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Available in 16 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-16" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-language-progressive mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-language-progressive"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">16 languages</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AC%D9%88%D8%B1%D8%AC_%D9%83%D8%B3%D8%AA%D9%8A%D8%A7%D9%83%D8%A7%D9%88%D8%B3%D9%83%D9%8A" title="جورج كستياكاوسكي – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="جورج كستياكاوسكي" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>العربية</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-azb mw-list-item"><a href="https://azb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AC%D8%B1%D8%AC_%DA%A9%DB%8C%D8%B3%D8%AA%DB%8C%D8%A7%DA%A9%D9%88%DB%8C%DA%A9%DB%8C" title="جرج کیستیاکویکی – South Azerbaijani" lang="azb" hreflang="azb" data-title="جرج کیستیاکویکی" data-language-autonym="تۆرکجه" data-language-local-name="South Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>تۆرکجه</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs mw-list-item"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/George_Kistiakowsky" title="George Kistiakowsky – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="George Kistiakowsky" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="Czech" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Čeština</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/George_Bogdan_Kistiakowsky" title="George Bogdan Kistiakowsky – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="George Bogdan Kistiakowsky" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Deutsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eu mw-list-item"><a href="https://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/George_Kistiakowsky" title="George Kistiakowsky – Basque" lang="eu" hreflang="eu" data-title="George Kistiakowsky" data-language-autonym="Euskara" data-language-local-name="Basque" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Euskara</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AC%D8%B1%D8%AC_%DA%A9%DB%8C%D8%B3%D8%AA%DB%8C%D8%A7%DA%A9%D9%88%DB%8C%DA%A9%DB%8C" title="جرج کیستیاکویکی – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="جرج کیستیاکویکی" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>فارسی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/George_Kistiakowsky" title="George Kistiakowsky – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="George Kistiakowsky" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Français</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hy mw-list-item"><a href="https://hy.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D4%B3%D5%A5%D5%B8%D6%80%D5%A3%D5%AB_%D4%BF%D5%AB%D5%BD%D5%BF%D5%B5%D5%A1%D5%AF%D5%B8%D5%BE%D5%BD%D5%AF%D5%AB" title="Գեորգի Կիստյակովսկի – Armenian" lang="hy" hreflang="hy" data-title="Գեորգի Կիստյակովսկի" data-language-autonym="Հայերեն" data-language-local-name="Armenian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Հայերեն</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ka mw-list-item"><a href="https://ka.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%92%E1%83%94%E1%83%9D%E1%83%A0%E1%83%92%E1%83%98_%E1%83%99%E1%83%98%E1%83%A1%E1%83%A2%E1%83%98%E1%83%90%E1%83%99%E1%83%9D%E1%83%95%E1%83%A1%E1%83%99%E1%83%98" title="გეორგი კისტიაკოვსკი – Georgian" lang="ka" hreflang="ka" data-title="გეორგი კისტიაკოვსკი" data-language-autonym="ქართული" data-language-local-name="Georgian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ქართული</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-arz mw-list-item"><a href="https://arz.wikipedia.org/wiki/%DA%86%D9%88%D8%B1%DA%86_%D9%83%D9%8A%D8%B3%D8%AA%D9%8A%D8%A7%D9%83%D9%88%D8%B3%D9%83%D9%89" title="چورچ كيستياكوسكى – Egyptian Arabic" lang="arz" hreflang="arz" data-title="چورچ كيستياكوسكى" data-language-autonym="مصرى" data-language-local-name="Egyptian Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>مصرى</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-no mw-list-item"><a href="https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/George_Kistiakowski" title="George Kistiakowski – Norwegian Bokmål" lang="nb" hreflang="nb" data-title="George Kistiakowski" data-language-autonym="Norsk bokmål" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Bokmål" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk bokmål</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/George_Kistiakowsky" title="George Kistiakowsky – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="George Kistiakowsky" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Polish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Polski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/George_Kistiakowsky" title="George Kistiakowsky – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="George Kistiakowsky" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Português</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9A%D0%B8%D1%81%D1%82%D1%8F%D0%BA%D0%BE%D0%B2%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B8%D0%B9,_%D0%93%D0%B5%D0%BE%D1%80%D0%B3%D0%B8%D0%B9_%D0%91%D0%BE%D0%B3%D0%B4%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%BE%D0%B2%D0%B8%D1%87" title="Кистяковский, Георгий Богданович – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Кистяковский, Георгий Богданович" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Русский</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uk mw-list-item"><a href="https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9A%D1%96%D1%81%D1%82%D1%8F%D0%BA%D1%96%D0%B2%D1%81%D1%8C%D0%BA%D0%B8%D0%B9_%D0%93%D0%B5%D0%BE%D1%80%D0%B3%D1%96%D0%B9_%D0%91%D0%BE%D0%B3%D0%B4%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%BE%D0%B2%D0%B8%D1%87" title="Кістяківський Георгій Богданович – Ukrainian" lang="uk" hreflang="uk" data-title="Кістяківський Георгій Богданович" data-language-autonym="Українська" data-language-local-name="Ukrainian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Українська</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E4%B9%94%E6%B2%BB%C2%B7%E5%9F%BA%E6%96%AF%E4%BD%B3%E7%A7%91%E5%A4%AB%E6%96%AF%E5%9F%BA" title="乔治·基斯佳科夫斯基 – Chinese" lang="zh" hreflang="zh" data-title="乔治·基斯佳科夫斯基" 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Click here for more information." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/94/Symbol_support_vote.svg/19px-Symbol_support_vote.svg.png" decoding="async" width="19" height="20" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/94/Symbol_support_vote.svg/29px-Symbol_support_vote.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/94/Symbol_support_vote.svg/39px-Symbol_support_vote.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /></a></span></div></div> </div> <div id="siteSub" class="noprint">From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia</div> </div> <div id="contentSub"><div id="mw-content-subtitle"></div></div> <div id="mw-content-text" class="mw-body-content"><div class="mw-content-ltr mw-parser-output" lang="en" dir="ltr"><div class="shortdescription nomobile noexcerpt noprint searchaux" style="display:none">Ukrainian-American physical chemistry professor</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">In this name that follows <a href="/wiki/Eastern_Slavic_naming_customs" title="Eastern Slavic naming customs">Eastern Slavic naming customs</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Patronymic" title="Patronymic">patronymic</a> is <i> Bogdanovich</i> and the <a href="/wiki/Surname" title="Surname">family name</a> is <i> Kistiakowsky</i>.</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1257001546">.mw-parser-output .infobox-subbox{padding:0;border:none;margin:-3px;width:auto;min-width:100%;font-size:100%;clear:none;float:none;background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .infobox-3cols-child{margin:auto}.mw-parser-output .infobox .navbar{font-size:100%}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data:not(.notheme)>div:not(.notheme)[style]{background:#1f1f23!important;color:#f8f9fa}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data:not(.notheme) div:not(.notheme){background:#1f1f23!important;color:#f8f9fa}}@media(min-width:640px){body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table{display:table!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table>caption{display:table-caption!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table>tbody{display:table-row-group}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table tr{display:table-row!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table th,body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table td{padding-left:inherit;padding-right:inherit}}</style><table class="infobox biography vcard"><tbody><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-above" style="font-size:125%;"><div class="fn">George Kistiakowsky</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-image"><span class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Frameless"><a href="/wiki/File:Kistiakowsky.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="Head and shoulders of middle-aged man in suit and tie" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3e/Kistiakowsky.jpg/220px-Kistiakowsky.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="291" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3e/Kistiakowsky.jpg/330px-Kistiakowsky.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3e/Kistiakowsky.jpg/440px-Kistiakowsky.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1200" data-file-height="1587" /></a></span><div class="infobox-caption">George Kistiakowsky</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Born</th><td class="infobox-data">December 1 [<a href="/wiki/Old_Style_and_New_Style_dates" title="Old Style and New Style dates">O.S.</a> November 18] 1900<br /><div style="display:inline" class="birthplace"><a href="/wiki/Boiarka" title="Boiarka">Boiarka</a>, <a href="/wiki/Russian_Empire" title="Russian Empire">Russian Empire</a> (now Ukraine)</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Died</th><td class="infobox-data">December 7, 1982<span style="display:none">(1982-12-07)</span> (aged 82)<br /><div style="display:inline" class="deathplace"><a href="/wiki/Cambridge,_Massachusetts" title="Cambridge, Massachusetts">Cambridge</a>, <a href="/wiki/Massachusetts" title="Massachusetts">Massachusetts</a>, United States</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Nationality</th><td class="infobox-data category"><a href="/wiki/Ukrainian-American" class="mw-redirect" title="Ukrainian-American">Ukrainian-American</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Citizenship</th><td class="infobox-data category"><a href="/wiki/United_States" title="United States">American</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Alma mater</th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/University_of_Berlin" class="mw-redirect" title="University of Berlin">University of Berlin</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Known for</th><td class="infobox-data"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1126788409">.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul{line-height:inherit;list-style:none;margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol li,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul li{margin-bottom:0}</style><div class="plainlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Explosive_forming" title="Explosive forming">Explosive forming</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Manhattan_Project" title="Manhattan Project">Manhattan Project</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Awards</th><td class="infobox-data"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Department_of_the_Air_Force_Decoration_for_Exceptional_Civilian_Service" title="Department of the Air Force Decoration for Exceptional Civilian Service">Department of the Air Force Decoration for Exceptional Civilian Service</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Medal_for_Merit" title="Medal for Merit">Medal for Merit</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Medal_of_Freedom_(1945)" title="Medal of Freedom (1945)">Medal of Freedom</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Medal_of_Science" title="National Medal of Science">National Medal of Science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Priestley_Medal" title="Priestley Medal">Priestley Medal</a> (1972)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Franklin_Medal" title="Franklin Medal">Franklin Medal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Willard_Gibbs_Award" title="Willard Gibbs Award">Willard Gibbs Award</a> (1960)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1257001546"><b>Scientific career</b></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Fields</th><td class="infobox-data category"><a href="/wiki/Physical_chemistry" title="Physical chemistry">Physical chemistry</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Institutions</th><td class="infobox-data"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Princeton_University" title="Princeton University">Princeton University</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Harvard_University" title="Harvard University">Harvard University</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Los_Alamos_Laboratory" class="mw-redirect" title="Los Alamos Laboratory">Los Alamos Laboratory</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><a href="/wiki/Doctoral_advisor" title="Doctoral advisor">Doctoral advisor</a></th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Max_Bodenstein" title="Max Bodenstein">Max Bodenstein</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Doctoral students</th><td class="infobox-data"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Herbert_S._Gutowsky" title="Herbert S. Gutowsky">Herbert S. Gutowsky</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bruce_H._Mahan" title="Bruce H. Mahan">Bruce H. Mahan</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr style="display:none"><td colspan="2"> </td></tr><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header">Signature</th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data"><span class="infobox-signature skin-invert" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Kistiakowsky_signature.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/98/Kistiakowsky_signature.png/150px-Kistiakowsky_signature.png" decoding="async" width="150" height="63" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/98/Kistiakowsky_signature.png/225px-Kistiakowsky_signature.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/98/Kistiakowsky_signature.png/300px-Kistiakowsky_signature.png 2x" data-file-width="461" data-file-height="193" /></a></span></td></tr></tbody></table> <p><b>George Bogdanovich Kistiakowsky</b> (<a href="/wiki/Russian_language" title="Russian language">Russian</a>: <span lang="ru">Георгий Богданович Кистяковский</span>, <a href="/wiki/Ukrainian_language" title="Ukrainian language">Ukrainian</a>: <span lang="uk">Георгій Богданович Кістяківський</span>, <small><a href="/wiki/Romanization_of_Ukrainian" title="Romanization of Ukrainian">romanized</a>: </small><span title="Ukrainian-language romanization"><i lang="uk-Latn">Heorhii Bohdanovych Kistiakivskyi</i></span>; December 1 [<a href="/wiki/Old_Style_and_New_Style_dates" title="Old Style and New Style dates">O.S.</a> November 18] 1900 – December 7, 1982) was a <a href="/wiki/Ukrainian-American" class="mw-redirect" title="Ukrainian-American">Ukrainian-American</a> <a href="/wiki/Physical_chemistry" title="Physical chemistry">physical chemistry</a> professor at <a href="/wiki/Harvard" class="mw-redirect" title="Harvard">Harvard</a> who participated in the <a href="/wiki/Manhattan_Project" title="Manhattan Project">Manhattan Project</a> and later served as President <a href="/wiki/Dwight_D._Eisenhower" title="Dwight D. Eisenhower">Dwight D. Eisenhower</a>'s <a href="/wiki/President%27s_Science_Advisory_Committee" title="President's Science Advisory Committee">Science Advisor</a>. </p><p>Born in <a href="/wiki/Boyarka" class="mw-redirect" title="Boyarka">Boyarka</a><sup id="cite_ref-Kucherenko_1-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Kucherenko-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> in the old <a href="/wiki/Russian_Empire" title="Russian Empire">Russian Empire</a>, into "an old Ukrainian <a href="/wiki/Cossack" class="mw-redirect" title="Cossack">Cossack</a> family which was part of the intellectual elite in pre-revolutionary Russia",<sup id="cite_ref-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Kistiakowsky fled his homeland during the <a href="/wiki/Russian_Civil_War" title="Russian Civil War">Russian Civil War</a>. He made his way to Germany, where he earned his <a href="/wiki/PhD" class="mw-redirect" title="PhD">PhD</a> in physical chemistry under the supervision of <a href="/wiki/Max_Bodenstein" title="Max Bodenstein">Max Bodenstein</a> at the <a href="/wiki/University_of_Berlin" class="mw-redirect" title="University of Berlin">University of Berlin</a>. He emigrated to the United States in 1926, where he joined the faculty of <a href="/wiki/Harvard_University" title="Harvard University">Harvard University</a> in 1930, and became a citizen in 1933. </p><p>During World War II, Kistiakowsky was the head of the <a href="/wiki/National_Defense_Research_Committee" title="National Defense Research Committee">National Defense Research Committee</a> (NDRC) section responsible for the development of explosives, and the technical director of the Explosives Research Laboratory (ERL), where he oversaw the development of new explosives, including <a href="/wiki/RDX" title="RDX">RDX</a> and <a href="/wiki/HMX" title="HMX">HMX</a>. He was involved in research into the <a href="/wiki/Hydrodynamic" class="mw-redirect" title="Hydrodynamic">hydrodynamic</a> theory of explosions, and the development of <a href="/wiki/Shaped_charge" title="Shaped charge">shaped charges</a>. In October 1943, he was brought into the Manhattan Project as a consultant. He was soon placed in charge of X Division, which was responsible for the development of the <a href="/wiki/Explosive_lens" title="Explosive lens">explosive lenses</a> necessary for an <a href="/wiki/Implosion-type_nuclear_weapon" class="mw-redirect" title="Implosion-type nuclear weapon">implosion-type nuclear weapon</a>. In July 1945, he watched the first atomic explosion in the <a href="/wiki/Trinity_test" class="mw-redirect" title="Trinity test">Trinity test</a>. A few weeks later, another implosion-type weapon (<a href="/wiki/Fat_Man" title="Fat Man">Fat Man</a>) was dropped on <a href="/wiki/Nagasaki" title="Nagasaki">Nagasaki</a>. </p><p>From 1962 to 1965, Kistiakowsky chaired the <a href="/wiki/National_Academy_of_Sciences" title="National Academy of Sciences">National Academy of Sciences</a>'s <a href="/wiki/Committee_on_Science,_Engineering,_and_Public_Policy" title="Committee on Science, Engineering, and Public Policy">Committee on Science, Engineering, and Public Policy</a> (COSEPUP), and was its vice president from 1965 to 1973. He severed his connections with the government in protest against the <a href="/wiki/Vietnam_War" title="Vietnam War">war in Vietnam</a>, and became active in an antiwar organization, the <a href="/wiki/Council_for_a_Livable_World" title="Council for a Livable World">Council for a Livable World</a>, becoming its chairman in 1977. </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Early_life">Early life</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=George_Kistiakowsky&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Early life"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>George Bogdanovich Kistiakowsky was born in <a href="/wiki/Boyarka" class="mw-redirect" title="Boyarka">Boyarka</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-Kucherenko_1-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Kucherenko-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> in the <a href="/wiki/Kyiv_Governorate" class="mw-redirect" title="Kyiv Governorate">Kyiv Governorate</a> of the <a href="/wiki/Russian_Empire" title="Russian Empire">Russian Empire</a> (now part of <a href="/wiki/Ukraine" title="Ukraine">Ukraine</a>), on December 1 [<a href="/wiki/Old_Style_and_New_Style_dates" title="Old Style and New Style dates">O.S.