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class="vector-toc-numb">3</span> <span>Role in climate change mitigation</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Role_in_climate_change_mitigation-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Role in climate change mitigation subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Role_in_climate_change_mitigation-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Critique_and_risks" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Critique_and_risks"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.1</span> <span>Critique and risks</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Critique_and_risks-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Permanence" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Permanence"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.2</span> 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class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Overview_listing_based_on_technology_readiness_level" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Overview_listing_based_on_technology_readiness_level"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.1</span> <span>Overview listing based on technology readiness level</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Overview_listing_based_on_technology_readiness_level-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Afforestation,_reforestation,_and_forestry_management" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Afforestation,_reforestation,_and_forestry_management"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.2</span> <span>Afforestation, reforestation, and forestry management</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Afforestation,_reforestation,_and_forestry_management-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Agricultural_practices_(carbon_farming)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Agricultural_practices_(carbon_farming)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.3</span> <span>Agricultural practices (carbon farming)</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Agricultural_practices_(carbon_farming)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Bioenergy_with_carbon_capture_&_storage_(BECCS)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Bioenergy_with_carbon_capture_&_storage_(BECCS)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.4</span> <span>Bioenergy with carbon capture & storage (BECCS)</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Bioenergy_with_carbon_capture_&_storage_(BECCS)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Biochar_carbon_removal_(BCR)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Biochar_carbon_removal_(BCR)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.5</span> <span>Biochar carbon removal (BCR)</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Biochar_carbon_removal_(BCR)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Direct_air_capture_with_carbon_sequestration_(DACCS)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Direct_air_capture_with_carbon_sequestration_(DACCS)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.6</span> <span>Direct air capture with carbon sequestration (DACCS)</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Direct_air_capture_with_carbon_sequestration_(DACCS)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Marine_carbon_dioxide_removal_(mCDR)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Marine_carbon_dioxide_removal_(mCDR)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.7</span> <span>Marine carbon dioxide removal (mCDR)</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Marine_carbon_dioxide_removal_(mCDR)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Costs_and_economics" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Costs_and_economics"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>Costs and economics</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Costs_and_economics-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Removal_of_other_greenhouse_gases" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Removal_of_other_greenhouse_gases"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6</span> <span>Removal of other greenhouse gases</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Removal_of_other_greenhouse_gases-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7</span> <span>See also</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8</span> <span>References</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9</span> <span>External links</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" title="Table of Contents" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-listBullet mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-listBullet"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Toggle the table of contents</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading"><span class="mw-page-title-main">Carbon dioxide removal</span></h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. Available in 14 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-14" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-language-progressive mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-language-progressive"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">14 languages</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A5%D8%B2%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%A9_%D8%AB%D9%86%D8%A7%D8%A6%D9%8A_%D8%A3%D9%83%D8%B3%D9%8A%D8%AF_%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%83%D8%B1%D8%A8%D9%88%D9%86" title="إزالة ثنائي أكسيد الكربون – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="إزالة ثنائي أكسيد الكربون" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>العربية</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bn mw-list-item"><a href="https://bn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A6%95%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%B0%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%AC%E0%A6%A8_%E0%A6%A1%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%87_%E0%A6%85%E0%A6%95%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%B8%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%87%E0%A6%A1_%E0%A6%85%E0%A6%AA%E0%A6%B8%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%B0%E0%A6%A3" title="কার্বন ডাই অক্সাইড অপসারণ – Bangla" lang="bn" hreflang="bn" data-title="কার্বন ডাই অক্সাইড অপসারণ" data-language-autonym="বাংলা" data-language-local-name="Bangla" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>বাংলা</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eliminaci%C3%B3_de_gasos_d%27efecte_hivernacle" title="Eliminació de gasos d'efecte hivernacle – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Eliminació de gasos d'efecte hivernacle" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Català</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs mw-list-item"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Odstra%C5%88ov%C3%A1n%C3%AD_oxidu_uhli%C4%8Dit%C3%A9ho" title="Odstraňování oxidu uhličitého – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="Odstraňování oxidu uhličitého" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="Czech" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Čeština</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Negative_Emissionen" title="Negative Emissionen – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Negative Emissionen" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Deutsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Extracci%C3%B3n_de_di%C3%B3xido_de_carbono" title="Extracción de dióxido de carbono – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Extracción de dióxido de carbono" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Español</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C3%89limination_du_dioxyde_de_carbone_atmosph%C3%A9rique" title="Élimination du dioxyde de carbone atmosphérique – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Élimination du dioxyde de carbone atmosphérique" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Français</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Penghapusan_karbon_dioksida" title="Penghapusan karbon dioksida – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Penghapusan karbon dioksida" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Indonesia</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rimozione_dell%27anidride_carbonica" title="Rimozione dell'anidride carbonica – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Rimozione dell'anidride carbonica" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Italiano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E4%BA%8C%E9%85%B8%E5%8C%96%E7%82%AD%E7%B4%A0%E9%99%A4%E5%8E%BB" title="二酸化炭素除去 – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="二酸化炭素除去" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>日本語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Remo%C3%A7%C3%A3o_de_di%C3%B3xido_de_carbono" title="Remoção de dióxido de carbono – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Remoção de dióxido de carbono" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Português</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sv mw-list-item"><a href="https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Koldioxidinf%C3%A5ngning" title="Koldioxidinfångning – Swedish" lang="sv" hreflang="sv" data-title="Koldioxidinfångning" data-language-autonym="Svenska" data-language-local-name="Swedish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Svenska</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tr mw-list-item"><a href="https://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Karbondioksit_giderme" title="Karbondioksit giderme – Turkish" lang="tr" hreflang="tr" data-title="Karbondioksit giderme" data-language-autonym="Türkçe" data-language-local-name="Turkish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Türkçe</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E4%BA%8C%E6%B0%A7%E5%8C%96%E7%A2%B3%E7%A7%BB%E9%99%A4" title="二氧化碳移除 – Chinese" lang="zh" hreflang="zh" data-title="二氧化碳移除" data-language-autonym="中文" data-language-local-name="Chinese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>中文</span></a></li> </ul> <div class="after-portlet after-portlet-lang"><span class="wb-langlinks-edit wb-langlinks-link"><a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Special:EntityPage/Q56298528#sitelinks-wikipedia" title="Edit interlanguage links" class="wbc-editpage">Edit links</a></span></div> </div> </div> </div> </header> <div class="vector-page-toolbar"> <div class="vector-page-toolbar-container"> <div id="left-navigation"> <nav aria-label="Namespaces"> <div id="p-associated-pages" class="vector-menu vector-menu-tabs mw-portlet mw-portlet-associated-pages" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="ca-nstab-main" class="selected vector-tab-noicon mw-list-item"><a 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<div class="vector-body-before-content"> <div class="mw-indicators"> </div> <div id="siteSub" class="noprint">From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia</div> </div> <div id="contentSub"><div id="mw-content-subtitle"></div></div> <div id="mw-content-text" class="mw-body-content"><div class="mw-content-ltr mw-parser-output" lang="en" dir="ltr"><div class="shortdescription nomobile noexcerpt noprint searchaux" style="display:none">Removal of atmospheric carbon dioxide through human activity</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">This article is about removing carbon dioxide from the atmosphere. For technologies that remove carbon dioxide directly from industrial facilities and power plants, see <a href="/wiki/Carbon_capture_and_storage" title="Carbon capture and storage">Carbon capture and storage</a>.</div> <p class="mw-empty-elt"> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Tree_planting_closeup.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/46/Tree_planting_closeup.jpg/220px-Tree_planting_closeup.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="287" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/46/Tree_planting_closeup.jpg/330px-Tree_planting_closeup.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/46/Tree_planting_closeup.jpg/440px-Tree_planting_closeup.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1443" data-file-height="1882" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Tree_planting" title="Tree planting">Planting trees</a> is a <a href="/wiki/Nature-based_solutions" title="Nature-based solutions">nature-based</a> way to remove carbon dioxide from the atmosphere; however, the effect may only be temporary in some cases.<sup id="cite_ref-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></figcaption></figure> <p><b>Carbon dioxide removal</b> (<b>CDR</b>) is a process in which carbon dioxide (CO<sub style="font-size: 80%;vertical-align: -0.35em">2</sub>) is removed from the atmosphere by deliberate human activities and durably stored in geological, terrestrial, or ocean reservoirs, or in products.<sup id="cite_ref-IPCC_AR6_WGI_Glossary_3-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-IPCC_AR6_WGI_Glossary-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 2221">: 2221 </span></sup> This process is also known as <b>carbon removal</b>, <b>greenhouse gas removal</b> or <b>negative emissions</b>. CDR is more and more often integrated into <a href="/wiki/Politics_of_climate_change" title="Politics of climate change">climate policy</a>, as an element of <a href="/wiki/Climate_change_mitigation" title="Climate change mitigation">climate change mitigation</a> strategies.<sup id="cite_ref-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Achieving <a href="/wiki/Net_zero_emissions" class="mw-redirect" title="Net zero emissions">net zero emissions</a> will require first and foremost deep and sustained cuts in emissions, and then—in addition—the use of CDR ("CDR is what puts the <i>net</i> into <i>net zero emissions" <sup id="cite_ref-:12_6-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:12-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></i>). In the future, CDR may be able to counterbalance emissions that are technically difficult to eliminate, such as some agricultural and industrial emissions.<sup id="cite_ref-:13_7-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:13-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page: 114">: 114 </span></sup> </p><p>CDR includes methods that are implemented on land or in aquatic systems. Land-based methods include <a href="/wiki/Afforestation" title="Afforestation">afforestation</a>, <a href="/wiki/Reforestation" title="Reforestation">reforestation</a>, agricultural practices that sequester carbon in soils (<a href="/wiki/Carbon_farming" title="Carbon farming">carbon farming</a>), <a href="/wiki/Bioenergy_with_carbon_capture_and_storage" title="Bioenergy with carbon capture and storage">bioenergy with carbon capture and storage</a> (BECCS), and <a href="/wiki/Direct_air_capture" title="Direct air capture">direct air capture</a> combined with storage.