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vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Forest_and_plantation_fires"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.2</span> <span>Forest and plantation fires</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Forest_and_plantation_fires-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Climate_change" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Climate_change"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.3</span> <span>Climate change</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Climate_change-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6</span> <span>See also</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7</span> <span>References</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8</span> <span>External links</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" > <input type="checkbox" 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class="mw-content-ltr mw-parser-output" lang="en" dir="ltr"><p class="mw-empty-elt"> </p> <figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Petani_padi.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/82/Petani_padi.jpg/300px-Petani_padi.jpg" decoding="async" width="300" height="199" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/82/Petani_padi.jpg/450px-Petani_padi.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/82/Petani_padi.jpg/600px-Petani_padi.jpg 2x" data-file-width="4928" data-file-height="3264" /></a><figcaption>Rice cultivation in <a href="/wiki/Bangli_Regency" title="Bangli Regency">Bangli Regency</a>, <a href="/wiki/Bali" title="Bali">Bali</a></figcaption></figure> <p><b>Agriculture in Indonesia</b> is one of the key sectors within the <a href="/wiki/Economy_of_Indonesia" title="Economy of Indonesia">Indonesian economy</a>. In the last 50 years, the sector's share in national <a href="/wiki/Gross_domestic_product" title="Gross domestic product">gross domestic product</a> has decreased considerably, due to the rise of <a href="/wiki/Industrialisation" title="Industrialisation">industrialisation</a> and service sector. Nevertheless, for the majority of Indonesian households, farming and plantation remains as a vital income generator. In 2013, the agricultural sector contributed 14.43% to national GDP, a slight decline from 2003's contribution which was 15.19%.<sup id="cite_ref-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In 2012, the agricultural sector provides jobs to approximately 49 million Indonesians, representing 41% of the country's total labor force.<sup id="cite_ref-IndoInvest_2-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-IndoInvest-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Currently, approximately 30% of Indonesia's land area is used for agriculture. Indonesian agriculture sector is supervised and regulated by the <a href="/wiki/Ministry_of_Agriculture_(Indonesia)" title="Ministry of Agriculture (Indonesia)">Indonesian Ministry of Agriculture</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Kementan-Sejarah_3-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Kementan-Sejarah-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The agricultural sector of Indonesia consists of: </p> <ul><li>Large plantations, either owned by state or private companies;</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Smallholding" title="Smallholding">Smallholder</a> production modes, mostly family owned and run by traditional agricultural households.</li></ul> <p>Industrial scale export commodities such as palm oil and rubber, are mainly supplied by large plantations, while the small scale farmers focus on horticultural commodities such as rice, corn, soybeans, Mango, fruits and vegetables in order to meet the food consumption of the local and regional population.<sup id="cite_ref-IndoInvest_2-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-IndoInvest-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Located in the <a href="/wiki/Tropic" class="mw-redirect" title="Tropic">tropical</a> region, Indonesia enjoys abundant rain and sunshine most of the time, which are important elements for agricultural products to thrive. The country possesses vast and abundant arable fertile soils. As one of the world's major agricultural nations, the country offers wide diversity of tropical products and important agricultural commodities; which include <a href="/wiki/Palm_oil" title="Palm oil">palm oil</a>, <a href="/wiki/Natural_rubber" title="Natural rubber">natural rubber</a>, <a href="/wiki/Cocoa_bean" title="Cocoa bean">cocoa</a>, <a href="/wiki/Coffee" title="Coffee">coffee</a>, <a href="/wiki/Tea" title="Tea">tea</a>, <a href="/wiki/Cassava" title="Cassava">cassava</a>, <a href="/wiki/Rice" title="Rice">rice</a> and tropical <a href="/wiki/Spices" class="mw-redirect" title="Spices">spices</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-IndoInvest_2-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-IndoInvest-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Oil_palm_plantation_in_Cigudeg-03.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7b/Oil_palm_plantation_in_Cigudeg-03.jpg/220px-Oil_palm_plantation_in_Cigudeg-03.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7b/Oil_palm_plantation_in_Cigudeg-03.jpg/330px-Oil_palm_plantation_in_Cigudeg-03.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7b/Oil_palm_plantation_in_Cigudeg-03.jpg/440px-Oil_palm_plantation_in_Cigudeg-03.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="768" /></a><figcaption>Vast palm oil plantation in Indonesia. Currently, Indonesia is the world's largest producer of palm oil.</figcaption></figure> <p>At present, Indonesia is also the world's largest producer of <a href="/wiki/Palm_oil" title="Palm oil">palm oil</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Cloves" class="mw-redirect" title="Cloves">cloves</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and <a href="/wiki/Cinnamon" title="Cinnamon">cinnamon</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> the 2nd largest producer of <a href="/wiki/Nutmeg" title="Nutmeg">nutmeg</a><sup id="cite_ref-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Natural_rubber" title="Natural rubber">natural rubber</a><sup id="cite_ref-faostat.fao.org_default_8-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-faostat.fao.org_default-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Cassava" title="Cassava">cassava</a><sup id="cite_ref-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Vanilla" title="Vanilla">vanilla</a><sup id="cite_ref-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and <a href="/wiki/Coconut_oil" title="Coconut oil">coconut oil</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-12" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> the 3rd largest producer of <a href="/wiki/Rice" title="Rice">rice</a><sup id="cite_ref-13" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and <a href="/wiki/Cocoa_bean" title="Cocoa bean">cocoa</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-14" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> the 4th largest producer of <a href="/wiki/Coffee" title="Coffee">coffee</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-15" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> the 5th largest <a href="/wiki/Tobacco" title="Tobacco">tobacco</a> producer.<sup id="cite_ref-16" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and the 6th largest producer of tea.<sup id="cite_ref-WATea_17-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-WATea-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="History">History</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Agriculture_in_Indonesia&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: History"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In Indonesian history, agricultural pursuits spanned for some millennia with some traces still observable in some parts of the archipelago. The <a href="/wiki/Hunter-gatherer" title="Hunter-gatherer">hunter-gatherer</a> society still exist in interior Kalimantan (Indonesian Borneo) and Papua (Indonesian New Guinea) such as the <a href="/wiki/Kombai_people" title="Kombai people">Kombai people</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-18" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> while they were a sophisticated rice-cultivating community, the remnants of Hindu-Buddhist polity can still be observed in <a href="/wiki/Bali" title="Bali">Bali</a> through their <a href="/wiki/Subak_(irrigation)" title="Subak (irrigation)">subak</a> irrigation system.<sup id="cite_ref-UNESCO-Subak_19-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-UNESCO-Subak-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Ancient_era">Ancient era</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Agriculture_in_Indonesia&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Ancient era"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:COLLECTIE_TROPENMUSEUM_Bas-reli%C3%ABf_op_de_Borobudur_TMnr_10027564.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/28/COLLECTIE_TROPENMUSEUM_Bas-reli%C3%ABf_op_de_Borobudur_TMnr_10027564.jpg/220px-COLLECTIE_TROPENMUSEUM_Bas-reli%C3%ABf_op_de_Borobudur_TMnr_10027564.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="159" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/28/COLLECTIE_TROPENMUSEUM_Bas-reli%C3%ABf_op_de_Borobudur_TMnr_10027564.jpg/330px-COLLECTIE_TROPENMUSEUM_Bas-reli%C3%ABf_op_de_Borobudur_TMnr_10027564.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/28/COLLECTIE_TROPENMUSEUM_Bas-reli%C3%ABf_op_de_Borobudur_TMnr_10027564.jpg/440px-COLLECTIE_TROPENMUSEUM_Bas-reli%C3%ABf_op_de_Borobudur_TMnr_10027564.jpg 2x" data-file-width="700" data-file-height="506" /></a><figcaption>The bas-relief in 8th century <a href="/wiki/Borobudur" title="Borobudur">Borobudur</a> depicting a farmer plowing the field pulled by a buffalo.</figcaption></figure> <p>Agriculture in Indonesia started as a means to grow and provide food. Rice, <a href="/wiki/Coconut" title="Coconut">coconut</a>, <a href="/wiki/Arenga_pinnata" title="Arenga pinnata">sugar palm</a>, <a href="/wiki/Taro" title="Taro">taro</a>, <a href="/wiki/Tuber" title="Tuber">tubers</a>, <a href="/wiki/Shallot" title="Shallot">shallots</a> and tropical fruits were among the earliest produce being cultivated in the archipelago. Evidence of wild rice cultivation on the island of Sulawesi dates back from 3000 BCE. <a href="/wiki/Rice" title="Rice">Rice</a> has been a staple food for Indonesians for a millennia<sup id="cite_ref-TAYLOR_8_20-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-TAYLOR_8-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and holds a central place in <a href="/wiki/Indonesian_culture" class="mw-redirect" title="Indonesian culture">Indonesian culture</a> and <a href="/wiki/Indonesian_cuisine" title="Indonesian cuisine">cuisine</a>. </p><p>The importance of rice in Indonesian culture is demonstrated through the reverence of <a href="/wiki/Dewi_Sri" title="Dewi Sri">Dewi Sri</a>, the rice goddess of ancient Java and Bali.<sup id="cite_ref-21" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Traditionally, the agricultural cycles linked to rice cultivation were celebrated through rituals, such as <a href="/wiki/Sundanese_people" title="Sundanese people">Sundanese</a> <i><a href="/wiki/Seren_Taun" class="mw-redirect" title="Seren Taun">Seren Taun</a></i> or the "rice harvest festival." In <a href="/wiki/Bali" title="Bali">Bali</a>, the traditional <a href="/wiki/Subak_(irrigation)" title="Subak (irrigation)">subak</a> irrigation system was created to ensure that there is adequate water supply for rice paddies. The irrigation system was managed by priests and created around "<a href="/wiki/Balinese_temple#Types_of_pura" title="Balinese temple">water temples</a>".<sup id="cite_ref-UNESCO-Subak_19-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-UNESCO-Subak-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Forshee-129_22-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Forshee-129-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Indonesian_architecture" class="mw-redirect" title="Indonesian architecture">Indonesian vernacular architecture</a> also recognizes numbers of <i>lumbung</i> or <a href="/wiki/Rice_barn" title="Rice barn">rice barns</a> styles, such as Sundanese <i>leuit</i>, Sasak style rice barn, Toraja's <i><a href="/wiki/Tongkonan" title="Tongkonan">tongkonan</a></i> shape, to Minangkabau's <i><a href="/wiki/Rangkiang" title="Rangkiang">rangkiang</a></i>.<sup id="cite_ref-23" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Rice-growing shapes the landscape, is sold at markets, and is served in most meals.<sup id="cite_ref-Forshee-129_22-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Forshee-129-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-24" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:COLLECTIE_TROPENMUSEUM_Beeld_van_Dewi_Sri_de_rijstgodin_TMnr_60016918.