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subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Early_Christian_symbols-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Cross_and_crucifix" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Cross_and_crucifix"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.1</span> <span>Cross and crucifix</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Cross_and_crucifix-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Ichthys" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Ichthys"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.2</span> <span>Ichthys</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Ichthys-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Alpha_and_Omega" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Alpha_and_Omega"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.3</span> <span>Alpha and Omega</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Alpha_and_Omega-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Staurogram" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Staurogram"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.4</span> <span>Staurogram</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Staurogram-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Chi_Rho" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Chi_Rho"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.5</span> <span>Chi Rho</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Chi_Rho-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-IH_monogram" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#IH_monogram"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.6</span> <span>IH monogram</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-IH_monogram-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-IX_monogram" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#IX_monogram"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.7</span> <span>IX monogram</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-IX_monogram-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Other_Christian_symbols" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Other_Christian_symbols"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2</span> <span>Other Christian symbols</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Other_Christian_symbols-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Other Christian symbols subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Other_Christian_symbols-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-The_Good_Shepherd" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#The_Good_Shepherd"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.1</span> <span>The Good Shepherd</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-The_Good_Shepherd-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Dove" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Dove"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.2</span> <span>Dove</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Dove-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Peacock" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Peacock"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.3</span> <span>Peacock</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Peacock-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Pelican" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Pelican"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.4</span> <span>Pelican</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Pelican-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Anchor" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Anchor"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.5</span> <span>Anchor</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Anchor-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Shamrock" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Shamrock"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.6</span> <span>Shamrock</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Shamrock-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Elemental_symbols" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Elemental_symbols"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.7</span> <span>Elemental symbols</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Elemental_symbols-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Lily_crucifix" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Lily_crucifix"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.8</span> <span>Lily crucifix</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Lily_crucifix-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Tomb_paintings" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Tomb_paintings"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3</span> <span>Tomb paintings</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Tomb_paintings-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Colours" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Colours"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> <span>Colours</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Colours-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Symbols_of_Christian_Churches" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Symbols_of_Christian_Churches"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>Symbols of Christian Churches</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Symbols_of_Christian_Churches-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Symbols of Christian Churches subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Symbols_of_Christian_Churches-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Sacraments" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Sacraments"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.1</span> <span>Sacraments</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Sacraments-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Icons" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Icons"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.2</span> <span>Icons</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Icons-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Domes" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Domes"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.3</span> <span>Domes</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Domes-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Symbols_adopted_from_Judaism" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Symbols_adopted_from_Judaism"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6</span> <span>Symbols adopted from Judaism</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Symbols_adopted_from_Judaism-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7</span> <span>See also</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8</span> <span>References</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9</span> <span>External links</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header 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</div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading"><span class="mw-page-title-main">Christian symbolism</span></h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. Available in 26 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-26" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-language-progressive mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-language-progressive"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">26 languages</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B1%D9%85%D9%88%D8%B2_%D9%85%D8%B3%D9%8A%D8%AD%D9%8A%D8%A9" title="رموز مسيحية – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="رموز مسيحية" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>العربية</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-az mw-list-item"><a href="https://az.wikipedia.org/wiki/Xristian_simvolikas%C4%B1" title="Xristian simvolikası – Azerbaijani" lang="az" hreflang="az" data-title="Xristian simvolikası" data-language-autonym="Azərbaycanca" data-language-local-name="Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Azərbaycanca</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/S%C3%ADmbols_del_cristianisme" title="Símbols del cristianisme – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Símbols del cristianisme" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Català</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs mw-list-item"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/K%C5%99es%C5%A5ansk%C3%A9_symboly" title="Křesťanské symboly – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="Křesťanské symboly" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="Czech" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Čeština</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-da mw-list-item"><a href="https://da.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kristne_symboler" title="Kristne symboler – Danish" lang="da" hreflang="da" data-title="Kristne symboler" data-language-autonym="Dansk" data-language-local-name="Danish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Dansk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Symbole_des_Christentums" title="Symbole des Christentums – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Symbole des Christentums" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Deutsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Simbolismo_cristiano" title="Simbolismo cristiano – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Simbolismo cristiano" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Español</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Symbolique_chr%C3%A9tienne_primitive" title="Symbolique chrétienne primitive – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Symbolique chrétienne primitive" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Français</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gl mw-list-item"><a href="https://gl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Simbolismo_cristi%C3%A1n" title="Simbolismo cristián – Galician" lang="gl" hreflang="gl" data-title="Simbolismo cristián" data-language-autonym="Galego" data-language-local-name="Galician" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Galego</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EA%B8%B0%EB%8F%85%EA%B5%90_%EC%83%81%EC%A7%95%EC%A3%BC%EC%9D%98" title="기독교 상징주의 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="기독교 상징주의" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>한국어</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hr mw-list-item"><a href="https://hr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kr%C5%A1%C4%87anski_simboli" title="Kršćanski simboli – Croatian" lang="hr" hreflang="hr" data-title="Kršćanski simboli" data-language-autonym="Hrvatski" data-language-local-name="Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Hrvatski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Simbol_Kristen" title="Simbol Kristen – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Simbol Kristen" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Indonesia</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hu mw-list-item"><a href="https://hu.wikipedia.org/wiki/A_kereszt%C3%A9ny_liturgia_jelk%C3%A9peinek_list%C3%A1ja" title="A keresztény liturgia jelképeinek listája – Hungarian" lang="hu" hreflang="hu" data-title="A keresztény liturgia jelképeinek listája" data-language-autonym="Magyar" data-language-local-name="Hungarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Magyar</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ms mw-list-item"><a href="https://ms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lambang_Kristian" title="Lambang Kristian – Malay" lang="ms" hreflang="ms" data-title="Lambang Kristian" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Melayu" data-language-local-name="Malay" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Melayu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Christelijke_symboliek" title="Christelijke symboliek – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Christelijke symboliek" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Nederlands</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-no badge-Q17437798 badge-goodarticle mw-list-item" title="good article badge"><a href="https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kristne_symboler" title="Kristne symboler – Norwegian Bokmål" lang="nb" hreflang="nb" data-title="Kristne symboler" data-language-autonym="Norsk bokmål" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Bokmål" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk bokmål</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Symbolika_chrze%C5%9Bcija%C5%84ska" title="Symbolika chrześcijańska – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="Symbolika chrześcijańska" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Polish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Polski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Simbolismo_crist%C3%A3o" title="Simbolismo cristão – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Simbolismo cristão" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Português</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A5%D1%80%D0%B8%D1%81%D1%82%D0%B8%D0%B0%D0%BD%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B0%D1%8F_%D1%81%D0%B8%D0%BC%D0%B2%D0%BE%D0%BB%D0%B8%D0%BA%D0%B0" title="Христианская символика – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Христианская символика" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Русский</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-simple mw-list-item"><a href="https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Christian_symbolism" title="Christian symbolism – Simple English" lang="en-simple" hreflang="en-simple" data-title="Christian symbolism" data-language-autonym="Simple English" data-language-local-name="Simple English" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Simple English</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fi mw-list-item"><a href="https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kristilliset_symbolit" title="Kristilliset symbolit – Finnish" lang="fi" hreflang="fi" data-title="Kristilliset symbolit" data-language-autonym="Suomi" data-language-local-name="Finnish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Suomi</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sv mw-list-item"><a href="https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kristna_symboler" title="Kristna symboler – Swedish" lang="sv" hreflang="sv" data-title="Kristna symboler" data-language-autonym="Svenska" data-language-local-name="Swedish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Svenska</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ta mw-list-item"><a href="https://ta.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%AE%95%E0%AE%BF%E0%AE%B1%E0%AE%BF%E0%AE%A4%E0%AF%8D%E0%AE%A4%E0%AE%B5%E0%AE%95%E0%AF%8D_%E0%AE%95%E0%AF%81%E0%AE%B1%E0%AE%BF%E0%AE%AF%E0%AF%80%E0%AE%9F%E0%AF%81" title="கிறித்தவக் குறியீடு – Tamil" lang="ta" hreflang="ta" data-title="கிறித்தவக் குறியீடு" data-language-autonym="தமிழ்" data-language-local-name="Tamil" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>தமிழ்</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uk mw-list-item"><a href="https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A5%D1%80%D0%B8%D1%81%D1%82%D0%B8%D1%8F%D0%BD%D1%81%D1%8C%D0%BA%D0%B0_%D1%81%D0%B8%D0%BC%D0%B2%D0%BE%D0%BB%D1%96%D0%BA%D0%B0" title="Християнська символіка – Ukrainian" lang="uk" hreflang="uk" data-title="Християнська символіка" data-language-autonym="Українська" data-language-local-name="Ukrainian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Українська</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vi mw-list-item"><a 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rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1246091330"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1246091330"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><table class="sidebar sidebar-collapse nomobile nowraplinks"><tbody><tr><td class="sidebar-pretitle" style="background: #efefef">Part of <a href="/wiki/Category:Christianity" title="Category:Christianity">a series</a> on</td></tr><tr><th class="sidebar-title-with-pretitle" style="background: #efefef"><a href="/wiki/Christianity" title="Christianity">Christianity</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-image"><span class="mw-default-size notpageimage skin-invert" typeof="mw:File/Frameless"><a href="/wiki/Christian_cross" title="Principal symbol of Christianity"><img alt="Principal symbol of Christianity" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/87/Christian_cross.svg/50px-Christian_cross.svg.png" decoding="async" width="50" height="70" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/87/Christian_cross.svg/75px-Christian_cross.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/87/Christian_cross.svg/100px-Christian_cross.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="404" data-file-height="564" /></a></span></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div 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mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background: #efefef;background:#efefef;text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)"><div class="hlist"><ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bible" title="Bible">Bible</a></li><li>Foundations</li></ul></div></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Old_Testament" title="Old Testament">Old Testament</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/New_Testament" title="New Testament">New Testament</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gospel" title="Gospel">Gospel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biblical_canon" title="Biblical canon">Canon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christian_Church" title="Christian Church">Church</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Creed" title="Creed">Creed</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/New_Covenant" title="New Covenant">New Covenant</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background: #efefef;background:#efefef;text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Christian_theology" title="Christian theology">Theology</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/God_in_Christianity" title="God in Christianity">God</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trinity" title="Trinity">Trinity</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/God_the_Father_(Christianity)" class="mw-redirect" title="God the Father (Christianity)">Father</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Son_of_God_(Christianity)" title="Son of God (Christianity)">Son</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Holy_Spirit_in_Christianity" title="Holy Spirit in Christianity">Holy Spirit</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christian_apologetics" title="Christian apologetics">Apologetics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Baptism" title="Baptism">Baptism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christology" title="Christology">Christology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Christian_theology" title="History of Christian theology">History of theology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christian_mission" title="Christian mission">Mission</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Salvation_in_Christianity" title="Salvation in Christianity">Salvation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christian_universalism" title="Christian universalism">Universalism</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background: #efefef;background:#efefef;text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)"><div class="hlist"><ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Christianity" title="History of Christianity">History</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Christian_tradition" title="Christian tradition">Tradition</a></li></ul></div></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Apostles_in_the_New_Testament" title="Apostles in the New Testament">Apostles</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Saint_Peter" title="Saint Peter">Peter</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paul_the_Apostle" title="Paul the Apostle">Paul</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mary,_mother_of_Jesus" title="Mary, mother of Jesus">Mary</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Early_Christianity" title="Early Christianity">Early Christianity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Church_Fathers" title="Church Fathers">Church Fathers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Constantine_the_Great" title="Constantine the Great">Constantine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecumenical_council" title="Ecumenical council">Councils</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Augustine_of_Hippo" title="Augustine of Hippo">Augustine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ignatius_of_Antioch" title="Ignatius of Antioch">Ignatius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/East%E2%80%93West_Schism" title="East–West Schism">East–West Schism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crusades" title="Crusades">Crusades</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Aquinas" title="Thomas Aquinas">Aquinas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reformation" title="Reformation">Reformation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Martin_Luther" title="Martin Luther">Luther</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content-with-subgroup"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background: #efefef;background:#efefef;text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)"><div class="hlist"><ul><li><a href="/wiki/Christian_denomination" title="Christian denomination">Denominations</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Christian_denominations" title="List of Christian denominations">(full list)</a></li></ul></div></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist"><table class="sidebar-subgroup"><tbody><tr><th class="sidebar-heading" style="padding-bottom:0;"> <a href="/wiki/Nicene_Christianity" title="Nicene Christianity">Nicene</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content hlist" style="padding-top:0;"> <ul><li><b><a href="/wiki/Catholic_Church" title="Catholic Church">Catholic</a></b> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Latin_Church" title="Latin Church">Latin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eastern_Catholic_Churches" title="Eastern Catholic Churches">Eastern</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Old_Catholic_Church" title="Old Catholic Church">Old Catholic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Independent_Catholicism" title="Independent Catholicism">Independent Catholic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sedevacantism" title="Sedevacantism">Sedevacantism</a></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/Eastern_Orthodoxy" title="Eastern Orthodoxy">Eastern Orthodox</a></b></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/Oriental_Orthodoxy" class="mw-redirect" title="Oriental Orthodoxy">Oriental Orthodox</a></b></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/Church_of_the_East" title="Church of the East">Church of the East</a></b></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/Protestantism" title="Protestantism">Protestant</a></b> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Adventism" title="Adventism">Adventist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anabaptism" title="Anabaptism">Anabaptist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anglicanism" title="Anglicanism">Anglican</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Baptists" title="Baptists">Baptist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evangelicalism" title="Evangelicalism">Free Evangelical</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lutheranism" title="Lutheranism">Lutheran</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Methodism" title="Methodism">Methodist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Moravian_Church" title="Moravian Church">Moravian [Hussite]</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pentecostalism" title="Pentecostalism">Pentecostal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plymouth_Brethren" title="Plymouth Brethren">Plymouth Brethren</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quakers" title="Quakers">Quaker</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reformed_Christianity" title="Reformed Christianity">Reformed</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_and_uniting_churches" title="United and uniting churches">United Protestant</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Waldensians" title="Waldensians">Waldensian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nondenominational_Christianity" class="mw-redirect" title="Nondenominational Christianity">Nondenominational Christianity</a></li></ul></li></ul></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading" style="padding-bottom:0;"> <a href="/wiki/Restorationism" title="Restorationism">Restorationist</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content hlist" style="padding-top:0;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Christadelphians" title="Christadelphians">Christadelphians</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iglesia_ni_Cristo" title="Iglesia ni Cristo">Iglesia ni Cristo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Catholic_Apostolic_Church" title="Catholic Apostolic Church">Irvingians</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jehovah%27s_Witnesses" title="Jehovah's Witnesses">Jehovah's Witnesses</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Latter_Day_Saint_movement" title="Latter Day Saint movement">Latter Day Saints</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Members_Church_of_God_International" title="Members Church of God International">Members Church of God 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class="sidebar-pretitle" style="background:lavender;">Part of <a href="/wiki/Category:Christian_culture" title="Category:Christian culture">a series</a> on</td></tr><tr><th class="sidebar-title-with-pretitle" style="background:lavender;"><a href="/wiki/Christian_culture" title="Christian culture">Christian culture</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-image"><figure class="noresize mw-ext-imagemap-desc-bottom-right" typeof="mw:File/Frameless"><span><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d1/Collage-Christian-culture.jpg/250px-Collage-Christian-culture.jpg" decoding="async" width="250" height="266" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d1/Collage-Christian-culture.jpg/375px-Collage-Christian-culture.