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href="https://www.britannica.com/topic/history-of-France">history of France</a> </div> <button aria-label="Close" class="js-sections-close-button btn-link btn-sm btn d-lg-none position-absolute top-0 p-10 right-0" > <em class="material-icons font-26" data-icon="close"></em> </button> </div> <div class="section-content pl-10 pr-20 pl-sm-50 pr-sm-60 pl-lg-5 pr-lg-10 pt-10 pt-lg-0 bg-gray-50 clear-catfish-ad"> <div class="toc mb-20"> <div class="font-serif font-14 font-weight-bold mx-15 mb-15 mt-20"> Table of Contents </div> <ul class="list-unstyled my-0" data-level="h1"><li data-target="#ref1"><div class="pl-25"><a class="link-gray-900 w-100" href="/topic/history-of-France">Introduction</a></div><div class="ml-40 toc-drawer sub-toc-drawer"></div></li><li data-target="#ref361865"><div class="d-flex align-items-center"><button class="h1-link-drawer-button btn btn-xs btn-circle d-flex rounded" type="button" aria-label="Toggle Heading"><em class="material-icons font-18" data-icon="keyboard_arrow_right"></em></button><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/history-of-France#ref361865">Gaul</a></div><div class="ml-40 toc-drawer sub-toc-drawer"><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h2"><li data-target="#ref361866"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/history-of-France#ref361866">Geographic-historical scope</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h2"><li data-target="#ref361867"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/history-of-France#ref361867">People</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h2"><li data-target="#ref361868"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/history-of-France#ref361868">Roman conquest</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref361869"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/history-of-France#ref361869">Gaul under the high empire (c. 50 <span class="text-smallcaps">bce</span>–c. 250 <span class="text-smallcaps">ce</span>)</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref361870"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/history-of-France#ref361870">Gaul under the late Roman Empire (c. 250–c. 400)</a></li></ul></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h2"><li data-target="#ref361871"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/history-of-France#ref361871">The end of Roman Gaul (c. 400–c. 500)</a></li></ul></div></li><li data-target="#ref361872"><div class="d-flex align-items-center"><button class="h1-link-drawer-button btn btn-xs btn-circle d-flex rounded" type="button" aria-label="Toggle Heading"><em class="material-icons font-18" data-icon="keyboard_arrow_right"></em></button><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/history-of-France#ref361872">Merovingian and Carolingian age</a></div><div class="ml-40 toc-drawer sub-toc-drawer"><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h2"><li data-target="#ref361873"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/history-of-France#ref361873">Origins</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref361874"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/history-of-France#ref361874">Early Frankish period</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref361875"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/history-of-France#ref361875">Gaul and Germany at the end of the 5th century</a></li></ul></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h2"><li data-target="#ref361876"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/history-of-France#ref361876">The Merovingians</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref361877" class="has-children"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/history-of-France#ref361877">Clovis and the unification of Gaul</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref361878"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/history-of-France#ref361878">Frankish expansion</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref361879"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/history-of-France#ref361879">Conversion of Clovis</a></li></ul></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref361880" class="has-children"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/history-of-France#ref361880">The sons of Clovis</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref361881"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/history-of-France#ref361881">Conquest of Burgundy</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref361882"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/history-of-France#ref361882">Conquest of southern Germany</a></li></ul></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref361883" class="has-children"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/history-of-France#ref361883">The grandsons of Clovis</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref361884"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/history-of-France#ref361884">Shrinking of the frontiers and peripheral areas</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref361885"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/history-of-France#ref361885">Parceling of the kingdom</a></li></ul></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref361886" class="has-children"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/history-of-France#ref361886">The failure of reunification (613–714)</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref361887"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/history-of-France#ref361887">Chlotar II and Dagobert I</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref361888"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/history-of-France#ref361888">The hegemony of Neustria</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref361889"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/history-of-France#ref361889">Austrasian hegemony and the rise of the Pippinids</a></li></ul></li></ul></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h2"><li data-target="#ref361890"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/history-of-France#ref361890">The Carolingians</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref361891" class="has-children"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/history-of-France#ref361891">Charles Martel and Pippin III</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref361892"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/history-of-France#ref361892">Charles Martel</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref361893"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/history-of-France#ref361893">Pippin III</a></li></ul></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref361894" class="has-children"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/history-of-France#ref361894">Charlemagne</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref361895"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/history-of-France#ref361895">The conquests</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref361896"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/history-of-France#ref361896">The restoration of the empire</a></li></ul></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref361897"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/history-of-France#ref361897">Louis I</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref361898" class="has-children"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/history-of-France#ref361898">The partitioning of the Carolingian empire</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref361899"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/history-of-France#ref361899">The Treaty of Verdun</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref361900"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/history-of-France#ref361900">The kingdoms created at Verdun</a></li></ul></li></ul></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h2"><li data-target="#ref361901"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/history-of-France#ref361901">The Frankish world</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref361902" class="has-children"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/history-of-France#ref361902">Society</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref361903"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/history-of-France#ref361903">Germans and Gallo-Romans</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref361904"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/history-of-France#ref361904">Social classes</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref361905"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/history-of-France#ref361905">Diffusion of political power</a></li></ul></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref361906" class="has-children"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/history-of-France#ref361906">Institutions</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref361907"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/history-of-France#ref361907">Kingship</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref361908"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/history-of-France#ref361908">The central government</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref361909"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/history-of-France#ref361909">Local institutions</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref361910"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/history-of-France#ref361910">The development of institutions in the Carolingian age</a></li></ul></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref361911" class="has-children"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/history-of-France#ref361911">Economic life</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref361912"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/history-of-France#ref361912">Trade</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref361913"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/history-of-France#ref361913">Frankish fiscal law</a></li></ul></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref361914" class="has-children"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/history-of-France#ref361914">The church</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref361915"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/history-of-France#ref361915">Institutions</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref361916"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/history-of-France#ref361916">Monasticism</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref361917"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/history-of-France#ref361917">Education</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref361918"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/history-of-France#ref361918">Religious discipline and piety</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref361919"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/history-of-France#ref361919">Church influence on society and legislation</a></li></ul></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref361920"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/history-of-France#ref361920">Merovingian literature and arts</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref361921"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/history-of-France#ref361921">Carolingian literature and arts</a></li></ul></li></ul></div></li><li data-target="#ref361922"><div class="d-flex align-items-center"><button class="h1-link-drawer-button btn btn-xs btn-circle d-flex rounded" type="button" aria-label="Toggle Heading"><em class="material-icons font-18" data-icon="keyboard_arrow_right"></em></button><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/history-of-France/The-emergence-of-France">The emergence of France</a></div><div class="ml-40 toc-drawer sub-toc-drawer"><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h2"><li data-target="#ref361923"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/history-of-France/The-emergence-of-France#ref361923">French society in the early Middle Ages</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h2"><li data-target="#ref361924"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/history-of-France/The-emergence-of-France#ref361924">Political history of France (c. 850–1180)</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref361925"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/history-of-France/The-emergence-of-France#ref361925">Principalities north of the Loire</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref361926"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/history-of-France/The-emergence-of-France#ref361926">Principalities of the south</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref361927"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/history-of-France/The-emergence-of-France#ref361927">The monarchy</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref361928" class="has-children"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/history-of-France/The-emergence-of-France#ref361928">Economy, society, and culture in the Middle Ages (c. 900–1300)</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref361929"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/history-of-France/The-emergence-of-France#ref361929">Economic expansion</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref361930"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/history-of-France/The-emergence-of-France#ref361930">Urban prosperity</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref361931"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/history-of-France/The-emergence-of-France#ref361931">Rural society</a></li></ul></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref361932" class="has-children"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/history-of-France/The-emergence-of-France#ref361932">Religious and cultural life</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref361933"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/history-of-France/The-emergence-of-France#ref361933">The age of cathedrals and Scholasticism</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref361934"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/history-of-France/The-emergence-of-France#ref361934">Culture and learning</a></li></ul></li></ul></li></ul></div></li><li data-target="#ref361935"><div class="d-flex align-items-center"><button class="h1-link-drawer-button btn btn-xs btn-circle d-flex rounded" type="button" aria-label="Toggle Heading"><em class="material-icons font-18" data-icon="keyboard_arrow_right"></em></button><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/history-of-France/France-1180-to-c-1490">France, 1180 to c. 1490</a></div><div class="ml-40 toc-drawer sub-toc-drawer"><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h2"><li data-target="#ref361936"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/history-of-France/France-1180-to-c-1490#ref361936">France from 1180 to 1328</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref361937" class="has-children"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/history-of-France/France-1180-to-c-1490#ref361937">Kings and the royal government</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref361938"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/history-of-France/France-1180-to-c-1490#ref361938">Philip Augustus</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref361939"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/history-of-France/France-1180-to-c-1490#ref361939">Louis VIII</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref361940"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/history-of-France/France-1180-to-c-1490#ref361940">Louis IX</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref361941"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/history-of-France/France-1180-to-c-1490#ref361941">Later Capetians</a></li></ul></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref361942"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/history-of-France/France-1180-to-c-1490#ref361942">Foreign relations</a></li></ul></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h2"><li data-target="#ref361943"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/history-of-France/France-1180-to-c-1490#ref361943">Period of the Hundred Years’ War</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref361944" class="has-children"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/history-of-France/France-1180-to-c-1490#ref361944">Kings and the war, 1328–1429</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref361945"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/history-of-France/France-1180-to-c-1490#ref361945">Philip VI</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref361946"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/history-of-France/France-1180-to-c-1490#ref361946">John the Good</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref361947"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/history-of-France/France-1180-to-c-1490#ref361947">Charles V</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref361948"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/history-of-France/France-1180-to-c-1490#ref361948">Charles VI</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref361949"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/history-of-France/France-1180-to-c-1490#ref361949">Charles VII</a></li></ul></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref361950" class="has-children"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/history-of-France/France-1180-to-c-1490#ref361950">Recovery and reunification, 1429–83</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref361951"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/history-of-France/France-1180-to-c-1490#ref361951">Governmental reforms</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref361952"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/history-of-France/France-1180-to-c-1490#ref361952">Military reforms</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref361953"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/history-of-France/France-1180-to-c-1490#ref361953">Regrowth of the French monarchy</a></li></ul></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref361954" class="has-children"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/history-of-France/France-1180-to-c-1490#ref361954">Economy, society, and culture in the 14th and 15th centuries</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref361955"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/history-of-France/France-1180-to-c-1490#ref361955">Economic distress</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref361956"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/history-of-France/France-1180-to-c-1490#ref361956">Cities</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref361957"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/history-of-France/France-1180-to-c-1490#ref361957">The church</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref361958"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/history-of-France/France-1180-to-c-1490#ref361958">Culture and art</a></li></ul></li></ul></li></ul></div></li><li data-target="#ref361959"><div class="d-flex align-items-center"><button class="h1-link-drawer-button btn btn-xs btn-circle d-flex rounded" type="button" aria-label="Toggle Heading"><em class="material-icons font-18" data-icon="keyboard_arrow_right"></em></button><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/history-of-France/France-1490-1715">France, 1490–1715</a></div><div class="ml-40 toc-drawer sub-toc-drawer"><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h2"><li data-target="#ref361960"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/history-of-France/France-1490-1715#ref361960">France in the 16th century</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref361961"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/history-of-France/France-1490-1715#ref361961">Military and financial organization</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref361962"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/history-of-France/France-1490-1715#ref361962">Growth of a professional bureaucracy</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref361963"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/history-of-France/France-1490-1715#ref361963">Age of the Reformation</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref361964"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/history-of-France/France-1490-1715#ref361964">The Wars of Religion</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref361965"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/history-of-France/France-1490-1715#ref361965">Political ideology</a></li></ul></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h2"><li data-target="#ref361966"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/history-of-France/France-1490-1715#ref361966">France in the early 17th century</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref361967"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/history-of-France/France-1490-1715#ref361967">Henry