016131-67"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDorst2016131_67-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFDorst2016">Dorst 2016</a>, p. 131.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEEl-Shamy1997-69"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEEl-Shamy1997_69-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFEl-Shamy1997">El-Shamy 1997</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEEl-Shamy199771-70"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEEl-Shamy199771_70-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEEl-Shamy199771_70-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEEl-Shamy199771_70-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFEl-Shamy1997">El-Shamy 1997</a>, p. 71.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEDorst2016131–132-71"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDorst2016131–132_71-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFDorst2016">Dorst 2016</a>, pp. 131–132.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEDorst2016138-72"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDorst2016138_72-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFDorst2016">Dorst 2016</a>, p. 138.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEJones1975[[Category:Wikipedia_articles_needing_page_number_citations_from_August_2021]]<sup_class="noprint_Inline-Template_"_style="white-space:nowrap;">&#91;<i>[[Wikipedia:Citing_sources|<span_title="This_citation_requires_a_reference_to_the_specific_page_or_range_of_pages_in_which_the_material_appears.&#32;(August_2021)">page&nbsp;needed</span>]]</i>&#93;</sup>-73"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEJones1975[[Category:Wikipedia_articles_needing_page_number_citations_from_August_2021]]<sup_class="noprint_Inline-Template_"_style="white-space:nowrap;">&#91;<i>[[Wikipedia:Citing_sources|<span_title="This_citation_requires_a_reference_to_the_specific_page_or_range_of_pages_in_which_the_material_appears.&#32;(August_2021)">page&nbsp;needed</span>]]</i>&#93;</sup>_73-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFJones1975">Jones 1975</a>, p. <sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources"><span title="This citation requires a reference to the specific page or range of pages in which the material appears. (August 2021)">page needed</span></a></i>]</sup>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEGlassie1983125-74"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGlassie1983125_74-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFGlassie1983">Glassie 1983</a>, p. 125.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESimsStephens200510-75"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESimsStephens200510_75-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFSimsStephens2005">Sims & Stephens 2005</a>, p. 10.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBlankHoward20134,_9,_11-76"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBlankHoward20134,_9,_11_76-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBlankHoward2013">Blank & Howard 2013</a>, pp. 4, 9, 11.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-77"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-77">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSchwabe2016" class="citation journal cs1">Schwabe, Claudia (2016). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.3390%2Fh5040081">"The Fairy Tale and Its Uses in Contemporary New Media and Popular Culture Introduction"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/Humanities_(journal)" class="mw-redirect" title="Humanities (journal)">Humanities</a></i>. <b>5</b> (4): 81. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.3390%2Fh5040081">10.3390/h5040081</a></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Humanities&rft.atitle=The+Fairy+Tale+and+Its+Uses+in+Contemporary+New+Media+and+Popular+Culture+Introduction&rft.volume=5&rft.issue=4&rft.pages=81&rft.date=2016&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.3390%2Fh5040081&rft.aulast=Schwabe&rft.aufirst=Claudia&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.3390%252Fh5040081&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFolklore" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-78"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-78">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFYehWalkerLegockiEilert2023" class="citation journal cs1">Yeh, Marie; Walker, Kristen; Legocki, Kimberly; Eilert, Meike (2023). "Folklore as a frame for understanding UGC: pharma folklore from YouTube reflections on psychiatric drugs for depression". <i><a href="/wiki/Journal_of_Marketing_Management" title="Journal of Marketing Management">Journal of Marketing Management</a></i>. <b>39</b> (15–16): 1391–1416. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1080%2F0267257X.2023.2209579">10.1080/0267257X.2023.2209579</a>. <q>In our study, the folk in the folklore are people with mental disorders who shared their worldview about depression drug treatment. We suggest using folklore as a framework to help capture other groups' cultural worldviews that can inform consumer understanding.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+Marketing+Management&rft.atitle=Folklore+as+a+frame+for+understanding+UGC%3A+pharma+folklore+from+YouTube+reflections+on+psychiatric+drugs+for+depression&rft.volume=39&rft.issue=15%E2%80%9316&rft.pages=1391-1416&rft.date=2023&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1080%2F0267257X.2023.2209579&rft.aulast=Yeh&rft.aufirst=Marie&rft.au=Walker%2C+Kristen&rft.au=Legocki%2C+Kimberly&rft.au=Eilert%2C+Meike&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFolklore" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> </ol></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Bibliography">Bibliography</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Folklore&action=edit&section=22" title="Edit section: Bibliography"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239549316">.mw-parser-output .refbegin{margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul{margin-left:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{margin-left:0;padding-left:3.2em;text-indent:-3.2em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul,.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul li{list-style:none}@media(max-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{padding-left:1.6em;text-indent:-1.6em}}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns ul{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .refbegin{font-size:90%}}</style><div class="refbegin refbegin-columns references-column-width" style="column-width: 30em"> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAbrahams1972" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Roger_D._Abrahams" title="Roger D. Abrahams">Abrahams, Roger D.</a> (1972). "Personal Power and Social Restraint". In <a href="/wiki/Richard_Bauman" title="Richard Bauman">Bauman, Richard</a>; <a href="/wiki/Am%C3%A9rico_Paredes" title="Américo Paredes">Paredes, Américo</a> (eds.). <i>Toward New Perspectives in Folklore</i>. Bloomington, Indiana: Trickster Press. pp. 20–39.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Personal+Power+and+Social+Restraint&rft.btitle=Toward+New+Perspectives+in+Folklore&rft.place=Bloomington%2C+Indiana&rft.pages=20-39&rft.pub=Trickster+Press&rft.date=1972&rft.aulast=Abrahams&rft.aufirst=Roger+D.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFolklore" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBascom1954" class="citation journal cs1">Bascom, William R. (1954). "Four Functions of Folklore". <i>The Journal of American Folklore</i>. <b>67</b> (266). <a href="/wiki/American_Folklore_Society" title="American Folklore Society">American Folklore Society</a>: 333–349. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2307%2F536411">10.2307/536411</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/536411">536411</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Journal+of+American+Folklore&rft.atitle=Four+Functions+of+Folklore&rft.volume=67&rft.issue=266&rft.pages=333-349&rft.date=1954&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2307%2F536411&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F536411%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.aulast=Bascom&rft.aufirst=William+R.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFolklore" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBauman1971" class="citation journal cs1"><a href="/wiki/Richard_Bauman" title="Richard Bauman">Bauman, Richard</a> (1971). "Differential Identity and the Social Base of Folklore". <i><a href="/wiki/Journal_of_American_Folklore" title="Journal of American Folklore">Journal of American Folklore</a></i>. <b>84</b> (331): 31–41. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2307%2F539731">10.2307/539731</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/539731">539731</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+American+Folklore&rft.atitle=Differential+Identity+and+the+Social+Base+of+Folklore&rft.volume=84&rft.issue=331&rft.pages=31-41&rft.date=1971&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2307%2F539731&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F539731%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.aulast=Bauman&rft.aufirst=Richard&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFolklore" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBaumanParedes1972" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Richard_Bauman" title="Richard Bauman">Bauman, Richard</a>; <a href="/wiki/Am%C3%A9rico_Paredes" title="Américo Paredes">Paredes, Américo</a>, eds. (1972). <i>Toward New Perspectives in Folklore</i>. Bloomington, Indiana: Trickster Press.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Toward+New+Perspectives+in+Folklore&rft.place=Bloomington%2C+Indiana&rft.pub=Trickster+Press&rft.date=1972&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFolklore" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBlankHoward2013" class="citation book cs1">Blank, Trevor J.; Howard, Robert Glenn, eds. (2013). <i>Tradition in the 21st Century: Locating the Role of the Past in the Present</i>. Logan: <a href="/wiki/Utah_State_University_Press" class="mw-redirect" title="Utah State University Press">Utah State University Press</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Tradition+in+the+21st+Century%3A+Locating+the+Role+of+the+Past+in+the+Present&rft.place=Logan&rft.pub=Utah+State+University+Press&rft.date=2013&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFolklore" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBronner1986" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Simon_J._Bronner" title="Simon J. Bronner">Bronner, Simon J.