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d1/Collage-Christian-culture.jpg/500px-Collage-Christian-culture.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1123" data-file-height="1193" usemap="#ImageMap_742b352ad57c8de2" resource="/wiki/File:Collage-Christian-culture.jpg" /></span><map name="ImageMap_742b352ad57c8de2"><area href="/wiki/Rockefeller_Center_Christmas_Tree" shape="rect" coords="0,0,51,53" alt="Rockefeller Center Christmas Tree" title="Rockefeller Center Christmas Tree" /><area href="/wiki/Cyril_and_Methodius" shape="rect" coords="51,0,102,53" alt="Cyril and Methodius" title="Cyril and Methodius" /><area href="/wiki/Saint_George" shape="rect" coords="102,0,154,53" alt="Saint George" title="Saint George" /><area href="/wiki/The_Creation_of_Adam" shape="rect" coords="154,0,205,53" alt="The Creation of Adam (Michelangelo)" title="The Creation of Adam (Michelangelo)" /><area href="/wiki/Piet%C3%A0_(Michelangelo)" shape="rect" coords="201,0,256,53" alt="Pietà (Michelangelo)" title="Pietà (Michelangelo)" /><area href="/wiki/Reformation_Wall" shape="rect" coords="0,53,49,107" alt="Reformation Wall" title="Reformation Wall" /><area href="/wiki/Mystery_of_Crowning" shape="rect" coords="51,53,102,107" alt="Mystery of Crowning" title="Mystery of Crowning" /><area href="/wiki/Catholic_Church_and_politics" shape="rect" coords="102,53,154,107" alt="John Paul II with Bill Clinton" title="John Paul II with Bill Clinton" /><area href="/wiki/Martin_Luther" shape="rect" coords="154,53,205,107" alt="Martin Luther" title="Martin Luther" /><area href="/wiki/Thomas_Aquinas" shape="rect" coords="201,53,256,107" alt="Thomas Aquinas" title="Thomas Aquinas" /><area href="/wiki/Trinity_(Andrei_Rublev)" shape="rect" coords="0,107,51,160" alt="Trinity (Andrei Rublev)" title="Trinity (Andrei Rublev)" /><area href="/wiki/Nativity_of_Jesus_in_art" shape="rect" coords="51,107,102,160" alt="Nativity scene at Cologne Cathedral" title="Nativity scene at Cologne Cathedral" /><area href="/wiki/Trevi_Fountain" shape="rect" coords="102,107,154,160" alt="Trevi Fountain" title="Trevi Fountain" /><area href="/wiki/Gutenberg_Bible" shape="rect" coords="154,107,205,160" alt="Gutenberg Bible" title="Gutenberg Bible" /><area href="/wiki/Christ_the_Redeemer_(statue)" shape="rect" coords="201,107,256,160" alt="Christ the Redeemer" title="Christ the Redeemer" /><area href="/wiki/Clerical_marriage" shape="rect" coords="0,160,51,214" alt="Eastern Catholic priest from Romania with his family" title="Eastern Catholic priest from Romania with his family" /><area href="/wiki/Boston_College" shape="rect" coords="51,160,102,214" alt="Boston College" title="Boston College" /><area href="/wiki/Rosary" shape="rect" coords="102,160,154,214" alt="Rosary" title="Rosary" /><area href="/wiki/Saint_Basil%27s_Cathedral" shape="rect" coords="154,160,205,214" alt="Saint Basil's Cathedral" title="Saint Basil's Cathedral" /><area href="/wiki/Georges_Lema%C3%AEtre" shape="rect" coords="201,160,256,214" alt="Georges Lemaître" title="Georges Lemaître" /><area href="/wiki/Notre-Dame_de_Paris" shape="rect" coords="0,214,51,265" alt="Notre-Dame de Paris" title="Notre-Dame de Paris" /><area href="/wiki/Christmas_dinner" shape="rect" coords="51,214,102,265" alt="Danish Christmas dinner" title="Danish Christmas dinner" /><area href="/wiki/Freiburg_Cathedral_Boys%27_Choir" shape="rect" coords="102,214,154,265" alt="Freiburg Cathedral Boys' Choir" title="Freiburg Cathedral Boys' Choir" /><area href="/wiki/Armenian_illuminated_manuscripts" shape="rect" coords="154,214,205,265" alt="Armenian illuminated manuscript" title="Armenian illuminated manuscript" /><area href="/wiki/Carnival_of_Venice" shape="rect" coords="201,214,256,265" alt="Entertainers at the Carnival of Venice" title="Entertainers at the Carnival of Venice" /></map><figcaption></figcaption></figure></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:lavender;;background:lavender;padding:0.2em;text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)"><div class="hlist"><ul><li><a href="/wiki/Christian_culture" title="Christian culture">Christian culture</a></li></ul></div></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content plainlist"><div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Christian_tradition" title="Christian tradition">Christian tradition</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Eastern_Christianity" title="Eastern Christianity">Eastern Christianity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Western_Christianity" title="Western Christianity">Western Christianity</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Byzantine_culture" class="mw-redirect" title="Byzantine culture">Byzantine culture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Protestant_culture" title="Protestant culture">Protestant culture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liturgical_year" title="Liturgical year">Holidays</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Culture_of_The_Church_of_Jesus_Christ_of_Latter-day_Saints" class="mw-redirect" title="Culture of The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints">Mormon culture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cultural_Christian" class="mw-redirect" title="Cultural Christian">Cultural Christian</a></li></ul> </div></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:lavender;;background:lavender;padding:0.2em;text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)"><div class="hlist"><ul><li><a href="/wiki/Christian_art" title="Christian art">Art</a></li></ul></div></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content plainlist"><div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Christian symbolism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Early_Christian_art_and_architecture" title="Early Christian art and architecture">Early art</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Catholic_art" title="Catholic art">Catholic art</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lutheran_art" title="Lutheran art">Lutheran art</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Church_architecture" title="Church architecture">Church architecture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Icon" title="Icon">Icons</a></li></ul> </div></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td 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<p><b>Christian symbolism</b> is the use of <a href="/wiki/Symbol" title="Symbol">symbols</a>, including <a href="/wiki/Archetypes" class="mw-redirect" title="Archetypes">archetypes</a>, acts, artwork or events, by <a href="/wiki/Christianity" title="Christianity">Christianity</a>. It invests objects or actions with an inner meaning expressing Christian ideas. </p><p>The symbolism of the <a href="/wiki/Early_Church" class="mw-redirect" title="Early Church">early Church</a> was characterized by being understood by initiates only, while after the legalization of Christianity in the Roman Empire during the 4th century more recognizable symbols entered in use. <a href="/wiki/Christianity" title="Christianity">Christianity</a> has borrowed from the common stock of significant symbols known to most periods and to all regions of the world. </p><p>Only a minority of Christian denominations have practiced <a href="/wiki/Aniconism_in_Christianity" title="Aniconism in Christianity">Aniconism</a>, or the avoidance or prohibition of types of images. These include early <a href="/wiki/Jewish_Christian" class="mw-redirect" title="Jewish Christian">Jewish Christian</a> sects, as well as some modern denominations such as Baptists that prefer to some extent not to use figures in their symbols due to the <a href="/wiki/Ten_Commandments" title="Ten Commandments">Decalogue's</a> prohibition of <a href="/wiki/Idolatry" title="Idolatry">idolatry</a>. </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Early_Christian_symbols">Early Christian symbols</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Christian_symbolism&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Early Christian symbols"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Cross_and_crucifix">Cross and crucifix</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Christian_symbolism&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Cross and crucifix"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Christian_cross" title="Christian cross">Christian cross</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Gerokreuz_full_20050903.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ec/Gerokreuz_full_20050903.jpg/220px-Gerokreuz_full_20050903.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="342" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ec/Gerokreuz_full_20050903.jpg/330px-Gerokreuz_full_20050903.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ec/Gerokreuz_full_20050903.jpg/440px-Gerokreuz_full_20050903.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1292" data-file-height="2009" /></a><figcaption>The <a href="/wiki/Crucifix" title="Crucifix">Crucifix</a>, a cross with <i>corpus</i>, a symbol used in the <a href="/wiki/Catholic_Church" title="Catholic Church">Catholic Church</a>, <a href="/wiki/Lutheranism" title="Lutheranism">Lutheranism</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Eastern_Orthodoxy" title="Eastern Orthodoxy">Eastern Orthodox Church</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Anglicanism" title="Anglicanism">Anglicanism</a>, in contrast with some other <a href="/wiki/Protestant_denominations" class="mw-redirect" title="Protestant denominations">Protestant denominations</a>, <a href="/wiki/Church_of_the_East" title="Church of the East">Church of the East</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Armenian_Apostolic_Church" title="Armenian Apostolic Church">Armenian Apostolic Church</a>, which use only a bare cross</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Solidus-Leontinus-sb1330.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/35/Solidus-Leontinus-sb1330.jpg/220px-Solidus-Leontinus-sb1330.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="103" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/35/Solidus-Leontinus-sb1330.jpg/330px-Solidus-Leontinus-sb1330.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/35/Solidus-Leontinus-sb1330.jpg/440px-Solidus-Leontinus-sb1330.jpg 2x" data-file-width="500" data-file-height="235" /></a><figcaption>Early use of a <a href="/wiki/Globus_cruciger" title="Globus cruciger">globus cruciger</a> on a <a href="/wiki/Solidus_(coin)" title="Solidus (coin)">solidus</a> minted by <a href="/wiki/Leontios" class="mw-redirect" title="Leontios">Leontios</a> (r. 695–698); on the obverse, a stepped cross in the shape of an <a href="/wiki/Iota_Eta" class="mw-redirect" title="Iota Eta">Iota Eta</a> monogram</figcaption></figure> <p>The shape of the cross, as represented by the letter <a href="/wiki/Tau_(letter)" class="mw-redirect" title="Tau (letter)">T</a>, came to be used as a "seal" or symbol of <a href="/wiki/Early_Christianity" title="Early Christianity">Early Christianity</a> by the 2nd century.