IV</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref361968"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/history-of-France/France-1490-1715#ref361968">Louis XIII</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref361969"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/history-of-France/France-1490-1715#ref361969">The Fronde</a></li></ul></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h2"><li data-target="#ref361970"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/history-of-France/France-1490-1715#ref361970">The age of Louis XIV</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref361971"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/history-of-France/France-1490-1715#ref361971">The development of central government</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref361972"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/history-of-France/France-1490-1715#ref361972">Louis’s religious policy</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref361973"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/history-of-France/France-1490-1715#ref361973">Absolutism of Louis</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref361974"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/history-of-France/France-1490-1715#ref361974">Foreign affairs</a></li></ul></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h2"><li data-target="#ref361975"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/history-of-France/France-1490-1715#ref361975">French culture in the 17th century</a></li></ul></div></li><li data-target="#ref361976"><div class="d-flex align-items-center"><button class="h1-link-drawer-button btn btn-xs btn-circle d-flex rounded" type="button" aria-label="Toggle Heading"><em class="material-icons font-18" data-icon="keyboard_arrow_right"></em></button><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/history-of-France/France-1715-89">France, 1715–89</a></div><div class="ml-40 toc-drawer sub-toc-drawer"><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h2"><li data-target="#ref361977"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/history-of-France/France-1715-89#ref361977">Social and political heritage</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref361978"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/history-of-France/France-1715-89#ref361978">Social order of the ancien régime</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref361979"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/history-of-France/France-1715-89#ref361979">Monarchy and church</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref361980"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/history-of-France/France-1715-89#ref361980">Commitment to modernization</a></li></ul></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h2"><li data-target="#ref361981"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/history-of-France/France-1715-89#ref361981">Continuity and change</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref361982"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/history-of-France/France-1715-89#ref361982">Agricultural patterns</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref361983"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/history-of-France/France-1715-89#ref361983">Industrial production</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref361984"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/history-of-France/France-1715-89#ref361984">Commerce</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref361985"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/history-of-France/France-1715-89#ref361985">Cities</a></li></ul></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h2"><li data-target="#ref361986"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/history-of-France/France-1715-89#ref361986">Cultural transformation</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref361987"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/history-of-France/France-1715-89#ref361987">The Enlightenment</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref361988"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/history-of-France/France-1715-89#ref361988">Influence of Montesquieu and Rousseau</a></li></ul></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h2"><li data-target="#ref361989"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/history-of-France/France-1715-89#ref361989">Political response</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref361990"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/history-of-France/France-1715-89#ref361990">Historical debate</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref361991"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/history-of-France/France-1715-89#ref361991">Foreign policy and financial crisis</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref361992"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/history-of-France/France-1715-89#ref361992">Domestic policy and reform efforts</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref361993"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/history-of-France/France-1715-89#ref361993">Tax reform</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref361994"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/history-of-France/France-1715-89#ref361994"><em>Parlements</em></a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref361995"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/history-of-France/France-1715-89#ref361995">King and <em>parlements</em></a></li></ul></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h2"><li data-target="#ref361996"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/history-of-France/France-1715-89#ref361996">Causes of the French Revolution</a></li></ul></div></li><li data-target="#ref361997"><div class="d-flex align-items-center"><button class="h1-link-drawer-button btn btn-xs btn-circle d-flex rounded" type="button" aria-label="Toggle Heading"><em class="material-icons font-18" data-icon="keyboard_arrow_right"></em></button><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/history-of-France/The-French-Revolution-and-Napoleon-1789-1815">The French Revolution and Napoleon, 1789–1815</a></div><div class="ml-40 toc-drawer sub-toc-drawer"><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h2"><li data-target="#ref361998"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/history-of-France/The-French-Revolution-and-Napoleon-1789-1815#ref361998">The destruction of the ancien régime</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref361999" class="has-children"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/history-of-France/The-French-Revolution-and-Napoleon-1789-1815#ref361999">The convergence of revolutions, 1789</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref362000"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/history-of-France/The-French-Revolution-and-Napoleon-1789-1815#ref362000">The juridical revolution</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref362001"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/history-of-France/The-French-Revolution-and-Napoleon-1789-1815#ref362001">Parisian revolt</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref362002"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/history-of-France/The-French-Revolution-and-Napoleon-1789-1815#ref362002">Peasant insurgencies</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref362003"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/history-of-France/The-French-Revolution-and-Napoleon-1789-1815#ref362003">The abolition of feudalism</a></li></ul></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref362004" class="has-children"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/history-of-France/The-French-Revolution-and-Napoleon-1789-1815#ref362004">The new regime</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref362005"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/history-of-France/The-French-Revolution-and-Napoleon-1789-1815#ref362005">Restructuring France</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref362006"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/history-of-France/The-French-Revolution-and-Napoleon-1789-1815#ref362006">Sale of national lands</a></li></ul></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref362007" class="has-children"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/history-of-France/The-French-Revolution-and-Napoleon-1789-1815#ref362007">Seeds of discord</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref362008"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/history-of-France/The-French-Revolution-and-Napoleon-1789-1815#ref362008">Religious tensions</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref362009"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/history-of-France/The-French-Revolution-and-Napoleon-1789-1815#ref362009">Political tensions</a></li></ul></li></ul></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h2"><li data-target="#ref362010"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/history-of-France/The-French-Revolution-and-Napoleon-1789-1815#ref362010">The First French Republic</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref362011"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/history-of-France/The-French-Revolution-and-Napoleon-1789-1815#ref362011">The second revolution</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref362012"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/history-of-France/The-French-Revolution-and-Napoleon-1789-1815#ref362012">A republic in crisis</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref362013"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/history-of-France/The-French-Revolution-and-Napoleon-1789-1815#ref362013">Girondins and Montagnards</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref362014"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/history-of-France/The-French-Revolution-and-Napoleon-1789-1815#ref362014">The Reign of Terror</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref362015"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/history-of-France/The-French-Revolution-and-Napoleon-1789-1815#ref362015">The Jacobin dictatorship</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref362016"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/history-of-France/The-French-Revolution-and-Napoleon-1789-1815#ref362016">The Army of the Republic</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref362017"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/history-of-France/The-French-Revolution-and-Napoleon-1789-1815#ref362017">The Thermidorian Reaction</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref362018" class="has-children"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/history-of-France/The-French-Revolution-and-Napoleon-1789-1815#ref362018">The Directory</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref362019"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/history-of-France/The-French-Revolution-and-Napoleon-1789-1815#ref362019">Sister republics</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref362020"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/history-of-France/The-French-Revolution-and-Napoleon-1789-1815#ref362020">Alienation and coups</a></li></ul></li></ul></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h2"><li data-target="#ref362021"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/history-of-France/The-French-Revolution-and-Napoleon-1789-1815#ref362021">The Napoleonic era</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref362022"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/history-of-France/The-French-Revolution-and-Napoleon-1789-1815#ref362022">The Consulate</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref362023"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/history-of-France/The-French-Revolution-and-Napoleon-1789-1815#ref362023">Loss of political freedom</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref362024" class="has-children"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/history-of-France/The-French-Revolution-and-Napoleon-1789-1815#ref362024">Society in Napoleonic France</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref362025"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/history-of-France/The-French-Revolution-and-Napoleon-1789-1815#ref362025">Religious policy</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref362026"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/history-of-France/The-French-Revolution-and-Napoleon-1789-1815#ref362026">Napoleonic nobility</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref362027"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/history-of-France/The-French-Revolution-and-Napoleon-1789-1815#ref362027">The civil code</a></li></ul></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref362028"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/history-of-France/The-French-Revolution-and-Napoleon-1789-1815#ref362028">Campaigns and conquests, 1797–1807</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref362029"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/history-of-France/The-French-Revolution-and-Napoleon-1789-1815#ref362029">The Grand Empire</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref362030"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/history-of-France/The-French-Revolution-and-Napoleon-1789-1815#ref362030">The Continental System</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref362031"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/history-of-France/The-French-Revolution-and-Napoleon-1789-1815#ref362031">Conscription</a></li></ul></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h2"><li data-target="#ref362032"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/history-of-France/The-French-Revolution-and-Napoleon-1789-1815#ref362032">Napoleon and the Revolution</a></li></ul></div></li><li data-target="#ref362033"><div class="d-flex align-items-center"><button class="h1-link-drawer-button btn btn-xs btn-circle d-flex rounded" type="button" aria-label="Toggle Heading"><em class="material-icons font-18" data-icon="keyboard_arrow_right"></em></button><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/history-of-France/France-1815-1940">France, 1815–1940</a></div><div class="ml-40 toc-drawer sub-toc-drawer"><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h2"><li data-target="#ref362034"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/history-of-France/France-1815-1940#ref362034">The restoration and constitutional monarchy</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref362035" class="has-children"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/history-of-France/France-1815-1940#ref362035">Constitutionalism and reaction, 1815–30</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref362036"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/history-of-France/France-1815-1940#ref362036">Louis XVIII, 1815–24</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref362037"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/history-of-France/France-1815-1940#ref362037">Charles X, 1824–30</a></li></ul></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref362038"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/history-of-France/France-1815-1940#ref362038">The revolution of 1830</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref362039"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/history-of-France/France-1815-1940#ref362039">The July Monarchy</a></li></ul></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h2"><li data-target="#ref362040"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/history-of-France/France-1815-1940#ref362040">The Second Republic and Second Empire</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref362041"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/history-of-France/France-1815-1940#ref362041">The revolution of 1848</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref362042"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/history-of-France/France-1815-1940#ref362042">The Second Republic, 1848–52</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref362043" class="has-children"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/history-of-France/France-1815-1940#ref362043">The Second Empire, 1852–70</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref362044"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/history-of-France/France-1815-1940#ref362044">The authoritarian years</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref362045"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/history-of-France/France-1815-1940#ref362045">The liberal years</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref362046"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/history-of-France/France-1815-1940#ref362046">The Franco-German War</a></li></ul></li></ul></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h2"><li data-target="#ref362047"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/history-of-France/France-1815-1940#ref362047">The Third Republic</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref362048"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/history-of-France/France-1815-1940#ref362048">The Commune of Paris</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref362049" class="has-children"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/history-of-France/France-1815-1940#ref362049">The formative years (1871–1905)</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref362050"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/history-of-France/France-1815-1940#ref362050">Attempts at a restoration</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref362051"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/history-of-France/France-1815-1940#ref362051">The constitution of the Third Republic</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref362052"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/history-of-France/France-1815-1940#ref362052">Republican factions</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref362053"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/history-of-France/France-1815-1940#ref362053">Opportunist control</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref362054"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/history-of-France/France-1815-1940#ref362054">The Dreyfus Affair</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref362055"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/history-of-France/France-1815-1940#ref362055">Foreign policy</a></li></ul></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref362056"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/history-of-France/France-1815-1940#ref362056">Prewar years</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref362057"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/history-of-France/France-1815-1940#ref362057">World War I</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref362058" class="has-children"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/history-of-France/France-1815-1940#ref362058">Interwar years</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref362059"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/history-of-France/France-1815-1940#ref362059">German reparations</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref362060"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/history-of-France/France-1815-1940#ref362060">Financial crisis</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref362061"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/history-of-France/France-1815-1940#ref362061">Collective security</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref362062"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/history-of-France/France-1815-1940#ref362062">Internal conflict on the left</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref362063"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/history-of-France/France-1815-1940#ref362063">The Great Depression and political crises</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref362064"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/history-of-France/France-1815-1940#ref362064">German aggressions</a></li></ul></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref362065" class="has-children"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/history-of-France/France-1815-1940#ref362065">Society and culture under the Third Republic</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref362066"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/history-of-France/France-1815-1940#ref362066">Economy</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref362067"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/history-of-France/France-1815-1940#ref362067">Cultural and scientific attainments</a></li></ul></li></ul></li></ul></div></li><li data-target="#ref362068"><div class="d-flex align-items-center"><button class="h1-link-drawer-button btn btn-xs btn-circle d-flex rounded" type="button" aria-label="Toggle Heading"><em class="material-icons font-18" data-icon="keyboard_arrow_right"></em></button><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/history-of-France/France-since-1940">France