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d3/COLLECTIE_TROPENMUSEUM_Beeld_van_Dewi_Sri_de_rijstgodin_TMnr_60016918.jpg/170px-COLLECTIE_TROPENMUSEUM_Beeld_van_Dewi_Sri_de_rijstgodin_TMnr_60016918.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="232" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d3/COLLECTIE_TROPENMUSEUM_Beeld_van_Dewi_Sri_de_rijstgodin_TMnr_60016918.jpg/255px-COLLECTIE_TROPENMUSEUM_Beeld_van_Dewi_Sri_de_rijstgodin_TMnr_60016918.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d3/COLLECTIE_TROPENMUSEUM_Beeld_van_Dewi_Sri_de_rijstgodin_TMnr_60016918.jpg/340px-COLLECTIE_TROPENMUSEUM_Beeld_van_Dewi_Sri_de_rijstgodin_TMnr_60016918.jpg 2x" data-file-width="513" data-file-height="700" /></a><figcaption>Ancient statue of the rice goddess <a href="/wiki/Dewi_Sri" title="Dewi Sri">Dewi Sri</a>.</figcaption></figure> <p>While some panels of the bas-reliefs on <a href="/wiki/Candi_of_Indonesia" title="Candi of Indonesia">temple</a> walls, such as Borobudur and <a href="/wiki/Prambanan" title="Prambanan">Prambanan</a>, describe agricultural activities, Javanese stone inscriptions which can be traced back from the 8th century, describes the king placing a levy on rice.<sup id="cite_ref-25" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Next to rice, the bas-reliefs of Borobudur describe other indigenous agricultural products as well, like banana (<i><a href="/wiki/Musa_paradisiaca" class="mw-redirect" title="Musa paradisiaca">musa paradisiaca</a></i>), coconut (<i><a href="/wiki/Cocos_nucifera" class="mw-redirect" title="Cocos nucifera">Cocos nucifera</a></i>), sugarcane (<i><a href="/wiki/Saccharum_officinarum" title="Saccharum officinarum">Saccharum officinarum</a>'), Java apple (</i><a href="/wiki/Syzygium_samarangense" title="Syzygium samarangense">Syzygium samarangense</a><i>), jackfruit (</i><a href="/wiki/Artocarpus_heterophyllus" class="mw-redirect" title="Artocarpus heterophyllus">Artocarpus heterophyllus</a><i>), durian (</i><a href="/wiki/Durio_zibethinus" title="Durio zibethinus">Durio zibethinus</a><i>) and mangosteen (</i><a href="/wiki/Mangifera_indica" title="Mangifera indica">Mangifera indica</a><i>).<sup id="cite_ref-26" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></i> </p><p>Local kingdoms in Indonesia were among the earliest polities to participate in global <a href="/wiki/Spice_trade" title="Spice trade">spice trade</a>. The ancient maritime empires of <a href="/wiki/Srivijaya" title="Srivijaya">Srivijaya</a> (7th to 11th century) and <a href="/wiki/Majapahit" title="Majapahit">Majapahit</a> (13th to 15th century) for example, were actively involved in spice trade with China, India and the Middle East. Ports of <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Sunda" class="mw-redirect" title="Kingdom of Sunda">Sunda</a> and <a href="/wiki/Banten_Sultanate" title="Banten Sultanate">Banten</a> were important centers of <a href="/wiki/Black_pepper" title="Black pepper">pepper</a> trade back in the 14th to 17th centuries.<sup id="cite_ref-27" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Colonial_era">Colonial era</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Agriculture_in_Indonesia&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Colonial era"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Muskatnuss.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5d/Muskatnuss.jpg/170px-Muskatnuss.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="184" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5d/Muskatnuss.jpg/255px-Muskatnuss.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5d/Muskatnuss.jpg/340px-Muskatnuss.jpg 2x" data-file-width="565" data-file-height="611" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Nutmeg" title="Nutmeg">Nutmeg</a>, for a long time was endemic only in <a href="/wiki/Banda_Islands" title="Banda Islands">Banda Islands</a>.</figcaption></figure> <p>Certain endemic Indonesian spices such as <a href="/wiki/Nutmeg" title="Nutmeg">nutmeg</a> which is indigenous to the Banda Islands and <a href="/wiki/Clove" title="Clove">cloves</a> were highly sought in the West, and prompted the European <a href="/wiki/Age_of_Exploration" class="mw-redirect" title="Age of Exploration">Age of Exploration</a>. The <a href="/wiki/Portuguese_colonialism_in_Indonesia" class="mw-redirect" title="Portuguese colonialism in Indonesia">Portuguese</a> were the earliest Europeans who established their presence in the archipelago by the early 16th century. The Portuguese, through Spanish intermediaries, introduced the <a href="/wiki/Americas" title="Americas">New World's</a> products such as <a href="/wiki/Chili_pepper" title="Chili pepper">chili pepper</a>, <a href="/wiki/Maize" title="Maize">maize</a>, <a href="/wiki/Papaya" title="Papaya">papaya</a>, <a href="/wiki/Peanut" title="Peanut">peanuts</a>, potato, tomato, rubber and <a href="/wiki/Tobacco" title="Tobacco">tobacco</a> into the archipelago's soil.<sup id="cite_ref-28" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The surge of the global spice trade was what led European traders reach the <a href="/wiki/Indonesian_archipelago" title="Indonesian archipelago">Indonesian archipelago</a> who were in search for direct sources of valuable spices, at the same time, cut through middlemen in Asia (Arabs and Indian merchants) and in Europe (Italian merchants). By the early 17th century, <a href="/wiki/Dutch_East_India_Company" title="Dutch East India Company">Dutch East India Company</a> (VOC) began to establish its influence within the archipelago, by building trading offices, warehouses and forts in <a href="/wiki/Ambon,_Maluku" title="Ambon, Maluku">Amboina</a> and <a href="/wiki/Batavia,_Dutch_East_Indies" title="Batavia, Dutch East Indies">Batavia</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-29" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> By then, VOC monopolized the spice commodity trade, especially pepper and <a href="/wiki/Nutmeg" title="Nutmeg">nutmeg</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-30" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and actively pursued its shares in intra-Asian trades with India and China. VOC further established <a href="/wiki/Sugar_plantation" class="mw-redirect" title="Sugar plantation">sugar plantations</a> in Java.<sup id="cite_ref-31" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:COLLECTIE_TROPENMUSEUM_Java_koffiestruiken_onder_dadap_met_peperranken_op_een_onderneming_TMnr_10024162.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b1/COLLECTIE_TROPENMUSEUM_Java_koffiestruiken_onder_dadap_met_peperranken_op_een_onderneming_TMnr_10024162.jpg/220px-COLLECTIE_TROPENMUSEUM_Java_koffiestruiken_onder_dadap_met_peperranken_op_een_onderneming_TMnr_10024162.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="157" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b1/COLLECTIE_TROPENMUSEUM_Java_koffiestruiken_onder_dadap_met_peperranken_op_een_onderneming_TMnr_10024162.jpg/330px-COLLECTIE_TROPENMUSEUM_Java_koffiestruiken_onder_dadap_met_peperranken_op_een_onderneming_TMnr_10024162.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b1/COLLECTIE_TROPENMUSEUM_Java_koffiestruiken_onder_dadap_met_peperranken_op_een_onderneming_TMnr_10024162.jpg/440px-COLLECTIE_TROPENMUSEUM_Java_koffiestruiken_onder_dadap_met_peperranken_op_een_onderneming_TMnr_10024162.jpg 2x" data-file-width="700" data-file-height="498" /></a><figcaption>Coffee plantation in Java, in early 20th century Dutch East Indies.</figcaption></figure> <p>By the turn of the 19th century, VOC was declared bankrupt and was nationalized by the Dutch as <a href="/wiki/Dutch_East_Indies" title="Dutch East Indies">Dutch East Indies</a>. This event officially marked the Dutch colonial period in the archipelago.<sup id="cite_ref-32" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In the mid-19th century, the Dutch East Indies government implemented <i><a href="/wiki/Cultivation_System" title="Cultivation System">cultuurstelsel</a></i> which required a portion of agricultural production lands to be devoted to export crops. The cultivation system was enforced in Java and other parts of Indonesia by the Dutch colonial government between 1830 and 1870. Indonesian historians refer to it as <i>Tanam Paksa</i> ("Enforcement Planting"). The Dutch introduced numbers of <a href="/wiki/Cash_crop" title="Cash crop">cash crops</a> and commodities to create and establish an economic engine in its colony. Establishment of sugarcane, coffee, <a href="/wiki/Tea" title="Tea">tea</a>, tobacco, quinine, rubber and palm oil plantations was also expanded in the colony.<sup id="cite_ref-Silaen_33-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Silaen-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>During the Dutch East Indies era, the agriculture sector was regulated by the <i>Departement van Landbouw</i> (1905), <i>Departement van Landbouw, Nijverheid en Handel</i> (1911) and <i>Departement van Ekonomische Zaken</i> (1934).<sup id="cite_ref-Kementan-Sejarah_3-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Kementan-Sejarah-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Republic_era">Republic era</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Agriculture_in_Indonesia&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Republic era"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In 1942, <a href="/wiki/Japanese_occupation_of_the_Dutch_East_Indies" title="Japanese occupation of the Dutch East Indies">Dutch East Indies fell</a> under the control of the Japanese Empire. During the Japanese occupation, the agriculture sector was overseen by the <i>Gunseikanbu Sangyobu</i>.<sup id="cite_ref-Kementan-Sejarah_3-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Kementan-Sejarah-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> During <a href="/wiki/World_War_II" title="World War II">World War II</a> (1942—1945), the Indies experienced hardships which included agricultural scarcity and famine. Rice yields and plantation commodities were controlled by the Japanese empire's military authority. The plantation business which was a major economic sector, was relatively shut down during the Pacific War and the ensuing <a href="/wiki/Indonesian_National_Revolution" title="Indonesian National Revolution">Indonesian War of Independence</a> (1945—1949). All efforts in the agricultural sector was focused in meeting basic needs for food (rice) and clothing (cotton). The Imperial Japanese authority attempted to increase rice and cotton production in the occupied Indies by mobilizing labor. However, scarcity of these essential commodities prevailed and resulted to famine and clothing shortage.<sup id="cite_ref-34" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Perkebunan_kelapa_sawit_milik_rakyat_(1).JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f1/Perkebunan_kelapa_sawit_milik_rakyat_%281%29.JPG/220px-Perkebunan_kelapa_sawit_milik_rakyat_%281%29.JPG" decoding="async" width="220" height="149" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f1/Perkebunan_kelapa_sawit_milik_rakyat_%281%29.JPG/330px-Perkebunan_kelapa_sawit_milik_rakyat_%281%29.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f1/Perkebunan_kelapa_sawit_milik_rakyat_%281%29.JPG/440px-Perkebunan_kelapa_sawit_milik_rakyat_%281%29.JPG 2x" data-file-width="768" data-file-height="521" /></a><figcaption>Palm oil plantation in Kampar Regency, <a href="/wiki/Riau" title="Riau">Riau</a>.</figcaption></figure> <p>The Indonesian Republic <a href="/wiki/Proclamation_of_Indonesian_Independence" title="Proclamation of Indonesian Independence">declared its independence on 17 August 1945</a>. Indonesia became a member of United Nation's <a href="/wiki/Food_and_Agriculture_Organization" title="Food and Agriculture Organization">Food and Agriculture Organization</a> (FAO) in 1948. The partnership was strengthened with the opening of a FAO country office in 1978.<sup id="cite_ref-35" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The agriculture sector of the republic has been supervised and regulated by the <a href="/wiki/Ministry_of_Agriculture_(Indonesia)" title="Ministry of Agriculture (Indonesia)">Indonesian Ministry of Agriculture</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Kementan-Sejarah_3-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Kementan-Sejarah-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The <a href="/wiki/Republic_of_Indonesia" class="mw-redirect" title="Republic of Indonesia">Indonesian Republic</a> also nationalized many of its colonial economic infrastructures, institutions and businesses and inherited the agricultural system of its predecessor, the Dutch East Indies.<sup id="cite_ref-36" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In the 1960s until the 1980s, the republic made every effort to develop a post-war agricultural sector and led to the sector's significant expansion. During the <a href="/wiki/New_Order_(Indonesia)" title="New Order (Indonesia)">Suharto era</a>, the government launched the <a href="/wiki/Transmigration_program" title="Transmigration program">transmigration program</a> that relocated landless farmers from the overpopulated Java to the less populated Sumatra, Kalimantan, Sulawesi and Papua, thus expanded agricultural farms in the outer islands of the territory.