<sup id="cite_ref-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> At the end of the 2nd century, it is mentioned in the <i><a href="/wiki/Octavius_(dialogue)" title="Octavius (dialogue)">Octavius</a></i> of <a href="/wiki/Minucius_Felix" class="mw-redirect" title="Minucius Felix">Minucius Felix</a>, rejecting the claim by detractors that Christians worship the cross.<sup id="cite_ref-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The cross (crucifix, Greek <i><a href="/wiki/Stauros" title="Stauros">stauros</a></i>) in this period was represented by the letter <a href="/wiki/T" title="T">T</a>. <a href="/wiki/Clement_of_Alexandria" title="Clement of Alexandria">Clement of Alexandria</a> in the early 3rd century calls it <span title="Ancient Greek (to 1453)-language text"><span lang="grc">τὸ κυριακὸν σημεῖον</span></span> ("the Lord's sign") and he repeats the idea, current as early as the <a href="/wiki/Epistle_of_Barnabas" title="Epistle of Barnabas">Epistle of Barnabas</a>, that the number 318 (in <a href="/wiki/Greek_numerals" title="Greek numerals">Greek numerals</a>, ΤΙΗ) in <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://bible.oremus.org/?passage=Genesis%2014:14&version=nrsv">Genesis 14:14</a> was a foreshadowing (a "type") of the cross (T, an upright with crossbar, standing for 300) and of Jesus (ΙΗ, the first two letters of his name ΙΗΣΟΥΣ, standing for 18).<sup id="cite_ref-CA_3-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-CA-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Clement's contemporary <a href="/wiki/Tertullian" title="Tertullian">Tertullian</a> also rejects the accusation that Christians are <i>crucis religiosi</i> (i.e. "adorers of the gibbet"), and returns the accusation by likening the worship of pagan idols to the worship of poles or stakes.<sup id="cite_ref-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In his book <i>De Corona</i>, written in 204, Tertullian tells how it was already a tradition for Christians to trace repeatedly on their foreheads the <a href="/wiki/Sign_of_the_cross" title="Sign of the cross">sign of the cross</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p> While early Christians used the T-shape to represent the cross in writing and gesture, the use of the <a href="/wiki/Greek_cross" class="mw-redirect" title="Greek cross">Greek cross</a> and <a href="/wiki/Latin_cross" title="Latin cross">Latin cross</a>, i.e. crosses with intersecting beams, appears in <a href="/wiki/Christian_art" title="Christian art">Christian art</a> towards the end of <a href="/wiki/Late_Antiquity" class="mw-redirect" title="Late Antiquity">Late Antiquity</a>. An early example of the <a href="/wiki/Cruciform_halo" class="mw-redirect" title="Cruciform halo">cruciform halo</a>, used to identify Christ in paintings, is found in the <i>Miracles of the Loaves and Fishes</i> mosaic of <a href="/wiki/Sant%27Apollinare_Nuovo" class="mw-redirect" title="Sant'Apollinare Nuovo">Sant'Apollinare Nuovo</a>, Ravenna (dated <abbr title="circa">c.</abbr><span style="white-space:nowrap;"> 504</span>).</p><figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Celtic_cross_in_Autumn.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/15/Celtic_cross_in_Autumn.jpg/220px-Celtic_cross_in_Autumn.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="147" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/15/Celtic_cross_in_Autumn.jpg/330px-Celtic_cross_in_Autumn.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/15/Celtic_cross_in_Autumn.jpg/440px-Celtic_cross_in_Autumn.jpg 2x" data-file-width="800" data-file-height="533" /></a><figcaption>20th–21st century Celtic cross with inscribed symbolism</figcaption></figure> <p>Instances of the <a href="/wiki/St_Thomas_cross" class="mw-redirect" title="St Thomas cross">St Thomas cross</a>, a Greek cross with clover leaf edges, popular in southern India,<sup id="cite_ref-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> date to about the 6th century.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (June 2016)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p>The <a href="/wiki/Patriarchal_cross" title="Patriarchal cross">Patriarchal cross</a>, a Latin cross with an additional horizontal bar, first appears in the 10th century. </p><p>The <a href="/wiki/Celtic_cross" title="Celtic cross">Celtic cross</a>, now often characterized by the presence of the outline of a circle upon which a cross, stylized in a pre-Medieval Celtic fashion, appears superimposed. The Celtic cross bears strong resemblance to the Christian cross; however, the Celtic cross motif predates Christianity by at least 3,000 years.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (May 2022)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> It appears in the form of heavily sculpted, vertically oriented, ancient monoliths which survive in the present day, in various locations on the island of Ireland. A few of the ancient monuments were evidently relocated to stand in some of Ireland's earliest churchyards, probably between 400 CE and 600 CE, as Christianity was popularized throughout much of the island. The heavily-worn stone sculptures likely owe their continued survival to their sheer size and solid rock construction, which coordinate in scale, and in composition, with Ireland's ancient megalith arrangements. </p><p>Unlike the Christian cross iconography associated with the shape of a crucifix (commonly used for torture and execution of criminals and captured enemy prisoners-of-war, by the pre-Christian Roman Empire), the Celtic cross' design origins are not clear. The Celtic cross has nevertheless been repeated in statuary, as a dominant feature of the anthropogenic Irish landscape, for at least 5,000 years. The Celtic cross and the Christian cross are similar enough in shape, that the former was easily adopted by Irish <a href="/wiki/Catholic_culture" class="mw-redirect" title="Catholic culture">Catholic culture</a>, following the Christianization of Ireland. The Celtic cross is accurately described as an ancient symbol of cultural significance in pre-Christian, Druidic Ireland. It also is used as a symbolic icon of the interpretation of Christianity, unique to Irish culture in that pre-Christian Celtic tradition and Irish Druidic iconography are hybridized with Christian traditions and iconography (much like the Shamrock; a low-growing, daintily foliaged, dense ground cover plant, which is held as a timeless symbol of Ireland itself; and, which is also symbolic on Ireland, of the Christian Holy Trinity, due to the Shamrock's typical trifoliar leaf structure). </p><p>Although the cross was used as a symbol by early Christians, the <a href="/wiki/Crucifix" title="Crucifix">crucifix</a>, i.e. <a href="/wiki/Crucifixion_in_the_arts" title="Crucifixion in the arts">depictions of the crucifixion scene</a>, were rare prior to the 5th century; some <a href="/wiki/Engraved_gem" title="Engraved gem">engraved gems</a> thought to be 2nd or 3rd century have survived, but the subject does not appear in the art of the <a href="/wiki/Catacombs_of_Rome" title="Catacombs of Rome">Catacombs of Rome</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The purported discovery of the <a href="/wiki/True_Cross" title="True Cross">True Cross</a> by Constantine's mother, <a href="/wiki/Helena_(Empress)" class="mw-redirect" title="Helena (Empress)">Helena</a>, and the development of <a href="/wiki/Calvary" title="Calvary">Golgotha</a> as a site for <a href="/wiki/Pilgrimage" title="Pilgrimage">pilgrimage</a> led to a change of attitude. It was probably in <a href="/wiki/Palestine_(region)" title="Palestine (region)">Palestine</a> that the image developed, and many of the earliest depictions are on the <a href="/wiki/Monza_ampullae" title="Monza ampullae">Monza ampullae</a>, small metal flasks for holy oil, that were pilgrim's souvenirs from the <a href="/wiki/Holy_Land" title="Holy Land">Holy Land</a>, as well as 5th century ivory reliefs from Italy.<sup id="cite_ref-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In the early medieval period, the plain cross became depicted as the <a href="/wiki/Crux_gemmata" title="Crux gemmata">crux gemmata</a>, covered with jewels, as many real early medieval <a href="/wiki/Processional_cross" title="Processional cross">processional crosses</a> in goldsmith work were. The first depictions of crucifixion displaying suffering are believed to have arisen in <a href="/wiki/Byzantine_art" title="Byzantine art">Byzantine art</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> where the S-shaped slumped body type was developed. Early Western examples include the <a href="/wiki/Gero_Cross" title="Gero Cross">Gero Cross</a> and the reverse of the <a href="/wiki/Cross_of_Lothair" title="Cross of Lothair">Cross of Lothair</a>, both from the end of the 10th century. </p><p>Marie-Madeleine Davy (1977) described in great detail Romanesque Symbolism as it developed in the Middle Ages in Western Europe.<sup id="cite_ref-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Ichthys">Ichthys</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Christian_symbolism&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Ichthys"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Ichthys" title="Ichthys">Ichthys</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Ephesus_IchthysCrop.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fc/Ephesus_IchthysCrop.jpg/220px-Ephesus_IchthysCrop.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="88" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fc/Ephesus_IchthysCrop.jpg/330px-Ephesus_IchthysCrop.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fc/Ephesus_IchthysCrop.jpg/440px-Ephesus_IchthysCrop.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1276" data-file-height="510" /></a><figcaption>A written Ichthys from ancient <a href="/wiki/Ephesus" title="Ephesus">Ephesus</a></figcaption></figure> <p>Among the symbols employed by the early Christians, that of the fish seems to have ranked first in importance. Its popularity among Christians was due principally to the famous <a href="/wiki/Acrostic" title="Acrostic">acrostic</a> consisting of the initial letters of five <a href="/wiki/Koine_Greek" title="Koine Greek">Greek</a> words forming the word for fish (Ichthus or Ιχθυς), which words briefly but clearly described the character of Christ and the claim to worship of believers: "<span title="Ancient Greek (to 1453)-language text"><span lang="grc"><b>Ἰ</b>ησοῦς <b>Χ</b>ριστὸς <b>Θ</b>εοῦ <b>Υ</b>ἱὸς <b>Σ</b>ωτήρ</span></span>" (Iēsous Christos Theou Huios Sōtēr), meaning <i>Jesus Christ, God's Son, Saviour</i>.<sup id="cite_ref-cefish_11-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-cefish-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This explanation is given among others by <a href="/wiki/Augustine" class="mw-redirect" title="Augustine">Augustine</a> in his <a href="/wiki/City_of_God_(book)" class="mw-redirect" title="City of God (book)">Civitate Dei</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-12" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Alpha_and_Omega">Alpha and Omega</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Christian_symbolism&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Alpha and Omega"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Christ_with_beard.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8d/Christ_with_beard.jpg/220px-Christ_with_beard.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="235" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8d/Christ_with_beard.jpg/330px-Christ_with_beard.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8d/Christ_with_beard.jpg/440px-Christ_with_beard.jpg 2x" data-file-width="558" data-file-height="595" /></a><figcaption>Jesus depicted with the alpha and omega letters in the catacombs of Rome from the 4th century</figcaption></figure> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Alpha_and_Omega" title="Alpha and Omega">Alpha and Omega</a></div> <p>The use since the earliest Christianity of the first and the last letters of the <a href="/wiki/Greek_alphabet" title="Greek alphabet">Greek alphabet</a>, <a href="/wiki/Alpha_(letter)" class="mw-redirect" title="Alpha (letter)">alpha</a> (<b>α</b> or <b>Α</b>) and <a href="/wiki/Omega_(letter)" class="mw-redirect" title="Omega (letter)">omega</a> (<b>ω</b> or <b>Ω</b>), derives from the statement said by Jesus (or God) himself "I am Alpha and Omega, the First and the Last, the Beginning and the End" (<a href="https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Bible_(King_James)/Revelation#22:13" class="extiw" title="s:Bible (King James)/Revelation">Revelation 22:13</a>, also 1:8 and 21:6). </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Staurogram">Staurogram</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Christian_symbolism&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Staurogram"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Staurogram" title="Staurogram">Staurogram</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:P._Bodmer_XIV-XV,_staurogram.