since 1940</a></div><div class="ml-40 toc-drawer sub-toc-drawer"><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h2"><li data-target="#ref362069"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/history-of-France/France-since-1940#ref362069">Wartime France</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref362070"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/history-of-France/France-since-1940#ref362070">The Vichy government</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref362071"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/history-of-France/France-since-1940#ref362071">The Resistance</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref362072"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/history-of-France/France-since-1940#ref362072">Liberation</a></li></ul></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h2"><li data-target="#ref362073"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/history-of-France/France-since-1940#ref362073">The Fourth Republic</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref362074"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/history-of-France/France-since-1940#ref362074">Constitution of the Fourth Republic</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref362075"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/history-of-France/France-since-1940#ref362075">Political and social changes</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref362076"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/history-of-France/France-since-1940#ref362076">Colonial independence movements</a></li></ul></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h2"><li data-target="#ref362077"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/history-of-France/France-since-1940#ref362077">The Fifth Republic</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h2"><li data-target="#ref362078"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/history-of-France/France-since-1940#ref362078">France after de Gaulle</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h2"><li data-target="#ref362079"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/history-of-France/France-since-1940#ref362079">France under a Socialist presidency</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref362080"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/history-of-France/France-since-1940#ref362080">Mitterrand’s first term</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref362081"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/history-of-France/France-since-1940#ref362081">Mitterrand’s second term</a></li></ul></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h2"><li data-target="#ref362082"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/history-of-France/France-since-1940#ref362082">France under conservative presidencies</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref362083"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/history-of-France/France-since-1940#ref362083">The Chirac administration</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref362084"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/history-of-France/France-since-1940#ref362084">The Sarkozy administration</a></li></ul></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h2"><li data-target="#ref362085"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/history-of-France/France-since-1940#ref362085">The euro-zone crisis and the Socialist resurgence</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref362086"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/history-of-France/France-since-1940#ref362086">The 2012 presidential campaign</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref362087"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/history-of-France/France-since-1940#ref362087">The Hollande administration</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref362088"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/history-of-France/France-since-1940#ref362088">The Macron presidency</a></li></ul></li></ul></div></li></ul> <a class="toc-extra-link link-gray-900 selected" href="https://www.britannica.com/topic/history-of-France/additional-info">References & Edit History</a> <a class="toc-extra-link link-gray-900" href="/facts/history-of-France">Related Topics</a> </div> <div class="tlr-media-slider pb-10 mb-30"> <a class="section-header link-gray-900 font-serif font-14 font-weight-bold mb-10 mx-10" href="https://www.britannica.com/topic/history-of-France/images-videos">Images & Videos</a> <div class="slider js-slider position-relative d-inline-flex align-items-center mw-100 "> <div class="slider-container js-slider-container overflow-hidden d-flex overflow-hidden text-nowrap ml-15"> <a 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Catalog entry: The historian Mason Locke Weems, commonly known by his clerical title, Parson Weems, pulls back a curtain to point at 6-year-old George Washington. Bearing an adult head and holding an axe, George gazes blankly up at his father, Augustine, who questions his son while holding a partially cut cherry tree. All of this takes place in front of a 20th-century brick building, which Wood modeled after his own home in Iowa. The scene illustrates the fable of Washington and the cherry tree, which Weems invented in 1806 for the first president's biography. Wood playfully suggests the artifice of the tale here, presenting the story in the manner of a costumed stage play rather than a real event. Amid the action, two Black figures pick cherries in the background, a reference to Washington' slaveholding past and a reminder of of what often gets left out in historical mythmaking." width="200" height="200" /> </a> </div> <div class="card-body ilf-content"> <a class="font-weight-semi-bold d-block mb-5 font-16 ilf-title" href="/story/did-george-washington-really-say-i-cant-tell-a-lie" >Did George Washington Really Say, “I Can’t Tell a Lie”? </a> </div> </div> <div class="imagelink-with-image-on-the-side card card-horizontal tlr-img-with-side-link ml-15 link-gray-900 mb-10" > <div class="position-relative card-media" style="flex: 0;"> <a class="ilf-image position-relative" href="/story/why-does-salt-melt-ice"> <img loading="lazy" src="https://cdn.britannica.com/15/191515-131-7668BA72/winter-ice-salt-ground-background-pattern.jpg?w=200&h=200&c=crop" alt="winter ice melting salt on the ground, pattern as background" width="200" height="200" /> </a> </div> <div class="card-body ilf-content"> <a class="font-weight-semi-bold d-block mb-5 font-16 ilf-title" href="/story/why-does-salt-melt-ice" >Why Does Salt Melt Ice?</a> </div> </div> <div class="imagelink-with-image-on-the-side card card-horizontal tlr-img-with-side-link ml-15 link-gray-900 mb-10" > <div class="position-relative card-media" style="flex: 0;"> <a class="ilf-image position-relative" href="/list/6-deadliest-earthquakes"> <img loading="lazy" src="https://cdn.britannica.com/41/166941-131-E27FD3A6/Yingxiu-school-China-Sichuan-earthquake-May-2008.jpg?w=200&h=200&c=crop" alt="earthquake. Heavily damaged school in the town of Yingxiu after a major earthquake struck China's Sichuan Province on May 12, 2008." width="200" height="200" /> </a> </div> <div class="card-body ilf-content"> <a class="font-weight-semi-bold d-block mb-5 font-16 ilf-title" href="/list/6-deadliest-earthquakes" >The 6 Deadliest Earthquakes Since 1950</a> </div> </div> <div class="imagelink-with-image-on-the-side card card-horizontal tlr-img-with-side-link ml-15 link-gray-900 mb-10" > <div class="position-relative card-media" style="flex: 0;"> <a class="ilf-image position-relative" href="/list/6-of-the-worlds-deadliest-natural-disasters"> <img loading="lazy" src="https://cdn.britannica.com/16/234616-131-50959175/Damage-Balakot-Pakistan-due-to-earthquake-October-8-2005-Kashmir.jpg?w=200&h=200&c=crop" alt="In this aerial photo, structures are damaged and destroyed October 15, 2005 in Balakot, Pakistan. It is estimated that 90% of the city of Balakot was leveled by the earthquake. The death toll in the 7.6 magnitude earthquake that struck northern Pakistan on October 8, 2005 is believed to be 38,000 with at least 1,300 more dead in Indian Kashmir. SEE CONTENT NOTES." width="200" height="200" /> </a> </div> <div class="card-body ilf-content"> <a class="font-weight-semi-bold d-block mb-5 font-16 ilf-title" href="/list/6-of-the-worlds-deadliest-natural-disasters" >6 of the World’s Deadliest Natural Disasters</a> </div> </div> <div class="imagelink-with-image-on-the-side card card-horizontal tlr-img-with-side-link ml-15 link-gray-900 mb-10" > <div class="position-relative card-media" style="flex: 0;"> <a class="ilf-image position-relative" href="/list/new-seven-wonders-of-the-world"> <img loading="lazy" src="https://cdn.britannica.com/36/162636-131-E4AA93A0/Colosseum-Rome-Italy.jpg?w=200&h=200&c=crop" alt="The Colosseum, Rome, Italy. Giant amphitheatre built in Rome under the Flavian emperors. (ancient architecture; architectural ruins)" width="200" height="200" /> </a> </div> <div class="card-body ilf-content"> <a class="font-weight-semi-bold d-block mb-5 font-16 ilf-title" href="/list/new-seven-wonders-of-the-world" >New Seven Wonders of the World</a> </div> </div> <div class="imagelink-with-image-on-the-side card card-horizontal tlr-img-with-side-link ml-15 link-gray-900 mb-10" > <div class="position-relative card-media" style="flex: 0;"> <a class="ilf-image position-relative" href="/story/6-important-mughal-emperors"> <img loading="lazy" src="https://cdn.britannica.com/09/172209-131-02E18D09/Shah-Jahan-watercolour-gold-ink-paper-1690.jpg?w=200&h=200&c=crop" alt="Shah Jahan. Taj Mahal. Mughal architecture. Emperor Shah Jahan fifth Mughal Emperor (reigned 1628-1658) India, Himachal Pradesh, Basohli or Jammu and Kashmir, Mankot, circa 1690 Drawings; Opaque watercolor, gold, and ink on paper (see notes)" width="200" height="200" /> </a> </div> <div class="card-body ilf-content"> <a class="font-weight-semi-bold d-block mb-5 font-16 ilf-title" href="/story/6-important-mughal-emperors" >6 Important Mughal Emperors</a> </div> </div> </div> </div> </div> </div> <button class="drawerToggle btn position-sticky border btn-xs btn-white btn-circle rounded-sm d-none d-lg-flex " type="button" aria-label="Toggle Drawer"> <em class="material-icons font-18 text-blue" data-icon="keyboard_arrow_left"></em> </button> </div> </div> <div class="col"> <div class="h-100 ml-0 pr-lg-0 "> <div class="h-100 grid gx-0 gx-lg-20"> <div class="h-100 col-sm d-flex flex-column"> <div class="toc-sticky-header d-none d-lg-none bg-gray-50 px-10 px-sm-30 position-sticky w-100 "> <div class="toc-sticky-header-inner-container align-items-center d-flex mx-auto h-100 w-100"> <button class="d-flex d-lg-none btn btn-sm btn-white text-blue border-2 border-gray-100 gtm-mobile-toc-header-button js-sections-button d-lg-none p-10"> <em class="material-icons my-n5 md-icon" data-icon="toc"></em> Contents </button> <div class="header-ai-simplify-button-placeholder"></div> <div class="header-ai-ask-button-placeholder"></div> </div> </div> <div class="grey-box w-100 grey-box-middle"> <div class="grey-box-content mx-auto w-100"> <br class="d-block mt-20"> <h1 class="mb-5">history of France: References & Edit History</h1> <div class="border-bottom mt-20"></div> <div id="More-Articles"> <h2 class="my-20">More Articles On This Topic</h2> <div class="mb-30"> <section><h3>Assorted References</h3><ul class="list-unstyled"></ul><ul class="list-unstyled"><li><strong>major treatment</strong><ul class="list-unstyled"><li> <span class="index-xref">In <a href="https://www.britannica.com/place/France/History#ref464357" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">France: History of France</a></span></li><li> <span class="index-xref">In <a href="https://www.britannica.com/place/France/France-since-1940#ref1030454" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">France: France since 1940</a></span></li></ul></li><li><strong>18th-century aristocracy</strong><ul class="list-unstyled"><li> <span class="index-xref">In <a href="https://www.britannica.com/topic/history-of-Europe/Nobles-and-gentlemen#ref310694" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">history of Europe: Nobles and gentlemen</a></span></li><li> <span class="index-xref">In <a href="https://www.britannica.com/topic/history-of-Europe/Nobles-and-gentlemen#ref310713" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">history of Europe: Nobles and gentlemen</a></span></li></ul></li><li><strong>19th-century Europe</strong><ul class="list-unstyled"><li> <span class="index-xref">In <a href="https://www.britannica.com/topic/history-of-Europe/The-middle-19th-century#ref311168" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">history of Europe: The middle 19th century</a></span></li></ul></li><li><strong>absolute monarchy</strong><ul class="list-unstyled"><li> <span class="index-xref">In <a href="https://www.britannica.com/topic/history-of-Europe/The-northern-Renaissance#ref310298" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">history of Europe: Political, economic, and social background</a></span></li><li> <span class="index-xref">In <a href="https://www.britannica.com/topic/history-of-Europe/Major-forms-of-absolutism#ref310786" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">history of Europe: France</a></span></li></ul></li><li><strong>anarchist movement</strong><ul class="list-unstyled"><li> <span class="index-xref">In <a href="https://www.britannica.com/topic/anarchism/English-anarchist-thought#ref750413" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">anarchism: French anarchist thought</a></span></li></ul></li><li><strong>anti-Semitism</strong><ul class="list-unstyled"><li> <span class="index-xref">In <a href="https://www.britannica.com/topic/anti-Semitism/Anti-Semitism-in-medieval-Europe#ref799059" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">anti-Semitism: Anti-Semitism in modern Europe</a></span></li></ul></li><li><strong>art criticism</strong><ul class="list-unstyled"><li> <span class="index-xref">In <a href="https://www.britannica.com/art/art-criticism/Art-criticism-in-the-18th-century-Enlightenment-theory#ref834954" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">art criticism: Art criticism in the 18th century: Enlightenment theory</a></span></li></ul></li><li><strong>Bordeaux</strong><ul class="list-unstyled"><li> <span class="index-xref">In <a href="https://www.britannica.com/place/Bordeaux#ref274120" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">Bordeaux</a></span></li></ul></li><li><strong>bourgeoisie</strong><ul class="list-unstyled"><li> <span class="index-xref">In <a href="https://www.britannica.com/topic/history-of-Europe/The-bourgeoisie#ref310716" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">history of Europe: The bourgeoisie</a></span></li></ul></li><li><strong>Christian Socialism movement</strong><ul class="list-unstyled"><li> <span class="index-xref">In <a href="https://www.britannica.com/topic/Christian-Socialism#ref83409" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">Christian Socialism</a></span></li></ul></li><li><strong>Cold War</strong><ul class="list-unstyled"><li> <span class="index-xref">In <a href="https://www.britannica.com/topic/20th-century-international-relations-2085155/The-economic-battle-with-Communism#ref304527" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">20th-century international relations: The economic battle with Communism</a></span></li><li> <span class="index-xref">In <a href="https://www.britannica.com/topic/20th-century-international-relations-2085155/Frances-independent-course#ref304856" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">20th-century international relations: France’s independent course</a></span></li></ul></li><li><strong>communes</strong><ul class="list-unstyled"><li> <span class="index-xref">In <a href="https://www.britannica.com/topic/commune-medieval-Western-Europe#ref70755" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">commune</a></span></li></ul></li><li><strong>dentistry</strong><ul class="list-unstyled"><li> <span class="index-xref">In <a href="https://www.britannica.com/science/dentistry#ref974803" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">dentistry: Development of dentistry in Europe</a></span></li></ul></li><li><strong>early modern Europe</strong><ul class="list-unstyled"><li> <span class="index-xref">In <a href="https://www.britannica.com/topic/history-of-Europe/Nation-states-and-dynastic-rivalries#ref310464" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">history of Europe: Nation-states and dynastic rivalries</a></span></li></ul></li><li><strong>economic comparison to England</strong><ul class="list-unstyled"><li> <span class="index-xref">In <a href="https://www.britannica.com/topic/history-of-Europe/The-economic-environment#ref310749" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">history of Europe: Innovation and development</a></span></li></ul></li><li><strong>Enlightenment</strong><ul class="list-unstyled"><li> <span class="index-xref">In <a href="https://www.britannica.com/topic/history-of-Europe/The-language-of-the-Enlightenment#ref310934" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">history of Europe: The language of the Enlightenment</a></span></li><li> <span class="index-xref">In <a href="https://www.britannica.com/topic/history-of-Europe/Rousseau-and-his-followers#ref310967" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">history of Europe: Rousseau and his followers</a></span></li></ul></li><li><strong>feudalism</strong><ul class="list-unstyled"><li> <span class="index-xref">In <a href="https://www.britannica.com/topic/history-of-Europe/The-peasantry#ref310738" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">history of Europe: The peasantry</a></span></li></ul></li><li><strong>historiography</strong><ul class="list-unstyled"><li> <span class="index-xref">In <a href="https://www.britannica.com/topic/historiography/New-histories#ref1050702" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">historiography: France</a></span></li></ul></li><li><strong>Holocaust</strong><ul class="list-unstyled"><li> <span class="index-xref">In <a href="https://www.britannica.com/event/Holocaust/The-Einsatzgruppen-and-their-fellow-mobile-killers#ref716723" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">Holocaust: The extermination camps</a></span></li></ul></li><li><strong>individualism</strong><ul class="list-unstyled"><li> <span class="index-xref">In <a href="https://www.britannica.com/topic/individualism#ref887890" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">individualism</a></span></li></ul></li><li><strong>Industrial Revolution</strong><ul class="list-unstyled"><li> <span class="index-xref">In <a href="https://www.britannica.com/event/Industrial-Revolution/The-first-Industrial-Revolution#ref131871" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">Industrial Revolution: The first Industrial Revolution</a></span></li></ul></li><li><strong>motion pictures</strong><ul class="list-unstyled"><li> <span class="index-xref">In <a href="https://www.britannica.com/art/history-of-the-motion-picture/The-silent-years-1910-27#ref1049954" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">history of film: Pre-World War I European cinema</a></span></li></ul></li><li><strong>physical culture</strong><ul class="list-unstyled"><li> <span class="index-xref">In <a href="https://www.britannica.com/topic/physical-culture#ref858770" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">physical culture: Humanism and national revivals</a></span></li></ul></li><li><strong>police system</strong><ul class="list-unstyled"><li> <span class="index-xref">In <a href="https://www.britannica.com/topic/police/The-decline-of-constabulary-police#ref416711" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">police: The French police system</a></span></li></ul></li><li><strong>post-World War II modernization</strong><ul class="list-unstyled"><li> <span class="index-xref">In <a href="https://www.britannica.com/topic/history-of-Europe/Affluence-and-its-underside#ref311479" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">history of Europe: Affluence and its underside</a></span></li></ul></li><li><strong>pre-Revolution financial problems</strong><ul class="list-unstyled"><li> <span class="index-xref">In <a href="https://www.britannica.com/topic/history-of-Europe/Early-capitalism#ref310754" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">history of Europe: Early capitalism</a></span></li></ul></li><li><strong>radio broadcasting history</strong><ul class="list-unstyled"><li> <span class="index-xref">In <a href="https://www.britannica.com/topic/radio/Continental-Europe#ref1123902" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">radio: France</a></span></li><li> <span class="index-xref">In <a href="https://www.britannica.com/topic/radio/New-initiatives-1960-80#ref1124117" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">radio: FM growth</a></span></li></ul></li><li><strong>role in Latin American independence movement</strong><ul class="list-unstyled"><li> <span class="index-xref">In <a href="https://www.britannica.com/place/Latin-America/The-independence-of-Latin-America#ref359930" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">history of Latin America: The independence of Latin America</a></span></li></ul></li><li><strong>Salic Law of Succession</strong><ul class="list-unstyled"><li> <span