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<span>History</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-History-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Structure" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Structure"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3</span> <span>Structure</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Structure-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Division" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Division"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> <span>Division</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Division-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Monosaccharides" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Monosaccharides"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>Monosaccharides</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Monosaccharides-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Monosaccharides subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Monosaccharides-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Classification_of_monosaccharides" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Classification_of_monosaccharides"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.1</span> <span>Classification of monosaccharides</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Classification_of_monosaccharides-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Ring-straight_chain_isomerism" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Ring-straight_chain_isomerism"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.2</span> <span>Ring-straight chain isomerism</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Ring-straight_chain_isomerism-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Use_in_living_organisms" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Use_in_living_organisms"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.3</span> <span>Use in living organisms</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Use_in_living_organisms-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Disaccharides" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Disaccharides"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6</span> <span>Disaccharides</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Disaccharides-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Oligosaccharides_and_polysaccharides" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Oligosaccharides_and_polysaccharides"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7</span> <span>Oligosaccharides and polysaccharides</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Oligosaccharides_and_polysaccharides-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Oligosaccharides and polysaccharides subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Oligosaccharides_and_polysaccharides-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Oligosaccharides" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Oligosaccharides"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7.1</span> <span>Oligosaccharides</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Oligosaccharides-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Polysaccharides" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Polysaccharides"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7.2</span> <span>Polysaccharides</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Polysaccharides-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Nutrition" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Nutrition"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8</span> <span>Nutrition</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Nutrition-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Nutrition subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Nutrition-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Classification" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Classification"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8.1</span> <span>Classification</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Classification-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Glycemic_index" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Glycemic_index"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8.1.1</span> <span>Glycemic index</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Glycemic_index-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Health_effects_of_dietary_carbohydrate_restriction" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Health_effects_of_dietary_carbohydrate_restriction"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8.2</span> <span>Health effects of dietary carbohydrate restriction</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Health_effects_of_dietary_carbohydrate_restriction-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Sources" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Sources"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9</span> <span>Sources</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Sources-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Metabolism" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Metabolism"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">10</span> <span>Metabolism</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Metabolism-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Metabolism subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Metabolism-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Catabolism" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Catabolism"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">10.1</span> <span>Catabolism</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Catabolism-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Carbohydrate_chemistry" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Carbohydrate_chemistry"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">11</span> <span>Carbohydrate chemistry</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Carbohydrate_chemistry-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Chemical_synthesis" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Chemical_synthesis"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">12</span> <span>Chemical synthesis</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Chemical_synthesis-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">13</span> <span>See also</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">14</span> <span>References</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Further_reading" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Further_reading"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">15</span> <span>Further reading</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Further_reading-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">16</span> <span>External links</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" title="Table of Contents" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-listBullet mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-listBullet"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Toggle the table of contents</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading"><span class="mw-page-title-main">Carbohydrate</span></h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. Available in 134 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-134" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-language-progressive mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-language-progressive"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">134 languages</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-af mw-list-item"><a href="https://af.wikipedia.org/wiki/Koolhidraat" title="Koolhidraat – Afrikaans" lang="af" hreflang="af" data-title="Koolhidraat" data-language-autonym="Afrikaans" data-language-local-name="Afrikaans" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Afrikaans</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-als mw-list-item"><a href="https://als.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kohlenhydrate" title="Kohlenhydrate – Alemannic" lang="gsw" hreflang="gsw" data-title="Kohlenhydrate" data-language-autonym="Alemannisch" data-language-local-name="Alemannic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Alemannisch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B3%D9%83%D8%B1%D9%8A%D8%A7%D8%AA" title="سكريات – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="سكريات" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>العربية</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-an mw-list-item"><a href="https://an.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hidrato_de_carbonio" title="Hidrato de carbonio – Aragonese" lang="an" hreflang="an" data-title="Hidrato de carbonio" data-language-autonym="Aragonés" data-language-local-name="Aragonese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Aragonés</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-as mw-list-item"><a href="https://as.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A6%B6%E0%A7%B0%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%95%E0%A7%B0%E0%A6%BE" title="শৰ্কৰা – Assamese" lang="as" hreflang="as" data-title="শৰ্কৰা" data-language-autonym="অসমীয়া" data-language-local-name="Assamese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>অসমীয়া</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ast mw-list-item"><a href="https://ast.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gl%C3%BAcidu" title="Glúcidu – Asturian" lang="ast" hreflang="ast" data-title="Glúcidu" data-language-autonym="Asturianu" data-language-local-name="Asturian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Asturianu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-az mw-list-item"><a href="https://az.wikipedia.org/wiki/Karbohidratlar" title="Karbohidratlar – Azerbaijani" lang="az" hreflang="az" data-title="Karbohidratlar" data-language-autonym="Azərbaycanca" data-language-local-name="Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Azərbaycanca</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-azb mw-list-item"><a href="https://azb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%DA%A9%D8%A7%D8%B1%D8%A8%D9%88%D9%87%DB%8C%D8%AF%D8%B1%D8%A7%D8%AA" title="کاربوهیدرات – South Azerbaijani" lang="azb" hreflang="azb" data-title="کاربوهیدرات" data-language-autonym="تۆرکجه" data-language-local-name="South Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>تۆرکجه</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ban mw-list-item"><a href="https://ban.wikipedia.org/wiki/Karbohidrat" title="Karbohidrat – Balinese" lang="ban" hreflang="ban" data-title="Karbohidrat" data-language-autonym="Basa Bali" data-language-local-name="Balinese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Basa Bali</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bn mw-list-item"><a href="https://bn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A6%B6%E0%A6%B0%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%95%E0%A6%B0%E0%A6%BE" title="শর্করা – Bangla" lang="bn" hreflang="bn" data-title="শর্করা" data-language-autonym="বাংলা" data-language-local-name="Bangla" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>বাংলা</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-min-nan mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh-min-nan.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tho%C3%A0%E2%81%BF-ch%C3%BAi-ho%C3%A0-bu%CC%8Dt" title="Thoàⁿ-chúi-hoà-bu̍t – Minnan" lang="nan" hreflang="nan" data-title="Thoàⁿ-chúi-hoà-bu̍t" data-language-autonym="閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gú" data-language-local-name="Minnan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gú</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ba mw-list-item"><a href="https://ba.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A3%D0%B3%D0%BB%D0%B5%D0%B2%D0%BE%D0%B4%D1%82%D0%B0%D1%80" title="Углеводтар – Bashkir" lang="ba" hreflang="ba" data-title="Углеводтар" data-language-autonym="Башҡортса" data-language-local-name="Bashkir" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Башҡортса</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be mw-list-item"><a href="https://be.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%92%D1%83%D0%B3%D0%BB%D1%8F%D0%B2%D0%BE%D0%B4%D1%8B" title="Вугляводы – Belarusian" lang="be" hreflang="be" data-title="Вугляводы" data-language-autonym="Беларуская" data-language-local-name="Belarusian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Беларуская</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be-x-old mw-list-item"><a href="https://be-tarask.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%92%D1%83%D0%B3%D0%BB%D1%8F%D0%B2%D0%BE%D0%B4%D1%8B" title="Вугляводы – Belarusian (Taraškievica orthography)" lang="be-tarask" hreflang="be-tarask" data-title="Вугляводы" data-language-autonym="Беларуская (тарашкевіца)" data-language-local-name="Belarusian (Taraškievica orthography)" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Беларуская (тарашкевіца)</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bcl mw-list-item"><a href="https://bcl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Karbohidrato" title="Karbohidrato – Central Bikol" lang="bcl" hreflang="bcl" data-title="Karbohidrato" data-language-autonym="Bikol Central" data-language-local-name="Central Bikol" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bikol Central</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bg mw-list-item"><a href="https://bg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%92%D1%8A%D0%B3%D0%BB%D0%B5%D1%85%D0%B8%D0%B4%D1%80%D0%B0%D1%82" title="Въглехидрат – Bulgarian" lang="bg" hreflang="bg" data-title="Въглехидрат" data-language-autonym="Български" data-language-local-name="Bulgarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Български</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bs mw-list-item"><a href="https://bs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ugljikohidrati" title="Ugljikohidrati – Bosnian" lang="bs" hreflang="bs" data-title="Ugljikohidrati" data-language-autonym="Bosanski" data-language-local-name="Bosnian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bosanski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bxr mw-list-item"><a href="https://bxr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9D%D2%AF%D2%AF%D1%80%D2%BB%D1%8D%D0%BD_%D1%83%D2%BB%D0%B0%D0%BD" title="Нүүрһэн уһан – Russia Buriat" lang="bxr" hreflang="bxr" data-title="Нүүрһэн уһан" data-language-autonym="Буряад" data-language-local-name="Russia Buriat" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Буряад</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gl%C3%BAcid" title="Glúcid – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Glúcid" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Català</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ceb mw-list-item"><a href="https://ceb.wikipedia.org/wiki/Karbohidrat" title="Karbohidrat – Cebuano" lang="ceb" hreflang="ceb" data-title="Karbohidrat" data-language-autonym="Cebuano" data-language-local-name="Cebuano" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Cebuano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs mw-list-item"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sacharidy" title="Sacharidy – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="Sacharidy" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="Czech" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Čeština</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sn mw-list-item"><a href="https://sn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carbohydrates" title="Carbohydrates – Shona" lang="sn" hreflang="sn" data-title="Carbohydrates" data-language-autonym="ChiShona" data-language-local-name="Shona" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ChiShona</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cy mw-list-item"><a href="https://cy.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carbohydrad" title="Carbohydrad – Welsh" lang="cy" hreflang="cy" data-title="Carbohydrad" data-language-autonym="Cymraeg" data-language-local-name="Welsh" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Cymraeg</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-da mw-list-item"><a href="https://da.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kulhydrat" title="Kulhydrat – Danish" lang="da" hreflang="da" data-title="Kulhydrat" data-language-autonym="Dansk" data-language-local-name="Danish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Dansk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kohlenhydrate" title="Kohlenhydrate – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Kohlenhydrate" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Deutsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-dv mw-list-item"><a href="https://dv.wikipedia.org/wiki/%DE%86%DE%A7%DE%84%DE%AF%DE%80%DE%A6%DE%87%DE%A8%DE%91%DE%B0%DE%83%DE%AD%DE%93%DE%B0" title="ކާބޯހައިޑްރޭޓް – Divehi" lang="dv" hreflang="dv" data-title="ކާބޯހައިޑްރޭޓް" data-language-autonym="ދިވެހިބަސް" data-language-local-name="Divehi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ދިވެހިބަސް</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-dty mw-list-item"><a href="https://dty.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%95%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AC%E0%A5%8B%E0%A4%B9%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%87%E0%A4%A1%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%87%E0%A4%9F" title="कार्बोहाइड्रेट – Doteli" lang="dty" hreflang="dty" data-title="कार्बोहाइड्रेट" data-language-autonym="डोटेली" data-language-local-name="Doteli" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>डोटेली</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-et mw-list-item"><a href="https://et.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sahhariidid" title="Sahhariidid – Estonian" lang="et" hreflang="et" data-title="Sahhariidid" data-language-autonym="Eesti" data-language-local-name="Estonian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Eesti</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-el mw-list-item"><a href="https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%A5%CE%B4%CE%B1%CF%84%CE%AC%CE%BD%CE%B8%CF%81%CE%B1%CE%BA%CE%B5%CF%82" title="Υδατάνθρακες – Greek" lang="el" hreflang="el" data-title="Υδατάνθρακες" data-language-autonym="Ελληνικά" data-language-local-name="Greek" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ελληνικά</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gl%C3%BAcido" title="Glúcido – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Glúcido" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Español</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eo mw-list-item"><a href="https://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Karbonhidrato" title="Karbonhidrato – Esperanto" lang="eo" hreflang="eo" data-title="Karbonhidrato" data-language-autonym="Esperanto" data-language-local-name="Esperanto" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Esperanto</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ext mw-list-item"><a href="https://ext.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gl%C3%BAcidu" title="Glúcidu – Extremaduran" lang="ext" hreflang="ext" data-title="Glúcidu" data-language-autonym="Estremeñu" data-language-local-name="Extremaduran" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Estremeñu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eu mw-list-item"><a href="https://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Karbono_hidrato" title="Karbono hidrato – Basque" lang="eu" hreflang="eu" data-title="Karbono hidrato" data-language-autonym="Euskara" data-language-local-name="Basque" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Euskara</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%DA%A9%D8%B1%D8%A8%D9%88%D9%87%DB%8C%D8%AF%D8%B1%D8%A7%D8%AA" title="کربوهیدرات – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="کربوهیدرات" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>فارسی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hif mw-list-item"><a href="https://hif.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carbohydrate" title="Carbohydrate – Fiji Hindi" lang="hif" hreflang="hif" data-title="Carbohydrate" data-language-autonym="Fiji Hindi" data-language-local-name="Fiji Hindi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Fiji Hindi</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glucide" title="Glucide – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Glucide" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Français</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fy mw-list-item"><a href="https://fy.wikipedia.org/wiki/Koalhydraat" title="Koalhydraat – Western Frisian" lang="fy" hreflang="fy" data-title="Koalhydraat" data-language-autonym="Frysk" data-language-local-name="Western Frisian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Frysk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ga mw-list-item"><a href="https://ga.