<sup id="cite_ref-37" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The most significant indicator of growth is the expansion of palm oil plantations, which became the new form of transmigration program.<sup id="cite_ref-38" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Currently, Indonesia is the world's largest producer of palm oil and the leading producer of coffee, rubber and cocoa. However, Indonesia still has vast tracts of idle lands which can potentially be developed into farmlands. These cover 40 million hectares of degraded forest areas that have turned into grasslands after being abandoned by logging concessionaires. </p><p>Agricultural commodities are known for its economic resilience and are among the first to recover from the impacts of global financial meltdown. With a large number of its population still working in the agriculture segment, Indonesia has great potentials of attracting foreign investments.<sup id="cite_ref-JP-Agri_39-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-JP-Agri-39"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Production">Production</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Agriculture_in_Indonesia&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Production"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Indonesia produced in 2018: </p> <ul><li>115.2 million tons of <a href="/wiki/Palm_oil" title="Palm oil">palm oil</a> (largest producer in the world);</li> <li>83.0 million tons of <a href="/wiki/Rice" title="Rice">rice</a> (3rd largest producer in the world, behind China and India);</li> <li>30.2 million tons of <a href="/wiki/Maize" title="Maize">maize</a> (6th largest producer in the world);</li> <li>21.7 million tons of <a href="/wiki/Sugar_cane" class="mw-redirect" title="Sugar cane">sugar cane</a> (12th largest producer in the world);</li> <li>18.5 million tons of <a href="/wiki/Coconut" title="Coconut">coconut</a> (largest producer in the world);</li> <li>16.1 million tons of <a href="/wiki/Cassava" title="Cassava">cassava</a> (6th largest producer in the world);</li> <li>7.2 million tons of <a href="/wiki/Banana" title="Banana">banana</a> (5th largest producer in the world);</li> <li>3.6 million tons of <a href="/wiki/Natural_rubber" title="Natural rubber">natural rubber</a> (2nd largest producer in the world, just behind Thailand);</li> <li>3.0 million tons of <a href="/wiki/Mango" title="Mango">mango</a> (including <a href="/wiki/Mangosteen" title="Mangosteen">mangosteen</a> and <a href="/wiki/Guava" title="Guava">guava</a>) (4th largest producer in the world, only behind India, China and Thailand);</li> <li>2.5 million tons of <a href="/wiki/Chili_pepper" title="Chili pepper">chili pepper</a> (4th largest producer in the world, behind China, Mexico and Turkey);</li> <li>2.5 million tons of <a href="/wiki/Orange_(fruit)" title="Orange (fruit)">orange</a> (8th largest producer in the world);</li> <li>1.8 million tons of <a href="/wiki/Pineapple" title="Pineapple">pineapple</a> (5th largest producer in the world, only behind Costa Rica, Philippines, Brazil and Thailand);</li> <li>1.8 million tons of <a href="/wiki/Sweet_potato" title="Sweet potato">sweet potato</a> (6th largest producer in the world);</li> <li>1.5 million tons of <a href="/wiki/Onion" title="Onion">onion</a> (14th largest producer in the world);</li> <li>1.4 million tons of <a href="/wiki/Cabbage" title="Cabbage">cabbage</a>;</li> <li>1.2 million tonnes of <a href="/wiki/Potato" title="Potato">potato</a>;</li> <li>976 thousand tons of <a href="/wiki/Tomatoes" class="mw-redirect" title="Tomatoes">tomatoes</a>;</li> <li>953 thousand tons of <a href="/wiki/Soy" class="mw-redirect" title="Soy">soy</a>;</li> <li>939 thousand tons of <a href="/wiki/Beans" class="mw-redirect" title="Beans">beans</a>;</li> <li>887 thousand tons of <a href="/wiki/Papaya" title="Papaya">papaya</a> (5th largest producer in the world, only behind India, Brazil, Mexico and Dominican Republic);</li> <li>722 thousand tons of <a href="/wiki/Coffee" title="Coffee">coffee</a> (3rd largest producer in the world, behind Brazil and Vietnam);</li> <li>593 thousand tons of <a href="/wiki/Cocoa_bean" title="Cocoa bean">cocoa</a> (3rd largest producer in the world, just behind Ivory Coast and Ghana);</li> <li>410 thousand tons of <a href="/wiki/Avocado" title="Avocado">avocado</a> (4th largest producer in the world, only behind Mexico, Dominican Republic and Peru);</li></ul> <p>In addition to smaller productions of other agricultural products, such as <a href="/wiki/Leeks" class="mw-redirect" title="Leeks">leeks</a> (573 thousand tons), <a href="/wiki/Eggplant" title="Eggplant">eggplant</a> (551 thousand tons), <a href="/wiki/Cucumber" title="Cucumber">cucumber</a> (433 thousand tons), <a href="/wiki/Ginger" title="Ginger">ginger</a> (207 thousand tons), <a href="/wiki/Cashew_nuts" class="mw-redirect" title="Cashew nuts">cashew nuts</a> (136 thousand tons, 10th largest producer in the world), <a href="/wiki/Cloves" class="mw-redirect" title="Cloves">cloves</a> (123 thousand tons), <a href="/wiki/Areca_nut" title="Areca nut">areca nut</a> (128 thousand tonnes), <a href="/wiki/Bombax_ceiba" title="Bombax ceiba">kapok fruit</a> (196 thousand tons), <a href="/wiki/Tea" title="Tea">tea</a> (141 thousand tons), <a href="/wiki/Tobacco" title="Tobacco">tobacco</a> (181 thousand tons, 6th largest producer in the world) etc.<sup id="cite_ref-40" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Food_products">Food products</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Agriculture_in_Indonesia&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Food products"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The agriculture sector plays a vital role in food production and <a href="/wiki/Food_security" title="Food security">food security</a> and in supplying the needs of a huge Indonesian population.<sup id="cite_ref-41" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-41"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>41<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Seafood">Seafood</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Agriculture_in_Indonesia&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Seafood"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In 2015, the total production of seafood reached about 22.31 million metric tons, valued at around 18.10 billion US dollars. For capture of wild fish (both inland and marine), the production trend was steady in 2011–2015, while there was a steep increase in the production from <a href="/wiki/Aquaculture" title="Aquaculture">aquaculture</a> during the same period.<sup id="cite_ref-42" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-42"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>42<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Rice">Rice</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Agriculture_in_Indonesia&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Rice"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Rice_production_in_Indonesia" title="Rice production in Indonesia">Rice production in Indonesia</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Rice_terraces_in_Jatiluwih,_Tabanan_Regency,_Bali,_Indonesia.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/36/Rice_terraces_in_Jatiluwih%2C_Tabanan_Regency%2C_Bali%2C_Indonesia.jpg/220px-Rice_terraces_in_Jatiluwih%2C_Tabanan_Regency%2C_Bali%2C_Indonesia.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/36/Rice_terraces_in_Jatiluwih%2C_Tabanan_Regency%2C_Bali%2C_Indonesia.jpg/330px-Rice_terraces_in_Jatiluwih%2C_Tabanan_Regency%2C_Bali%2C_Indonesia.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/36/Rice_terraces_in_Jatiluwih%2C_Tabanan_Regency%2C_Bali%2C_Indonesia.jpg/440px-Rice_terraces_in_Jatiluwih%2C_Tabanan_Regency%2C_Bali%2C_Indonesia.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2592" data-file-height="1944" /></a><figcaption>Rice paddy terraces in <a href="/wiki/Bali" title="Bali">Bali</a>.</figcaption></figure> <p><a href="/wiki/Rice" title="Rice">Rice</a> is a staple food in the Indonesian diet,<sup id="cite_ref-TAYLOR_8_20-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-TAYLOR_8-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> as typical <a href="/wiki/Cuisine_of_Indonesia" class="mw-redirect" title="Cuisine of Indonesia">Indonesian meal</a> consists of richly flavored side dishes, meat or poultry and vegetables, surrounding a pile of <a href="/wiki/Steamed_rice" class="mw-redirect" title="Steamed rice">steamed rice</a>. Indonesia is the 3rd largest rice producer in the world after China and India. However, because of Indonesia's large population, the rice it produces is consumed internally. </p><p>As a vital necessity for Indonesian households, the government is responsible to regulate rice price and availability through <a href="/wiki/Indonesian_Bureau_of_Logistics" class="mw-redirect" title="Indonesian Bureau of Logistics">Indonesian Bureau of Logistics</a> (Bulog), which ensure its continuous supply and price stability. To ensure food security, the government fills the gap by importing from neighboring countries like Thailand, Vietnam and Cambodia.<sup id="cite_ref-43" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-43"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>43<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Horticulture">Horticulture</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Agriculture_in_Indonesia&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Horticulture"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Ubud_Bali_Indonesia_Pura-Dalem-Puri-01.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f7/Ubud_Bali_Indonesia_Pura-Dalem-Puri-01.jpg/170px-Ubud_Bali_Indonesia_Pura-Dalem-Puri-01.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="255" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f7/Ubud_Bali_Indonesia_Pura-Dalem-Puri-01.jpg/255px-Ubud_Bali_Indonesia_Pura-Dalem-Puri-01.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f7/Ubud_Bali_Indonesia_Pura-Dalem-Puri-01.jpg/340px-Ubud_Bali_Indonesia_Pura-Dalem-Puri-01.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2760" data-file-height="4140" /></a><figcaption>Fruit offering in Bali.</figcaption></figure> <p><a href="/wiki/Horticulture" title="Horticulture">Horticulture</a>, which covers <a href="/wiki/Fruit" title="Fruit">fruits</a> and <a href="/wiki/Vegetable" title="Vegetable">vegetables</a> production, holds an important role in the local Indonesian economy and in the attainment of food security. Indonesia possesses a variety of horticultural products. Its native fruits include <a href="/wiki/Durian" title="Durian">durian</a>, <a href="/wiki/Mangosteen" title="Mangosteen">mangosteen</a>, <a href="/wiki/Rambutan" title="Rambutan">rambutan</a>, <a href="/wiki/Salak" title="Salak">salak</a>, <a href="/wiki/Banana" title="Banana">banana</a>, <a href="/wiki/Jackfruit" title="Jackfruit">jackfruit</a>, <a href="/wiki/Mango" title="Mango">mango</a>, <i><a href="/wiki/Spondias_dulcis" title="Spondias dulcis">kedondong</a></i>, <i><a href="/wiki/Syzygium_samarangense" title="Syzygium samarangense">jambu air</a></i>, <i><a href="/wiki/Antidesma_bunius" title="Antidesma bunius">buni</a></i>, <i><a href="/wiki/Syzygium_cumini" title="Syzygium cumini">jamblang</a></i> and <i><a href="/wiki/Sandoricum_koetjape" title="Sandoricum koetjape">kecapi</a></i>.<sup id="cite_ref-44" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-44"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>44<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The bulk of fruits and vegetables needed by consumers are supplied by local traditional farmers. The products prices are highly dependent on seasonal availability and proximity to production centers, due to transportation and cargo infrastructure restrictions. As a result, prices of horticulture products vary greatly throughout Indonesia. Prices might be cheaper in <a href="/wiki/Bandung" title="Bandung">Bandung</a> and <a href="/wiki/Bukittinggi" title="Bukittinggi">Bukittinggi</a> as they are closer to horticulture farms but are significantly more expensive in <a href="/wiki/Pekanbaru" title="Pekanbaru">Pekanbaru</a> and <a href="/wiki/Balikpapan" title="Balikpapan">Balikpapan</a> which are located far from production centers. Recently, owing to a varied Indonesian topography, non-tropical horticultural products such as <a href="/wiki/Apple" title="Apple">apple</a>, <a href="/wiki/Strawberry" title="Strawberry">strawberry</a>, <a href="/wiki/Honeydew_(melon)" title="Honeydew (melon)">honeydew</a>, <a href="/wiki/Grape" title="Grape">grapes</a> and <a href="/wiki/Pitaya" title="Pitaya">dragon fruit</a> are grown in the cooler mountainous region of Indonesia. The mountainous region around <a href="/wiki/Malang" title="Malang">Malang</a> in East Java is the production center for apple and dragon fruit, while those around Bandung in West Java are the production centers for strawberry, honeydew and mushroom.