class="index-xref">In <a href="https://www.britannica.com/topic/Salic-Law-of-Succession#ref895337" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">Salic Law of Succession</a></span></li></ul></li><li><strong>ships and shipping development</strong><ul class="list-unstyled"><li> <span class="index-xref">In <a href="https://www.britannica.com/technology/ship/Early-oceanic-navigation#ref933885" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">ship: Early oceanic navigation</a></span></li><li> <span class="index-xref">In <a href="https://www.britannica.com/technology/ship/17th-century-developments#ref933887" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">ship: 17th-century developments</a></span></li><li> <span class="index-xref">In <a href="https://www.britannica.com/technology/ship/The-steamboat#ref933888" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">ship: Early examples</a></span></li><li> <span class="index-xref">In <a href="https://www.britannica.com/technology/ship/Passenger-liners-in-the-20th-century#ref934210" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">ship: Passenger liners in the 20th century</a></span></li></ul></li><li><strong>transatlantic slave trade</strong><ul class="list-unstyled"><li> <span class="index-xref">In <a href="https://www.britannica.com/topic/transatlantic-slave-trade#ref1224786" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">transatlantic slave trade: Origins of the transatlantic trade of enslaved people</a></span></li></ul></li><li><strong>Triple Alliance</strong><ul class="list-unstyled"><li> <span class="index-xref">In <a href="https://www.britannica.com/event/Triple-Alliance-Europe-1882-1915#ref35875" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">Triple Alliance</a></span></li></ul></li></ul></section><section><h3>ancient</h3><ul class="list-unstyled"></ul><ul class="list-unstyled"><li><strong>Metal Ages</strong><ul class="list-unstyled"><li> <span class="index-xref">In <a href="https://www.britannica.com/topic/history-of-Europe/Prestige-and-status#ref309671" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">history of Europe: Prestige and status</a></span></li><li> <span class="index-xref">In <a href="https://www.britannica.com/topic/history-of-Europe/Rituals-religion-and-art#ref309685" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">history of Europe: Rituals, religion, and art</a></span></li></ul></li></ul></section><section><h3>colonies and exploration</h3><ul class="list-unstyled"></ul><section><h4>Central African Republic</h4><ul class="list-unstyled"><li> <span class="index-xref">In <a href="https://www.britannica.com/place/Central-African-Republic/The-colonial-era#ref467630" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">Central African Republic: The colonial era</a></span></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled"><li><strong>Gbaya people</strong><ul class="list-unstyled"><li> <span class="index-xref">In <a href="https://www.britannica.com/topic/Gbaya#ref671969" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">Gbaya</a></span></li></ul></li></ul></section><section><h4>Niger</h4><ul class="list-unstyled"><li> <span class="index-xref">In <a href="https://www.britannica.com/place/Niger/Government-and-society#ref516881" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">Niger: Colonial administration</a></span></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled"><li><strong>origins of flag</strong><ul class="list-unstyled"><li> <span class="index-xref">In <a href="https://www.britannica.com/topic/flag-of-Niger#ref717000" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">flag of Niger</a></span></li></ul></li></ul></section><section><h4>North America</h4><ul class="list-unstyled"><li> <span class="index-xref">In <a href="https://www.britannica.com/place/North-America/The-dispossession-of-the-Indians#ref469480" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">North America: French policy</a></span></li><li> <span class="index-xref">In <a href="https://www.britannica.com/topic/American-colonies/The-contest-with-France#ref1268582" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">American colonies: Competing claims in North America</a></span></li><li> <span class="index-xref">In <a href="https://www.britannica.com/place/Mississippi-River/History-and-economy#ref466131" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">Mississippi River: Early settlement and exploration</a></span></li><li> <span class="index-xref">In <a href="https://www.britannica.com/place/United-States/History#ref612290" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">United States: The European background</a></span></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled"><li><strong>Acadia</strong><ul class="list-unstyled"><li> <span class="index-xref">In <a href="https://www.britannica.com/place/Acadia#ref82155" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">Acadia</a></span></li></ul></li><li><strong>American Indians</strong><ul class="list-unstyled"><li> <span class="index-xref">In <a href="https://www.britannica.com/topic/Indigenous-American-peoples/Prehistoric-agricultural-peoples#ref984779" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">Indigenous American peoples: Colonization and conquest</a></span></li></ul></li><li><strong>Canada</strong><ul class="list-unstyled"><li> <span class="index-xref">In <a href="https://www.britannica.com/place/Canada/History#ref477553" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">Canada: Jacques Cartier</a></span></li></ul></li><li><strong>French and Indian War</strong><ul class="list-unstyled"><li> <span class="index-xref">In <a href="https://www.britannica.com/event/French-and-Indian-War#ref1215807" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">French and Indian War</a></span></li></ul></li><li><strong>Louisiana</strong><ul class="list-unstyled"><li> <span class="index-xref">In <a href="https://www.britannica.com/place/Louisiana-state/Cultural-life#ref613905" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">Louisiana: Early settlement</a></span></li></ul></li><li><strong>Maine</strong><ul class="list-unstyled"><li> <span class="index-xref">In <a href="https://www.britannica.com/place/Maine-state/Health-and-welfare#ref755666" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">Maine: Explorations and disputes</a></span></li></ul></li><li><strong>Michigan</strong><ul class="list-unstyled"><li> <span class="index-xref">In <a href="https://www.britannica.com/place/Michigan/History#ref1016639" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">Michigan: European settlement</a></span></li></ul></li><li><strong>Minnesota</strong><ul class="list-unstyled"><li> <span class="index-xref">In <a href="https://www.britannica.com/place/Minnesota/History#ref1040991" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">Minnesota: European settlement</a></span></li></ul></li><li><strong>Mississippi</strong><ul class="list-unstyled"><li> <span class="index-xref">In <a href="https://www.britannica.com/place/Mississippi-state/History#ref757693" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">Mississippi: Exploration and settlement</a></span></li></ul></li><li><strong>Oklahoma</strong><ul class="list-unstyled"><li> <span class="index-xref">In <a href="https://www.britannica.com/place/Oklahoma-state/History#ref614422" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">Oklahoma: Early habitation and European exploration</a></span></li></ul></li><li><strong>Quebec</strong><ul class="list-unstyled"><li> <span class="index-xref">In <a href="https://www.britannica.com/place/Quebec#ref159641" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">Quebec: History</a></span></li></ul></li></ul></section><section><h4>Tunisia</h4><ul class="list-unstyled"><li> <span class="index-xref">In <a href="https://www.britannica.com/place/Tunisia#ref913720" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">Tunisia</a></span></li><li> <span class="index-xref">In <a href="https://www.britannica.com/place/Tunisia/History#ref488022" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">Tunisia: The growth of European influence</a></span></li><li> <span class="index-xref">In <a href="https://www.britannica.com/place/Tunisia/Government-and-society#ref708597" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">Tunisia: Cultural life</a></span></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled"><li><strong>Bizerte</strong><ul class="list-unstyled"><li> <span class="index-xref">In <a href="https://www.britannica.com/place/Bizerte#ref992416" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">Bizerte</a></span></li></ul></li></ul></section><ul class="list-unstyled"><li><strong>Algeria</strong><ul class="list-unstyled"><li> <span class="index-xref">In <a href="https://www.britannica.com/place/Algeria#ref846530" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">Algeria</a></span></li><li> <span class="index-xref">In <a href="https://www.britannica.com/place/Algeria/Relations-with-Europe#ref743849" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">Algeria: Relations with Europe</a></span></li><li> <span class="index-xref">In <a href="https://www.britannica.com/place/Algeria/Languages#ref743868" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">Algeria: Settlement patterns</a></span></li></ul></li><li><strong>Algiers</strong><ul class="list-unstyled"><li> <span class="index-xref">In <a href="https://www.britannica.com/place/Algiers#ref249201" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">Algiers: History</a></span></li></ul></li><li><strong>Australia</strong><ul class="list-unstyled"><li> <span class="index-xref">In <a href="https://www.britannica.com/place/Australia/History#ref475322" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">Australia: Later explorations</a></span></li></ul></li><li><strong>Benin</strong><ul class="list-unstyled"><li> <span class="index-xref">In <a href="https://www.britannica.com/place/Benin/Economy#ref516990" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">Benin: Economy of Benin</a></span></li><li> <span class="index-xref">In <a href="https://www.britannica.com/place/Benin/History#ref517008" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">Benin: The French conquest and colonial rule</a></span></li></ul></li><li><strong>Berlin West Africa Conference</strong><ul class="list-unstyled"><li> <span class="index-xref">In <a href="https://www.britannica.com/event/Berlin-West-Africa-Conference#ref34227" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">Berlin West Africa Conference</a></span></li></ul></li><li><strong>Brazil</strong><ul class="list-unstyled"><li> <span class="index-xref">In <a href="https://www.britannica.com/place/Brazil/Royal-governors-Jesuits-and-slaves#ref209341" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">Brazil: Dutch and French incursions</a></span></li></ul></li><li><strong>Burkina Faso</strong><ul class="list-unstyled"><li> <span class="index-xref">In <a href="https://www.britannica.com/place/Burkina-Faso/Health-and-welfare#ref516557" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">Burkina Faso: European exploration and colonization</a></span></li></ul></li><li><strong>Cambodia</strong><ul class="list-unstyled"><li> <span class="index-xref">In <a href="https://www.britannica.com/biography/Norodom#ref281154" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">Norodom</a></span></li><li> <span class="index-xref">In <a href="https://www.britannica.com/place/Cambodia/Tai-and-Vietnamese-hegemony#ref509240" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">Cambodia: French rule</a></span></li></ul></li><li><strong>Cameroon</strong><ul class="list-unstyled"><li> <span class="index-xref">In <a href="https://www.britannica.com/place/Cameroon/British-Cameroons-1916-61-and-French-Cameroun-1916-60#ref517069" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">Cameroon: British Cameroons (1916–61) and French Cameroun (1916–60)</a></span></li></ul></li><li><strong>Cape Town</strong><ul class="list-unstyled"><li> <span class="index-xref">In <a href="https://www.britannica.com/place/Cape-Town/History#ref313679" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">Cape Town: History of Cape Town</a></span></li></ul></li><li><strong>central Africa</strong><ul class="list-unstyled"><li> <span class="index-xref">In <a href="https://www.britannica.com/place/central-Africa/Development-of-the-slave-trade#ref467570" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">Central Africa: Development of the slave trade</a></span></li></ul></li><li><strong>Chad</strong><ul class="list-unstyled"><li> <span class="index-xref">In <a href="https://www.britannica.com/place/Borkou-Ennedi-Tibesti#ref755006" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">Borkou-Ennedi-Tibesti</a></span></li><li> <span class="index-xref">In <a href="https://www.britannica.com/place/Chad/History#ref516676" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">Chad: French administration</a></span></li></ul></li><li><strong>Comoros</strong><ul class="list-unstyled"><li> <span class="index-xref">In <a href="https://www.britannica.com/place/Comoros/History#ref27663" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">Comoros: History of Comoros</a></span></li></ul></li><li><strong>Congo, Brazzaville</strong><ul class="list-unstyled"><li> <span class="index-xref">In <a href="https://www.britannica.com/place/Republic-of-the-Congo/The-colonial-era#ref1036670" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">Republic of the Congo: The colonial era</a></span></li></ul></li><li><strong>Côte d’Ivoire</strong><ul class="list-unstyled"><li> <span class="index-xref">In <a href="https://www.britannica.com/place/Cote-dIvoire/Precolonial-kingdoms#ref517109" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">Côte d’Ivoire: Arrival of Europeans</a></span></li></ul></li><li><strong>Damascus</strong><ul class="list-unstyled"><li> <span class="index-xref">In <a href="https://www.britannica.com/place/Damascus/History#ref392590" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">Damascus: Modern city</a></span></li></ul></li><li><strong>decolonization</strong><ul class="list-unstyled"><li> <span class="index-xref">In <a href="https://www.britannica.com/topic/history-of-Europe/The-reflux-of-empire#ref311492" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">history of Europe: The reflux of empire</a></span></li><li> <span class="index-xref">In <a href="https://www.britannica.com/topic/20th-century-international-relations-2085155/Decolonization-and-development#ref304748" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">20th-century international relations: Decolonization and development</a></span></li></ul></li><li><strong>Dominica</strong><ul class="list-unstyled"><li> <span class="index-xref">In <a href="https://www.britannica.com/place/Dominica/Transportation#ref1142581" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">Dominica: The French and British colonial period</a></span></li></ul></li><li><strong>Egypt</strong><ul class="list-unstyled"><li> <span class="index-xref">In <a href="https://www.britannica.com/place/Egypt#ref935682" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">Egypt</a></span></li><li> <span class="index-xref">In <a href="https://www.britannica.com/topic/Suez-Canal/History#ref418239" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">Suez Canal: Construction</a></span></li><li> <span class="index-xref">In <a href="https://www.britannica.com/place/Egypt/From-the-French-to-the-British-occupation-1798-1882#ref307007" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">Egypt: From the French to the British occupation (1798–1882)</a></span></li></ul></li><li><strong>Falkland Islands</strong><ul class="list-unstyled"><li> <span class="index-xref">In <a href="https://www.britannica.com/place/Falkland-Islands/History#ref156915" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">Falkland Islands: History of the Falkland Islands</a></span></li></ul></li><li><strong>Fashoda</strong><ul class="list-unstyled"><li> <span class="index-xref">In <a href="https://www.britannica.com/topic/al-Mahdiyyah#ref1079729" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">al-Mahdiyyah: British conquest and the demise of al-Mahdiyyah</a></span></li><li> <span class="index-xref">In <a href="https://www.britannica.com/place/Sudan/The-British-conquest#ref48948" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">Sudan: The British conquest</a></span></li></ul></li><li><strong>French Guiana</strong><ul class="list-unstyled"><li> <span class="index-xref">In <a href="https://www.britannica.com/place/French-Guiana/Government-and-society#ref93989" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">French Guiana: History</a></span></li></ul></li><li><strong>French Shore</strong><ul class="list-unstyled"><li> <span class="index-xref">In <a href="https://www.britannica.com/place/French-Shore#ref5736" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">French Shore</a></span></li></ul></li><li><strong>Gabon</strong><ul class="list-unstyled"><li> <span class="index-xref">In <a href="https://www.britannica.com/place/Gabon/History#ref1010534" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">Gabon: French control</a></span></li></ul></li><li><strong>Gambia</strong><ul class="list-unstyled"><li> <span class="index-xref">In <a href="https://www.britannica.com/place/The-Gambia/History#ref516700" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">The Gambia: Precolonial history</a></span></li></ul></li><li><strong>Guinea</strong><ul class="list-unstyled"><li> <span class="index-xref">In <a href="https://www.britannica.com/place/Guinea/Government-and-society#ref1046433" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">Guinea: Early history</a></span></li></ul></li><li><strong>Guyana</strong><ul class="list-unstyled"><li> <span class="index-xref">In <a href="https://www.britannica.com/place/The-Guianas#ref755623" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">The Guianas</a></span></li><li> <span class="index-xref">In <a href="https://www.britannica.com/place/Guyana/History#ref40246" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">Guyana: Early history</a></span></li></ul></li><li><strong>Haiti</strong><ul class="list-unstyled"><li> <span class="index-xref">In <a href="https://www.britannica.com/place/Haiti/Early-period#ref726795" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">Haiti: French colonial rule</a></span></li></ul></li><li><strong>Hanoi</strong><ul class="list-unstyled"><li> <span class="index-xref">In <a href="https://www.britannica.com/place/Hanoi#ref199188" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">Hanoi: History</a></span></li></ul></li><li><strong>Horn of Africa</strong><ul class="list-unstyled"><li> <span class="index-xref">In <a href="https://www.britannica.com/place/eastern-Africa/Abyssinia#ref419005" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">eastern Africa: Revival of the Ethiopian empire</a></span></li></ul></li><li><strong>Hyderabad</strong><ul class="list-unstyled"><li> <span class="index-xref">In <a href="https://www.britannica.com/place/Hyderabad-historical-state-India#ref46785" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">Hyderabad</a></span></li></ul></li><li><strong>India</strong><ul class="list-unstyled"><li> <span class="index-xref">In <a href="https://www.britannica.com/place/India/The-British-1600-1740#ref486016" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">India: The French</a></span></li><li> <span class="index-xref">In <a href="https://www.britannica.com/place/India/The-ascent-to-paramountcy#ref486150" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">India: The government of Lord Minto</a></span></li></ul></li><li><strong>Laos</strong><ul class="list-unstyled"><li> <span class="index-xref">In <a href="https://www.britannica.com/place/Laos/Under-foreign-rule#ref509331" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">Laos: Under foreign rule</a></span></li></ul></li><li><strong>Latin America</strong><ul class="list-unstyled"><li> <span class="index-xref">In <a href="https://www.britannica.com/place/Latin-America/Spanish-America-in-the-age-of-the-Bourbons#ref359897" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">history of Latin America: The Caribbean islands</a></span></li></ul></li><li><strong>Madagascar</strong><ul class="list-unstyled"><li> <span class="index-xref">In <a href="https://www.britannica.com/place/Madagascar/Political-evolution-from-1650-to-1810#ref1010742" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">Madagascar: Early European contacts</a></span></li></ul></li><li><strong>Mali</strong><ul class="list-unstyled"><li> <span class="index-xref">In <a href="https://www.britannica.com/place/Mali/Precolonial-history#ref516764" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">Mali: The 19th century</a></span></li></ul></li><li><strong>Martinique</strong><ul class="list-unstyled"><li> <span class="index-xref">In <a href="https://www.britannica.com/place/Martinique/History#ref986887" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">Martinique: French rule</a></span></li></ul></li><li><strong>Mauritania</strong><ul class="list-unstyled"><li> <span class="index-xref">In <a href="https://www.britannica.com/place/Mauritania/History#ref516815" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">Mauritania: European intervention</a></span></li></ul></li><li><strong>Mauritius</strong><ul