</a> (1986). <i>American Folklore Studies: An Intellectual History</i>. Lawrence, Kansas: <a href="/wiki/University_Press_of_Kansas" title="University Press of Kansas">University Press of Kansas</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7006-0313-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-7006-0313-8"><bdi>978-0-7006-0313-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=American+Folklore+Studies%3A+An+Intellectual+History&rft.place=Lawrence%2C+Kansas&rft.pub=University+Press+of+Kansas&rft.date=1986&rft.isbn=978-0-7006-0313-8&rft.aulast=Bronner&rft.aufirst=Simon+J.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFolklore" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDorson1972" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Richard_Dorson" title="Richard Dorson">Dorson, Richard M.</a>, ed. (1972). <span class="id-lock-registration" title="Free registration required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/folklorefolklife00dors"><i>Folklore and Folklife: an Introduction</i></a></span>. Chicago, Illinois: <a href="/wiki/University_of_Chicago_Press" title="University of Chicago Press">University of Chicago Press</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0226158709" title="Special:BookSources/978-0226158709"><bdi>978-0226158709</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Folklore+and+Folklife%3A+an+Introduction&rft.place=Chicago%2C+Illinois&rft.pub=University+of+Chicago+Press&rft.date=1972&rft.isbn=978-0226158709&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Ffolklorefolklife00dors&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFolklore" class="Z3988"></span> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRoberts1972" class="citation book cs1">Roberts, Warren (1972). <span class="id-lock-registration" title="Free registration required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/folklorefolklife00dors/page/233">"Folk Crafts"</a></span>. In Dorson, Richard M. (ed.). <i>Folklore and Folklife: an Introduction</i>. Chicago, Illinois: <a href="/wiki/University_of_Chicago_Press" title="University of Chicago Press">University of Chicago Press</a>. pp. 233–252. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0226158709" title="Special:BookSources/978-0226158709"><bdi>978-0226158709</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Folk+Crafts&rft.btitle=Folklore+and+Folklife%3A+an+Introduction&rft.place=Chicago%2C+Illinois&rft.pages=233-252&rft.pub=University+of+Chicago+Press&rft.date=1972&rft.isbn=978-0226158709&rft.aulast=Roberts&rft.aufirst=Warren&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Ffolklorefolklife00dors%2Fpage%2F233&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFolklore" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDorson1976" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Richard_Dorson" title="Richard Dorson">Dorson, Richard M.</a> (1976). <i>Folklore and Fakelore: Essays Toward a Discipline of Folk Studies</i>. Cambridge; London: <a href="/wiki/Harvard_University_Press" title="Harvard University Press">Harvard University Press</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-674-33020-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-674-33020-7"><bdi>978-0-674-33020-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Folklore+and+Fakelore%3A+Essays+Toward+a+Discipline+of+Folk+Studies&rft.place=Cambridge%3B+London&rft.pub=Harvard+University+Press&rft.date=1976&rft.isbn=978-0-674-33020-7&rft.aulast=Dorson&rft.aufirst=Richard+M.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFolklore" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDorst2016" class="citation journal cs1">Dorst, John (2016). "Folklore's Cybernetic Imaginary, or, Unpacking the Obvious". <i><a href="/wiki/Journal_of_American_Folklore" title="Journal of American Folklore">Journal of American Folklore</a></i>. <b>129</b> (512): 127–145. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.5406%2Fjamerfolk.129.512.0127">10.5406/jamerfolk.129.512.0127</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/10.5406/jamerfolk.129.512.0127">10.5406/jamerfolk.129.512.0127</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:148523716">148523716</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+American+Folklore&rft.atitle=Folklore%27s+Cybernetic+Imaginary%2C+or%2C+Unpacking+the+Obvious&rft.volume=129&rft.issue=512&rft.pages=127-145&rft.date=2016&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A148523716%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F10.5406%2Fjamerfolk.129.512.0127%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.5406%2Fjamerfolk.129.512.0127&rft.aulast=Dorst&rft.aufirst=John&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFolklore" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDundes1965" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Alan_Dundes" title="Alan Dundes">Dundes, Alan</a> (1965). <span class="id-lock-registration" title="Free registration required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/studyoffolklore00dund"><i>The Study of Folklore</i></a></span>. Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey: <a href="/wiki/Prentice-Hall" class="mw-redirect" title="Prentice-Hall">Prentice-Hall</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-13-858944-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-13-858944-8"><bdi>978-0-13-858944-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Study+of+Folklore&rft.place=Englewood+Cliffs%2C+New+Jersey&rft.pub=Prentice-Hall&rft.date=1965&rft.isbn=978-0-13-858944-8&rft.aulast=Dundes&rft.aufirst=Alan&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fstudyoffolklore00dund&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFolklore" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDundes1969" class="citation journal cs1"><a href="/wiki/Alan_Dundes" title="Alan Dundes">Dundes, Alan</a> (1969). "The Devolutionary Premise in Folklore Theory". <i><a href="/wiki/Journal_of_the_Folklore_Institute" class="mw-redirect" title="Journal of the Folklore Institute">Journal of the Folklore Institute</a></i>. <b>6</b> (1): 5–19. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2307%2F3814118">10.2307/3814118</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/3814118">3814118</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+the+Folklore+Institute&rft.atitle=The+Devolutionary+Premise+in+Folklore+Theory&rft.volume=6&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=5-19&rft.date=1969&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2307%2F3814118&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F3814118%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.aulast=Dundes&rft.aufirst=Alan&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFolklore" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDundes1971" class="citation journal cs1"><a href="/wiki/Alan_Dundes" title="Alan Dundes">Dundes, Alan</a> (1971). "Folk Ideas as Units of Worldview". <i><a href="/wiki/Journal_of_American_Folklore" title="Journal of American Folklore">Journal of American Folklore</a></i>. <b>84</b> (331): 93–103. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2307%2F539737">10.2307/539737</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/539737">539737</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+American+Folklore&rft.atitle=Folk+Ideas+as+Units+of+Worldview&rft.volume=84&rft.issue=331&rft.pages=93-103&rft.date=1971&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2307%2F539737&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F539737%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.aulast=Dundes&rft.aufirst=Alan&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFolklore" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDundes1978" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Alan_Dundes" title="Alan Dundes">Dundes, Alan</a> (1978). <i>Essays in Folkloristics (Kirpa Dai series in folklore and anthropology)</i>. Folklore Institute.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Essays+in+Folkloristics+%28Kirpa+Dai+series+in+folklore+and+anthropology%29&rft.pub=Folklore+Institute&rft.date=1978&rft.aulast=Dundes&rft.aufirst=Alan&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFolklore" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDundes1980" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Alan_Dundes" title="Alan Dundes">Dundes, Alan</a> (1980). <i>Interpreting Folklore</i>. Bloomington and Indianapolis, Indiana: <a href="/wiki/Indiana_University_Press" title="Indiana University Press">Indiana University Press</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-253-14307-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-253-14307-5"><bdi>978-0-253-14307-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Interpreting+Folklore&rft.place=Bloomington+and+Indianapolis%2C+Indiana&rft.pub=Indiana+University+Press&rft.date=1980&rft.isbn=978-0-253-14307-5&rft.aulast=Dundes&rft.aufirst=Alan&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFolklore" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGabbert1999" class="citation journal cs1">Gabbert, Lisa (1999). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://scholarworks.iu.edu/dspace/bitstream/handle/2022/2326/30(1-2)+119-128.pdf?sequence=1">"The "Text/Context" Controversy and the Emergence of Behavioral Approaches in Folklore"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. <i>Folklore Forum</i>. <b>30</b> (112): 119–128. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20170116173656/https://scholarworks.iu.edu/dspace/bitstream/handle/2022/2326/30(1-2)+119-128.pdf?sequence=1">Archived</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span> from the original on 16 January 2017<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">12 January</span> 2017</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Folklore+Forum&rft.atitle=The+%22Text%2FContext%22+Controversy+and+the+Emergence+of+Behavioral+Approaches+in+Folklore&rft.volume=30&rft.issue=112&rft.pages=119-128&rft.date=1999&rft.aulast=Gabbert&rft.aufirst=Lisa&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fscholarworks.iu.edu%2Fdspace%2Fbitstream%2Fhandle%2F2022%2F2326%2F30%281-2%29%2B119-128.pdf%3Fsequence%3D1&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFolklore" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGeorgesJones1995" class="citation book cs1">Georges, Robert A.; Jones, Michael Owen (1995). <i>Folkloristics: an Introduction</i>. 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American Folklore Society / Indiana University Research Center in Anthropology, Folklore, and Linguistics / University of Texas Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-292-78376-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-292-78376-8"><bdi>978-0-292-78376-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Morphology+of+the+Folktale&rft.series=Bibliographal+and+Special+Series&rft.edition=Revised&rft.pub=American+Folklore+Society+%2F+Indiana+University+Research+Center+in+Anthropology%2C+Folklore%2C+and+Linguistics+%2F+University+of+Texas+Press&rft.date=1968&rft.isbn=978-0-292-78376-8&rft.aulast=Propp&rft.aufirst=Vladimir&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fmonoskop.org%2Fimages%2Ff%2Ff3%2FPropp_Vladimir_Morphology_of_the_Folktale_2nd_ed.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFolklore" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSchiffer2000" class="citation journal cs1"><a href="/wiki/Michael_Brian_Schiffer" title="Michael Brian Schiffer">Schiffer, Michael B.</a> (October 2000). 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Logan, Utah: <a href="/wiki/Utah_State_University_Press" class="mw-redirect" title="Utah State University Press">Utah State University Press</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-87421-203-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-87421-203-7"><bdi>978-0-87421-203-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Dynamics+of+Folklore&rft.place=Logan%2C+Utah&rft.pub=Utah+State+University+Press&rft.date=1996&rft.isbn=978-0-87421-203-7&rft.aulast=Toelken&rft.aufirst=Barre&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFolklore" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWilson2006" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/William_A._Wilson_(folklorist)" title="William A. Wilson (folklorist)">Wilson, William A.</a> (2006). Rudy, Jill Terry; Call, Diane (eds.). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://digitalcommons.usu.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1076&context=usupress_pubs"><i>The Marrow of Human Experience: Essays on Folklore</i></a>. Logan, Utah: <a href="/wiki/Utah_State_University_Press" class="mw-redirect" title="Utah State University Press">Utah State University Press</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-87421-653-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-87421-653-0"><bdi>978-0-87421-653-0</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/j.ctt4cgkmk">j.ctt4cgkmk</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20160313172932/http://digitalcommons.usu.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1076&context=usupress_pubs">Archived</a> from the original on 13 March 2016<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">19 December</span> 2016</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Marrow+of+Human+Experience%3A+Essays+on+Folklore&rft.place=Logan%2C+Utah&rft.pub=Utah+State+University+Press&rft.date=2006&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2Fj.ctt4cgkmk%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.isbn=978-0-87421-653-0&rft.aulast=Wilson&rft.aufirst=William+A.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fdigitalcommons.usu.edu%2Fcgi%2Fviewcontent.cgi%3Farticle%3D1076%26context%3Dusupress_pubs&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFolklore" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFZumwaltDundes1988" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Rosemary_L%C3%A9vy_Zumwalt" title="Rosemary Lévy Zumwalt">Zumwalt, Rosemary Lévy</a>; <a href="/wiki/Alan_Dundes" title="Alan Dundes">Dundes, Alan</a> (1988). <i>American Folklore Scholarship: A Dialogue of Dissent</i>. <a href="/wiki/Indiana_University_Press" title="Indiana University Press">Indiana University Press</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=American+Folklore+Scholarship%3A+A+Dialogue+of+Dissent&rft.pub=Indiana+University+Press&rft.date=1988&rft.aulast=Zumwalt&rft.aufirst=Rosemary+L%C3%A9vy&rft.au=Dundes%2C+Alan&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFolklore" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Further_reading">Further reading</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Folklore&action=edit&section=23" title="Edit section: Further reading"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239549316"><div class="refbegin refbegin-columns references-column-width" style="column-width: 30em"> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAnderson1923" class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source"><a href="/wiki/Walter_Anderson_(folklorist)" title="Walter Anderson (folklorist)">Anderson, Walter</a> (1923). Anderson, Walter; <a href="/wiki/Johannes_Bolte" title="Johannes Bolte">Bolte, Johannes</a>; <a href="/wiki/Kaarle_Krohn" title="Kaarle Krohn">Krohn, Kaarle</a>; <a href="/wiki/Knut_Liest%C3%B8l" title="Knut Liestøl">Liestøl, Knut</a> & <a href="/wiki/Carl_Wilhelm_von_Sydow" title="Carl Wilhelm von Sydow">von Sydow, Carl Wilhelm</a> (eds.). <i>Kaiser und Abt: die Geschichte eines Schwanks</i> [<i>Emperor and Abbot. The story of a farce</i>]. Folklore Fellows' Communications (in German). Vol. 42. Helsinki, Finland: <a href="/wiki/Finnish_Academy_of_Science_and_Letters" title="Finnish Academy of Science and Letters">Finnish Academy of Science and Letters</a>. <a href="/wiki/Hdl_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Hdl (identifier)">hdl</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://hdl.handle.net/10062%2F89331">10062/89331</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9789916217986" title="Special:BookSources/9789916217986"><bdi>9789916217986</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Kaiser+und+Abt%3A+die+Geschichte+eines+Schwanks&rft.place=Helsinki%2C+Finland&rft.series=Folklore+Fellows%27+Communications&rft.pub=Finnish+Academy+of+Science+and+Letters&rft.date=1923&rft_id=info%3Ahdl%2F10062%2F89331&rft.isbn=9789916217986&rft.aulast=Anderson&rft.aufirst=Walter&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFolklore" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBauman1975" class="citation journal cs1"><a href="/wiki/Richard_Bauman" title="Richard Bauman">Bauman, Richard</a> (1975). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1525%2Faa.1975.77.2.02a00030">"Verbal Art as Performance"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/American_Anthropologist" title="American Anthropologist">American Anthropologist</a></i>. New Series. <b>77</b> (2): 290–311. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1525%2Faa.1975.77.2.02a00030">10.1525/aa.1975.77.2.02a00030</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/674535">674535</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=American+Anthropologist&rft.atitle=Verbal+Art+as+Performance&rft.volume=77&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=290-311&rft.date=1975&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1525%2Faa.1975.77.2.02a00030&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F674535%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.aulast=Bauman&rft.aufirst=Richard&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.1525%252Faa.1975.77.2.02a00030&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFolklore" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBauman2008" class="citation journal cs1"><a href="/wiki/Richard_Bauman" title="Richard Bauman">Bauman, Richard</a> (2008). "The Philology of the Vernacular". <i><a href="/wiki/Journal_of_Folklore_Research" title="Journal of Folklore Research">Journal of Folklore Research</a></i>. <b>45</b> (1): 29–36. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2979%2FJFR.2008.45.1.29">10.2979/JFR.2008.45.1.29</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/40206961">40206961</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:144402948">144402948</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+Folklore+Research&rft.atitle=The+Philology+of+the+Vernacular&rft.volume=45&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=29-36&rft.date=2008&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A144402948%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F40206961%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2979%2FJFR.2008.45.1.29&rft.aulast=Bauman&rft.aufirst=Richard&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFolklore" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBen-Amos1985" class="citation journal cs1"><a href="/wiki/Dan_Ben-Amos" title="Dan Ben-Amos">Ben-Amos, Dan</a> (1985). "On the Final [s] in 'Folkloristics'<span class="cs1-kern-right"></span>". <i><a href="/wiki/Journal_of_American_Folklore" title="Journal of American Folklore">Journal of American Folklore</a></i>. <b>98</b> (389): 334–336. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2307%2F539940">10.2307/539940</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/539940">539940</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+American+Folklore&rft.atitle=On+the+Final+%5Bs%5D+in+%27Folkloristics%27&rft.volume=98&rft.issue=389&rft.pages=334-336&rft.date=1985&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2307%2F539940&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F539940%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.aulast=Ben-Amos&rft.aufirst=Dan&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFolklore" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBendix1997" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Regina_Bendix" title="Regina Bendix">Bendix, Regina</a> (1997). <i>In Search of Authenticity: The Formation of Folklore Studies</i>. Madison, Wisconsin: <a href="/wiki/University_of_Wisconsin_Press" title="University of Wisconsin Press">University of Wisconsin Press</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-299-15544-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-299-15544-5"><bdi>978-0-299-15544-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=In+Search+of+Authenticity%3A+The+Formation+of+Folklore+Studies&rft.place=Madison%2C+Wisconsin&rft.pub=University+of+Wisconsin+Press&rft.date=1997&rft.isbn=978-0-299-15544-5&rft.aulast=Bendix&rft.aufirst=Regina&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFolklore" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBendixHasan-Rokem2012" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Regina_Bendix" title="Regina Bendix">Bendix, Regina</a>; <a href="/wiki/Galit_Hasan-Rokem" title="Galit Hasan-Rokem">Hasan-Rokem, Galit</a>, eds. (2012). <i>A Companion to Folklore</i>. Malden, Massachusetts: <a href="/wiki/Wiley-Blackwell" title="Wiley-Blackwell">Wiley-Blackwell</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4051-9499-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-4051-9499-0"><bdi>978-1-4051-9499-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+Companion+to+Folklore&rft.place=Malden%2C+Massachusetts&rft.pub=Wiley-Blackwell&rft.date=2012&rft.isbn=978-1-4051-9499-0&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFolklore" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBlank2009" class="citation book cs1">Blank, Trevor J., ed. (2009). <i>Folklore and the Internet: Vernacular Expression in a Digital World</i>. Logan, Utah: <a href="/wiki/Utah_State_University_Press" class="mw-redirect" title="Utah State University Press">Utah State University Press</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-87421-750-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-87421-750-6"><bdi>978-0-87421-750-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Folklore+and+the+Internet%3A+Vernacular+Expression+in+a+Digital+World&rft.place=Logan%2C+Utah&rft.pub=Utah+State+University+Press&rft.date=2009&rft.isbn=978-0-87421-750-6&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFolklore" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFrank2009" class="citation book cs1">Frank, Russel (2009). "The Forward as Folklore: Studying E-Mailed Humor". In Blank, Trevor J. (ed.). <i>Folklore and the Internet: Vernacular Expression in a Digital World</i>. Logan, Utah: <a href="/wiki/Utah_State_University_Press" class="mw-redirect" title="Utah State University Press">Utah State University Press</a>. pp. 98–122.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=The+Forward+as+Folklore%3A+Studying+E-Mailed+Humor&rft.btitle=Folklore+and+the+Internet%3A+Vernacular+Expression+in+a+Digital+World&rft.place=Logan%2C+Utah&rft.pages=98-122&rft.pub=Utah+State+University+Press&rft.date=2009&rft.aulast=Frank&rft.aufirst=Russel&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFolklore" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBronner1998" class="citation book cs1">Bronner, Simon J. (1998). <i>Following Tradition: Folklore in the Discourse of American Culture</i>. Logan, Utah: <a href="/wiki/Utah_State_University_Press" class="mw-redirect" title="Utah State University Press">Utah State University Press</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-87421-239-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-87421-239-6"><bdi>978-0-87421-239-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Following+Tradition%3A+Folklore+in+the+Discourse+of+American+Culture&rft.place=Logan%2C+Utah&rft.pub=Utah+State+University+Press&rft.date=1998&rft.isbn=978-0-87421-239-6&rft.aulast=Bronner&rft.aufirst=Simon+J.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFolklore" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBronner2017" class="citation book cs1">Bronner, Simon J. (2017). <i>Folklore: The Basics</i>. London, England; New York: <a href="/wiki/Routledge" title="Routledge">Routledge</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-138-77495-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-138-77495-7"><bdi>978-1-138-77495-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Folklore%3A+The+Basics&rft.place=London%2C+England%3B+New+York&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=2017&rft.isbn=978-1-138-77495-7&rft.aulast=Bronner&rft.aufirst=Simon+J.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFolklore" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBronner2007" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Simon_J._Bronner" title="Simon J. Bronner">Bronner, Simon J.</a>, ed. (2007). <i>The Meaning of folklore: the Analytical Essays of Alan Dundes</i>. Logan, Utah: <a href="/wiki/Utah_State_University_Press" class="mw-redirect" title="Utah State University Press">Utah State University Press</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-87421-683-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-87421-683-7"><bdi>978-0-87421-683-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Meaning+of+folklore%3A+the+Analytical+Essays+of+Alan+Dundes&rft.place=Logan%2C+Utah&rft.pub=Utah+State+University+Press&rft.date=2007&rft.isbn=978-0-87421-683-7&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFolklore" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBrunvand1968" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Jan_Harold_Brunvand" title="Jan Harold Brunvand">Brunvand, Jan Harold</a> (1968). <span class="id-lock-registration" title="Free registration required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/studyofamericanf00brun"><i>The Study of American Folklore</i></a></span>. New York; London, England: <a href="/wiki/W._W._Norton_and_Company" class="mw-redirect" title="W. W. Norton and Company">W. W. Norton and Company</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-39309957-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-39309957-7"><bdi>978-0-39309957-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Study+of+American+Folklore&rft.place=New+York%3B+London%2C+England&rft.pub=W.+W.+Norton+and+Company&rft.date=1968&rft.isbn=978-0-39309957-7&rft.aulast=Brunvand&rft.aufirst=Jan+Harold&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fstudyofamericanf00brun&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFolklore" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBurns1977" class="citation journal cs1">Burns, Thomas A. (1977). "Folkloristics: A Conception of Theory". <i>Western Folklore</i>. <b>36</b> (2): 109–134. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2307%2F1498964">10.2307/1498964</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/1498964">1498964</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Western+Folklore&rft.atitle=Folkloristics%3A+A+Conception+of+Theory&rft.volume=36&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=109-134&rft.date=1977&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2307%2F1498964&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F1498964%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.aulast=Burns&rft.aufirst=Thomas+A.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFolklore" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDel-Rio-Roberts2010" class="citation journal cs1">Del-Rio-Roberts, Maribel (2010). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.nova.edu/ssss/QR/QR15-3/fetterman.pdf">"A Guide to Conducting Ethnographic Research: A Review of Ethnography: Step-by-Step (3rd ed.) by David M. Fetterman"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. <i>The Qualitative Report</i>. <b>15</b> (3): 737–749. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20160508231840/http://www.nova.edu/ssss/QR/QR15-3/fetterman.pdf">Archived</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span> from the original on 2016-05-08<span class="reference-accessdate">. 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"Into the Endzone for a Touchdown: A Psychoanalytic Consideration of American Football". <i>Western Folklore</i>. <b>37</b> (2): 75–88. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2307%2F1499315">10.2307/1499315</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/1499315">1499315</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Western+Folklore&rft.atitle=Into+the+Endzone+for+a+Touchdown%3A+A+Psychoanalytic+Consideration+of+American+Football&rft.volume=37&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=75-88&rft.date=1978&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2307%2F1499315&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F1499315%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.aulast=Dundes&rft.aufirst=Alan&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFolklore" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDundes1984" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Alan_Dundes" title="Alan Dundes">Dundes, Alan</a> (1984). <span class="id-lock-registration" title="Free registration required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/lifeislikechicke00dund"><i>Life Is like a Chicken Coop Ladder. 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Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2016-12-19</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Rockefeller+Foundation%2C+Culture+and+Creativity&rft.atitle=Performance+Studies&rft.date=1999-09&rft.aulast=Kirshenblatt-Gimblett&rft.aufirst=Barbara&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.nyu.edu%2Fclasses%2Fbkg%2Fissues%2Frock2.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFolklore" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMason1998" class="citation journal cs1">Mason, Bruce Lionel (October 1998). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://journal.oraltradition.org/issues/13ii/mason">"E-Texts: The Orality and Literacy Issue Revisited"</a>. <i>Oral Tradition</i>. <b>13</b> (2). Columbia, Missouri: Center for Studies in Oral Tradition. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20160811020457/http://journal.oraltradition.org/issues/13ii/mason">Archived</a> from the original on 2016-08-11<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2016-12-19</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Oral+Tradition&rft.atitle=E-Texts%3A+The+Orality+and+Literacy+Issue+Revisited&rft.volume=13&rft.issue=2&rft.date=1998-10&rft.aulast=Mason&rft.aufirst=Bruce+Lionel&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fjournal.oraltradition.org%2Fissues%2F13ii%2Fmason&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFolklore" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFNoyes2003" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Dorothy_Noyes" title="Dorothy Noyes">Noyes, Dorothy</a> (2003). "Group". In Feintuch, Burt (ed.). <i>Eight Words for the Study of Expressive Culture</i>. <a href="/wiki/University_of_Illinois_Press" title="University of Illinois Press">University of Illinois Press</a>. pp. 7–41. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-252-07109-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-252-07109-6"><bdi>978-0-252-07109-6</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/10.5406/j.ctt2ttc8f.5">10.5406/j.ctt2ttc8f.5</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Group&rft.btitle=Eight+Words+for+the+Study+of+Expressive+Culture&rft.pages=7-41&rft.pub=University+of+Illinois+Press&rft.date=2003&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F10.5406%2Fj.ctt2ttc8f.5%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.isbn=978-0-252-07109-6&rft.aulast=Noyes&rft.aufirst=Dorothy&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFolklore" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFOring1986" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Elliott_Oring" title="Elliott Oring">Oring, Elliott</a> (1986). <i>Folk Groups and Folklore Genres: An Introduction</i>. Logan, Utah: <a href="/wiki/Utah_State_University_Press" class="mw-redirect" title="Utah State University Press">Utah State University Press</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-87421-128-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-87421-128-3"><bdi>978-0-87421-128-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Folk+Groups+and+Folklore+Genres%3A+An+Introduction&rft.place=Logan%2C+Utah&rft.pub=Utah+State+University+Press&rft.date=1986&rft.isbn=978-0-87421-128-3&rft.aulast=Oring&rft.aufirst=Elliott&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFolklore" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRaskin2008" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Victor_Raskin" title="Victor Raskin">Raskin, Victor</a>, ed. (2008). <i>Primer of Humor Research: Humor Research 8</i>. Berlin, Germany; New York: <a href="/wiki/Mouton_de_Gruyter" class="mw-redirect" title="Mouton de Gruyter">Mouton de Gruyter</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Primer+of+Humor+Research%3A+Humor+Research+8&rft.place=Berlin%2C+Germany%3B+New+York&rft.pub=Mouton+de+Gruyter&rft.date=2008&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFolklore" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSchmidt-Lauber2012" class="citation book cs1">Schmidt-Lauber, Brigitta (22 March 2012). "Seeing, Hearing, Feeling, Writing". In <a href="/wiki/Regina_Bendix" title="Regina Bendix">Bendix, Regina</a>; <a href="/wiki/Galit_Hasan-Rokem" title="Galit Hasan-Rokem">Hasan-Rokem, Galit</a> (eds.). <i>A Companion to Folklore</i>. Chichester, England, UK: <a href="/wiki/John_Wiley_%26_Sons" class="mw-redirect" title="John Wiley & Sons">John Wiley & Sons</a>, Limited. pp. 559–578. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1002%2F9781118379936.ch29">10.1002/9781118379936.ch29</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-118-37993-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-118-37993-6"><bdi>978-1-118-37993-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Seeing%2C+Hearing%2C+Feeling%2C+Writing&rft.btitle=A+Companion+to+Folklore&rft.place=Chichester%2C+England%2C+UK&rft.pages=559-578&rft.pub=John+Wiley+%26+Sons%2C+Limited&rft.date=2012-03-22&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1002%2F9781118379936.ch29&rft.isbn=978-1-118-37993-6&rft.aulast=Schmidt-Lauber&rft.aufirst=Brigitta&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFolklore" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFŠmidchens1999" class="citation journal cs1">Šmidchens, Guntis (1999). "Folklorism Revisited". <i><a href="/w/index.php?title=Journal_of_American_Folklore_Research&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Journal of American Folklore Research (page does not exist)">Journal of American Folklore Research</a></i>. <b>36</b> (1): 51–70. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/3814813">3814813</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+American+Folklore+Research&rft.atitle=Folklorism+Revisited&rft.volume=36&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=51-70&rft.date=1999&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F3814813%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.aulast=%C5%A0midchens&rft.aufirst=Guntis&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFolklore" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFStahl1989" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Sandra_Stahl_Dolby" title="Sandra Stahl Dolby">Stahl, Sandra Dolby</a> (1989). <span class="id-lock-registration" title="Free registration required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/literaryfolklori00stah"><i>Literary Folkloristics and the Personal Narrative</i></a></span>. Bloomington: <a href="/wiki/Indiana_University_Press" title="Indiana University Press">Indiana University Press</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-253-33515-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-253-33515-9"><bdi>978-0-253-33515-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Literary+Folkloristics+and+the+Personal+Narrative&rft.place=Bloomington&rft.pub=Indiana+University+Press&rft.date=1989&rft.isbn=978-0-253-33515-9&rft.aulast=Stahl&rft.aufirst=Sandra+Dolby&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fliteraryfolklori00stah&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFolklore" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWolf-Knuts1999" class="citation journal cs1">Wolf-Knuts, Ulrika (1999). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.hanko.uio.no/planses/Ulrika.html">"On the history of comparison in folklore studies"</a>. <i>Folklore Fellows' Summer School</i>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20191013224013/http://www.hanko.uio.no/planses/Ulrika.html">Archived</a> from the original on 13 October 2019<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">19 December</span> 2016</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Folklore+Fellows%27+Summer+School&rft.atitle=On+the+history+of+comparison+in+folklore+studies&rft.date=1999&rft.aulast=Wolf-Knuts&rft.aufirst=Ulrika&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.hanko.uio.no%2Fplanses%2FUlrika.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFolklore" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Further_reading_2">Further reading</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Folklore&action=edit&section=24" title="Edit section: Further reading"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1235681985">.mw-parser-output .side-box{margin:4px 0;box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #aaa;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em;background-color:var(--background-color-interactive-subtle,#f8f9fa);display:flow-root}.mw-parser-output .side-box-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{padding:0.25em 0.9em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-image{padding:2px 0 2px 0.9em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-imageright{padding:2px 0.9em 2px 0;text-align:center}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .side-box-flex{display:flex;align-items:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{flex:1;min-width:0}}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .side-box{width:238px}.mw-parser-output .side-box-right{clear:right;float:right;margin-left:1em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-left{margin-right:1em}}</style><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1237033735">@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox{display:none!important}}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox img[src*="Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg"]{background-color:white}}@media 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data-file-height="1376" /></span></span></div> <div class="side-box-text plainlist">Wikimedia Commons has media related to <span style="font-weight: bold; font-style: italic;"><a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Folklore" class="extiw" title="commons:Category:Folklore">Folklore</a></span>.</div></div> </div> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.folklore.ee/Folklore/">"Folklore – Electronic Journal of Folklore"</a>. <i>Folklore.ee</i>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Folklore.ee&rft.atitle=Folklore+%E2%80%93+Electronic+Journal+of+Folklore&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.folklore.ee%2FFolklore%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFolklore" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Folklore&action=edit&section=25" title="Edit section: External links"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ef.co.id/englishfirst/kids/blog/listening-and-speaking/folklore-Indonesia-terbaik/">Folklore Indonesia</a></li></ul> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236075235">.mw-parser-output .navbox{box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #a2a9b1;width:100%;clear:both;font-size:88%;text-align:center;padding:1px;margin:1em auto 0}.mw-parser-output .navbox .navbox{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .navbox+.navbox,.mw-parser-output .navbox+.navbox-styles+.navbox{margin-top:-1px}.mw-parser-output .navbox-inner,.mw-parser-output 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.navbox-abovebelow{background-color:#e6e6ff}.mw-parser-output .navbox-even{background-color:#f7f7f7}.mw-parser-output .navbox-odd{background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td dl,.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td ol,.