<sup id="cite_ref-45" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-45"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>45<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Pasar_Terapung,_Siring.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b6/Pasar_Terapung%2C_Siring.jpg/220px-Pasar_Terapung%2C_Siring.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b6/Pasar_Terapung%2C_Siring.jpg/330px-Pasar_Terapung%2C_Siring.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b6/Pasar_Terapung%2C_Siring.jpg/440px-Pasar_Terapung%2C_Siring.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2560" data-file-height="1920" /></a><figcaption>Floating market in Siring, <a href="/wiki/Banjarmasin" title="Banjarmasin">Banjarmasin</a>.</figcaption></figure> <p>Despite its being home to the world's 4th largest population making it a huge market for horticultural products, the horticultural sector in Indonesia is deemed as under-performing which leads to the necessity of importing fruits and vegetables.<sup id="cite_ref-GBG-Horticulture_46-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-GBG-Horticulture-46"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>46<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Local Indonesian farmers face a difficult situation — the imported horticultural products are often cheaper and have a better quality than locally grown ones.<sup id="cite_ref-II-Horticulture_47-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-II-Horticulture-47"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>47<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Compared to neighboring countries with a well-developed horticultural sector like <a href="/wiki/Thailand" title="Thailand">Thailand</a>, Indonesia has much to improve. Currently, Indonesia imports much of its horticultural needs from Thailand (durian, carrot and chili pepper), China (<a href="/wiki/Garlic" title="Garlic">garlic</a>, orange and pear) and from the United States (soybean and apple). To protect local farmers, the Indonesian government applied protectionist policies on import settings for horticultural products, as well as restricting ports of entry.<sup id="cite_ref-48" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-48"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>48<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Bali has seen its first mushroom producer start in 2015.<sup id="cite_ref-49" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-49"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>49<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Spices_for_Indonesian_food.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2a/Spices_for_Indonesian_food.jpg/220px-Spices_for_Indonesian_food.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="146" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2a/Spices_for_Indonesian_food.jpg/330px-Spices_for_Indonesian_food.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2a/Spices_for_Indonesian_food.jpg/440px-Spices_for_Indonesian_food.jpg 2x" data-file-width="4256" data-file-height="2832" /></a><figcaption>Various <a href="/wiki/Bumbu_(seasoning)" title="Bumbu (seasoning)">Indonesian spices</a>.</figcaption></figure> <p><a href="/wiki/Spice" title="Spice">Spice</a> is an essential element in <a href="/wiki/Indonesian_cuisine" title="Indonesian cuisine">Indonesian cuisine</a>. In <a href="/wiki/Indonesian_language" title="Indonesian language">Indonesian</a>, spice is called <i>rempah</i>, while the mixture of spices is called <i><a href="/wiki/Bumbu_(seasoning)" title="Bumbu (seasoning)">bumbu</a></i>, they are chopped finely or ground into paste using traditional stone <a href="/wiki/Mortar_and_pestle" title="Mortar and pestle">mortar and pestle</a>, and spread over vegetables, meat, poultry, fish and seafood to add aroma and taste.<sup id="cite_ref-Herbs_and_Spices_50-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Herbs_and_Spices-50"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>50<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Known as the "Spice Islands", the Indonesian islands of <a href="/wiki/Maluku_Islands" title="Maluku Islands">Maluku</a> contributed to the introduction of its native spices to the world. Spices such as <i>pala</i> (<a href="/wiki/Nutmeg" title="Nutmeg">nutmeg/mace</a>), <i>cengkeh</i> (<a href="/wiki/Clove" title="Clove">clove</a>), <i>daun</i> <i>pandan</i> (<a href="/wiki/Pandanus_amaryllifolius" title="Pandanus amaryllifolius">pandan leaves</a>), <span title="Indonesian-language romanization"><i lang="id-Latn">kluwek</i></span> (<i><a href="/wiki/Pangium_edule" class="mw-redirect" title="Pangium edule">Pangium edule</a></i>) and <i>laos</i> (<a href="/wiki/Galangal" title="Galangal">galangal</a>) are native to Indonesia. However, surprisingly nutmeg, mace and cloves are seldom used in Indonesian cuisine.<sup id="cite_ref-51" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-51"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>51<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>It is likely that <i>lada hitam</i> (<a href="/wiki/Black_pepper" title="Black pepper">black pepper</a>), <i>kunyit</i> (<a href="/wiki/Turmeric" title="Turmeric">turmeric</a>), <i>sereh</i> (<a href="/wiki/Lemongrass" class="mw-redirect" title="Lemongrass">lemongrass</a>), <i>salam koja</i> (<a href="/wiki/Curry_leaf" class="mw-redirect" title="Curry leaf">curry leaf</a>), <i>bawang merah</i> (<a href="/wiki/Shallot" title="Shallot">shallot</a>), <i>kayu manis</i> (<a href="/wiki/Cinnamon" title="Cinnamon">cinnamon</a>), <i>kemiri</i> (<a href="/wiki/Candlenut" class="mw-redirect" title="Candlenut">candlenut</a>), <i>ketumbar</i> (<a href="/wiki/Coriander" title="Coriander">coriander</a>), and <i>asam jawa</i> (<a href="/wiki/Tamarind" title="Tamarind">tamarind</a>) were introduced from India or mainland Southeast Asia, while <i>jahe</i> (<a href="/wiki/Ginger" title="Ginger">ginger</a>), <i>daun bawang</i> (<a href="/wiki/Scallion" title="Scallion">scallions</a>) and <i>bawang putih</i> (<a href="/wiki/Garlic" title="Garlic">garlic</a>) were introduced from China. Those spices from mainland Asia were introduced early, in ancient times, thus they became integral ingredients in Indonesian cuisine. While the <a href="/wiki/New_World" title="New World">New World</a> spices such as <a href="/wiki/Chili_pepper" title="Chili pepper">chili pepper</a> and <a href="/wiki/Tomato" title="Tomato">tomato</a> were introduced by Portuguese and Spanish traders during the <a href="/wiki/Age_of_exploration" class="mw-redirect" title="Age of exploration">age of exploration</a> in the 16th century.<sup id="cite_ref-Herbs_and_Spices_50-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Herbs_and_Spices-50"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>50<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-52" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-52"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>52<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Commodities">Commodities</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Agriculture_in_Indonesia&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Commodities"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Palm_oil">Palm oil</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Agriculture_in_Indonesia&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Palm oil"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Palm_oil_production_in_Indonesia" title="Palm oil production in Indonesia">Palm oil production in Indonesia</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Buah_kelapa_sawit_(46).JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9a/Buah_kelapa_sawit_%2846%29.JPG/220px-Buah_kelapa_sawit_%2846%29.JPG" decoding="async" width="220" height="149" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9a/Buah_kelapa_sawit_%2846%29.JPG/330px-Buah_kelapa_sawit_%2846%29.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9a/Buah_kelapa_sawit_%2846%29.JPG/440px-Buah_kelapa_sawit_%2846%29.JPG 2x" data-file-width="768" data-file-height="521" /></a><figcaption>Palm oil bunch.</figcaption></figure> <p>Indonesia is both the world's biggest producer and consumer of the commodity, providing about half the world supply. <a href="/wiki/Oil_palm" class="mw-redirect" title="Oil palm">Oil palm</a> plantations stretch across 6 million hectares. Palm oil is the essential ingredients to produces <a href="/wiki/Cooking_oil" title="Cooking oil">cooking oil</a>, as well as other food and cosmetics products. The country also aimed to be the largest palm-based <a href="/wiki/Biofuel" title="Biofuel">biofuel</a> production center.<sup id="cite_ref-McClanahan2013_53-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-McClanahan2013-53"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>53<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-54" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-54"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>54<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Coconut">Coconut</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Agriculture_in_Indonesia&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Coconut"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Coconut_production_in_Indonesia" title="Coconut production in Indonesia">Coconut production in Indonesia</a></div> <p>Coconut plays an important role in <a href="/wiki/Indonesian_cuisine" title="Indonesian cuisine">Indonesian cuisine</a> as well as its economy. <a href="/wiki/Coconut_milk" title="Coconut milk">Coconut milk</a> is an important common ingredients in numbers of Indonesian favourites, including <i><a href="/wiki/Rendang" title="Rendang">rendang</a></i> and <i><a href="/wiki/Soto_(food)" title="Soto (food)">soto</a></i>. According to figures published in December 2009 by the <a href="/wiki/Food_and_Agriculture_Organization" title="Food and Agriculture Organization">Food and Agriculture Organization</a> of the <a href="/wiki/United_Nations" title="United Nations">United Nations</a>, it is the world's second largest producer of coconuts, producing 15,319,500 tonnes in 2009.<sup id="cite_ref-55" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-55"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>55<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Rubber">Rubber</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Agriculture_in_Indonesia&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: Rubber"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:COLLECTIE_TROPENMUSEUM_Het_aftappen_van_een_rubberboom_op_een_plantage_van_Goodyear_bij_Siantar_TMnr_20018369.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/67/COLLECTIE_TROPENMUSEUM_Het_aftappen_van_een_rubberboom_op_een_plantage_van_Goodyear_bij_Siantar_TMnr_20018369.jpg/220px-COLLECTIE_TROPENMUSEUM_Het_aftappen_van_een_rubberboom_op_een_plantage_van_Goodyear_bij_Siantar_TMnr_20018369.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="142" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/67/COLLECTIE_TROPENMUSEUM_Het_aftappen_van_een_rubberboom_op_een_plantage_van_Goodyear_bij_Siantar_TMnr_20018369.jpg/330px-COLLECTIE_TROPENMUSEUM_Het_aftappen_van_een_rubberboom_op_een_plantage_van_Goodyear_bij_Siantar_TMnr_20018369.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/67/COLLECTIE_TROPENMUSEUM_Het_aftappen_van_een_rubberboom_op_een_plantage_van_Goodyear_bij_Siantar_TMnr_20018369.jpg/440px-COLLECTIE_TROPENMUSEUM_Het_aftappen_van_een_rubberboom_op_een_plantage_van_Goodyear_bij_Siantar_TMnr_20018369.jpg 2x" data-file-width="700" data-file-height="452" /></a><figcaption>Rubber tapping near Siantar in North Sumatra in 1993.</figcaption></figure> <p>Indonesian rubber industry take its root in colonial Dutch East Indies; in the early 20th century the rubber plantation in the colony was booming, largely owed to the advent of natural rubber tire industry to supply the growing <a href="/wiki/Automotive_industry" title="Automotive industry">automotive industry</a> in the United States and Europe. </p><p>Currently, Indonesia's rubber production is the world's second-largest after Thailand.<sup id="cite_ref-faostat.fao.org_default_8-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-faostat.fao.org_default-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Natural rubber is an important export commodity that earn foreign exchange, with increasing production trend. In fact, <a href="/wiki/ASEAN" title="ASEAN">ASEAN</a> nations are among the largest natural rubber producers; the combined rubber yield of three ASEAN members — Thailand, Indonesia and Malaysia — accounts for nearly 66 percent of global total rubber production. However, compared to neighbouring countries, Indonesia's productivity level is lower (1,080 kg/ha), compared to Thailand (1,800 kg/ha), Vietnam (1,720 kg/ha) and Malaysia (1,510 kg/ha). </p><p>Majority of rubber estates in Indonesia are smallholder farmers, which retain for about 85 percent. This fact implied that the government and large private estates took a minor role in Indonesian rubber industry. Another problem is the lack of rubber processing facilities and manufacturing industry. In Indonesia, only a half of the natural rubber that is absorbed internally goes to the rubber products factories — while the rest are sold and exported as raw materials. Rubber processing facilities include <a href="/wiki/Tire" title="Tire">tire</a> manufacturing industry, followed by rubber gloves, rubber thread, footwear, retread tires, medical gloves, rubber carpets and various rubber tools.