class="list-unstyled"><li> <span class="index-xref">In <a href="https://www.britannica.com/place/Mauritius/The-arts-and-cultural-institutions#ref1018565" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">Mauritius: Early history and colonial administration</a></span></li></ul></li><li><strong>Montserrat</strong><ul class="list-unstyled"><li> <span class="index-xref">In <a href="https://www.britannica.com/place/Montserrat-island-West-Indies/History#ref750205" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">Montserrat: History of Montserrat</a></span></li></ul></li><li><strong>Morocco</strong><ul class="list-unstyled"><li> <span class="index-xref">In <a href="https://www.britannica.com/place/Morocco/Decline-of-traditional-government-1830-1912#ref487934" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">Morocco: Decline of traditional government (1830–1912)</a></span></li></ul></li><li><strong>Native American peoples</strong><ul class="list-unstyled"><li> <span class="index-xref">In <a href="https://www.britannica.com/topic/Natchez-people#ref139194" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">Natchez</a></span></li><li> <span class="index-xref">In <a href="https://www.britannica.com/topic/Native-American/The-Iroquoians-of-Huronia#ref968214" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">Native American: The Iroquoians of Huronia</a></span></li><li> <span class="index-xref">In <a href="https://www.britannica.com/topic/Native-American/Colonial-goals-and-geographic-claims-the-16th-and-17th-centuries#ref518775" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">Native American: France</a></span></li></ul></li><li><strong>North Africa</strong><ul class="list-unstyled"><li> <span class="index-xref">In <a href="https://www.britannica.com/place/North-Africa/North-Africa-after-1830#ref487668" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">North Africa: Advent of European colonialism</a></span></li></ul></li><li><strong>Pacific Ocean</strong><ul class="list-unstyled"><li> <span class="index-xref">In <a href="https://www.britannica.com/place/Pacific-Ocean/Study-and-exploration#ref415007" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">Pacific Ocean: European exploration</a></span></li><li> <span class="index-xref">In <a href="https://www.britannica.com/place/Pacific-Islands/Colonial-rule#ref701284" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">Pacific Islands: Foreign intervention and control</a></span></li></ul></li><li><strong>Prince Edward Island</strong><ul class="list-unstyled"><li> <span class="index-xref">In <a href="https://www.britannica.com/place/Prince-Edward-Island/Cultural-institutions#ref477877" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">Prince Edward Island: History</a></span></li></ul></li><li><strong>protectorates</strong><ul class="list-unstyled"><li> <span class="index-xref">In <a href="https://www.britannica.com/topic/protectorate-international-relations#ref138587" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">protectorate</a></span></li></ul></li><li><strong>Saint Martin</strong><ul class="list-unstyled"><li> <span class="index-xref">In <a href="https://www.britannica.com/place/Saint-Martin-island-West-Indies#ref137812" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">Saint Martin</a></span></li></ul></li><li><strong>Senegal</strong><ul class="list-unstyled"><li> <span class="index-xref">In <a href="https://www.britannica.com/place/Senegal/History#ref516941" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">Senegal: The French period</a></span></li></ul></li><li><strong>Sénégal River</strong><ul class="list-unstyled"><li> <span class="index-xref">In <a href="https://www.britannica.com/place/Senegal-River/Transportation#ref418220" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">Sénégal River: Study and exploration</a></span></li></ul></li><li><strong>Seychelles</strong><ul class="list-unstyled"><li> <span class="index-xref">In <a href="https://www.britannica.com/place/Seychelles/History#ref33065" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">Seychelles: History of Seychelles</a></span></li></ul></li><li><strong>Slovenia</strong><ul class="list-unstyled"><li> <span class="index-xref">In <a href="https://www.britannica.com/place/Slovenia/The-Middle-Ages#ref477077" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">Slovenia: The later Habsburg era</a></span></li></ul></li><li><strong>Somaliland</strong><ul class="list-unstyled"><li> <span class="index-xref">In <a href="https://www.britannica.com/place/Somaliland#ref141175" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">Somaliland: Historical region</a></span></li></ul></li><li><strong>Sovereign Council</strong><ul class="list-unstyled"><li> <span class="index-xref">In <a href="https://www.britannica.com/topic/Sovereign-Council#ref38996" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">Sovereign Council</a></span></li></ul></li><li><strong>Timbuktu</strong><ul class="list-unstyled"><li> <span class="index-xref">In <a href="https://www.britannica.com/place/Timbuktu-Mali#ref225461" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">Timbuktu</a></span></li></ul></li><li><strong>Togo</strong><ul class="list-unstyled"><li> <span class="index-xref">In <a href="https://www.britannica.com/place/Togo/History#ref517449" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">Togo: German occupation</a></span></li><li> <span class="index-xref">In <a href="https://www.britannica.com/topic/flag-of-Togo#ref718260" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">flag of Togo</a></span></li></ul></li><li><strong>Tukulor empire</strong><ul class="list-unstyled"><li> <span class="index-xref">In <a href="https://www.britannica.com/place/Tukulor-empire#ref206328" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">Tukulor empire</a></span></li></ul></li><li><strong>Vietnam</strong><ul class="list-unstyled"><li> <span class="index-xref">In <a href="https://www.britannica.com/place/Ho-Chi-Minh-City#ref215074" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">Ho Chi Minh City</a></span></li><li> <span class="index-xref">In <a href="https://www.britannica.com/place/China/Tibet-and-Nepal#ref590565" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">China: Vietnam</a></span></li><li> <span class="index-xref">In <a href="https://www.britannica.com/place/Vietnam/The-Tran-dynasty#ref509971" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">Vietnam: Western penetration of Vietnam</a></span></li><li> <span class="index-xref">In <a href="https://www.britannica.com/place/Vietnam/The-two-Vietnams-1954-65#ref510012" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">Vietnam: The two Vietnams (1954–65)</a></span></li></ul></li><li><strong>West Indies</strong><ul class="list-unstyled"><li> <span class="index-xref">In <a href="https://www.britannica.com/place/West-Indies-island-group-Atlantic-Ocean/Colonialism#ref515599" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">West Indies: Colonialism of the West Indies</a></span></li></ul></li><li><strong>western Africa</strong><ul class="list-unstyled"><li> <span class="index-xref">In <a href="https://www.britannica.com/place/western-Africa/The-rise-of-the-Atlantic-slave-trade#ref516334" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">western Africa: The rise of the Atlantic slave trade</a></span></li></ul></li></ul></section><section><h3>conflicts</h3><ul class="list-unstyled"></ul><section><h4>World War II</h4><ul class="list-unstyled"><li> <span class="index-xref">In <a href="https://www.britannica.com/event/World-War-II/The-invasion-of-the-Low-Countries-and-France#ref1261490" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">World War II: The invasion of the Low Countries and France</a></span></li><li> <span class="index-xref">In <a href="https://www.britannica.com/topic/20th-century-international-relations-2085155/Poland-and-Soviet-anxiety#ref304317" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">20th-century international relations: Poland and Soviet anxiety</a></span></li><li> <span class="index-xref">In <a href="https://www.britannica.com/topic/20th-century-international-relations-2085155/The-Allied-invasion-of-Europe#ref304417" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">20th-century international relations: The Allied invasion of Europe</a></span></li><li> <span class="index-xref">In <a href="https://www.britannica.com/event/World-War-II#ref511772" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">World War II: The outbreak of war</a></span></li><li> <span class="index-xref">In <a href="https://www.britannica.com/event/World-War-II/Italys-entry-into-the-war-and-the-French-Armistice#ref511854" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">World War II: Italy’s entry into the war and the French Armistice</a></span></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled"><li><strong>Battle of France</strong><ul class="list-unstyled"><li> <span class="index-xref">In <a href="https://www.britannica.com/event/Battle-of-France-World-War-II#ref1268138" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">Battle of France</a></span></li></ul></li><li><strong>Dunkirk evacuation</strong><ul class="list-unstyled"><li> <span class="index-xref">In <a href="https://www.britannica.com/event/Dunkirk-evacuation#ref1083747" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">Dunkirk evacuation</a></span></li></ul></li><li><strong>North Africa campaigns</strong><ul class="list-unstyled"><li> <span class="index-xref">In <a href="https://www.britannica.com/event/North-Africa-campaigns/Operation-Torch#ref1224365" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">North Africa campaigns: Planning a second front in Africa</a></span></li><li> <span class="index-xref">In <a href="https://www.britannica.com/event/North-Africa-campaigns#ref1224366" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">North Africa campaigns</a></span></li><li> <span class="index-xref">In <a href="https://www.britannica.com/event/North-Africa-campaigns/Operation-Torch#ref1224367" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">North Africa campaigns: Planning a second front in Africa</a></span></li><li> <span class="index-xref">In <a href="https://www.britannica.com/event/North-Africa-campaigns/The-Allied-landings-in-North-Africa#ref1224368" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">North Africa campaigns: The Allied landings in North Africa</a></span></li><li> <span class="index-xref">In <a href="https://www.britannica.com/event/North-Africa-campaigns/The-Allied-landings-in-North-Africa#ref1224369" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">North Africa campaigns: The Allied landings in North Africa</a></span></li></ul></li><li><strong>resistance</strong><ul class="list-unstyled"><li> <span class="index-xref">In <a href="https://www.britannica.com/event/resistance-European-history#ref184763" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">resistance</a></span></li></ul></li><li><strong>the fall of June 1940</strong><ul class="list-unstyled"><li> <span class="index-xref">In <a href="https://www.britannica.com/event/Battle-of-France-World-War-II/The-fall-of-France-June-5-25-1940#ref1268172" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">Battle of France: The fall of France (June 5–25, 1940)</a></span></li></ul></li></ul></section><ul class="list-unstyled"><li><strong>Austrian Succession War</strong><ul class="list-unstyled"><li> <span class="index-xref">In <a href="https://www.britannica.com/event/War-of-the-Austrian-Succession#ref170314" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">War of the Austrian Succession</a></span></li></ul></li><li><strong>Battle of Castillon</strong><ul class="list-unstyled"><li> <span class="index-xref">In <a href="https://www.britannica.com/event/Battle-of-Castillon#ref256656" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">Battle of Castillon</a></span></li></ul></li><li><strong>Battle of Poitiers</strong><ul class="list-unstyled"><li> <span class="index-xref">In <a href="https://www.britannica.com/event/Battle-of-Poitiers-French-history-1356#ref1326985" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">Battle of Poitiers</a></span></li></ul></li><li><strong>Battle of Puebla</strong><ul class="list-unstyled"><li> <span class="index-xref">In <a href="https://www.britannica.com/event/Battle-of-Puebla#ref161995" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">Battle of Puebla</a></span></li></ul></li><li><strong>Battle of Rocroi</strong><ul class="list-unstyled"><li> <span class="index-xref">In <a href="https://www.britannica.com/event/Battle-of-Rocroi#ref1244023" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">Battle of Rocroi</a></span></li></ul></li><li><strong>Battle of Sedan</strong><ul class="list-unstyled"><li> <span class="index-xref">In <a href="https://www.britannica.com/event/Battle-of-Sedan#ref1326998" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">Battle of Sedan</a></span></li></ul></li><li><strong>Battle of the Dunes</strong><ul class="list-unstyled"><li> <span class="index-xref">In <a href="https://www.britannica.com/event/Battle-of-the-Dunes#ref1117384" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">Battle of the Dunes</a></span></li></ul></li><li><strong>Battle of Trafalgar</strong><ul class="list-unstyled"><li> <span class="index-xref">In <a href="https://www.britannica.com/event/Battle-of-Trafalgar-European-history#ref17380" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">Battle of Trafalgar</a></span></li></ul></li><li><strong>Battle of Ulm</strong><ul class="list-unstyled"><li> <span class="index-xref">In <a href="https://www.britannica.com/event/Battle-of-Ulm#ref1325672" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">Battle of Ulm</a></span></li></ul></li><li><strong>Battle of Verdun</strong><ul class="list-unstyled"><li> <span class="index-xref">In <a href="https://www.britannica.com/event/Battle-of-Verdun#ref258925" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">Battle of Verdun</a></span></li></ul></li><li><strong>Battle of Wagram</strong><ul class="list-unstyled"><li> <span class="index-xref">In <a href="https://www.britannica.com/event/Battle-of-Wagram#ref183434" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">Battle of Wagram</a></span></li></ul></li><li><strong>Carnatic Wars</strong><ul class="list-unstyled"><li> <span class="index-xref">In <a href="https://www.britannica.com/event/Carnatic-Wars#ref2937" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">Carnatic Wars</a></span></li></ul></li><li><strong>Channel Islands</strong><ul class="list-unstyled"><li> <span class="index-xref">In <a href="https://www.britannica.com/place/Channel-Islands-English-Channel#ref109192" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">Channel Islands</a></span></li></ul></li><li><strong>Crimean War</strong><ul class="list-unstyled"><li> <span class="index-xref">In <a href="https://www.britannica.com/event/Crimean-War#ref3655" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">Crimean War</a></span></li><li> <span class="index-xref">In <a href="https://www.britannica.com/event/Siege-of-Sevastopol#ref12186" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">Siege of Sevastopol</a></span></li></ul></li><li><strong>Crusades</strong><ul class="list-unstyled"><li> <span class="index-xref">In <a href="https://www.britannica.com/event/Crusades/The-First-Crusade-and-the-establishment-of-the-Latin-states#ref392323" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">Crusades: The effects of religion</a></span></li></ul></li><li><strong>Devolution War</strong><ul class="list-unstyled"><li> <span class="index-xref">In <a href="https://www.britannica.com/event/War-of-Devolution#ref277026" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">War of Devolution</a></span></li></ul></li><li><strong>Dutch War</strong><ul class="list-unstyled"><li> <span class="index-xref">In <a href="https://www.britannica.com/event/Dutch-War#ref25698" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">Dutch War</a></span></li></ul></li><li><strong>Essex county</strong><ul class="list-unstyled"><li> <span class="index-xref">In <a href="https://www.britannica.com/place/Essex-county-New-York#ref755578" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">Essex</a></span></li></ul></li><li><strong>Fashoda Incident</strong><ul class="list-unstyled"><li> <span class="index-xref">In <a href="https://www.britannica.com/event/Fashoda-Incident#ref991839" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">Fashoda Incident</a></span></li></ul></li><li><strong>Franco-German War</strong><ul class="list-unstyled"><li> <span class="index-xref">In <a href="https://www.britannica.com/event/Ems-telegram#ref171691" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">Ems telegram</a></span></li><li> <span class="index-xref">In <a href="https://www.britannica.com/biography/Otto-von-Bismarck/Prime-minister#ref753753" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">Otto von Bismarck: Prime minister</a></span></li><li> <span class="index-xref">In <a href="https://www.britannica.com/event/Franco-German-War#ref278939" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">Franco-German War</a></span></li></ul></li><li><strong>Free French movement</strong><ul class="list-unstyled"><li> <span class="index-xref">In <a href="https://www.britannica.com/topic/Free-French#ref131628" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">Free French</a></span></li></ul></li><li><strong>French and Indian War</strong><ul class="list-unstyled"><li> <span class="index-xref">In <a href="https://www.britannica.com/place/United-Kingdom/Britain-from-1754-to-1783#ref483298" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">United Kingdom: Conflict abroad</a></span></li></ul></li><li><strong>French Revolutionary wars</strong><ul class="list-unstyled"><li> <span class="index-xref">In <a href="https://www.britannica.com/event/French-revolutionary-wars#ref171790" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">French Revolutionary wars</a></span></li><li> <span class="index-xref">In <a href="https://www.britannica.com/topic/history-of-Europe/The-age-of-revolution#ref311040" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">history of Europe: The French Revolution</a></span></li></ul></li><li><strong>Grisons</strong><ul class="list-unstyled"><li> <span class="index-xref">In <a href="https://www.britannica.com/biography/Georg-Jenatsch#ref199307" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">Georg Jenatsch</a></span></li></ul></li><li><strong>Hundred Years’ War</strong><ul class="list-unstyled"><li> <span class="index-xref">In <a href="https://www.britannica.com/event/Hundred-Years-War#ref5883" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">Hundred Years’ War</a></span></li></ul></li><li><strong>Indochina wars</strong><ul class="list-unstyled"><li> <span class="index-xref">In <a href="https://www.britannica.com/topic/Viet-Minh#ref264754" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">Viet Minh</a></span></li><li> <span class="index-xref">In <a href="https://www.britannica.com/topic/20th-century-international-relations-2085155/The-Cold-War-in-the-Middle-East-and-Asia#ref304575" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">20th-century international relations: South Asia</a></span></li><li> <span class="index-xref">In <a href="https://www.britannica.com/topic/20th-century-international-relations-2085155/Asian-wars-and-the-deterrence-strategy#ref304615" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">20th-century international relations: Asian wars and the deterrence strategy</a></span></li></ul></li><li><strong>Italian Wars</strong><ul class="list-unstyled"><li> <span class="index-xref">In <a href="https://www.britannica.com/place/Italy/The-first-French-invasion#ref318584" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">Italy: The first French invasion</a></span></li><li> <span class="index-xref">In <a href="https://www.britannica.com/event/Italian-Wars#ref1077381" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">Italian Wars</a></span></li><li> <span class="index-xref">In <a href="https://www.britannica.com/place/Italy/Early-modern-Italy-16th-to-18th-century#ref318618" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">Italy: French and Spanish rivalries after 1494</a></span></li></ul></li><li><strong>King William’s War</strong><ul class="list-unstyled"><li> <span class="index-xref">In <a href="https://www.britannica.com/event/King-Williams-War#ref111872" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">King William’s War</a></span></li></ul></li><li><strong>Moroccan crises</strong><ul class="list-unstyled"><li> <span class="index-xref">In <a href="https://www.britannica.com/biography/Alfred-von-Kiderlen-Wachter#ref45523" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">Alfred von Kiderlen-Wächter</a></span></li><li> <span class="index-xref">In <a href="https://www.britannica.com/event/Moroccan-crises#ref158605" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">Moroccan crises</a></span></li></ul></li><li><strong>Pastry War</strong><ul class="list-unstyled"><li> <span class="index-xref">In <a href="https://www.britannica.com/event/Pastry-War#ref37230" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">Pastry War</a></span></li></ul></li><li><strong>Peninsular War</strong><ul class="list-unstyled"><li> <span class="index-xref">In <a href="https://www.britannica.com/event/Peninsular-War#ref11146" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">Peninsular War</a></span></li></ul></li><li><strong>Quasi-War with United States</strong><ul class="list-unstyled"><li> <span class="index-xref">In <a href="https://www.britannica.com/event/Jay-Treaty#ref113145" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">Jay Treaty</a></span></li></ul></li><li><strong>Revolutions of 1830</strong><ul class="list-unstyled"><li> <span class="index-xref">In <a href="https://www.britannica.com/event/Revolutions-of-1830#ref380" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">Revolutions of 1830</a></span></li></ul></li><li><strong>Revolutions of 1848</strong><ul class="list-unstyled"><li> <span class="index-xref">In <a href="https://www.britannica.com/event/Revolutions-of-1848#ref240330" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">Revolutions of 1848</a></span></li><li> <span class="index-xref">In <a href="https://www.britannica.com/topic/history-of-Europe/The-Revolutions-of-1848#ref311062" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">history of Europe: The Revolutions of 1848</a></span></li></ul></li><li><strong>Rif War and Abd el-Krim</strong><ul class="list-unstyled"><li> <span class="index-xref">In <a href="https://www.britannica.com/biography/Abd-el-Krim#ref1224939" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">Abd el-Krim</a></span></li><li> <span class="index-xref">In <a href="https://www.britannica.com/biography/Abd-el-Krim/Adb-el-Krim-during-the-Rif-War#ref1224940" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">Abd el-Krim: Adb el-Krim during the Rif War</a></span></li></ul></li><li><strong>Russo-Finnish War</strong><ul class="list-unstyled"><li> <span class="index-xref">In <a href="https://www.britannica.com/event/Russo-Finnish-War#ref242527" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">Russo-Finnish War</a></span></li></ul></li><li><strong>Seven Years’ War</strong><ul class="list-unstyled"><li> <span class="index-xref">In <a href="https://www.britannica.com/event/Seven-Years-War#ref229287" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">Seven Years’ War</a></span></li></ul></li><li><strong>Siege of Orléans</strong><ul class="list-unstyled"><li> <span class="index-xref">In <a href="https://www.britannica.com/event/Siege-of-Orleans#ref225103" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">Siege of Orléans</a></span></li></ul></li><li><strong>Spanish Civil War</strong><ul class="list-unstyled"><li> <span class="index-xref">In <a href="https://www.britannica.com/event/Spanish-Civil-War#ref203092" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">Spanish Civil War</a></span></li></ul></li><li><strong>Spanish Succession War</strong><ul class="list-unstyled"><li> <span class="index-xref">In <a href="https://www.britannica.com/event/War-of-the-Spanish-Succession#ref1292139" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">War of the Spanish Succession: Dynastic claims</a></span></li></ul></li><li><strong>Suez Crisis</strong><ul class="list-unstyled"><li> <span class="index-xref">In <a href="https://www.britannica.com/topic/aggression#ref232808" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">aggression</a></span></li><li> <span class="index-xref">In <a href="https://www.britannica.com/event/Suez-Crisis#ref227757" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">Suez Crisis</a></span></li><li> <span class="index-xref">In <a href="https://www.britannica.com/topic/20th-century-international-relations-2085155/The-Suez-Crisis#ref304671" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">20th-century international relations: The Suez Crisis</a></span></li></ul></li><li><strong>Tangier</strong><ul class="list-unstyled"><li> <span class="index-xref">In <a href="https://www.britannica.com/place/Tangier-Morocco#ref919697" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">Tangier: History</a></span></li></ul></li><li><strong>Thirty Years’ War</strong><ul class="list-unstyled"><li> <span class="index-xref">In <a href="https://www.britannica.com/event/Thirty-Years-War#ref118632" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">Thirty Years’ War</a></span></li><li> <span class="index-xref">In <a href="https://www.britannica.com/topic/history-of-Europe/The-European-war-in-Germany-1635-45#ref310599" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">history of Europe: The European war in Germany, 1635–45</a></span></li></ul></li><li><strong>Vietnam War</strong><ul class="list-unstyled"><li> <span class="index-xref">In <a href="https://www.britannica.com/event/Vietnam-War#ref227176" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">Vietnam War</a></span></li></ul></li><li><strong>Wars of Religion</strong><ul class="list-unstyled"><li> <span class="index-xref">In <a href="https://www.britannica.com/topic/history-of-Europe/The-Wars-of-Religion#ref310507" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">history of Europe: The Wars of Religion</a></span></li><li> <span class="index-xref">In <a href="https://www.britannica.com/event/Wars-of-Religion#ref1089212" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">Wars of Religion</a></span></li></ul></li><li><strong>World War I</strong><ul class="list-unstyled"><li> <span class="index-xref">In <a href="https://www.britannica.com/topic/20th-century-international-relations-2085155/Completing-the-alliance-systems-1890-1907#ref262620" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">20th-century international relations: The threats to Britain’s empire</a></span></li><li> <span class="index-xref">In <a href="https://www.britannica.com/topic/20th-century-international-relations-2085155/The-eastern-minorities#ref304063" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">20th-century international relations: The collapse of the old order</a></span></li><li> <span class="index-xref">In <a href="https://www.britannica.com/event/World-War-I#ref512299" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">World War I: The outbreak of war</a></span></li><li> <span class="index-xref">In <a href="https://www.britannica.com/event/World-War-I/The-end-of-the-German-war#ref512562" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">World War I: The Armistice</a></span></li></ul></li><li><strong>World War II build-up</strong><ul class="list-unstyled"><li> <span class="index-xref">In <a href="https://www.britannica.com/topic/20th-century-international-relations-2085155/Peacemaking-1919-22#ref304070" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">20th-century international relations: Peacemaking, 1919–22</a></span></li><li> <span class="index-xref">In <a href="https://www.britannica.com/topic/20th-century-international-relations-2085155/Poland-and-Soviet-anxiety#ref304309" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">20th-century international relations: Poland and Soviet anxiety</a></span></li></ul></li></ul></section><section><h3>international relations</h3><ul class="list-unstyled"></ul><section><h4>Netherlands</h4><ul class="list-unstyled"><li> <span class="index-xref">In <a href="https://www.britannica.com/place/Netherlands/The-first-stadtholderless-period#ref414086" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">Netherlands: The first stadtholderless period</a></span></li><li> <span class="index-xref">In <a href="https://www.britannica.com/place/Netherlands/The-period-of-French-dominance-1795-1813#ref414161" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">Netherlands: The Kingdom of Holland and the French Empire (1806–13)</a></span></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled"><li><strong>design of flag</strong><ul class="list-unstyled"><li> <span class="index-xref">In <a href="https://www.britannica.com/topic/flag-of-the-Netherlands#ref716920" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">flag of the Netherlands</a></span></li></ul></li></ul></section><section><h4>Syria</h4><ul class="list-unstyled"><li> <span class="index-xref">In <a href="https://www.britannica.com/place/Syria/Ottoman-period#ref404048" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">Syria: Egyptian domination</a></span></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled"><li><strong>National Bloc</strong><ul class="list-unstyled"><li> <span class="index-xref">In <a href="https://www.britannica.com/topic/National-Bloc#ref1079715" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">National Bloc</a></span></li></ul></li></ul></section><section><h4>United States</h4><ul class="list-unstyled"><li> <span class="index-xref">In <a href="https://www.britannica.com/place/United-States/World-War-II#ref613122" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">United States: The road to war</a></span></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled"><li><strong>Statue of Liberty</strong><ul class="list-unstyled"><li> <span class="index-xref">In <a href="https://www.britannica.com/topic/Statue-of-Liberty#ref644110" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">Statue of Liberty</a></span></li></ul></li></ul></section><ul class="list-unstyled"><li><strong>Algeciras Conference</strong><ul class="list-unstyled"><li> <span class="index-xref">In <a href="https://www.britannica.com/event/Algeciras-Conference#ref148533" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">Algeciras Conference</a></span></li></ul></li><li><strong>Argentina</strong><ul class="list-unstyled"><li> <span class="index-xref">In <a href="https://www.britannica.com/place/Argentina/Dominance-of-Buenos-Aires#ref407887" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">Argentina: Foreign policies</a></span></li></ul></li><li><strong>Austria</strong><ul class="list-unstyled"><li> <span class="index-xref">In <a href="https://www.britannica.com/place/Austria/Austria-as-a-great-power#ref408877" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">Austria: Austria as a great power</a></span></li><li> <span class="index-xref">In <a href="https://www.britannica.com/place/Austria/From-the-accession-of-Maria-Theresa-to-the-Congress-of-Vienna#ref984994" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">Austria: War of the Austrian Succession, 1740–48</a></span></li><li> <span class="index-xref">In <a href="https://www.britannica.com/place/Austria/Neoabsolutist-era-1849-60#ref984995" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">Austria: Neoabsolutist era, 1849–60</a></span></li><li> <span class="index-xref">In <a href="https://www.britannica.com/place/Austria/Second-Republic#ref409220" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">Austria: Allied occupation</a></span></li></ul></li><li><strong>Baden</strong><ul class="list-unstyled"><li> <span class="index-xref">In <a href="https://www.britannica.com/place/Baden-historical-state-Germany#ref232048" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">Baden</a></span></li></ul></li><li><strong>Balkan states</strong><ul class="list-unstyled"><li> <span class="index-xref">In <a href="https://www.britannica.com/place/Balkans/Formation-of-nation-states#ref476055" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">Balkans: Formation of nation-states</a></span></li></ul></li><li><strong>Batavian Republic</strong><ul class="list-unstyled"><li> <span class="index-xref">In <a href="https://www.britannica.com/place/Batavian-Republic#ref126467" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">Batavian Republic</a></span></li></ul></li><li><strong>Bavaria</strong><ul class="list-unstyled"><li> <span class="index-xref">In <a href="https://www.britannica.com/place/Bavaria/History#ref168527" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">Bavaria: History of Bavaria</a></span></li></ul></li><li><strong>Belgium</strong><ul class="list-unstyled"><li> <span class="index-xref">In <a href="https://www.britannica.com/place/Belgium/History#ref391079" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">Belgium: The Spanish Netherlands</a></span></li><li> <span class="index-xref">In <a href="https://www.britannica.com/place/Belgium/The-Austrian-Netherlands#ref940400" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">Belgium: French administration</a></span></li></ul></li><li><strong>Berlin blockade and airlift</strong><ul class="list-unstyled"><li> <span class="index-xref">In <a href="https://www.britannica.com/event/Berlin-blockade#ref223333" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">Berlin blockade</a></span></li></ul></li><li><strong>Canada</strong><ul class="list-unstyled"><li> <span class="index-xref">In <a href="https://www.britannica.com/place/Canada/Franco-Canadian-affairs#ref477769" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">Canada: Franco-Canadian affairs</a></span></li></ul></li><li><strong>China</strong><ul class="list-unstyled"><li> <span class="index-xref">In <a href="https://www.britannica.com/place/China/The-first-Opium-War-and-its-aftermath#ref590484" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">China: The first Opium War and its aftermath</a></span></li><li> <span class="index-xref">In <a href="https://www.britannica.com/place/Guangxi/History#ref591227" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">Guangxi: Guangxi until c. 1900</a></span></li><li> <span class="index-xref">In <a href="https://www.britannica.com/place/Yunnan/History#ref591528" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">Yunnan: History of Yunnan</a></span></li></ul></li><li><strong>Czechoslovakia</strong><ul class="list-unstyled"><li> <span class="index-xref">In <a href="https://www.britannica.com/topic/Czechoslovak-history/Struggle-for-independence#ref468668" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">Czechoslovak history: Struggle for independence</a></span></li></ul></li><li><strong>Dreikaiserbund</strong><ul class="list-unstyled"><li> <span class="index-xref">In <a href="https://www.britannica.com/event/Dreikaiserbund#ref262719" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">Dreikaiserbund</a></span></li></ul></li><li><strong>Dual Alliance</strong><ul class="list-unstyled"><li> <span class="index-xref">In <a href="https://www.britannica.com/topic/Dual-Alliance#ref282424" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">Dual Alliance</a></span></li></ul></li><li><strong>Egypt</strong><ul class="list-unstyled"><li> <span class="index-xref">In <a href="https://www.britannica.com/place/Egypt/Abbas-I-and-Said-1848-63#ref307042" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">Egypt: ʿAbbās I and Saʿīd, 1848-63</a></span></li><li> <span class="index-xref">In <a href="https://www.britannica.com/place/Egypt/The-revolution-and-the-Republic#ref307111" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">Egypt: The Nasser regime</a></span></li></ul></li><li><strong>England</strong><ul class="list-unstyled"><li> <span class="index-xref">In <a href="https://www.britannica.com/place/United-Kingdom/The-early-Plantagenets#ref482742" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">United Kingdom: Henry II (1154–89)</a></span></li><li> <span class="index-xref">In <a href="https://www.britannica.com/place/United-Kingdom/The-clash-with-Spain#ref483028" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">United Kingdom: Internal discontent</a></span></li><li> <span class="index-xref">In <a href="https://www.britannica.com/place/United-Kingdom/Walpoles-loss-of-power#ref483262" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">United Kingdom: The Jacobite rebellion</a></span></li></ul></li><li><strong>European integration</strong><ul class="list-unstyled"><li> <span class="index-xref">In <a href="https://www.britannica.com/topic/20th-century-international-relations-2085155/The-pace-of-European-integration#ref304635" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">20th-century international relations: The nature and role of Germany</a></span></li></ul></li><li><strong>Flanders</strong><ul class="list-unstyled"><li> <span class="index-xref">In <a href="https://www.britannica.com/place/Flanders-medieval-principality-and-historical-region-Europe#ref277063" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">Flanders</a></span></li></ul></li><li><strong>Florence</strong><ul class="list-unstyled"><li> <span class="index-xref">In <a href="https://www.britannica.com/place/Florence/History#ref385298" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">Florence: From the Medici to unification</a></span></li></ul></li><li><strong>Franco-American Alliance</strong><ul class="list-unstyled"><li> <span class="index-xref">In <a href="https://www.britannica.com/event/Franco-American-Alliance#ref199070" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">Franco-American Alliance</a></span></li><li> <span class="index-xref">In <a href="https://www.britannica.com/event/American-Revolution/Washington-takes-command#ref97147" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">American Revolution: A British general surrenders, and the French prepare for war</a></span></li></ul></li><li><strong>Geneva</strong><ul class="list-unstyled"><li> <span class="index-xref">In <a href="https://www.britannica.com/place/Geneva-Switzerland/History#ref393553" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">Geneva: Class conflicts</a></span></li></ul></li><li><strong>German reunification</strong><ul class="list-unstyled"><li> <span class="index-xref">In <a href="https://www.britannica.com/topic/20th-century-international-relations-2085155/The-reunification-of-Germany#ref305275" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">20th-century international relations: From skepticism to reality</a></span></li></ul></li><li><strong>Germany</strong><ul class="list-unstyled"><li> <span class="index-xref">In <a href="https://www.britannica.com/place/Germany/The-accession-of-the-Saxons#ref297040" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">Germany: The accession of the Saxons</a></span></li><li> <span class="index-xref">In <a href="https://www.britannica.com/place/Germany/The-Thirty-Years-War-and-the-Peace-of-Westphalia#ref297364" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">Germany: The Thirty Years’ War and the Peace of Westphalia</a></span></li><li> <span class="index-xref">In <a href="https://www.britannica.com/place/Germany/The-era-of-partition#ref297718" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">Germany: Allied occupation and the formation of the two Germanys, 1945–49</a></span></li></ul></li><li><strong>Greece</strong><ul class="list-unstyled"><li> <span class="index-xref">In <a href="https://www.britannica.com/place/Greece/The-intellectual-revival#ref297948" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">Greece: Western encroachments</a></span></li></ul></li><li><strong>Hungary</strong><ul class="list-unstyled"><li> <span class="index-xref">In <a href="https://www.britannica.com/place/Hungary/Consolidation-and-expansion#ref411200" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">Hungary: Social and political developments</a></span></li></ul></li><li><strong>Ireland</strong><ul class="list-unstyled"><li> <span class="index-xref">In <a href="https://www.britannica.com/biography/Wolfe-Tone#ref73499" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">Wolfe Tone</a></span></li></ul></li><li><strong>Italy</strong><ul class="list-unstyled"><li> <span class="index-xref">In <a href="https://www.britannica.com/place/Italy/Carolingian-and-post-Carolingian-Italy-774-962#ref244450" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">Italy: The kingdom of Italy</a></span></li><li> <span class="index-xref">In <a href="https://www.britannica.com/place/Italy/Revolution-restoration-and-unification#ref318789" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">Italy: The French Revolutionary period</a></span></li><li> <span class="index-xref">In <a href="https://www.britannica.com/place/Italy/The-acquisition-of-Venetia-and-Rome#ref318943" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">Italy: The acquisition of Venetia and Rome</a></span></li></ul></li><li><strong>Japan</strong><ul class="list-unstyled"><li> <span class="index-xref">In <a href="https://www.britannica.com/place/Japan/The-emergence-of-imperial-Japan#ref1173768" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">Japan: The Sino-Japanese War</a></span></li><li> <span class="index-xref">In <a href="https://www.britannica.com/place/Japan/Japanese-expansionism#ref1173769" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">Japan: Japanese expansionism</a></span></li><li> <span class="index-xref">In <a href="https://www.britannica.com/place/Japan/World-War-II-and-defeat#ref1173770" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">Japan: Prologue to war</a></span></li></ul></li><li><strong>Laibach Congress</strong><ul class="list-unstyled"><li> <span class="index-xref">In <a href="https://www.britannica.com/event/Congress-of-Laibach#ref72030" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">Congress of Laibach</a></span></li></ul></li><li><strong>Lebanon</strong><ul class="list-unstyled"><li> <span class="index-xref">In <a href="https://www.britannica.com/place/Lebanon#ref386602" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">Lebanon</a></span></li><li> <span class="index-xref">In <a href="https://www.britannica.com/place/Lebanon/Lebanon-in-the-Middle-Ages#ref386570" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">Lebanon: Ottoman period</a></span></li></ul></li><li><strong>London Naval Conference</strong><ul