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td ul,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist ul{padding:0.125em 0}.mw-parser-output .navbox .navbar{display:block;font-size:100%}.mw-parser-output .navbox-title .navbar{float:left;text-align:left;margin-right:0.5em}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .navbox-image img{max-width:none!important}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .navbox{display:none!important}}</style></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Folklore_genres_and_types" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Folklore" title="Template:Folklore"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Folklore" title="Template talk:Folklore"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Folklore" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Folklore"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Folklore_genres_and_types" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Folklore</a> genres and types</div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Narrative</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Animal_tale" title="Animal tale">Animal tale</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fable" title="Fable">Fable</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fairy_tale" title="Fairy tale">Fairy tale</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_fairy_tales" title="List of fairy tales">list</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Legend" title="Legend">Legend</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tall_tales" class="mw-redirect" title="Tall tales">Tall tales</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Parable" title="Parable">Parable</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Personal_narrative" title="Personal narrative">Personal narrative</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Urban_legend" title="Urban legend">Urban legend</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Oral_tradition" title="Oral tradition">Oral tradition</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Folk_etymology" title="Folk etymology">Folk etymology</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/False_etymology" title="False etymology">False</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joke" title="Joke">Joke</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nursery_rhyme" title="Nursery rhyme">Nursery rhyme</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Proverb" title="Proverb">Proverb</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Riddle" title="Riddle">Riddle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Saying" title="Saying">Saying</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Word_game" title="Word game">Word game</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Folk_belief" title="Folk belief">Folk belief</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Birthstone" title="Birthstone">Birthstone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Folk_religion" title="Folk religion">Folk religion</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Folk_saint" title="Folk saint">Folk saint</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ghostlore" title="Ghostlore">Ghostlore</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Legend_tripping" title="Legend tripping">Legend tripping</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Luminous_gemstones" title="Luminous gemstones">Luminous gemstones</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Myth" title="Myth">Mythology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Old_wives%27_tale" title="Old wives' tale">Old wives' tale</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ritual" title="Ritual">Ritual</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Silver_bullet" title="Silver bullet">Silver bullet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Weather_lore" title="Weather lore">Weather lore</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Folk_arts" title="Folk arts">Folk arts</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Folk_art" title="Folk art">Folk art</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_world_folk-epics" title="List of world folk-epics">Folk epic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Folk_dance" title="Folk dance">Folk dance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Folk_instrument" title="Folk instrument">Folk instrument</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Folk_music" title="Folk music">Folk music</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Folk_play" title="Folk play">Folk play</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Folk_wrestling" title="Folk wrestling">Folk wrestling</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Foodways" title="Foodways">Foodways</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Society</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cunning_folk" title="Cunning folk">Cunning folk</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fakelore" class="mw-redirect" title="Fakelore">Fakelore</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Folk_devil" title="Folk devil">Folk devil</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Folk_healer" title="Folk healer">Folk healer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Folk_hero" title="Folk hero">Folk hero</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">See also</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Folklore_studies" title="Folklore studies">Folklore studies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Morphology_(folkloristics)" title="Morphology (folkloristics)">Morphology (folkloristics)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aarne%E2%80%93Thompson%E2%80%93Uther_Index" title="Aarne–Thompson–Uther Index">Aarne–Thompson–Uther Index</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Motif-Index_of_Folk-Literature" title="Motif-Index of Folk-Literature">Motif-Index of Folk-Literature</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Storytelling" title="Storytelling">Storytelling</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tradition" title="Tradition">Tradition</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Traditional_knowledge" title="Traditional knowledge">Knowledge</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Traditional_medicine" title="Traditional medicine">Medicine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Traditional_story" title="Traditional story">Story</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vernacular" title="Vernacular">Vernacular</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Narrative" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Narrative" title="Template:Narrative"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Narrative" title="Template talk:Narrative"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Narrative" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Narrative"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Narrative" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Narrative" title="Narrative">Narrative</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Character_(arts)" title="Character (arts)">Character</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Antagonist" title="Antagonist">Antagonist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Archenemy" title="Archenemy">Archenemy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Character_arc" title="Character arc">Character arc</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Character_flaw" title="Character flaw">Character flaw</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Characterization" title="Characterization">Characterization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Confidant" title="Confidant">Confidant</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deuteragonist" title="Deuteragonist">Deuteragonist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/False_protagonist" title="False protagonist">False protagonist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Focal_character" title="Focal character">Focal character</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Foil_(narrative)" title="Foil (narrative)">Foil</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gothic_double" title="Gothic double">Gothic double</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Hamartia" title="Hamartia">Hamartia</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hero" title="Hero">Hero</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Antihero" title="Antihero">Anti</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Byronic_hero" title="Byronic hero">Byronic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tragic_hero" title="Tragic hero">Tragic</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Narration" title="Narration">Narrator</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Protagonist" title="Protagonist">Protagonist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stock_character" title="Stock character">Stock character</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Straight_man" title="Straight man">Straight man</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Supporting_character" title="Supporting character">Supporting character</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Title_character" title="Title character">Title character</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tritagonist" title="Tritagonist">Tritagonist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Villain" title="Villain">Villain</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Plot_(narrative)" title="Plot (narrative)">Plot</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Ab_ovo" title="Ab ovo">Ab ovo</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Action_(narrative)" title="Action (narrative)">Action</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Backstory" title="Backstory">Backstory</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Origin_story" title="Origin story">Origin story</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chekhov%27s_gun" title="Chekhov's gun">Chekhov's gun</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Clich%C3%A9" title="Cliché">Cliché</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cliffhanger" title="Cliffhanger">Cliffhanger</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conflict_(narrative)" title="Conflict (narrative)">Conflict</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Deus_ex_machina" title="Deus ex machina">Deus ex machina</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dialogue_in_writing" title="Dialogue in writing">Dialogue</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dramatic_structure" class="mw-redirect" title="Dramatic structure">Dramatic structure</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eucatastrophe" title="Eucatastrophe">Eucatastrophe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Foreshadowing" title="Foreshadowing">Foreshadowing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Flashback_(narrative)" title="Flashback (narrative)">Flashback</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Flashforward" title="Flashforward">Flashforward</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Frame_story" title="Frame story">Frame story</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/In_medias_res" title="In medias res">In medias res</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Kish%C5%8Dtenketsu" title="Kishōtenketsu">Kishōtenketsu</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/MacGuffin" title="MacGuffin">MacGuffin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pace_(narrative)" title="Pace (narrative)">Pace</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plot_device" title="Plot device">Plot device</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plot_twist" title="Plot twist">Plot twist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Poetic_justice" title="Poetic justice">Poetic justice</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Red_herring" title="Red herring">Red herring</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reveal_(narrative)" title="Reveal (narrative)">Reveal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Self-insertion" title="Self-insertion">Self-insertion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shaggy_dog_story" title="Shaggy dog story">Shaggy dog story</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stereotype" title="Stereotype">Stereotype</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Story_arc" title="Story arc">Story arc</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Story_within_a_story" title="Story within a story">Story within a story</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Subplot" title="Subplot">Subplot</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Suspense" title="Suspense">Suspense</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trope_(literature)" title="Trope (literature)">Trope</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Setting_(narrative)" title="Setting (narrative)">Setting</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Alternate_history" title="Alternate history">Alternate history</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Backstory" title="Backstory">Backstory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crossover_(fiction)" title="Crossover (fiction)">Crossover</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dream_world_(plot_device)" title="Dream world (plot device)">Dreamworld</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dystopia" title="Dystopia">Dystopia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fictional_location" title="Fictional location">Fictional location</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Fictional_city" class="mw-redirect" title="Fictional city">city</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fictional_country" title="Fictional country">country</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fictional_universe" title="Fictional universe">universe</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Parallel_universes_in_fiction" title="Parallel universes in fiction">parallel</a></li></ul></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Utopia" title="Utopia">Utopia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Worldbuilding" title="Worldbuilding">Worldbuilding</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Theme_(narrative)" title="Theme (narrative)">Theme</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Irony" title="Irony">Irony</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Leitmotif" title="Leitmotif">Leitmotif</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Metaphor" title="Metaphor">Metaphor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Moral" title="Moral">Moral</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Moral_development" title="Moral development">Moral development</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Motif_(narrative)" title="Motif (narrative)">Motif</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Deal_with_the_Devil" title="Deal with the Devil">Deal with the Devil</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Good_and_evil" title="Good and evil">Conflict between good and evil</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Self-fulfilling_prophecy" title="Self-fulfilling prophecy">Self-fulfilling prophecy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Time_travel" title="Time travel">Time travel</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Writing_style" title="Writing style">Style</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Allegory" title="Allegory">Allegory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bathos" title="Bathos">Bathos</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Comic_relief" title="Comic relief">Comic relief</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Diction" title="Diction">Diction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Figure_of_speech" title="Figure of speech">Figure of speech</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Imagery" title="Imagery">Imagery</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mode_(literature)" title="Mode (literature)">Mode</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mood_(literature)" title="Mood (literature)">Mood</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Narration" title="Narration">Narration</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_narrative_techniques" title="List of narrative techniques">Narrative techniques</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Narrative_hook" title="Narrative hook">Hook</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Show,_don%27t_tell" title="Show, don't tell">Show, don't tell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stylistic_device" title="Stylistic device">Stylistic device</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Suspension_of_disbelief" title="Suspension of disbelief">Suspension of disbelief</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Symbolism_(arts)" class="mw-redirect" title="Symbolism (arts)">Symbolism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tone_(literature)" title="Tone (literature)">Tone</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Dramatic_structure" class="mw-redirect" title="Dramatic structure">Structure</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Act_(drama)" title="Act (drama)">Act</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Dramatic_structure" class="mw-redirect" title="Dramatic structure">Act structure</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Three-act_structure" title="Three-act structure">Three-act structure</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Freytag%27s_Pyramid" class="mw-redirect" title="Freytag's Pyramid">Freytag's Pyramid</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Exposition_(narrative)" title="Exposition (narrative)">Exposition</a>/<a href="/wiki/Protasis" title="Protasis">Protasis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Epitasis" title="Epitasis">Rising action/Epitasis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climax_(narrative)" title="Climax (narrative)">Climax</a>/<a href="/wiki/Peripeteia" title="Peripeteia">Peripeteia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Catastasis" title="Catastasis">Falling action/Catastasis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Catastrophe_(drama)" title="Catastrophe (drama)">Denouement/Catastrophe</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Narrative_structure" class="mw-redirect" title="Narrative structure">Linear narrative</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nonlinear_narrative" title="Nonlinear narrative">Nonlinear narrative</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_nonlinear_narrative_films" title="List of nonlinear narrative films">films</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_nonlinear_narrative_television_series" title="List of nonlinear narrative television series">television series</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Premise_(narrative)" title="Premise (narrative)">Premise</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Types_of_fiction_with_multiple_endings" title="Types of fiction with multiple endings">Types of fiction with multiple endings</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/List_of_narrative_forms" title="List of narrative forms">Form</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Drama" title="Drama">Drama</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Fabliau" title="Fabliau">Fabliau</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Flash_fiction" title="Flash fiction">Flash fiction</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Folklore</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Fable" title="Fable">Fable</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fairy_tale" title="Fairy tale">Fairy tale</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Legend" title="Legend">Legend</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Myth" title="Myth">Myth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tall_tale" title="Tall tale">Tall tale</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gamebook" title="Gamebook">Gamebook</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Narrative_art" title="Narrative art">Narrative art</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Narrative_poetry" title="Narrative