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carbaihiodr%C3%A1it" title="Carbaihiodráit – Irish" lang="ga" hreflang="ga" data-title="Carbaihiodráit" data-language-autonym="Gaeilge" data-language-local-name="Irish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Gaeilge</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gd mw-list-item"><a href="https://gd.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gualuisg" title="Gualuisg – Scottish Gaelic" lang="gd" hreflang="gd" data-title="Gualuisg" data-language-autonym="Gàidhlig" data-language-local-name="Scottish Gaelic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Gàidhlig</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gl mw-list-item"><a href="https://gl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carbohidrato" title="Carbohidrato – Galician" lang="gl" hreflang="gl" data-title="Carbohidrato" data-language-autonym="Galego" data-language-local-name="Galician" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Galego</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%ED%83%84%EC%88%98%ED%99%94%EB%AC%BC" title="탄수화물 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="탄수화물" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>한국어</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hy mw-list-item"><a href="https://hy.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D4%B1%D5%AE%D5%AD%D5%A1%D5%BB%D5%B8%D6%82%D6%80" title="Ածխաջուր – Armenian" lang="hy" hreflang="hy" data-title="Ածխաջուր" data-language-autonym="Հայերեն" data-language-local-name="Armenian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Հայերեն</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hi mw-list-item"><a href="https://hi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%95%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AC%E0%A5%8B%E0%A4%B9%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%87%E0%A4%A1%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%87%E0%A4%9F" title="कार्बोहाइड्रेट – Hindi" lang="hi" hreflang="hi" data-title="कार्बोहाइड्रेट" data-language-autonym="हिन्दी" data-language-local-name="Hindi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>हिन्दी</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hr mw-list-item"><a href="https://hr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ugljikohidrati" title="Ugljikohidrati – Croatian" lang="hr" hreflang="hr" data-title="Ugljikohidrati" data-language-autonym="Hrvatski" data-language-local-name="Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Hrvatski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-io mw-list-item"><a href="https://io.wikipedia.org/wiki/Karbohidrato" title="Karbohidrato – Ido" lang="io" hreflang="io" data-title="Karbohidrato" data-language-autonym="Ido" data-language-local-name="Ido" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ido</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ilo mw-list-item"><a href="https://ilo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Karbohidrato" title="Karbohidrato – Iloko" lang="ilo" hreflang="ilo" data-title="Karbohidrato" data-language-autonym="Ilokano" data-language-local-name="Iloko" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ilokano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Karbohidrat" title="Karbohidrat – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Karbohidrat" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Indonesia</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ia mw-list-item"><a href="https://ia.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carbohydrato" title="Carbohydrato – Interlingua" lang="ia" hreflang="ia" data-title="Carbohydrato" data-language-autonym="Interlingua" data-language-local-name="Interlingua" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Interlingua</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ie mw-list-item"><a href="https://ie.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carbohidrate" title="Carbohidrate – Interlingue" lang="ie" hreflang="ie" data-title="Carbohidrate" data-language-autonym="Interlingue" data-language-local-name="Interlingue" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Interlingue</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-os mw-list-item"><a href="https://os.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C3%86%D0%B2%D0%B7%D0%B0%D0%BB%D1%8B%D0%B4%C3%A6%D1%82%D1%82%C3%A6" title="Æвзалыдæттæ – Ossetic" lang="os" hreflang="os" data-title="Æвзалыдæттæ" data-language-autonym="Ирон" data-language-local-name="Ossetic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ирон</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-is mw-list-item"><a href="https://is.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sykra" title="Sykra – Icelandic" lang="is" hreflang="is" data-title="Sykra" data-language-autonym="Íslenska" data-language-local-name="Icelandic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Íslenska</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glucidi" title="Glucidi – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Glucidi" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Italiano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he mw-list-item"><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%A4%D7%97%D7%9E%D7%99%D7%9E%D7%94" title="פחמימה – Hebrew" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="פחמימה" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="Hebrew" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>עברית</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-jv mw-list-item"><a href="https://jv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Karbohidrat" title="Karbohidrat – Javanese" lang="jv" hreflang="jv" data-title="Karbohidrat" data-language-autonym="Jawa" data-language-local-name="Javanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Jawa</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kn mw-list-item"><a href="https://kn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B2%95%E0%B2%BE%E0%B2%B0%E0%B3%8D%E0%B2%AC%E0%B3%8B%E0%B2%B9%E0%B3%88%E0%B2%A1%E0%B3%8D%E0%B2%B0%E0%B3%87%E0%B2%9F%E0%B3%81%E0%B2%97%E0%B2%B3%E0%B3%81" title="ಕಾರ್ಬೋಹೈಡ್ರೇಟುಗಳು – Kannada" lang="kn" hreflang="kn" data-title="ಕಾರ್ಬೋಹೈಡ್ರೇಟುಗಳು" data-language-autonym="ಕನ್ನಡ" data-language-local-name="Kannada" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ಕನ್ನಡ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ka mw-list-item"><a href="https://ka.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%9C%E1%83%90%E1%83%AE%E1%83%A8%E1%83%98%E1%83%A0%E1%83%AC%E1%83%A7%E1%83%9A%E1%83%94%E1%83%91%E1%83%98" title="ნახშირწყლები – Georgian" lang="ka" hreflang="ka" data-title="ნახშირწყლები" data-language-autonym="ქართული" data-language-local-name="Georgian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ქართული</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ks mw-list-item"><a href="https://ks.wikipedia.org/wiki/%DA%A9%D8%A7%D8%B1%D8%A8%D9%88%DB%81%D8%A7%DB%8C%DA%88%D8%B1%DB%8C%D9%B9" title="کاربوہایڈریٹ – Kashmiri" lang="ks" hreflang="ks" data-title="کاربوہایڈریٹ" data-language-autonym="कॉशुर / کٲشُر" data-language-local-name="Kashmiri" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>कॉशुर / کٲشُر</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kk mw-list-item"><a href="https://kk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9A%D3%A9%D0%BC%D1%96%D1%80%D1%81%D1%83%D0%BB%D0%B0%D1%80" title="Көмірсулар – Kazakh" lang="kk" hreflang="kk" data-title="Көмірсулар" data-language-autonym="Қазақша" data-language-local-name="Kazakh" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Қазақша</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sw mw-list-item"><a href="https://sw.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hidrati_kabonia" title="Hidrati kabonia – Swahili" lang="sw" hreflang="sw" data-title="Hidrati kabonia" data-language-autonym="Kiswahili" data-language-local-name="Swahili" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Kiswahili</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ht mw-list-item"><a href="https://ht.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kabonidrat" title="Kabonidrat – Haitian Creole" lang="ht" hreflang="ht" data-title="Kabonidrat" data-language-autonym="Kreyòl ayisyen" data-language-local-name="Haitian Creole" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Kreyòl ayisyen</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ku mw-list-item"><a href="https://ku.wikipedia.org/wiki/Karboh%C3%AEdrat" title="Karbohîdrat – Kurdish" lang="ku" hreflang="ku" data-title="Karbohîdrat" data-language-autonym="Kurdî" data-language-local-name="Kurdish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Kurdî</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ky mw-list-item"><a href="https://ky.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9A%D3%A9%D0%BC%D2%AF%D1%80%D1%81%D1%83%D1%83" title="Көмүрсуу – Kyrgyz" lang="ky" hreflang="ky" data-title="Көмүрсуу" data-language-autonym="Кыргызча" data-language-local-name="Kyrgyz" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Кыргызча</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-la mw-list-item"><a href="https://la.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carbohydratum" title="Carbohydratum – Latin" lang="la" hreflang="la" data-title="Carbohydratum" data-language-autonym="Latina" data-language-local-name="Latin" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Latina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lv mw-list-item"><a href="https://lv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Og%C4%BChidr%C4%81ti" title="Ogļhidrāti – Latvian" lang="lv" hreflang="lv" data-title="Ogļhidrāti" data-language-autonym="Latviešu" data-language-local-name="Latvian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Latviešu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lb mw-list-item"><a href="https://lb.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kuelenhydrat" title="Kuelenhydrat – Luxembourgish" lang="lb" hreflang="lb" data-title="Kuelenhydrat" data-language-autonym="Lëtzebuergesch" data-language-local-name="Luxembourgish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Lëtzebuergesch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lt mw-list-item"><a href="https://lt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Angliavandeniai" title="Angliavandeniai – Lithuanian" lang="lt" hreflang="lt" data-title="Angliavandeniai" data-language-autonym="Lietuvių" data-language-local-name="Lithuanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Lietuvių</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lmo mw-list-item"><a href="https://lmo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carbuidraa" title="Carbuidraa – Lombard" lang="lmo" hreflang="lmo" data-title="Carbuidraa" data-language-autonym="Lombard" data-language-local-name="Lombard" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Lombard</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hu mw-list-item"><a href="https://hu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sz%C3%A9nhidr%C3%A1t" title="Szénhidrát – Hungarian" lang="hu" hreflang="hu" data-title="Szénhidrát" data-language-autonym="Magyar" data-language-local-name="Hungarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Magyar</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mk mw-list-item"><a href="https://mk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%88%D0%B0%D0%B3%D0%BB%D0%B5%D1%85%D0%B8%D0%B4%D1%80%D0%B0%D1%82" title="Јаглехидрат – Macedonian" lang="mk" hreflang="mk" data-title="Јаглехидрат" data-language-autonym="Македонски" data-language-local-name="Macedonian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Македонски</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mg mw-list-item"><a href="https://mg.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gliosida" title="Gliosida – Malagasy" lang="mg" hreflang="mg" data-title="Gliosida" data-language-autonym="Malagasy" data-language-local-name="Malagasy" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Malagasy</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ml mw-list-item"><a href="https://ml.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B4%95%E0%B4%BE%E0%B5%BC%E0%B4%AC%E0%B5%8B%E0%B4%B9%E0%B5%88%E0%B4%A1%E0%B5%8D%E0%B4%B0%E0%B5%87%E0%B4%B1%E0%B5%8D%E0%B4%B1%E0%B5%8D" title="കാർബോഹൈഡ്രേറ്റ് – Malayalam" lang="ml" hreflang="ml" data-title="കാർബോഹൈഡ്രേറ്റ്" data-language-autonym="മലയാളം" data-language-local-name="Malayalam" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>മലയാളം</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-xmf mw-list-item"><a href="https://xmf.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%9C%E1%83%9D%E1%83%A8%E1%83%A5%E1%83%94%E1%83%A0%E1%83%AC%E1%83%A7%E1%83%90%E1%83%A0%E1%83%94%E1%83%A4%E1%83%98" title="ნოშქერწყარეფი – Mingrelian" lang="xmf" hreflang="xmf" data-title="ნოშქერწყარეფი" data-language-autonym="მარგალური" data-language-local-name="Mingrelian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>მარგალური</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ms mw-list-item"><a href="https://ms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Karbohidrat" title="Karbohidrat – Malay" lang="ms" hreflang="ms" data-title="Karbohidrat" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Melayu" data-language-local-name="Malay" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Melayu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mn mw-list-item"><a href="https://mn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9D%D2%AF%D2%AF%D1%80%D1%81_%D1%83%D1%81" title="Нүүрс ус – Mongolian" lang="mn" hreflang="mn" data-title="Нүүрс ус" data-language-autonym="Монгол" data-language-local-name="Mongolian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Монгол</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-my mw-list-item"><a href="https://my.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%80%80%E1%80%AC%E1%80%98%E1%80%AD%E1%80%AF%E1%80%9F%E1%80%AD%E1%80%AF%E1%80%80%E1%80%BA%E1%80%92%E1%80%9B%E1%80%AD%E1%80%90%E1%80%BA" title="ကာဘိုဟိုက်ဒရိတ် – Burmese" lang="my" hreflang="my" data-title="ကာဘိုဟိုက်ဒရိတ်" data-language-autonym="မြန်မာဘာသာ" data-language-local-name="Burmese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>မြန်မာဘာသာ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Koolhydraten" title="Koolhydraten – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Koolhydraten" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Nederlands</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ne mw-list-item"><a href="https://ne.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%95%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AC%E0%A5%8B%E0%A4%B9%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%87%E0%A4%A1%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%87%E0%A4%9F" title="कार्बोहाइड्रेट – Nepali" lang="ne" hreflang="ne" data-title="कार्बोहाइड्रेट" data-language-autonym="नेपाली" data-language-local-name="Nepali" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>नेपाली</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-new mw-list-item"><a href="https://new.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%B6%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%95%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%BE" title="शर्करा – Newari" lang="new" hreflang="new" data-title="शर्करा" data-language-autonym="नेपाल भाषा" data-language-local-name="Newari" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>नेपाल भाषा</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E7%82%AD%E6%B0%B4%E5%8C%96%E7%89%A9" title="炭水化物 – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="炭水化物" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>日本語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-frr mw-list-item"><a href="https://frr.wikipedia.org/wiki/K%C3%B6%C3%B6lh%C3%BCdraaten" title="Köölhüdraaten – Northern Frisian" lang="frr" hreflang="frr" data-title="Köölhüdraaten" data-language-autonym="Nordfriisk" data-language-local-name="Northern Frisian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Nordfriisk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-no mw-list-item"><a href="https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Karbohydrat" title="Karbohydrat – Norwegian Bokmål" lang="nb" hreflang="nb" data-title="Karbohydrat" data-language-autonym="Norsk bokmål" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Bokmål" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk bokmål</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nn mw-list-item"><a href="https://nn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Karbohydrat" title="Karbohydrat – Norwegian Nynorsk" lang="nn" hreflang="nn" data-title="Karbohydrat" data-language-autonym="Norsk nynorsk" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Nynorsk" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk nynorsk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-oc mw-list-item"><a href="https://oc.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glucid" title="Glucid – Occitan" lang="oc" hreflang="oc" data-title="Glucid" data-language-autonym="Occitan" data-language-local-name="Occitan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Occitan</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-or mw-list-item"><a href="https://or.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%AC%B6%E0%AD%8D%E0%AD%B1%E0%AD%87%E0%AC%A4%E0%AC%B8%E0%AC%BE%E0%AC%B0" title="ଶ୍ୱେତସାର – Odia" lang="or" hreflang="or" data-title="ଶ୍ୱେତସାର" data-language-autonym="ଓଡ଼ିଆ" data-language-local-name="Odia" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ଓଡ଼ିଆ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-om mw-list-item"><a href="https://om.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kaarboohayidireeti" title="Kaarboohayidireeti – Oromo" lang="om" hreflang="om" data-title="Kaarboohayidireeti" data-language-autonym="Oromoo" data-language-local-name="Oromo" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Oromoo</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uz mw-list-item"><a href="https://uz.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uglevodlar" title="Uglevodlar – Uzbek" lang="uz" hreflang="uz" data-title="Uglevodlar" data-language-autonym="Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча" data-language-local-name="Uzbek" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pa mw-list-item"><a href="https://pa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A8%95%E0%A8%BE%E0%A8%B0%E0%A8%AC%E0%A9%8B%E0%A8%B9%E0%A8%BE%E0%A8%88%E0%A8%A1%E0%A8%B0%E0%A9%87%E0%A8%9F" title="ਕਾਰਬੋਹਾਈਡਰੇਟ – Punjabi" lang="pa" hreflang="pa" data-title="ਕਾਰਬੋਹਾਈਡਰੇਟ" data-language-autonym="ਪੰਜਾਬੀ" data-language-local-name="Punjabi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ਪੰਜਾਬੀ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pnb mw-list-item"><a href="https://pnb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%DA%A9%D8%A7%D8%B1%D8%A8%D9%88%DB%81%D8%A7%D8%A6%DB%8C%DA%88%D8%B1%DB%8C%D9%B9" title="کاربوہائیڈریٹ – Western Punjabi" lang="pnb" hreflang="pnb" data-title="کاربوہائیڈریٹ" data-language-autonym="پنجابی" data-language-local-name="Western Punjabi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>پنجابی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ps mw-list-item"><a href="https://ps.wikipedia.org/wiki/%DA%A9%D8%A7%D8%B1%D8%A8%D9%88%D9%87%D8%A7%DB%8C%DA%89%D8%B1%DB%90%D9%BC" title="کاربوهایډرېټ – Pashto" lang="ps" hreflang="ps" data-title="کاربوهایډرېټ" data-language-autonym="پښتو" data-language-local-name="Pashto" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>پښتو</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pms mw-list-item"><a href="https://pms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carboidrat" title="Carboidrat – Piedmontese" lang="pms" hreflang="pms" data-title="Carboidrat" data-language-autonym="Piemontèis" data-language-local-name="Piedmontese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Piemontèis</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nds mw-list-item"><a href="https://nds.wikipedia.org/wiki/K%C3%B6lenhydrate" title="Kölenhydrate – Low German" lang="nds" hreflang="nds" data-title="Kölenhydrate" data-language-autonym="Plattdüütsch" data-language-local-name="Low German" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Plattdüütsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/W%C4%99glowodany" title="Węglowodany – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="Węglowodany" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Polish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Polski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carboidrato" title="Carboidrato – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Carboidrato" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Português</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ro mw-list-item"><a href="https://ro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glucid%C4%83" title="Glucidă – Romanian" lang="ro" hreflang="ro" data-title="Glucidă" data-language-autonym="Română" data-language-local-name="Romanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Română</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-qu mw-list-item"><a href="https://qu.wikipedia.org/wiki/K%27illimsayaku" title="K'illimsayaku – Quechua" lang="qu" hreflang="qu" data-title="K'illimsayaku" data-language-autonym="Runa Simi" data-language-local-name="Quechua" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Runa Simi</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-rue mw-list-item"><a href="https://rue.