<sup id="cite_ref-56" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-56"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>56<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Coffee">Coffee</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Agriculture_in_Indonesia&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: Coffee"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Coffee_production_in_Indonesia" title="Coffee production in Indonesia">Coffee production in Indonesia</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Javanese_Kopi_Tubruk.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e8/Javanese_Kopi_Tubruk.jpg/220px-Javanese_Kopi_Tubruk.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="169" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e8/Javanese_Kopi_Tubruk.jpg/330px-Javanese_Kopi_Tubruk.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e8/Javanese_Kopi_Tubruk.jpg/440px-Javanese_Kopi_Tubruk.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1984" data-file-height="1522" /></a><figcaption>A cup of Java coffee.</figcaption></figure> <p>In 2014, Indonesia was the fourth largest producer of <a href="/wiki/Coffee" title="Coffee">coffee</a>. Coffee in Indonesia began with its <a href="/wiki/Dutch_East_Indies" title="Dutch East Indies">colonial history</a>, and has played an important part in the growth of the country. Indonesia's geographic location is considered as ideal for coffee plantations. It is located near the equator and with numerous mountainous regions across the islands which creates suitable micro-climates for the growth and production of coffee.<sup id="cite_ref-ico.org_57-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ico.org-57"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>57<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Indonesia produced an estimated 540,000 metric tons of coffee in 2014.<sup id="cite_ref-ico.org_57-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ico.org-57"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>57<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Of this total, estimated 154,800 tons was required for domestic consumption in the 2013–2014 financial year.<sup id="cite_ref-58" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-58"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>58<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Of the exports, 25% are <a href="/wiki/Coffea_arabica" title="Coffea arabica">arabica</a> beans; the balance is <a href="/wiki/Robusta_coffee" class="mw-redirect" title="Robusta coffee">robusta</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-59" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-59"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>59<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Tea">Tea</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Agriculture_in_Indonesia&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: Tea"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Indonesia is the world's sixth largest <a href="/wiki/Tea" title="Tea">tea</a> producer. Tea production in Indonesia began in the 18th century, introduced by the Dutch as cash crop. Indonesia produced 150,100 tonnes of tea in 2013. However, 65% of that was exported from the country, which suggests Indonesians relatively low tea consumption. Large parts of tea produced in Indonesian mainly is <a href="/wiki/Black_tea" title="Black tea">black tea</a>, although small amounts of <a href="/wiki/Green_tea" title="Green tea">green tea</a> are also produced. Moreover, most of Indonesian tea varieties do not enjoy global recognition, thus much of them are merely used in blends — mixed with other teas.<sup id="cite_ref-WATea_17-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-WATea-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Tobacco">Tobacco</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Agriculture_in_Indonesia&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: Tobacco"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Tobacco_products_in_Indonesia" title="Tobacco products in Indonesia">Tobacco products in Indonesia</a> and <a href="/wiki/Smoking_in_Indonesia" title="Smoking in Indonesia">Smoking in Indonesia</a></div> <p>Indonesia is the fifth largest <a href="/wiki/Tobacco" title="Tobacco">tobacco</a> producer in the world, and also the fifth largest tobacco market in the world, and in 2008 over 165 billion cigarettes were sold in the country.<sup id="cite_ref-TFC_60-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-TFC-60"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>60<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Environmental_issues">Environmental issues</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Agriculture_in_Indonesia&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: Environmental issues"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>As agricultural pursuits altered the natural landscapes; from <a href="/wiki/Rainforest" title="Rainforest">rainforest</a>, peat lands and swamps into arable lands, certainly it poses natural and environmental consequences. Environmental problems such as deforestation and forest and plantation fires, caused by forestry and agricultural sectors in Indonesia, continues to be a persisting problem that need to be addressed and solved.<sup id="cite_ref-61" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-61"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>61<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Deforestation">Deforestation</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Agriculture_in_Indonesia&action=edit&section=18" title="Edit section: Deforestation"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Deforestation_in_Indonesia" title="Deforestation in Indonesia">Deforestation in Indonesia</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Riau_deforestation_2006.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/Riau_deforestation_2006.jpg/220px-Riau_deforestation_2006.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="144" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/Riau_deforestation_2006.jpg/330px-Riau_deforestation_2006.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/Riau_deforestation_2006.jpg/440px-Riau_deforestation_2006.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3406" data-file-height="2232" /></a><figcaption>Deforestation in <a href="/wiki/Riau" title="Riau">Riau</a> (2006).</figcaption></figure> <p>The <a href="/wiki/Deforestation" title="Deforestation">deforestation</a> in Indonesia is caused by <a href="/wiki/Logging_industry" class="mw-redirect" title="Logging industry">logging industry</a>, either legal or illegal, and in turn also contributed by the conversion of natural rainforest into agricultural lands, especially palm oil plantation.<sup id="cite_ref-62" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-62"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>62<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The large-scale expansion of palm oil plantations has been accused as the culprit behind the clearance of Indonesian rainforests, which destroyed critical habitat for endangered species like rhinos, elephants, tigers and orangutans. Much of this endemic species have been pushed to the verge of extinction. This practice has raised international scrutiny on palm oil industry in Indonesia, especially from <a href="/wiki/World_Wide_Fund_for_Nature" title="World Wide Fund for Nature">World Wide Fund for Nature</a>, and raised the demand on sustainable palm oil production and certification.<sup id="cite_ref-63" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-63"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>63<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Forest_and_plantation_fires">Forest and plantation fires</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Agriculture_in_Indonesia&action=edit&section=19" title="Edit section: Forest and plantation fires"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Southeast_Asian_haze" title="Southeast Asian haze">Southeast Asian haze</a>, <a href="/wiki/1997_Southeast_Asian_haze" title="1997 Southeast Asian haze">1997 Southeast Asian haze</a>, and <a href="/wiki/2015_Southeast_Asian_haze" title="2015 Southeast Asian haze">2015 Southeast Asian haze</a></div> <p>Indonesian <a href="/wiki/Palm_oil" title="Palm oil">palm oil</a> plantations' poor practice and poor environmental responsibility, has led to massive haze problem annually. Since 1997 Indonesia has been struggling to contain forest fires, especially on the islands of <a href="/wiki/Sumatra" title="Sumatra">Sumatra</a> and <a href="/wiki/Kalimantan" title="Kalimantan">Kalimantan</a>. Haze occurs annually during the <a href="/wiki/Dry_season" title="Dry season">dry season</a> and is largely caused by illegal agricultural fires due to <a href="/wiki/Slash-and-burn" title="Slash-and-burn">slash-and-burn</a> practices in Indonesia, especially in the provinces of <a href="/wiki/South_Sumatra" title="South Sumatra">South Sumatra</a> and <a href="/wiki/Riau" title="Riau">Riau</a> on Indonesia's <a href="/wiki/Sumatra" title="Sumatra">Sumatra</a> island, and <a href="/wiki/Kalimantan" title="Kalimantan">Kalimantan</a> on Indonesian <a href="/wiki/Borneo" title="Borneo">Borneo</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-SOB_64-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-SOB-64"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>64<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-65" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-65"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>65<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-66" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-66"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>66<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The haze that occurred in <a href="/wiki/1997_Southeast_Asian_haze" title="1997 Southeast Asian haze">1997</a> was one of the most severe; dense hazes occurred again in <a href="/wiki/2005_Malaysian_haze" title="2005 Malaysian haze">2005</a>, <a href="/wiki/2006_Southeast_Asian_haze" title="2006 Southeast Asian haze">2006</a>, <a href="/wiki/2009_Southeast_Asian_haze" title="2009 Southeast Asian haze">2009</a>, <a href="/wiki/2013_Southeast_Asian_haze" title="2013 Southeast Asian haze">2013</a>, and the worst was in <a href="/wiki/2015_Southeast_Asian_haze" title="2015 Southeast Asian haze">2015</a>, killing dozens of Indonesians as a result of respiratory illnesses and road accidents due to poor visibility.<sup id="cite_ref-67" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-67"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>67<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-68" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-68"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>68<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-69" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-69"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>69<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-70" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-70"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>70<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-71" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-71"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>71<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Climate_change">Climate change</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Agriculture_in_Indonesia&action=edit&section=20" title="Edit section: Climate change"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="excerpt-block"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1066933788">.mw-parser-output .excerpt-hat .mw-editsection-like{font-style:normal}</style><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable dablink excerpt-hat selfref">This section is an excerpt from <a href="/wiki/Climate_change_in_Indonesia#Agriculture" title="Climate change in Indonesia">Climate change in Indonesia § Agriculture</a>.<span class="mw-editsection-like plainlinks"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a class="external text" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Climate_change_in_Indonesia&action=edit">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div><div class="excerpt"> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Perkebunan_Kopi_Jangkat_Merangin.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fc/Perkebunan_Kopi_Jangkat_Merangin.jpg/220px-Perkebunan_Kopi_Jangkat_Merangin.