</a> November 18] 1900.<sup id="cite_ref-parish-register_3-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-parish-register-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDainton1985379–380_4-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDainton1985379–380-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> George's grandfather Aleksandr Fedorovych Kistiakovsky was a professor of law and an attorney of the Russian Empire who specialized in <a href="/wiki/Criminal_law" title="Criminal law">criminal law</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHeuman19987–8,_213_5-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHeuman19987–8,_213-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> His father <a href="/wiki/Bogdan_Alexandrovich_Kistiakowsky" class="mw-redirect" title="Bogdan Alexandrovich Kistiakowsky">Bogdan Kistiakovsky</a> was a professor of legal philosophy at the <a href="/wiki/University_of_Kyiv" class="mw-redirect" title="University of Kyiv">University of Kyiv</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDainton1985379–380_4-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDainton1985379–380-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and was elected a member of the <a href="/wiki/National_Academy_of_Sciences_of_Ukraine" title="National Academy of Sciences of Ukraine">National Academy of Sciences of Ukraine</a> in 1919.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHeuman199837–38_6-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHeuman199837–38-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Kistiakowsky's mother was Maria Berendshtam, and he had a brother, <a href="/wiki/Alexander_Kistiakowsky" title="Alexander Kistiakowsky">Alexander</a> who became an ornithologist.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDainton1985379–380_4-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDainton1985379–380-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> George's uncle Ihor Kistiakovsky was the Minister of Internal Affairs of the <a href="/wiki/Ukrainian_State" title="Ukrainian State">Ukrainian State</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHeuman199837–38_6-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHeuman199837–38-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Kistiakowsky attended private schools in Kyiv and <a href="/wiki/Moscow" title="Moscow">Moscow</a> until the <a href="/wiki/Russian_Revolution_of_1917" class="mw-redirect" title="Russian Revolution of 1917">Russian Revolution</a> broke out in 1917. He then joined the anti-Communist <a href="/wiki/White_Army" title="White Army">White Army</a>. In 1920 he escaped from Russia in a commandeered French ship. After spending time in Turkey and <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Serbs,_Croats_and_Slovenes" class="mw-redirect" title="Kingdom of Serbs, Croats and Slovenes">Yugoslavia</a>, he made his way to <a href="/wiki/Weimar_Republic" title="Weimar Republic">Germany</a>, where he enrolled at the <a href="/wiki/University_of_Berlin" class="mw-redirect" title="University of Berlin">University of Berlin</a> later that year.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDainton1985379–380_4-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDainton1985379–380-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In 1925, he earned his <a href="/wiki/PhD" class="mw-redirect" title="PhD">PhD</a> in <a href="/wiki/Physical_chemistry" title="Physical chemistry">physical chemistry</a> under the supervision of <a href="/wiki/Max_Bodenstein" title="Max Bodenstein">Max Bodenstein</a>, writing his thesis on the <a href="/wiki/Photochemical" class="mw-redirect" title="Photochemical">photochemical</a> decomposition of <a href="/wiki/Chlorine_monoxide" title="Chlorine monoxide">chlorine monoxide</a> and <a href="/wiki/Ozone" title="Ozone">ozone</a>. He then became Bodenstein's graduate assistant.<sup id="cite_ref-Harvard_7-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Harvard-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDainton1985379–380_4-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDainton1985379–380-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> His first two published papers were elaborations of his thesis, co-written with Bodenstein.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDainton1985401_8-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDainton1985401-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In 1926, Kistiakowsky traveled to the United States as an <a href="/w/index.php?title=International_Education_Board&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="International Education Board (page does not exist)">International Education Board</a> fellow. <a href="/wiki/Hugh_Stott_Taylor" title="Hugh Stott Taylor">Hugh Stott Taylor</a>, another student of Bodenstein,<sup id="cite_ref-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> accepted Bodenstein's assessment of Kistiakowsky, and gave him a place at <a href="/wiki/Princeton_University" title="Princeton University">Princeton University</a>. That year, Kistiakowsky married a Swedish Lutheran<sup id="cite_ref-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> woman, Hildegard Moebius.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDainton1985379–380_4-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDainton1985379–380-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In 1928, they had a daughter, <a href="/wiki/Vera_Kistiakowsky" title="Vera Kistiakowsky">Vera</a>, who, in 1972 became the first woman appointed as a professor of physics at <a href="/wiki/MIT" class="mw-redirect" title="MIT">MIT</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Archives_11-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Archives-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> When Kistiakowsky's two-year fellowship ran out in 1927, he received a research associate and DuPont Fellowship. On October 25, 1928, he became an associate professor at Princeton.<sup id="cite_ref-Harvard_7-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Harvard-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDainton1985379–380_4-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDainton1985379–380-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Taylor and Kistiakowsky published a series of papers together.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDainton1985401_8-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDainton1985401-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Encouraged by Taylor, Kistiakowsky also published an <a href="/wiki/American_Chemical_Society" title="American Chemical Society">American Chemical Society</a> <a href="/wiki/Monograph" title="Monograph">monograph</a> on photochemical processes.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDainton1985401_8-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDainton1985401-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDainton1985379–380_4-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDainton1985379–380-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In 1930, Kistiakowsky joined the faculty of <a href="/wiki/Harvard_University" title="Harvard University">Harvard University</a>, an affiliation that continued throughout his career. At Harvard, his research interests were in <a href="/wiki/Thermodynamics" title="Thermodynamics">thermodynamics</a>, <a href="/wiki/Spectroscopy" title="Spectroscopy">spectroscopy</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Chemical_kinetics" title="Chemical kinetics">chemical kinetics</a>. He became increasingly involved in consulting for the government and industry. He became an associate professor again, this time at Harvard in 1933. That year he also became an American citizen and was elected to the <a href="/wiki/American_Academy_of_Arts_and_Sciences" title="American Academy of Arts and Sciences">American Academy of Arts and Sciences</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-12" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In 1938, he became the Abbott and James Lawrence Professor of Chemistry.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDainton1985382_13-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDainton1985382-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> He was elected to the United States <a href="/wiki/National_Academy_of_Sciences" title="National Academy of Sciences">National Academy of Sciences</a> the following year.<sup id="cite_ref-14" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In 1940, he was elected to the <a href="/wiki/American_Philosophical_Society" title="American Philosophical Society">American Philosophical Society</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-15" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="World_War_II">World War II</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=George_Kistiakowsky&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: World War II"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="National_Defense_Research_Committee">National Defense Research Committee</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=George_Kistiakowsky&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: National Defense Research Committee"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Kistiakowsky-george_b.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="Head and shoulders mug shot of middle-aged man in suit and tie. Lettering reads "C 16"" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/ca/Kistiakowsky-george_b.jpg/220px-Kistiakowsky-george_b.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="318" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/ca/Kistiakowsky-george_b.jpg/330px-Kistiakowsky-george_b.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/ca/Kistiakowsky-george_b.jpg/440px-Kistiakowsky-george_b.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1504" data-file-height="2177" /></a><figcaption>Kistiakowsky's Los Alamos wartime security badge</figcaption></figure> <p>Foreseeing an expanded role for science in <a href="/wiki/World_War_II" title="World War II">World War II</a>, which the United States had not yet joined, <a href="/wiki/President_of_the_United_States" title="President of the United States">President</a> <a href="/wiki/Franklin_D._Roosevelt" title="Franklin D. Roosevelt">Franklin D. Roosevelt</a> created the <a href="/wiki/National_Defense_Research_Committee" title="National Defense Research Committee">National Defense Research Committee</a> (NDRC) on June 27, 1940, with <a href="/wiki/Vannevar_Bush" title="Vannevar Bush">Vannevar Bush</a> as its chairman. <a href="/wiki/James_B._Conant" title="James B. Conant">James B. Conant</a>, the President of Harvard,<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEStewart19487_16-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEStewart19487-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> was appointed head of Division B, which was responsible for bombs, fuels, gases, and chemicals. He appointed Kistiakowsky to head its Section A-1, which was concerned with explosives.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEStewart194810_17-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEStewart194810-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In June 1941, the NDRC was absorbed into the <a href="/wiki/Office_of_Scientific_Research_and_Development" title="Office of Scientific Research and Development">Office of Scientific Research and Development</a> (OSRD). Bush became chairman of the OSRD, Conant succeeded him as chairman of the NDRC, and Kistiakowsky became head of Section B.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEStewart194852–54_18-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEStewart194852–54-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In a reorganization in December 1942, Division B was broken up, and he became head of Division 8, which was responsible for explosives and propellants, remaining in this position until February 1944.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEStewart194888_19-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEStewart194888-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Kistiakowsky was unhappy with the state of American knowledge of explosives and propellants.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDainton1985383_20-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDainton1985383-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Conant established the Explosives Research Laboratory (ERL) near the <a href="/wiki/Experimental_Mine,_U.S._Bureau_of_Mines" title="Experimental Mine, U.S. Bureau of Mines">laboratories</a> of the <a href="/wiki/United_States_Bureau_of_Mines" title="United States Bureau of Mines">Bureau of Mines</a> in <a href="/wiki/Bruceton,_Pennsylvania" title="Bruceton, Pennsylvania">Bruceton, Pennsylvania</a> in October 1940,<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTENoyes194825_21-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENoyes194825-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and Kistiakowsky initially supervised its activities, making occasional visits; but Conant did not formally appoint him as its technical director until the spring of 1941.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTENoyes194827_22-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENoyes194827-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Although initially hampered by a shortage of facilities, the ERL grew from five staff in 1941 to a wartime peak of 162 full-time laboratory staff in 1945.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTENoyes194828_23-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENoyes194828-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> An important field of research was <a href="/wiki/RDX" title="RDX">RDX</a>. This powerful explosive had been developed by the Germans before the war. The challenge was to develop an industrial process that could produce it on a large scale. RDX was also mixed with TNT to produce Composition B, which was widely used in various munitions, and <a href="/wiki/Torpex" title="Torpex">torpex</a>, which was used in torpedoes and depth charges. Pilot plants were in operation by May 1942, and large-scale production followed in 1943.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTENoyes194836–42_24-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENoyes194836–42-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In response to a special request for an explosive that could be smuggled through Japanese checkpoints by Chinese guerrillas, Kistakowsky mixed <a href="/wiki/HMX" title="HMX">HMX</a>, a non-toxic explosive produced as a by-product of the RDX process, with flour to create "<a href="/wiki/Aunt_Jemima" title="Aunt Jemima">Aunt Jemima</a>", after a brand of pancake flour. This was an edible explosive, which could pass for regular flour, and even be used in cooking.<sup id="cite_ref-25" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTENoyes194851_26-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENoyes194851-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In addition to research into synthetic explosives like RDX and HMX, the ERL investigated the properties of <a href="/wiki/Detonation" title="Detonation">detonations</a> and <a href="/wiki/Shock_wave" title="Shock wave">shock waves</a>. This was initiated as a pure research project, without obvious or immediate applications. Kistiakowsky visited England in 1941 and again in 1942, where he met with British experts, including <a href="/wiki/William_Penney" class="mw-redirect" title="William Penney">William Penney</a> and <a href="/wiki/G._I._Taylor" title="G. I. Taylor">Geoffrey Taylor</a>. When Kistiakowsky and <a href="/wiki/Edgar_Bright_Wilson,_Jr." class="mw-redirect" title="Edgar Bright Wilson, Jr.">Edgar Bright Wilson, Jr.</a>, surveyed the existing state of knowledge, they found several areas that warranted further investigation. Kistiakowsky began to look into the <a href="/wiki/Chapman%E2%80%93Jouguet_condition" title="Chapman–Jouguet condition">Chapman–Jouguet model</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTENoyes194858–64_27-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENoyes194858–64-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> which describes the way the <a href="/wiki/Shock_wave" title="Shock wave">shock wave</a> created by a detonation propagates.<sup id="cite_ref-28" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>At this time, the efficacy of the Chapman–Jouguet model was still in doubt, and it was the subject of studies by <a href="/wiki/John_von_Neumann" title="John von Neumann">John von Neumann</a> at the <a href="/wiki/Princeton_Institute_for_Advanced_Study" class="mw-redirect" title="Princeton Institute for Advanced Study">Princeton Institute for Advanced Study</a>. Kistiakowsky realized that the deviations from <a href="/wiki/Hydrodynamic" class="mw-redirect" title="Hydrodynamic">hydrodynamic</a> theory were the result of the speed of the chemical reactions themselves. To control the reaction, calculations down to the microsecond level were needed.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTENoyes194858–64_27-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENoyes194858–64-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Section 8 was drawn into the investigation of <a href="/wiki/Shaped_charge" title="Shaped charge">shaped charges</a>, whose mechanism was explained by Taylor and <a href="/wiki/James_L._Tuck" title="James L. Tuck">James Tuck</a> in 1943.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTENoyes194873_29-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENoyes194873-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Manhattan_Project">Manhattan Project</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=George_Kistiakowsky&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Manhattan Project"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>At the <a href="/wiki/Manhattan_Project" title="Manhattan Project">Manhattan Project</a>'s <a href="/wiki/Los_Alamos_Laboratory" class="mw-redirect" title="Los Alamos Laboratory">Los Alamos Laboratory</a>, research into <a href="/wiki/Implosion_(mechanical_process)" title="Implosion (mechanical process)">implosion</a> had been proceeding under <a href="/wiki/Seth_Neddermeyer" title="Seth Neddermeyer">Seth Neddermeyer</a>, but his division had worked with cylinders and small charges, and had produced only objects that looked like rocks. Their research was accorded a low priority, owing to expectations that a <a href="/wiki/Gun-type_nuclear_weapon" class="mw-redirect" title="Gun-type nuclear weapon">gun-type nuclear weapon</a> design would work for both <a href="/wiki/Uranium-235" title="Uranium-235">uranium-235</a> and <a href="/wiki/Plutonium" title="Plutonium">plutonium</a>, and implosion technology would not be required.