<sup id="cite_ref-:13_7-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:13-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> There are also CDR methods that use oceans and other water bodies. Those are called <a href="/wiki/Ocean_fertilization" title="Ocean fertilization">ocean fertilization</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ocean_alkalinity_enhancement" class="mw-redirect" title="Ocean alkalinity enhancement">ocean alkalinity enhancement</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-wri-ocean_9-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-wri-ocean-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Wetland_restoration" class="mw-redirect" title="Wetland restoration">wetland restoration</a> and <a href="/wiki/Blue_carbon" title="Blue carbon">blue carbon</a> approaches.<sup id="cite_ref-:13_7-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:13-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> A detailed analysis needs to be performed to assess how much negative emissions a particular process achieves. This analysis includes <a href="/wiki/Life_cycle_analysis" class="mw-redirect" title="Life cycle analysis">life cycle analysis</a> and "monitoring, reporting, and verification" (<a href="/wiki/REDD_and_REDD%2B#Monitoring:_measurement,_reporting_and_verification" title="REDD and REDD+">MRV</a>) of the entire process.<sup id="cite_ref-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Carbon_capture_and_storage" title="Carbon capture and storage">Carbon capture and storage</a> (CCS) are not regarded as CDR because CCS does not reduce the amount of <a href="/wiki/Carbon_dioxide_in_Earth%27s_atmosphere" title="Carbon dioxide in Earth's atmosphere">carbon dioxide already in the atmosphere</a>. </p><p>As of 2023, CDR is estimated to remove around 2 gigatons of CO<sub style="font-size: 80%;vertical-align: -0.35em">2</sub> per year.<sup id="cite_ref-:10_11-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:10-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This is equivalent to about 4% of the <a href="/wiki/Greenhouse_gas" title="Greenhouse gas">greenhouse gases</a> emitted per year by human activities.<sup id="cite_ref-:2_12-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:2-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page: 8">: 8 </span></sup> There is potential to remove and sequester up to 10 gigatons of carbon dioxide per year by using those CDR methods which can be safely and economically deployed now.<sup id="cite_ref-:2_12-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:2-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> However, quantifying the exact amount of carbon dioxide removed from the atmosphere by CDR is difficult. </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 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rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><table class="sidebar sidebar-collapse nomobile nowraplinks"><tbody><tr><td class="sidebar-pretitle">Part of a series on the</td></tr><tr><th class="sidebar-title-with-pretitle" style="background:#82C3D8; padding:0.2em; font-size:160%; font-weight:bold;"><a href="/wiki/Carbon_cycle" title="Carbon cycle"><span class="tmpl-colored-link" style="color: white; text-decoration: inherit;">Carbon cycle</span></a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-image"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Carbon_cycle-cute_diagram.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/82/Carbon_cycle-cute_diagram.svg/160px-Carbon_cycle-cute_diagram.svg.png" decoding="async" width="160" height="123" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/82/Carbon_cycle-cute_diagram.svg/240px-Carbon_cycle-cute_diagram.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/82/Carbon_cycle-cute_diagram.svg/320px-Carbon_cycle-cute_diagram.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="600" data-file-height="460" /></a></span></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="text-align:center;font-size:100%;font-weight:bold;;color: var(--color-base)">By regions</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"><div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Terrestrial_biological_carbon_cycle" title="Terrestrial biological carbon cycle">Terrestrial</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oceanic_carbon_cycle" title="Oceanic carbon cycle">Marine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Atmospheric_carbon_cycle" title="Atmospheric carbon cycle">Atmospheric</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deep_carbon_cycle" title="Deep carbon cycle">Deep carbon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Soil_carbon" title="Soil carbon">Soil</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Permafrost_carbon_cycle" title="Permafrost carbon cycle">Permafrost</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fire_and_carbon_cycling_in_boreal_forests" title="Fire and carbon cycling in boreal forests">Boreal forest</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geochemistry_of_carbon" title="Geochemistry of carbon">Geochemistry</a></li></ul> </div></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="text-align:center;font-size:100%;font-weight:bold;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Carbon_dioxide" title="Carbon dioxide">Carbon dioxide</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"><div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Carbon_dioxide_in_Earth%27s_atmosphere" title="Carbon dioxide in Earth's atmosphere">In the atmosphere</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ocean_acidification" title="Ocean acidification">Ocean acidification</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Removal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Space-based_measurements_of_carbon_dioxide" title="Space-based measurements of carbon dioxide">Satellite measurements</a></li></ul> </div></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="text-align:center;font-size:100%;font-weight:bold;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Forms_of_carbon" class="mw-redirect" title="Forms of carbon">Forms of carbon</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"><div class="plainlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Total_carbon" title="Total carbon">Total carbon</a> (TC)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Total_organic_carbon" title="Total organic carbon">Total organic carbon</a> (TOC)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Total_inorganic_carbon" title="Total inorganic carbon">Total inorganic carbon</a> (TIC)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dissolved_organic_carbon" title="Dissolved organic carbon">Dissolved organic carbon</a> (DOC)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dissolved_inorganic_carbon" title="Dissolved inorganic carbon">Dissolved inorganic carbon</a> (DIC)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Particulate_organic_matter" title="Particulate organic matter">Particulate organic carbon</a> (POC)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Particulate_inorganic_carbon" title="Particulate inorganic carbon">Particulate inorganic carbon</a> (PIC)</li></ul> </div> <div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Primary_production" title="Primary production">Primary production</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Marine_primary_production" title="Marine primary production">marine</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div> <div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Black_carbon" title="Black carbon">Black carbon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Blue_carbon" title="Blue carbon">Blue carbon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kerogen" title="Kerogen">Kerogen</a></li></ul> </div></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="text-align:center;font-size:100%;font-weight:bold;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Metabolic_pathway" title="Metabolic pathway">Metabolic pathways</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"><div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Photosynthesis" title="Photosynthesis">Photosynthesis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chemosynthesis" title="Chemosynthesis">Chemosynthesis</a></li></ul> </div> <div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Calvin_cycle" title="Calvin cycle">Calvin cycle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reverse_Krebs_cycle" title="Reverse Krebs cycle">Reverse Krebs cycle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carbon_fixation" class="mw-redirect" title="Carbon fixation">Carbon fixation</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/C3_carbon_fixation" title="C3 carbon fixation">C3</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/C4_carbon_fixation" title="C4 carbon fixation">C4</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="text-align:center;font-size:100%;font-weight:bold;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Carbon_respiration" title="Carbon respiration">Carbon respiration</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"><div class="plainlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ecosystem_respiration" title="Ecosystem respiration">Ecosystem respiration</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Net_ecosystem_production" title="Net ecosystem production">Net ecosystem production</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Photorespiration" title="Photorespiration">Photorespiration</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Soil_respiration" title="Soil respiration">Soil respiration</a></li></ul> </div></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="text-align:center;font-size:100%;font-weight:bold;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Carbon_pump" class="mw-redirect" title="Carbon pump">Carbon pumps</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"><div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Biological_pump" title="Biological pump">Biological pump</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Martin_curve" title="Martin curve">Martin curve</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Solubility_pump" title="Solubility pump">Solubility pump</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lipid_pump" title="Lipid pump">Lipid pump</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marine_snow" title="Marine snow">Marine snow</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Microbial_loop" title="Microbial loop">Microbial loop</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Viral_shunt" title="Viral shunt">Viral shunt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jelly-falls" title="Jelly-falls">Jelly pump</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Whale_feces" title="Whale feces">Whale pump</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Continental_shelf_pump" title="Continental shelf pump">Continental shelf pump</a></li></ul> </div></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="text-align:center;font-size:100%;font-weight:bold;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Carbon_sequestration" title="Carbon sequestration">Carbon sequestration</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"><div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Carbon_sink" title="Carbon sink">Carbon sink</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mycorrhizal_fungi_and_soil_carbon_storage" title="Mycorrhizal fungi and soil carbon storage">Soil carbon storage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marine_sediment" title="Marine sediment">Marine sediment</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Pelagic_sediment" title="Pelagic sediment">pelagic sediment</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="text-align:center;font-size:100%;font-weight:bold;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Methane" title="Methane">Methane</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"><div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Atmospheric_methane" title="Atmospheric methane">Atmospheric methane</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Methanogenesis" title="Methanogenesis">Methanogenesis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Methane_emissions" title="Methane emissions">Methane emissions</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Arctic_methane_emissions" title="Arctic methane emissions">Arctic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Greenhouse_gas_emissions_from_wetlands" title="Greenhouse gas emissions from wetlands">Wetland</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aerobic_methane_production" title="Aerobic methane production">Aerobic production</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Clathrate_gun_hypothesis" title="Clathrate gun hypothesis">Clathrate gun hypothesis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carbon_dioxide_clathrate" title="Carbon dioxide clathrate">Carbon dioxide clathrate</a></li></ul> </div></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="text-align:center;font-size:100%;font-weight:bold;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Biogeochemical_cycle" title="Biogeochemical cycle">Biogeochemical</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"><div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Marine_biogeochemical_cycles" title="Marine biogeochemical cycles">Marine cycles</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nutrient_cycle" title="Nutrient cycle">Nutrient cycle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carbonate%E2%80%93silicate_cycle" title="Carbonate–silicate cycle">Carbonate–silicate cycle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carbonate_compensation_depth" title="Carbonate compensation depth">Carbonate compensation depth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Great_Calcite_Belt" title="Great Calcite Belt">Great Calcite Belt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Redfield_ratio" title="Redfield ratio">Redfield ratio</a></li></ul> </div></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="text-align:center;font-size:100%;font-weight:bold;;color: var(--color-base)">Other</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"><div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Proxy_(climate)" title="Proxy (climate)">Climate reconstruction proxies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carbon-to-nitrogen_ratio" title="Carbon-to-nitrogen ratio">Carbon-to-nitrogen ratio</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deep_biosphere" title="Deep biosphere">Deep biosphere</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deep_Carbon_Observatory" title="Deep Carbon Observatory">Deep Carbon Observatory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Global_Carbon_Project" title="Global Carbon Project">Global Carbon Project</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carbon_capture_and_storage" title="Carbon capture and storage">Carbon capture and storage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carbon_cycle_re-balancing" class="mw-redirect" title="Carbon cycle re-balancing">Carbon cycle re-balancing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Territorialisation_of_carbon_governance" title="Territorialisation of carbon governance">Territorialisation of carbon governance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Total_Carbon_Column_Observing_Network" title="Total Carbon Column Observing Network">Total Carbon Column Observing Network</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/C4MIP" title="C4MIP">C4MIP</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/CO2SYS" title="CO2SYS">CO2SYS</a></li></ul> </div></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-below hlist" style="background-color: #82C3D8; border-color: #A2B8BF"> <ul><li><span class="nowrap"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Category"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/23px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/31px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Category:Carbon_cycle" title="Category:Carbon cycle">Category</a></span></li></ul></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-navbar"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239400231">.