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/P._Bodmer_XIV-XV%2C_staurogram.jpg/220px-P._Bodmer_XIV-XV%2C_staurogram.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="183" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/P._Bodmer_XIV-XV%2C_staurogram.jpg/330px-P._Bodmer_XIV-XV%2C_staurogram.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/P._Bodmer_XIV-XV%2C_staurogram.jpg/440px-P._Bodmer_XIV-XV%2C_staurogram.jpg 2x" data-file-width="600" data-file-height="498" /></a><figcaption>A staurogram used as τρ-ligature part of the spelling of the word <i>σταυρον</i> (as <span style="text-decoration:overline;">ϲ(τρ)ον</span>) in <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=Luke+14:27">Luke 14:27</a> (<a href="/wiki/Papyrus_75" title="Papyrus 75">Papyrus Bodmer XIV-XV</a>, 2nd century)</figcaption></figure> <p>The <b>Staurogram</b> ⳨ (from the Greek <span title="Ancient Greek (to 1453)-language text"><span lang="grc">σταυρός</span></span>, i.e. <i>cross</i>), also <b>Monogrammatic Cross</b> or <i>Tau-Rho</i> symbol, is composed by a <a href="/wiki/Tau_(letter)" class="mw-redirect" title="Tau (letter)">tau</a> (<b>Τ</b>) superimposed on a <a href="/wiki/Rho_(letter)" class="mw-redirect" title="Rho (letter)">rho</a> (<b>Ρ</b>). The Staurogram was first used to abbreviate the Greek word for cross in very early <a href="/wiki/New_Testament" title="New Testament">New Testament</a> <a href="/wiki/Manuscript" title="Manuscript">manuscripts</a> such as <a href="/wiki/Papyrus_66" title="Papyrus 66">P66</a>, <a href="/wiki/Papyrus_45" title="Papyrus 45">P45</a> and <a href="/wiki/Papyrus_75" title="Papyrus 75">P75</a>, almost like a <a href="/wiki/Nomina_sacra" title="Nomina sacra">nomen sacrum</a>, and may visually have represented Jesus on the cross.<sup id="cite_ref-Hurtado_13-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Hurtado-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><a href="/wiki/Ephrem_the_Syrian" title="Ephrem the Syrian">Ephrem the Syrian</a> in the 4th century explained these two united letters stating that the tau refers to the <a href="/wiki/Christian_cross" title="Christian cross">cross</a>, and the rho refers to the Greek word "help" (<span title="Ancient Greek (to 1453)-language text"><span lang="grc">Βoήθια</span></span> <a href="/wiki/Sic" title="Sic">[sic]</a>; proper spelling: <span title="Ancient Greek (to 1453)-language text"><span lang="grc">Βoήθεια</span></span>) which has the <a href="/wiki/Numerology" title="Numerology">numerological</a> value in Greek of 100 as the letter rho has. In such a way the symbol expresses the idea that the Cross saves.<sup id="cite_ref-Hurtado_13-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Hurtado-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The two letters tau and rho can also be found separately as symbols on early Christian <a href="/wiki/Ossuaries" class="mw-redirect" title="Ossuaries">ossuaries</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Bagatti_14-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Bagatti-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The Monogrammatic Cross was later seen also as a variation of the <a href="/wiki/Chi_Rho" title="Chi Rho">Chi Rho</a> symbol, and it spread over Western Europe in the 5th and 6th centuries.<sup id="cite_ref-15" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Chi_Rho">Chi Rho</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Christian_symbolism&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Chi Rho"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Rom,_Calixtus-Katakomben,_Steintafel_mit_Christussymbol_%22Chi_Rho%22.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/48/Rom%2C_Calixtus-Katakomben%2C_Steintafel_mit_Christussymbol_%22Chi_Rho%22.jpg/220px-Rom%2C_Calixtus-Katakomben%2C_Steintafel_mit_Christussymbol_%22Chi_Rho%22.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="162" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/48/Rom%2C_Calixtus-Katakomben%2C_Steintafel_mit_Christussymbol_%22Chi_Rho%22.jpg/330px-Rom%2C_Calixtus-Katakomben%2C_Steintafel_mit_Christussymbol_%22Chi_Rho%22.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/48/Rom%2C_Calixtus-Katakomben%2C_Steintafel_mit_Christussymbol_%22Chi_Rho%22.jpg/440px-Rom%2C_Calixtus-Katakomben%2C_Steintafel_mit_Christussymbol_%22Chi_Rho%22.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1261" data-file-height="931" /></a><figcaption>The Chi-Rho symbol <big>☧</big>, <a href="/wiki/Catacomb_of_Callixtus" title="Catacomb of Callixtus">Catacombs of San Callisto</a>, <a href="/wiki/Rome" title="Rome">Rome</a></figcaption></figure> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Chi_Rho" title="Chi Rho">Chi Rho</a></div> <p>The <b>Chi Rho</b> is formed by superimposing the first two (capital) letters <a href="/wiki/Chi_(letter)" title="Chi (letter)">chi</a> and <a href="/wiki/Rho_(letter)" class="mw-redirect" title="Rho (letter)">rho</a> (<b>ΧΡ</b>) of the Greek word "<b>ΧΡ</b>ΙΣΤΟΣ", meaning <a href="/wiki/Christ" class="mw-redirect" title="Christ">Christ</a>, in such a way to produce the <a href="/wiki/Monogram" title="Monogram">monogram</a>. Widespread in ancient Christianity, it was the symbol used by the <a href="/wiki/Roman_Emperors" class="mw-redirect" title="Roman Emperors">Roman emperor</a> <a href="/wiki/Constantine_the_Great" title="Constantine the Great">Constantine I</a> as <a href="/wiki/Vexillum" title="Vexillum">vexillum</a> (named <a href="/wiki/Labarum" title="Labarum">Labarum</a>). </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="IH_monogram">IH monogram</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Christian_symbolism&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: IH monogram"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The first two letters of the name of <a href="/wiki/Jesus" title="Jesus">Jesus</a> in <a href="/wiki/Koine_Greek" title="Koine Greek">Greek</a>, <a href="/wiki/Iota_(letter)" class="mw-redirect" title="Iota (letter)">iota</a> (<b>Ι</b>) and <a href="/wiki/Eta_(letter)" class="mw-redirect" title="Eta (letter)">eta</a> (<b>Η</b>), sometime superimposed one on the other, or the <a href="/wiki/Greek_numerals" title="Greek numerals">numeric value</a> 18 of <span title="Ancient Greek (to 1453)-language text"><span lang="grc">ΙΗ</span></span> in Greek, was a well known and very early way to represent Christ.<sup id="cite_ref-16" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This symbol was already explained in the <a href="/wiki/Epistle_of_Barnabas" title="Epistle of Barnabas">Epistle of Barnabas</a> and by <a href="/wiki/Clement_of_Alexandria" title="Clement of Alexandria">Clement of Alexandria</a>. For other christograms such as IHS, see Article <a href="/wiki/Christogram" title="Christogram">Christogram</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="IX_monogram">IX monogram</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Christian_symbolism&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: IX monogram"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/IX_monogram" title="IX monogram">IX monogram</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Chrisme_Constantinople.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6a/Chrisme_Constantinople.jpg/220px-Chrisme_Constantinople.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="228" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6a/Chrisme_Constantinople.jpg/330px-Chrisme_Constantinople.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6a/Chrisme_Constantinople.jpg/440px-Chrisme_Constantinople.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1625" data-file-height="1686" /></a><figcaption>A IX monogram from a 4th century <a href="/wiki/Sarcophagus" title="Sarcophagus">Sarcophagus</a> from <a href="/wiki/Constantinople" title="Constantinople">Constantinople</a></figcaption></figure> <p>An early form of the monogram of Christ, found in early Christian <a href="/wiki/Ossuaries" class="mw-redirect" title="Ossuaries">ossuaries</a> in <a href="/wiki/Palestine_(region)" title="Palestine (region)">Palaestina</a>, was formed by superimposing the first (capital) letters of the Greek words for <a href="/wiki/Jesus" title="Jesus">Jesus</a> and <a href="/wiki/Christ" class="mw-redirect" title="Christ">Christ</a>, i.e. <a href="/wiki/Iota_(letter)" class="mw-redirect" title="Iota (letter)">iota</a> <b>Ι</b> and <a href="/wiki/Chi_(letter)" title="Chi (letter)">chi</a> <b>Χ</b>, so that this <a href="/wiki/Monogram" title="Monogram">monogram</a> means "Jesus Christ".<sup id="cite_ref-Bagatti_14-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Bagatti-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 166">: 166 </span></sup> Another more complicated explanation of this monogram was given by <a href="/wiki/Irenaeus" title="Irenaeus">Irenaeus</a><sup id="cite_ref-17" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and <a href="/wiki/Pachomius" class="mw-redirect" title="Pachomius">Pachomius</a>: because the <a href="/wiki/Greek_numerals" title="Greek numerals">numeric value</a> of iota is 10 and the chi is the initial of the word "Christ" (Greek: <span title="Ancient Greek (to 1453)-language text"><span lang="grc">ΧΡΕΙΣΤΟΣ</span></span> [sic]; proper spelling: <span title="Ancient Greek (to 1453)-language text"><span lang="grc">ΧΡΙΣΤΟΣ</span></span>) which has 8 letters, these <a href="/wiki/Father_of_the_Church" class="mw-redirect" title="Father of the Church">early fathers</a> calculate 888 ((10*8)*10)+((10*8)+8) which was a number already known to represent Jesus, being the sum of the value of the letters of the name "Jesus" (<span title="Ancient Greek (to 1453)-language text"><span lang="grc">ΙΗΣΟΥΣ</span></span>) (10+8+200+70+400+200).<sup id="cite_ref-Bagatti_14-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Bagatti-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 169–170">: 169–170 </span></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Other_Christian_symbols">Other Christian symbols</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Christian_symbolism&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Other Christian symbols"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="The_Good_Shepherd">The Good Shepherd</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Christian_symbolism&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: The Good Shepherd"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Good_shepherd_02b_close.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/ce/Good_shepherd_02b_close.jpg/220px-Good_shepherd_02b_close.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="311" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/c/ce/Good_shepherd_02b_close.jpg 1.5x" data-file-width="272" data-file-height="384" /></a><figcaption>A 3rd-century painting of the Good Shepherd in the <a href="/wiki/Catacomb_of_Callixtus" title="Catacomb of Callixtus">Catacomb of Callixtus</a> </figcaption></figure> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/The_Good_Shepherd_(Christianity)" class="mw-redirect" title="The Good Shepherd (Christianity)">Good Shepherd</a></div> <p>The image of the Good Shepherd, often with a sheep on his shoulders, is the most common of the symbolic <a href="/wiki/Depiction_of_Jesus" title="Depiction of Jesus">representations of Christ</a> found in the <a href="/wiki/Catacombs_of_Rome" title="Catacombs of Rome">Catacombs of Rome</a>, and it is related to the <a href="/wiki/Parable_of_the_Lost_Sheep" title="Parable of the Lost Sheep">Parable of the Lost Sheep</a>. Initially it was also understood as a symbol like others used in <a href="/wiki/Early_Christian_art" class="mw-redirect" title="Early Christian art">Early Christian art</a>. By about the 5th century the figure more often took on the appearance of the conventional depiction of Christ, as that convention had developed by this time, and was given a <a href="/wiki/Halo_(religious_iconography)" title="Halo (religious iconography)">halo</a> and rich robes<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (October 2023)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Dove">Dove</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Christian_symbolism&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Dove"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Rom,_Domitilla-Katakomben,_Steintafel_mit_Taube_und_%C3%96lzweig.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/35/Rom%2C_Domitilla-Katakomben%2C_Steintafel_mit_Taube_und_%C3%96lzweig.jpg/220px-Rom%2C_Domitilla-Katakomben%2C_Steintafel_mit_Taube_und_%C3%96lzweig.