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHoddesonHenriksenMeadeWestfall1993130–133_30-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHoddesonHenriksenMeadeWestfall1993130–133-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In September 1943, the Los Alamos Laboratory's director, <a href="/wiki/Robert_Oppenheimer" class="mw-redirect" title="Robert Oppenheimer">Robert Oppenheimer</a>, arranged for von Neumann to visit Los Alamos and investigate implosion with a fresh set of eyes. After reviewing Neddermeyer's studies, and discussing the matter with <a href="/wiki/Edward_Teller" title="Edward Teller">Edward Teller</a>, von Neumann suggested the use of high explosive in <a href="/wiki/Shaped_charge" title="Shaped charge">shaped charges</a> to implode a sphere, which he showed could not only result in a faster assembly of <a href="/wiki/Fissile" class="mw-redirect" title="Fissile">fissile</a> material than was possible with the gun method, but greatly reduce the amount of material required. The prospect of more efficient nuclear weapons impressed Oppenheimer, Teller and <a href="/wiki/Hans_Bethe" title="Hans Bethe">Hans Bethe</a>, but they decided that an expert on explosives was required. Kistiakowsky's name was immediately suggested, and he was brought into the project as a consultant in October 1943.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHoddesonHenriksenMeadeWestfall1993130–133_30-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHoddesonHenriksenMeadeWestfall1993130–133-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Implosion_nuclear_weapon_design_-_explosive_lenses.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="Cut away diagram of soccer ball like arrangement, with an inner and an outer ball." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/83/Implosion_nuclear_weapon_design_-_explosive_lenses.svg/250px-Implosion_nuclear_weapon_design_-_explosive_lenses.svg.png" decoding="async" width="250" height="250" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/83/Implosion_nuclear_weapon_design_-_explosive_lenses.svg/375px-Implosion_nuclear_weapon_design_-_explosive_lenses.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/83/Implosion_nuclear_weapon_design_-_explosive_lenses.svg/500px-Implosion_nuclear_weapon_design_-_explosive_lenses.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="700" data-file-height="700" /></a><figcaption>In an implosion-type nuclear weapon, polygonal <a href="/wiki/Explosive_lens" title="Explosive lens">explosive lenses</a> are arranged around the spherical <a href="/wiki/Pit_(nuclear_weapon)" title="Pit (nuclear weapon)">pit</a>.</figcaption></figure> <p>Kistiakowsky was initially reluctant to come, "partly because", he later explained, "I didn't think the bomb would be ready in time and I was interested in helping to win the war".<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHoddesonHenriksenMeadeWestfall1993137_31-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHoddesonHenriksenMeadeWestfall1993137-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> At Los Alamos, he began reorganizing the implosion effort. He introduced techniques such as photography and X-rays to study the behavior of shaped charges. The former had been extensively employed by the ERL, while the latter had been described in papers by Tuck, who also suggested using three-dimensional <a href="/wiki/Explosive_lens" title="Explosive lens">explosive lenses</a>. As with other aspects of the Manhattan Project, research into explosive lenses followed multiple lines of inquiry simultaneously because, as Kistiakowsky noted, it was "impossible to predict which of these basic techniques will be the more successful."<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHoddesonHenriksenMeadeWestfall1993137_31-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHoddesonHenriksenMeadeWestfall1993137-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Kistiakowsky brought with him to Los Alamos a detailed knowledge of all the studies into shaped charges, of explosives like Composition B, and of the procedures used at the ERL in 1942 and 1943. Increasingly, the ERL itself would be drawn into the implosion effort; its deputy director Duncan MacDougall also took charge of the Manhattan Project's Project Q.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHoddesonHenriksenMeadeWestfall1993166_32-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHoddesonHenriksenMeadeWestfall1993166-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Kistiakowsky replaced Neddermeyer as head of E (for explosives) Division in February 1944.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHoddesonHenriksenMeadeWestfall1993130–133_30-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHoddesonHenriksenMeadeWestfall1993130–133-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The implosion program acquired a new urgency after <a href="/wiki/Emilio_Segr%C3%A8" title="Emilio Segrè">Emilio Segrè</a>'s group at Los Alamos verified that plutonium produced in the <a href="/wiki/Nuclear_reactor" title="Nuclear reactor">nuclear reactors</a> contained <a href="/wiki/Plutonium-240" title="Plutonium-240">plutonium-240</a>, which made it unsuitable for use in a gun-type weapon.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHoddesonHenriksenMeadeWestfall1993236–240_33-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHoddesonHenriksenMeadeWestfall1993236–240-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> A series of crisis meetings in July 1944 concluded that the only prospect for a working plutonium weapon was implosion. In August, Oppenheimer reorganized the entire laboratory to concentrate on it. A new explosives group, X Division, was created under Kistiakowsky to develop the lenses.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHoddesonHenriksenMeadeWestfall1993241–247_34-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHoddesonHenriksenMeadeWestfall1993241–247-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Under Kistiakowsky's leadership, X-Division designed the complex explosive lenses needed to compress the fissile plutonium <a href="/wiki/Pit_(nuclear_weapon)" title="Pit (nuclear weapon)">pit</a>. These employed two explosives with significantly different <a href="/wiki/Explosive_velocity" class="mw-redirect" title="Explosive velocity">velocities of detonation</a> in order to produce the required waveform. Kistiakowsky chose <a href="/wiki/Baratol" title="Baratol">Baratol</a> for the slow explosive. After experimenting with various fast explosives, X-Division settled on Composition B. Work on molding the explosives into the right shape continued into 1945. The lenses needed to be flawless, and techniques for casting Composition B and Baratol had to be developed. The ERL managed to accomplish this by devising a procedure for preparing Baratol in a form that was easy to cast.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHoddesonHenriksenMeadeWestfall1993294–299_35-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHoddesonHenriksenMeadeWestfall1993294–299-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In March 1945, Kistiakowsky became part of the Cowpuncher Committee, so-called because it rode herd on the implosion effort.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHoddesonHenriksenMeadeWestfall1993316_36-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHoddesonHenriksenMeadeWestfall1993316-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> On July 16, 1945, Kistiakowsky watched as the first device was detonated in the <a href="/wiki/Trinity_test" class="mw-redirect" title="Trinity test">Trinity test</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDainton1985384_37-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDainton1985384-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> A few weeks later, a <a href="/wiki/Fat_Man" title="Fat Man">Fat Man</a> implosion-type nuclear weapon was dropped on <a href="/wiki/Nagasaki" title="Nagasaki">Nagasaki</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHoddesonHenriksenMeadeWestfall1993394–396_38-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHoddesonHenriksenMeadeWestfall1993394–396-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Along with his work on implosion, Kistiakowsky contributed to skiing in Los Alamos by using rings of explosives to fell trees for a ski slope — leading to the establishment of Sawyer's Hill Ski Tow Association.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGibsonMichnoviczMichnovicz200578_39-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGibsonMichnoviczMichnovicz200578-39"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> He divorced Hildegard in 1942 and married Irma E. Shuler in 1945. They were divorced in 1962, and he married Elaine Mahoney.<sup id="cite_ref-imdb_40-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-imdb-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="White_House_service">White House service</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=George_Kistiakowsky&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: White House service"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In 1957, during the Eisenhower Administration, Kistiakowsky was appointed to the <a href="/wiki/President%27s_Science_Advisory_Committee" title="President's Science Advisory Committee">President's Science Advisory Committee</a>, and succeeded <a href="/wiki/James_R._Killian" class="mw-redirect" title="James R. Killian">James R. Killian</a> as chairman in 1959. He directed the <a href="/wiki/Office_of_Science_and_Technology_Policy" title="Office of Science and Technology Policy">Office of Science and Technology Policy</a> from 1959 to 1961, when he was succeeded by <a href="/wiki/Jerome_B._Wiesner" class="mw-redirect" title="Jerome B. Wiesner">Jerome B. Wiesner</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-41" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-41"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>41<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Atlas_missile_launch.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="A rocket takes off from the launch pad." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/90/Atlas_missile_launch.jpg/170px-Atlas_missile_launch.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="247" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/90/Atlas_missile_launch.jpg/255px-Atlas_missile_launch.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/90/Atlas_missile_launch.jpg/340px-Atlas_missile_launch.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2400" data-file-height="3494" /></a><figcaption> <a href="/wiki/SM-65_Atlas" title="SM-65 Atlas">Atlas</a>, a first-generation <a href="/wiki/Intercontinental_ballistic_missile" title="Intercontinental ballistic missile">intercontinental ballistic missile</a></figcaption></figure> <p>In 1958, Kistiakowsky suggested to President Eisenhower that inspection of foreign military facilities was not sufficient to control their nuclear weapons. He cited the difficulty in monitoring missile submarines, and proposed that the arms control strategy focus on disarmament rather than inspections.<sup id="cite_ref-42" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-42"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>42<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In January 1960, as part of arms control planning and negotiation, he suggested the "threshold concept". Under this proposal, all nuclear tests above the level of seismic detection technology would be forbidden. After such an agreement, the US and USSR would work jointly to improve detection technology, revising the permissible test yield downward as techniques improved. This example of the "national means of technical verification", a euphemism for sensitive intelligence collection used in arms control, would provide safeguards, without raising the on-site inspection requirement to a level unacceptable to the Soviets. The US introduced the threshold concept to the Soviets at the Geneva arms control conference in January 1960 and the Soviets, in March, responded favorably, suggesting a threshold of a given seismic magnitude. Talks broke down as a result of the <a href="/wiki/U-2_Crisis_of_1960" class="mw-redirect" title="U-2 Crisis of 1960">U-2 Crisis of 1960</a> in May.<sup id="cite_ref-43" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-43"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>43<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>At the same time as the early nuclear arms control work, the <a href="/wiki/Chairman_of_the_Joint_Chiefs_of_Staff" title="Chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff">Chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff</a>, General <a href="/wiki/Nathan_F._Twining" title="Nathan F. Twining">Nathan F. Twining</a>, sent a memorandum,<sup id="cite_ref-44" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-44"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>44<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> in August 1959, to the <a href="/wiki/United_States_Secretary_of_Defense" title="United States Secretary of Defense">Secretary of Defense</a>, <a href="/wiki/Neil_McElroy" class="mw-redirect" title="Neil McElroy">Neil McElroy</a>, which suggested that the <a href="/wiki/Strategic_Air_Command" title="Strategic Air Command">Strategic Air Command</a> (SAC) formally be assigned responsibility to prepare the national nuclear target list, and a single plan for nuclear operations. Up to that point, the Army, Navy, and Air Force had done their own target planning. This had led to the same objectives being targeted multiple times by the different services. The separate service plans were not mutually supporting as in, for example, the Navy destroying an air defense facility on the route of an Air Force bomber going to a deeper target. While Twining had sent the memo to McElroy, the members of the <a href="/wiki/Joint_Chiefs_of_Staff" title="Joint Chiefs of Staff">Joint Chiefs of Staff</a> disagreed on the policy during early 1960.<sup id="cite_ref-45" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-45"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>45<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-46" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-46"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>46<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Thomas_Sovereign_Gates,_Jr." class="mw-redirect" title="Thomas Sovereign Gates, Jr.">Thomas Gates</a>, who succeeded McElroy, asked <a href="/wiki/President_of_the_United_States" title="President of the United States">President</a> <a href="/wiki/Dwight_D._Eisenhower" title="Dwight D. Eisenhower">Dwight D. Eisenhower</a> to decide the policy.<sup id="cite_ref-47" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-47"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>47<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Eisenhower said he would not "leave his successor with the monstrosity" of the uncoordinated and un-integrated forces that then existed. In early November 1960, he sent Kistiakowsky to SAC Headquarters in Omaha to evaluate its war plans. Initially, Kistiakowsky was not given access, and Eisenhower sent him back, with a much stronger set of orders for SAC officers to cooperate. Kistiakowsky's report, presented on November 29, described uncoordinated plans with huge numbers of targets, many of which would be attacked by multiple forces, resulting in overkill. Eisenhower was shocked by the plans, and focused not just on the creation of the <a href="/wiki/Single_Integrated_Operational_Plan" title="Single Integrated Operational Plan">Single Integrated Operational Plan</a> (SIOP), but on the entire process of picking targets, generating requirements, and planning for nuclear war operations.<sup id="cite_ref-48" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-48"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>48<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Later_life">Later life</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=George_Kistiakowsky&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Later life"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div><p> Between his work for the Manhattan Project and his White House service, and again after he left the White House, Kistiakowsky was a professor of physical chemistry at Harvard. When asked to teach a freshman class in 1957, he turned to <a href="/wiki/Hubert_Alyea" title="Hubert Alyea">Hubert Alyea</a>, whose lecture style had impressed him. Alyea sent him some 700 4-by-6-inch (10.2 by 15.2 cm) <a href="/wiki/Index_card" title="Index card">index cards</a> containing details of lecture demonstrations. Aside from the cards, Kistiakowsky never prepared the demonstrations. He later recalled:<style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1244412712">.mw-parser-output .templatequote{overflow:hidden;margin:1em 0;padding:0 32px}.mw-parser-output .templatequotecite{line-height:1.5em;text-align:left;margin-top:0}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .templatequotecite{padding-left:1.6em}}</style></p><blockquote class="templatequote"><p>I didn't think that was giving mother Nature a sporting chance. I would come into the lecture hall, glance at the chemicals and pile of cards and announce to the students "let's see what Alyea has for us today". I never used a text book, only your cards. I would glance at the instructions and carry out the experiment. If it worked we would bless you and pass on to the next demonstration. If it didn't work we would curse you, and spend the rest of the lecture trying to make it work.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDainton1985382_13-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDainton1985382-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p></blockquote><p> He retired from Harvard as professor emeritus in 1972.<sup id="cite_ref-LANL_49-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-LANL-49"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>49<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>From 1962 to 1965, Kistiakowsky chaired the National Academy of Science's <a href="/wiki/Committee_on_Science,_Engineering,_and_Public_Policy" title="Committee on Science, Engineering, and Public Policy">Committee on Science, Engineering, and Public Policy</a> (COSEPUP),<sup id="cite_ref-50" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-50"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>50<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and was its vice president from 1965 to 1973.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDainton1985386_51-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDainton1985386-51"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>51<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> He received several awards over the years, including the <a href="/wiki/Department_of_the_Air_Force_Decoration_for_Exceptional_Civilian_Service" title="Department of the Air Force Decoration for Exceptional Civilian Service">Department of the Air Force Decoration for Exceptional Civilian Service</a> in 1957. He was awarded the <a href="/wiki/Medal_for_Merit" title="Medal for Merit">Medal for Merit</a> by President Truman, the <a href="/wiki/Medal_of_Freedom_(1945)" title="Medal of Freedom (1945)">Medal of Freedom</a> by President Eisenhower in 1961, and the <a href="/wiki/National_Medal_of_Science" title="National Medal of Science">National Medal of Science</a> by President <a href="/wiki/Lyndon_Johnson" class="mw-redirect" title="Lyndon Johnson">Lyndon Johnson</a> in 1967. He was also a recipient the <a href="/wiki/Charles_Lathrop_Parsons_Award" title="Charles Lathrop Parsons Award">Charles Lathrop Parsons Award</a> for public service from the <a href="/wiki/American_Chemical_Society" title="American Chemical Society">American Chemical Society</a> in 1961,<sup id="cite_ref-52" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-52"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>52<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Priestley_Medal" title="Priestley Medal">Priestley Medal</a> from the American Chemical Society in 1972, and the <a href="/wiki/Franklin_Medal" title="Franklin Medal">Franklin Medal</a> from Harvard.