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar ul{display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::before{margin-right:-0.125em;content:"[ "}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::after{margin-left:-0.125em;content:" ]"}.mw-parser-output .navbar li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .navbar a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini abbr{font-variant:small-caps;border-bottom:none;text-decoration:none;cursor:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-full{font-size:114%;margin:0 7em}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-mini{font-size:114%;margin:0 4em}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}}</style><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Carbon_cycle" title="Template:Carbon cycle"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Template_talk:Carbon_cycle&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Template talk:Carbon cycle (page does not exist)"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Carbon_cycle" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Carbon cycle"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <p>Carbon dioxide removal (CDR) is defined by the <a href="/wiki/Intergovernmental_Panel_on_Climate_Change" title="Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change">IPCC</a> as: "Anthropogenic activities removing CO<sub style="font-size: 80%;vertical-align: -0.35em">2</sub> from the atmosphere and durably storing it in geological, terrestrial, or ocean reservoirs, or in products. It includes existing and potential anthropogenic enhancement of biological or geochemical sinks and direct air capture and storage, but excludes natural CO<sub style="font-size: 80%;vertical-align: -0.35em">2</sub> uptake not directly caused by human activities."<sup id="cite_ref-IPCC_AR6_WGI_Glossary_3-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-IPCC_AR6_WGI_Glossary-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 2221">: 2221 </span></sup> </p><p>Synonyms for CDR include <i>greenhouse gas removal (GGR),</i><sup id="cite_ref-:6_13-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:6-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <i>negative emissions technology,<sup id="cite_ref-:2_12-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:2-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></i> and <i>carbon removal</i>.<sup id="cite_ref-:7_14-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:7-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Technologies have been proposed for removing non-CO<sub style="font-size: 80%;vertical-align: -0.35em">2</sub> greenhouse gases such as methane from the atmosphere,<sup id="cite_ref-15" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> but only carbon dioxide is currently feasible to remove at scale.<sup id="cite_ref-:6_13-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:6-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Therefore, in most contexts, <i>greenhouse gas removal</i> means <i>carbon dioxide removal</i>. </p><p>The term <i>geoengineering</i> (or <a href="/wiki/Climate_engineering" title="Climate engineering">climate engineering</a>) is sometimes used in the scientific literature for both CDR or SRM (<a href="/wiki/Solar_Radiation_Management" class="mw-redirect" title="Solar Radiation Management">solar radiation management</a>), if the techniques are used at a global scale.<sup id="cite_ref-AR6_WGIII_Ch_1_16-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-AR6_WGIII_Ch_1-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 6–11">: 6–11 </span></sup> The terms <i>geoengineering</i> or <i>climate engineering</i> are no longer used in IPCC reports.<sup id="cite_ref-IPCC_AR6_WGI_Glossary_3-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-IPCC_AR6_WGI_Glossary-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Categories">Categories</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Carbon_dioxide_removal&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Categories"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>CDR methods can be placed in different categories that are based on different criteria:<sup id="cite_ref-:13_7-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:13-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 114">: 114 </span></sup> </p> <ul><li>Role in the <a href="/wiki/Carbon_cycle" title="Carbon cycle">carbon cycle</a> (land-based biological; ocean-based biological; geochemical; chemical); or</li> <li>Timescale of storage (decades to centuries; centuries to millennia; thousand years or longer)</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Concepts_using_similar_terminology">Concepts using similar terminology</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Carbon_dioxide_removal&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Concepts using similar terminology"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>CDR can be confused with <a href="/wiki/Carbon_capture_and_storage" title="Carbon capture and storage">carbon capture and storage</a> (CCS), a process in which carbon dioxide is collected from point-sources such as <a href="/wiki/Gas-fired_power_plant" title="Gas-fired power plant">gas-fired power plants</a>, whose smokestacks emit CO<sub style="font-size: 80%;vertical-align: -0.35em">2</sub> in a concentrated stream. The CO<sub style="font-size: 80%;vertical-align: -0.35em">2</sub> is then compressed and <a href="/wiki/Carbon_sequestration" title="Carbon sequestration">sequestered</a> or utilized.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_17-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> When used to sequester the carbon from a gas-fired power plant, CCS reduces emissions from continued use of the point source, but does not reduce the amount of <a href="/wiki/Carbon_dioxide_in_Earth%27s_atmosphere" title="Carbon dioxide in Earth's atmosphere">carbon dioxide already in the atmosphere</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Role_in_climate_change_mitigation">Role in climate change mitigation</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Carbon_dioxide_removal&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Role in climate change mitigation"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Use of CDR reduces the overall rate at which humans are adding carbon dioxide to the atmosphere.<sup id="cite_ref-:13_7-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:13-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page: 114">: 114 </span></sup> The Earth's surface temperature will stabilize only after global emissions have been reduced to <a href="/wiki/Net_zero" class="mw-redirect" title="Net zero">net zero</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-18" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> which will require both aggressive efforts to reduce emissions <i>and</i> deployment of CDR.<sup id="cite_ref-:13_7-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:13-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page: 114">: 114 </span></sup> It is not feasible to bring net emissions to zero without CDR as certain types of emissions are technically difficult to eliminate.<sup id="cite_ref-:8_19-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:8-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page: 1261">: 1261 </span></sup> Emissions that are difficult to eliminate include nitrous oxide emissions from agriculture,<sup id="cite_ref-:13_7-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:13-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page: 114">: 114 </span></sup> aviation emissions,<sup id="cite_ref-:2_12-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:2-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page: 3">: 3 </span></sup> and some industrial emissions.<sup id="cite_ref-:13_7-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:13-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page: 114">: 114 </span></sup> In <a href="/wiki/Climate_change_mitigation" title="Climate change mitigation">climate change mitigation</a> strategies, the use of CDR counterbalances those emissions.<sup id="cite_ref-:13_7-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:13-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page: 114">: 114 </span></sup> </p><p>After <a href="/wiki/Net_zero" class="mw-redirect" title="Net zero">net zero</a> emissions have been achieved, CDR could be used to reduce atmospheric CO<sub style="font-size: 80%;vertical-align: -0.35em">2</sub> concentrations, which could partially reverse the warming that has already occurred by that date.<sup id="cite_ref-:8_19-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:8-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> All emission pathways that limit global warming to 1.5 °C or 2 °C by the year 2100 assume the use of CDR in combination with emission reductions.<sup id="cite_ref-:5_20-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:5-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-:11_21-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:11-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Critique_and_risks">Critique and risks</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Carbon_dioxide_removal&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Critique and risks"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Critics point out that CDR must not be regarded as a substitute for the required cuts in greenhouse gas emissions. Oceanographer <a href="/wiki/David_Ho_(oceanographer)" title="David Ho (oceanographer)">David Ho</a> formulated it like this in 2023 "We must stop talking about deploying CDR as a solution today, when emissions remain high—as if it somehow replaces radical, immediate emission cuts.<sup id="cite_ref-:12_6-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:12-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Reliance on large-scale deployment of CDR was regarded in 2018 as a "major risk" to achieving the goal of less than 1.5 °C of warming, given the uncertainties in how quickly CDR can be deployed at scale.<sup id="cite_ref-:1_22-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:1-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Strategies for mitigating climate change that rely less on CDR and more on <a href="/wiki/Sustainable_energy" title="Sustainable energy">sustainable use of energy</a> carry less of this risk.<sup id="cite_ref-:1_22-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:1-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-23" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The possibility of large-scale future CDR deployment has been described as a <a href="/wiki/Moral_hazard" title="Moral hazard">moral hazard</a>, as it could lead to a reduction in near-term efforts to mitigate climate change.<sup id="cite_ref-:11_21-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:11-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page: 124">: 124 </span></sup><sup id="cite_ref-:2_12-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:2-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> However, the 2019 NASEM report concludes: "Any argument to delay mitigation efforts because NETs will provide a backstop drastically misrepresents their current capacities and the likely pace of research progress."<sup id="cite_ref-:2_12-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:2-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>CDR is meant to complement efforts in hard-to-abate sectors rather than replace mitigation. Limiting climate change to 1.5 °C and achieving net-zero emissions would entail substantial carbon dioxide removal (CDR) from the atmosphere by the mid-century, but how much CDR is needed at country level over time is unclear. Equitable allocations of CDR, in many cases, exceed implied land and carbon storage capacities. Many countries have either insufficient land to contribute an equitable share of global CDR or insufficient geological storage capacity.<sup id="cite_ref-24" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Experts also highlight social and ecological limits for carbon dioxide removal, such as the land area required. For example, the combined land requirements of removal plans as per the global Nationally Determined Contributions in 2023 amounted to 1.2 billion hectares, which is equal to the combined size of global croplands.<sup id="cite_ref-25" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Permanence">Permanence</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Carbon_dioxide_removal&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Permanence"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Forests, <a href="/wiki/Kelp_bed" class="mw-redirect" title="Kelp bed">kelp beds</a>, and other forms of plant life absorb carbon dioxide from the air as they grow, and bind it into biomass. However, these biological stores are considered volatile <a href="/wiki/Carbon_sink" title="Carbon sink">carbon sinks</a> as the long-term sequestration cannot be guaranteed. For example, natural events, such as <a href="/wiki/Wildfire" title="Wildfire">wildfires</a> or disease, economic pressures and changing political priorities can result in the sequestered carbon being released back into the atmosphere.<sup id="cite_ref-26" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Biomass, such as trees, can be directly stored into the Earth's subsurface.