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A3%D0%B3%D0%BB%D1%8C%D0%BE%D0%B2%D0%BE%D0%B4%D1%8B" title="Угльоводы – Rusyn" lang="rue" hreflang="rue" data-title="Угльоводы" data-language-autonym="Русиньскый" data-language-local-name="Rusyn" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Русиньскый</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A3%D0%B3%D0%BB%D0%B5%D0%B2%D0%BE%D0%B4%D1%8B" title="Углеводы – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Углеводы" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Русский</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sah mw-list-item"><a href="https://sah.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A3%D0%B3%D0%BB%D0%B5%D0%B2%D0%BE%D0%B4" title="Углевод – Yakut" lang="sah" hreflang="sah" data-title="Углевод" data-language-autonym="Саха тыла" data-language-local-name="Yakut" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Саха тыла</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sat mw-list-item"><a href="https://sat.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%B1%A0%E1%B1%9F%E1%B1%A8%E1%B1%B5%E1%B1%B3%E1%B1%A6%E1%B1%9F%E1%B1%AD%E1%B1%B0%E1%B1%A8%E1%B1%AE%E1%B1%B4" title="ᱠᱟᱨᱵᱳᱦᱟᱭᱰᱨᱮᱴ – Santali" lang="sat" hreflang="sat" data-title="ᱠᱟᱨᱵᱳᱦᱟᱭᱰᱨᱮᱴ" data-language-autonym="ᱥᱟᱱᱛᱟᱲᱤ" data-language-local-name="Santali" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ᱥᱟᱱᱛᱟᱲᱤ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sco mw-list-item"><a href="https://sco.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carbohydrate" title="Carbohydrate – Scots" lang="sco" hreflang="sco" data-title="Carbohydrate" data-language-autonym="Scots" data-language-local-name="Scots" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Scots</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sq mw-list-item"><a href="https://sq.wikipedia.org/wiki/Karbohidratet" title="Karbohidratet – Albanian" lang="sq" hreflang="sq" data-title="Karbohidratet" data-language-autonym="Shqip" data-language-local-name="Albanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Shqip</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-scn mw-list-item"><a href="https://scn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carbuidrati" title="Carbuidrati – Sicilian" lang="scn" hreflang="scn" data-title="Carbuidrati" data-language-autonym="Sicilianu" data-language-local-name="Sicilian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Sicilianu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-si mw-list-item"><a href="https://si.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B6%9A%E0%B7%8F%E0%B6%B6%E0%B7%9D%E0%B7%84%E0%B6%BA%E0%B7%92%E0%B6%A9%E0%B7%8A%E2%80%8D%E0%B6%BB%E0%B7%9A%E0%B6%A7" title="කාබෝහයිඩ්‍රේට – Sinhala" lang="si" hreflang="si" data-title="කාබෝහයිඩ්‍රේට" data-language-autonym="සිංහල" data-language-local-name="Sinhala" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>සිංහල</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-simple mw-list-item"><a href="https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carbohydrate" title="Carbohydrate – Simple English" lang="en-simple" hreflang="en-simple" data-title="Carbohydrate" data-language-autonym="Simple English" data-language-local-name="Simple English" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Simple English</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sd mw-list-item"><a href="https://sd.wikipedia.org/wiki/%DA%AA%D8%A7%D8%B1%D8%A8%D9%88%D9%87%D8%A7%D8%A6%D9%8A%DA%8A%D8%B1%D9%8A%D9%BD" title="ڪاربوهائيڊريٽ – Sindhi" lang="sd" hreflang="sd" data-title="ڪاربوهائيڊريٽ" data-language-autonym="سنڌي" data-language-local-name="Sindhi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>سنڌي</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sk mw-list-item"><a href="https://sk.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sacharid" title="Sacharid – Slovak" lang="sk" hreflang="sk" data-title="Sacharid" data-language-autonym="Slovenčina" data-language-local-name="Slovak" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Slovenčina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sl mw-list-item"><a href="https://sl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ogljikov_hidrat" title="Ogljikov hidrat – Slovenian" lang="sl" hreflang="sl" data-title="Ogljikov hidrat" data-language-autonym="Slovenščina" data-language-local-name="Slovenian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Slovenščina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ckb mw-list-item"><a href="https://ckb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%DA%A9%D8%A7%D8%B1%D8%A8%DB%86%DA%BE%DB%8C%D8%AF%D8%B1%D8%A7%D8%AA" title="کاربۆھیدرات – Central Kurdish" lang="ckb" hreflang="ckb" data-title="کاربۆھیدرات" data-language-autonym="کوردی" data-language-local-name="Central Kurdish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>کوردی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sr mw-list-item"><a href="https://sr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A3%D0%B3%D1%99%D0%B5%D0%BD%D0%B8_%D1%85%D0%B8%D0%B4%D1%80%D0%B0%D1%82" title="Угљени хидрат – Serbian" lang="sr" hreflang="sr" data-title="Угљени хидрат" data-language-autonym="Српски / srpski" data-language-local-name="Serbian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Српски / srpski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sh mw-list-item"><a href="https://sh.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ugljeni_hidrati" title="Ugljeni hidrati – Serbo-Croatian" lang="sh" hreflang="sh" data-title="Ugljeni hidrati" data-language-autonym="Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски" data-language-local-name="Serbo-Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-su mw-list-item"><a href="https://su.wikipedia.org/wiki/Karbohidrat" title="Karbohidrat – Sundanese" lang="su" hreflang="su" data-title="Karbohidrat" data-language-autonym="Sunda" data-language-local-name="Sundanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Sunda</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fi mw-list-item"><a href="https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hiilihydraatti" title="Hiilihydraatti – Finnish" lang="fi" hreflang="fi" data-title="Hiilihydraatti" data-language-autonym="Suomi" data-language-local-name="Finnish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Suomi</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sv mw-list-item"><a href="https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kolhydrat" title="Kolhydrat – Swedish" lang="sv" hreflang="sv" data-title="Kolhydrat" data-language-autonym="Svenska" data-language-local-name="Swedish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Svenska</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tl mw-list-item"><a href="https://tl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Karbohidrata" title="Karbohidrata – Tagalog" lang="tl" hreflang="tl" data-title="Karbohidrata" data-language-autonym="Tagalog" data-language-local-name="Tagalog" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Tagalog</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ta mw-list-item"><a href="https://ta.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%AE%95%E0%AE%BE%E0%AE%B0%E0%AF%8D%E0%AE%AA%E0%AF%8B%E0%AE%B5%E0%AF%88%E0%AE%A4%E0%AE%B0%E0%AF%87%E0%AE%9F%E0%AF%8D%E0%AE%9F%E0%AF%81" title="கார்போவைதரேட்டு – Tamil" lang="ta" hreflang="ta" data-title="கார்போவைதரேட்டு" data-language-autonym="தமிழ்" data-language-local-name="Tamil" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>தமிழ்</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tt mw-list-item"><a href="https://tt.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9A%D2%AF%D0%BC%D0%B5%D1%80%D1%81%D1%83%D0%BB%D0%B0%D1%80" title="Күмерсулар – Tatar" lang="tt" hreflang="tt" data-title="Күмерсулар" data-language-autonym="Татарча / tatarça" data-language-local-name="Tatar" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Татарча / tatarça</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-te mw-list-item"><a href="https://te.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B0%AA%E0%B0%BF%E0%B0%82%E0%B0%A1%E0%B0%BF_%E0%B0%AA%E0%B0%A6%E0%B0%BE%E0%B0%B0%E0%B1%8D%E0%B0%A5%E0%B0%BE%E0%B0%B2%E0%B1%81" title="పిండి పదార్థాలు – Telugu" lang="te" hreflang="te" data-title="పిండి పదార్థాలు" data-language-autonym="తెలుగు" data-language-local-name="Telugu" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>తెలుగు</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-th mw-list-item"><a href="https://th.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B8%84%E0%B8%B2%E0%B8%A3%E0%B9%8C%E0%B9%82%E0%B8%9A%E0%B9%84%E0%B8%AE%E0%B9%80%E0%B8%94%E0%B8%A3%E0%B8%95" title="คาร์โบไฮเดรต – Thai" lang="th" hreflang="th" data-title="คาร์โบไฮเดรต" data-language-autonym="ไทย" data-language-local-name="Thai" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ไทย</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tg mw-list-item"><a href="https://tg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9A%D0%B0%D1%80%D0%B1%D0%BE%D0%B3%D0%B8%D0%B4%D1%80%D0%B0%D1%82%D2%B3%D0%BE" title="Карбогидратҳо – Tajik" lang="tg" hreflang="tg" data-title="Карбогидратҳо" data-language-autonym="Тоҷикӣ" data-language-local-name="Tajik" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Тоҷикӣ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tr mw-list-item"><a href="https://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Karbonhidrat" title="Karbonhidrat – Turkish" lang="tr" hreflang="tr" data-title="Karbonhidrat" data-language-autonym="Türkçe" data-language-local-name="Turkish" 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– Urdu" lang="ur" hreflang="ur" data-title="کاربو ہائیڈریٹ" data-language-autonym="اردو" data-language-local-name="Urdu" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>اردو</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-za mw-list-item"><a href="https://za.wikipedia.org/wiki/Danqsuijvaqhozvuz" title="Danqsuijvaqhozvuz – Zhuang" lang="za" hreflang="za" data-title="Danqsuijvaqhozvuz" data-language-autonym="Vahcuengh" data-language-local-name="Zhuang" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Vahcuengh</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vec mw-list-item"><a href="https://vec.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carboidrati" title="Carboidrati – Venetian" lang="vec" hreflang="vec" data-title="Carboidrati" data-language-autonym="Vèneto" data-language-local-name="Venetian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Vèneto</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vi mw-list-item"><a href="https://vi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carbohydrat" title="Carbohydrat – Vietnamese" lang="vi" 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<div id="contentSub"><div id="mw-content-subtitle"></div></div> <div id="mw-content-text" class="mw-body-content"><div class="mw-content-ltr mw-parser-output" lang="en" dir="ltr"><div class="shortdescription nomobile noexcerpt noprint searchaux" style="display:none">Organic compound than consists only of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen</div> <p class="mw-empty-elt"> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size skin-invert" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Lactose.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/04/Lactose.svg/280px-Lactose.svg.png" decoding="async" width="280" height="116" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/04/Lactose.svg/420px-Lactose.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/04/Lactose.svg/560px-Lactose.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="440" data-file-height="183" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Lactose" title="Lactose">Lactose</a> is a <a href="/wiki/Disaccharide" title="Disaccharide">disaccharide</a> found in animal milk. It consists of a molecule of <a href="/wiki/Galactose" title="Galactose">D-galactose</a> and a molecule of <a href="/wiki/Glucose" title="Glucose">D-glucose</a> bonded by beta-1-4 <a href="/wiki/Glycosidic_linkage" class="mw-redirect" title="Glycosidic linkage">glycosidic linkage</a>.</figcaption></figure> <p>A <b>carbohydrate</b> (<span class="rt-commentedText nowrap"><span class="IPA nopopups noexcerpt" lang="en-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Help:IPA/English" title="Help:IPA/English">/<span style="border-bottom:1px dotted"><span title="/ˌ/: secondary stress follows">ˌ</span><span title="'k' in 'kind'">k</span><span title="/ɑːr/: 'ar' in 'far'">ɑːr</span><span title="'b' in 'buy'">b</span><span title="/oʊ/: 'o' in 'code'">oʊ</span><span title="/ˈ/: primary stress follows">ˈ</span><span title="'h' in 'hi'">h</span><span title="/aɪ/: 'i' in 'tide'">aɪ</span><span title="'d' in 'dye'">d</span><span title="'r' in 'rye'">r</span><span title="/eɪ/: 'a' in 'face'">eɪ</span><span title="'t' in 'tie'">t</span></span>/</a></span></span>) is a <a href="/wiki/Biomolecule" title="Biomolecule">biomolecule</a> consisting of <a href="/wiki/Carbon" title="Carbon">carbon</a> (C), <a href="/wiki/Hydrogen" title="Hydrogen">hydrogen</a> (H) and <a href="/wiki/Oxygen" title="Oxygen">oxygen</a> (O) atoms, usually with a hydrogen–oxygen <a href="/wiki/Atom" title="Atom">atom</a> ratio of 2:1 (as in water) and thus with the <a href="/wiki/Empirical_formula" title="Empirical formula">empirical formula</a> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1123817410">.mw-parser-output .template-chem2-su{display:inline-block;font-size:80%;line-height:1;vertical-align:-0.35em}.mw-parser-output .template-chem2-su>span{display:block;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output sub.template-chem2-sub{font-size:80%;vertical-align:-0.35em}.mw-parser-output sup.template-chem2-sup{font-size:80%;vertical-align:0.65em}</style><span class="chemf nowrap">C<sub class="template-chem2-sub"><i>m</i></sub>(H<sub class="template-chem2-sub">2</sub>O)<sub class="template-chem2-sub"><i>n</i></sub></span> (where <i>m</i> may or may not be different from <i>n</i>), which does not mean the H has <a href="/wiki/Covalent_bond" title="Covalent bond">covalent bonds</a> with O (for example with <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1123817410" /><span class="chemf nowrap">CH<sub class="template-chem2-sub">2</sub>O</span>, H has a covalent bond with C but not with O). However, not all carbohydrates conform to this precise <a href="/wiki/Stoichiometry" title="Stoichiometry">stoichiometric</a> definition (e.g., <a href="/wiki/Uronic_acid" title="Uronic acid">uronic acids</a>, <a href="/wiki/Deoxy-sugar" class="mw-redirect" title="Deoxy-sugar">deoxy-sugars</a> such as <a href="/wiki/Fucose" title="Fucose">fucose</a>), nor are all chemicals that do conform to this definition automatically classified as carbohydrates (e.g., <a href="/wiki/Formaldehyde" title="Formaldehyde">formaldehyde</a> and <a href="/wiki/Acetic_acid" title="Acetic acid">acetic acid</a>). </p><p>The term is most common in <a href="/wiki/Biochemistry" title="Biochemistry">biochemistry</a>, where it is a synonym of <b>saccharide</b> (from <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greek_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Ancient Greek language">Ancient Greek</a> <i> </i>σάκχαρον<i> (<span title="Ancient Greek transliteration" lang="grc-Latn"><i>sákkharon</i></span>)</i> <span class="gloss-quot">'</span><span class="gloss-text">sugar</span><span class="gloss-quot">'</span><sup id="cite_ref-avenas_1-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-avenas-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>), a group that includes <a href="/wiki/Sugar" title="Sugar">sugars</a>, <a href="/wiki/Starch" title="Starch">starch</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Cellulose" title="Cellulose">cellulose</a>. The saccharides are divided into four chemical groups: <a href="/wiki/Monosaccharide" title="Monosaccharide">monosaccharides</a>, <a href="/wiki/Disaccharide" title="Disaccharide">disaccharides</a>, <a href="/wiki/Oligosaccharide" title="Oligosaccharide">oligosaccharides</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Polysaccharide" title="Polysaccharide">polysaccharides</a>. Monosaccharides and disaccharides, the smallest (lower <a href="/wiki/Molecular_weight" class="mw-redirect" title="Molecular weight">molecular weight</a>) carbohydrates, are commonly referred to as sugars.<sup id="cite_ref-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> While the <a href="/wiki/Scientific_nomenclature" class="mw-redirect" title="Scientific nomenclature">scientific nomenclature</a> of carbohydrates is complex, the names of the monosaccharides and disaccharides very often end in the suffix <i><a href="/wiki/-ose" title="-ose">-ose</a></i>, which was originally taken from the word <a href="/wiki/Glucose" title="Glucose">glucose</a> (from <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greek_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Ancient Greek language">Ancient Greek</a> <i> </i><span lang="grc"><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%CE%B3%CE%BB%CE%B5%E1%BF%A6%CE%BA%CE%BF%CF%82#Ancient_Greek" class="extiw" title="wikt:γλεῦκος">γλεῦκος</a></span><i> (<span title="Ancient Greek transliteration" lang="grc-Latn"><i>gleûkos</i></span>)</i> <span class="gloss-quot">'</span><span class="gloss-text">wine, <a href="/wiki/Must" title="Must">must</a></span><span class="gloss-quot">'</span>), and is used for almost all sugars (e.g., <a href="/wiki/Fructose" title="Fructose">fructose</a> (fruit sugar), <a href="/wiki/Sucrose" title="Sucrose">sucrose</a> (<a href="/wiki/Sugar_cane" class="mw-redirect" title="Sugar cane">cane</a> or <a href="/wiki/Sugar_beet" title="Sugar beet">beet</a> sugar), <a href="/wiki/Ribose" title="Ribose">ribose</a>, <a href="/wiki/Lactose" title="Lactose">lactose</a> (milk sugar)). </p><p>Carbohydrates perform numerous roles in living organisms.<sup id="cite_ref-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Polysaccharides serve as an <a href="/wiki/Energy" title="Energy">energy</a> store (e.g., <a href="/wiki/Starch" title="Starch">starch</a> and <a href="/wiki/Glycogen" title="Glycogen">glycogen</a>) and as structural components (e.g., cellulose in plants and <a href="/wiki/Chitin" title="Chitin">chitin</a> in arthropods and fungi). The 5-carbon monosaccharide <a href="/wiki/Ribose" title="Ribose">ribose</a> is an important component of <a href="/wiki/Coenzyme" class="mw-redirect" title="Coenzyme">coenzymes</a> (e.g., <a href="/wiki/Adenosine_triphosphate" title="Adenosine triphosphate">ATP</a>, <a href="/wiki/Flavin_adenine_dinucleotide" title="Flavin adenine dinucleotide">FAD</a> and <a href="/wiki/Nicotinamide_adenine_dinucleotide" title="Nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide">NAD</a>) and the backbone of the genetic molecule known as <a href="/wiki/RNA" title="RNA">RNA</a>. The related <a href="/wiki/Deoxyribose" title="Deoxyribose">deoxyribose</a> is a component of DNA. Saccharides and their derivatives include many other important <a href="/wiki/Biomolecules" class="mw-redirect" title="Biomolecules">biomolecules</a> that play key roles in the <a href="/wiki/Immune_system" title="Immune system">immune system</a>, <a href="/wiki/Fertilization" class="mw-redirect" title="Fertilization">fertilization</a>, preventing <a href="/wiki/Pathogenesis" title="Pathogenesis">pathogenesis</a>, <a href="/wiki/Blood_clotting" class="mw-redirect" title="Blood clotting">blood clotting</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Developmental_biology" title="Developmental biology">development</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Carbohydrates are central to <a href="/wiki/Nutrition" title="Nutrition">nutrition</a> and are found in a wide variety of natural and processed foods. Starch is a polysaccharide and is abundant in cereals (wheat, maize, rice), potatoes, and processed food based on cereal <a href="/wiki/Flour" title="Flour">flour</a>, such as <a href="/wiki/Bread" title="Bread">bread</a>, pizza or pasta. Sugars appear in human diet mainly as table sugar (sucrose, extracted from <a href="/wiki/Sugarcane" title="Sugarcane">sugarcane</a> or <a href="/wiki/Sugar_beet" title="Sugar beet">sugar beets</a>), lactose (abundant in milk), glucose and fructose, both of which occur naturally in <a href="/wiki/Honey" title="Honey">honey</a>, many <a href="/wiki/Fruit" title="Fruit">fruits</a>, and some vegetables. Table sugar, milk, or honey is often added to drinks and many prepared foods such as jam, biscuits and cakes. </p><p><a href="/wiki/Cellulose" title="Cellulose">Cellulose</a>, a polysaccharide found in the cell walls of all plants, is one of the main components of insoluble <a href="/wiki/Dietary_fiber" title="Dietary fiber">dietary fiber</a>. Although it is not digestible by humans, cellulose and insoluble dietary fiber generally help maintain a healthy digestive system by facilitating <a href="/wiki/Bowel_movements" class="mw-redirect" title="Bowel movements">bowel movements</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-lpi_5-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-lpi-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Other polysaccharides contained in dietary fiber include <a href="/wiki/Resistant_starch" title="Resistant starch">resistant starch</a> and <a href="/wiki/Inulin" title="Inulin">inulin</a>, which feed some bacteria in the <a href="/wiki/Microbiota" title="Microbiota">microbiota</a> of the <a href="/wiki/Large_intestine" title="Large intestine">large intestine</a>, and are <a href="/wiki/Metabolism" title="Metabolism">metabolized</a> by these bacteria to yield <a href="/wiki/Short-chain_fatty_acid" title="Short-chain fatty acid">short-chain fatty acids</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-lpi_5-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-lpi-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-CRC_Handbook_of_Dietary_Fiber_in_Human_Nutrition_6-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-CRC_Handbook_of_Dietary_Fiber_in_Human_Nutrition-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Terminology">Terminology</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Carbohydrate&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Terminology"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In <a href="/wiki/Scientific_literature" title="Scientific literature">scientific literature</a>, the term "carbohydrate" has many synonyms, like "sugar" (in the broad sense), "saccharide", "ose",<sup id="cite_ref-avenas_1-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-avenas-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> "glucide",<sup id="cite_ref-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> "hydrate of carbon" or "<a href="/wiki/Hydroxy_group" title="Hydroxy group">polyhydroxy</a> compounds with <a href="/wiki/Aldehyde" title="Aldehyde">aldehyde</a> or <a href="/wiki/Ketone" title="Ketone">ketone</a>". Some of these terms, especially "carbohydrate" and "sugar", are also used with other meanings. </p><p>In <a href="/wiki/Food_science" title="Food science">food science</a> and in many informal contexts, the term "carbohydrate" often means any food that is particularly rich in the complex carbohydrate <a href="/wiki/Starch" title="Starch">starch</a> (such as cereals, bread and pasta) or simple carbohydrates, such as sugar (found in candy, <a href="/wiki/Jam" class="mw-redirect" title="Jam">jams</a>, and desserts). This informality is sometimes confusing since it confounds chemical structure and digestibility in humans. </p><p>The term "carbohydrate" (or "carbohydrate by difference") refers also to <a href="/wiki/Dietary_fiber" title="Dietary fiber">dietary fiber</a>, which is a carbohydrate, but, unlike sugars and starches, fibers are not hydrolyzed by human digestive enzymes.