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDainton1985400_53-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDainton1985400-53"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>53<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-BAS_54-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-BAS-54"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>54<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Kistiakowsky_Grove.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/89/Kistiakowsky_Grove.jpg/220px-Kistiakowsky_Grove.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/89/Kistiakowsky_Grove.jpg/330px-Kistiakowsky_Grove.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/89/Kistiakowsky_Grove.jpg/440px-Kistiakowsky_Grove.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1600" data-file-height="1200" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Arthur_M._Poskanzer" title="Arthur M. Poskanzer">Arthur M. Poskanzer</a> visiting Kistiakowsky Grove</figcaption></figure><p> In later years, Kistiakowsky was active in an antiwar organization, the <a href="/wiki/Council_for_a_Livable_World" title="Council for a Livable World">Council for a Livable World</a>. He severed his connections with the government in protest against the US involvement in the <a href="/wiki/Vietnam_War" title="Vietnam War">Vietnam War</a>. In 1977, he assumed the chairmanship of the council, campaigning against nuclear proliferation.<sup id="cite_ref-LANL_49-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-LANL-49"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>49<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> He died of cancer in <a href="/wiki/Cambridge,_Massachusetts" title="Cambridge, Massachusetts">Cambridge, Massachusetts</a>, on December 17, 1982.<sup id="cite_ref-Obit_55-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Obit-55"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>55<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-BAS_54-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-BAS-54"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>54<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> His body was cremated, and his ashes scattered near his summer home on <a href="/wiki/Cape_Cod,_Massachusetts" class="mw-redirect" title="Cape Cod, Massachusetts">Cape Cod, Massachusetts</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-imdb_40-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-imdb-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> His papers are in the Harvard University archives.<sup id="cite_ref-56" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-56"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>56<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> He is also memorialized by a redwood grove in <a href="/wiki/Montgomery_Woods_State_Natural_Reserve" title="Montgomery Woods State Natural Reserve">Montgomery Woods State Natural Reserve</a> in California. </p><div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Notes">Notes</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=George_Kistiakowsky&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Notes"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist reflist-columns references-column-width" style="column-width: 30em;"> <ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-Kucherenko-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Kucherenko_1-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a 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a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite id="CITEREFКучеренко2006" class="citation journal cs1 cs1-prop-long-vol">Кучеренко, Микола (2006). "Будинок Кістяківських у Боярці". <i>Український археографічний щорічник</i>. 10/11: 856.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=%D0%A3%D0%BA%D1%80%D0%B0%D1%97%D0%BD%D1%81%D1%8C%D0%BA%D0%B8%D0%B9+%D0%B0%D1%80%D1%85%D0%B5%D0%BE%D0%B3%D1%80%D0%B0%D1%84%D1%96%D1%87%D0%BD%D0%B8%D0%B9+%D1%89%D0%BE%D1%80%D1%96%D1%87%D0%BD%D0%B8%D0%BA&rft.atitle=%D0%91%D1%83%D0%B4%D0%B8%D0%BD%D0%BE%D0%BA+%D0%9A%D1%96%D1%81%D1%82%D1%8F%D0%BA%D1%96%D0%B2%D1%81%D1%8C%D0%BA%D0%B8%D1%85+%D1%83+%D0%91%D0%BE%D1%8F%D1%80%D1%86%D1%96&rft.volume=10%2F11&rft.pages=856&rft.date=2006&rft.aulast=%D0%9A%D1%83%D1%87%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%B5%D0%BD%D0%BA%D0%BE&rft.aufirst=%D0%9C%D0%B8%D0%BA%D0%BE%D0%BB%D0%B0&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGeorge+Kistiakowsky" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-2">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><i>The Ukrainian Review</i>, v. 7 (1959), p. 125</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-parish-register-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-parish-register_3-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://cdiak.archives.gov.ua/images/arxiv_cetera/ac_2016_09_20/0127_1078_2220_0181.jpg">Запис про народження 18 листопада (ст. ст.) 1900 року Георгія Кістяківського в метричній книзі церкви Успіння Пресвятої Богородиці села Боярка Київського повіту</a> // <a href="/wiki/Central_State_Historical_Archives_of_Ukraine_in_Kyiv" title="Central State Historical Archives of Ukraine in Kyiv">ЦДІАК України</a>. 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(George Bogdan), 1900– Papers of George B. Kistiakowsky : an inventory"</a>. <a href="/wiki/Harvard_University" title="Harvard University">Harvard University</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://oasis.lib.harvard.edu/oasis/deliver/~hua08001">the original</a> on February 12, 2020<span class="reference-accessdate">. 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Retrieved <span class="nowrap">May 9,</span> 2013</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Kistiakowsky%2C+George+B.+%28George+Bogdan%29%2C+1900%E2%80%93+Papers+of+George+B.+Kistiakowsky%3A+an+inventory.+Harvard+University+Archives&rft.pub=Harvard+University&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Foasis.lib.harvard.edu%2Foasis%2Fdeliver%2F~hua08001&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGeorge+Kistiakowsky" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> </ol></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=George_Kistiakowsky&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDainton1985" class="citation journal cs1"><a href="/wiki/Frederick_Dainton,_Baron_Dainton" title="Frederick Dainton, Baron Dainton">Dainton, F.</a> (1985). "George Bogdan Kistiakowsky. 18 November 1900-7 December 1982". <i><a href="/wiki/Biographical_Memoirs_of_Fellows_of_the_Royal_Society" title="Biographical Memoirs of Fellows of the Royal Society">Biographical Memoirs of Fellows of the Royal Society</a></i>. <b>31</b>: 376–408. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1098%2Frsbm.1985.0013">10.1098/rsbm.1985.0013</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/769930">769930</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:71285501">71285501</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Biographical+Memoirs+of+Fellows+of+the+Royal+Society&rft.atitle=George+Bogdan+Kistiakowsky.+18+November+1900-7+December+1982&rft.volume=31&rft.pages=376-408&rft.date=1985&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A71285501%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F769930%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1098%2Frsbm.1985.0013&rft.aulast=Dainton&rft.aufirst=F.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGeorge+Kistiakowsky" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGibsonMichnoviczMichnovicz2005" class="citation book cs1">Gibson, Toni Michnovicz; Michnovicz, Jon & Michnovicz, John (2005). <i>Los Alamos: 1944–1947</i>. Charleston, South Carolina: Arcadia. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7385-2973-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-7385-2973-8"><bdi>978-0-7385-2973-8</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/59715051">59715051</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Los+Alamos%3A+1944%E2%80%931947&rft.place=Charleston%2C+South+Carolina&rft.pub=Arcadia&rft.date=2005&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F59715051&rft.isbn=978-0-7385-2973-8&rft.aulast=Gibson&rft.aufirst=Toni+Michnovicz&rft.au=Michnovicz%2C+Jon&rft.au=Michnovicz%2C+John&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGeorge+Kistiakowsky" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHeuman1998" class="citation book cs1">Heuman, Susan Eva (1998). <i>Kistiakovsky: The Struggle for National and Constitutional Rights in the Last Years of Tsarism</i>. Cambridge, Massachusetts: Distributed by Harvard University Press for the Harvard Ukrainian Research Institute. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-916458-61-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-916458-61-4"><bdi>978-0-916458-61-4</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/38853810">38853810</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Kistiakovsky%3A+The+Struggle+for+National+and+Constitutional+Rights+in+the+Last+Years+of+Tsarism&rft.place=Cambridge%2C+Massachusetts&rft.pub=Distributed+by+Harvard+University+Press+for+the+Harvard+Ukrainian+Research+Institute&rft.date=1998&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F38853810&rft.isbn=978-0-916458-61-4&rft.aulast=Heuman&rft.aufirst=Susan+Eva&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGeorge+Kistiakowsky" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHoddesonHenriksenMeadeWestfall1993" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Lillian_Hoddeson" title="Lillian Hoddeson">Hoddeson, Lillian</a>; Henriksen, Paul W.; Meade, Roger A. & <a href="/wiki/Catherine_Westfall" title="Catherine Westfall">Westfall, Catherine L.</a> (1993). <span class="id-lock-registration" title="Free registration required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/criticalassembly0000unse"><i>Critical Assembly: A Technical History of Los Alamos During the Oppenheimer Years, 1943–1945</i></a></span>. New York: Cambridge University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-521-44132-3" title="Special:BookSources/0-521-44132-3"><bdi>0-521-44132-3</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/26764320">26764320</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Critical+Assembly%3A+A+Technical+History+of+Los+Alamos+During+the+Oppenheimer+Years%2C+1943%E2%80%931945&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=1993&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F26764320&rft.isbn=0-521-44132-3&rft.aulast=Hoddeson&rft.aufirst=Lillian&rft.au=Henriksen%2C+Paul+W.&rft.au=Meade%2C+Roger+A.&rft.au=Westfall%2C+Catherine+L.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fcriticalassembly0000unse&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGeorge+Kistiakowsky" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFNoyes1948" class="citation book cs1">Noyes, W. Albert, ed. (1948). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://hdl.handle.net/2027/mdp.39015014208352?urlappend=%3Bseq=53"><i>Chemistry, a History of the Chemistry Components of the National Defense Research Committee, 1940–1946</i></a>. Science in World War II; Office of Scientific Research and Development. Boston: Little, Brown. <a href="/wiki/Hdl_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Hdl (identifier)">hdl</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://hdl.handle.net/2027%2Fmdp.39015014208352?urlappend=%3Bseq=53">2027/mdp.39015014208352</a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/14669626">14669626</a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">May 9,</span> 2013</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Chemistry%2C+a+History+of+the+Chemistry+Components+of+the+National+Defense+Research+Committee%2C+1940%E2%80%931946&rft.place=Boston&rft.series=Science+in+World+War+II%3B+Office+of+Scientific+Research+and+Development&rft.pub=Little%2C+Brown&rft.date=1948&rft_id=info%3Ahdl%2F2027%2Fmdp.39015014208352%3Furlappend%3D%253Bseq%3D53&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F14669626&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fhdl.handle.net%2F2027%2Fmdp.39015014208352%3Furlappend%3D%253Bseq%3D53&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGeorge+Kistiakowsky" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFStewart1948" class="citation book cs1">Stewart, Irvin (1948). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/organizingscient00stew"><i>Organizing Scientific Research for War: The Administrative History of the Office of Scientific Research and Development</i></a>. Boston: Little, Brown and Company. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/500138898">500138898</a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">April 1,</span> 2012</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Organizing+Scientific+Research+for+War%3A+The+Administrative+History+of+the+Office+of+Scientific+Research+and+Development&rft.place=Boston&rft.pub=Little%2C+Brown+and+Company&rft.date=1948&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F500138898&rft.aulast=Stewart&rft.aufirst=Irvin&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Forganizingscient00stew&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGeorge+Kistiakowsky" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Further_reading">Further reading</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=George_Kistiakowsky&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Further reading"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li>Lawrence Badash, J.O. Hirschfelder & H.P. Broida, eds., Reminiscences of Los Alamos 1943–1945 (Studies in the History of Modern Science), Springer, 1980, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/90-277-1098-8" title="Special:BookSources/90-277-1098-8">90-277-1098-8</a>.</li> <li>Confessions of a Weaponeer, <i><a href="/wiki/PBS_Nova" class="mw-redirect" title="PBS Nova">PBS Nova</a></i>, with <a href="/wiki/Carl_Sagan" title="Carl Sagan">Carl Sagan</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.pbs.org/wgbh/nova/listseason/14.html">pbs.org</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=George_Kistiakowsky&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: External links"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://manhattanprojectvoices.org/oral-histories/george-kistiakowskys-interview">1982 Audio Interview with George Kistiakowsky</a> by <a href="/wiki/Richard_Rhodes" title="Richard Rhodes">Richard Rhodes</a> at <a href="/wiki/Voices_of_the_Manhattan_Project" class="mw-redirect" title="Voices of the Manhattan Project">Voices of the Manhattan Project</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://manhattanprojectvoices.org/oral-histories/vera-kistiakowskys-interview">2014 Video Interview with Vera Kistiakowsky, daughter of George Kistiakowsky</a>, by Cynthia C. Kelly at Voices of the Manhattan Project</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://eisenhower.archives.gov/Research/Finding_Aids/K.html">Diary of George B. Kistiakowsky</a>, <a href="/wiki/Dwight_D._Eisenhower_Presidential_Library" class="mw-redirect" title="Dwight D. Eisenhower Presidential Library">Dwight D. Eisenhower Presidential Library</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://eisenhower.archives.gov/Research/Finding_Aids/W.html">Records of the White House Office of the Special Assistant for Science and Technology, Dwight D. Eisenhower Presidential Library</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20160312010736/http://alsos.wlu.edu/qsearch.aspx?browse=people%2FKistiakowsky%2C+George">Annotated bibliography for George Kistiakowsky</a> from the <a href="/wiki/Alsos_Digital_Library_for_Nuclear_Issues" title="Alsos Digital Library for Nuclear Issues">Alsos Digital Library for Nuclear Issues</a></li></ul> <div class="navbox-styles"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1129693374">.mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul{margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt,.mw-parser-output .hlist li{margin:0;display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol 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style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">1960s</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <dl><dt>1964</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/Neal_E._Miller" title="Neal E. Miller">Neal Elgar Miller</a></dd></dl> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">1980s</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <dl><dt>1986</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/Herbert_A._Simon" title="Herbert A. Simon">Herbert A. Simon</a></dd> <dt>1987</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/Anne_Anastasi" title="Anne Anastasi">Anne Anastasi</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/George_Stigler" title="George Stigler">George J. Stigler</a></dd> <dt>1988</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/Milton_Friedman" title="Milton Friedman">Milton Friedman</a></dd></dl> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">1990s</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <dl><dt>1990</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/Leonid_Hurwicz" title="Leonid Hurwicz">Leonid Hurwicz</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Patrick_Suppes" title="Patrick Suppes">Patrick Suppes</a></dd> <dt>1991</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/George_Armitage_Miller" title="George Armitage Miller">George A. Miller</a></dd> <dt>1992</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/Eleanor_J._Gibson" title="Eleanor J. Gibson">Eleanor J. Gibson</a></dd> <dt>1994</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/Robert_K._Merton" title="Robert K. Merton">Robert K. Merton</a></dd> <dt>1995</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/Roger_Shepard" title="Roger Shepard">Roger N. Shepard</a></dd> <dt>1996</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/Paul_Samuelson" title="Paul Samuelson">Paul Samuelson</a></dd> <dt>1997</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/William_Kaye_Estes" title="William Kaye Estes">William K. Estes</a></dd> <dt>1998</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/William_Julius_Wilson" title="William Julius Wilson">William Julius Wilson</a></dd> <dt>1999</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/Robert_Solow" title="Robert Solow">Robert M. Solow</a></dd></dl> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">2000s</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <dl><dt>2000</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/Gary_Becker" title="Gary Becker">Gary Becker</a></dd> <dt>2003</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/R._Duncan_Luce" title="R. Duncan Luce">R. Duncan Luce</a></dd> <dt>2004</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/Kenneth_Arrow" title="Kenneth Arrow">Kenneth Arrow</a></dd> <dt>2005</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/Gordon_H._Bower" title="Gordon H. Bower">Gordon H. Bower</a></dd> <dt>2008</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/Michael_Posner_(psychologist)" title="Michael