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<ul id="toc-Geological_setting-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Subduction" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Subduction"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.1</span> <span>Subduction</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Subduction-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Transform_faults" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Transform_faults"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.2</span> <span>Transform faults</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Transform_faults-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Trenchs" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Trenchs"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.3</span> <span>Trenchs</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Trenchs-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Creation" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Creation"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2</span> <span>Creation</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Creation-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Volcanism" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Volcanism"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3</span> <span>Volcanism</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Volcanism-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-"Kermadec_Sanctuary"" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#"Kermadec_Sanctuary""> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> <span>"Kermadec Sanctuary"</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-"Kermadec_Sanctuary"-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>See also</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6</span> <span>References</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7</span> <span>External links</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> 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mw-parser-output" lang="en" dir="ltr"><div class="shortdescription nomobile noexcerpt noprint searchaux" style="display:none">Convergent plate boundary that stretches from the North Island of New Zealand northward</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Kermadec_and_Tonga_Plates.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2d/Kermadec_and_Tonga_Plates.jpg/220px-Kermadec_and_Tonga_Plates.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="285" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2d/Kermadec_and_Tonga_Plates.jpg/330px-Kermadec_and_Tonga_Plates.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2d/Kermadec_and_Tonga_Plates.jpg/440px-Kermadec_and_Tonga_Plates.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1275" data-file-height="1650" /></a><figcaption>Kermadec and Tonga plates</figcaption></figure> <div class="mw-kartographer-container thumb tright"><div class="thumbinner" style="width: 350px;"><a class="mw-kartographer-map notheme" style="width: 350px; height: 500px;" data-mw-kartographer="mapframe" data-style="osm-intl" data-width="350" data-height="500" data-zoom="4" data-lat="-33" data-lon="177.3" data-overlays="["_b94d77327202cca737c702e55e388aa3aa8349b8"]" href="/wiki/Special:Map/4/-33/177.3/en"><img src="https://maps.wikimedia.org/img/osm-intl,4,-33,177.3,350x500.png?lang=en&domain=en.wikipedia.org&title=Kermadec%E2%80%93Tonga_subduction_zone&revid=1259312876&groups=_b94d77327202cca737c702e55e388aa3aa8349b8" width="350" height="500" decoding="async" srcset="https://maps.wikimedia.org/img/osm-intl,4,-33,177.3,350x500@2x.png?lang=en&domain=en.wikipedia.org&title=Kermadec%E2%80%93Tonga_subduction_zone&revid=1259312876&groups=_b94d77327202cca737c702e55e388aa3aa8349b8 2x" alt="Map" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">Approximate surface projection of <a href="/wiki/Australia_plate" class="mw-redirect" title="Australia plate">Australia plate</a> and <a href="/wiki/Pacific_plate" title="Pacific plate">Pacific plate</a> subduction in the South Pacific. Key:<style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r981673959">.mw-parser-output .legend{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .legend-color{display:inline-block;min-width:1.25em;height:1.25em;line-height:1.25;margin:1px 0;text-align:center;border:1px solid black;background-color:transparent;color:black}.mw-parser-output .legend-text{}</style><div class="legend"><span class="legend-color mw-no-invert" style="background-color:#fc8886; color:black;"> </span> Shallow back arc earthquakes less than 70 km (43 mi) deep</div><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r981673959"><div class="legend"><span class="legend-color mw-no-invert" style="background-color:#faaba8; color:black;"> </span> Up to 70 km (43 mi) deep subduction <a href="/wiki/Depth_of_focus_(tectonics)" title="Depth of focus (tectonics)">shallow-focus</a> earthquakes</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r981673959"><div class="legend"><span class="legend-color mw-no-invert" style="background-color:#eebbe3; color:black;"> </span> 70–300 km (43–186 mi) deep <a href="/wiki/Depth_of_focus_(tectonics)" title="Depth of focus (tectonics)">shallow-focus</a> earthquakes</div><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r981673959"><div class="legend"><span class="legend-color