<sup id="cite_ref-lpi_5-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-lpi-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Fiber generally contributes little <a href="/wiki/Food_energy" title="Food energy">food energy</a> in humans, but is often included in the calculation of total food energy. The fermentation of soluble fibers by gut microflora can yield short-chain fatty acids, and soluble fiber is estimated to provide about 2 kcal/g.<sup id="cite_ref-lpi_5-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-lpi-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="History">History</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Carbohydrate&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: History"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1251242444">.mw-parser-output .ambox{border:1px solid #a2a9b1;border-left:10px solid #36c;background-color:#fbfbfb;box-sizing:border-box}.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+style+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+style+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+link+.ambox{margin-top:-1px}html body.mediawiki .mw-parser-output .ambox.mbox-small-left{margin:4px 1em 4px 0;overflow:hidden;width:238px;border-collapse:collapse;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em}.mw-parser-output .ambox-speedy{border-left:10px solid #b32424;background-color:#fee7e6}.mw-parser-output .ambox-delete{border-left:10px solid #b32424}.mw-parser-output .ambox-content{border-left:10px solid #f28500}.mw-parser-output .ambox-style{border-left:10px solid #fc3}.mw-parser-output .ambox-move{border-left:10px solid #9932cc}.mw-parser-output .ambox-protection{border-left:10px solid #a2a9b1}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-text{border:none;padding:0.25em 0.5em;width:100%}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-image{border:none;padding:2px 0 2px 0.5em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-imageright{border:none;padding:2px 0.5em 2px 0;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-empty-cell{border:none;padding:0;width:1px}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-image-div{width:52px}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .ambox{margin:0 10%}}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .ambox{display:none!important}}</style><table class="box-Expand_section plainlinks metadata ambox mbox-small-left ambox-content" role="presentation"><tbody><tr><td class="mbox-image"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Wiki_letter_w_cropped.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="[icon]" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1c/Wiki_letter_w_cropped.svg/20px-Wiki_letter_w_cropped.svg.png" decoding="async" width="20" height="14" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1c/Wiki_letter_w_cropped.svg/30px-Wiki_letter_w_cropped.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1c/Wiki_letter_w_cropped.svg/40px-Wiki_letter_w_cropped.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="44" data-file-height="31" /></a></span></td><td class="mbox-text"><div class="mbox-text-span">This section <b>needs expansion</b>. You can help by <a class="external text" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Carbohydrate&action=edit&section=">adding to it</a>. <span class="date-container"><i>(<span class="date">January 2022</span>)</i></span></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <p>The history of the discovery regarding carbohydrates dates back around 10,000 years ago in <a href="/wiki/Papua_New_Guinea" title="Papua New Guinea">Papua New Guinea</a> during the cultivation of <a href="/wiki/Sugarcane" title="Sugarcane">sugarcane</a> during the Neolithic agricultural revolution.<sup id="cite_ref-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The term "carbohydrate" was first proposed by German chemist <a href="/wiki/Carl_Schmidt_(chemist)" title="Carl Schmidt (chemist)">Carl Schmidt (chemist)</a> in 1844. In 1856, <a href="/wiki/Glycogen" title="Glycogen">glycogen</a>, a form of carbohydrate storage in animal livers, was discovered by French physiologist <a href="/wiki/Claude_Bernard" title="Claude Bernard">Claude Bernard</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Structure">Structure</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Carbohydrate&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Structure"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Formerly the name "carbohydrate" was used in <a href="/wiki/Chemistry" title="Chemistry">chemistry</a> for any compound with the formula C<sub><i>m</i></sub> (H<sub>2</sub>O)<sub><i>n</i></sub>. Following this definition, some chemists considered <a href="/wiki/Formaldehyde" title="Formaldehyde">formaldehyde</a> (CH<sub>2</sub>O) to be the simplest carbohydrate,<sup id="cite_ref-coulter_11-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-coulter-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> while others claimed that title for <a href="/wiki/Glycolaldehyde" title="Glycolaldehyde">glycolaldehyde</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-tietz_12-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-tietz-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Today, the term is generally understood in the biochemistry sense, which excludes compounds with only one or two carbons and includes many biological carbohydrates which deviate from this formula. For example, while the above representative formulas would seem to capture the commonly known carbohydrates, ubiquitous and abundant carbohydrates often deviate from this. For example, carbohydrates often display chemical groups such as: <i>N</i>-acetyl (e.g., <a href="/wiki/Chitin" title="Chitin">chitin</a>), <a href="/wiki/Sulfate" title="Sulfate">sulfate</a> (e.g., <a href="/wiki/Glycosaminoglycan" title="Glycosaminoglycan">glycosaminoglycans</a>), <a href="/wiki/Carboxylic_acid" title="Carboxylic acid">carboxylic acid</a> and deoxy modifications (e.g., <a href="/wiki/Fucose" title="Fucose">fucose</a> and <a href="/wiki/Sialic_acid" title="Sialic acid">sialic acid</a>). </p><p>Natural saccharides are generally built of simple carbohydrates called <a href="/wiki/Monosaccharide" title="Monosaccharide">monosaccharides</a> with general formula (CH<sub>2</sub>O)<sub><i>n</i></sub> where <i>n</i> is three or more. A typical monosaccharide has the structure H–(CHOH)<sub><i>x</i></sub>(C=O)–(CHOH)<sub><i>y</i></sub>–H, that is, an <a href="/wiki/Aldehyde" title="Aldehyde">aldehyde</a> or <a href="/wiki/Ketone" title="Ketone">ketone</a> with many <a href="/wiki/Hydroxyl" class="mw-redirect" title="Hydroxyl">hydroxyl</a> groups added, usually one on each <a href="/wiki/Carbon" title="Carbon">carbon</a> <a href="/wiki/Atom" title="Atom">atom</a> that is not part of the aldehyde or ketone <a href="/wiki/Functional_group" title="Functional group">functional group</a>. Examples of monosaccharides are <a href="/wiki/Glucose" title="Glucose">glucose</a>, <a href="/wiki/Fructose" title="Fructose">fructose</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Glyceraldehyde" title="Glyceraldehyde">glyceraldehydes</a>. However, some biological substances commonly called "monosaccharides" do not conform to this formula (e.g., <a href="/wiki/Uronic_acid" title="Uronic acid">uronic acids</a> and deoxy-sugars such as <a href="/wiki/Fucose" title="Fucose">fucose</a>) and there are many chemicals that do conform to this formula but are not considered to be monosaccharides (e.g., formaldehyde CH<sub>2</sub>O and <a href="/wiki/Inositol" title="Inositol">inositol</a> (CH<sub>2</sub>O)<sub>6</sub>).<sup id="cite_ref-13" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The <a href="/wiki/Open-chain" class="mw-redirect" title="Open-chain">open-chain</a> form of a monosaccharide often coexists with a <a href="/wiki/Heterocyclic_compound" title="Heterocyclic compound">closed ring form</a> where the <a href="/wiki/Aldehyde" title="Aldehyde">aldehyde</a>/<a href="/wiki/Ketone" title="Ketone">ketone</a> <a href="/wiki/Carbonyl" class="mw-redirect" title="Carbonyl">carbonyl</a> group carbon (C=O) and hydroxyl group (–OH) react forming a <a href="/wiki/Hemiacetal" title="Hemiacetal">hemiacetal</a> with a new C–O–C bridge. </p><p>Monosaccharides can be linked together into what are called <a href="/wiki/Polysaccharide" title="Polysaccharide">polysaccharides</a> (or <a href="/wiki/Oligosaccharide" title="Oligosaccharide">oligosaccharides</a>) in a large variety of ways. Many carbohydrates contain one or more modified monosaccharide units that have had one or more groups replaced or removed. For example, <a href="/wiki/Deoxyribose" title="Deoxyribose">deoxyribose</a>, a component of <a href="/wiki/DNA" title="DNA">DNA</a>, is a modified version of <a href="/wiki/Ribose" title="Ribose">ribose</a>; <a href="/wiki/Chitin" title="Chitin">chitin</a> is composed of repeating units of <a href="/wiki/N-acetyl_glucosamine" class="mw-redirect" title="N-acetyl glucosamine">N-acetyl glucosamine</a>, a <a href="/wiki/Nitrogen" title="Nitrogen">nitrogen</a>-containing form of glucose. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Division">Division</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Carbohydrate&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Division"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Carbohydrates are polyhydroxy aldehydes, ketones, alcohols, acids, their simple derivatives and their polymers having linkages of the acetal type. They may be classified according to their <a href="/wiki/Degree_of_polymerization" title="Degree of polymerization">degree of polymerization</a>, and may be divided initially into three principal groups, namely sugars, oligosaccharides and polysaccharides.<sup id="cite_ref-14" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <table class="wikitable"> <caption>The major dietary carbohydrates </caption> <tbody><tr> <th>Class<br />(degree of polymerization)</th> <th>Subgroup</th> <th>Components </th></tr> <tr> <th rowspan="3"><a href="/wiki/Sugar" title="Sugar">Sugars</a> (1–2) </th> <td><a href="/wiki/Monosaccharide" title="Monosaccharide">Monosaccharides</a></td> <td><a href="/wiki/Glucose" title="Glucose">Glucose</a>, <a href="/wiki/Galactose" title="Galactose">galactose</a>, <a href="/wiki/Fructose" title="Fructose">fructose</a>, <a href="/wiki/Xylose" title="Xylose">xylose</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Disaccharide" title="Disaccharide">Disaccharides</a></td> <td><a href="/wiki/Sucrose" title="Sucrose">Sucrose</a>, <a href="/wiki/Lactose" title="Lactose">lactose</a>, <a href="/wiki/Maltose" title="Maltose">maltose</a>, <a href="/wiki/Isomaltulose" title="Isomaltulose">isomaltulose</a>, <a href="/wiki/Trehalose" title="Trehalose">trehalose</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Polyol" title="Polyol">Polyols</a></td> <td><a href="/wiki/Sorbitol" title="Sorbitol">Sorbitol</a>, <a href="/wiki/Mannitol" title="Mannitol">mannitol</a> </td></tr> <tr> <th rowspan="2"><a href="/wiki/Oligosaccharide" title="Oligosaccharide">Oligosaccharides</a> (3–9) </th> <td>Malto-oligosaccharides</td> <td><a href="/wiki/Maltodextrin" title="Maltodextrin">Maltodextrins</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td>Other oligosaccharides</td> <td><a href="/wiki/Raffinose" title="Raffinose">Raffinose</a>, <a href="/wiki/Stachyose" title="Stachyose">stachyose</a>, fructo-oligosaccharides </td></tr> <tr> <th rowspan="2"><a href="/wiki/Polysaccharide" title="Polysaccharide">Polysaccharides</a> (>9) </th> <td><a href="/wiki/Starch" title="Starch">Starch</a></td> <td><a href="/wiki/Amylose" title="Amylose">Amylose</a>, <a href="/wiki/Amylopectin" title="Amylopectin">amylopectin</a>, modified starches </td></tr> <tr> <td>Non-starch polysaccharides</td> <td><a href="/wiki/Glycogen" title="Glycogen">Glycogen</a>, <a href="/wiki/Cellulose" title="Cellulose">Cellulose</a>, <a href="/wiki/Hemicellulose" title="Hemicellulose">Hemicellulose</a>, <a href="/wiki/Pectin" title="Pectin">Pectins</a>, <a href="/wiki/Hydrocolloid" class="mw-redirect" title="Hydrocolloid">Hydrocolloids</a> </td></tr></tbody></table> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Monosaccharides">Monosaccharides</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Carbohydrate&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Monosaccharides"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Monosaccharide" title="Monosaccharide">Monosaccharide</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size skin-invert" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:D-glucose_color_coded.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8d/D-glucose_color_coded.png/110px-D-glucose_color_coded.png" decoding="async" width="110" height="189" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8d/D-glucose_color_coded.png/165px-D-glucose_color_coded.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8d/D-glucose_color_coded.png/220px-D-glucose_color_coded.png 2x" data-file-width="1185" data-file-height="2040" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Glucose" title="Glucose">D-glucose</a> is an aldohexose with the formula (C·H<sub>2</sub>O)<sub>6</sub>. The red atoms highlight the <a href="/wiki/Aldehyde" title="Aldehyde">aldehyde</a> group and the blue atoms highlight the <a href="/wiki/Chirality_(chemistry)" title="Chirality (chemistry)">asymmetric center</a> furthest from the aldehyde; because this -OH is on the right of the <a href="/wiki/Fischer_projection" title="Fischer projection">Fischer projection</a>, this is a D sugar.</figcaption></figure> <p>Monosaccharides are the simplest carbohydrates in that they cannot be <a href="/wiki/Hydrolysis" title="Hydrolysis">hydrolyzed</a> to smaller carbohydrates. They are aldehydes or ketones with two or more hydroxyl groups. The general <a href="/wiki/Chemical_formula" title="Chemical formula">chemical formula</a> of an unmodified monosaccharide is (C•H<sub>2</sub>O)<sub>n</sub>, literally a "carbon hydrate". Monosaccharides are important fuel molecules as well as building blocks for nucleic acids. The smallest monosaccharides, for which n=3, are dihydroxyacetone and D- and L-glyceraldehydes. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Classification_of_monosaccharides">Classification of monosaccharides</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Carbohydrate&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Classification of monosaccharides"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="thumb tleft"> <div class="thumbinner" style="width:187px;"> <p><span class="skin-invert" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Alpha-D-glucopyranose-2D-skeletal.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c4/Alpha-D-glucopyranose-2D-skeletal.svg/185px-Alpha-D-glucopyranose-2D-skeletal.svg.png" decoding="async" width="185" height="132" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c4/Alpha-D-glucopyranose-2D-skeletal.svg/278px-Alpha-D-glucopyranose-2D-skeletal.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c4/Alpha-D-glucopyranose-2D-skeletal.svg/370px-Alpha-D-glucopyranose-2D-skeletal.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="136" data-file-height="97" /></a></span> <span class="skin-invert" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Beta-D-glucopyranose-2D-skeletal.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5e/Beta-D-glucopyranose-2D-skeletal.svg/185px-Beta-D-glucopyranose-2D-skeletal.svg.png" decoding="async" width="185" height="108" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5e/Beta-D-glucopyranose-2D-skeletal.svg/278px-Beta-D-glucopyranose-2D-skeletal.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5e/Beta-D-glucopyranose-2D-skeletal.svg/370px-Beta-D-glucopyranose-2D-skeletal.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="149" data-file-height="87" /></a></span> </p> <div class="thumbcaption"> <p>The <a href="/wiki/%CE%91" class="mw-redirect" title="Α">α</a> and <a href="/wiki/Beta_(letter)" class="mw-redirect" title="Beta (letter)">β</a> <a href="/wiki/Anomer" title="Anomer">anomers</a> of glucose. Note the position of the hydroxyl group (red or green) on the anomeric carbon relative to the CH<sub>2</sub>OH group bound to carbon 5: they either have identical absolute configurations (R,R or S,S) (α), or opposite absolute configurations (R,S or S,R) (β).<sup id="cite_ref-15" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> </div> </div> </div> <p>Monosaccharides are classified according to three different characteristics: the placement of its <a href="/wiki/Carbonyl" class="mw-redirect" title="Carbonyl">carbonyl</a> group, the number of <a href="/wiki/Carbon" title="Carbon">carbon</a> atoms it contains, and its <a href="/wiki/Chirality_(chemistry)" title="Chirality (chemistry)">chiral</a> handedness. If the carbonyl group is an <a href="/wiki/Aldehyde" title="Aldehyde">aldehyde</a>, the monosaccharide is an <a href="/wiki/Aldose" title="Aldose">aldose</a>; if the carbonyl group is a <a href="/wiki/Ketone" title="Ketone">ketone</a>, the monosaccharide is a <a href="/wiki/Ketose" title="Ketose">ketose</a>. Monosaccharides with three carbon atoms are called <a href="/wiki/Triose" title="Triose">trioses</a>, those with four are called <a href="/wiki/Tetrose" title="Tetrose">tetroses</a>, five are called <a href="/wiki/Pentose" title="Pentose">pentoses</a>, six are <a href="/wiki/Hexose" title="Hexose">hexoses</a>, and so on.