Posner (psychologist)">Michael I. Posner</a></dd> <dt>2009</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/Mortimer_Mishkin" title="Mortimer Mishkin">Mortimer Mishkin</a></dd></dl> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">2010s</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <dl><dt>2011</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/Anne_Treisman" title="Anne Treisman">Anne Treisman</a></dd> <dt>2014</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/Robert_Axelrod_(political_scientist)" title="Robert Axelrod (political scientist)">Robert Axelrod</a></dd> <dt>2015</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/Albert_Bandura" title="Albert Bandura">Albert Bandura</a></dd></dl> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Biological_sciences" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Biological sciences</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">1960s</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <dl><dt>1963</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/C._B._van_Niel" title="C. B. van Niel">C. B. van Niel</a></dd> <dt>1964</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/Theodosius_Dobzhansky" title="Theodosius Dobzhansky">Theodosius Dobzhansky</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Marshall_Warren_Nirenberg" title="Marshall Warren Nirenberg">Marshall W. Nirenberg</a></dd> <dt>1965</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/Francis_Peyton_Rous" title="Francis Peyton Rous">Francis P. Rous</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/George_Gaylord_Simpson" title="George Gaylord Simpson">George G. Simpson</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Donald_Van_Slyke" title="Donald Van Slyke">Donald D. Van Slyke</a></dd> <dt>1966</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/Edward_F._Knipling" title="Edward F. Knipling">Edward F. Knipling</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Fritz_Albert_Lipmann" title="Fritz Albert Lipmann">Fritz Albert Lipmann</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/William_Cumming_Rose" title="William Cumming Rose">William C. Rose</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Sewall_Wright" title="Sewall Wright">Sewall Wright</a></dd> <dt>1967</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/Kenneth_Stewart_Cole" title="Kenneth Stewart Cole">Kenneth S. Cole</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Harry_Harlow" title="Harry Harlow">Harry F. Harlow</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Michael_Heidelberger" title="Michael Heidelberger">Michael Heidelberger</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Alfred_Sturtevant" title="Alfred Sturtevant">Alfred H. Sturtevant</a></dd> <dt>1968</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/Horace_Barker" title="Horace Barker">Horace Barker</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Bernard_Brodie_(biochemist)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bernard Brodie (biochemist)">Bernard B. Brodie</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Detlev_Bronk" title="Detlev Bronk">Detlev W. Bronk</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Jay_Laurence_Lush" title="Jay Laurence Lush">Jay Lush</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/B._F._Skinner" title="B. F. Skinner">Burrhus Frederic Skinner</a></dd> <dt>1969</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/Robert_Huebner" title="Robert Huebner">Robert Huebner</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Ernst_Mayr" title="Ernst Mayr">Ernst Mayr</a></dd></dl> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">1970s</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <dl><dt>1970</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/Barbara_McClintock" title="Barbara McClintock">Barbara McClintock</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Albert_Sabin" title="Albert Sabin">Albert B. Sabin</a></dd> <dt>1973</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/Daniel_I._Arnon" title="Daniel I. Arnon">Daniel I. Arnon</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Earl_W._Sutherland_Jr." class="mw-redirect" title="Earl W. Sutherland Jr.">Earl W. Sutherland Jr.</a></dd> <dt>1974</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/Britton_Chance" title="Britton Chance">Britton Chance</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Erwin_Chargaff" title="Erwin Chargaff">Erwin Chargaff</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/James_V._Neel" title="James V. Neel">James V. Neel</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/James_Augustine_Shannon" class="mw-redirect" title="James Augustine Shannon">James Augustine Shannon</a></dd> <dt>1975</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/Hallowell_Davis" title="Hallowell Davis">Hallowell Davis</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Paul_Gyorgy" title="Paul Gyorgy">Paul Gyorgy</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Sterling_B._Hendricks" title="Sterling B. Hendricks">Sterling B. Hendricks</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Orville_Vogel" title="Orville Vogel">Orville Alvin Vogel</a></dd> <dt>1976</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/Roger_Guillemin" title="Roger Guillemin">Roger Guillemin</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Keith_Roberts_Porter" class="mw-redirect" title="Keith Roberts Porter">Keith Roberts Porter</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Efraim_Racker" title="Efraim Racker">Efraim Racker</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/E._O._Wilson" title="E. O. Wilson">E. O. Wilson</a></dd> <dt>1979</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/Robert_H._Burris" title="Robert H. Burris">Robert H. Burris</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Elizabeth_C._Crosby" title="Elizabeth C. Crosby">Elizabeth C. Crosby</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Arthur_Kornberg" title="Arthur Kornberg">Arthur Kornberg</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Severo_Ochoa" title="Severo Ochoa">Severo Ochoa</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Earl_Reece_Stadtman" title="Earl Reece Stadtman">Earl Reece Stadtman</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/G._Ledyard_Stebbins" title="G. Ledyard Stebbins">George Ledyard Stebbins</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Paul_Alfred_Weiss" title="Paul Alfred Weiss">Paul Alfred Weiss</a></dd></dl> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">1980s</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <dl><dt>1981</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/Philip_Handler" title="Philip Handler">Philip Handler</a></dd> <dt>1982</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/Seymour_Benzer" title="Seymour Benzer">Seymour Benzer</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Glenn_W._Burton" title="Glenn W. Burton">Glenn W. Burton</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Mildred_Cohn" title="Mildred Cohn">Mildred Cohn</a></dd> <dt>1983</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/Howard_Bachrach" title="Howard Bachrach">Howard L. Bachrach</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Paul_Berg" title="Paul Berg">Paul Berg</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Wendell_L._Roelofs" title="Wendell L. Roelofs">Wendell L. Roelofs</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Berta_Scharrer" title="Berta Scharrer">Berta Scharrer</a></dd> <dt>1986</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/Stanley_Cohen_(biochemist)" title="Stanley Cohen (biochemist)">Stanley Cohen</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Donald_Henderson" title="Donald Henderson">Donald A. Henderson</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Vernon_Mountcastle" class="mw-redirect" title="Vernon Mountcastle">Vernon B. Mountcastle</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/George_Emil_Palade" title="George Emil Palade">George Emil Palade</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Joan_A._Steitz" title="Joan A. Steitz">Joan A. Steitz</a></dd> <dt>1987</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/Michael_E._DeBakey" class="mw-redirect" title="Michael E. DeBakey">Michael E. DeBakey</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Theodor_O._Diener" class="mw-redirect" title="Theodor O. Diener">Theodor O. Diener</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Harry_Eagle" title="Harry Eagle">Harry Eagle</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Har_Gobind_Khorana" title="Har Gobind Khorana">Har Gobind Khorana</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Rita_Levi-Montalcini" title="Rita Levi-Montalcini">Rita Levi-Montalcini</a></dd> <dt>1988</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/Michael_S._Brown" class="mw-redirect" title="Michael S. Brown">Michael S. Brown</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Stanley_Norman_Cohen" title="Stanley Norman Cohen">Stanley Norman Cohen</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Joseph_L._Goldstein" title="Joseph L. Goldstein">Joseph L. Goldstein</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Maurice_Hilleman" title="Maurice Hilleman">Maurice R. Hilleman</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Eric_Kandel" title="Eric Kandel">Eric R. Kandel</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Rosalyn_Sussman_Yalow" title="Rosalyn Sussman Yalow">Rosalyn Sussman Yalow</a></dd> <dt>1989</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/Katherine_Esau" title="Katherine Esau">Katherine Esau</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Viktor_Hamburger" title="Viktor Hamburger">Viktor Hamburger</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Philip_Leder" title="Philip Leder">Philip Leder</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Joshua_Lederberg" title="Joshua Lederberg">Joshua Lederberg</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Roger_W._Sperry" class="mw-redirect" title="Roger W. Sperry">Roger W. Sperry</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Harland_G._Wood" title="Harland G. Wood">Harland G. Wood</a></dd></dl> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">1990s</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <dl><dt>1990</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/Baruj_Benacerraf" title="Baruj Benacerraf">Baruj Benacerraf</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Herbert_W._Boyer" class="mw-redirect" title="Herbert W. Boyer">Herbert W. Boyer</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Daniel_E._Koshland_Jr." title="Daniel E. Koshland Jr.">Daniel E. Koshland Jr.</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Edward_B._Lewis" title="Edward B. Lewis">Edward B. Lewis</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/David_G._Nathan" title="David G. Nathan">David G. Nathan</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/E._Donnall_Thomas" title="E. Donnall Thomas">E. Donnall Thomas</a></dd> <dt>1991</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/Mary_Ellen_Avery" title="Mary Ellen Avery">Mary Ellen Avery</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/G._Evelyn_Hutchinson" title="G. Evelyn Hutchinson">G. Evelyn Hutchinson</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Elvin_A._Kabat" title="Elvin A. Kabat">Elvin A. Kabat</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Robert_Kates" title="Robert Kates">Robert W. Kates</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Salvador_Luria" title="Salvador Luria">Salvador Luria</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Paul_Marks_(scientist)" title="Paul Marks (scientist)">Paul A. Marks</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Folke_K._Skoog" title="Folke K. Skoog">Folke K. Skoog</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Paul_C._Zamecnik" class="mw-redirect" title="Paul C. Zamecnik">Paul C. Zamecnik</a></dd> <dt>1992</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/Maxine_Singer" title="Maxine Singer">Maxine Singer</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Howard_Martin_Temin" title="Howard Martin Temin">Howard Martin Temin</a></dd> <dt>1993</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/Daniel_Nathans" title="Daniel Nathans">Daniel Nathans</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Salome_G._Waelsch" class="mw-redirect" title="Salome G. Waelsch">Salome G. Waelsch</a></dd> <dt>1994</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Eisner" title="Thomas Eisner">Thomas Eisner</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Elizabeth_F._Neufeld" title="Elizabeth F. Neufeld">Elizabeth F. Neufeld</a></dd> <dt>1995</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/Alexander_Rich" title="Alexander Rich">Alexander Rich</a></dd> <dt>1996</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/Ruth_Patrick" title="Ruth Patrick">Ruth Patrick</a></dd> <dt>1997</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/James_Watson" title="James Watson">James Watson</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Robert_A._Weinberg" class="mw-redirect" title="Robert A. Weinberg">Robert A. Weinberg</a></dd> <dt>1998</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/Bruce_Ames" title="Bruce Ames">Bruce Ames</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Janet_Rowley" title="Janet Rowley">Janet Rowley</a></dd> <dt>1999</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/David_Baltimore" title="David Baltimore">David Baltimore</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Jared_Diamond" title="Jared Diamond">Jared Diamond</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Lynn_Margulis" title="Lynn Margulis">Lynn Margulis</a></dd></dl> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">2000s</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <dl><dt>2000</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/Nancy_C._Andreasen" class="mw-redirect" title="Nancy C. Andreasen">Nancy C. Andreasen</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Peter_H._Raven" title="Peter H. Raven">Peter H. Raven</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Carl_Woese" title="Carl Woese">Carl Woese</a></dd> <dt>2001</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/Francisco_J._Ayala" title="Francisco J. Ayala">Francisco J. Ayala</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/George_Bass_(archaeologist)" title="George Bass (archaeologist)">George F. Bass</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Mario_R._Capecchi" class="mw-redirect" title="Mario R. Capecchi">Mario R. Capecchi</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Ann_Graybiel" title="Ann Graybiel">Ann Graybiel</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Gene_Likens" title="Gene Likens">Gene E. Likens</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Victor_A._McKusick" title="Victor A. McKusick">Victor A. McKusick</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Harold_Varmus" class="mw-redirect" title="Harold Varmus">Harold Varmus</a></dd> <dt>2002</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/James_E._Darnell" title="James E. Darnell">James E. Darnell</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Evelyn_M._Witkin" title="Evelyn M. Witkin">Evelyn M. Witkin</a></dd> <dt>2003</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/J._Michael_Bishop" title="J. Michael Bishop">J. Michael Bishop</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Solomon_H._Snyder" title="Solomon H. Snyder">Solomon H. Snyder</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Charles_Yanofsky" title="Charles Yanofsky">Charles Yanofsky</a></dd> <dt>2004</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/Norman_Borlaug" title="Norman Borlaug">Norman E. Borlaug</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Phillip_A._Sharp" class="mw-redirect" title="Phillip A. Sharp">Phillip A. Sharp</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Starzl" title="Thomas Starzl">Thomas E. Starzl</a></dd> <dt>2005</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/Anthony_Fauci" title="Anthony Fauci">Anthony Fauci</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Torsten_N._Wiesel" class="mw-redirect" title="Torsten N. Wiesel">Torsten N. Wiesel</a></dd> <dt>2006</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/Rita_R._Colwell" title="Rita R. Colwell">Rita R. Colwell</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Nina_Fedoroff" title="Nina Fedoroff">Nina Fedoroff</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Lubert_Stryer" title="Lubert Stryer">Lubert Stryer</a></dd> <dt>2007</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/Robert_Lefkowitz" title="Robert Lefkowitz">Robert J. Lefkowitz</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Bert_W._O%27Malley" title="Bert W. O'Malley">Bert W. O'Malley</a></dd> <dt>2008</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/Francis_Collins" title="Francis Collins">Francis S. Collins</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Elaine_Fuchs" title="Elaine Fuchs">Elaine Fuchs</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Craig_Venter" title="Craig Venter">J. Craig Venter</a></dd> <dt>2009</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/Susan_L._Lindquist" class="mw-redirect" title="Susan L. Lindquist">Susan L. Lindquist</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Stanley_B._Prusiner" title="Stanley B. Prusiner">Stanley B. Prusiner</a></dd></dl> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">2010s</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <dl><dt>2010</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/Ralph_L._Brinster" title="Ralph L. Brinster">Ralph L. Brinster</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Rudolf_Jaenisch" title="Rudolf Jaenisch">Rudolf Jaenisch</a></dd> <dt>2011</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/Lucy_Shapiro" title="Lucy Shapiro">Lucy Shapiro</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Leroy_Hood" title="Leroy Hood">Leroy Hood</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Sallie_Chisholm" class="mw-redirect" title="Sallie Chisholm">Sallie Chisholm</a></dd> <dt>2012</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/May_Berenbaum" title="May Berenbaum">May Berenbaum</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Bruce_Alberts" title="Bruce Alberts">Bruce Alberts</a></dd> <dt>2013</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/Rakesh_K._Jain" class="mw-redirect" title="Rakesh K. Jain">Rakesh K. Jain</a></dd> <dt>2014</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/Stanley_Falkow" title="Stanley Falkow">Stanley Falkow</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Mary-Claire_King" title="Mary-Claire King">Mary-Claire King</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Simon_Levin" class="mw-redirect" title="Simon Levin">Simon Levin</a></dd></dl> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Chemistry" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Chemistry</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">1960s</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <dl><dt>1964</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/Roger_Adams" title="Roger Adams">Roger Adams</a></dd></dl> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">1980s</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <dl><dt>1982</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/F._Albert_Cotton" title="F. Albert Cotton">F. Albert Cotton</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Gilbert_Stork" title="Gilbert Stork">Gilbert