class="list-unstyled"><li> <span class="index-xref">In <a href="https://www.britannica.com/event/London-Naval-Conference#ref76397" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">London Naval Conference</a></span></li></ul></li><li><strong>Lorraine</strong><ul class="list-unstyled"><li> <span class="index-xref">In <a href="https://www.britannica.com/place/Lorraine-region-France#ref101244" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">Lorraine: History</a></span></li></ul></li><li><strong>Low Countries</strong><ul class="list-unstyled"><li> <span class="index-xref">In <a href="https://www.britannica.com/topic/history-of-the-Low-Countries-prehistoric-times-to-1579-2157575/The-development-of-the-territorial-principalities-and-the-rise-of-the-towns-925-c-1350#ref413827" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">history of the Low Countries: French and English influence</a></span></li><li> <span class="index-xref">In <a href="https://www.britannica.com/topic/history-of-the-Low-Countries-prehistoric-times-to-1579-2157575/Consolidation-of-territorial-states-1384-1567#ref413914" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">history of the Low Countries: The Burgundians</a></span></li></ul></li><li><strong>Luxembourg</strong><ul class="list-unstyled"><li> <span class="index-xref">In <a href="https://www.britannica.com/place/Luxembourg/History#ref386639" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">Luxembourg: Habsburg and French domination</a></span></li></ul></li><li><strong>Libya’s Interim Transitional National Council</strong><ul class="list-unstyled"><li> <span class="index-xref">In <a href="https://www.britannica.com/place/Libya/Emergence-of-the-Transitional-National-Council-in-Benghazi#ref1106583" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">Libya: Stalemate, resurgence of the Qaddafi regime, and international intervention</a></span></li></ul></li><li><strong>Mexico</strong><ul class="list-unstyled"><li> <span class="index-xref">In <a href="https://www.britannica.com/place/Mexico/La-Reforma#ref394389" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">Mexico: French intervention</a></span></li></ul></li><li><strong>Monaco</strong><ul class="list-unstyled"><li> <span class="index-xref">In <a href="https://www.britannica.com/place/Monaco#ref78245" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">Monaco</a></span></li></ul></li><li><strong>Myanmar</strong><ul class="list-unstyled"><li> <span class="index-xref">In <a href="https://www.britannica.com/place/India/Foreign-policy#ref486306" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">India: The incorporation of Burma</a></span></li></ul></li><li><strong>Narai and Phaulkon-Tachard conspiracy</strong><ul class="list-unstyled"><li> <span class="index-xref">In <a href="https://www.britannica.com/biography/Narai#ref143305" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">Narai</a></span></li></ul></li><li><strong>National Action Bloc</strong><ul class="list-unstyled"><li> <span class="index-xref">In <a href="https://www.britannica.com/topic/National-Action-Bloc#ref11054" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">National Action Bloc</a></span></li></ul></li><li><strong>Neustria</strong><ul class="list-unstyled"><li> <span class="index-xref">In <a href="https://www.britannica.com/place/Neustria#ref275278" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">Neustria</a></span></li></ul></li><li><strong>Ottoman Empire</strong><ul class="list-unstyled"><li> <span class="index-xref">In <a href="https://www.britannica.com/place/Ottoman-Empire/Suleyman-I#ref482075" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">Ottoman Empire: Süleyman I</a></span></li><li> <span class="index-xref">In <a href="https://www.britannica.com/place/Ottoman-Empire/Dissolution-of-the-empire#ref482300" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">Ottoman Empire: Allied war aims and the proposed peace settlement</a></span></li></ul></li><li><strong>Palestine</strong><ul class="list-unstyled"><li> <span class="index-xref">In <a href="https://www.britannica.com/place/Palestine/World-War-I-and-after#ref478932" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">Palestine: World War I and after</a></span></li></ul></li><li><strong>Papal States</strong><ul class="list-unstyled"><li> <span class="index-xref">In <a href="https://www.britannica.com/place/Papal-States#ref273763" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">Papal States: Early history</a></span></li></ul></li><li><strong>Paris Peace Conference</strong><ul class="list-unstyled"><li> <span class="index-xref">In <a href="https://www.britannica.com/event/Paris-Peace-Conference#ref159486" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">Paris Peace Conference</a></span></li></ul></li><li><strong>Parma and Piacenza</strong><ul class="list-unstyled"><li> <span class="index-xref">In <a href="https://www.britannica.com/place/Duchy-of-Parma-and-Piacenza#ref183002" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">Duchy of Parma and Piacenza</a></span></li></ul></li><li><strong>Peace of Cateau-Cambrésis</strong><ul class="list-unstyled"><li> <span class="index-xref">In <a href="https://www.britannica.com/event/Peace-of-Cateau-Cambresis#ref195551" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">Peace of Cateau-Cambrésis</a></span></li></ul></li><li><strong>Poland</strong><ul class="list-unstyled"><li> <span class="index-xref">In <a href="https://www.britannica.com/place/Poland/Partitioned-Poland#ref397023" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">Poland: The legions and the Duchy of Warsaw</a></span></li></ul></li><li><strong>Portugal</strong><ul class="list-unstyled"><li> <span class="index-xref">In <a href="https://www.britannica.com/place/Portugal/Control-of-the-sea-trade#ref233853" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">Portugal: Union of Spain and Portugal, 1580–1640</a></span></li></ul></li><li><strong>pre-World War I Europe</strong><ul class="list-unstyled"><li> <span class="index-xref">In <a href="https://www.britannica.com/topic/history-of-Europe/Prewar-diplomacy#ref311282" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">history of Europe: Prewar diplomacy</a></span></li><li> <span class="index-xref">In <a href="https://www.britannica.com/topic/20th-century-international-relations-2085155#ref114782" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">20th-century international relations: The era of the great powers</a></span></li><li> <span class="index-xref">In <a href="https://www.britannica.com/topic/20th-century-international-relations-2085155/Completing-the-alliance-systems-1890-1907#ref262618" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">20th-century international relations: The threats to Britain’s empire</a></span></li></ul></li><li><strong>Quadruple Alliance of 1718</strong><ul class="list-unstyled"><li> <span class="index-xref">In <a href="https://www.britannica.com/topic/Quadruple-Alliance-Europe-1718#ref259851" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">Quadruple Alliance</a></span></li></ul></li><li><strong>Quadruple Alliance of 1813</strong><ul class="list-unstyled"><li> <span class="index-xref">In <a href="https://www.britannica.com/topic/Quadruple-Alliance-Europe-1813-1815#ref16294" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">Quadruple Alliance</a></span></li></ul></li><li><strong>Quadruple Alliance of 1834</strong><ul class="list-unstyled"><li> <span class="index-xref">In <a href="https://www.britannica.com/topic/Quadruple-Alliance-Europe-1834#ref74924" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">Quadruple Alliance</a></span></li></ul></li><li><strong>Quebec Conference</strong><ul class="list-unstyled"><li> <span class="index-xref">In <a href="https://www.britannica.com/event/Quebec-Conference#ref16301" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">Quebec Conference</a></span></li></ul></li><li><strong>Risorgimento</strong><ul class="list-unstyled"><li> <span class="index-xref">In <a href="https://www.britannica.com/event/Risorgimento#ref222109" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">Risorgimento</a></span></li></ul></li><li><strong>Romania</strong><ul class="list-unstyled"><li> <span class="index-xref">In <a href="https://www.britannica.com/place/Romania/Greater-Romania#ref476991" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">Romania: From democracy to dictatorship</a></span></li></ul></li><li><strong>Russia</strong><ul class="list-unstyled"><li> <span class="index-xref">In <a href="https://www.britannica.com/place/Russia/Russia-from-1801-to-1917#ref421882" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">Russia: General survey</a></span></li><li> <span class="index-xref">In <a href="https://www.britannica.com/place/Russia/War-and-the-fall-of-the-monarchy#ref422131" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">Russia: War and the fall of the monarchy</a></span></li></ul></li><li><strong>Rwanda</strong><ul class="list-unstyled"><li> <span class="index-xref">In <a href="https://www.britannica.com/place/Rwanda/Moving-forward#ref975759" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">Rwanda: Investigations into the 1994 plane crash and related controversy</a></span></li><li> <span class="index-xref">In <a href="https://www.britannica.com/event/Rwanda-genocide-of-1994/National-recovery#ref1111327" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">Rwanda genocide of 1994: Investigations into the events of 1994</a></span></li></ul></li><li><strong>Saarland</strong><ul class="list-unstyled"><li> <span class="index-xref">In <a href="https://www.britannica.com/place/Saarland#ref279751" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">Saarland: History</a></span></li></ul></li><li><strong>Sardinia–Piedmont</strong><ul class="list-unstyled"><li> <span class="index-xref">In <a href="https://www.britannica.com/place/Italy/The-war-of-1859#ref318918" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">Italy: The war of 1859</a></span></li></ul></li><li><strong>Scotland</strong><ul class="list-unstyled"><li> <span class="index-xref">In <a href="https://www.britannica.com/place/Scotland/15th-century-society#ref483864" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">Scotland: James IV (1488–1513) and James V (1513–42)</a></span></li></ul></li><li><strong>Somalia</strong><ul class="list-unstyled"><li> <span class="index-xref">In <a href="https://www.britannica.com/place/Somalia/The-great-Somali-migrations#ref419632" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">Somalia: Competition between the European powers and Ethiopia</a></span></li><li> <span class="index-xref">In <a href="https://www.britannica.com/place/Somalia/Revolt-in-British-Somaliland#ref419658" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">Somalia: The era of Scientific Socialism</a></span></li></ul></li><li><strong>South Pacific Commission</strong><ul class="list-unstyled"><li> <span class="index-xref">In <a href="https://www.britannica.com/topic/Secretariat-of-the-Pacific-Community#ref259295" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">Secretariat of the Pacific Community</a></span></li></ul></li><li><strong>Spain</strong><ul class="list-unstyled"><li> <span class="index-xref">In <a href="https://www.britannica.com/biography/Charles-IV-king-of-Spain#ref753650" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">Charles IV</a></span></li><li> <span class="index-xref">In <a href="https://www.britannica.com/event/Affair-of-the-Spanish-Marriages#ref162255" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">Affair of the Spanish Marriages</a></span></li><li> <span class="index-xref">In <a href="https://www.britannica.com/place/Spain/The-Visigothic-kingdom#ref587151" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">Spain: The Christian states, 711–1035</a></span></li></ul></li><li><strong>Sweden</strong><ul class="list-unstyled"><li> <span class="index-xref">In <a href="https://www.britannica.com/place/Sweden/The-reign-of-Gustav-II-Adolf#ref403778" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">Sweden: The reign of Gustav II Adolf</a></span></li></ul></li><li><strong>Switzerland</strong><ul class="list-unstyled"><li> <span class="index-xref">In <a href="https://www.britannica.com/place/Switzerland/Expansion-and-position-of-power#ref423866" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">Switzerland: Expansion and position of power</a></span></li><li> <span class="index-xref">In <a href="https://www.britannica.com/place/Switzerland/The-Helvetic-Republic#ref907649" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">Switzerland: The Helvetic Republic</a></span></li></ul></li><li><strong>Thailand</strong><ul class="list-unstyled"><li> <span class="index-xref">In <a href="https://www.britannica.com/place/Thailand/Chulalongkorn-and-the-foundations-of-modern-Thailand#ref509813" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">Thailand: Chulalongkorn and the foundations of modern Thailand</a></span></li></ul></li><li><strong>United Kingdom</strong><ul class="list-unstyled"><li> <span class="index-xref">In <a href="https://www.britannica.com/place/United-Kingdom/Baldwin-and-the-abdication-crisis#ref483632" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">United Kingdom: Foreign policy and appeasement</a></span></li><li> <span class="index-xref">In <a href="https://www.britannica.com/place/United-Kingdom/Baldwin-and-the-abdication-crisis#ref483650" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">United Kingdom: The phases of war</a></span></li></ul></li><li><strong>United Nations</strong><ul class="list-unstyled"><li> <span class="index-xref">In <a href="https://www.britannica.com/topic/United-Nations/Organization-and-administration#ref368930" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">United Nations: Principles and membership</a></span></li></ul></li><li><strong>Vanuatu</strong><ul class="list-unstyled"><li> <span class="index-xref">In <a href="https://www.britannica.com/place/Vanuatu/Government-and-society#ref513797" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">Vanuatu: Government and society</a></span></li></ul></li><li><strong>Vienna Congress</strong><ul class="list-unstyled"><li> <span class="index-xref">In <a href="https://www.britannica.com/event/Congress-of-Vienna#ref96368" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">Congress of Vienna: Preliminaries</a></span></li></ul></li></ul></section><section><h3>medieval society</h3><ul class="list-unstyled"></ul><ul class="list-unstyled"><li><strong>allodium</strong><ul class="list-unstyled"><li> <span class="index-xref">In <a href="https://www.britannica.com/topic/allodium#ref21600" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">allodium</a></span></li></ul></li><li><strong>humanism</strong><ul class="list-unstyled"><li> <span class="index-xref">In <a href="https://www.britannica.com/topic/humanism/Desiderius-Erasmus#ref127969" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">humanism: The French humanists</a></span></li></ul></li><li><strong>viscountcy</strong><ul class="list-unstyled"><li> <span class="index-xref">In <a href="https://www.britannica.com/topic/viscount#ref206381" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">viscount: France</a></span></li></ul></li></ul></section><section><h3>role of</h3><ul class="list-unstyled"></ul><ul class="list-unstyled"><li><strong>Boniface VIII</strong><ul class="list-unstyled"><li> <span class="index-xref">In <a href="https://www.britannica.com/biography/Boniface-VIII#ref244070" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">Boniface VIII: Early life and election to the papacy</a></span></li></ul></li><li><strong>Bourbon dynasty</strong><ul class="list-unstyled"><li> <span class="index-xref">In <a href="https://www.britannica.com/topic/house-of-Bourbon#ref85425" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">house of Bourbon</a></span></li></ul></li><li><strong>Capetian dynasty</strong><ul class="list-unstyled"><li> <span class="index-xref">In <a href="https://www.britannica.com/topic/Capetian-dynasty#ref658168" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">Capetian dynasty</a></span></li></ul></li><li><strong>Charles V</strong><ul class="list-unstyled"><li> <span class="index-xref">In <a href="https://www.britannica.com/biography/Charles-V-Holy-Roman-emperor#ref112725" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">Charles V: Imperialist goals, rivalry with Francis I, and fight against Protestantism</a></span></li></ul></li><li><strong>Churchill</strong><ul class="list-unstyled"><li> <span class="index-xref">In <a href="https://www.britannica.com/biography/Winston-Churchill#ref358991" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">Winston Churchill: As Liberal minister</a></span></li></ul></li><li><strong>Dreyfus affair</strong><ul class="list-unstyled"><li> <span class="index-xref">In <a href="https://www.britannica.com/biography/Alfred-Dreyfus#ref23291" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">Alfred Dreyfus</a></span></li><li> <span class="index-xref">In <a href="https://www.britannica.com/topic/history-of-Europe/The-emergence-of-the-industrial-state#ref311247" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">history of Europe: Political patterns</a></span></li></ul></li><li><strong>Edward I</strong><ul class="list-unstyled"><li> <span class="index-xref">In <a href="https://www.britannica.com/biography/Edward-I-king-of-England/Wars#ref266869" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">Edward I: Wars of Edward I</a></span></li></ul></li><li><strong>Edward III</strong><ul class="list-unstyled"><li> <span class="index-xref">In <a href="https://www.britannica.com/biography/Edward-III-king-of-England#ref244563" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">Edward III: Hundred Years’ War</a></span></li></ul></li><li><strong>Eleanor of Aquitaine</strong><ul class="list-unstyled"><li> <span class="index-xref">In <a href="https://www.britannica.com/biography/Eleanor-of-Aquitaine#ref91770" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">Eleanor of Aquitaine: Early life and marriage to Louis VII</a></span></li></ul></li><li><strong>Franklin</strong><ul class="list-unstyled"><li> <span class="index-xref">In <a href="https://www.britannica.com/biography/Benjamin-Franklin/Public-service#ref385318" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">Benjamin Franklin: Public service of Benjamin Franklin</a></span></li></ul></li><li><strong>Frederick Henry</strong><ul class="list-unstyled"><li> <span class="index-xref">In <a href="https://www.britannica.com/biography/Frederick-Henry#ref66238" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">Frederick Henry, prince of Orange, count of Nassau: French alliance</a></span></li></ul></li><li><strong>Frederick the Great</strong><ul class="list-unstyled"><li> <span class="index-xref">In <a href="https://www.britannica.com/biography/Frederick-II-king-of-Prussia#ref385370" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">Frederick II: Accession to the throne and foreign policy</a></span></li><li> <span class="index-xref">In <a href="https://www.britannica.com/biography/Frederick-II-king-of-Prussia/Significance-of-Fredericks-reign#ref385406" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">Frederick II: Significance of Frederick’s reign</a></span></li></ul></li><li><strong>Frederick William</strong><ul class="list-unstyled"><li> <span class="index-xref">In <a href="https://www.britannica.com/biography/Frederick-William-elector-of-Brandenburg#ref158172" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">Frederick William: Early years of reconstruction.</a></span></li></ul></li><li><strong>Habsburgs</strong><ul class="list-unstyled"><li> <span class="index-xref">In <a href="https://www.britannica.com/topic/House-of-Habsburg/The-world-power-of-the-Habsburgs#ref405998" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">house of Habsburg: The world power of the Habsburgs</a></span></li></ul></li><li><strong>Henry II</strong><ul class="list-unstyled"><li> <span class="index-xref">In <a href="https://www.britannica.com/biography/Henry-II-king-of-England#ref217404" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">Henry II: Reign</a></span></li></ul></li><li><strong>Henry V</strong><ul class="list-unstyled"><li> <span class="index-xref">In <a href="https://www.britannica.com/biography/Henry-V-king-of-England#ref1185" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">Henry V: Early life</a></span></li></ul></li><li><strong>Henry VII</strong><ul class="list-unstyled"><li> <span class="index-xref">In <a href="https://www.britannica.com/biography/Henry-VII-king-of-England/Foreign-policy#ref246020" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">Henry VII: Foreign policy of Henry VII</a></span></li></ul></li><li><strong>Henry VIII</strong><ul class="list-unstyled"><li> <span class="index-xref">In <a href="https://www.britannica.com/biography/Henry-VIII-king-of-England#ref26647" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">Henry VIII: Accession to the throne</a></span></li></ul></li><li><strong>Hitler</strong><ul class="list-unstyled"><li> <span class="index-xref">In <a href="https://www.britannica.com/biography/Adolf-Hitler/Dictator-1933-39#ref63926" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">Adolf Hitler: Dictator, 1933–39</a></span></li></ul></li><li><strong>Ho Chi Minh</strong><ul class="list-unstyled"><li> <span class="index-xref">In <a href="https://www.britannica.com/biography/Ho-Chi-Minh/World-War-II-and-the-founding-of-the-Vietnamese-state#ref262175" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">Ho Chi Minh: World War II and the founding of the Vietnamese state</a></span></li></ul></li><li><strong>John XXIII</strong><ul class="list-unstyled"><li> <span class="index-xref">In <a href="https://www.britannica.com/biography/Saint-John-XXIII/Service-as-a-Vatican-diplomat#ref176266" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">Saint John XXIII: Service as a Vatican diplomat</a></span></li></ul></li><li><strong>John Lackland</strong><ul class="list-unstyled"><li> <span class="index-xref">In <a href="https://www.britannica.com/biography/John-king-of-England#ref214529" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">John: Youth and rivalry for the crown</a></span></li></ul></li><li><strong>John the Fearless</strong><ul class="list-unstyled"><li> <span class="index-xref">In <a href="https://www.britannica.com/biography/John-duke-of-Burgundy#ref156485" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">John</a></span></li></ul></li><li><strong>Leopold I</strong><ul class="list-unstyled"><li> <span class="index-xref">In <a href="https://www.britannica.com/biography/Leopold-I-Holy-Roman-emperor#ref226535" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">Leopold I: The struggle with France.