<sup id="cite_ref-27" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Furthermore, carbon dioxide that has been removed from the atmosphere can be stored in the Earth's crust by <a href="/wiki/Geologic_sequestration_of_CO2" class="mw-redirect" title="Geologic sequestration of CO2">injecting it into the subsurface</a>, or in the form of insoluble <a href="/wiki/Carbonate" title="Carbonate">carbonate</a> salts. This is because they are removing carbon from the atmosphere and sequestering it indefinitely and presumably for a considerable duration (thousands to millions of years). </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Current_and_potential_scale">Current and potential scale</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Carbon_dioxide_removal&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Current and potential scale"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>As of 2023, CDR is estimated to remove about 2 gigatons of CO<sub style="font-size: 80%;vertical-align: -0.35em">2</sub> per year, almost entirely by low-tech methods like reforestation and the creation of new forests.<sup id="cite_ref-:10_11-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:10-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This is equivalent to 4% of the greenhouse gases emitted per year by human activities.<sup id="cite_ref-:2_12-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:2-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page: 8">: 8 </span></sup> A 2019 consensus study report by <a href="/wiki/National_Academies_of_Sciences,_Engineering,_and_Medicine" title="National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine">NASEM</a> assessed the potential of all forms of CDR other than <a href="/wiki/Ocean_fertilization" title="Ocean fertilization">ocean fertilization</a> that could be deployed safely and economically using current technologies, and estimated that they could remove up to 10 gigatons of CO<sub style="font-size: 80%;vertical-align: -0.35em">2</sub> per year if fully deployed worldwide.<sup id="cite_ref-:2_12-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:2-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In 2018, all analyzed <a href="/wiki/Integrated_assessment_modelling" title="Integrated assessment modelling">mitigation pathways</a> that would prevent more than 1.5 °C of warming included CDR measures.<sup id="cite_ref-:1_22-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:1-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Some mitigation pathways propose achieving higher rates of CDR through massive deployment of one technology; however, these pathways assume that hundreds of millions of hectares of cropland are converted to growing <a href="/wiki/Biofuel" title="Biofuel">biofuel</a> crops.<sup id="cite_ref-:2_12-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:2-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Further research in the areas of <a href="/wiki/Direct_air_capture" title="Direct air capture">direct air capture</a>, <a href="/wiki/Geologic_sequestration_of_carbon_dioxide" class="mw-redirect" title="Geologic sequestration of carbon dioxide">geologic sequestration of carbon dioxide</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Carbon_mineralization" class="mw-redirect" title="Carbon mineralization">carbon mineralization</a> could potentially yield technological advancements that make higher rates of CDR economically feasible.<sup id="cite_ref-:2_12-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:2-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Methods">Methods</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Carbon_dioxide_removal&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Methods"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Overview_listing_based_on_technology_readiness_level">Overview listing based on technology readiness level</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Carbon_dioxide_removal&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Overview listing based on technology readiness level"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The following is a list of known CDR methods in the order of their <a href="/wiki/Technology_readiness_level" title="Technology readiness level">technology readiness level</a> (TRL). The ones at the top have a high TRL of 8 to 9 (9 being the maximum possible value, meaning the technology is proven), the ones at the bottom have a low TRL of 1 to 2, meaning the technology is not proven or only validated at laboratory scale.<sup id="cite_ref-:13_7-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:13-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 115">: 115 </span></sup> </p> <ol><li><a href="/wiki/Afforestation" title="Afforestation">Afforestation</a>/ <a href="/wiki/Reforestation" title="Reforestation">reforestation</a></li> <li>Soil <a href="/wiki/Carbon_sequestration" title="Carbon sequestration">carbon sequestration</a> in <a href="/wiki/Croplands" class="mw-redirect" title="Croplands">croplands</a> and <a href="/wiki/Grassland" title="Grassland">grasslands</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peatland" title="Peatland">Peatland</a> and <a href="/wiki/Coastal_wetland" class="mw-redirect" title="Coastal wetland">coastal wetland</a> restoration</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Agroforestry" title="Agroforestry">Agroforestry</a>, improved <a href="/wiki/Forest_management" title="Forest management">forest management</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biochar_carbon_removal" title="Biochar carbon removal">Biochar carbon removal</a> (BCR)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Direct_air_capture" title="Direct air capture">Direct air carbon capture and storage</a> (DACCS)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bioenergy_with_carbon_capture_and_storage" title="Bioenergy with carbon capture and storage">Bioenergy with carbon capture and storage</a> (BECCS)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Enhanced_weathering" title="Enhanced weathering">Enhanced weathering</a> (alkalinity enhancement)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Blue_carbon" title="Blue carbon">Blue carbon</a> management in coastal wetlands (restoration of vegetated coastal ecosystems; an ocean-based biological CDR method which encompasses <a href="/wiki/Mangrove" title="Mangrove">mangroves</a>, <a href="/wiki/Salt_marsh" title="Salt marsh">salt marshes</a> and <a href="/wiki/Seagrass_beds" class="mw-redirect" title="Seagrass beds">seagrass beds</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ocean_fertilization" title="Ocean fertilization">Ocean fertilization</a>, ocean alkalinity enhancement that amplifies the <a href="/wiki/Oceanic_carbon_cycle" title="Oceanic carbon cycle">oceanic carbon cycle</a></li></ol> <p>The CDR methods with the greatest potential to contribute to climate change mitigation efforts as per illustrative mitigation pathways are the land-based biological CDR methods (primarily afforestation/reforestation (A/R)) and/or bioenergy with carbon capture and storage (BECCS). Some of the pathways also include direct air capture and storage (DACCS).<sup id="cite_ref-:13_7-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:13-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 114">: 114 </span></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Afforestation,_reforestation,_and_forestry_management"><span id="Afforestation.2C_reforestation.2C_and_forestry_management"></span>Afforestation, reforestation, and forestry management</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Carbon_dioxide_removal&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Afforestation, reforestation, and forestry management"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Trees use <a href="/wiki/Photosynthesis" title="Photosynthesis">photosynthesis</a> to absorb carbon dioxide and store the carbon in wood and soils.<sup id="cite_ref-:7_14-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:7-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Afforestation" title="Afforestation">Afforestation</a> is the establishment of a forest in an area where there was previously no forest.<sup id="cite_ref-:8_19-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:8-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page: 1794">: 1794 </span></sup> <a href="/wiki/Reforestation" title="Reforestation">Reforestation</a> is the re-establishment of a forest that has been previously cleared.<sup id="cite_ref-:8_19-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:8-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page: 1812">: 1812 </span></sup> Forests are vital for human society, animals and plant species. This is because trees keep air clean, regulate the local climate and provide a habitat for numerous species.<sup id="cite_ref-28" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>As trees grow they absorb CO<sub style="font-size: 80%;vertical-align: -0.35em">2</sub> from the atmosphere and store it in living biomass, dead organic matter and <a href="/wiki/Soil_carbon" title="Soil carbon">soils</a>. Afforestation and reforestation – sometimes referred to collectively as 'forestation' – facilitate this process of carbon removal by establishing or re-establishing forest areas. It takes forests approximately 10 years to ramp- up to the maximum sequestration rate.<sup id="cite_ref-:9_29-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:9-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Pages: 26–28">: 26–28 </span></sup> </p><p>Depending on the species, the trees will reach maturity after around 20 to 100 years, after which they store carbon but do not actively remove it from the atmosphere.<sup id="cite_ref-:9_29-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:9-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Pages: 26–28">: 26–28 </span></sup> Carbon can be stored in forests indefinitely, but the storage can also be much more short-lived as trees are vulnerable to being cut, burned, or killed by disease or drought.<sup id="cite_ref-:9_29-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:9-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Pages: 26–28">: 26–28 </span></sup> Once mature, forest products can be harvested and the biomass stored in long-lived wood products, or used for bioenergy or <a href="/wiki/Biochar" title="Biochar">biochar</a>. Consequent forest regrowth then allows continuing CO<sub style="font-size: 80%;vertical-align: -0.35em">2</sub> removal.<sup id="cite_ref-:9_29-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:9-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Pages: 26–28">: 26–28 </span></sup> </p><p>Risks to deployment of new forest include the availability of land, competition with other land uses, and the comparatively long time from planting to maturity.<sup id="cite_ref-:9_29-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:9-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Pages: 26–28">: 26–28 </span></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Agricultural_practices_(carbon_farming)"><span id="Agricultural_practices_.28carbon_farming.29"></span>Agricultural practices (carbon farming)</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Carbon_dioxide_removal&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Agricultural practices (carbon farming)"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Carbon_farming" title="Carbon farming">Carbon farming</a></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Carbon_farming" title="Carbon farming">Carbon farming</a> is a set of agricultural methods that aim to store carbon in the <a href="/wiki/Soil" title="Soil">soil</a>, crop roots, wood and leaves. The overall goal of carbon farming is to create a net loss of carbon from the atmosphere.<sup id="cite_ref-30" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This is done by increasing the rate at which carbon is sequestered into soil and plant material. One option is to increase the <a href="/wiki/Soil_organic_matter" title="Soil organic matter">soil's organic matter</a> content. This can also aid plant growth, improve <a href="/wiki/Soil_water_(retention)" title="Soil water (retention)">soil water retention</a> capacity<sup id="cite_ref-CCI-20212_31-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-CCI-20212-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and reduce <a href="/wiki/Fertilizer" title="Fertilizer">fertilizer</a> use.<sup id="cite_ref-32" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Sustainable_forest_management" class="mw-redirect" title="Sustainable forest management">Sustainable forest management</a> is another tool that is used in carbon farming.<sup id="cite_ref-Jindal-2008_33-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Jindal-2008-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Agricultural methods for carbon farming include adjusting how <a href="/wiki/Tillage" title="Tillage">tillage</a> and livestock <a href="/wiki/Grazing" title="Grazing">grazing</a> is done, using organic <a href="/wiki/Mulch" title="Mulch">mulch</a> or <a href="/wiki/Compost" title="Compost">compost</a>, working with <a href="/wiki/Biochar" title="Biochar">biochar</a> and <a href="/wiki/Terra_preta" title="Terra preta">terra preta</a>, and changing the crop types. Methods used in forestry include for example <a href="/wiki/Reforestation" title="Reforestation">reforestation</a> and <a href="/wiki/Bamboo_farming" class="mw-redirect" title="Bamboo farming">bamboo farming</a>. Carbon farming is not without its challenges or disadvantages. This is because some of its methods can affect <a href="/wiki/Ecosystem_service" title="Ecosystem service">ecosystem services</a>. For example, carbon farming could cause an increase of land clearing, <a href="/wiki/Monoculture" title="Monoculture">monocultures</a> and <a href="/wiki/Biodiversity_loss" title="Biodiversity loss">biodiversity loss</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Lin-2013_34-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Lin-2013-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Bioenergy_with_carbon_capture_&_storage_(BECCS)"><span id="Bioenergy_with_carbon_capture_.26_storage_.28BECCS.29"></span>Bioenergy with carbon capture & storage (BECCS)</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Carbon_dioxide_removal&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Bioenergy with carbon capture & storage (BECCS)"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="excerpt-block"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1066933788">.mw-parser-output .excerpt-hat .mw-editsection-like{font-style:normal}</style><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable dablink excerpt-hat selfref">This section is an excerpt from <a href="/wiki/Bioenergy_with_carbon_capture_and_storage" title="Bioenergy with carbon capture and storage">Bioenergy with carbon capture and storage</a>.