<sup id="cite_ref-16" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> These two systems of classification are often combined. For example, <a href="/wiki/Glucose" title="Glucose">glucose</a> is an <a href="/wiki/Aldohexose" class="mw-redirect" title="Aldohexose">aldohexose</a> (a six-carbon aldehyde), <a href="/wiki/Ribose" title="Ribose">ribose</a> is an <a href="/wiki/Aldopentose" class="mw-redirect" title="Aldopentose">aldopentose</a> (a five-carbon aldehyde), and <a href="/wiki/Fructose" title="Fructose">fructose</a> is a <a href="/wiki/Ketohexose" class="mw-redirect" title="Ketohexose">ketohexose</a> (a six-carbon ketone). </p><p>Each carbon atom bearing a <a href="/wiki/Hydroxyl_group" class="mw-redirect" title="Hydroxyl group">hydroxyl group</a> (-OH), with the exception of the first and last carbons, are <a href="/wiki/Chirality_(chemistry)" title="Chirality (chemistry)">asymmetric</a>, making them <a href="/wiki/Stereogenic" class="mw-redirect" title="Stereogenic">stereo centers</a> with two possible configurations each (R or S). Because of this asymmetry, a number of <a href="/wiki/Isomer" title="Isomer">isomers</a> may exist for any given monosaccharide formula. Using <a href="/wiki/Le_Bel-van%27t_Hoff_rule" class="mw-redirect" title="Le Bel-van't Hoff rule">Le Bel-van't Hoff rule</a>, the aldohexose D-glucose, for example, has the formula (C·H<sub>2</sub>O)<sub>6</sub>, of which four of its six carbons atoms are stereogenic, making D-glucose one of 2<sup>4</sup>=16 possible <a href="/wiki/Stereoisomer" class="mw-redirect" title="Stereoisomer">stereoisomers</a>. In the case of <a href="/wiki/Glyceraldehyde" title="Glyceraldehyde">glyceraldehydes</a>, an aldotriose, there is one pair of possible stereoisomers, which are <a href="/wiki/Enantiomers" class="mw-redirect" title="Enantiomers">enantiomers</a> and <a href="/wiki/Epimer" title="Epimer">epimers</a>. <a href="/wiki/Dihydroxyacetone" title="Dihydroxyacetone">1, 3-dihydroxyacetone</a>, the ketose corresponding to the aldose glyceraldehydes, is a symmetric molecule with no stereo centers. The assignment of D or L is made according to the orientation of the asymmetric carbon furthest from the carbonyl group: in a standard Fischer projection if the hydroxyl group is on the right the molecule is a D sugar, otherwise it is an L sugar. The "D-" and "L-" prefixes should not be confused with "d-" or "l-", which indicate the direction that the sugar <a href="/wiki/Levorotation_and_dextrorotation" class="mw-redirect" title="Levorotation and dextrorotation">rotates</a> plane <a href="/wiki/Polarization_(waves)" title="Polarization (waves)">polarized light</a>. This usage of "d-" and "l-" is no longer followed in carbohydrate chemistry.<sup id="cite_ref-17" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Ring-straight_chain_isomerism">Ring-straight chain isomerism</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Carbohydrate&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Ring-straight chain isomerism"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size skin-invert" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Glucose_Fisher_to_Haworth.gif" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/af/Glucose_Fisher_to_Haworth.gif/220px-Glucose_Fisher_to_Haworth.gif" decoding="async" width="220" height="172" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/af/Glucose_Fisher_to_Haworth.gif 1.5x" data-file-width="231" data-file-height="181" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Glucose" title="Glucose">Glucose</a> can exist in both a straight-chain and ring form.</figcaption></figure> <p>The aldehyde or ketone group of a straight-chain monosaccharide will react reversibly with a hydroxyl group on a different carbon atom to form a <a href="/wiki/Hemiacetal" title="Hemiacetal">hemiacetal</a> or <a href="/wiki/Hemiketal" class="mw-redirect" title="Hemiketal">hemiketal</a>, forming a <a href="/wiki/Heterocyclic" class="mw-redirect" title="Heterocyclic">heterocyclic</a> ring with an oxygen bridge between two carbon atoms. Rings with five and six atoms are called <a href="/wiki/Furanose" title="Furanose">furanose</a> and <a href="/wiki/Pyranose" title="Pyranose">pyranose</a> forms, respectively, and exist in equilibrium with the straight-chain form.<sup id="cite_ref-pigman_18-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-pigman-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>During the conversion from straight-chain form to the cyclic form, the carbon atom containing the carbonyl oxygen, called the <a href="/wiki/Anomeric_carbon" class="mw-redirect" title="Anomeric carbon">anomeric carbon</a>, becomes a stereogenic center with two possible configurations: The oxygen atom may take a position either above or below the plane of the ring. The resulting possible pair of stereoisomers is called <a href="/wiki/Anomer" title="Anomer">anomers</a>. In the <i>α anomer</i>, the -OH substituent on the anomeric carbon rests on the opposite side (<a href="/wiki/Cis-trans_isomerism" class="mw-redirect" title="Cis-trans isomerism">trans</a>) of the ring from the CH<sub>2</sub>OH side branch. The alternative form, in which the CH<sub>2</sub>OH substituent and the anomeric hydroxyl are on the same side (cis) of the plane of the ring, is called the <i>β anomer</i>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Use_in_living_organisms">Use in living organisms</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Carbohydrate&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Use in living organisms"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Monosaccharides are the major fuel source for <a href="/wiki/Metabolism" title="Metabolism">metabolism</a>, and glucose is an energy-rich molecule utilized to generate ATP in almost all living organisms. Glucose is a high-energy substrate produced in plants through photosynthesis by combining energy-poor water and carbon dioxide in an endothermic reaction fueled by solar energy. When monosaccharides are not immediately needed, they are often converted to more space-efficient (i.e., less water-soluble) forms, often <a href="/wiki/Polysaccharide" title="Polysaccharide">polysaccharides</a>. In animals, glucose circulating the blood is a major metabolic substrate and is oxidized in the mitochondria to produce ATP for performing useful cellular work. In humans and other animals, serum glucose levels must be regulated carefully to maintain glucose within acceptable limits and prevent the deleterious effects of hypo- or hyperglycemia. Hormones such as insulin and glucagon serve to keep glucose levels in balance: insulin stimulates glucose uptake into the muscle and fat cells when glucose levels are high, whereas glucagon helps to raise glucose levels if they dip too low by stimulating hepatic glucose synthesis. In many animals, including humans, this storage form is <a href="/wiki/Glycogen" title="Glycogen">glycogen</a>, especially in liver and muscle cells. In plants, <a href="/wiki/Starch" title="Starch">starch</a> is used for the same purpose. The most abundant carbohydrate, <a href="/wiki/Cellulose" title="Cellulose">cellulose</a>, is a structural component of the <a href="/wiki/Cell_wall#plant_cell_walls" title="Cell wall">cell wall</a> of plants and many forms of algae. <a href="/wiki/Ribose" title="Ribose">Ribose</a> is a component of <a href="/wiki/RNA" title="RNA">RNA</a>. <a href="/wiki/Deoxyribose" title="Deoxyribose">Deoxyribose</a> is a component of <a href="/wiki/DNA" title="DNA">DNA</a>. <a href="/wiki/Lyxose" title="Lyxose">Lyxose</a> is a component of lyxoflavin found in the human <a href="/wiki/Heart" title="Heart">heart</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-19" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Ribulose" title="Ribulose">Ribulose</a> and <a href="/wiki/Xylulose" title="Xylulose">xylulose</a> occur in the <a href="/wiki/Pentose_phosphate_pathway" title="Pentose phosphate pathway">pentose phosphate pathway</a>. <a href="/wiki/Galactose" title="Galactose">Galactose</a>, a component of milk sugar <a href="/wiki/Lactose" title="Lactose">lactose</a>, is found in <a href="/wiki/Galactolipid" title="Galactolipid">galactolipids</a> in <a href="/wiki/Cell_membrane#lipids" title="Cell membrane">plant cell membranes</a> and in <a href="/wiki/Glycoprotein" title="Glycoprotein">glycoproteins</a> in many <a href="/wiki/Biological_tissue" class="mw-redirect" title="Biological tissue">tissues</a>. <a href="/wiki/Mannose" title="Mannose">Mannose</a> occurs in human metabolism, especially in the <a href="/wiki/Glycosylation" title="Glycosylation">glycosylation</a> of certain proteins. <a href="/wiki/Fructose" title="Fructose">Fructose</a>, or fruit sugar, is found in many plants and humans, it is metabolized in the liver, absorbed directly into the intestines during <a href="/wiki/Digestion" title="Digestion">digestion</a>, and found in <a href="/wiki/Semen" title="Semen">semen</a>. <a href="/wiki/Trehalose" title="Trehalose">Trehalose</a>, a major sugar of insects, is rapidly hydrolyzed into two glucose molecules to support continuous flight. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Disaccharides">Disaccharides</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Carbohydrate&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Disaccharides"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Sucrose_3Dprojection.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/56/Sucrose_3Dprojection.png/220px-Sucrose_3Dprojection.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="100" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/56/Sucrose_3Dprojection.png/330px-Sucrose_3Dprojection.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/56/Sucrose_3Dprojection.png/440px-Sucrose_3Dprojection.png 2x" data-file-width="823" data-file-height="375" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Sucrose" title="Sucrose">Sucrose</a>, also known as table sugar, is a common disaccharide. It is composed of two monosaccharides: <a href="/wiki/Glucose" title="Glucose">D-glucose</a> (left) and <a href="/wiki/Fructose" title="Fructose">D-fructose</a> (right).</figcaption></figure> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951" /><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Disaccharide" title="Disaccharide">Disaccharide</a></div> <p>Two joined monosaccharides are called a <a href="/wiki/Disaccharide" title="Disaccharide">disaccharide</a>, the simplest kind of polysaccharide. Examples include <a href="/wiki/Sucrose" title="Sucrose">sucrose</a> and <a href="/wiki/Lactose" title="Lactose">lactose</a>. They are composed of two monosaccharide units bound together by a <a href="/wiki/Covalent_bond" title="Covalent bond">covalent bond</a> known as a <a href="/wiki/Glycosidic_linkage" class="mw-redirect" title="Glycosidic linkage">glycosidic linkage</a> formed via a <a href="/wiki/Dehydration_reaction" title="Dehydration reaction">dehydration reaction</a>, resulting in the loss of a <a href="/wiki/Hydrogen" title="Hydrogen">hydrogen</a> atom from one monosaccharide and a <a href="/wiki/Hydroxyl_group" class="mw-redirect" title="Hydroxyl group">hydroxyl group</a> from the other. The <a href="/wiki/Chemical_formula" title="Chemical formula">formula</a> of unmodified disaccharides is C<sub>12</sub>H<sub>22</sub>O<sub>11</sub>. Although there are numerous kinds of disaccharides, a handful of disaccharides are particularly notable. </p><p><a href="/wiki/Sucrose" title="Sucrose">Sucrose</a>, pictured to the right, is the most abundant disaccharide, and the main form in which carbohydrates are transported in plants. It is composed of one <a href="/wiki/Glucose" title="Glucose">D-glucose</a> molecule and one <a href="/wiki/Fructose" title="Fructose">D-fructose</a> molecule. The <a href="/wiki/Systematic_name" title="Systematic name">systematic name</a> for sucrose, <i>O</i>-α-D-glucopyranosyl-(1→2)-D-fructofuranoside, indicates four things: </p> <ul><li>Its monosaccharides: glucose and fructose</li> <li>Their ring types: glucose is a <a href="/wiki/Pyranose" title="Pyranose">pyranose</a> and fructose is a <a href="/wiki/Furanose" title="Furanose">furanose</a></li> <li>How they are linked together: the oxygen on carbon number 1 (C1) of α-D-glucose is linked to the C2 of D-fructose.</li> <li>The <i>-oside</i> suffix indicates that the <a href="/wiki/Anomeric_carbon" class="mw-redirect" title="Anomeric carbon">anomeric carbon</a> of both monosaccharides participates in the glycosidic bond.</li></ul> <p><a href="/wiki/Lactose" title="Lactose">Lactose</a>, a disaccharide composed of one <a href="/wiki/Galactose" title="Galactose">D-galactose</a> molecule and one <a href="/wiki/Glucose" title="Glucose">D-glucose</a> molecule, occurs naturally in mammalian milk. The <a href="/wiki/Systematic_name" title="Systematic name">systematic name</a> for lactose is <i>O</i>-β-D-galactopyranosyl-(1→4)-D-glucopyranose. Other notable disaccharides include <a href="/wiki/Maltose" title="Maltose">maltose</a> (two D-glucoses linked α-1,4) and <a href="/wiki/Cellobiose" title="Cellobiose">cellobiose</a> (two D-glucoses linked β-1,4). Disaccharides can be classified into two types: reducing and non-reducing disaccharides. If the functional group is present in bonding with another sugar unit, it is called a reducing disaccharide or biose. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Oligosaccharides_and_polysaccharides">Oligosaccharides and polysaccharides</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Carbohydrate&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Oligosaccharides and polysaccharides"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Oligosaccharides">Oligosaccharides</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Carbohydrate&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Oligosaccharides"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951" /><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Oligosaccharide" title="Oligosaccharide">Oligosaccharide</a></div> <p>Oligosaccharides are saccharide polymers composed of three to ten units of monosaccharides, connected via <a href="/wiki/Glycosidic_bond" title="Glycosidic bond">glycosidic linkages</a>, similar to <a href="/wiki/Disaccharide" title="Disaccharide">disaccharides</a>. They are usually linked to lipids or amino acids glycosic linkage with oxygen or nitrogen to form <a href="/wiki/Glycolipid" title="Glycolipid">glygolipids</a> and <a href="/wiki/Glycoprotein" title="Glycoprotein">glycoproteins</a>, though some, like the <a href="/wiki/Raffinose" title="Raffinose">raffinose</a> series and the <a href="/wiki/Fructooligosaccharide" title="Fructooligosaccharide">fructooligosaccharides</a>, do not. They have roles in <a href="/wiki/Cell%E2%80%93cell_recognition" title="Cell–cell recognition">cell recognition</a> and <a href="/wiki/Cell_adhesion" title="Cell adhesion">cell adhesion</a>. </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:FOS.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1a/FOS.svg/220px-FOS.svg.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="220" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1a/FOS.svg/330px-FOS.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1a/FOS.svg/440px-FOS.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="512" /></a><figcaption>The structure of <a href="/wiki/Fructooligosaccharide" title="Fructooligosaccharide">fructooligosaccharide</a></figcaption></figure> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Polysaccharides">Polysaccharides</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Carbohydrate&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Polysaccharides"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951" /><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Polysaccharides" class="mw-redirect" title="Polysaccharides">Polysaccharides</a></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Nutrition">Nutrition</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Carbohydrate&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: Nutrition"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:GrainProducts.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e5/GrainProducts.jpg/170px-GrainProducts.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="254" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e5/GrainProducts.jpg/255px-GrainProducts.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e5/GrainProducts.jpg/340px-GrainProducts.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1867" data-file-height="2790" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Cereal" title="Cereal">Grain</a> products: rich sources of carbohydrates</figcaption></figure> <p>Carbohydrate consumed in food yields 3.87 kilocalories of energy per <a href="/wiki/Gram" title="Gram">gram</a> for simple sugars,<sup id="cite_ref-20" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and 3.57 to 4.12 kilocalories per gram for complex carbohydrate in most other foods.<sup id="cite_ref-21" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Relatively high levels of carbohydrate are associated with processed foods or refined foods made from plants, including sweets, cookies and candy, table sugar, honey, soft drinks, breads and crackers, jams and fruit products, pastas and breakfast cereals. Refined carbohydrates from processed foods such as white bread or rice, soft drinks, and desserts are readily digestible, and many are known to have a high glycemic index, which reflects a rapid assimilation of glucose. By contrast, the digestion of whole, unprocessed, fiber-rich foods such as beans, peas, and whole grains produces a slower and steadier release of glucose and energy into the body.<sup id="cite_ref-22" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Animal-based foods generally have the lowest carbohydrate levels, although milk does contain a high proportion of <a href="/wiki/Lactose" title="Lactose">lactose</a>. </p><p>Organisms typically cannot metabolize all types of carbohydrate to yield energy. Glucose is a nearly universal and accessible source of energy. Many organisms also have the ability to metabolize other <a href="/wiki/Monosaccharide" title="Monosaccharide">monosaccharides</a> and <a href="/wiki/Disaccharide" title="Disaccharide">disaccharides</a> but glucose is often metabolized first. In <i><a href="/wiki/Escherichia_coli" title="Escherichia coli">Escherichia coli</a></i>, for example, the <a href="/wiki/Lac_operon" title="Lac operon">lac operon</a> will express enzymes for the digestion of lactose when it is present, but if both lactose and glucose are present, the <i>lac</i> operon is repressed, resulting in the glucose being used first (see: <a href="/wiki/Diauxie" class="mw-redirect" title="Diauxie">Diauxie</a>). <a href="/wiki/Polysaccharide" title="Polysaccharide">Polysaccharides</a> are also common sources of energy. Many organisms can easily break down starches into glucose; most organisms, however, cannot metabolize <a href="/wiki/Cellulose" title="Cellulose">cellulose</a> or other polysaccharides such as <a href="/wiki/Chitin" title="Chitin">chitin</a> and <a href="/wiki/Arabinoxylans" class="mw-redirect" title="Arabinoxylans">arabinoxylans</a>. These carbohydrate types can be metabolized by some bacteria and protists. <a href="/wiki/Ruminant" title="Ruminant">Ruminants</a> and <a href="/wiki/Termite" title="Termite">termites</a>, for example, use microorganisms to process cellulose, fermenting it to caloric short-chain fatty acids. Even though humans lack the enzymes to digest fiber, dietary fiber represents an important dietary element for humans. Fibers promote healthy digestion, help regulate postprandial glucose and insulin levels, reduce cholesterol levels, and promote satiety.<sup id="cite_ref-23" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The <a href="/wiki/Institute_of_Medicine" class="mw-redirect" title="Institute of Medicine">Institute of Medicine</a> recommends that American and Canadian adults get between 45 and 65% of <a href="/wiki/Food_energy" title="Food energy">dietary energy</a> from whole-grain carbohydrates.<sup id="cite_ref-24" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The <a href="/wiki/Food_and_Agriculture_Organization" title="Food and Agriculture Organization">Food and Agriculture Organization</a> and <a href="/wiki/World_Health_Organization" title="World Health Organization">World Health Organization</a> jointly recommend that national dietary guidelines set a goal of 55–75% of total energy from carbohydrates, but only 10% directly from sugars (their term for simple carbohydrates).<sup id="cite_ref-25" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> A 2017 <a href="/wiki/The_Cochrane_Database_of_Systematic_Reviews" class="mw-redirect" title="The Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews">Cochrane Systematic Review</a> concluded that there was insufficient evidence to support the claim that whole grain diets can affect cardiovascular disease.<sup id="cite_ref-pmid28836672_26-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-pmid28836672-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Classification">Classification</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Carbohydrate&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: Classification"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The term <i>complex carbohydrate</i> was first used in the <a href="/wiki/U.S._Senate_Select_Committee_on_Nutrition_and_Human_Needs" class="mw-redirect" title="U.S. Senate Select Committee on Nutrition and Human Needs">U.S. Senate Select Committee on Nutrition and Human Needs</a> publication <i>Dietary Goals for the United States</i> (1977) where it was intended to distinguish sugars from other carbohydrates (which were perceived to be nutritionally superior).