mw-no-invert" style="background-color:#f9dbd8; color:black;"> </span> More than 300 km (190 mi) deep <a href="/wiki/Depth_of_focus_(tectonics)" title="Depth of focus (tectonics)">shallow-focus</a> earthquakes</div><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r981673959"><div class="legend"><span class="legend-line mw-no-invert" style="display: inline-block; vertical-align: middle; width: 1.67em; height: 0; border-style: none; border-top: 2px dotted black;border-top:blue solid 2px;"> </span> (blue) Active subduction trenches</div><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r981673959"><div class="legend"><span class="legend-color mw-no-invert" style="background-color:#a6bef0; color:black;"> </span> back arc basins</div><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r981673959"><div class="legend"><span class="legend-line mw-no-invert" style="display: inline-block; vertical-align: middle; width: 1.67em; height: 0; border-style: none; border-top: 2px dotted black;border-top:brown solid 2px;"> </span> (brown) back arc ridges</div><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r981673959"><div class="legend"><span class="legend-line mw-no-invert" style="display: inline-block; vertical-align: middle; width: 1.67em; height: 0; border-style: none; border-top: 2px dotted black;border-top:yellow solid 3px;"> </span> (yellow) Spreading centers or rifts</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r981673959"><div class="legend"><span class="legend-line mw-no-invert" style="display: inline-block; vertical-align: middle; width: 1.67em; height: 0; border-style: none; border-top: 2px dotted black;border-top:#50b169 solid 2px;"> </span> (green) Other ocean floor features</div> Active faults would be red lines and inactive black but are not shown usually as they tend to be smaller scale features that would add to map complexity. Mouse over shows feature names.</div></div></div> <p>The <b>Kermadec–Tonga subduction zone</b> is a <a href="/wiki/Convergent_plate_boundary" class="mw-redirect" title="Convergent plate boundary">convergent plate boundary</a> that stretches from the <a href="/wiki/North_Island" title="North Island">North Island</a> of <a href="/wiki/New_Zealand" title="New Zealand">New Zealand</a> northward. The formation of the Kermadec and Tonga plates started about 4–5 million years ago. Today, the eastern boundary of the Tonga plate is one of the fastest <a href="/wiki/Subduction" title="Subduction">subduction zones</a>, with a rate up to 24 cm/year (9.4 in/year).<sup id="cite_ref-:1_1-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:1-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The trench formed between the Kermadec–Tonga and Pacific plates is also home to the second deepest trench in the world, at about 10,800 m,<sup id="cite_ref-:2_2-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:2-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> as well as the longest chain of <a href="/wiki/Submarine_volcano" title="Submarine volcano">submerged volcanoes</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Geological_setting">Geological setting</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Kermadec%E2%80%93Tonga_subduction_zone&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Geological setting"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>At the northern end of the zone the vector of the Pacific plate collision with the <a href="/wiki/Australian_plate" title="Australian plate">Australian</a> changes to north–south from east–west, to the east of <a href="/wiki/Fiji" title="Fiji">Fiji</a> and south of <a href="/wiki/Samoa" title="Samoa">Samoa</a>. A number of microplates exist between the two major plates and host various back-arc structures of which the largest are the volcanic <a href="/wiki/Tonga%E2%80%93Kermadec_Ridge" title="Tonga–Kermadec Ridge">Tonga–Kermadec Ridge</a>, the actively spreading <a href="/wiki/Lau_Basin" title="Lau Basin">Lau Basin</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Havre_Trough" title="Havre Trough">Havre Trough</a>. At the southern end there is a transition to the <a href="/wiki/Transform_fault" title="Transform fault">transform faults</a> of the <a href="/wiki/South_Island" title="South Island">South Island</a> of <a href="/wiki/New_Zealand" title="New Zealand">New Zealand</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Subduction">Subduction</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Kermadec%E2%80%93Tonga_subduction_zone&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Subduction"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The Kermadec–Tonga subduction zone is a <a href="/wiki/Convergent_plate_boundary" class="mw-redirect" title="Convergent plate boundary">convergent plate boundary</a> that stretches from the southwest of the <a href="/wiki/Kermadec_plate" title="Kermadec plate">Kermadec plate</a> (northeast of <a href="/wiki/New_Zealand" title="New Zealand">New Zealand</a>) to the northwest tip of the <a href="/wiki/Tonga_plate" title="Tonga plate">Tonga plate</a>, with the <a href="/wiki/Pacific_plate" title="Pacific plate">Pacific plate</a> being subducted under both the Kermadec and Tonga plates. The Kermadec and Tonga plates are micro oceanic plates in the Pacific Ocean, bounded by the <a href="/wiki/Australian_plate" title="Australian plate">Australian</a> and Pacific plates to the west and east respectively. The