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="144" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/35/Rom%2C_Domitilla-Katakomben%2C_Steintafel_mit_Taube_und_%C3%96lzweig.jpg/330px-Rom%2C_Domitilla-Katakomben%2C_Steintafel_mit_Taube_und_%C3%96lzweig.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/35/Rom%2C_Domitilla-Katakomben%2C_Steintafel_mit_Taube_und_%C3%96lzweig.jpg/440px-Rom%2C_Domitilla-Katakomben%2C_Steintafel_mit_Taube_und_%C3%96lzweig.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2439" data-file-height="1593" /></a><figcaption>A dove with an olive branch, <a href="/wiki/Catacombs_of_Rome#Catacombs_of_Domitilla" title="Catacombs of Rome">Catacombs of Domitilla</a>, <a href="/wiki/Rome" title="Rome">Rome</a></figcaption></figure> <p>The <a href="/wiki/Dove" class="mw-redirect" title="Dove">dove</a> as a Christian symbol is of very frequent occurrence in ancient ecclesiastical art.<sup id="cite_ref-ces_dove_18-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ces_dove-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> According to <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.esv.org/Matthew+3:16">Matthew 3:16</a>, during the <a href="/wiki/Baptism_of_Jesus" title="Baptism of Jesus">Baptism of Jesus</a> the <a href="/wiki/Holy_Spirit_(Christianity)" class="mw-redirect" title="Holy Spirit (Christianity)">Holy Spirit</a> descended like a dove and came to rest on Jesus. For this reason the dove became a symbol of the Holy Spirit, and in general it occurs frequently in connection with early representations of baptism. It signifies also the Christian <a href="/wiki/Soul" title="Soul">soul</a>, not the human soul as such, but as indwelt by the Holy Spirit; especially, therefore, as freed from the toils of the flesh and entered into rest and glory.<sup id="cite_ref-ces_19-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ces-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The <a href="/wiki/Peristerium" title="Peristerium">Peristerium</a> or <i>Eucharistic dove</i> was often used in the past, and sometimes still appears in <a href="/wiki/Eastern_Christianity" title="Eastern Christianity">Eastern Christianity</a>, as <a href="/wiki/Church_tabernacle" title="Church tabernacle">Church tabernacle</a>. </p><p>However the more ancient explanation of the dove as a Christian symbol refers to it as a symbol of <a href="/wiki/Christ" class="mw-redirect" title="Christ">Christ</a> himself: <a href="/wiki/Irenaeus" title="Irenaeus">Irenaeus</a><sup id="cite_ref-20" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> in the 2nd century explains that the number 801 is both the <a href="/wiki/Numerology" title="Numerology">numerological</a> value of the sum in Greek of the letters of the word "dove" (Greek: <span title="Ancient Greek (to 1453)-language text"><span lang="grc">περιστερά</span></span>) and the sum of the values of the letters <a href="/wiki/Alpha_and_Omega" title="Alpha and Omega">Alpha and Omega</a>, which refer to Christ. In the Bible story of <a href="/wiki/Noah%27s_Ark" title="Noah's Ark">Noah and the Flood</a>, after the flood a dove returns to <a href="/wiki/Noah" title="Noah">Noah</a> bringing an <a href="/wiki/Olive_branch" title="Olive branch">olive branch</a> as a sign that the water had receded, and this scene recalled to the <a href="/wiki/Church_Father" class="mw-redirect" title="Church Father">Church Fathers</a> Christ who brings salvation through the cross. This biblical scene led to interpreting the dove also as a <a href="/wiki/Peace_symbols" title="Peace symbols">symbol of peace</a>. </p><p>The "wings of a dove", with associaions of wealth and good fortune, contrast with misfortune and shame.<sup id="cite_ref-21" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Peacock">Peacock</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Christian_symbolism&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Peacock"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Langobardic_-_Ciborium_Fragment_-_Walters_27563.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/11/Langobardic_-_Ciborium_Fragment_-_Walters_27563.jpg/220px-Langobardic_-_Ciborium_Fragment_-_Walters_27563.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="160" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/11/Langobardic_-_Ciborium_Fragment_-_Walters_27563.jpg/330px-Langobardic_-_Ciborium_Fragment_-_Walters_27563.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/11/Langobardic_-_Ciborium_Fragment_-_Walters_27563.jpg/440px-Langobardic_-_Ciborium_Fragment_-_Walters_27563.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1799" data-file-height="1305" /></a><figcaption>Two peacocks, symbolizing paradise and immortality, on a fragment from an eighth century <a href="/wiki/Ciborium_(architecture)" title="Ciborium (architecture)">ciborium</a> from a church in Italy</figcaption></figure> <p>Ancient Greeks believed that the flesh of <a href="/wiki/Peafowl" title="Peafowl">peafowl</a> did not decay after death, and so it became a symbol of <a href="/wiki/Immortality" title="Immortality">immortality</a>. Early Christianity adopted this symbolism, and thus many early Christian paintings and mosaics show the peacock. The peacock is still used in the Easter season – especially in the east.<sup id="cite_ref-22" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The "eyes" in the peacock's tail feathers symbolise the all-seeing God and – in some interpretations – the Church. A peacock drinking from a vase is used as a symbol of a Christian believer drinking from the waters of eternal life. The peacock can also symbolise the cosmos if one interprets its tail with its many "eyes" as the vault of heaven dotted by the sun, moon, and stars. By adoption of old Persian and Babylonian symbolism, in which the peacock was associated with Paradise and the Tree of Life, the bird is again associated with immortality. In Christian iconography, the peacock is often depicted next to the Tree of Life. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Pelican">Pelican</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Christian_symbolism&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: Pelican"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:USA_Massachusetts_Amherst_Pelican.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ea/USA_Massachusetts_Amherst_Pelican.jpg/220px-USA_Massachusetts_Amherst_Pelican.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="193" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ea/USA_Massachusetts_Amherst_Pelican.jpg/330px-USA_Massachusetts_Amherst_Pelican.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ea/USA_Massachusetts_Amherst_Pelican.jpg/440px-USA_Massachusetts_Amherst_Pelican.jpg 2x" data-file-width="584" data-file-height="511" /></a><figcaption>A pelican <a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/vuln#English" class="extiw" title="wikt:vuln">vulning</a> itself</figcaption></figure> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Pelican#Religious_symbolism_and_popular_culture" title="Pelican">Pelican</a></div> <p>In <a href="/wiki/Middle_Ages" title="Middle Ages">medieval</a> Europe, the <a href="/wiki/Pelican" title="Pelican">pelican</a> was thought to be particularly attentive to her young, to the point of providing her own blood by wounding her own breast when no other food was available. As a result, the pelican became a symbol of the <a href="/wiki/Passion_(Christianity)" class="mw-redirect" title="Passion (Christianity)">Passion</a> of <a href="/wiki/Jesus" title="Jesus">Jesus</a> and of the <a href="/wiki/Eucharist" title="Eucharist">Eucharist</a> from about the 12th century.<sup id="cite_ref-23" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Anchor">Anchor</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Christian_symbolism&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: Anchor"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Anchored_cross" title="Anchored cross">Anchored cross</a></div> <p>Christians adopted the <a href="/wiki/Anchor" title="Anchor">anchor</a> as a symbol of hope in future existence because the anchor was regarded in ancient times as a symbol of safety. For Christians, Christ is the unfailing hope of all who believe in him: <a href="/wiki/Saint_Peter" title="Saint Peter">Saint Peter</a>, <a href="/wiki/Paul_the_Apostle" title="Paul the Apostle">Saint Paul</a>, and several of the early <a href="/wiki/Church_Fathers" title="Church Fathers">Church Fathers</a> speak in this sense. The <a href="/wiki/Epistle_to_the_Hebrews" title="Epistle to the Hebrews">Epistle to the Hebrews</a> <a href="https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Bible_(King_James)/Hebrews#6:19" class="extiw" title="s:Bible (King James)/Hebrews">6:19–20</a> for the first time connects the idea of hope with the symbol of the anchor.<sup id="cite_ref-CEanchor_24-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-CEanchor-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>A fragment of inscription discovered in the <a href="/wiki/Catacombs_of_Domitilla" title="Catacombs of Domitilla">catacomb of St. Domitilla</a> contains the anchor; it dates from the end of the 1st century. During the 2nd and 3rd centuries the anchor occurs frequently in the epitaphs of the catacombs. The most common form of anchor found in early Christian images was that in which one extremity terminates in a ring adjoining the cross-bar while the other ends in two curved branches or an arrowhead; There are, however, many deviations from this form.<sup id="cite_ref-CEanchor_24-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-CEanchor-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In general the anchor can symbolize hope, steadfastness, calm and composure.<sup id="cite_ref-25" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Shamrock">Shamrock</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Christian_symbolism&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: Shamrock"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Kilbennan_St._Benin%27s_Church_Window_St._Patrick_Detail_2010_09_16.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/82/Kilbennan_St._Benin%27s_Church_Window_St._Patrick_Detail_2010_09_16.jpg/110px-Kilbennan_St._Benin%27s_Church_Window_St._Patrick_Detail_2010_09_16.jpg" decoding="async" width="110" height="161" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/82/Kilbennan_St._Benin%27s_Church_Window_St._Patrick_Detail_2010_09_16.jpg/165px-Kilbennan_St._Benin%27s_Church_Window_St._Patrick_Detail_2010_09_16.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/82/Kilbennan_St._Benin%27s_Church_Window_St._Patrick_Detail_2010_09_16.jpg/220px-Kilbennan_St._Benin%27s_Church_Window_St._Patrick_Detail_2010_09_16.jpg 2x" data-file-width="600" data-file-height="880" /></a><figcaption>St. Patrick with shamrock, from St. Benin's Church, Wicklow, Ireland</figcaption></figure> <p>Traditionally, the <a href="/wiki/Shamrock" title="Shamrock">shamrock</a> is said to have been used by <a href="/wiki/Saint_Patrick" title="Saint Patrick">Saint Patrick</a> to illustrate the Christian doctrine of the <a href="/wiki/Holy_Trinity" class="mw-redirect" title="Holy Trinity">Holy Trinity</a> when <a href="/wiki/Christianization" title="Christianization">Christianising</a> Ireland in the 5th century. The legend goes that St. Patrick used the shamrock – a <a href="/wiki/Clover" title="Clover">clover</a> with three leaflets, native to Ireland – to illustrate the <a href="/wiki/Tripartite_(theology)" title="Tripartite (theology)">tripartite</a> form of the Christian deity. Three parts on one plant to represent <a href="/wiki/God_the_Father" title="God the Father">God the Father</a>, <a href="/wiki/God_the_Son" title="God the Son">God the Son</a>, and <a href="/wiki/The_Holy_Ghost" class="mw-redirect" title="The Holy Ghost">The Holy Ghost</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-26" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div style="clear:both;" class=""></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Elemental_symbols">Elemental symbols</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Christian_symbolism&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: Elemental symbols"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The <a href="/wiki/Early_Church" class="mw-redirect" title="Early Church">early Church</a> made wide use of <a href="/wiki/Classical_elements" class="mw-redirect" title="Classical elements">elemental</a> symbols. <a href="/wiki/Water_(classical_element)" title="Water (classical element)"> Water</a> has specific symbolic significance for Christians. Outside of baptism, water may represent cleansing or purity. <a href="/wiki/Fire_(classical_element)" title="Fire (classical element)"> Fire</a>, especially in the form of a candle flame, represents both the <a href="/wiki/Holy_Spirit" title="Holy Spirit">Holy Spirit</a> and light. These symbols derive from the <a href="/wiki/Bible" title="Bible">Bible</a>; for example from the <i>tongues of fire</i><sup id="cite_ref-27" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> that symbolized the Holy Spirit at <a href="/wiki/Pentecost" title="Pentecost">Pentecost</a>, and from Jesus' description of his followers as <i>the light of the world</i>;<sup id="cite_ref-28" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> or <i>God is a consuming fire</i> found in <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://bible.oremus.org/?passage=Hebrews%2012&version=nrsv">Hebrews 12</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-soc_29-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-soc-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Compare <a href="/wiki/Jewish_symbolism" title="Jewish symbolism">Jewish symbolism</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Lily_crucifix">Lily crucifix</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Christian_symbolism&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: Lily crucifix"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Lily_Crucifix_at_Holy_Trinity_Church,_Long_Melford.