<sup id="cite_ref-27" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> However, the report put "fruit, vegetables and whole-grains" in the complex carbohydrate column, despite the fact that these may contain sugars as well as polysaccharides. The standard usage, however, is to classify carbohydrates chemically: <i>simple</i> if they are sugars (<a href="/wiki/Monosaccharide" title="Monosaccharide">monosaccharides</a> and <a href="/wiki/Disaccharide" title="Disaccharide">disaccharides</a>) and <i>complex</i> if they are <a href="/wiki/Polysaccharide" title="Polysaccharide">polysaccharides</a> (or <a href="/wiki/Oligosaccharide" title="Oligosaccharide">oligosaccharides</a>).<sup id="cite_ref-lpi_5-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-lpi-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-NutSource_28-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-NutSource-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Carbohydrates are sometimes divided into "available carbohydrates", which are absorbed in the <a href="/wiki/Small_intestine" title="Small intestine">small intestine</a> and "unavailable carbohydrates", which pass to the <a href="/wiki/Large_intestine" title="Large intestine">large intestine</a>, where they are subject to <a href="/wiki/Fermentation" title="Fermentation">fermentation</a> by the <a href="/wiki/Human_gastrointestinal_microbiota" class="mw-redirect" title="Human gastrointestinal microbiota">gastrointestinal microbiota</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-lpi_5-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-lpi-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Glycemic_index">Glycemic index</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Carbohydrate&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: Glycemic index"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The <a href="/wiki/Glycemic_index" title="Glycemic index">glycemic index</a> (GI) and <a href="/wiki/Glycemic_load" title="Glycemic load">glycemic load</a> concepts characterize the potential for carbohydrates in food to raise <a href="/wiki/Blood_glucose" class="mw-redirect" title="Blood glucose">blood glucose</a> compared to a reference food (generally pure glucose).<sup id="cite_ref-lpi-gi_29-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-lpi-gi-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Expressed numerically as GI, carbohydrate-containing foods can be grouped as high-GI (score more than 70), moderate-GI (56-69), or low-GI (less than 55) relative to pure glucose (GI=100).<sup id="cite_ref-lpi-gi_29-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-lpi-gi-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Consumption of carbohydrate-rich, high-GI foods causes an abrupt increase in blood glucose concentration that declines rapidly following the meal, whereas low-GI foods with lower carbohydrate content produces a lower blood glucose concentration that returns gradually after the meal.<sup id="cite_ref-lpi-gi_29-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-lpi-gi-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><a href="/wiki/Glycemic_load" title="Glycemic load">Glycemic load</a> is a measure relating the quality of carbohydrates in a food (low- vs. high-carbohydrate content – the GI) by the amount of carbohydrates in a single serving of that food.<sup id="cite_ref-lpi-gi_29-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-lpi-gi-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Health_effects_of_dietary_carbohydrate_restriction">Health effects of dietary carbohydrate restriction</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Carbohydrate&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: Health effects of dietary carbohydrate restriction"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951" /><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Low-carbohydrate_diet" title="Low-carbohydrate diet">Low-carbohydrate diet</a></div> <p>Low-carbohydrate diets may miss the health advantages – such as increased intake of <a href="/wiki/Dietary_fiber" title="Dietary fiber">dietary fiber</a> and <a href="/wiki/Phytochemical" title="Phytochemical">phytochemicals</a> – afforded by high-quality plant foods such as <a href="/wiki/Legume" title="Legume">legumes</a> and <a href="/wiki/Pulse_(legume)" class="mw-redirect" title="Pulse (legume)">pulses</a>, <a href="/wiki/Whole_grain" title="Whole grain">whole grains</a>, fruits, and vegetables.<sup id="cite_ref-mort_30-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-mort-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-fibre_31-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-fibre-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> A "meta-analysis, of moderate quality," included as adverse effects of the diet <a href="/wiki/Halitosis" class="mw-redirect" title="Halitosis">halitosis</a>, <a href="/wiki/Headache" title="Headache">headache</a> and <a href="/wiki/Constipation" title="Constipation">constipation</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-obes_32-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-obes-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="noprint Inline-Template noprint noexcerpt Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:NOTRS" class="mw-redirect" title="Wikipedia:NOTRS"><span title="Quoting source: "Only one meta-analysis, of moderate quality, reported adverse effects of LCDs [...]" (August 2022)">better source needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p>Carbohydrate-restricted diets can be as effective as low-fat diets in helping achieve weight loss over the short term when overall calorie intake is reduced.<sup id="cite_ref-endo_33-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-endo-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> An <a href="/wiki/Endocrine_Society" title="Endocrine Society">Endocrine Society</a> scientific statement said that "when calorie intake is held constant [...] body-fat accumulation does not appear to be affected by even very pronounced changes in the amount of fat vs carbohydrate in the diet."<sup id="cite_ref-endo_33-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-endo-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In the long term, low-carbohydrate diets do not appear to confer a "metabolic advantage," and effective weight loss or maintenance depends on the level of <a href="/wiki/Calorie_restriction" title="Calorie restriction">calorie restriction</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-endo_33-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-endo-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> not the ratio of <a href="/wiki/Macronutrient" class="mw-redirect" title="Macronutrient">macronutrients</a> in a diet.<sup id="cite_ref-tob_34-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-tob-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The reasoning of diet advocates that carbohydrates cause undue fat accumulation by increasing blood <a href="/wiki/Insulin" title="Insulin">insulin</a> levels, but a more balanced diet that restricts refined carbohydrates can also reduce serum glucose and insulin levels and may also suppress lipogenesis and promote fat oxidation.<sup id="cite_ref-35" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> However, as far as energy expenditure itself is concerned, the claim that low-carbohydrate diets have a "metabolic advantage" is not supported by <a href="/wiki/Evidence-based_medicine" title="Evidence-based medicine">clinical evidence</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-endo_33-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-endo-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-hall_36-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-hall-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Further, it is not clear how low-carbohydrate dieting affects <a href="/wiki/Cardiovascular_health" class="mw-redirect" title="Cardiovascular health">cardiovascular health</a>, although two reviews showed that carbohydrate restriction may improve lipid markers of <a href="/wiki/Cardiovascular_disease" title="Cardiovascular disease">cardiovascular disease</a> risk.<sup id="cite_ref-man_37-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-man-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-ght_38-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ght-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Carbohydrate-restricted diets are no more effective than a conventional <a href="/wiki/Healthy_diet" title="Healthy diet">healthy diet</a> in preventing the onset of <a href="/wiki/Type_2_diabetes" title="Type 2 diabetes">type 2 diabetes</a>, but for people with type 2 diabetes, they are a viable option for losing weight or helping with <a href="/wiki/Glycemic_control" class="mw-redirect" title="Glycemic control">glycemic control</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-brouns_39-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-brouns-39"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-meng_40-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-meng-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-ada_41-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ada-41"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>41<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> There is limited evidence to support routine use of low-carbohydrate dieting in managing <a href="/wiki/Type_1_diabetes" title="Type 1 diabetes">type 1 diabetes</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-ups_42-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ups-42"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>42<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The <a href="/wiki/American_Diabetes_Association" title="American Diabetes Association">American Diabetes Association</a> recommends that people with diabetes should adopt a generally healthy diet, rather than a diet focused on carbohydrate or other macronutrients.<sup id="cite_ref-ada_41-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ada-41"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>41<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>An extreme form of low-carbohydrate diet – the <a href="/wiki/Ketogenic_diet" title="Ketogenic diet">ketogenic diet</a> – is established as a medical diet for treating <a href="/wiki/Epilepsy" title="Epilepsy">epilepsy</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-bda-2018_43-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-bda-2018-43"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>43<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Through <a href="/wiki/Celebrity_endorsement" class="mw-redirect" title="Celebrity endorsement">celebrity endorsement</a> during the early 21st century, it became a <a href="/wiki/Fad" title="Fad">fad</a> diet as a means of weight loss, but with risks of undesirable <a href="/wiki/Side_effect" title="Side effect">side effects</a>, such as low energy levels and increased hunger, <a href="/wiki/Insomnia" title="Insomnia">insomnia</a>, nausea, and <a href="/wiki/Gastrointestinal" class="mw-redirect" title="Gastrointestinal">gastrointestinal</a> discomfort.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Identifying_reliable_sources_(natural_sciences)" class="mw-redirect" title="Wikipedia:Identifying reliable sources (natural sciences)"><span title="Material near this tag needs references to reliable scientific sources. (May 2023)">scientific citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup><sup id="cite_ref-bda-2018_43-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-bda-2018-43"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>43<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The <a href="/wiki/British_Dietetic_Association" title="British Dietetic Association">British Dietetic Association</a> named it one of the "top 5 worst celeb diets to avoid in 2018".<sup id="cite_ref-bda-2018_43-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-bda-2018-43"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>43<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Sources">Sources</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Carbohydrate&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: Sources"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Glucose_2.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/33/Glucose_2.jpg/220px-Glucose_2.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/33/Glucose_2.jpg/330px-Glucose_2.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/33/Glucose_2.jpg/440px-Glucose_2.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1000" data-file-height="750" /></a><figcaption>Glucose tablets</figcaption></figure> <p>Most dietary carbohydrates contain glucose, either as their only building block (as in the polysaccharides starch and glycogen), or together with another monosaccharide (as in the hetero-polysaccharides sucrose and lactose).<sup id="cite_ref-44" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-44"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>44<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Unbound glucose is one of the main ingredients of honey. Glucose is extremely abundant and has been isolated from a variety of natural sources across the world, including male cones of the coniferous tree Wollemia nobilis in Rome,<sup id="cite_ref-45" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-45"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>45<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> the roots of Ilex asprella plants in China,<sup id="cite_ref-46" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-46"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>46<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and straws from rice in California.<sup id="cite_ref-47" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-47"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>47<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <table class="wikitable sortable" style="text-align:center; margin:auto"> <caption>Sugar content of selected common plant foods (in grams per 100 g)<sup id="cite_ref-www.nal.usda.gov_48-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-www.nal.usda.gov-48"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>48<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </caption> <tbody><tr> <th>Food <br />item </th> <th>Carbohydrate, <br />total,<sup class="plainlinks nourlexpansion citation" id="ref_2"><a href="#endnote_2">A</a></sup> including <br /><a href="/wiki/Dietary_fiber" title="Dietary fiber">dietary fiber</a> </th> <th>Total <br />sugars </th> <th>Free <br />fructose </th> <th>Free <br />glucose </th> <th>Sucrose </th> <th>Ratio of <br />fructose/<br />glucose </th> <th>Sucrose as <br />proportion of <br />total sugars (%) </th></tr> <tr> <th colspan="8" style="text-align:left">Fruits </th></tr> <tr> <td style="text-align:left;"><a href="/wiki/Apple" title="Apple">Apple</a></td> <td>13.8</td> <td>10.4</td> <td>5.9</td> <td>2.4</td> <td>2.1</td> <td>2.0</td> <td>19.9 </td></tr> <tr> <td style="text-align:left;"><a href="/wiki/Apricot" title="Apricot">Apricot</a></td> <td>11.1</td> <td>9.2</td> <td>0.9</td> <td>2.4</td> <td>5.9</td> <td>0.7</td> <td>63.5 </td></tr> <tr> <td style="text-align:left;"><a href="/wiki/Banana" title="Banana">Banana</a></td> <td>22.8</td> <td>12.2</td> <td>4.9</td> <td>5.0</td> <td>2.4</td> <td>1.0</td> <td>20.0 </td></tr> <tr> <td style="text-align:left;"><a href="/wiki/Ficus" title="Ficus">Fig</a>, dried</td> <td>63.9</td> <td>47.9</td> <td>22.9</td> <td>24.8</td> <td>0.9</td> <td>0.93</td> <td>0.15 </td></tr> <tr> <td style="text-align:left;"><a href="/wiki/Grape" title="Grape">Grapes</a></td> <td>18.1</td> <td>15.5</td> <td>8.1</td> <td>7.2</td> <td>0.2</td> <td>1.1</td> <td>1 </td></tr> <tr> <td style="text-align:left;"><a href="/wiki/Navel_orange" title="Navel orange">Navel orange</a></td> <td>12.5</td> <td>8.5</td> <td>2.25</td> <td>2.0</td> <td>4.3</td> <td>1.1</td> <td>50.4 </td></tr> <tr> <td style="text-align:left;"><a href="/wiki/Peach" title="Peach">Peach</a></td> <td>9.5</td> <td>8.4</td> <td>1.5</td> <td>2.0</td> <td>4.8</td> <td>0.9</td> <td>56.7 </td></tr> <tr> <td style="text-align:left;"><a href="/wiki/Pear" title="Pear">Pear</a></td> <td>15.5</td> <td>9.8</td> <td>6.2</td> <td>2.8</td> <td>0.8</td> <td>2.1</td> <td>8.0 </td></tr> <tr> <td style="text-align:left;"><a href="/wiki/Pineapple" title="Pineapple">Pineapple</a></td> <td>13.1</td> <td>9.9</td> <td>2.1</td> <td>1.7</td> <td>6.0</td> <td>1.1</td> <td>60.8 </td></tr> <tr> <td style="text-align:left;"><a href="/wiki/Plum" title="Plum">Plum</a></td> <td>11.4</td> <td>9.9</td> <td>3.1</td> <td>5.1</td> <td>1.6</td> <td>0.66</td> <td>16.2 </td></tr> <tr> <th colspan="8" style="text-align:left">Vegetables </th></tr> <tr> <td style="text-align:left;"><a href="/wiki/Beet" class="mw-redirect" title="Beet">Beet</a>, red</td> <td>9.6</td> <td>6.8</td> <td>0.1</td> <td>0.1</td> <td>6.5</td> <td>1.0</td> <td>96.2 </td></tr> <tr> <td style="text-align:left;"><a href="/wiki/Carrot" title="Carrot">Carrot</a></td> <td>9.6</td> <td>4.7</td> <td>0.6</td> <td>0.6</td> <td>3.6</td> <td>1.0</td> <td>77 </td></tr> <tr> <td style="text-align:left;"><a href="/wiki/Chili_pepper" title="Chili pepper">Red pepper</a>, sweet</td> <td>6.0</td> <td>4.2</td> <td>2.3</td> <td>1.9</td> <td>0.0</td> <td>1.2</td> <td>0.0 </td></tr> <tr> <td style="text-align:left;"><a href="/wiki/Onion" title="Onion">Onion</a>, sweet</td> <td>7.6</td> <td>5.0</td> <td>2.0</td> <td>2.3</td> <td>0.7</td> <td>0.9</td> <td>14.3 </td></tr> <tr> <td style="text-align:left;"><a href="/wiki/Sweet_potato" title="Sweet potato">Sweet potato</a></td> <td>20.1</td> <td>4.2</td> <td>0.7</td> <td>1.0</td> <td>2.5</td> <td>0.9</td> <td>60.3 </td></tr> <tr> <td style="text-align:left;"><a href="/wiki/Yam_(vegetable)" title="Yam (vegetable)">Yam</a></td> <td>27.9</td> <td>0.5</td> <td data-sort-value="" style="background: var(--background-color-interactive, #ececec); color: var(--color-base, inherit); vertical-align: middle; text-align: center;" class="table-na">Traces</td> <td data-sort-value="" style="background: var(--background-color-interactive, #ececec); color: var(--color-base, inherit); vertical-align: middle; text-align: center;" class="table-na">Traces</td> <td data-sort-value="" style="background: var(--background-color-interactive, #ececec); color: var(--color-base, inherit); vertical-align: middle; text-align: center;" class="table-na">Traces</td> <td data-sort-value="" style="background: var(--background-color-interactive, #ececec); color: var(--color-base, inherit); vertical-align: middle; text-align: center;" class="table-na">—</td> <td data-sort-value="" style="background: var(--background-color-interactive, #ececec); color: var(--color-base, inherit); vertical-align: middle; text-align: center;" class="table-na">Traces </td></tr> <tr> <td style="text-align:left;"><a href="/wiki/Sugar_cane" class="mw-redirect" title="Sugar cane">Sugar cane</a></td> <td></td> <td>13–18</td> <td>0.2–1.0</td> <td>0.2–1.0</td> <td>11–16</td> <td>1.0</td> <td>high </td></tr> <tr> <td style="text-align:left;"><a href="/wiki/Sugar_beet" title="Sugar beet">Sugar beet</a></td> <td></td> <td>17–18</td> <td>0.1–0.5</td> <td>0.1–0.5</td> <td>16–17</td> <td>1.0</td> <td>high </td></tr> <tr> <th colspan="8" style="text-align:left">Grains </th></tr> <tr> <td style="text-align:left;"><a href="/wiki/Maize" title="Maize">Corn</a>, sweet</td> <td>19.0</td> <td>6.2</td> <td>1.9</td> <td>3.4</td> <td>0.9</td> <td>0.61</td> <td>15.0 </td></tr></tbody></table> <p><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1041539562">.mw-parser-output .citation{word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}</style><span class="citation wikicite" id="endnote_2"><b><a href="#ref_2">^A</a></b></span> The carbohydrate value is calculated in the USDA database and does not always correspond to the sum of the sugars, the starch, and the "dietary fiber". </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Metabolism">Metabolism</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Carbohydrate&action=edit&section=18" title="Edit section: Metabolism"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951" /><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Carbohydrate_metabolism" title="Carbohydrate metabolism">Carbohydrate metabolism</a></div> <p>Carbohydrate metabolism is the series of <a href="/wiki/Biochemistry" title="Biochemistry">biochemical</a> processes responsible for the <a href="/wiki/Anabolism" title="Anabolism">formation</a>, <a href="/wiki/Catabolism" title="Catabolism">breakdown</a> and interconversion of carbohydrates in <a href="/wiki/Life" title="Life">living</a> <a href="/wiki/Organism" title="Organism">organisms</a>. </p><p>The most important carbohydrate is <a href="/wiki/Glucose" title="Glucose">glucose</a>, a simple sugar (<a href="/wiki/Monosaccharide" title="Monosaccharide">monosaccharide</a>) that is metabolized by nearly all known organisms. Glucose and other carbohydrates are part of a wide variety of metabolic pathways across species: <a href="/wiki/Plants" class="mw-redirect" title="Plants">plants</a> synthesize carbohydrates from carbon dioxide and water by <a href="/wiki/Photosynthesis" title="Photosynthesis">photosynthesis</a> storing the absorbed energy internally, often in the form of <a href="/wiki/Starch" title="Starch">starch</a> or <a href="/wiki/Lipid" title="Lipid">lipids</a>. Plant components are consumed by animals and <a href="/wiki/Fungi" class="mw-redirect" title="Fungi">fungi</a>, and used as fuel for <a href="/wiki/Cellular_respiration" title="Cellular respiration">cellular respiration</a>. Oxidation of one gram of carbohydrate yields approximately 16 kJ (4 kcal) of <a href="/wiki/Chemical_energy" title="Chemical energy">energy</a>, while the oxidation of one gram of lipids yields about 38 kJ (9 kcal). The human body stores between 300 and 500 g of carbohydrates depending on body weight, with the skeletal muscle contributing to a large portion of the storage.