Kermadec plate begins at the northeastern part of New Zealand and stretches northward to its contact with the Tonga plate where the volcanic hot spot chain of the <a href="/wiki/Louisville_Ridge" title="Louisville Ridge">Louisville Ridge</a> passed historically. The Tonga plate begins 2,500 km (1,600 mi) NNE of New Zealand and stretches northward,<sup id="cite_ref-:0_4-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> until the plate ends bounded by the <a href="/wiki/Niuafo%27ou_plate" title="Niuafo'ou plate">Niuafo'ou plate</a> to the northwest and the Pacific plate to the northeast. </p><p>The <a href="/wiki/Hikurangi_Margin" title="Hikurangi Margin">Hikurangi Margin</a> is the extension of the Kermadec–Tonga subduction zone further south down the east coast of the North Island. </p><p>The subduction process seems to be driven primarily by the excess weight of the cold/old oceanic plate entering the hot mantle of the Earth.<sup id="cite_ref-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Transform_faults">Transform faults</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Kermadec%E2%80%93Tonga_subduction_zone&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Transform faults"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The southern end of the subduction zone transitions to a right lateral-moving transform fault south of the North Island called the <a href="/wiki/Alpine_Fault" title="Alpine Fault">Alpine Fault</a>. This transition involves very active and complex faulting through the south-eastern North Island and <a href="/wiki/Marlborough_fault_system" title="Marlborough fault system">Marlborough fault system</a>. Further south the subduction process is reversed in the <a href="/wiki/Fiordland" title="Fiordland">Fiordland</a> region of the South Island </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Trenchs">Trenchs</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Kermadec%E2%80%93Tonga_subduction_zone&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Trenchs"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The eastern boundaries of the Tonga and Kermadec plates constitute the <a href="/wiki/Subduction" title="Subduction">subduction</a> zone of the Pacific plate, characterized by a trench about 2,000 km (1,200 mi) in length. The trench is continuous, but has different names for different sections: <a href="/wiki/Hikurangi_Trough" title="Hikurangi Trough">Hikurangi Trough</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Kermadec_Trench" title="Kermadec Trench">Kermadec Trench</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Tonga_Trench" title="Tonga Trench">Tonga Trench</a>. The Tonga Trench is the second deepest trench in the world at about 10,800 m, with the deepest point, Horizon Deep, being the deepest point in the Southern Hemisphere and the second deepest point in the world, after the <a href="/wiki/Challenger_Deep" title="Challenger Deep">Challenger Deep</a> in the <a href="/wiki/Mariana_Trench" title="Mariana Trench">Mariana Trench</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-:2_2-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:2-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The eastern boundary of the Kermadec plate is also the site of the Kermadec Trench, which is the fifth deepest trench in the world at about 10,000 m.<sup id="cite_ref-:2_2-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:2-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The eastern boundary of the Tonga plate is one of the fastest subduction zones with a rate of up to 24 cm/year (9.4 in/year).<sup id="cite_ref-:1_1-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:1-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Creation">Creation</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Kermadec%E2%80%93Tonga_subduction_zone&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Creation"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The Tonga and Kermadec plates originated about 4-5 million years ago.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_4-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Before their creation, the Pacific plate was subducting under the Australian plate, producing the <a href="/wiki/Lau-Colville_Ridge" class="mw-redirect" title="Lau-Colville Ridge">Lau-Colville Ridge</a> (now extinct).<sup id="cite_ref-:1_1-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:1-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> About 6 million years ago, this region underwent <a href="/wiki/Crustal_extension" class="mw-redirect" title="Crustal extension">crustal extension</a> and through a complicated series of spreading centers, ultimately leading to the separation of the Pacific and Australian plate and the creation of what are now Tonga and Kermadec plates.<sup id="cite_ref-:1_1-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:1-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Tonga and Kermadec plates separated because the northern portion of the original plate was growing much more quickly at 9.6 cm/year (3.8 in/year) than the southern portion at 3.9 cm/year (1.5 in/year), eventually generating a transform fault between them, creating the Tonga and Kermadec plates.