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="147" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fc/Perkebunan_Kopi_Jangkat_Merangin.jpg/330px-Perkebunan_Kopi_Jangkat_Merangin.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fc/Perkebunan_Kopi_Jangkat_Merangin.jpg/440px-Perkebunan_Kopi_Jangkat_Merangin.jpg 2x" data-file-width="4272" data-file-height="2848" /></a><figcaption>A <a href="/wiki/Coffee_production_in_Indonesia" title="Coffee production in Indonesia">coffee plantation</a> in <a href="/wiki/Bukit_Barisan" class="mw-redirect" title="Bukit Barisan">Bukit Barisan</a>.</figcaption></figure> <p>The agricultural sector builds the base of income for the lives of millions of Indonesians. The country's top export products are <a href="/wiki/Palm_oil" title="Palm oil">palm oil</a>, <a href="/wiki/Cocoa_bean" title="Cocoa bean">cocoa</a>, <a href="/wiki/Coffee_bean" title="Coffee bean">coffee</a>, rice, spices, tea, coconuts, fruit and <a href="/wiki/Tobacco" title="Tobacco">tobacco</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-72" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-72"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>72<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Temperatures, potentially rising by up to 1.5 °C by the year 2050 in a high-emission scenario,<sup id="cite_ref-Climate_change_in_Indonesia_:85_73-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Climate_change_in_Indonesia_:85-73"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>73<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> have a direct influence on <a href="/wiki/Agricultural_productivity" title="Agricultural productivity">agricultural productivity</a> and thereby local food security. Higher heat stress combined with long-lasting and intensifying droughts induces reduced yields and comes with a higher <a href="/wiki/Incidence_(epidemiology)" title="Incidence (epidemiology)">incidence</a> of pests and <a href="/wiki/Plant_diseases" class="mw-redirect" title="Plant diseases">plant diseases</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Climate_change_in_Indonesia_:85_73-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Climate_change_in_Indonesia_:85-73"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>73<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Depending on the region, future climate projections show a complex variability of rainfall. The increasingly severe extreme events like floods and locally higher average <a href="/wiki/Precipitation" title="Precipitation">precipitation</a> will lead to a surplus of water, while generally higher temperatures along with intense <a href="/wiki/Drought" title="Drought">droughts</a> will make for large deficiencies. These disparities will directly impact <a href="/wiki/Agricultural_productivity" title="Agricultural productivity">agricultural productivity</a> as well as the quantity and quality of goods that can be harvested.<sup id="cite_ref-Climate_change_in_Indonesia_:85_73-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Climate_change_in_Indonesia_:85-73"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>73<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Connected to missing or excessive rainfall patterns, <a href="/wiki/Soil_degradation" class="mw-redirect" title="Soil degradation">soil degradation</a> significantly reduces the fertility of land and therefore agricultural productivity causing economic losses.<sup id="cite_ref-74" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-74"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>74<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In order to provide harvest efficiently, it becomes increasingly important to develop efficient water strategies for the <a href="/wiki/Irrigation" title="Irrigation">irrigation</a> of crops. Currently, more than half of the total irrigated agricultural area is estimated to have insufficiently maintained water infrastructure systems. Given that agricultural water demand is estimated to be rising to 52.1%, these inadequate water management conditions pose an issue and a threat to both the amount of water that can be supplied and its quality.<sup id="cite_ref-Climate_change_in_Indonesia_:85_73-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Climate_change_in_Indonesia_:85-73"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>73<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> For areas that depend heavily on <a href="/wiki/Irrigation" title="Irrigation">irrigation</a> systems, this is highly problematic. </p> In 2024, Indonesian President <a href="/wiki/Joko_Widodo" title="Joko Widodo">Joko Widodo</a> unveiled a plan to swiftly deploy 20,000 <a href="/wiki/Pump" title="Pump">water pumps</a> nationwide to shield crops from <a href="/wiki/Extreme_weather" title="Extreme weather">extreme weather</a> and bolster <a href="/wiki/Food_security" title="Food security">food security</a>. The focus will be on regions that produce <a href="/wiki/Rice" title="Rice">rice</a>, a staple food for over 270 million Indonesians.<sup id="cite_ref-75" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-75"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>75<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Agriculture_in_Indonesia&action=edit&section=21" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Rice_production_in_Indonesia" title="Rice production in Indonesia">Rice production in Indonesia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Palm_oil_production_in_Indonesia" title="Palm oil production in Indonesia">Palm oil production in Indonesia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Coconut_production_in_Indonesia" title="Coconut production in Indonesia">Coconut production in Indonesia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Coffee_production_in_Indonesia" title="Coffee production in Indonesia">Coffee production in Indonesia</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Agriculture_in_Indonesia&action=edit&section=22" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist reflist-columns references-column-width" style="column-width: 30em;"> <ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-1">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free 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title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=World+Atlas&rft.atitle=Top+10+Cocoa+Producing+Countries&rft.date=2022-05-03&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.worldatlas.com%2Farticles%2Ftop-10-cocoa-producing-countries.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAgriculture+in+Indonesia" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-15"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-15">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://world-meters.com/articles/countries/top-coffee-producing-countries/">"The Top 10 Coffee Producing Countries"</a>. <i>World Meters</i>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=World+Meters&rft.atitle=The+Top+10+Coffee+Producing+Countries&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fworld-meters.com%2Farticles%2Fcountries%2Ftop-coffee-producing-countries%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAgriculture+in+Indonesia" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-16"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-16">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.statista.com/statistics/261173/leading-countries-in-tobacco-production/">"Leading 10 tobacco producing countries worldwide in 2013 (in 1,000 metric tons)"</a>. <i>Statista</i>.</cite><span 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New Haven and London: Yale University Press. pp. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/indonesia00jean/page/8">8–9</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-300-10518-5" title="Special:BookSources/0-300-10518-5"><bdi>0-300-10518-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Indonesia%3A+Peoples+and+Histories&rft.place=New+Haven+and+London&rft.pages=8-9&rft.pub=Yale+University+Press&rft.date=2003&rft.isbn=0-300-10518-5&rft.aulast=Taylor&rft.aufirst=Jean+Gelman&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Findonesia00jean&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAgriculture+in+Indonesia" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-21"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-21">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSuwardi2013" class="citation journal cs1">Suwardi (6 January 2013). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://jurnal.ugm.ac.id/ijg/article/view/4872">"Land Management, the Myth of Dewi Sri, and the Balance of Javanese Cosmology, an Anthropogeographic Overview"</a>. <i>UGM</i>. <b>45</b> (2): 158–170.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=UGM&rft.atitle=Land+Management%2C+the+Myth+of+Dewi+Sri%2C+and+the+Balance+of+Javanese+Cosmology%2C+an+Anthropogeographic+Overview&rft.volume=45&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=158-170&rft.date=2013-01-06&rft.au=Suwardi&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fjurnal.ugm.ac.id%2Fijg%2Farticle%2Fview%2F4872&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAgriculture+in+Indonesia" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Forshee-129-22"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Forshee-129_22-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Forshee-129_22-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFForshee2006" class="citation book cs1">Forshee, Jill (2006). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=y0xVkgXZOfUC&q=rice+Bali+irrigation+system+indonesia&pg=PA129"><i>Culture and Customs of Indonesia, Culture and customs of Asia</i></a>. Greenwood Publishing Group. p. 129. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-313-33339-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-313-33339-2"><bdi>978-0-313-33339-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Culture+and+Customs+of+Indonesia%2C+Culture+and+customs+of+Asia&rft.pages=129&rft.pub=Greenwood+Publishing+Group&rft.date=2006&rft.isbn=978-0-313-33339-2&rft.aulast=Forshee&rft.aufirst=Jill&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Dy0xVkgXZOfUC%26q%3Drice%2BBali%2Birrigation%2Bsystem%2Bindonesia%26pg%3DPA129&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAgriculture+in+Indonesia" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-23"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-23">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.museenkoeln.de/rautenstrauch-joest-museum/default.aspx?s=2044">"The Museum's iconic hallmark – a Rice Barn from Indonesia"</a>. <i>Rautenstrauch-Joest Museum</i>. 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Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://iplbi.or.id/2014/04/ekologi-dan-lansekap-desa-di-indonesia/">the original</a> on July 3, 2014<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">January 14,</span> 2016</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=IPLBI&rft.atitle=Ekologi+Manusia+dan+Lansekap+Desa+Di+Indonesia&rft.date=2014-04-02&rft.au=Ary+Sulistyo&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fiplbi.or.id%2F2014%2F04%2Fekologi-dan-lansekap-desa-di-indonesia%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAgriculture+in+Indonesia" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-27"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-27">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFNovani_Nugrahani2015" class="citation news cs1">Novani Nugrahani (October 15, 2015). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20151210221215/http://m.thejakartapost.com/news/2015/10/15/museum-week-highlight-spice-trail.html">"Museum Week to highlight spice trail"</a>. <i>The Jakarta Post</i>. Jakarta. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://m.thejakartapost.com/news/2015/10/15/museum-week-highlight-spice-trail.html">the original</a> on December 10, 2015<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">December 8,</span> 2015</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Jakarta+Post&rft.atitle=Museum+Week+to+highlight+spice+trail&rft.date=2015-10-15&rft.au=Novani+Nugrahani&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fm.thejakartapost.com%2Fnews%2F2015%2F10%2F15%2Fmuseum-week-highlight-spice-trail.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAgriculture+in+Indonesia" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-28"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-28">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFForshee2006" class="citation book cs1">Forshee, Jill (2006). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=y0xVkgXZOfUC&q=portuguese+chili+maize+peanuts+indonesia&pg=PA128"><i>Culture and Customs of Indonesia, Culture and customs of Asia</i></a>. Greenwood Publishing Group. p. 128. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-313-33339-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-313-33339-2"><bdi>978-0-313-33339-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Culture+and+Customs+of+Indonesia%2C+Culture+and+customs+of+Asia&rft.pages=128&rft.pub=Greenwood+Publishing+Group&rft.date=2006&rft.isbn=978-0-313-33339-2&rft.aulast=Forshee&rft.aufirst=Jill&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Dy0xVkgXZOfUC%26q%3Dportuguese%2Bchili%2Bmaize%2Bpeanuts%2Bindonesia%26pg%3DPA128&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAgriculture+in+Indonesia" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-29"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-29">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20160305020020/https://www.rijksmuseum.nl/en/explore-the-collection/timeline-dutch-history/1602-trade-with-the-east-voc">"602 Trade with the East: VOC"</a>. <i>Rijkmuseum</i>. 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Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2016-01-14</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Rijkmuseum&rft.atitle=602+Trade+with+the+East%3A+VOC&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.rijksmuseum.nl%2Fen%2Fexplore-the-collection%2Ftimeline-dutch-history%2F1602-trade-with-the-east-voc&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAgriculture+in+Indonesia" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-30"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-30">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMiss_Cellania2012" class="citation web cs1">Miss Cellania (August 6, 2012). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.neatorama.com/2012/08/06/The-Nutmeg-Wars/">"The Nutmeg Wars"</a>. <i>Neatorama</i>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Neatorama&rft.atitle=The+Nutmeg+Wars&rft.date=2012-08-06&rft.au=Miss+Cellania&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.neatorama.com%2F2012%2F08%2F06%2FThe-Nutmeg-Wars%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAgriculture+in+Indonesia" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-31"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-31">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBosma2013" class="citation book cs1">Bosma, Ulbe (2013). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=ZaUaBQAAQBAJ&q=VOC+sugar+plantation+in+Java&pg=PA15"><i>The Sugar Plantation in India and Indonesia: Industrial Production, 1770–2010, Studies in Comparative World History</i></a>. Cambridge University Press. p. 15. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-107-03969-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-107-03969-8"><bdi>978-1-107-03969-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Sugar+Plantation+in+India+and+Indonesia%3A+Industrial+Production%2C+1770%E2%80%932010%2C+Studies+in+Comparative+World+History&rft.pages=15&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2013&rft.isbn=978-1-107-03969-8&rft.aulast=Bosma&rft.aufirst=Ulbe&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DZaUaBQAAQBAJ%26q%3DVOC%2Bsugar%2Bplantation%2Bin%2BJava%26pg%3DPA15&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAgriculture+in+Indonesia" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-32"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-32">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20160305013228/https://www.rijksmuseum.nl/en/explore-the-collection/timeline-dutch-history/1820-1950-indonesia-and-decolonisation">"1820–1950 Indonesia and decolonisation"</a>. <i>Rijkmuseum</i>. 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Retrieved <span class="nowrap">6 October</span> 2015</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Ini+Daftar+Korban+Tewas+Akibat+Kabut+Asap&rft.pub=Metro+TV+News&rft.date=2015-10-04&rft.au=AMS&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fvideo.metrotvnews.com%2Fplay%2F2015%2F10%2F04%2F437506%2Fini-daftar-korban-tewas-akibat-kabut-asap&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAgriculture+in+Indonesia" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-72"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-72">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFStatista_Research_Department2023" class="citation web cs1">Statista Research Department (Jan 24, 2023). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.statista.com/topics/7732/agriculture-industry-in-indonesia/#topicOverview">"Agriculture industry in Indonesia- statistics & facts"</a>. <i>Statista</i>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Statista&rft.atitle=Agriculture+industry+in+Indonesia-+statistics+%26+facts&rft.date=2023-01-24&rft.au=Statista+Research+Department&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.statista.com%2Ftopics%2F7732%2Fagriculture-industry-in-indonesia%2F%23topicOverview&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAgriculture+in+Indonesia" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Climate_change_in_Indonesia_:85-73"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Climate_change_in_Indonesia_:85_73-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Climate_change_in_Indonesia_:85_73-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Climate_change_in_Indonesia_:85_73-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Climate_change_in_Indonesia_:85_73-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230505120724/https://www.g20climaterisks.org/indonesia/">"Indonesia"</a>. <i>G20 Climate Risk Atlas</i>. 2021-10-19. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.g20climaterisks.org/indonesia/">the original</a> on 2023-05-05<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2023-05-05</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=G20+Climate+Risk+Atlas&rft.atitle=Indonesia&rft.date=2021-10-19&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.g20climaterisks.org%2Findonesia%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAgriculture+in+Indonesia" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-74"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-74">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSulaemanWesthoff2020" class="citation journal cs1">Sulaeman, Dede; Westhoff, Thomas (2020-02-07). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.wri.org/insights/causes-and-effects-soil-erosion-and-how-prevent-it">"The Causes and Effects of Soil Erosion, and How to Prevent It"</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.atitle=The+Causes+and+Effects+of+Soil+Erosion%2C+and+How+to+Prevent+It&rft.date=2020-02-07&rft.aulast=Sulaeman&rft.aufirst=Dede&rft.au=Westhoff%2C+Thomas&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.wri.org%2Finsights%2Fcauses-and-effects-soil-erosion-and-how-prevent-it&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAgriculture+in+Indonesia" class="Z3988"></span> <span class="cs1-visible-error citation-comment"><code class="cs1-code">{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Cite_journal" title="Template:Cite journal">cite journal</a>}}</code>: </span><span class="cs1-visible-error citation-comment">Cite journal requires <code class="cs1-code">|journal=</code> (<a href="/wiki/Help:CS1_errors#missing_periodical" title="Help:CS1 errors">help</a>)</span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-75"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-75">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCicilia2024" class="citation web cs1">Cicilia, Rachel (June 14, 2024). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.bloomberg.com/news/articles/2024-06-14/jokowi-calls-for-water-pumps-to-protect-crops-against-heat-wave">"Jokowi Calls For Water Pumps to Protect Crops Against Heat Wave"</a>. <i>www.bloomberg.com</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2024-06-16</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=www.bloomberg.com&rft.atitle=Jokowi+Calls+For+Water+Pumps+to+Protect+Crops+Against+Heat+Wave&rft.date=2024-06-14&rft.aulast=Cicilia&rft.aufirst=Rachel&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.bloomberg.com%2Fnews%2Farticles%2F2024-06-14%2Fjokowi-calls-for-water-pumps-to-protect-crops-against-heat-wave&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAgriculture+in+Indonesia" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> </ol></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Agriculture_in_Indonesia&action=edit&section=23" title="Edit section: External links"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" 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program">Benteng program</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Berkeley_Mafia" title="Berkeley Mafia">Berkeley Mafia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1997_Asian_financial_crisis" title="1997 Asian financial crisis">Asian financial crisis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Economic_impact_of_the_COVID-19_pandemic_in_Indonesia" class="mw-redirect" title="Economic impact of the COVID-19 pandemic in Indonesia">COVID-19 pandemic</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Currency</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bank_Indonesia" title="Bank Indonesia">Bank Indonesia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indonesian_rupiah" title="Indonesian rupiah">Indonesian rupiah</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Banking and finance</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Indonesia_Stock_Exchange" title="Indonesia Stock Exchange">Indonesia Stock Exchange</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/QRIS" title="QRIS">QRIS</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_banks_in_Indonesia" title="List of banks in Indonesia">Commercial banks</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indonesian_regional_development_bank" title="Indonesian regional development bank">Regional development banks</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Ministries and agencies</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Coordinating_Ministry_for_Economic_Affairs" title="Coordinating Ministry for Economic Affairs">Coordinating Ministry for Economic Affairs</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ministry_of_Finance_(Indonesia)" title="Ministry of Finance (Indonesia)">Finance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ministry_of_Industry_(Indonesia)" title="Ministry of Industry (Indonesia)">Industry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ministry_of_Trade_(Indonesia)" title="Ministry of Trade (Indonesia)">Trade</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ministry_of_Agriculture_(Indonesia)" title="Ministry of Agriculture (Indonesia)">Agriculture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ministry_of_State_Owned_Enterprises_(Indonesia)" class="mw-redirect" title="Ministry of State Owned Enterprises (Indonesia)">State Owned Enterprises</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ministry_of_Manpower_(Indonesia)" title="Ministry of Manpower (Indonesia)">Manpower</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Ministry_of_Cooperatives_and_Small_%26_Medium_Enterprises_(Indonesia)&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Ministry of Cooperatives and Small & Medium Enterprises (Indonesia) (page does not exist)">Small & Medium Enterprises</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Ministry_of_Land_and_Spatial_Planning_(Indonesia)&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Ministry of Land and Spatial Planning (Indonesia) (page does not exist)">Land and Spatial Planning</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Coordinating_Ministry_for_Maritime_and_Investment_Affairs" title="Coordinating Ministry for Maritime and Investment Affairs">Coordinating Ministry for Maritime and Investment Affairs</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ministry_of_Transportation_(Indonesia)" title="Ministry of Transportation (Indonesia)">Transportation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ministry_of_Marine_Affairs_and_Fisheries" title="Ministry of Marine Affairs and Fisheries">Maritime Affairs and Fisheries</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ministry_of_Public_Works_and_Housing_(Indonesia)" class="mw-redirect" title="Ministry of Public Works and Housing (Indonesia)">Public Works and Housing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ministry_of_Tourism_and_Creative_Economy" title="Ministry of Tourism and Creative Economy">Tourism and Creative Economy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ministry_of_Energy_and_Mineral_Resources_(Indonesia)" class="mw-redirect" title="Ministry of Energy and Mineral Resources (Indonesia)">Energy and Mineral Resources</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ministry_of_Environment_and_Forestry" title="Ministry of Environment and Forestry">Forestry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ministry_of_Investment_(Indonesia)" title="Ministry of Investment (Indonesia)">Investment</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Financial_Services_Authority_(Indonesia)" title="Financial Services Authority (Indonesia)">OJK</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Agreements</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/ASEAN_Free_Trade_Area" title="ASEAN