<sup id="cite_ref-Maughan_49-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Maughan-49"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>49<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Energy obtained from metabolism (e.g., oxidation of glucose) is usually stored temporarily within cells in the form of <a href="/wiki/Adenosine_triphosphate" title="Adenosine triphosphate">ATP</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-energetics_50-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-energetics-50"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>50<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Organisms capable of anaerobic and <a href="/wiki/Aerobic_respiration" class="mw-redirect" title="Aerobic respiration">aerobic respiration</a> metabolize glucose and <a href="/wiki/Oxygen" title="Oxygen">oxygen</a> (aerobic) to release energy, with <a href="/wiki/Carbon_dioxide" title="Carbon dioxide">carbon dioxide</a> and <a href="/wiki/Water" title="Water">water</a> as byproducts. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Catabolism">Catabolism</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Carbohydrate&action=edit&section=19" title="Edit section: Catabolism"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Catabolism is the metabolic reaction which cells undergo to break down larger molecules, extracting energy. There are two major <a href="/wiki/Metabolic_pathway" title="Metabolic pathway">metabolic pathways</a> of monosaccharide <a href="/wiki/Catabolism" title="Catabolism">catabolism</a>: <a href="/wiki/Glycolysis" title="Glycolysis">glycolysis</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Citric_acid_cycle" title="Citric acid cycle">citric acid cycle</a>. </p><p>In glycolysis, oligo- and polysaccharides are cleaved first to smaller monosaccharides by enzymes called <a href="/wiki/Glycoside_hydrolase" title="Glycoside hydrolase">glycoside hydrolases</a>. The monosaccharide units can then enter into monosaccharide catabolism. A 2 ATP investment is required in the early steps of glycolysis to phosphorylate Glucose to <a href="/wiki/Glucose_6-phosphate" title="Glucose 6-phosphate">Glucose 6-Phosphate</a> (<a href="/wiki/Glucose_6-phosphate" title="Glucose 6-phosphate">G6P</a>) and <a href="/wiki/Fructose_6-phosphate" title="Fructose 6-phosphate">Fructose 6-Phosphate</a> (<a href="/wiki/Fructose_6-phosphate" title="Fructose 6-phosphate">F6P</a>) to <a href="/wiki/Fructose_1,6-bisphosphate" title="Fructose 1,6-bisphosphate">Fructose 1,6-biphosphate</a> (<a href="/wiki/Fructose_1,6-bisphosphate" title="Fructose 1,6-bisphosphate">FBP</a>), thereby pushing the reaction forward irreversibly.<sup id="cite_ref-Maughan_49-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Maughan-49"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>49<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In some cases, as with humans, not all carbohydrate types are usable as the digestive and metabolic enzymes necessary are not present. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Carbohydrate_chemistry">Carbohydrate chemistry</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Carbohydrate&action=edit&section=20" title="Edit section: Carbohydrate chemistry"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Carbohydrate chemistry is a large and economically important branch of organic chemistry. Some of the main <a href="/wiki/Organic_reaction" title="Organic reaction">organic reactions</a> that involve carbohydrates are: </p> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Amadori_rearrangement" title="Amadori rearrangement">Amadori rearrangement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carbohydrate_acetalisation" title="Carbohydrate acetalisation">Carbohydrate acetalisation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carbohydrate_digestion" class="mw-redirect" title="Carbohydrate digestion">Carbohydrate digestion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cyanohydrin_reaction" title="Cyanohydrin reaction">Cyanohydrin reaction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Koenigs%E2%80%93Knorr_reaction" title="Koenigs–Knorr reaction">Koenigs–Knorr reaction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lobry_de_Bruyn%E2%80%93Van_Ekenstein_transformation" title="Lobry de Bruyn–Van Ekenstein transformation">Lobry de Bruyn–Van Ekenstein transformation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nef_reaction" title="Nef reaction">Nef reaction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wohl_degradation" title="Wohl degradation">Wohl degradation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tipson-Cohen_reaction" class="mw-redirect" title="Tipson-Cohen reaction">Tipson-Cohen reaction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ferrier_rearrangement" title="Ferrier rearrangement">Ferrier rearrangement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ferrier_II_reaction" class="mw-redirect" title="Ferrier II reaction">Ferrier II reaction</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Chemical_synthesis">Chemical synthesis</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Carbohydrate&action=edit&section=21" title="Edit section: Chemical synthesis"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951" /><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Carbohydrate_synthesis" title="Carbohydrate synthesis">Carbohydrate synthesis</a></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Carbohydrate_synthesis" title="Carbohydrate synthesis">Carbohydrate synthesis</a> is a sub-field of <a href="/wiki/Organic_chemistry" title="Organic chemistry">organic chemistry</a> concerned specifically with the generation of natural and unnatural carbohydrate structures. This can include the synthesis of <a href="/wiki/Monosaccharide" title="Monosaccharide">monosaccharide</a> residues or structures containing more than one monosaccharide, known as <a href="/wiki/Oligosaccharides" class="mw-redirect" title="Oligosaccharides">oligosaccharides</a>. Selective formation of <a href="/wiki/Glycosidic_bond" title="Glycosidic bond">glycosidic linkages</a> and selective reactions of <a href="/wiki/Hydroxy_group" title="Hydroxy group">hydroxyl groups</a> are very important, and the usage of <a href="/wiki/Protecting_group" title="Protecting group">protecting groups</a> is extensive. </p><p>Common reactions for glycosidic bond formation are as follows: </p> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Chemical_glycosylation" title="Chemical glycosylation">Chemical glycosylation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fischer_glycosidation" title="Fischer glycosidation">Fischer glycosidation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Koenigs-Knorr_reaction" class="mw-redirect" title="Koenigs-Knorr reaction">Koenigs-Knorr reaction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crich_beta-mannosylation" title="Crich beta-mannosylation">Crich beta-mannosylation</a></li></ul> <p>While some common protection methods are as below: </p> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Carbohydrate_acetalisation" title="Carbohydrate acetalisation">Carbohydrate acetalisation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trimethylsilyl" class="mw-redirect" title="Trimethylsilyl">Trimethylsilyl</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Benzyl" class="mw-redirect" title="Benzyl">Benzyl</a> ether</li> <li><a href="/wiki/P-methoxybenzyl" class="mw-redirect" title="P-methoxybenzyl">p-Methoxybenzyl</a> ether</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Carbohydrate&action=edit&section=22" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bioplastic" title="Bioplastic">Bioplastic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carbohydrate_NMR" class="mw-redirect" title="Carbohydrate NMR">Carbohydrate NMR</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gluconeogenesis" title="Gluconeogenesis">Gluconeogenesis</a> – A process where glucose can be synthesized by non-carbohydrate sources.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Glycobiology" title="Glycobiology">Glycobiology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Glycogen" title="Glycogen">Glycogen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Glycoinformatics" title="Glycoinformatics">Glycoinformatics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Glycolipid" title="Glycolipid">Glycolipid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Glycome" title="Glycome">Glycome</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Glycomics" title="Glycomics">Glycomics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Glycosyl" title="Glycosyl">Glycosyl</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Macromolecule" title="Macromolecule">Macromolecule</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Saccharic_acid" title="Saccharic acid">Saccharic acid</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Carbohydrate&action=edit&section=23" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-avenas-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-avenas_1-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-avenas_1-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output 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BiblioBazaar. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1113909954" title="Special:BookSources/978-1113909954"><bdi>978-1113909954</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20220417005854/https://books.google.com/books?id=WyZnVpCiTHIC&q=simplest+carbohydrate&pg=PA375">Archived</a> from the original on April 17, 2022<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">April 24,</span> 2022</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+Textbook+of+Botany+for+Colleges+and+Universities&rft.pub=BiblioBazaar&rft.date=1930&rft.isbn=978-1113909954&rft.aulast=Coulter&rft.aufirst=JM&rft.au=Barnes%2C+CR&rft.au=Cowles%2C+HC&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DWyZnVpCiTHIC%26q%3Dsimplest%2Bcarbohydrate%26pg%3DPA375&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACarbohydrate" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-tietz-12"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-tietz_12-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFBurtisAshwoodTietz2000" class="citation book cs1">Burtis CA, Ashwood ER, Tietz NW (2000). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=l5hqAAAAMAAJ&q=simplest+carbohydrate"><i>Tietz fundamentals of clinical chemistry</i></a>. W.B. Saunders. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780721686349" title="Special:BookSources/9780721686349"><bdi>9780721686349</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20160624073749/https://books.google.com/books?id=l5hqAAAAMAAJ&q=simplest+carbohydrate">Archived</a> from the original on June 24, 2016<span class="reference-accessdate">. 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(January 2018)">page needed</span></a></i>]</sup></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-14"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-14">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite class="citation book cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.fao.org/docrep/w8079e/w8079e07.htm">"Chapter 1 – The role of carbohydrates in nutrition"</a>. <i>Carbohydrates in human nutrition</i>. FAO Food and Nutrition Paper – 66. Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20151222095451/http://www.fao.org/docrep/w8079e/w8079e07.htm">Archived</a> from the original on December 22, 2015<span class="reference-accessdate">. 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Page <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://newton.nap.edu/books/0309085373/html/769.html">769</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20060912060636/http://newton.nap.edu/books/0309085373/html/769.html">Archived</a> September 12, 2006, at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-309-08537-3" title="Special:BookSources/0-309-08537-3">0-309-08537-3</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-25"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-25">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Joint WHO/FAO expert consultation (2003). <i><a rel="nofollow" class="external autonumber" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20110423051140/http://www.who.int/hpr/NPH/docs/who_fao_expert_report.pdf">[1]</a></i> (<a href="/wiki/Portable_Document_Format" class="mw-redirect" title="Portable Document Format">PDF</a>). 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(August 2017). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20180928044051/https://spiral.imperial.ac.uk:8443/bitstream/10044/1/54579/2/Kelly_et_al-2017-.pdf">"Whole grain cereals for the primary or secondary prevention of cardiovascular disease"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. <i>The Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews</i>. <b>8</b> (8): CD005051. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1002%2F14651858.CD005051.pub3">10.1002/14651858.CD005051.pub3</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC6484378">6484378</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/28836672">28836672</a>. 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Totowa, NJ: Humana Press. pp. <span class="nowrap">61–</span>77. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2009biof.book...61B">2009biof.book...61B</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1007%2F978-1-60761-214-8_5">10.1007/978-1-60761-214-8_5</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-60761-213-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-60761-213-1"><bdi>978-1-60761-213-1</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/19768616">19768616</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Lignocellulosic+Biomass+Pretreatment+Using+AFEX&rft.btitle=Biofuels&rft.place=Totowa%2C+NJ&rft.series=Methods+in+Molecular+Biology&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E61-%3C%2Fspan%3E77&rft.pub=Humana+Press&rft.date=2009&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1007%2F978-1-60761-214-8_5&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F19768616&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2009biof.book...61B&rft.isbn=978-1-60761-213-1&rft.aulast=Balan&rft.aufirst=V&rft.au=Bals%2C+B&rft.au=Chundawat%2C+SP&rft.au=Marshall%2C+D&rft.au=Dale%2C+BE&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACarbohydrate" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-www.nal.usda.gov-48"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-www.nal.usda.gov_48-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://fdc.nal.usda.gov/index.html">"FoodData Central"</a>. <i>fdc.nal.usda.gov</i>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=fdc.nal.usda.gov&rft.atitle=FoodData+Central&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Ffdc.nal.usda.gov%2Findex.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACarbohydrate" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Maughan-49"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Maughan_49-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Maughan_49-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFMaughan2013" class="citation web cs1">Maughan R (June 2013). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://onesearch.cuny.edu/primo-explore/fulldisplay?docid=TN_sciversesciencedirect_elsevierS0263-9319(13)00087-2&context=PC&vid=hc&search_scope=everything&tab=default_tab&lang=en_US">"Surgery Oxford"</a>. <i>www.onesearch.cuny.edu</i>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=www.onesearch.cuny.edu&rft.atitle=Surgery+Oxford&rft.date=2013-06&rft.aulast=Maughan&rft.aufirst=R&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fonesearch.cuny.edu%2Fprimo-explore%2Ffulldisplay%3Fdocid%3DTN_sciversesciencedirect_elsevierS0263-9319%2813%2900087-2%26context%3DPC%26vid%3Dhc%26search_scope%3Deverything%26tab%3Ddefault_tab%26lang%3Den_US&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACarbohydrate" class="Z3988"></span><sup class="noprint Inline-Template"><span style="white-space: nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Link_rot" title="Wikipedia:Link rot"><span title=" Dead link tagged June 2021">permanent dead link</span></a></i><span style="visibility:hidden; color:transparent; padding-left:2px">‍</span>]</span></sup></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-energetics-50"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-energetics_50-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFMehta2013" class="citation web cs1">Mehta S (October 9, 2013). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://pharmaxchange.info/press/2013/10/energetics-of-cellular-respiration-glucose-metabolism/">"Energetics of Cellular Respiration (Glucose Metabolism)"</a>. <i>Biochemistry Notes, Notes</i>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20180125234509/http://pharmaxchange.info/press/2013/10/energetics-of-cellular-respiration-glucose-metabolism/">Archived</a> from the original on January 25, 2018<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">October 15,</span> 2015</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Biochemistry+Notes%2C+Notes&rft.atitle=Energetics+of+Cellular+Respiration+%28Glucose+Metabolism%29&rft.date=2013-10-09&rft.aulast=Mehta&rft.aufirst=S&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fpharmaxchange.info%2Fpress%2F2013%2F10%2Fenergetics-of-cellular-respiration-glucose-metabolism%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACarbohydrate" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Further_reading">Further reading</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Carbohydrate&action=edit&section=24" title="Edit section: Further reading"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ars.usda.gov/ARSUserFiles/80400525/Data/SR/SR28/sr28_doc.pdf">"Compolition of foods raw, processed, prepared"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. <a href="/wiki/United_States_Department_of_Agriculture" title="United States Department of Agriculture">United States Department of Agriculture</a>. September 2015. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20161031150436/https://www.ars.usda.gov/ARSUserFiles/80400525/Data/SR/SR28/sr28_doc.pdf">Archived</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span> from the original on October 31, 2016<span class="reference-accessdate">. 