<sup id="cite_ref-:3_6-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:3-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Just as this phenomenon created the Tonga and Kermadec plates, it was also the cause of the creation of the Niuafo’ou microplate to the northwest of the Tonga plate because the Tonga's northern portion is still growing much faster than the southern counterpart.<sup id="cite_ref-:3_6-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:3-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Volcanism">Volcanism</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Kermadec%E2%80%93Tonga_subduction_zone&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Volcanism"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>There is extensive and currently active arc volcanism including the volcanoes of <a href="/wiki/List_of_volcanoes_in_Tonga" title="List of volcanoes in Tonga">Tonga</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Kermadec_Islands" title="Kermadec Islands">Kermadec Islands</a>, the <a href="/wiki/South_Kermadec_Ridge_Seamounts" title="South Kermadec Ridge Seamounts">South Kermadec Ridge Seamounts</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Taup%C5%8D_Volcanic_Zone" title="Taupō Volcanic Zone">Taupō Volcanic Zone</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id=""Kermadec_Sanctuary""><span id=".22Kermadec_Sanctuary.22"></span>"Kermadec Sanctuary"</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Kermadec%E2%80%93Tonga_subduction_zone&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: "Kermadec Sanctuary""><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>With the largest underwater volcano chain, the region surrounding the Kermadec–Tonga subduction zone is one of the most geologically diverse areas in the world.<sup id="cite_ref-:4_7-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:4-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Kermadec Sanctuary was proposed in 2015 by the Prime Minister of New Zealand, <a href="/wiki/John_Key" title="John Key">John Key</a>, at the United Nations in New York, which would create an area off limits to aquaculture, fishing, and mining.<sup id="cite_ref-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The sanctuary would be 620,000 square kilometers, making it the world's largest and most significant fully protected areas.<sup id="cite_ref-:4_7-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:4-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The intention was to have the sanctuary in place, enacted by Parliament in November 2016.<sup id="cite_ref-:4_7-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:4-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In September 2016, the enactment of the Kermadec Sanctuary was delayed due to failed negotiations over the <a href="/wiki/M%C4%81ori_people" title="Māori people">Māori people's</a> rights.<sup id="cite_ref-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> As of June 2017, these issues have still not been resolved. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Kermadec%E2%80%93Tonga_subduction_zone&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Tonga%E2%80%93Kermadec_Ridge" title="Tonga–Kermadec Ridge">Tonga–Kermadec Ridge</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tonga_Trench" title="Tonga Trench">Tonga Trench</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kermadec_Trench" title="Kermadec Trench">Kermadec Trench</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lau_Basin" title="Lau Basin">Lau Basin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Havre_Trough" title="Havre Trough">Havre Trough</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hunga_Tonga%E2%80%93Hunga_Ha%CA%BBapai" title="Hunga Tonga–Hunga Haʻapai">Hunga Tonga–Hunga Haʻapai</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Kermadec%E2%80%93Tonga_subduction_zone&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-:1-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:1_1-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:1_1-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:1_1-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:1_1-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite id="CITEREFSmithPrice2006" class="citation journal cs1">Smith, Ian E. M.; Price, Richard C. (2006-09-01). "The Tonga–Kermadec arc and Havre–Lau back-arc system: Their role in the development of tectonic and magmatic models for the western Pacific". <i>Journal of Volcanology and Geothermal Research</i>. Silicic Volcanism and Crustal Evolution in Oceanic Arcs. <b>156</b> (3): 315–331. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2006JVGR..156..315S">2006JVGR..156..315S</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.jvolgeores.2006.03.006">10.1016/j.jvolgeores.2006.03.006</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+Volcanology+and+Geothermal+Research&rft.atitle=The+Tonga%E2%80%93Kermadec+arc+and+Havre%E2%80%93Lau+back-arc+system%3A+Their+role+in+the+development+of+tectonic+and+magmatic+models+for+the+western+Pacific&rft.volume=156&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=315-331&rft.date=2006-09-01&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1016%2Fj.jvolgeores.2006.03.006&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2006JVGR..156..315S&rft.aulast=Smith&rft.aufirst=Ian+E.+M.&rft.au=Price%2C+Richard+C.