poetry">Narrative poetry</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Epic_poetry" title="Epic poetry">Epic poetry</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Novel" title="Novel">Novel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Novella" title="Novella">Novella</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Parable" title="Parable">Parable</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Short_story" title="Short story">Short story</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vignette_(literature)" title="Vignette (literature)">Vignette</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Literary_genre" title="Literary genre">Genre</a><br />(<a href="/wiki/List_of_writing_genres" title="List of writing genres">List</a>)</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Fiction" title="Fiction">Fiction</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Action_fiction" title="Action fiction">Action fiction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Adventure_fiction" title="Adventure fiction">Adventure</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Comic_novel" title="Comic novel">Comic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crime_fiction" title="Crime fiction">Crime</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Docufiction" title="Docufiction">Docu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Epistolary_novel" title="Epistolary novel">Epistolary</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ergodic_literature" title="Ergodic literature">Ergodic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Erotic_literature" title="Erotic literature">Erotic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historical_fiction" title="Historical fiction">Historical</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Western_fiction" title="Western fiction">Western</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mystery_fiction" title="Mystery fiction">Mystery</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nautical_fiction" title="Nautical fiction">Nautical</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paranoid_fiction" title="Paranoid fiction">Paranoid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophical_fiction" title="Philosophical fiction">Philosophical</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Picaresque_novel" title="Picaresque novel">Picaresque</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Political_fiction" title="Political fiction">Political</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pop_culture_fiction" title="Pop culture fiction">Pop culture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Psychological_fiction" title="Psychological fiction">Psychological</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Inspirational_fiction" title="Inspirational fiction">Religious</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rogue_literature" title="Rogue literature">Rogue</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Romance_novel" title="Romance novel">Romance</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Chivalric_romance" title="Chivalric romance">Chivalric</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Romance_(prose_fiction)" title="Romance (prose fiction)">Prose</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Saga" title="Saga">Saga</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Satire" title="Satire">Satire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Speculative_fiction" title="Speculative fiction">Speculative fiction</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Fantasy" title="Fantasy">Fantasy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gothic_fiction" title="Gothic fiction">Gothic</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Southern_Gothic" title="Southern Gothic">Southern</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Horror_fiction" title="Horror fiction">Horror</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Magic_realism" class="mw-redirect" title="Magic realism">Magic realism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Science_fiction" title="Science fiction">Science</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hard_science_fiction" title="Hard science fiction">Hard</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Utopian_and_dystopian_fiction" title="Utopian and dystopian fiction">Utopian and dystopian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_underwater_science_fiction_works" title="List of underwater science fiction works">Underwater</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Superhero_fiction" title="Superhero fiction">Superhero</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theological_fiction" title="Theological fiction">Theological</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thriller_(genre)" title="Thriller (genre)">Thriller</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Urban_fiction" title="Urban fiction">Urban</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nonfiction" class="mw-redirect" title="Nonfiction">Nonfiction</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Autobiography" title="Autobiography">Autobiography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biography" title="Biography">Biography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Non-fiction_novel" title="Non-fiction novel">Novel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Creative_nonfiction" title="Creative nonfiction">Creative</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Narration" title="Narration">Narration</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Diegesis" title="Diegesis">Diegesis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/First-person_narrative" title="First-person narrative">First-person</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Second-person_narrative" class="mw-redirect" title="Second-person narrative">Second-person</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Third-person_narrative" class="mw-redirect" title="Third-person narrative">Third-person</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Third-person_omniscient_narrative" class="mw-redirect" title="Third-person omniscient narrative">Third-person omniscient narrative</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Narration#Subjective_or_objective" title="Narration">Subjectivity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Unreliable_narrator" title="Unreliable narrator">Unreliable narrator</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Multiperspectivity" title="Multiperspectivity">Multiple narrators</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stream_of_consciousness" title="Stream of consciousness">Stream of consciousness</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stream_of_unconsciousness" title="Stream of unconsciousness">Stream of unconsciousness</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Grammatical_tense" title="Grammatical tense">Tense</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Past_tense" title="Past tense">Past</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Present_tense" title="Present tense">Present</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Future_tense" title="Future tense">Future</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Related</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Dominant_narrative" title="Dominant narrative">Dominant narrative</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fiction_writing" title="Fiction writing">Fiction writing</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Continuity_(fiction)" title="Continuity (fiction)">Continuity</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Canon_(fiction)" title="Canon (fiction)">Canon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reboot_(fiction)" title="Reboot (fiction)">Reboot</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Retroactive_continuity" title="Retroactive continuity">Retcon</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Parallel_novel" title="Parallel novel">Parallel novel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prequel" title="Prequel">Prequel</a> / <a href="/wiki/Sequel" title="Sequel">Sequel</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Genre" title="Genre">Genre</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_genres" title="List of genres">List</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Literary_criticism" title="Literary criticism">Literary science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Literary_theory" title="Literary theory">Literary theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Narrative_identity" title="Narrative identity">Narrative identity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Narrative_paradigm" title="Narrative paradigm">Narrative paradigm</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Narrative_therapy" title="Narrative therapy">Narrative therapy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Narratology" title="Narratology">Narratology</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Metafiction" title="Metafiction">Metafiction</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Political_narrative" title="Political narrative">Political narrative</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rhetoric" title="Rhetoric">Rhetoric</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Glossary_of_rhetorical_terms" title="Glossary of rhetorical terms">Glossary</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Screenwriting" title="Screenwriting">Screenwriting</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Storytelling" title="Storytelling">Storytelling</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tellability" title="Tellability">Tellability</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Verisimilitude_(fiction)" title="Verisimilitude (fiction)">Verisimilitude</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1038841319">.mw-parser-output .tooltip-dotted{border-bottom:1px dotted;cursor:help}</style></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox authority-control" aria-label="Navbox" style="padding:3px"><table 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