<span class="mw-editsection-like plainlinks"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a class="external text" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Bioenergy_with_carbon_capture_and_storage&action=edit">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div><div class="excerpt"> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Diagram-of-Bioenergie_power_plant_with_carbon_capture_and_storage_(cropped).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/77/Diagram-of-Bioenergie_power_plant_with_carbon_capture_and_storage_%28cropped%29.jpg/220px-Diagram-of-Bioenergie_power_plant_with_carbon_capture_and_storage_%28cropped%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="202" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/77/Diagram-of-Bioenergie_power_plant_with_carbon_capture_and_storage_%28cropped%29.jpg/330px-Diagram-of-Bioenergie_power_plant_with_carbon_capture_and_storage_%28cropped%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/77/Diagram-of-Bioenergie_power_plant_with_carbon_capture_and_storage_%28cropped%29.jpg/440px-Diagram-of-Bioenergie_power_plant_with_carbon_capture_and_storage_%28cropped%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1663" data-file-height="1525" /></a><figcaption>Example of BECCS: Diagram of <a href="/wiki/Bioenergy" title="Bioenergy">bioenergy</a> power plant with <a href="/wiki/Carbon_capture_and_storage" title="Carbon capture and storage">carbon capture and storage</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-35" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></figcaption></figure> <a href="/wiki/Bioenergy_with_carbon_capture_and_storage" title="Bioenergy with carbon capture and storage">Bioenergy with carbon capture and storage</a> (BECCS) is the process of extracting <a href="/wiki/Bioenergy" title="Bioenergy">bioenergy</a> from <a href="/wiki/Biomass_(energy)" title="Biomass (energy)">biomass</a> and capturing and storing the carbon dioxide (CO<sub>2</sub>) that is produced.</div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Biochar_carbon_removal_(BCR)"><span id="Biochar_carbon_removal_.28BCR.29"></span>Biochar carbon removal (BCR)</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Carbon_dioxide_removal&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: Biochar carbon removal (BCR)"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Biochar_carbon_removal" title="Biochar carbon removal">Biochar carbon removal</a></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Biochar" title="Biochar">Biochar</a> is created by the <a href="/wiki/Pyrolysis" title="Pyrolysis">pyrolysis</a> of <a href="/wiki/Biomass" title="Biomass">biomass</a>, and is under investigation as a method of <a href="/wiki/Carbon_sequestration" title="Carbon sequestration">carbon sequestration</a>. Biochar is a charcoal that is used for agricultural purposes which also aids in <a href="/wiki/Carbon_sequestration" title="Carbon sequestration">carbon sequestration</a>, the capture or hold of carbon. It is created using a process called pyrolysis, which is basically the act of high temperature heating biomass in an environment with low oxygen levels. What remains is a material known as char, similar to charcoal but is made through a sustainable process, thus the use of biomass.<sup id="cite_ref-36" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Biomass is organic matter produced by living organisms or recently living organisms, most commonly plants or plant based material.<sup id="cite_ref-37" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> A study done by the UK Biochar Research Center has stated that, on a conservative level, biochar can store 1 gigaton of carbon per year. With greater effort in marketing and acceptance of biochar, the benefit of <a href="/wiki/Biochar_carbon_removal" title="Biochar carbon removal">Biochar Carbon Removal</a> could be the storage of 5–9 gigatons per year in soils.<sup id="cite_ref-38" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="noprint Inline-Template noprint noexcerpt Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:NOTRS" class="mw-redirect" title="Wikipedia:NOTRS"><span title="This claim needs references to better sources. (June 2021)">better source needed</span></a></i>]</sup> However, at the moment, biochar is restricted by the terrestrial carbon storage capacity, when the system reaches the state of equilibrium, and requires regulation because of threats of leakage.<sup id="cite_ref-39" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-39"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Direct_air_capture_with_carbon_sequestration_(DACCS)"><span id="Direct_air_capture_with_carbon_sequestration_.28DACCS.29"></span>Direct air capture with carbon sequestration (DACCS)</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Carbon_dioxide_removal&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: Direct air capture with carbon sequestration (DACCS)"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:2010-_Direct_Air_Capture_-_global_-_International_Energy_Agency_(IEA)_-_bar_chart.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b8/2010-_Direct_Air_Capture_-_global_-_International_Energy_Agency_%28IEA%29_-_bar_chart.svg/330px-2010-_Direct_Air_Capture_-_global_-_International_Energy_Agency_%28IEA%29_-_bar_chart.svg.png" decoding="async" width="330" height="186" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b8/2010-_Direct_Air_Capture_-_global_-_International_Energy_Agency_%28IEA%29_-_bar_chart.svg/495px-2010-_Direct_Air_Capture_-_global_-_International_Energy_Agency_%28IEA%29_-_bar_chart.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b8/2010-_Direct_Air_Capture_-_global_-_International_Energy_Agency_%28IEA%29_-_bar_chart.svg/660px-2010-_Direct_Air_Capture_-_global_-_International_Energy_Agency_%28IEA%29_-_bar_chart.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1200" data-file-height="675" /></a><figcaption> The <a href="/wiki/International_Energy_Agency" title="International Energy Agency">International Energy Agency</a> reported growth in <a href="/wiki/Direct_air_capture" title="Direct air capture">direct air capture</a> global operating capacity.<sup id="cite_ref-IEA_202204_40-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-IEA_202204-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></figcaption></figure><div class="excerpt-block"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1066933788"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable dablink excerpt-hat selfref">This section is an excerpt from <a href="/wiki/Direct_air_capture" title="Direct air capture">Direct air capture</a>.<span class="mw-editsection-like plainlinks"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a class="external text" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Direct_air_capture&action=edit">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div><div class="excerpt"> <a href="/wiki/Direct_air_capture" title="Direct air capture">Direct air capture</a> (DAC) is the use of chemical or physical processes to extract <a href="/wiki/Carbon_dioxide" title="Carbon dioxide">carbon dioxide</a> (CO<sub style="font-size: 80%;vertical-align: -0.35em">2</sub>) directly from the ambient air.<sup id="cite_ref-Direct_air_capture_:4_41-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Direct_air_capture_:4-41"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>41<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> If the extracted CO<sub style="font-size: 80%;vertical-align: -0.35em">2</sub> is then <a href="/wiki/Carbon_sequestration" title="Carbon sequestration">sequestered</a> in safe long-term storage, the overall process is called direct air carbon capture and sequestration (DACCS), achieving carbon dioxide removal. Systems that engage in such a process are referred to as negative emissions technologies (NET).<sup id="cite_ref-42" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-42"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>42<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Marine_carbon_dioxide_removal_(mCDR)"><span id="Marine_carbon_dioxide_removal_.28mCDR.29"></span>Marine carbon dioxide removal (mCDR)</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Carbon_dioxide_removal&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: Marine carbon dioxide removal (mCDR)"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Carbon_sequestration#Sequestration_in_oceans" title="Carbon sequestration">Carbon sequestration § Sequestration in oceans</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:CO2_pump_hg.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fb/CO2_pump_hg.svg/220px-CO2_pump_hg.svg.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="154" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fb/CO2_pump_hg.svg/330px-CO2_pump_hg.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fb/CO2_pump_hg.svg/440px-CO2_pump_hg.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="720" data-file-height="505" /></a><figcaption><span class="chemf nowrap">CO<span class="nowrap"><span style="display:inline-block;margin-bottom:-0.3em;vertical-align:-0.4em;line-height:1em;font-size:80%;text-align:left"><sup style="font-size:inherit;line-height:inherit;vertical-align:baseline"></sup><br /><sub style="font-size:inherit;line-height:inherit;vertical-align:baseline">2</sub></span></span></span> sequestration in the ocean</figcaption></figure> <p>There are several methods of sequestering carbon from the ocean, where dissolved carbonate in the form of <a href="/wiki/Carbonic_acid" title="Carbonic acid">carbonic acid</a> is in equilibrium with atmospheric carbon dioxide.<sup id="cite_ref-wri-ocean_9-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-wri-ocean-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> These include <a href="/wiki/Ocean_fertilization" title="Ocean fertilization">ocean fertilization</a>, the purposeful introduction of plant <a href="/wiki/Nutrient" title="Nutrient">nutrients</a> to the upper ocean.<sup id="cite_ref-43" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-43"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>43<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-44" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-44"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>44<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> While one of the more well-researched carbon dioxide removal approaches, ocean fertilization would only sequester carbon on a timescale of 10–100 years. While surface ocean acidity may decrease as a result of nutrient fertilization, sinking organic matter will remineralize, increasing deep ocean acidity. A 2021 report on CDR indicates that there is medium-high confidence that the technique could be efficient and scalable at low cost, with medium environmental risks.<sup id="cite_ref-45" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-45"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>45<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Ocean fertilization is estimated to be able to sequester 0.1 to 1 gigatonnes of carbon dioxide per year at a cost of US$8 to $80 per tonne.<sup id="cite_ref-wri-ocean_9-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-wri-ocean-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><a href="/wiki/Ocean_alkalinity_enhancement" class="mw-redirect" title="Ocean alkalinity enhancement">Ocean alkalinity enhancement</a> involves grinding, dispersing, and dissolving minerals such as olivine, limestone, silicates, or <a href="/wiki/Calcium_hydroxide" title="Calcium hydroxide">calcium hydroxide</a> to precipitate carbonate sequestered as deposits on the ocean floor.<sup id="cite_ref-46" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-46"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>46<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The removal potential of alkalinity enhancement is uncertain, and estimated at between 0.1 and 1 gigatonnes of carbon dioxide per year at a cost of US$100 to $150 per tonne.<sup id="cite_ref-wri-ocean_9-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-wri-ocean-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Electrochemical techniques such as <a href="/wiki/Electrodialysis" title="Electrodialysis">electrodialysis</a> can remove carbonate from seawater using electricity. While such techniques used in isolation are estimated to be able to remove 0.1 to 1 gigatonnes of carbon dioxide per year at a cost of US$150 to $2,500 per tonne,<sup id="cite_ref-wri-ocean_9-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-wri-ocean-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> these methods are much less expensive when performed in conjunction with seawater processing such as <a href="/wiki/Desalination" title="Desalination">desalination</a>, where salt and carbonate are simultaneously removed.<sup id="cite_ref-47" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-47"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>47<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Preliminary estimates suggest that the cost of such carbon removal can be paid for in large part if not entirely from the sale of the desalinated water produced as a byproduct.<sup id="cite_ref-48" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-48"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>48<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Costs_and_economics">Costs and economics</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Carbon_dioxide_removal&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: Costs and economics"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Economics_of_climate_change_mitigation" class="mw-redirect" title="Economics of climate change mitigation">Economics of climate change mitigation</a></div> <p>The cost of CDR differs substantially depending on the maturity of the technology employed as well as the economics of both voluntary carbon removal markets and the physical output; for example, the pyrolysis of biomass produces biochar that has various commercial applications, including soil regeneration and wastewater treatment.<sup id="cite_ref-49" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-49"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>49<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In 2021 DAC cost from $250 to $600 per ton, compared to $100 for biochar and less than $50 for nature-based solutions, such as reforestation and afforestation.<sup id="cite_ref-50" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-50"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>50<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-51" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-51"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>51<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The fact that biochar commands a higher price in the carbon removal market than nature-based solutions reflects the fact that it is a more durable sink with carbon being sequestered for hundreds or even thousands of years while nature-based solutions represent a more volatile form of storage, which risks related to forest fires, pests, economic pressures and changing political priorities.