Stork</a></dd> <dt>1983</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/Roald_Hoffmann" title="Roald Hoffmann">Roald Hoffmann</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/George_C._Pimentel" title="George C. Pimentel">George C. Pimentel</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Richard_N._Zare" class="mw-redirect" title="Richard N. Zare">Richard N. Zare</a></dd> <dt>1986</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/Harry_B._Gray" title="Harry B. Gray">Harry B. Gray</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Yuan_Tseh_Lee" class="mw-redirect" title="Yuan Tseh Lee">Yuan Tseh Lee</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Carl_S._Marvel" class="mw-redirect" title="Carl S. Marvel">Carl S. Marvel</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Frank_H._Westheimer" class="mw-redirect" title="Frank H. Westheimer">Frank H. Westheimer</a></dd> <dt>1987</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/William_Summer_Johnson" title="William Summer Johnson">William S. Johnson</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Walter_H._Stockmayer" title="Walter H. Stockmayer">Walter H. Stockmayer</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Max_Tishler" title="Max Tishler">Max Tishler</a></dd> <dt>1988</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/William_O._Baker" title="William O. Baker">William O. Baker</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Konrad_E._Bloch" class="mw-redirect" title="Konrad E. Bloch">Konrad E. Bloch</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Elias_J._Corey" class="mw-redirect" title="Elias J. Corey">Elias J. Corey</a></dd> <dt>1989</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/Richard_Barry_Bernstein" title="Richard Barry Bernstein">Richard B. Bernstein</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Melvin_Calvin" title="Melvin Calvin">Melvin Calvin</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Rudolph_A._Marcus" title="Rudolph A. Marcus">Rudolph A. Marcus</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Harden_M._McConnell" title="Harden M. McConnell">Harden M. McConnell</a></dd></dl> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">1990s</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <dl><dt>1990</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/Elkan_Blout" title="Elkan Blout">Elkan Blout</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Karl_August_Folkers" title="Karl August Folkers">Karl Folkers</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/John_D._Roberts" title="John D. Roberts">John D. Roberts</a></dd> <dt>1991</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/Ronald_Breslow" title="Ronald Breslow">Ronald Breslow</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Gertrude_B._Elion" title="Gertrude B. Elion">Gertrude B. Elion</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Dudley_R._Herschbach" title="Dudley R. Herschbach">Dudley R. Herschbach</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Glenn_T._Seaborg" title="Glenn T. Seaborg">Glenn T. Seaborg</a></dd> <dt>1992</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/Howard_Ensign_Simmons_Jr." title="Howard Ensign Simmons Jr.">Howard E. Simmons Jr.</a></dd> <dt>1993</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/Donald_J._Cram" title="Donald J. Cram">Donald J. Cram</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Norman_Hackerman" title="Norman Hackerman">Norman Hackerman</a></dd> <dt>1994</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/George_S._Hammond" title="George S. Hammond">George S. Hammond</a></dd> <dt>1995</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Cech" title="Thomas Cech">Thomas Cech</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Isabella_L._Karle" class="mw-redirect" title="Isabella L. Karle">Isabella L. Karle</a></dd> <dt>1996</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/Norman_Davidson_(biologist)" title="Norman Davidson (biologist)">Norman Davidson</a></dd> <dt>1997</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/Darleane_C._Hoffman" title="Darleane C. Hoffman">Darleane C. Hoffman</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Harold_S._Johnston" title="Harold S. Johnston">Harold S. Johnston</a></dd> <dt>1998</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/John_W._Cahn" title="John W. Cahn">John W. Cahn</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/George_M._Whitesides" title="George M. Whitesides">George M. Whitesides</a></dd> <dt>1999</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/Stuart_A._Rice" title="Stuart A. Rice">Stuart A. Rice</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/John_Ross_(chemist)" title="John Ross (chemist)">John Ross</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Susan_Solomon" title="Susan Solomon">Susan Solomon</a></dd></dl> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">2000s</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <dl><dt>2000</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/John_D._Baldeschwieler" title="John D. Baldeschwieler">John D. Baldeschwieler</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Ralph_F._Hirschmann" title="Ralph F. Hirschmann">Ralph F. Hirschmann</a></dd> <dt>2001</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/Ernest_R._Davidson" title="Ernest R. Davidson">Ernest R. Davidson</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/G%C3%A1bor_A._Somorjai" title="Gábor A. Somorjai">Gábor A. Somorjai</a></dd> <dt>2002</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/John_I._Brauman" class="mw-redirect" title="John I. Brauman">John I. Brauman</a></dd> <dt>2004</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/Stephen_J._Lippard" title="Stephen J. Lippard">Stephen J. Lippard</a></dd> <dt>2005</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/Tobin_J._Marks" title="Tobin J. Marks">Tobin J. Marks</a></dd> <dt>2006</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/Marvin_H._Caruthers" title="Marvin H. Caruthers">Marvin H. Caruthers</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Peter_Dervan" title="Peter Dervan">Peter B. Dervan</a></dd> <dt>2007</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/Mostafa_El-Sayed" title="Mostafa El-Sayed">Mostafa A. El-Sayed</a></dd> <dt>2008</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/Joanna_Fowler" title="Joanna Fowler">Joanna Fowler</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/JoAnne_Stubbe" title="JoAnne Stubbe">JoAnne Stubbe</a></dd> <dt>2009</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/Stephen_J._Benkovic" title="Stephen J. Benkovic">Stephen J. Benkovic</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Marye_Anne_Fox" title="Marye Anne Fox">Marye Anne Fox</a></dd></dl> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">2010s</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <dl><dt>2010</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/Jacqueline_K._Barton" class="mw-redirect" title="Jacqueline K. Barton">Jacqueline K. Barton</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Peter_J._Stang" title="Peter J. Stang">Peter J. Stang</a></dd> <dt>2011</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/Allen_J._Bard" title="Allen J. Bard">Allen J. Bard</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/M._Frederick_Hawthorne" title="M. Frederick Hawthorne">M. Frederick Hawthorne</a></dd> <dt>2012</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/Judith_P._Klinman" class="mw-redirect" title="Judith P. Klinman">Judith P. Klinman</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Jerrold_Meinwald" title="Jerrold Meinwald">Jerrold Meinwald</a></dd> <dt>2013</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/Geraldine_L._Richmond" title="Geraldine L. Richmond">Geraldine L. Richmond</a></dd> <dt>2014</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/A._Paul_Alivisatos" class="mw-redirect" title="A. Paul Alivisatos">A. Paul Alivisatos</a></dd></dl> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Engineering_sciences" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Engineering sciences</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">1960s</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <dl><dt>1962</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/Theodore_von_K%C3%A1rm%C3%A1n" title="Theodore von Kármán">Theodore von Kármán</a></dd> <dt>1963</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/Vannevar_Bush" title="Vannevar Bush">Vannevar Bush</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/John_Robinson_Pierce" class="mw-redirect" title="John Robinson Pierce">John Robinson Pierce</a></dd> <dt>1964</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/Charles_S._Draper" class="mw-redirect" title="Charles S. Draper">Charles S. Draper</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Othmar_Ammann" title="Othmar Ammann">Othmar H. Ammann</a></dd> <dt>1965</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/Hugh_L._Dryden" class="mw-redirect" title="Hugh L. Dryden">Hugh L. Dryden</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Clarence_L._Johnson" class="mw-redirect" title="Clarence L. Johnson">Clarence L. Johnson</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Warren_K._Lewis" title="Warren K. Lewis">Warren K. Lewis</a></dd> <dt>1966</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/Claude_E._Shannon" class="mw-redirect" title="Claude E. Shannon">Claude E. Shannon</a></dd> <dt>1967</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/Edwin_H._Land" title="Edwin H. Land">Edwin H. Land</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Igor_I._Sikorsky" class="mw-redirect" title="Igor I. Sikorsky">Igor I. Sikorsky</a></dd> <dt>1968</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/J._Presper_Eckert" title="J. Presper Eckert">J. Presper Eckert</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Nathan_M._Newmark" title="Nathan M. Newmark">Nathan M. Newmark</a></dd> <dt>1969</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/Jack_St._Clair_Kilby" class="mw-redirect" title="Jack St. Clair Kilby">Jack St. Clair Kilby</a></dd></dl> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">1970s</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <dl><dt>1970</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/George_E._Mueller" class="mw-redirect" title="George E. Mueller">George E. Mueller</a></dd> <dt>1973</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/Harold_E._Edgerton" class="mw-redirect" title="Harold E. Edgerton">Harold E. Edgerton</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Richard_T._Whitcomb" title="Richard T. Whitcomb">Richard T. Whitcomb</a></dd> <dt>1974</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/Rudolf_Kompfner" title="Rudolf Kompfner">Rudolf Kompfner</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Ralph_Brazelton_Peck" title="Ralph Brazelton Peck">Ralph Brazelton Peck</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Abel_Wolman" title="Abel Wolman">Abel Wolman</a></dd> <dt>1975</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/Manson_Benedict" title="Manson Benedict">Manson Benedict</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/William_Hayward_Pickering" class="mw-redirect" title="William Hayward Pickering">William Hayward Pickering</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Frederick_Terman" title="Frederick Terman">Frederick E. Terman</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Wernher_von_Braun" title="Wernher von Braun">Wernher von Braun</a></dd> <dt>1976</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/Morris_Cohen_(scientist)" title="Morris Cohen (scientist)">Morris Cohen</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Peter_C._Goldmark" class="mw-redirect" title="Peter C. Goldmark">Peter C. Goldmark</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Erwin_Wilhelm_M%C3%BCller" title="Erwin Wilhelm Müller">Erwin Wilhelm Müller</a></dd> <dt>1979</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/Emmett_N._Leith" class="mw-redirect" title="Emmett N. Leith">Emmett N. Leith</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Raymond_D._Mindlin" title="Raymond D. Mindlin">Raymond D. Mindlin</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Robert_N._Noyce" class="mw-redirect" title="Robert N. Noyce">Robert N. Noyce</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Earl_R._Parker" title="Earl R. Parker">Earl R. Parker</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Simon_Ramo" title="Simon Ramo">Simon Ramo</a></dd></dl> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">1980s</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <dl><dt>1982</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/Edward_H._Heinemann" class="mw-redirect" title="Edward H. Heinemann">Edward H. Heinemann</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Donald_L._Katz" title="Donald L. Katz">Donald L. Katz</a></dd> <dt>1983</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/Bill_Hewlett" title="Bill Hewlett">Bill Hewlett</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/George_Low" title="George Low">George Low</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/John_G._Trump" title="John G. Trump">John G. Trump</a></dd> <dt>1986</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/Hans_Wolfgang_Liepmann" class="mw-redirect" title="Hans Wolfgang Liepmann">Hans Wolfgang Liepmann</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Tung-Yen_Lin" title="Tung-Yen Lin">Tung-Yen Lin</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Bernard_M._Oliver" title="Bernard M. Oliver">Bernard M. Oliver</a></dd> <dt>1987</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/Robert_Byron_Bird" title="Robert Byron Bird">Robert Byron Bird</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/H._Bolton_Seed" class="mw-redirect" title="H. Bolton Seed">H. Bolton Seed</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Ernst_Weber_(engineer)" title="Ernst Weber (engineer)">Ernst Weber</a></dd> <dt>1988</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/Daniel_C._Drucker" title="Daniel C. Drucker">Daniel C. Drucker</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Willis_M._Hawkins" class="mw-redirect" title="Willis M. Hawkins">Willis M. Hawkins</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/George_W._Housner" title="George W. Housner">George W. Housner</a></dd> <dt>1989</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/Harry_George_Drickamer" title="Harry George Drickamer">Harry George Drickamer</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Herbert_E._Grier" title="Herbert E. Grier">Herbert E. Grier</a></dd></dl> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">1990s</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <dl><dt>1990</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/Mildred_Dresselhaus" title="Mildred Dresselhaus">Mildred Dresselhaus</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Nick_Holonyak_Jr." class="mw-redirect" title="Nick Holonyak Jr.">Nick Holonyak Jr.</a></dd> <dt>1991</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/George_H._Heilmeier" title="George H. Heilmeier">George H. Heilmeier</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Luna_B._Leopold" class="mw-redirect" title="Luna B. Leopold">Luna B. Leopold</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/H._Guyford_Stever" class="mw-redirect" title="H. Guyford Stever">H. Guyford Stever</a></dd> <dt>1992</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/Calvin_F._Quate" class="mw-redirect" title="Calvin F. Quate">Calvin F. Quate</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/John_Roy_Whinnery" title="John Roy Whinnery">John Roy Whinnery</a></dd> <dt>1993</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/Alfred_Y._Cho" title="Alfred Y. Cho">Alfred Y. Cho</a></dd> <dt>1994</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/Ray_W._Clough" class="mw-redirect" title="Ray W. Clough">Ray W. Clough</a></dd> <dt>1995</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/Hermann_A._Haus" title="Hermann A. Haus">Hermann A. Haus</a></dd> <dt>1996</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/James_L._Flanagan" title="James L. Flanagan">James L. Flanagan</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/C._Kumar_N._Patel" title="C. Kumar N. Patel">C. Kumar N. Patel</a></dd> <dt>1998</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/Eli_Ruckenstein" title="Eli Ruckenstein">Eli Ruckenstein</a></dd> <dt>1999</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/Kenneth_N._Stevens" title="Kenneth N. Stevens">Kenneth N. Stevens</a></dd></dl> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">2000s</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <dl><dt>2000</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/Yuan-Cheng_Fung" title="Yuan-Cheng Fung">Yuan-Cheng B. Fung</a></dd> <dt>2001</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/Andreas_Acrivos" title="Andreas Acrivos">Andreas Acrivos</a></dd> <dt>2002</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/Leo_Beranek" title="Leo Beranek">Leo Beranek</a></dd> <dt>2003</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/John_Prausnitz" title="John Prausnitz">John M. Prausnitz</a></dd> <dt>2004</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/Edwin_N._Lightfoot" title="Edwin N. Lightfoot">Edwin N. Lightfoot</a></dd> <dt>2005</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/Jan_D._Achenbach" title="Jan D. Achenbach">Jan D. Achenbach</a></dd> <dt>2006</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/Robert_S._Langer" title="Robert S. Langer">Robert S. Langer</a></dd> <dt>2007</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/David_J._Wineland" title="David J. Wineland">David J. Wineland</a></dd> <dt>2008</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/Rudolf_E._K%C3%A1lm%C3%A1n" title="Rudolf E. Kálmán">Rudolf E. Kálmán</a></dd> <dt>2009</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/Amnon_Yariv" title="Amnon Yariv">Amnon Yariv</a></dd></dl> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">2010s</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <dl><dt>2010</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/Shu_Chien" title="Shu Chien">Shu Chien</a></dd> <dt>2011</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/John_B._Goodenough" title="John B. Goodenough">John B. Goodenough</a></dd> <dt>2012</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Kailath" title="Thomas Kailath">Thomas Kailath</a></dd></dl> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Mathematical,_statistical,_and_computer_sciences" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Mathematical, statistical, and computer sciences</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">1960s</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <dl><dt>1963</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/Norbert_Wiener" title="Norbert Wiener">Norbert Wiener</a></dd> <dt>1964</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/Solomon_Lefschetz" title="Solomon Lefschetz">Solomon Lefschetz</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Marston_Morse" title="Marston Morse">H. Marston Morse</a></dd> <dt>1965</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/Oscar_Zariski" title="Oscar Zariski">Oscar Zariski</a></dd> <dt>1966</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/John_Milnor" title="John Milnor">John Milnor</a></dd> <dt>1967</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/Paul_Cohen" title="Paul Cohen">Paul Cohen</a></dd> <dt>1968</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/Jerzy_Neyman" title="Jerzy Neyman">Jerzy