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/01/Lily_Crucifix_at_Holy_Trinity_Church%2C_Long_Melford.jpg/220px-Lily_Crucifix_at_Holy_Trinity_Church%2C_Long_Melford.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="295" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/01/Lily_Crucifix_at_Holy_Trinity_Church%2C_Long_Melford.jpg/330px-Lily_Crucifix_at_Holy_Trinity_Church%2C_Long_Melford.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/01/Lily_Crucifix_at_Holy_Trinity_Church%2C_Long_Melford.jpg/440px-Lily_Crucifix_at_Holy_Trinity_Church%2C_Long_Melford.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1936" data-file-height="2592" /></a><figcaption>Lily Crucifix at <a href="/wiki/Holy_Trinity_Church,_Long_Melford" title="Holy Trinity Church, Long Melford">Holy Trinity Church, Long Melford</a>, Suffolk</figcaption></figure><figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Trinidad-Anglican-Episcopal-Coat-of-Arms.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/90/Trinidad-Anglican-Episcopal-Coat-of-Arms.svg/220px-Trinidad-Anglican-Episcopal-Coat-of-Arms.svg.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="264" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/90/Trinidad-Anglican-Episcopal-Coat-of-Arms.svg/330px-Trinidad-Anglican-Episcopal-Coat-of-Arms.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/90/Trinidad-Anglican-Episcopal-Coat-of-Arms.svg/440px-Trinidad-Anglican-Episcopal-Coat-of-Arms.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="500" data-file-height="600" /></a><figcaption>The coat of arms of the Anglican diocese of Trinidad contains several Christian visual symbols.</figcaption></figure> <p>A lily crucifix is a rare symbol of <a href="/wiki/Anglican" class="mw-redirect" title="Anglican">Anglican</a> churches in England. It depicts Christ crucified on a <a href="/wiki/Lily" class="mw-redirect" title="Lily">lily</a>, or holding such a plant. The symbolism may derive from the medieval belief that the Annunciation of Christ and his crucifixion occurred on the same day of the year, March 25.<sup id="cite_ref-30" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> (The lily, in the context of the Annunciation, emphasises the purity of <a href="/wiki/Mary,_mother_of_Jesus" title="Mary, mother of Jesus">the Virgin Mary</a>.) </p><p>The rare depictions of a lily crucifix in England include most notably a painting on a wall above the side altar at <a href="/wiki/All_Saints%27_Church,_Godshill" title="All Saints' Church, Godshill">All Saints' Church</a>, <a href="/wiki/Godshill" title="Godshill">Godshill</a>, <a href="/wiki/Isle_of_Wight" title="Isle of Wight">Isle of Wight</a>. Other examples include: </p> <ul><li>An alabaster example on a tomb in <a href="/wiki/St_Mary%27s_Church,_Nottingham" title="St Mary's Church, Nottingham">St Mary's Church, Nottingham</a></li> <li>A wall painting in the <a href="/wiki/Lady_chapel" title="Lady chapel">Lady Chapel</a> of <a href="/wiki/Helena_(Empress)" class="mw-redirect" title="Helena (Empress)">St Helen</a>'s, <a href="/wiki/Abingdon,_Oxfordshire" class="mw-redirect" title="Abingdon, Oxfordshire">Abingdon, Oxfordshire</a></li> <li>Five examples in glass as at <a href="/wiki/Holy_Trinity_Church,_Long_Melford" title="Holy Trinity Church, Long Melford">Holy Trinity Church, Long Melford</a></li> <li>An image on the base of a <a href="/wiki/Baptismal_font" title="Baptismal font">font</a> at All Saints, <a href="/wiki/Great_Glemham" title="Great Glemham">Great Glemham</a>, <a href="/wiki/Suffolk" title="Suffolk">Suffolk</a></li> <li>A possible lily crucifix in a bench end at St Mary, <a href="/wiki/Binham" title="Binham">Binham</a>, <a href="/wiki/Norfolk" title="Norfolk">Norfolk</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Choir_stall" class="mw-redirect" title="Choir stall">Choir stall</a> No. 8 in <a href="/wiki/St_Bartholomew%27s_Church,_Tong" title="St Bartholomew's Church, Tong">St Bartholomew's Church</a> in <a href="/wiki/Tong,_Shropshire" title="Tong, Shropshire">Tong, Shropshire</a></li> <li>The <a href="/wiki/Church_of_St_John_the_Baptist,_Wellington" title="Church of St John the Baptist, Wellington">Church of St John the Baptist, Wellington</a> includes a lily crucifix in the carving of the centre <a href="/wiki/Mullion" title="Mullion">mullion</a> of the east window of the Lady chapel.<sup id="cite_ref-31" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>A miniature in the <a href="/wiki/Llanbeblig_Book_of_Hours" title="Llanbeblig Book of Hours">Llanbeblig Book of Hours</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Tomb_paintings">Tomb paintings</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Christian_symbolism&action=edit&section=18" title="Edit section: Tomb paintings"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Christians from the very beginning adorned their <a href="/wiki/Catacombs" title="Catacombs">catacombs</a> with paintings of Christ, of the saints, of scenes from the Bible and allegorical groups. The catacombs are the cradle of all Christian art.<sup id="cite_ref-ceimage_32-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ceimage-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Early Christians accepted the art of their time and used it, as well as a poor and persecuted community could, to express their religious ideas.<sup id="cite_ref-ceimage_32-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ceimage-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The use of deep, sometimes labyrinthine, catacombs for ritual burials are a product of the poverty of early Christian communities: the unusual, multileveled, burial chambers were, at surface-level, small plots of land used as entrances to the tiered catacombs below, by early Christians unable to afford large areas of land, nor the corresponding taxes sometimes levied on real estate, by regional authorities. </p><p>From the second half of the 1st century to the time of <a href="/wiki/Constantine_the_Great" title="Constantine the Great">Constantine the Great</a> they buried their dead and celebrated their rites in these underground chambers. The Christian tombs were ornamented with indifferent or symbolic designs p alms, peacocks, with the <a href="/wiki/Chi_Rho" title="Chi Rho">chi-rho</a> monogram, with bas-reliefs of Christ as the <a href="/wiki/The_Good_Shepherd_(Christianity)" class="mw-redirect" title="The Good Shepherd (Christianity)">Good Shepherd</a>, or seated between figures of saints, and sometimes with elaborate scenes from the New Testament.<sup id="cite_ref-ceimage_32-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ceimage-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Other Christian symbols include the <a href="/wiki/Dove" class="mw-redirect" title="Dove">dove</a> (symbolic of the Holy Spirit), the sacrificial lamb (symbolic of Christ's sacrifice), the <a href="/wiki/Vine" title="Vine">vine</a> (symbolizing the necessary connectedness of the Christian with Christ) and many others. These all derive from the writings found in the New Testament.<sup id="cite_ref-soc_29-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-soc-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Other decorations that were common included garlands, ribands, stars landscapes, which had symbolic meanings, as well.<sup id="cite_ref-ceimage_32-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ceimage-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Colours">Colours</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Christian_symbolism&action=edit&section=19" title="Edit section: Colours"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Liturgical_colours" title="Liturgical colours">Liturgical colours</a></div> <p>Different <a href="/wiki/Color" title="Color">colours</a> are used in Christian churches to symbolise the liturgical seasons. They are often of clerical vestments, frontals and altar hangings. There is some variation between denominations, but below is a general description: </p> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1184024115">.mw-parser-output .div-col{margin-top:0.3em;column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .div-col-small{font-size:90%}.mw-parser-output .div-col-rules{column-rule:1px solid #aaa}.mw-parser-output .div-col dl,.mw-parser-output .div-col ol,.mw-parser-output .div-col ul{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .div-col li,.mw-parser-output .div-col dd{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}</style><div class="div-col"> <ul><li><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r981673959">.mw-parser-output .legend{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .legend-color{display:inline-block;min-width:1.25em;height:1.25em;line-height:1.25;margin:1px 0;text-align:center;border:1px solid black;background-color:transparent;color:black}.mw-parser-output .legend-text{}</style><span class="legend-color mw-no-invert" style="background-color:#FFFFFF; color:black;border:1px solid darkgray;"> </span> <a href="/wiki/White" title="White">White</a> – Used at festivals such as <a href="/wiki/Christmas" title="Christmas">Christmas</a>, <a href="/wiki/Easter" title="Easter">Easter</a>, <a href="/wiki/Corpus_Christi_(feast)" class="mw-redirect" title="Corpus Christi (feast)">Corpus Christi</a>; also for the feasts of St Mary and saints who were not martyrs.</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r981673959"><span class="legend-color mw-no-invert" style="background-color:#fb0b0c; color:black;border:1px solid darkgray;"> </span> <a href="/wiki/Red" title="Red">Red</a> – Used for <a href="/wiki/Pentecost" title="Pentecost">Pentecost</a>, <a href="/wiki/Palm_Sunday" title="Palm Sunday">Palm Sunday</a>, <a href="/wiki/Feast_of_the_Cross" title="Feast of the Cross">Holy Cross Day</a>, the Precious Blood, and feasts of saints who were martyred.</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r981673959"><span class="legend-color mw-no-invert" style="background-color:#008142; color:white;border:1px solid darkgray;"> </span> <a href="/wiki/Green" title="Green">Green</a> – Used for 'ordinary' Sundays, in the periods after <a href="/wiki/Pentecost" title="Pentecost">Pentecost</a> or <a href="/wiki/Trinity_Sunday" title="Trinity Sunday">Trinity</a> and after <a href="/wiki/Epiphany_(holiday)" title="Epiphany (holiday)">Epiphany</a>.</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r981673959"><span class="legend-color mw-no-invert" style="background-color:#70147a; color:white;border:1px solid darkgray;"> </span> <a href="/wiki/Purple" title="Purple">Purple</a> – Used in <a href="/wiki/Advent" title="Advent">Advent</a> and <a href="/wiki/Lent" title="Lent">Lent</a>. In many churches Lent is marked by unbleached linen to suggest penitence.</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r981673959"><span class="legend-color mw-no-invert" style="background-color:#0087dc; color:black;border:1px solid darkgray;"> </span> <a href="/wiki/Blue" title="Blue">Blue</a> – The colour of St Mary.</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r981673959"><span class="legend-color mw-no-invert" style="background-color:#000000; color:white;border:1px solid darkgray;"> </span> <a href="/wiki/Black" title="Black">Black</a> – For funerals and requiems.</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r981673959"><span class="legend-color mw-no-invert" style="background-color:#ffff00; color:black;border:1px solid darkgray;"> </span> <a href="/wiki/Yellow" title="Yellow">Yellow</a> – Regarded as the colour of jealousy and treason; hence <a href="/wiki/Judas_Iscariot" title="Judas Iscariot">Judas Iscariot</a> is shown in yellow robes.