<sup id="cite_ref-Myles_52-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Myles-52"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>52<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Oxford Principles for Net Zero Aligned Carbon Offsetting states that to be compatible with the Paris Agreement: "...organizations must commit to gradually increase the percentage of carbon removal offsets they procure with the view of exclusively sourcing carbon removals by mid-century."<sup id="cite_ref-Myles_52-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Myles-52"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>52<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> These initiatives along with the development of new industry standards for engineered carbon removal, such as the Puro Standard, will help to support the growth of the carbon removal market.<sup id="cite_ref-53" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-53"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>53<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Although CDR is not covered by the <a href="/wiki/EU_Allowance" title="EU Allowance">EU Allowance</a> as of 2021, the <a href="/wiki/European_Commission" title="European Commission">European Commission</a> is preparing for carbon removal certification and considering carbon <a href="/wiki/Contract_for_difference" title="Contract for difference">contracts for difference</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-54" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-54"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>54<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-55" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-55"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>55<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> CDR might also in future be added to the <a href="/wiki/UK_Emissions_Trading_Scheme" title="UK Emissions Trading Scheme">UK Emissions Trading Scheme</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-:3_56-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:3-56"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>56<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> As of end 2021 carbon prices for both these cap-and-trade schemes currently based on carbon reductions, as opposed to carbon removals, remained below $100.<sup id="cite_ref-57" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-57"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>57<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-58" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-58"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>58<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> After the diffusion of net-zero targets, CDR plays a more important role in key emerging economies (e.g. Brazil, China, and India).<sup id="cite_ref-59" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-59"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>59<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>As of early 2023, financing has fell short of the sums required for high-tech CDR methods to contribute significantly to climate change mitigation. Though available funds have recently increased substantially. Most of this increase has been from voluntary private sector initiatives.<sup id="cite_ref-fair_funding_60-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-fair_funding-60"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>60<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Such as a private sector alliance led by <a href="/wiki/Stripe_(company)" class="mw-redirect" title="Stripe (company)">Stripe</a> with prominent members including <a href="/wiki/Meta_Platforms" title="Meta Platforms">Meta</a>, <a href="/wiki/Google" title="Google">Google</a> and <a href="/wiki/Shopify" title="Shopify">Shopify</a>, which in April 2022 revealed a nearly $1 billion fund to reward companies able to permanently capture & store carbon. According to senior Stripe employee Nan Ransohoff, the fund was "roughly 30 times the carbon-removal market that existed in 2021. But it's still 1,000 times short of the market we need by 2050."<sup id="cite_ref-61" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-61"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>61<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The predominance of private sector funding has raised concerns as historically, voluntary markets have proved "orders of magnitude"<sup id="cite_ref-fair_funding_60-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-fair_funding-60"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>60<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> smaller than those brought about by government policy. As of 2023 however, various governments have increased their support for CDR; these include Sweden, Switzerland, and the US. Recent activity from the US government includes the June 2022 Notice of Intent to fund the <a href="/wiki/Infrastructure_Investment_and_Jobs_Act" title="Infrastructure Investment and Jobs Act">Bipartisan Infrastructure Law</a>'s $3.5 billion CDR program, and the signing into law of the <a href="/wiki/Inflation_Reduction_Act_of_2022" class="mw-redirect" title="Inflation Reduction Act of 2022">Inflation Reduction Act of 2022</a>, which contains the 45Q tax to enhance the CDR market.<sup id="cite_ref-fair_funding_60-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-fair_funding-60"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>60<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-62" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-62"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>62<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Removal_of_other_greenhouse_gases">Removal of other greenhouse gases</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Carbon_dioxide_removal&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: Removal of other greenhouse gases"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Although some researchers have suggested methods for removing <a href="/wiki/Methane" title="Methane">methane</a>, others say that <a href="/wiki/Nitrous_oxide" title="Nitrous oxide">nitrous oxide</a> would be a better subject for research due to its longer lifetime in the atmosphere.<sup id="cite_ref-63" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-63"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>63<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Carbon_dioxide_removal&action=edit&section=18" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1266661725">.mw-parser-output .portalbox{padding:0;margin:0.5em 0;display:table;box-sizing:border-box;max-width:175px;list-style:none}.mw-parser-output .portalborder{border:1px solid var(--border-color-base,#a2a9b1);padding:0.1em;background:var(--background-color-neutral-subtle,#f8f9fa)}.mw-parser-output .portalbox-entry{display:table-row;font-size:85%;line-height:110%;height:1.9em;font-style:italic;font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output .portalbox-image{display:table-cell;padding:0.2em;vertical-align:middle;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .portalbox-link{display:table-cell;padding:0.2em 0.2em 0.2em 0.3em;vertical-align:middle}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .portalleft{margin:0.5em 1em 0.5em 0}.mw-parser-output .portalright{clear:right;float:right;margin:0.5em 0 0.5em 1em}}</style><ul role="navigation" aria-label="Portals" class="noprint portalbox portalborder portalright"> <li class="portalbox-entry"><span class="portalbox-image"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="icon" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/66/Climate_change_icon.png/30px-Climate_change_icon.png" decoding="async" width="30" height="28" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/66/Climate_change_icon.png/44px-Climate_change_icon.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/66/Climate_change_icon.png/59px-Climate_change_icon.png 2x" data-file-width="1112" data-file-height="1056" /></span></span></span><span class="portalbox-link"><a href="/wiki/Portal:Climate_change" title="Portal:Climate change">Climate change portal</a></span></li><li class="portalbox-entry"><span class="portalbox-image"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Leaf_1_web.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="icon" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f4/Leaf_1_web.jpg/32px-Leaf_1_web.jpg" 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data-file-width="48" data-file-height="48" /></a></span></span><span class="portalbox-link"><a href="/wiki/Portal:Trees" title="Portal:Trees">Trees portal</a></span></li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Biological_carbon_fixation" title="Biological carbon fixation">Biological carbon fixation</a> – Series of interconnected biochemical reactions</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carbon_dioxide_scrubber" title="Carbon dioxide scrubber">Carbon dioxide scrubber</a> – Device which absorbs carbon dioxide from circulated gas</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carbon-neutral_fuel" title="Carbon-neutral fuel">Carbon-neutral fuel</a> – Type of fuel which have no net greenhouse gas emissions</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_change_scenario" title="Climate change scenario">Climate change scenario</a> – Hypothetical representation of potential future conditions</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Low-carbon_economy" title="Low-carbon economy">Low-carbon economy</a> – Climate-friendly economy</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Virgin_Earth_Challenge" title="Virgin Earth Challenge">Virgin Earth Challenge</a> – Competition for permanent removal of greenhouse gases</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Carbon_dioxide_removal&action=edit&section=19" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-1">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite id="CITEREFBuis2019" class="citation web cs1">Buis, Alan (November 7, 2019). <a rel="nofollow" class="external 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Retrieved <span class="nowrap">April 13,</span> 2023</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Climate+Change%3A+Vital+Signs+of+the+Planet&rft.atitle=Examining+the+Viability+of+Planting+Trees+to+Help+Mitigate+Climate+Change&rft.date=2019-11-07&rft.aulast=Buis&rft.aufirst=Alan&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fclimate.nasa.gov%2Fnews%2F2927%2Fexamining-the-viability-of-planting-trees-to-help-mitigate-climate-change&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACarbon+dioxide+removal" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-2">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMarshall2020" class="citation web cs1">Marshall, Michael (May 26, 2020). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.bbc.com/future/article/20200521-planting-trees-doesnt-always-help-with-climate-change">"Planting trees doesn't always help with climate change"</a>. <i>BBC</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. 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title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Climate+Policy&rft.atitle=Taking+stock+of+carbon+dioxide+removal+policy+in+emerging+economies%3A+Developments+in+Brazil%2C+China%2C+and+India&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E1-%3C%2Fspan%3E20&rft.date=2024&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1080%2F14693062.2024.2353148&rft.aulast=Schenuit&rft.aufirst=Felix&rft.au=Brutschin%2C+Elina&rft.au=Geden%2C+Oliver&rft.au=Guo%2C+Fei&rft.au=Mohan%2C+Aniruddh&rft.au=Oliveira+Fiorini%2C+Ana+Carolina&rft.au=Saluja%2C+Sonakshi&rft.au=Schaeffer%2C+Roberto&rft.au=Riahi%2C+Keywan&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.tandfonline.com%2Fdoi%2Ffull%2F10.1080%2F14693062.2024.2353148%3Fsrc%3D&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACarbon+dioxide+removal" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-fair_funding-60"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-fair_funding_60-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-fair_funding_60-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-fair_funding_60-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHonegger2023" class="citation journal cs1">Honegger, Matthias (2023). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC9905497">"Toward the effective and fair funding of CO<sub>2</sub> removal technologies"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/Nature_Communications" title="Nature Communications">Nature Communications</a></i>. <b>14</b> (1): 2111. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2023NatCo..14..534H">2023NatCo..14..534H</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1038%2Fs41467-023-36199-4">10.1038/s41467-023-36199-4</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC9905497">9905497</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/36750567">36750567</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Nature+Communications&rft.atitle=Toward+the+effective+and+fair+funding+of+CO%3Csub%3E2%3C%2Fsub%3E+removal+technologies&rft.volume=14&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=2111&rft.date=2023&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC9905497%23id-name%3DPMC&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F36750567&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1038%2Fs41467-023-36199-4&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2023NatCo..14..534H&rft.aulast=Honegger&rft.aufirst=Matthias&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC9905497&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACarbon+dioxide+removal" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-61"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-61">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRobinson_Meyer2022" class="citation web cs1">Robinson Meyer (April 23, 2022). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.theatlantic.com/science/archive/2022/04/big-tech-investment-carbon-removal/629545/">"We've Never Seen a Carbon-Removal Plan Like This Before"</a>. <i>The Atlantic</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">April 29,</span> 2022</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=The+Atlantic&rft.atitle=We%27ve+Never+Seen+a+Carbon-Removal+Plan+Like+This+Before&rft.date=2022-04-23&rft.au=Robinson+Meyer&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.theatlantic.com%2Fscience%2Farchive%2F2022%2F04%2Fbig-tech-investment-carbon-removal%2F629545%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACarbon+dioxide+removal" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-62"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-62">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKatie_Brigham2022" class="citation web cs1">Katie Brigham (June 28, 2022). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.cnbc.com/2022/06/28/why-companies-like-stripe-meta-and-alphabet-are-behind-carbon-removal.html">"Why Big Tech is pouring money into carbon removal"</a>. <i>CNBC</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">March 31,</span> 2023</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=CNBC&rft.atitle=Why+Big+Tech+is+pouring+money+into+carbon+removal&rft.date=2022-06-28&rft.au=Katie+Brigham&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.cnbc.com%2F2022%2F06%2F28%2Fwhy-companies-like-stripe-meta-and-alphabet-are-behind-carbon-removal.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACarbon+dioxide+removal" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-63"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-63">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLackner2020" class="citation journal cs1">Lackner, Klaus S. (2020). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1038%2Fs41893-020-0496-7">"Practical constraints on atmospheric methane removal"</a>. <i>Nature Sustainability</i>. <b>3</b> (5): 357. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2020NatSu...3..357L">2020NatSu...3..357L</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1038%2Fs41893-020-0496-7">10.1038/s41893-020-0496-7</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/2398-9629">2398-9629</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Nature+Sustainability&rft.atitle=Practical+constraints+on+atmospheric+methane+removal&rft.volume=3&rft.issue=5&rft.pages=357&rft.date=2020&rft.issn=2398-9629&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1038%2Fs41893-020-0496-7&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2020NatSu...3..357L&rft.aulast=Lackner&rft.aufirst=Klaus+S.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.1038%252Fs41893-020-0496-7&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACarbon+dioxide+removal" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Carbon_dioxide_removal&action=edit&section=20" title="Edit section: External links"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1235681985">.mw-parser-output .side-box{margin:4px 0;box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #aaa;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em;background-color:var(--background-color-interactive-subtle,#f8f9fa);display:flow-root}.mw-parser-output .side-box-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{padding:0.25em 0.9em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-image{padding:2px 0 2px 0.9em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-imageright{padding:2px 0.9em 2px 0;text-align:center}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .side-box-flex{display:flex;align-items:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{flex:1;min-width:0}}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .side-box{width:238px}.mw-parser-output .side-box-right{clear:right;float:right;margin-left:1em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-left{margin-right:1em}}</style><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1237033735">@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox{display:none!important}}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox img[src*="Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg"]{background-color:white}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox img[src*="Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg"]{background-color:white}}</style><div class="side-box side-box-right plainlinks sistersitebox"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"> <div class="side-box-flex"> <div class="side-box-image"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Commons-logo.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/30px-Commons-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="30" height="40" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/45px-Commons-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/59px-Commons-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="1376" /></a></span></div> <div class="side-box-text plainlist">Wikimedia Commons has media related to <span style="font-weight: bold; font-style: italic;"><a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Carbon_dioxide_removal" class="extiw" title="commons:Category:Carbon dioxide removal">Carbon dioxide removal</a></span>.</div></div> </div> <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ipcc.ch/report/ar6/wg3/downloads/outreach/IPCC_AR6_WGIII_Factsheet_CDR.pdf">Factsheet about CDR by IPCC Sixth Assessment Report WG III</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://carbon180.org/deep-dives">Deep Dives</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230405134149/https://carbon180.org/deep-dives">Archived</a> April 5, 2023, at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> by <a href="/wiki/Carbon180" title="Carbon180">Carbon180</a>. Info about carbon removal solutions.</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.roadto10gigatons.com/">The Road to Ten Gigatons - Carbon Removal Scale Up Challenge</a> Game.</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.stateofcdr.org/">The State of Carbon Dioxide Removal</a> report. 2023.</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.un.org/en/climatechange/science/climate-issues/land">Land - the planet's carbon sink</a>, United Nations.</li></ul> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236075235">.mw-parser-output .navbox{box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #a2a9b1;width:100%;clear:both;font-size:88%;text-align:center;padding:1px;margin:1em auto 0}.mw-parser-output .navbox .navbox{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .navbox+.navbox,.mw-parser-output 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scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="History567" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">History</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_climate_change_policy_and_politics" title="History of climate change policy and politics">History of climate change policy and politics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_climate_change_science" title="History of climate change science">History of climate change science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Svante_Arrhenius" title="Svante Arrhenius">Svante Arrhenius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_Hansen" title="James Hansen">James Hansen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charles_David_Keeling" title="Charles David Keeling">Charles David Keeling</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_Nations_Climate_Change_conference" class="mw-redirect" title="United Nations Climate Change conference">United Nations Climate Change conferences</a></li> <li>Years in climate change <ul><li><a href="/wiki/2019_in_climate_change" title="2019 in climate change">2019</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/2020_in_climate_change" title="2020 in climate change">2020</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/2021_in_climate_change" title="2021 in climate change">2021</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/2022_in_climate_change" title="2022 in climate change">2022</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/2023_in_climate_change" title="2023 in climate change">2023</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/2024_in_climate_change" title="2024 in climate change">2024</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Effects_and_issues567" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Effects_of_climate_change" title="Effects of climate change">Effects and issues</a></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:10.25em">Physical</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Abrupt_climate_change" title="Abrupt climate change">Abrupt climate change</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anoxic_event" title="Anoxic event">Anoxic event</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arctic_methane_emissions" title="Arctic methane emissions">Arctic methane emissions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arctic_sea_ice_decline" title="Arctic sea ice decline">Arctic sea ice decline</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Atlantic_meridional_overturning_circulation" title="Atlantic meridional overturning circulation">Atlantic meridional overturning circulation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Drought" title="Drought">Drought</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Extreme_weather" title="Extreme weather">Extreme weather</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Flood" title="Flood">Flood</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Coastal_flooding" title="Coastal flooding">Coastal flooding</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Heat_wave" title="Heat wave">Heat wave</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Marine_heatwave" title="Marine heatwave">Marine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Urban_heat_island" title="Urban heat island">Urban heat island</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Effects_of_climate_change_on_oceans" title="Effects of climate change on oceans">Oceans</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ocean_acidification" title="Ocean acidification">acidification</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ocean_deoxygenation" title="Ocean deoxygenation">deoxygenation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ocean_heat_content" title="Ocean heat content">heat content</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sea_surface_temperature" title="Sea surface temperature">sea surface temperature</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ocean_stratification" title="Ocean stratification">stratification</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ocean_temperature" title="Ocean temperature">temperature</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ozone_depletion" title="Ozone depletion">Ozone depletion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Permafrost#Impacts_of_climate_change" title="Permafrost">Permafrost thaw</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Retreat_of_glaciers_since_1850" title="Retreat of glaciers since 1850">Retreat of glaciers since 1850</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sea_level_rise" title="Sea level rise">Sea level rise</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Season_creep" title="Season creep">Season creep</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tipping_points_in_the_climate_system" title="Tipping points in the climate system">Tipping points in the climate system</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tropical_cyclones_and_climate_change" title="Tropical cyclones and climate change">Tropical cyclones</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Effects_of_climate_change_on_the_water_cycle" title="Effects of climate change on the water cycle">Water cycle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_change_and_wildfires" class="mw-redirect" title="Climate change and wildfires">Wildfires</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:10.25em">Flora and fauna</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Effects_of_climate_change_on_biomes" title="Effects of climate change on biomes">Biomes</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Mass_mortality_event" title="Mass mortality event">Mass mortality event</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_change_and_birds" title="Climate change and birds">Birds</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Extinction_risk_from_climate_change" title="Extinction risk from climate change">Extinction risk</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Forest_dieback" title="Forest dieback">Forest dieback</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_change_and_invasive_species" title="Climate change and invasive species">Invasive species</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_impact_on_marine_life#Climate_change" title="Human impact on marine life">Marine life</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Effects_of_climate_change_on_plant_biodiversity" title="Effects of climate change on plant biodiversity">Plant biodiversity</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:10.25em">Social and economic</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Effects_of_climate_change_on_agriculture" title="Effects of climate change on agriculture">Agriculture</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Effects_of_climate_change_on_livestock" title="Effects of climate change on livestock">Livestock</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Multiple_breadbasket_failure" title="Multiple breadbasket failure">Multi-breadbasket failure</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_change_and_agriculture_in_the_United_States" title="Climate change and agriculture in the United States">United States</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_change_and_children" title="Climate change and children">Children</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_change_and_cities" title="Climate change and cities">Cities</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_change_and_civilizational_collapse" title="Climate change and civilizational collapse">Civilizational collapse</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_change_and_crime" title="Climate change and crime">Crime</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_areas_depopulated_due_to_climate_change" title="List of areas depopulated due to climate change">Depopulation of settlements</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_landmarks_destroyed_or_damaged_by_climate_change" title="List of landmarks destroyed or damaged by climate change">Destruction of cultural heritage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Disability_and_climate_change" title="Disability and climate change">Disability</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Economic_analysis_of_climate_change" title="Economic analysis of climate change">Economic impacts</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Climate_change_and_insurance_in_the_United_States" title="Climate change and insurance in the United States">U.S. insurance industry</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_change_and_fisheries" title="Climate change and fisheries">Fisheries</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_change_and_gender" title="Climate change and gender">Gender</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Effects_of_climate_change_on_human_health" title="Effects of climate change on human health">Health</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Effects_of_climate_change_on_mental_health" title="Effects of climate change on mental health">Mental health</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_rights_and_climate_change" title="Human rights and climate change">Human