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template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Metabolism,_catabolism,_anabolism113" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Metabolism" title="Metabolism">Metabolism</a>, <a href="/wiki/Catabolism" title="Catabolism">catabolism</a>, <a href="/wiki/Anabolism" title="Anabolism">anabolism</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">General</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Metabolic_pathway" title="Metabolic pathway">Metabolic pathway</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Metabolic_network" title="Metabolic network">Metabolic network</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Primary_nutritional_groups" title="Primary nutritional groups">Primary nutritional groups</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Bioenergetics" title="Bioenergetics">Energy<br /> metabolism</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Aerobic_respiration" class="mw-redirect" title="Aerobic respiration">Aerobic respiration</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Glycolysis" title="Glycolysis">Glycolysis</a> → <a href="/wiki/Pyruvate_dehydrogenase" title="Pyruvate dehydrogenase">Pyruvate decarboxylation</a> → <a href="/wiki/Citric_acid_cycle" title="Citric acid cycle">Citric acid cycle</a> → <a href="/wiki/Oxidative_phosphorylation" title="Oxidative phosphorylation">Oxidative phosphorylation</a> (<span style="font-size:85%;"><a href="/wiki/Electron_transport_chain" title="Electron transport chain">electron transport chain</a> + <a href="/wiki/ATP_synthase" title="ATP synthase">ATP synthase</a></span>)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Anaerobic_respiration" title="Anaerobic respiration">Anaerobic respiration</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li>Electron acceptors other than oxygen</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Fermentation" title="Fermentation">Fermentation</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Glycolysis" title="Glycolysis">Glycolysis</a> → <a href="/wiki/Substrate-level_phosphorylation" title="Substrate-level phosphorylation">Substrate-level phosphorylation</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Acetone%E2%80%93butanol%E2%80%93ethanol_fermentation" title="Acetone–butanol–ethanol fermentation">ABE</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethanol_fermentation" title="Ethanol fermentation">Ethanol</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lactic_acid_fermentation" title="Lactic acid fermentation">Lactic acid</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Specific<br /> paths</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Protein_metabolism" title="Protein metabolism">Protein metabolism</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Protein_biosynthesis" title="Protein biosynthesis">Protein synthesis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Protein_catabolism" title="Protein catabolism">Catabolism</a> (protein→peptide→amino acid)</li></ul> </div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Amino_acid" title="Amino acid">Amino acid</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Amino_acid_synthesis" title="Amino acid synthesis">Amino acid synthesis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Protein_catabolism#Amino_acid_degradation" title="Protein catabolism">Amino acid degradation</a> (amino acid→pyruvate, acetyl CoA, or TCA intermediate)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Urea_cycle" title="Urea cycle">Urea cycle</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Nucleic_acid_metabolism" title="Nucleic acid metabolism">Nucleotide<br /> metabolism</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Purine_metabolism" title="Purine metabolism">Purine metabolism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nucleotide_salvage" title="Nucleotide salvage">Nucleotide salvage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pyrimidine_metabolism" title="Pyrimidine metabolism">Pyrimidine metabolism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Purine_nucleotide_cycle" title="Purine nucleotide cycle">Purine nucleotide cycle</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Carbohydrate_metabolism" title="Carbohydrate metabolism">Carbohydrate metabolism</a><br />(<a href="/wiki/Carbohydrate_catabolism" title="Carbohydrate catabolism">carbohydrate catabolism</a><br />and <a href="/wiki/Anabolism" title="Anabolism">anabolism</a>)</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Human</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Glycolysis" title="Glycolysis">Glycolysis</a> ⇄ <a href="/wiki/Gluconeogenesis" title="Gluconeogenesis">Gluconeogenesis</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Glycogenolysis" title="Glycogenolysis">Glycogenolysis</a> ⇄ <a href="/wiki/Glycogenesis" title="Glycogenesis">Glycogenesis</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Pentose_phosphate_pathway" title="Pentose phosphate pathway">Pentose phosphate pathway</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fructolysis" title="Fructolysis">Fructolysis</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Polyol_pathway" title="Polyol pathway">Polyol pathway</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Galactolysis" title="Galactolysis">Galactolysis</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Leloir_pathway" title="Leloir pathway">Leloir pathway</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Glycosylation" title="Glycosylation">Glycosylation</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/N-linked_glycosylation" title="N-linked glycosylation">N-linked</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/O-linked_glycosylation" title="O-linked glycosylation">O-linked</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Nonhuman</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Photosynthesis" title="Photosynthesis">Photosynthesis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anoxygenic_photosynthesis" title="Anoxygenic photosynthesis">Anoxygenic photosynthesis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chemosynthesis" title="Chemosynthesis">Chemosynthesis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carbon_fixation" class="mw-redirect" title="Carbon fixation">Carbon fixation</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=DeLey-Doudoroff_pathway&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="DeLey-Doudoroff pathway (page does not exist)">DeLey-Doudoroff pathway</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Entner-Doudoroff_pathway" class="mw-redirect" title="Entner-Doudoroff pathway">Entner-Doudoroff pathway</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Xylose_metabolism" title="Xylose metabolism">Xylose metabolism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Radiotrophic_fungus" title="Radiotrophic fungus">Radiotrophism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Lipid_metabolism" title="Lipid metabolism">Lipid metabolism</a> <br />(<a href="/wiki/Lipolysis" title="Lipolysis">lipolysis</a>, <a href="/wiki/Lipogenesis" title="Lipogenesis">lipogenesis</a>)</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Fatty_acid_metabolism" title="Fatty acid metabolism">Fatty acid metabolism</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Fatty_acid_degradation" title="Fatty acid degradation">Fatty acid degradation</a> (<a href="/wiki/Beta_oxidation" title="Beta oxidation">Beta oxidation</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fatty_acid_synthesis" title="Fatty acid synthesis">Fatty acid synthesis</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Other</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Steroid" title="Steroid">Steroid metabolism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sphingolipid_metabolism" class="mw-redirect" title="Sphingolipid metabolism">Sphingolipid metabolism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eicosanoid_metabolism" class="mw-redirect" title="Eicosanoid metabolism">Eicosanoid metabolism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ketosis" title="Ketosis">Ketosis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reverse_cholesterol_transport" title="Reverse cholesterol transport">Reverse cholesterol transport</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Other</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bioinorganic_chemistry" title="Bioinorganic chemistry">Metal metabolism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Human_iron_metabolism" title="Human iron metabolism">Iron metabolism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethanol_metabolism" class="mw-redirect" title="Ethanol metabolism">Ethanol metabolism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phosphagen" title="Phosphagen">Phospagen system (ATP-PCr)</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374" /><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235" /></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Food_chemistry18" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374" /><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231" /><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Food_chemistry" title="Template:Food chemistry"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Food_chemistry" title="Template talk:Food chemistry"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Food_chemistry" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Food chemistry"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Food_chemistry18" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Food_chemistry" title="Food chemistry">Food chemistry</a></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Food_additive" title="Food additive">Additives</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Carbohydrates</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Food_coloring" title="Food coloring">Coloring</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Enzyme" title="Enzyme">Enzymes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Essential_fatty_acid" title="Essential fatty acid">Essential fatty acids</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Flavoring" title="Flavoring">Flavors</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Food_fortification" title="Food fortification">Fortification</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lipid" title="Lipid">Lipids</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mineral_(nutrient)" title="Mineral (nutrient)">"Minerals" (Chemical elements)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Protein" title="Protein">Proteins</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vitamin" title="Vitamin">Vitamins</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Water" title="Water">Water</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374" /><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235" /></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Types_of_carbohydrates184" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374" /><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231" /><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Carbohydrates" title="Template:Carbohydrates"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Carbohydrates" title="Template talk:Carbohydrates"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Carbohydrates" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Carbohydrates"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Types_of_carbohydrates184" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Types of <a class="mw-selflink selflink">carbohydrates</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">General</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Aldose" title="Aldose">Aldose</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ketose" title="Ketose">Ketose</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Furanose" title="Furanose">Furanose</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pyranose" title="Pyranose">Pyranose</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Geometry</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anomer" title="Anomer">Anomer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cyclohexane_conformation" title="Cyclohexane conformation">Cyclohexane conformation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Epimer" title="Epimer">Epimer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mutarotation" title="Mutarotation">Mutarotation</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Monosaccharide" title="Monosaccharide">Monosaccharides</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Diose" title="Diose">Dioses</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li>Aldodiose <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Glycolaldehyde" title="Glycolaldehyde">Glycolaldehyde</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Triose" title="Triose">Trioses</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li>Aldotriose <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Glyceraldehyde" title="Glyceraldehyde">Glyceraldehyde</a></li></ul></li> <li>Ketotriose <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Dihydroxyacetone" title="Dihydroxyacetone">Dihydroxyacetone</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Tetrose" title="Tetrose">Tetroses</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li>Aldotetroses <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Erythrose" title="Erythrose">Erythrose</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Threose" title="Threose">Threose</a></li></ul></li> <li>Ketotetrose <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Erythrulose" title="Erythrulose">Erythrulose</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Pentose" title="Pentose">Pentoses</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li>Aldopentoses <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Arabinose" title="Arabinose">Arabinose</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lyxose" title="Lyxose">Lyxose</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ribose" title="Ribose">Ribose</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Xylose" title="Xylose">Xylose</a></li></ul></li> <li>Ketopentoses <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ribulose" title="Ribulose">Ribulose</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Xylulose" title="Xylulose">Xylulose</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deoxy_sugar" title="Deoxy sugar">Deoxy sugars</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Deoxyribose" title="Deoxyribose">Deoxyribose</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Hexose" title="Hexose">Hexoses</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Aldohexose" class="mw-redirect" title="Aldohexose">Aldohexoses</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Allose" title="Allose">Allose</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Altrose" title="Altrose">Altrose</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Galactose" title="Galactose">Galactose</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Glucose" title="Glucose">Glucose</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gulose" title="Gulose">Gulose</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Idose" title="Idose">Idose</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mannose" title="Mannose">Mannose</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Talose" title="Talose">Talose</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ketohexose" class="mw-redirect" title="Ketohexose">Ketohexoses</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Fructose" title="Fructose">Fructose</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Psicose" title="Psicose">Psicose</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sorbose" title="Sorbose">Sorbose</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tagatose" title="Tagatose">Tagatose</a></li></ul></li> <li>Deoxy sugars <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Fucose" title="Fucose">Fucose</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fuculose" title="Fuculose">Fuculose</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rhamnose" title="Rhamnose">Rhamnose</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Heptose" title="Heptose">Heptoses</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li>Ketoheptoses <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Mannoheptulose" title="Mannoheptulose">Mannoheptulose</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sedoheptulose" title="Sedoheptulose">Sedoheptulose</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Above 7</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Octose" title="Octose">Octoses</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nonose" title="Nonose">Nonoses</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Neuraminic_acid" title="Neuraminic acid">Neuraminic acid</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Multiple</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Disaccharide" title="Disaccharide">Disaccharides</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cellobiose" title="Cellobiose">Cellobiose</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Isomaltose" title="Isomaltose">Isomaltose</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Isomaltulose" title="Isomaltulose">Isomaltulose</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lactose" title="Lactose">Lactose</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lactulose" title="Lactulose">Lactulose</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maltose" title="Maltose">Maltose</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sucrose" title="Sucrose">Sucrose</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trehalose" title="Trehalose">Trehalose</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Turanose" title="Turanose">Turanose</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Trisaccharide" title="Trisaccharide">Trisaccharides</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Maltotriose" title="Maltotriose">Maltotriose</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Melezitose" title="Melezitose">Melezitose</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Raffinose" title="Raffinose">Raffinose</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Tetrasaccharide" title="Tetrasaccharide">Tetrasaccharides</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Stachyose" title="Stachyose">Stachyose</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Other<br /> <a href="/wiki/Oligosaccharide" title="Oligosaccharide">oligosaccharides</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Acarbose" title="Acarbose">Acarbose</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fructooligosaccharide" title="Fructooligosaccharide">Fructooligosaccharide</a> (FOS)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Galactooligosaccharide" title="Galactooligosaccharide">Galactooligosaccharide</a> (GOS)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Isomaltooligosaccharide" title="Isomaltooligosaccharide">Isomaltooligosaccharide</a> (IMO)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maltodextrin" title="Maltodextrin">Maltodextrin</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Polysaccharide" title="Polysaccharide">Polysaccharides</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Beta-glucan" title="Beta-glucan">Beta-glucan</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Oat_beta-glucan" title="Oat beta-glucan">Oat beta-glucan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lentinan" title="Lentinan">Lentinan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Schizophyllan" title="Schizophyllan">Sizofiran</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zymosan" title="Zymosan">Zymosan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cellulose" title="Cellulose">Cellulose</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chitin" title="Chitin">Chitin</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chitosan" title="Chitosan">Chitosan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dextrin" title="Dextrin">Dextrin</a> / <a href="/wiki/Dextran" title="Dextran">Dextran</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Fructose" title="Fructose">Fructose</a> / <a href="/wiki/Fructan" title="Fructan">Fructan</a></i> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Inulin" title="Inulin">Inulin</a></li></ul></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Galactose" title="Galactose">Galactose</a> / <a href="/wiki/Galactose" title="Galactose">Galactan</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Glucose" title="Glucose">Glucose</a> / <a href="/wiki/Glucan" title="Glucan">Glucan</a></i> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Glycogen" title="Glycogen">Glycogen</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hemicellulose" title="Hemicellulose">Hemicellulose</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Levan_polysaccharide" title="Levan polysaccharide">Levan beta 2→6</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lignin" title="Lignin">Lignin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mannans" title="Mannans">Mannan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pectin" title="Pectin">Pectin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Starch" title="Starch">Starch</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Amylopectin" title="Amylopectin">Amylopectin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Amylose" title="Amylose">Amylose</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Xanthan_gum" title="Xanthan gum">Xanthan gum</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Category"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/23px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 1.5x, 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<script>(RLQ=window.RLQ||[]).push(function(){mw.config.set({"wgHostname":"mw-web.codfw.next-5974465d9c-nvmpm","wgBackendResponseTime":248,"wgPageParseReport":{"limitreport":{"cputime":"1.050","walltime":"1.195","ppvisitednodes":{"value":6429,"limit":1000000},"postexpandincludesize":{"value":233401,"limit":2097152},"templateargumentsize":{"value":6596,"limit":2097152},"expansiondepth":{"value":19,"limit":100},"expensivefunctioncount":{"value":14,"limit":500},"unstrip-depth":{"value":1,"limit":20},"unstrip-size":{"value":239963,"limit":5000000},"entityaccesscount":{"value":1,"limit":400},"timingprofile":["100.00% 1010.263 1 -total"," 41.28% 417.005 1 Template:Reflist"," 14.12% 142.613 12 Template:Navbox"," 13.83% 139.712 2 Template:Ety"," 12.73% 128.575 14 Template:Cite_book"," 12.34% 124.694 21 Template:Cite_journal"," 9.79% 98.908 1 Template:Wikt-lang"," 9.66% 97.574 1 Template:Metabolism"," 7.34% 74.178 1 Template:Short_description"," 5.44% 54.944 1 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Inc.","logo":{"@type":"ImageObject","url":"https:\/\/www.wikimedia.org\/static\/images\/wmf-hor-googpub.png"}},"datePublished":"2001-09-15T17:50:14Z","dateModified":"2025-02-04T23:40:39Z","image":"https:\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/0\/04\/Lactose.svg","headline":"organic compound that consists only of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen"}</script> </body> </html>