Neyman</a></dd> <dt>1969</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/William_Feller" title="William Feller">William Feller</a></dd></dl> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">1970s</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <dl><dt>1970</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/Richard_Brauer" title="Richard Brauer">Richard Brauer</a></dd> <dt>1973</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/John_Tukey" title="John Tukey">John Tukey</a></dd> <dt>1974</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/Kurt_G%C3%B6del" title="Kurt Gödel">Kurt Gödel</a></dd> <dt>1975</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/John_W._Backus" class="mw-redirect" title="John W. Backus">John W. Backus</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Shiing-Shen_Chern" title="Shiing-Shen Chern">Shiing-Shen Chern</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/George_Dantzig" title="George Dantzig">George Dantzig</a></dd> <dt>1976</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/Kurt_O._Friedrichs" class="mw-redirect" title="Kurt O. Friedrichs">Kurt Otto Friedrichs</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Hassler_Whitney" title="Hassler Whitney">Hassler Whitney</a></dd> <dt>1979</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/Joseph_L._Doob" title="Joseph L. Doob">Joseph L. Doob</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Donald_Knuth" title="Donald Knuth">Donald E. Knuth</a></dd></dl> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">1980s</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <dl><dt>1982</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/Marshall_H._Stone" title="Marshall H. Stone">Marshall H. Stone</a></dd> <dt>1983</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/Herman_Goldstine" title="Herman Goldstine">Herman Goldstine</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Isadore_Singer" title="Isadore Singer">Isadore Singer</a></dd> <dt>1986</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/Peter_Lax" title="Peter Lax">Peter Lax</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Antoni_Zygmund" title="Antoni Zygmund">Antoni Zygmund</a></dd> <dt>1987</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/Raoul_Bott" title="Raoul Bott">Raoul Bott</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Michael_Freedman" title="Michael Freedman">Michael Freedman</a></dd> <dt>1988</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/Ralph_E._Gomory" title="Ralph E. Gomory">Ralph E. Gomory</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Joseph_B._Keller" class="mw-redirect" title="Joseph B. Keller">Joseph B. Keller</a></dd> <dt>1989</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/Samuel_Karlin" title="Samuel Karlin">Samuel Karlin</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Saunders_Mac_Lane" title="Saunders Mac Lane">Saunders Mac Lane</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Donald_C._Spencer" title="Donald C. Spencer">Donald C. Spencer</a></dd></dl> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">1990s</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <dl><dt>1990</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/George_F._Carrier" title="George F. Carrier">George F. Carrier</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Stephen_Cole_Kleene" title="Stephen Cole Kleene">Stephen Cole Kleene</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/John_McCarthy_(computer_scientist)" title="John McCarthy (computer scientist)">John McCarthy</a></dd> <dt>1991</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/Alberto_Calder%C3%B3n" title="Alberto Calderón">Alberto Calderón</a></dd> <dt>1992</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/Allen_Newell" title="Allen Newell">Allen Newell</a></dd> <dt>1993</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/Martin_David_Kruskal" title="Martin David Kruskal">Martin David Kruskal</a></dd> <dt>1994</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/John_Cocke_(computer_scientist)" title="John Cocke (computer scientist)">John Cocke</a></dd> <dt>1995</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/Louis_Nirenberg" title="Louis Nirenberg">Louis Nirenberg</a></dd> <dt>1996</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/Richard_Karp" class="mw-redirect" title="Richard Karp">Richard Karp</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Stephen_Smale" title="Stephen Smale">Stephen Smale</a></dd> <dt>1997</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/Shing-Tung_Yau" title="Shing-Tung Yau">Shing-Tung Yau</a></dd> <dt>1998</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/Cathleen_Synge_Morawetz" title="Cathleen Synge Morawetz">Cathleen Synge Morawetz</a></dd> <dt>1999</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/Felix_Browder" title="Felix Browder">Felix Browder</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Ronald_Coifman" title="Ronald Coifman">Ronald R. Coifman</a></dd></dl> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">2000s</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <dl><dt>2000</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/John_Griggs_Thompson" class="mw-redirect" title="John Griggs Thompson">John Griggs Thompson</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Karen_Uhlenbeck" title="Karen Uhlenbeck">Karen Uhlenbeck</a></dd> <dt>2001</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/Calyampudi_Radhakrishna_Rao" class="mw-redirect" title="Calyampudi Radhakrishna Rao">Calyampudi R. Rao</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Elias_M._Stein" title="Elias M. Stein">Elias M. Stein</a></dd> <dt>2002</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/James_Glimm" title="James Glimm">James G. Glimm</a></dd> <dt>2003</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/Carl_R._de_Boor" title="Carl R. de Boor">Carl R. de Boor</a></dd> <dt>2004</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/Dennis_Sullivan" title="Dennis Sullivan">Dennis P. Sullivan</a></dd> <dt>2005</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/Bradley_Efron" title="Bradley Efron">Bradley Efron</a></dd> <dt>2006</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/Hyman_Bass" title="Hyman Bass">Hyman Bass</a></dd> <dt>2007</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/Leonard_Kleinrock" title="Leonard Kleinrock">Leonard Kleinrock</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Andrew_Viterbi" title="Andrew Viterbi">Andrew J. Viterbi</a></dd> <dt>2009</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/David_B._Mumford" class="mw-redirect" title="David B. Mumford">David B. Mumford</a></dd></dl> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">2010s</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <dl><dt>2010</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/Richard_A._Tapia" title="Richard A. Tapia">Richard A. Tapia</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/S._R._Srinivasa_Varadhan" title="S. R. Srinivasa Varadhan">S. R. Srinivasa Varadhan</a></dd> <dt>2011</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/Solomon_W._Golomb" title="Solomon W. Golomb">Solomon W. Golomb</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Barry_Mazur" title="Barry Mazur">Barry Mazur</a></dd> <dt>2012</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/Alexandre_Chorin" title="Alexandre Chorin">Alexandre Chorin</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/David_Blackwell" title="David Blackwell">David Blackwell</a></dd> <dt>2013</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/Michael_Artin" title="Michael Artin">Michael Artin</a></dd></dl> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Physical_sciences" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Physical sciences</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">1960s</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <dl><dt>1963</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/Luis_Walter_Alvarez" title="Luis Walter Alvarez">Luis W. Alvarez</a></dd> <dt>1964</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/Julian_Schwinger" title="Julian Schwinger">Julian Schwinger</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Harold_Urey" title="Harold Urey">Harold Urey</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Robert_Burns_Woodward" title="Robert Burns Woodward">Robert Burns Woodward</a></dd> <dt>1965</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/John_Bardeen" title="John Bardeen">John Bardeen</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Peter_Debye" title="Peter Debye">Peter Debye</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Leon_M._Lederman" title="Leon M. Lederman">Leon M. Lederman</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/William_Rubey" class="mw-redirect" title="William Rubey">William Rubey</a></dd> <dt>1966</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/Jacob_Bjerknes" title="Jacob Bjerknes">Jacob Bjerknes</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Subrahmanyan_Chandrasekhar" title="Subrahmanyan Chandrasekhar">Subrahmanyan Chandrasekhar</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Henry_Eyring_(chemist)" title="Henry Eyring (chemist)">Henry Eyring</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/John_H._Van_Vleck" class="mw-redirect" title="John H. Van Vleck">John H. Van Vleck</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Vladimir_K._Zworykin" title="Vladimir K. Zworykin">Vladimir K. Zworykin</a></dd> <dt>1967</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/Jesse_Beams" title="Jesse Beams">Jesse Beams</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Francis_Birch_(geophysicist)" title="Francis Birch (geophysicist)">Francis Birch</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Gregory_Breit" title="Gregory Breit">Gregory Breit</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Louis_Hammett" class="mw-redirect" title="Louis Hammett">Louis Hammett</a></dd> <dd><a class="mw-selflink selflink">George Kistiakowsky</a></dd> <dt>1968</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/Paul_Doughty_Bartlett" title="Paul Doughty Bartlett">Paul Bartlett</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Herbert_Friedman" title="Herbert Friedman">Herbert Friedman</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Lars_Onsager" title="Lars Onsager">Lars Onsager</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Eugene_Wigner" title="Eugene Wigner">Eugene Wigner</a></dd> <dt>1969</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/Herbert_C._Brown" title="Herbert C. Brown">Herbert C. Brown</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Wolfgang_Panofsky" class="mw-redirect" title="Wolfgang Panofsky">Wolfgang Panofsky</a></dd></dl> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">1970s</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <dl><dt>1970</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/Robert_H._Dicke" title="Robert H. Dicke">Robert H. Dicke</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Allan_R._Sandage" class="mw-redirect" title="Allan R. Sandage">Allan R. Sandage</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/John_C._Slater" title="John C. Slater">John C. Slater</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/John_A._Wheeler" class="mw-redirect" title="John A. Wheeler">John A. Wheeler</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Saul_Winstein" title="Saul Winstein">Saul Winstein</a></dd> <dt>1973</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/Carl_Djerassi" title="Carl Djerassi">Carl Djerassi</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Maurice_Ewing" title="Maurice Ewing">Maurice Ewing</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Arie_Jan_Haagen-Smit" title="Arie Jan Haagen-Smit">Arie Jan Haagen-Smit</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Vladimir_Haensel" title="Vladimir Haensel">Vladimir Haensel</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Frederick_Seitz" title="Frederick Seitz">Frederick Seitz</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Robert_Rathbun_Wilson" class="mw-redirect" title="Robert Rathbun Wilson">Robert Rathbun Wilson</a></dd> <dt>1974</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/Nicolaas_Bloembergen" title="Nicolaas Bloembergen">Nicolaas Bloembergen</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Paul_Flory" title="Paul Flory">Paul Flory</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/William_Alfred_Fowler" title="William Alfred Fowler">William Alfred Fowler</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Linus_Carl_Pauling" class="mw-redirect" title="Linus Carl Pauling">Linus Carl Pauling</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Kenneth_Sanborn_Pitzer" class="mw-redirect" title="Kenneth Sanborn Pitzer">Kenneth Sanborn Pitzer</a></dd> <dt>1975</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/Hans_A._Bethe" class="mw-redirect" title="Hans A. Bethe">Hans A. Bethe</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Joseph_O._Hirschfelder" title="Joseph O. Hirschfelder">Joseph O. Hirschfelder</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Lewis_Sarett" class="mw-redirect" title="Lewis Sarett">Lewis Sarett</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Edgar_Bright_Wilson" title="Edgar Bright Wilson">Edgar Bright Wilson</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Chien-Shiung_Wu" title="Chien-Shiung Wu">Chien-Shiung Wu</a></dd> <dt>1976</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/Samuel_Goudsmit" title="Samuel Goudsmit">Samuel Goudsmit</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Herbert_S._Gutowsky" title="Herbert S. Gutowsky">Herbert S. Gutowsky</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Frederick_Rossini" title="Frederick Rossini">Frederick Rossini</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Verner_Suomi" class="mw-redirect" title="Verner Suomi">Verner Suomi</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Henry_Taube" title="Henry Taube">Henry Taube</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/George_Uhlenbeck" title="George Uhlenbeck">George Uhlenbeck</a></dd> <dt>1979</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/Richard_P._Feynman" class="mw-redirect" title="Richard P. Feynman">Richard P. Feynman</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Herman_Mark" class="mw-redirect" title="Herman Mark">Herman Mark</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Edward_M._Purcell" class="mw-redirect" title="Edward M. Purcell">Edward M. Purcell</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/John_Sinfelt" class="mw-redirect" title="John Sinfelt">John Sinfelt</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Lyman_Spitzer" title="Lyman Spitzer">Lyman Spitzer</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Victor_F._Weisskopf" class="mw-redirect" title="Victor F. Weisskopf">Victor F. Weisskopf</a></dd></dl> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">1980s</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <dl><dt>1982</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/Philip_Warren_Anderson" class="mw-redirect" title="Philip Warren Anderson">Philip W. Anderson</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Yoichiro_Nambu" title="Yoichiro Nambu">Yoichiro Nambu</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Edward_Teller" title="Edward Teller">Edward Teller</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Charles_H._Townes" title="Charles H. Townes">Charles H. Townes</a></dd> <dt>1983</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/E._Margaret_Burbidge" class="mw-redirect" title="E. Margaret Burbidge">E. Margaret Burbidge</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Maurice_Goldhaber" title="Maurice Goldhaber">Maurice Goldhaber</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Helmut_Landsberg" title="Helmut Landsberg">Helmut Landsberg</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Walter_Munk" title="Walter Munk">Walter Munk</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Frederick_Reines" title="Frederick Reines">Frederick Reines</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Bruno_B._Rossi" class="mw-redirect" title="Bruno B. Rossi">Bruno B. Rossi</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/J._Robert_Schrieffer" class="mw-redirect" title="J. Robert Schrieffer">J. Robert Schrieffer</a></dd> <dt>1986</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/Solomon_J._Buchsbaum" title="Solomon J. Buchsbaum">Solomon J. Buchsbaum</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/H._Richard_Crane" title="H. Richard Crane">H. Richard Crane</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Herman_Feshbach" title="Herman Feshbach">Herman Feshbach</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Robert_Hofstadter" title="Robert Hofstadter">Robert Hofstadter</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Yang_Chen-Ning" title="Yang Chen-Ning">Chen-Ning Yang</a></dd> <dt>1987</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/Philip_Abelson" title="Philip Abelson">Philip Abelson</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Walter_Elsasser" class="mw-redirect" title="Walter Elsasser">Walter Elsasser</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Paul_C._Lauterbur" class="mw-redirect" title="Paul C. Lauterbur">Paul C. Lauterbur</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/George_Pake" title="George Pake">George Pake</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/James_A._Van_Allen" class="mw-redirect" title="James A. Van Allen">James A. Van Allen</a></dd> <dt>1988</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/D._Allan_Bromley" title="D. Allan Bromley">D. Allan Bromley</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Chu_Ching-wu" class="mw-redirect" title="Chu Ching-wu">Paul Ching-Wu Chu</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Walter_Kohn" title="Walter Kohn">Walter Kohn</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Norman_Foster_Ramsey_Jr." class="mw-redirect" title="Norman Foster Ramsey Jr.">Norman Foster Ramsey Jr.