rights</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_change_and_Indigenous_peoples" class="mw-redirect" title="Climate change and Indigenous peoples">Indigenous peoples</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_change_and_infectious_diseases" title="Climate change and infectious diseases">Infectious diseases</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_migration" title="Climate migration">Migration</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_change_and_poverty" title="Climate change and poverty">Poverty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Psychological_impact_of_climate_change" title="Psychological impact of climate change">Psychological impacts</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_security" title="Climate security">Security and conflict</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Urban_flooding" title="Urban flooding">Urban flooding</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Water_scarcity" title="Water scarcity">Water scarcity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Water_security" title="Water security">Water security</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:10.25em"><a href="/wiki/Template:Climate_change_regions" title="Template:Climate change regions">By country and region</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Climate_change_in_Africa" title="Climate change in Africa">Africa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_change_in_the_Americas" title="Climate change in the Americas">Americas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_change_in_Antarctica" title="Climate change in Antarctica">Antarctica</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_change_in_the_Arctic" title="Climate change in the Arctic">Arctic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_change_in_Asia" title="Climate change in Asia">Asia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_change_in_Australia" title="Climate change in Australia">Australia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_change_in_the_Caribbean" title="Climate change in the Caribbean">Caribbean</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_change_in_Europe" title="Climate change in Europe">Europe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_change_in_the_Middle_East_and_North_Africa" title="Climate change in the Middle East and North Africa">Middle East and North Africa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Effects_of_climate_change_on_small_island_countries" title="Effects of climate change on small island countries">Small island countries</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Climate_change_by_country" title="Category:Climate change by country">by individual country</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Mitigation567" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Climate_change_mitigation" title="Climate change mitigation">Mitigation</a></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:10.25em"><a href="/wiki/Economic_analysis_of_climate_change" title="Economic analysis of climate change">Economics and finance</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Carbon_budget" title="Carbon budget">Carbon budget</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carbon_emission_trading" title="Carbon emission trading">Carbon emission trading</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carbon_offsets_and_credits" title="Carbon offsets and credits">Carbon offsets and credits</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Gold_Standard_(carbon_offset_standard)" title="Gold Standard (carbon offset standard)">Gold Standard (carbon offset standard)</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carbon_price" title="Carbon price">Carbon price</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carbon_tax" title="Carbon tax">Carbon tax</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_debt" title="Climate debt">Climate debt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_finance" title="Climate finance">Climate finance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_risk_insurance" title="Climate risk insurance">Climate risk insurance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Co-benefits_of_climate_change_mitigation" class="mw-redirect" title="Co-benefits of climate change mitigation">Co-benefits of climate change mitigation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Economics_of_climate_change_mitigation" class="mw-redirect" title="Economics of climate change mitigation">Economics of climate change mitigation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fossil_fuel_divestment" title="Fossil fuel divestment">Fossil fuel divestment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Green_Climate_Fund" title="Green Climate Fund">Green Climate Fund</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Low-carbon_economy" title="Low-carbon economy">Low-carbon economy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Net_zero_emissions" class="mw-redirect" title="Net zero emissions">Net zero emissions</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:10.25em">Energy</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Carbon_capture_and_storage" title="Carbon capture and storage">Carbon capture and storage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Energy_transition" title="Energy transition">Energy transition</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Fossil_fuel_phase-out" title="Fossil fuel phase-out">Fossil fuel phase-out</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_power" title="Nuclear power">Nuclear power</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Renewable_energy" title="Renewable energy">Renewable energy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sustainable_energy" title="Sustainable energy">Sustainable energy</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:10.25em">Preserving and enhancing<br /> <a href="/wiki/Carbon_sink" title="Carbon sink">carbon sinks</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Blue_carbon" title="Blue carbon">Blue carbon</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Carbon dioxide removal</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Carbon_sequestration" title="Carbon sequestration">Carbon sequestration</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Direct_air_capture" title="Direct air capture">Direct air capture</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carbon_farming" title="Carbon farming">Carbon farming</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate-smart_agriculture" title="Climate-smart agriculture">Climate-smart agriculture</a></li> <li>Forest management <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Afforestation" title="Afforestation">afforestation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carbon_sequestration#Forestry" title="Carbon sequestration">forestry for carbon sequestration</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/REDD_and_REDD%2B" title="REDD and REDD+">REDD and REDD+</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reforestation" title="Reforestation">reforestation</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Land_use,_land-use_change,_and_forestry" title="Land use, land-use change, and forestry">Land use, land-use change, and forestry</a> (LULUCF and AFOLU)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nature-based_solutions" title="Nature-based solutions">Nature-based solutions</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:10.25em">Personal</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Individual_action_on_climate_change" title="Individual action on climate change">Individual action on climate change</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Plant-based_diet" title="Plant-based diet">Plant-based diet</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Society_and_adaptation567" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Society and <a href="/wiki/Climate_change_adaptation" title="Climate change adaptation">adaptation</a></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:10.25em">Society</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Business_action_on_climate_change" title="Business action on climate change">Business action</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_action" title="Climate action">Climate action</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_emergency_declaration" title="Climate emergency declaration">Climate emergency declaration</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_movement" title="Climate movement">Climate movement</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/School_Strike_for_Climate" class="mw-redirect" title="School Strike for Climate">School Strike for Climate</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_change_denial" title="Climate change denial">Denial</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecological_grief" title="Ecological grief">Ecological grief</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_governance" title="Climate governance">Governance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_justice" title="Climate justice">Justice</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_change_litigation" title="Climate change litigation">Litigation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Politics_of_climate_change" title="Politics of climate change">Politics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Public_opinion_on_climate_change" title="Public opinion on climate change">Public opinion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women_in_climate_change" title="Women in climate change">Women</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:10.25em"><a href="/wiki/Climate_change_adaptation" title="Climate change adaptation">Adaptation</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Climate_change_adaptation_strategies_on_the_German_coast" title="Climate change adaptation strategies on the German coast">Adaptation strategies on the German coast</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Adaptive_capacity" title="Adaptive capacity">Adaptive capacity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Disaster_risk_reduction" title="Disaster risk reduction">Disaster risk reduction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecosystem-based_adaptation" title="Ecosystem-based adaptation">Ecosystem-based adaptation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Flood_control" class="mw-redirect" title="Flood control">Flood control</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Loss_and_damage_(climate_change)" title="Loss and damage (climate change)">Loss and damage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Managed_retreat" title="Managed retreat">Managed retreat</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nature-based_solutions" title="Nature-based solutions">Nature-based solutions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_resilience" title="Climate resilience">Resilience</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_risk" title="Climate risk">Risk</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_change_vulnerability" title="Climate change vulnerability">Vulnerability</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Adaptation_Fund" title="The Adaptation Fund">The Adaptation Fund</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Adaptation_Programme_of_Action" title="National Adaptation Programme of Action">National Adaptation Programme of Action</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:10.25em"><a href="/wiki/Climate_communication" title="Climate communication">Communication</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Climate_Change_Performance_Index" title="Climate Change Performance Index">Climate Change Performance Index</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_crisis" title="Climate crisis">Climate crisis (term)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_spiral" title="Climate spiral">Climate spiral</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_change_education" title="Climate change education">Education</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Media_coverage_of_climate_change" title="Media coverage of climate change">Media coverage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_change_in_popular_culture" title="Climate change in popular culture">Popular culture depictions</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Climate_change_art" title="Climate change art">art</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_fiction" title="Climate fiction">fiction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_climate_change_video_games" class="mw-redirect" title="List of climate change video games">video games</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Warming_stripes" title="Warming stripes">Warming stripes</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:10.25em">International agreements</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Glasgow_Climate_Pact" title="Glasgow Climate Pact">Glasgow Climate Pact</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kyoto_Protocol" title="Kyoto Protocol">Kyoto Protocol</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paris_Agreement" title="Paris Agreement">Paris Agreement</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cooperative_Mechanisms_under_Article_6_of_the_Paris_Agreement" title="Cooperative Mechanisms under Article 6 of the Paris Agreement">Cooperative Mechanisms under Article 6 of the Paris Agreement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nationally_determined_contribution" title="Nationally determined contribution">Nationally determined contributions</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sustainable_Development_Goal_13" title="Sustainable Development Goal 13">Sustainable Development Goal 13</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_Nations_Framework_Convention_on_Climate_Change" title="United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change">United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Background_and_theory567" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Background and theory</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:10.25em">Measurements</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Global_surface_temperature" title="Global surface temperature">Global surface temperature</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Instrumental_temperature_record" class="mw-redirect" title="Instrumental temperature record">Instrumental temperature record</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Proxy_(climate)" title="Proxy (climate)">Proxy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Satellite_temperature_measurement" title="Satellite temperature measurement">Satellite temperature measurement</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" 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