Free Trade Area">ASEAN Free Trade Area</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Regional_Comprehensive_Economic_Partnership" title="Regional Comprehensive Economic Partnership">Regional Comprehensive Economic Partnership</a></li> <li>Bilateral agreements <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Indonesia%E2%80%93Australia_Comprehensive_Economic_Partnership_Agreement" title="Indonesia–Australia Comprehensive Economic Partnership Agreement">Australia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chile%E2%80%93Indonesia_Comprehensive_Economic_Partnership_Agreement" title="Chile–Indonesia Comprehensive Economic Partnership Agreement">Chile</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indonesia%E2%80%93Japan_Economic_Partnership_Agreement" title="Indonesia–Japan Economic Partnership Agreement">Japan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indonesia%E2%80%93Mozambique_Preferential_Trade_Agreement" title="Indonesia–Mozambique Preferential Trade Agreement">Mozambique</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indonesia%E2%80%93Korea_Comprehensive_Economic_Partnership_Agreement" title="Indonesia–Korea Comprehensive Economic Partnership Agreement">South Korea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indonesia%E2%80%93Pakistan_Preferential_Trade_Agreement" title="Indonesia–Pakistan Preferential Trade Agreement">Pakistan</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Industries</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Ports_and_harbours_of_Indonesia" title="Category:Ports and harbours of Indonesia">Ports</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transport_in_Indonesia" title="Transport in Indonesia">Transport</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tourism_in_Indonesia" title="Tourism in Indonesia">Tourism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pos_Indonesia" title="Pos Indonesia">Postal</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Agriculture</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Coconut_production_in_Indonesia" title="Coconut production in Indonesia">Coconut</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Coffee_production_in_Indonesia" title="Coffee production in Indonesia">Coffee</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Palm_oil_production_in_Indonesia" title="Palm oil production in Indonesia">Palm oil</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pulp_and_paper_industry_in_Indonesia" title="Pulp and paper industry in Indonesia">Pulp and paper</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rice_production_in_Indonesia" title="Rice production in Indonesia">Rice</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tea_production_in_Indonesia" title="Tea production in Indonesia">Tea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tobacco_products_in_Indonesia" title="Tobacco products in Indonesia">Tobacco</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Automotive_industry_in_Indonesia" title="Automotive industry in Indonesia">Automotive</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mining_in_Indonesia" class="mw-redirect" title="Mining in Indonesia">Mining</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bauxite_mining_in_Indonesia" title="Bauxite mining in Indonesia">Bauxite</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Coal_mining_in_Indonesia" class="mw-redirect" title="Coal mining in Indonesia">Coal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Copper_mining_in_Indonesia" title="Copper mining in Indonesia">Copper</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nickel_mining_in_Indonesia" title="Nickel mining in Indonesia">Nickel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tin_mining_in_Indonesia" title="Tin mining in Indonesia">Tin</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Category"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/23px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/31px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /></span></span> <b><a href="/wiki/Category:Economy_of_Indonesia" title="Category:Economy of Indonesia">Category</a></b></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Agriculture_in_Asia" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Asia_topic" title="Template:Asia topic"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Asia_topic" title="Template talk:Asia topic"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Asia_topic" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Asia topic"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Agriculture_in_Asia" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Agriculture in Asia</div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/List_of_sovereign_states" title="List of sovereign states">Sovereign states</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Agriculture_in_Afghanistan" class="mw-redirect" title="Agriculture in Afghanistan">Afghanistan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Agriculture_in_Armenia" title="Agriculture in Armenia">Armenia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Agriculture_in_Azerbaijan" title="Agriculture in Azerbaijan">Azerbaijan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Agriculture_in_Bahrain" title="Agriculture in Bahrain">Bahrain</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Agriculture_in_Bangladesh" title="Agriculture in Bangladesh">Bangladesh</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Agriculture_in_Bhutan" title="Agriculture in Bhutan">Bhutan</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Agriculture_in_Brunei&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Agriculture in Brunei (page does not exist)">Brunei</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Agriculture_in_Cambodia" title="Agriculture in Cambodia">Cambodia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Agriculture_in_China" title="Agriculture in China">China</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Agriculture_in_Cyprus" title="Agriculture in Cyprus">Cyprus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Agriculture_in_East_Timor" class="mw-redirect" title="Agriculture in East Timor">East Timor (Timor-Leste)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Agriculture_in_Egypt" class="mw-redirect" title="Agriculture in Egypt">Egypt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Agriculture_in_Georgia_(country)" title="Agriculture in Georgia (country)">Georgia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Agriculture_in_India" title="Agriculture in India">India</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Indonesia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Agriculture_in_Iran" title="Agriculture in Iran">Iran</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Agriculture_in_Iraq" class="mw-redirect" title="Agriculture in Iraq">Iraq</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Agriculture_in_Israel" title="Agriculture in Israel">Israel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Agriculture_in_Japan" class="mw-redirect" title="Agriculture in Japan">Japan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Agriculture_in_Jordan" title="Agriculture in Jordan">Jordan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Agriculture_in_Kazakhstan" title="Agriculture in Kazakhstan">Kazakhstan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Agriculture_in_North_Korea" title="Agriculture in North Korea">North Korea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Agriculture_in_South_Korea" title="Agriculture in South Korea">South Korea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Agriculture_in_Kuwait" class="mw-redirect" title="Agriculture in Kuwait">Kuwait</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Agriculture_in_Kyrgyzstan" title="Agriculture in Kyrgyzstan">Kyrgyzstan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Agriculture_in_Laos" title="Agriculture in Laos">Laos</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Agriculture_in_Lebanon" title="Agriculture in Lebanon">Lebanon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Agriculture_in_Malaysia" title="Agriculture in Malaysia">Malaysia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Agriculture_in_the_Maldives" class="mw-redirect" title="Agriculture in the Maldives">Maldives</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Agriculture_in_Mongolia" title="Agriculture in Mongolia">Mongolia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Agriculture_in_Myanmar" title="Agriculture in Myanmar">Myanmar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Agriculture_in_Nepal" title="Agriculture in Nepal">Nepal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Agriculture_in_Oman" title="Agriculture in Oman">Oman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Agriculture_in_Pakistan" title="Agriculture in Pakistan">Pakistan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Agriculture_in_the_Philippines" title="Agriculture in the Philippines">Philippines</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Agriculture_in_Qatar" title="Agriculture in Qatar">Qatar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Agriculture_in_Russia" title="Agriculture in Russia">Russia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Agriculture_in_Saudi_Arabia" title="Agriculture in Saudi Arabia">Saudi Arabia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Agriculture_in_Singapore" title="Agriculture in Singapore">Singapore</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Agriculture_in_Sri_Lanka" title="Agriculture in Sri Lanka">Sri Lanka</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Agriculture_in_Syria" title="Agriculture in Syria">Syria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Agriculture_in_Tajikistan" title="Agriculture in Tajikistan">Tajikistan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Agriculture_in_Thailand" title="Agriculture in Thailand">Thailand</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Agriculture_in_Turkey" title="Agriculture in Turkey">Turkey</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Agriculture_in_Turkmenistan" title="Agriculture in Turkmenistan">Turkmenistan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Agriculture_in_the_United_Arab_Emirates" title="Agriculture in the United Arab Emirates">United Arab Emirates</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Agriculture_in_Uzbekistan" title="Agriculture in Uzbekistan">Uzbekistan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Agriculture_in_Vietnam" title="Agriculture in Vietnam">Vietnam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Agriculture_in_Yemen" class="mw-redirect" title="Agriculture in Yemen">Yemen</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/List_of_states_with_limited_recognition" title="List of states with limited recognition">States with<br />limited recognition</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Agriculture_in_Abkhazia&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Agriculture in Abkhazia (page does not exist)">Abkhazia</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Agriculture_in_Northern_Cyprus&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Agriculture in Northern Cyprus (page does not exist)">Northern Cyprus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Agriculture_in_the_State_of_Palestine" title="Agriculture in the State of Palestine">Palestine</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Agriculture_in_South_Ossetia&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Agriculture in South Ossetia (page does not exist)">South Ossetia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Agriculture_in_Taiwan" title="Agriculture in Taiwan">Taiwan</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Dependent_territory" title="Dependent territory">Dependencies</a> and<br />other territories</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Agriculture_in_the_British_Indian_Ocean_Territory&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Agriculture in the British Indian Ocean Territory (page does not exist)">British Indian Ocean Territory</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Agriculture_in_Christmas_Island&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Agriculture in Christmas Island (page does not exist)">Christmas Island</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Agriculture_in_the_Cocos_(Keeling)_Islands&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Agriculture in the Cocos (Keeling) Islands (page does not exist)">Cocos (Keeling) Islands</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Agriculture_in_Hong_Kong" class="mw-redirect" title="Agriculture in Hong Kong">Hong Kong</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Agriculture_in_Macau" title="Agriculture in Macau">Macau</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow hlist" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Category"><img alt="" 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