</a></span></li></ul></li><li><strong>Louis I</strong><ul class="list-unstyled"><li> <span class="index-xref">In <a href="https://www.britannica.com/biography/Louis-I-Holy-Roman-emperor#ref259363" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">Louis I</a></span></li></ul></li><li><strong>Maximilian I</strong><ul class="list-unstyled"><li> <span class="index-xref">In <a href="https://www.britannica.com/biography/Maximilian-I-Holy-Roman-emperor#ref14366" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">Maximilian I: Territorial expansion</a></span></li></ul></li><li><strong>Mazarin</strong><ul class="list-unstyled"><li> <span class="index-xref">In <a href="https://www.britannica.com/biography/Cardinal-Jules-Mazarin#ref181264" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">Jules, Cardinal Mazarin</a></span></li></ul></li><li><strong>Nguyen dynasty</strong><ul class="list-unstyled"><li> <span class="index-xref">In <a href="https://www.britannica.com/topic/Nguyen-dynasty#ref181378" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">Nguyen Dynasty</a></span></li></ul></li><li><strong>Otto I</strong><ul class="list-unstyled"><li> <span class="index-xref">In <a href="https://www.britannica.com/biography/Otto-I#ref284526" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">Otto I: Foreign conquests</a></span></li></ul></li><li><strong>Palmerston</strong><ul class="list-unstyled"><li> <span class="index-xref">In <a href="https://www.britannica.com/biography/Henry-John-Temple-3rd-Viscount-Palmerston/Views-on-liberalism-and-conservatism#ref53369" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">Lord Palmerston: Views on nationalism</a></span></li></ul></li><li><strong>Pitt the Elder</strong><ul class="list-unstyled"><li> <span class="index-xref">In <a href="https://www.britannica.com/biography/William-Pitt-the-Elder/Leadership-during-Seven-Years-War#ref235611" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">William Pitt, the Elder: Leadership during Seven Years’ War of William Pitt, the Elder</a></span></li></ul></li><li><strong>Pitt the Younger</strong><ul class="list-unstyled"><li> <span class="index-xref">In <a href="https://www.britannica.com/biography/William-Pitt-the-Younger#ref35576" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">William Pitt, the Younger: Pitt’s first ministry, 1783–1801</a></span></li></ul></li><li><strong>Pius IX</strong><ul class="list-unstyled"><li> <span class="index-xref">In <a href="https://www.britannica.com/biography/Pius-IX/Ultramontanism#ref254174" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">Pius IX: Ultramontanism of Pius IX</a></span></li></ul></li><li><strong>Richelieu</strong><ul class="list-unstyled"><li> <span class="index-xref">In <a href="https://www.britannica.com/biography/Armand-Jean-du-Plessis-cardinal-et-duc-de-Richelieu#ref162023" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">Cardinal Richelieu</a></span></li></ul></li><li><strong>Rothschild family</strong><ul class="list-unstyled"><li> <span class="index-xref">In <a href="https://www.britannica.com/money/Rothschild-family#ref247855" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">Rothschild family: Mayer’s five sons</a></span></li></ul></li><li><strong>Stresemann</strong><ul class="list-unstyled"><li> <span class="index-xref">In <a href="https://www.britannica.com/biography/Gustav-Stresemann/Years-as-foreign-minister#ref162989" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">Gustav Stresemann: Years as foreign minister of Gustav Stresemann</a></span></li></ul></li><li><strong>Toussaint-Louverture</strong><ul class="list-unstyled"><li> <span class="index-xref">In <a href="https://www.britannica.com/biography/Toussaint-Louverture#ref185934" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">Toussaint Louverture: Rise to power</a></span></li></ul></li><li><strong>ultras</strong><ul class="list-unstyled"><li> <span class="index-xref">In <a href="https://www.britannica.com/topic/ultra-French-history#ref226347" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">ultra</a></span></li></ul></li><li><strong>ʿUmar Tal</strong><ul class="list-unstyled"><li> <span class="index-xref">In <a href="https://www.britannica.com/biography/Umar-Tal#ref101053" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">ʿUmar Tal: Early life and pilgrimage to Mecca.</a></span></li></ul></li><li><strong>Walsingham</strong><ul class="list-unstyled"><li> <span class="index-xref">In <a href="https://www.britannica.com/biography/Francis-Walsingham#ref59409" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">Sir Francis Walsingham: Ambassador to France and the Massacre of Saint Bartholomew’s Day</a></span></li></ul></li><li><strong>Warwick</strong><ul class="list-unstyled"><li> <span class="index-xref">In <a href="https://www.britannica.com/biography/Richard-Beauchamp-13th-earl-of-Warwick#ref103407" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">Richard Beauchamp, 13th earl of Warwick</a></span></li></ul></li><li><strong>William II</strong><ul class="list-unstyled"><li> <span class="index-xref">In <a href="https://www.britannica.com/biography/William-II-emperor-of-Germany#ref143872" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">William II: Removal of Bismarck</a></span></li></ul></li></ul></section><section><h3>treaties</h3><ul class="list-unstyled"></ul><ul class="list-unstyled"><li><strong>Amiens</strong><ul class="list-unstyled"><li> <span class="index-xref">In <a href="https://www.britannica.com/event/Treaty-of-Amiens-1802#ref104414" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">Treaty of Amiens</a></span></li></ul></li><li><strong>Ankara</strong><ul class="list-unstyled"><li> <span class="index-xref">In <a href="https://www.britannica.com/event/Treaty-of-Ankara#ref149296" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">Treaty of Ankara</a></span></li></ul></li><li><strong>Antarctic</strong><ul class="list-unstyled"><li> <span class="index-xref">In <a href="https://www.britannica.com/event/Antarctic-Treaty#ref232847" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">Antarctic Treaty</a></span></li><li> <span class="index-xref">In <a href="https://www.britannica.com/place/Antarctica/The-Antarctic-Treaty#ref390212" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">Antarctica: The Antarctic Treaty</a></span></li></ul></li><li><strong>Campo Formio</strong><ul class="list-unstyled"><li> <span class="index-xref">In <a href="https://www.britannica.com/event/Treaty-of-Campo-Formio#ref29455" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">Treaty of Campo Formio</a></span></li></ul></li><li><strong>Entente Cordiale</strong><ul class="list-unstyled"><li> <span class="index-xref">In <a href="https://www.britannica.com/event/Entente-Cordiale#ref65579" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">Entente Cordiale</a></span></li></ul></li><li><strong>Geneva Accords</strong><ul class="list-unstyled"><li> <span class="index-xref">In <a href="https://www.britannica.com/event/Geneva-Accords#ref3868" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">Geneva Accords</a></span></li></ul></li><li><strong>Hünkâr iskelesi</strong><ul class="list-unstyled"><li> <span class="index-xref">In <a href="https://www.britannica.com/event/Treaty-of-Hunkar-Iskelesi#ref245340" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">Treaty of Hünkâr İskelesi</a></span></li></ul></li><li><strong>Medina del Campo</strong><ul class="list-unstyled"><li> <span class="index-xref">In <a href="https://www.britannica.com/event/Treaty-of-Medina-del-Campo#ref57247" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">Treaty of Medina del Campo</a></span></li></ul></li><li><strong>Munich Agreement</strong><ul class="list-unstyled"><li> <span class="index-xref">In <a href="https://www.britannica.com/event/Munich-Agreement#ref117378" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">Munich Agreement</a></span></li></ul></li><li><strong>Nijmegen Treaties</strong><ul class="list-unstyled"><li> <span class="index-xref">In <a href="https://www.britannica.com/event/Treaties-of-Nijmegen#ref64328" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">Treaties of Nijmegen</a></span></li></ul></li><li><strong>Pact of Locarno</strong><ul class="list-unstyled"><li> <span class="index-xref">In <a href="https://www.britannica.com/event/Pact-of-Locarno#ref253291" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">Pact of Locarno</a></span></li></ul></li><li><strong>Pactes de Famille</strong><ul class="list-unstyled"><li> <span class="index-xref">In <a href="https://www.britannica.com/event/Pacte-de-Famille#ref266678" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">Pacte de Famille</a></span></li></ul></li><li><strong>Paris</strong><ul class="list-unstyled"><li> <span class="index-xref">In <a href="https://www.britannica.com/event/Treaty-of-Paris-1763#ref58956" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">Treaty of Paris</a></span></li></ul></li><li><strong>Paris</strong><ul class="list-unstyled"><li> <span class="index-xref">In <a href="https://www.britannica.com/event/Peace-of-Paris-1783#ref38768" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">Peace of Paris</a></span></li></ul></li><li><strong>Pressburg</strong><ul class="list-unstyled"><li> <span class="index-xref">In <a href="https://www.britannica.com/event/Treaty-of-Pressburg-1805#ref158829" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">Treaty of Pressburg</a></span></li></ul></li><li><strong>Pyrenees</strong><ul class="list-unstyled"><li> <span class="index-xref">In <a href="https://www.britannica.com/event/Peace-of-the-Pyrenees#ref38868" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">Peace of the Pyrenees</a></span></li><li> <span class="index-xref">In <a href="https://www.britannica.com/place/Gravelines#ref749575" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">Gravelines</a></span></li></ul></li><li><strong>Reinsurance</strong><ul class="list-unstyled"><li> <span class="index-xref">In <a href="https://www.britannica.com/event/Reinsurance-Treaty#ref144394" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">Reinsurance Treaty</a></span></li></ul></li><li><strong>Saigon</strong><ul class="list-unstyled"><li> <span class="index-xref">In <a href="https://www.britannica.com/event/Treaty-of-Saigon#ref11311" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">Treaty of Saigon</a></span></li></ul></li><li><strong>Schönbrunn</strong><ul class="list-unstyled"><li> <span class="index-xref">In <a href="https://www.britannica.com/event/Treaty-of-Schonbrunn#ref205200" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">Treaty of Schönbrunn</a></span></li></ul></li><li><strong>Sykes-Picot Agreement</strong><ul class="list-unstyled"><li> <span class="index-xref">In <a href="https://www.britannica.com/event/Sykes-Picot-Agreement#ref101771" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">Sykes-Picot Agreement</a></span></li></ul></li><li><strong>Tilsit</strong><ul class="list-unstyled"><li> <span class="index-xref">In <a href="https://www.britannica.com/topic/Treaties-of-Tilsit#ref182507" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">Treaties of Tilsit</a></span></li></ul></li><li><strong>Versailles</strong><ul class="list-unstyled"><li> <span class="index-xref">In <a href="https://www.britannica.com/event/Treaty-of-Versailles-1919#ref242561" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">Treaty of Versailles: The Paris Peace Conference</a></span></li><li> <span class="index-xref">In <a href="https://www.britannica.com/topic/history-of-Europe/The-Great-War-and-its-aftermath#ref311350" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">history of Europe: The mood of Versailles</a></span></li></ul></li><li><strong>Westphalia</strong><ul class="list-unstyled"><li> <span class="index-xref">In <a href="https://www.britannica.com/topic/history-of-Europe/Making-peace-1645-48#ref310606" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">history of Europe: Making peace, 1645–48</a></span></li></ul></li></ul></section></div> </div> <div id="contributors" class="pt-20 mt-30 border-top"> <div id="contributors-history-of-France"> <h2 class="mb-20">Article Contributors</h2> <h3 class="topic-contributors-subtitle h4">Primary Contributors</h3> <ul class="list-unstyled mt-10 mb-20 contributor-PRIMARY"> <li> <a href="/contributor/TN-Bisson/288">T.N. Bisson</a> <div class="font-serif my-10"></div> </li> <li> <a href="/contributor/Jeremy-David-Popkin/4900">Jeremy David Popkin</a> <div class="font-serif my-10">Professor of History, University of Kentucky, Lexington.</div> </li> <li> <a href="/contributor/Gabriel-Fournier/960">Gabriel Fournier</a> <div class="font-serif my-10"></div> </li> <li> <a href="/contributor/John-Frederick-Drinkwater/3691">John Frederick Drinkwater</a> <div class="font-serif my-10"></div> </li> <li> <a href="/contributor/Patrice-Louis-Rene-Higonnet/1328">Patrice Louis-René Higonnet</a> <div class="font-serif my-10"></div> </li> <li> <a href="/contributor/Bernard-S-Bachrach/3662">Bernard S. Bachrach</a> <div class="font-serif my-10"></div> </li> <li> <a href="/contributor/JH-Shennan/2695">J.H. Shennan</a> <div class="font-serif my-10"></div> </li> <li> <a href="/contributor/Eugen-Weber/4684">Eugen Weber</a> <div class="font-serif my-10"></div> </li> <li> <a href="/contributor/Isser-Woloch/3773">Isser Woloch</a> <div class="font-serif my-10"></div> </li> <li> <a href="/contributor/Gordon-Wright/3271">Gordon Wright</a> <div class="font-serif my-10"></div> </li> <li> <a href="/editor/The-Editors-of-Encyclopaedia-Britannica/4419">The Editors of Encyclopaedia Britannica</a> </li> </ul> <h3 class="topic-contributors-subtitle h4">Other Encyclopedia Britannica Contributors</h3> <ul class="list-unstyled mt-10 mb-20 contributor-NON_PRIMARY_EB"> <li> <a href="/editor/Gloria-Lotha/7666594">Gloria Lotha</a> </li> <li> <a href="/editor/JE-Luebering/6492">J.E. Luebering</a> </li> <li> <a href="/editor/Michael-Ray/6392">Michael Ray</a> </li> </ul> </div> </div> <div id="history" class="pt-20 border-top"> <div id="history-history-of-France"> <h2 class="mb-20">Article History</h2> <div class="mw-100 overflow-auto"> <table class="article-history table"> <thead> <tr> <th class="topic-history-type">Type</th> <th class="topic-history-description">Description</th> <th class="topic-history-contributor">Contributor</th> <th class="topic-history-date">Date</th> </tr> </thead> <tbody> <tr> <td class="history-type"> <em class="material-icons " data-icon="link"></em> </td> <td> Invalidated site: History World - History of France.</td> <td class="history-contributor"> <ul class="list-unstyled"> <li data-type="contributor"> <a href="/editor/Gloria-Lotha/7666594">Gloria Lotha</a></li> </ul> </td> <td data-type="date" class="text-nowrap"> Oct 18, 2024</td> </tr> <tr> <td class="history-type"> <em class="material-icons " data-icon="link"></em> </td> <td> Add new Web site: Nature - European Journal of Human Genetics - The genetic history of France.</td> <td class="history-contributor"> <ul class="list-unstyled"> <li data-type="contributor"> <a href="/editor/Gloria-Lotha/7666594">Gloria Lotha</a></li> </ul> </td> <td data-type="date" class="text-nowrap"> Oct 17, 2024</td> </tr> <tr> <td class="history-type"> <em class="material-icons " data-icon="link"></em> </td> <td> Add new Web site: Nature - European Journal of Human Genetics - The genetic history of France.</td> <td class="history-contributor"> <ul class="list-unstyled"> <li data-type="contributor"> <a href="/editor/Gloria-Lotha/7666594">Gloria Lotha</a></li> </ul> </td> <td data-type="date" class="text-nowrap"> Oct 17, 2024</td> </tr> <tr> <td class="history-type"> <em class="material-icons " data-icon="link"></em> </td> <td> Add new Web site: The Ohio State University - Understanding the history of France and its impact on world history.</td> <td class="history-contributor"> <ul class="list-unstyled"> <li data-type="contributor"> <a href="/editor/Gloria-Lotha/7666594">Gloria Lotha</a></li> </ul> </td> <td data-type="date" class="text-nowrap"> Jul 12, 2024</td> </tr> <tr> <td class="history-type"> <em class="material-icons " data-icon="edit"></em> </td> <td> Cross-reference corrected.</td> <td class="history-contributor"> <ul class="list-unstyled"> <li data-type="contributor"> <a href="/editor/JE-Luebering/6492">J.E. Luebering</a></li> </ul> </td> <td data-type="date" class="text-nowrap"> Apr 19, 2024</td> </tr> <tr> <td class="history-type"> <em class="material-icons " data-icon="link"></em> </td> <td> Add new Web site: Heritage History - "The Story of Modern France".</td> <td class="history-contributor"> <ul class="list-unstyled"> <li data-type="contributor"> <a href="/editor/Gloria-Lotha/7666594">Gloria Lotha</a></li> </ul> </td> <td data-type="date" class="text-nowrap"> Mar 01, 2024</td> </tr> <tr> <td class="history-type"> <em class="material-icons " data-icon="link"></em> </td> <td> Add new Web site: BBC News - France profile - Timeline.</td> <td class="history-contributor"> <ul class="list-unstyled"> <li data-type="contributor"> <a href="/editor/Gloria-Lotha/7666594">Gloria Lotha</a></li> </ul> </td> <td data-type="date" class="text-nowrap"> Nov 24, 2023</td> </tr> <tr> <td class="history-type"> <em class="material-icons " data-icon="edit"></em> </td> <td> New article added.</td> <td class="history-contributor"> <ul class="list-unstyled"> <li data-type="contributor"> <a href="/editor/Michael-Ray/6392">Michael Ray</a></li> </ul> </td> <td data-type="date" class="text-nowrap"> Oct 16, 2023</td> </tr> </tbody> </table> </div> <div id="md-topic-diff" class="d-none"> <div class="md-modal-header"> </div> <div class="md-modal-body"> <div class="md-topic-diff-header-container"> <div class="md-topic-diff-header"> <div class="grid"> <div class="col"> <div class="md-topic-diff-header-browse"> <span>View Changes: </span> <div title="previous change" id="md-topic-diff-previous" class="md-topic-diff-pn disabled"></div> <div title="next change" id="md-topic-diff-next" class="md-topic-diff-pn"></div> </div> </div> <div class="col justify-content-center d-flex align-items-center align-self-center"> <div class="h3">Article History</div> </div> <div class="col"> <div class="md-topic-diff-header-info"> <div>Revised: <span id="md-topic-diff-date"></span></div> <div>By: <span id="md-topic-diff-contributor"></span></div> </div> <em class="md-close material-icons" data-icon="close"></em> </div> </div> </div> </div> <div id="md-topic-diff-container" class="md-overlay-container mt-50 mt-sm-0"></div> </div> </div> </div> </div> </div> </div> </div> <aside class="col-md-da-320"></aside> </div> </div> </div> </div> </div> </div> </main> <div id="md-footer"></div> <footer class="md-footer footer-wrapper hide-on-edit"> <div class="footer-bck"> <DIV class="marketing-FOOTER_NEWSLETTER marketing-content" data-marketing-id="FOOTER_NEWSLETTER"><div class="md-footer-newsletter-form pt-10 mb-30 mx-15 mx-sm-120"> <div class="font-18"> <strong>History at your fingertips –</strong> Sign up here to see what happened On This Day, every day in your inbox! </div> <div class="p-30"> <div class="newsletter-form-container"> <form class="newsletter-form" method="post" action="/newsletter-subscription/EB_ON_THIS_DAY"> <div class="form-group grid d-flex justify-content-center"> <div class="col-sm-50 col-100"> <label class="sr-only" for="enter-your-email">Enter your email</label> <input id="enter-your-email" type="email" name="email" class="form-control font-18 p-10" placeholder="Enter your email" pattern="[a-z0-9._%+-]+@[a-z0-9.-]+\.[a-z]{2,4}$" required> </div> <div class="col-sm-auto col-100 mt-5 mt-sm-0"> <button type="submit" class="btn btn-outline-white" style="width: 100%; height:100%;">Subscribe</button> </div> </div> <div class="text-white pt-30 text-opacity"> By signing up for this email, you are agreeing to news, offers, and information from Encyclopaedia Britannica.<br> Click here to view our <a class="link-white text-decoration-underline" href="https://corporate.britannica.com/privacy-policy" target="_blank" rel="noopener nofollow">Privacy Notice</a>. 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