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKermadec%E2%80%93Tonga+subduction+zone" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-:2-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:2_2-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:2_2-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:2_2-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ngdc.noaa.gov/gazetteer/">"Undersea Features Gazetteer"</a>. National Geophysical Data Center<span class="reference-accessdate">. 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Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2017-06-09</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Stuff&rft.atitle=Kermadec+sanctuary+legislation+to+be+delayed+after+failed+negotiations+over+Maori+rights&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.stuff.co.nz%2Fnational%2Fpolitics%2F84249268%2Fkermadec-sanctuary-legislation-to-be-delayed-after-failed-negotiations-over-maori-rights&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKermadec%E2%80%93Tonga+subduction+zone" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Kermadec%E2%80%93Tonga_subduction_zone&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: External links"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external free" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20110717144745/http://www.ifm-geomar.de/div/projects/zealandia/english/maps.html">https://web.archive.org/web/20110717144745/http://www.ifm-geomar.de/div/projects/zealandia/english/maps.html</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external free" href="https://www.teara.govt.nz/EarthSeaAndSky/OceanStudyAndConservation/SeaFloorGeology/2/en">http://www.teara.govt.nz/EarthSeaAndSky/OceanStudyAndConservation/SeaFloorGeology/2/en</a></li></ul> <p><span class="metadata coord-missing"></span> </p>    </div><noscript><img src="https://login.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:CentralAutoLogin/start?useformat=desktop&type=1x1&usesul3=0" alt="" width="1" height="1" style="border: none; position: absolute;"></noscript> <div class="printfooter" data-nosnippet="">Retrieved from "<a dir="ltr" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Kermadec–Tonga_subduction_zone&oldid=1259312876">https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Kermadec–Tonga_subduction_zone&oldid=1259312876</a>"</div></div> <div id="catlinks" class="catlinks" data-mw="interface"><div id="mw-normal-catlinks" class="mw-normal-catlinks"><a href="/wiki/Help:Category" title="Help:Category">Categories</a>: <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Plate_tectonics" title="Category:Plate tectonics">Plate tectonics</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Subduction_zones" title="Category:Subduction zones">Subduction zones</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Geographic_areas_of_seismological_interest" title="Category:Geographic areas of seismological interest">Geographic areas of seismological interest</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Geology_of_New_Zealand" title="Category:Geology of New Zealand">Geology of New Zealand</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Seismic_faults_of_New_Zealand" title="Category:Seismic faults of New Zealand">Seismic faults of New Zealand</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Volcanism_of_New_Zealand" title="Category:Volcanism of New Zealand">Volcanism of New Zealand</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Seismic_zones_of_Oceania" title="Category:Seismic zones of Oceania">Seismic zones of Oceania</a></li></ul></div><div id="mw-hidden-catlinks" class="mw-hidden-catlinks mw-hidden-cats-hidden">Hidden categories: <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Articles_with_short_description" title="Category:Articles with short description">Articles with short description</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Short_description_matches_Wikidata" title="Category:Short description matches Wikidata">Short description matches Wikidata</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Unclassified_articles_missing_geocoordinate_data" title="Category:Unclassified articles missing geocoordinate data">Unclassified articles missing geocoordinate data</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:All_articles_needing_coordinates" title="Category:All articles needing coordinates">All articles needing coordinates</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Articles_missing_coordinates_without_coordinates_on_Wikidata" title="Category:Articles missing coordinates without coordinates on Wikidata">Articles missing coordinates without coordinates on Wikidata</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Pages_using_the_Kartographer_extension" title="Category:Pages using the Kartographer extension">Pages using the Kartographer extension</a></li></ul></div></div> </div> </main> </div> <div class="mw-footer-container"> <footer id="footer" class="mw-footer" > <ul id="footer-info"> <li id="footer-info-lastmod"> This page was last edited on 24 November 2024, at 13:45<span class="anonymous-show"> (UTC)</span>.</li> <li id="footer-info-copyright">Text is available under the <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Text_of_the_Creative_Commons_Attribution-ShareAlike_4.0_International_License" title="Wikipedia:Text of the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 International License">Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 License</a>; additional terms may apply. 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