</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Jack_Steinberger" title="Jack Steinberger">Jack Steinberger</a></dd> <dt>1989</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/Arnold_O._Beckman" class="mw-redirect" title="Arnold O. Beckman">Arnold O. Beckman</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Eugene_Parker" title="Eugene Parker">Eugene Parker</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Robert_P._Sharp" title="Robert P. Sharp">Robert Sharp</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Henry_Stommel" title="Henry Stommel">Henry Stommel</a></dd></dl> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">1990s</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <dl><dt>1990</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/Allan_McLeod_Cormack" class="mw-redirect" title="Allan McLeod Cormack">Allan M. Cormack</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Edwin_M._McMillan" class="mw-redirect" title="Edwin M. McMillan">Edwin M. McMillan</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Robert_Pound" title="Robert Pound">Robert Pound</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Roger_Revelle" title="Roger Revelle">Roger Revelle</a></dd> <dt>1991</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/Arthur_L._Schawlow" class="mw-redirect" title="Arthur L. Schawlow">Arthur L. Schawlow</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Edward_C._Stone" title="Edward C. Stone">Ed Stone</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Steven_Weinberg" title="Steven Weinberg">Steven Weinberg</a></dd> <dt>1992</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/Eugene_M._Shoemaker" class="mw-redirect" title="Eugene M. Shoemaker">Eugene M. Shoemaker</a></dd> <dt>1993</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/Val_Logsdon_Fitch" title="Val Logsdon Fitch">Val Fitch</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Vera_Rubin" title="Vera Rubin">Vera Rubin</a></dd> <dt>1994</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/Albert_Overhauser" title="Albert Overhauser">Albert Overhauser</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Frank_Press" title="Frank Press">Frank Press</a></dd> <dt>1995</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/Hans_Dehmelt" class="mw-redirect" title="Hans Dehmelt">Hans Dehmelt</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Peter_Goldreich" title="Peter Goldreich">Peter Goldreich</a></dd> <dt>1996</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/Wallace_S._Broecker" class="mw-redirect" title="Wallace S. Broecker">Wallace S. Broecker</a></dd> <dt>1997</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/Marshall_Rosenbluth" title="Marshall Rosenbluth">Marshall Rosenbluth</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Martin_Schwarzschild" title="Martin Schwarzschild">Martin Schwarzschild</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/George_Wetherill" title="George Wetherill">George Wetherill</a></dd> <dt>1998</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/Don_L._Anderson" title="Don L. Anderson">Don L. Anderson</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/John_N._Bahcall" title="John N. Bahcall">John N. Bahcall</a></dd> <dt>1999</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/James_Cronin" title="James Cronin">James Cronin</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Leo_Kadanoff" title="Leo Kadanoff">Leo Kadanoff</a></dd></dl> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">2000s</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <dl><dt>2000</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/Willis_E._Lamb" class="mw-redirect" title="Willis E. Lamb">Willis E. Lamb</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Jeremiah_P._Ostriker" title="Jeremiah P. Ostriker">Jeremiah P. Ostriker</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Gilbert_F._White" title="Gilbert F. White">Gilbert F. White</a></dd> <dt>2001</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/Marvin_L._Cohen" title="Marvin L. Cohen">Marvin L. Cohen</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Raymond_Davis_Jr." title="Raymond Davis Jr.">Raymond Davis Jr.</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Charles_Keeling" class="mw-redirect" title="Charles Keeling">Charles Keeling</a></dd> <dt>2002</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/Richard_Garwin" title="Richard Garwin">Richard Garwin</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/W._Jason_Morgan" title="W. Jason Morgan">W. Jason Morgan</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Edward_Witten" title="Edward Witten">Edward Witten</a></dd> <dt>2003</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/G._Brent_Dalrymple" class="mw-redirect" title="G. Brent Dalrymple">G. Brent Dalrymple</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Riccardo_Giacconi" title="Riccardo Giacconi">Riccardo Giacconi</a></dd> <dt>2004</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/Robert_N._Clayton" title="Robert N. Clayton">Robert N. Clayton</a></dd> <dt>2005</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/Ralph_A._Alpher" class="mw-redirect" title="Ralph A. Alpher">Ralph A. Alpher</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Lonnie_Thompson" title="Lonnie Thompson">Lonnie Thompson</a></dd> <dt>2006</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/Daniel_Kleppner" title="Daniel Kleppner">Daniel Kleppner</a></dd> <dt>2007</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/Fay_Ajzenberg-Selove" title="Fay Ajzenberg-Selove">Fay Ajzenberg-Selove</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Charles_Pence_Slichter" title="Charles Pence Slichter">Charles P. Slichter</a></dd> <dt>2008</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/Berni_Alder" title="Berni Alder">Berni Alder</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/James_E._Gunn_(astronomer)" class="mw-redirect" title="James E. Gunn (astronomer)">James E. Gunn</a></dd> <dt>2009</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/Yakir_Aharonov" title="Yakir Aharonov">Yakir Aharonov</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Esther_M._Conwell" title="Esther M. Conwell">Esther M. Conwell</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Warren_M._Washington" title="Warren M. Washington">Warren M. Washington</a></dd></dl> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">2010s</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <dl><dt>2011</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/Sidney_Drell" title="Sidney Drell">Sidney Drell</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Sandra_Faber" title="Sandra Faber">Sandra Faber</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Sylvester_James_Gates" title="Sylvester James Gates">Sylvester James Gates</a></dd> <dt>2012</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/Burton_Richter" title="Burton Richter">Burton Richter</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Sean_Solomon" title="Sean Solomon">Sean C. Solomon</a></dd> <dt>2014</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/Shirley_Ann_Jackson" title="Shirley Ann Jackson">Shirley Ann Jackson</a></dd></dl> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Manhattan_Project" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Manhattan_Project" title="Template:Manhattan Project"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Manhattan_Project" title="Template talk:Manhattan Project"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Manhattan_Project" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Manhattan Project"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Manhattan_Project" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Manhattan_Project" title="Manhattan Project">Manhattan Project</a></div></th></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_the_Manhattan_Project" title="Timeline of the Manhattan Project">Timeline</a></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Sites</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ames_Project" title="Ames Project">Ames</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Calutron" title="Calutron">Berkeley</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Metallurgical_Laboratory" title="Metallurgical Laboratory">Chicago</a> (<a href="/wiki/Site_A" title="Site A">Site A</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dayton_Project" title="Dayton Project">Dayton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hanford_Engineer_Works" title="Hanford Engineer Works">Hanford</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Project_Camel" title="Project Camel">Inyokern</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Project_Y" title="Project Y">Los Alamos</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Montreal_Laboratory" title="Montreal Laboratory">Montreal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/K-25" title="K-25">New York</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Clinton_Engineer_Works" title="Clinton Engineer Works">Oak Ridge</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Salt_Wells_Pilot_Plant" title="Salt Wells Pilot Plant">Salt Wells Pilot Plant</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trinity_(nuclear_test)" title="Trinity (nuclear test)">Trinity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wendover_Air_Force_Base" title="Wendover Air Force Base">Wendover</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/P-9_Project" title="P-9 Project">Heavy water sites</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Administrators</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Vannevar_Bush" title="Vannevar Bush">Vannevar Bush</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arthur_Compton" title="Arthur Compton">Arthur Compton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_B._Conant" title="James B. Conant">James B. Conant</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Priscilla_Duffield" title="Priscilla Duffield">Priscilla Duffield</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Farrell_(United_States_Army_officer)" title="Thomas Farrell (United States Army officer)">Thomas Farrell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Leslie_Groves" title="Leslie Groves">Leslie Groves</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Lansdale_Jr." title="John Lansdale Jr.">John Lansdale</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ernest_Lawrence" title="Ernest Lawrence">Ernest Lawrence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_C._Marshall" title="James C. Marshall">James Marshall</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Franklin_Matthias" title="Franklin Matthias">Franklin Matthias</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dorothy_McKibbin" title="Dorothy McKibbin">Dorothy McKibbin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kenneth_Nichols" title="Kenneth Nichols">Kenneth Nichols</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/J._Robert_Oppenheimer" title="J. Robert Oppenheimer">Robert Oppenheimer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_Sterling_Parsons" title="William Sterling Parsons">Deak Parsons</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Boris_Pash" title="Boris Pash">Boris Pash</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_R._Purnell" title="William R. Purnell">William Purnell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Frank_Spedding" title="Frank Spedding">Frank Spedding</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charles_Allen_Thomas" title="Charles Allen Thomas">Charles Thomas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paul_Tibbets" title="Paul Tibbets">Paul Tibbets</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_L._Uanna" title="William L. Uanna">Bud Uanna</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Harold_Urey" title="Harold Urey">Harold Urey</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stafford_L._Warren" title="Stafford L. Warren">Stafford Warren</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ed_Westcott" title="Ed Westcott">Ed Westcott</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roscoe_Charles_Wilson" title="Roscoe Charles Wilson">Roscoe Wilson</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Scientists</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Luis_Walter_Alvarez" title="Luis Walter Alvarez">Luis Alvarez</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robert_Bacher" title="Robert Bacher">Robert Bacher</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hans_Bethe" title="Hans Bethe">Hans Bethe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aage_Bohr" title="Aage Bohr">Aage Bohr</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Niels_Bohr" title="Niels Bohr">Niels Bohr</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Norris_Bradbury" title="Norris Bradbury">Norris Bradbury</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_Chadwick" title="James Chadwick">James Chadwick</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Cockcroft" title="John Cockcroft">John Cockcroft</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charles_Critchfield" title="Charles Critchfield">Charles Critchfield</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Harry_Daghlian" title="Harry Daghlian">Harry Daghlian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_R._Dunning" title="John R. Dunning">John R. Dunning</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Enrico_Fermi" title="Enrico Fermi">Enrico Fermi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Richard_Feynman" title="Richard Feynman">Richard Feynman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Val_Logsdon_Fitch" title="Val Logsdon Fitch">Val Fitch</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_Franck" title="James Franck">James Franck</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Klaus_Fuchs" title="Klaus Fuchs">Klaus Fuchs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maria_Goeppert_Mayer" title="Maria Goeppert Mayer">Maria Goeppert Mayer</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">George Kistiakowsky</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/George_Koval" title="George Koval">George Koval</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Willard_Libby" title="Willard Libby">Willard Libby</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Edwin_McMillan" title="Edwin McMillan">Edwin McMillan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mark_Oliphant" title="Mark Oliphant">Mark Oliphant</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/George_B._Pegram" title="George B. Pegram">George B. Pegram</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Norman_Ramsey_Jr." title="Norman Ramsey Jr.">Norman Ramsey Jr.</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Isidor_Isaac_Rabi" title="Isidor Isaac Rabi">Isidor Isaac Rabi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_Rainwater" title="James Rainwater">James Rainwater</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bruno_Rossi" title="Bruno Rossi">Bruno Rossi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Glenn_T._Seaborg" title="Glenn T. Seaborg">Glenn Seaborg</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Emilio_Segr%C3%A8" title="Emilio Segrè">Emilio Segrè</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Louis_Slotin" title="Louis Slotin">Louis Slotin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Henry_DeWolf_Smyth" title="Henry DeWolf Smyth">Henry DeWolf Smyth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Leo_Szilard" title="Leo Szilard">Leo Szilard</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Edward_Teller" title="Edward Teller">Edward Teller</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stanis%C5%82aw_Ulam" title="Stanisław Ulam">Stanisław Ulam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_von_Neumann" title="John von Neumann">John von Neumann</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Archibald_Wheeler" title="John Archibald Wheeler">John Wheeler</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eugene_Wigner" title="Eugene Wigner">Eugene Wigner</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robert_R._Wilson" title="Robert R. Wilson">Robert Wilson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Leona_Woods" title="Leona Woods">Leona Woods</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chien-Shiung_Wu" title="Chien-Shiung Wu">Chien-Shiung Wu</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Operations</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Alsos_Mission" title="Alsos Mission">Alsos Mission</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Atomic_bombings_of_Hiroshima_and_Nagasaki" title="Atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki">Bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Operation_Crossroads" title="Operation Crossroads">Operation Crossroads</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Operation_Peppermint" title="Operation Peppermint">Operation Peppermint</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Project_Alberta" title="Project Alberta">Project Alberta</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Silverplate" title="Silverplate">Silverplate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/509th_Composite_Group" title="509th Composite Group">509th Composite Group</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Enola_Gay" title="Enola Gay">Enola Gay</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Bockscar" title="Bockscar">Bockscar</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Great_Artiste" title="The Great Artiste">The Great Artiste</a></i></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Weapons</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Fat_Man" title="Fat Man">Fat Man</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Little_Boy" title="Little Boy">Little Boy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pumpkin_bomb" title="Pumpkin bomb">Pumpkin bomb</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thin_Man_(nuclear_bomb)" title="Thin Man (nuclear bomb)">Thin Man</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Related topics</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/African-American_scientists_and_technicians_on_the_Manhattan_Project" title="African-American scientists and technicians on the Manhattan Project">African Americans</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Atomic_Energy_Act_of_1946" title="Atomic Energy Act of 1946">Atomic Energy Act of 1946</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bismuth_phosphate_process" title="Bismuth phosphate process">Bismuth phosphate process</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/British_contribution_to_the_Manhattan_Project" title="British contribution to the Manhattan Project">British contribution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Calutron_Girls" title="Calutron Girls">Calutron Girls</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chicago_Pile-1" title="Chicago Pile-1">Chicago Pile-1</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Demon_core" title="Demon core">Demon core</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Einstein%E2%80%93Szilard_letter" title="Einstein–Szilard letter">Einstein–Szilard letter</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Franck_Report" title="Franck Report">Franck Report</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Interim_Committee" title="Interim Committee">Interim Committee</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/K-25" title="K-25">K-25 Project</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Los_Alamos_Primer" title="Los Alamos Primer">Los Alamos Primer</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Nobel_laureates_who_worked_on_the_Manhattan_Project" title="List of Nobel laureates who worked on the Manhattan Project">Nobel Prize laureates</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oppenheimer_security_hearing" class="mw-redirect" title="Oppenheimer security hearing">Oppenheimer security hearing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plutonium" title="Plutonium">Plutonium</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quebec_Agreement" title="Quebec Agreement">Quebec Agreement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/RaLa_Experiment" title="RaLa Experiment">RaLa Experiment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/S-1_Executive_Committee" title="S-1 Executive Committee">S-1 Executive Committee</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/S-50_(Manhattan_Project)" title="S-50 (Manhattan Project)">S-50 Project</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Smyth_Report" title="Smyth Report">Smyth Report</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Uranium" title="Uranium">Uranium</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/X-10_Graphite_Reactor" title="X-10 Graphite Reactor">X-10 Graphite Reactor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Calutron" title="Calutron">Y-12 Project</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Category"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/23px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 1.5x, 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