</li></ul> </div><p><sup id="cite_ref-33" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Symbols_of_Christian_Churches">Symbols of Christian Churches</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Christian_symbolism&action=edit&section=20" title="Edit section: Symbols of Christian Churches"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Baptism_-_Marcellinus_and_Peter.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/69/Baptism_-_Marcellinus_and_Peter.jpg/220px-Baptism_-_Marcellinus_and_Peter.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="349" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/69/Baptism_-_Marcellinus_and_Peter.jpg 1.5x" data-file-width="250" data-file-height="397" /></a><figcaption>Baptism in early Christian art</figcaption></figure> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Sacraments">Sacraments</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Christian_symbolism&action=edit&section=21" title="Edit section: Sacraments"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Some of the oldest symbols within the <a href="/wiki/Christian_Church" title="Christian Church">Christian Church</a> are the <a href="/wiki/Sacraments" class="mw-redirect" title="Sacraments">sacraments</a>, the number of which vary between denominations. Always included are <a href="/wiki/Eucharist" title="Eucharist">Eucharist</a> and <a href="/wiki/Baptism" title="Baptism">baptism</a>. The others which may or may not be included are <a href="/wiki/Ordination" title="Ordination">ordination</a>, <a href="/wiki/Anointing_of_the_Sick" class="mw-redirect" title="Anointing of the Sick">unction</a>, <a href="/wiki/Confirmation" title="Confirmation">confirmation</a>, <a href="/wiki/Penance" title="Penance">penance</a> and <a href="/wiki/Christian_views_of_marriage" class="mw-redirect" title="Christian views of marriage">marriage</a>. They are together commonly described as <i>an outward and visible sign of an inward and spiritual grace</i> or, as in Catholic theology, "outward signs and media of grace."<sup id="cite_ref-ce_34-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ce-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The rite is seen as a symbol of the spiritual change or event that takes place. In the Eucharist, the bread and wine are symbolic of the body and shed blood of <a href="/wiki/Jesus" title="Jesus">Jesus</a>, and in Catholic theology, become the <i>actual</i> <a href="/wiki/Body_of_Christ" title="Body of Christ">Body of Christ</a> and <a href="/wiki/Blood_of_Christ" title="Blood of Christ">Blood of Christ</a> through <a href="/wiki/Transubstantiation" title="Transubstantiation">Transubstantiation</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-ce_34-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ce-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The rite of baptism is symbolic of the cleansing of the sinner by God, and, especially where baptism is by immersion, of the spiritual death and resurrection of the baptized person. Opinion differs as to the symbolic nature of the sacraments, with some <a href="/wiki/Protestant" class="mw-redirect" title="Protestant">Protestant</a> denominations considering them entirely symbolic, and <a href="/wiki/Catholic_Church" title="Catholic Church">Catholics</a>, Orthodox, Lutherans, and some Reformed Christians believing that the outward rites truly do, by the power of God, act as media of grace.<sup id="cite_ref-ce_34-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ce-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Icons">Icons</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Christian_symbolism&action=edit&section=22" title="Edit section: Icons"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The tomb paintings of the early Christians led to the development of <a href="/wiki/Icon" title="Icon">icons</a>. An icon is an image, picture, or representation; it is likeness that has symbolic meaning for an object by signifying or representing it, or by analogy, as in <a href="/wiki/Semiotics" title="Semiotics">semiotics</a>. The use of icons, however, was never without opposition. It was recorded that, "there is no century between the fourth and the eighth in which there is not some evidence of opposition to images even within the Church.<sup id="cite_ref-35" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources"><span title="This citation requires a reference to the specific page or range of pages in which the material appears. (August 2015)">page needed</span></a></i>]</sup> Nonetheless, popular favor for icons guaranteed their continued existence, while no systematic apologia for or against icons, or doctrinal authorization or condemnation of icons yet existed. </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Kristus_a_svat%C3%BD_Menas.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/59/Kristus_a_svat%C3%BD_Menas.jpg/220px-Kristus_a_svat%C3%BD_Menas.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="234" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/59/Kristus_a_svat%C3%BD_Menas.jpg/330px-Kristus_a_svat%C3%BD_Menas.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/59/Kristus_a_svat%C3%BD_Menas.jpg/440px-Kristus_a_svat%C3%BD_Menas.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2480" data-file-height="2636" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Icon_of_Christ_and_Abbot_Mena" title="Icon of Christ and Abbot Mena">Christ and Saint Menas</a>, 6th-century Coptic icon, Louvre</figcaption></figure> <p>Though significant in the history of religious doctrine, the Byzantine controversy over images is not seen as of primary importance in Byzantine history. "Few historians still hold it to have been the greatest issue of the period..."<sup id="cite_ref-36" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources"><span title="This citation requires a reference to the specific page or range of pages in which the material appears. (August 2015)">page needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p>The <a href="/wiki/Byzantine_Iconoclasm" title="Byzantine Iconoclasm">Byzantine Iconoclasm</a> began when images were banned by Emperor <a href="/wiki/Leo_III_the_Isaurian" title="Leo III the Isaurian">Leo III the Isaurian</a> sometime between 726 and 730. Under his son <a href="/wiki/Constantine_V" title="Constantine V">Constantine V</a>, <a href="/wiki/Council_of_Hieria" title="Council of Hieria">a council forbidding image veneration was held at Hieria</a> near Constantinople in 754. Image veneration was later reinstated by the <a href="/wiki/Irene_(empress)" class="mw-redirect" title="Irene (empress)">Empress Regent Irene</a>, under whom another council was held reversing the decisions of the previous iconoclast council and taking its title as <a href="/wiki/Seventh_Ecumenical_Council" class="mw-redirect" title="Seventh Ecumenical Council">Seventh Ecumenical Council</a>. The council anathematized all who held to iconoclasm, i.e. those who held that veneration of images constitutes idolatry. Then the ban was enforced again by <a href="/wiki/Leo_V_the_Armenian" title="Leo V the Armenian">Leo V</a> in 815. And finally icon veneration was decisively restored by <a href="/wiki/Theodora_(9th_century)" class="mw-redirect" title="Theodora (9th century)">Empress Regent Theodora</a>. </p><p>Today icons are used particularly among <a href="/wiki/Eastern_Orthodox_Church" title="Eastern Orthodox Church">Eastern Orthodox</a>, <a href="/wiki/Oriental_Orthodoxy" class="mw-redirect" title="Oriental Orthodoxy">Oriental Orthodox</a>, <a href="/wiki/Church_of_the_East" title="Church of the East">Assyrian</a> and <a href="/wiki/Eastern_Catholic_Churches" title="Eastern Catholic Churches">Eastern Catholic Churches</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Domes">Domes</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Christian_symbolism&action=edit&section=23" title="Edit section: Domes"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Symbolism_of_domes#Christianity" title="Symbolism of domes">Symbolism of domes § Christianity</a></div> <p>The traditional mortuary symbolism of the dome led it to be used in Christian central-type <a href="/wiki/Martyrium_(architecture)" class="mw-redirect" title="Martyrium (architecture)">martyriums</a> in the <a href="/wiki/Syria" title="Syria">Syrian</a> area, the growing popularity of which spread the form. The spread and popularity of the cult of <a href="/wiki/Relic" title="Relic">relics</a> also transformed the domed central-type martyriums into the domed churches of mainstream Christianity.<sup id="cite_ref-37" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The use of centralized buildings for the burials of heroes was common by the time the <a href="/wiki/Church_of_the_Holy_Sepulchre" title="Church of the Holy Sepulchre">Anastasis Rotunda</a> was built in Jerusalem, but the use of centralized domed buildings to symbolize <a href="/wiki/Resurrection" title="Resurrection">resurrection</a> was a Christian innovation.<sup id="cite_ref-38" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In Italy in the 4th century, baptisteries began to be built like domed mausoleums and martyriums, which spread in the 5th century. This reinforced the theological emphasis on baptism as a re-experience of the death and <a href="/wiki/Resurrection_of_Jesus" title="Resurrection of Jesus">resurrection of Jesus Christ</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-39" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-39"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The octagon, which is transitional between the circle and the square, came to represent Jesus' resurrection in early Christianity and was used in the ground plans of martyriums and baptisteries for that reason. The domes themselves were sometimes octagonal, rather than circular.<sup id="cite_ref-40" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Nicholas Temple proposes the imperial reception hall as an additional source of influence on baptisteries, conveying the idea of reception or redemptive passage to salvation. Iconography of assembled figures and the throne of Christ would also relate to this.<sup id="cite_ref-41" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-41"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>41<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Portraits of <a href="/wiki/Christ" class="mw-redirect" title="Christ">Christ</a> began to replace gold crosses at the centers of church domes beginning in the late eighth century, which Charles Stewart suggests may have been an over-correction in favor of images after the periods of <a href="/wiki/Byzantine_Iconoclasm" title="Byzantine Iconoclasm">Iconoclasm</a> in the eighth and ninth centuries. One of the first was on the nave dome of <a href="/wiki/Hagia_Sophia,_Thessaloniki" title="Hagia Sophia, Thessaloniki">Hagia Sophia in Thessaloniki</a>, and this eventually developed into the bust image known as the <a href="/wiki/Christ_Pantocrator" title="Christ Pantocrator">Pantokrator</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-42" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-42"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>42<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Otto_Demus" title="Otto Demus">Otto Demus</a> writes that <a href="/wiki/Middle_Byzantium" class="mw-redirect" title="Middle Byzantium">Middle Byzantine</a> churches were decorated in a systematic manner and can be seen as having three zones of decoration, with the holiest at the top. This uppermost zone contained the dome, drum and apse. The dome was reserved for the Pantokrator (meaning "ruler of all"), the drum usually contained images of angels or prophets, and the apse semi-dome usually depicted the Virgin Mary, typically holding the Christ child and flanked by angels.<sup id="cite_ref-43" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-43"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>43<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Symbols_adopted_from_Judaism">Symbols adopted from Judaism</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Christian_symbolism&action=edit&section=24" title="Edit section: Symbols adopted from Judaism"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The influence of Judaism upon Christian symbolism as early as the 2nd and 3rd centuries CE, is apparent both in painting and in sculpture, the most frequent motives being those that occur in the <a href="/wiki/Mishnah" title="Mishnah">Mishnah</a> as formulas for prayer on fast-days. The prayer beginning with the words "Mi she-'anah", which was included in the <a href="/wiki/Selihah" class="mw-redirect" title="Selihah">selihah</a> at an early date, was adopted in the Christian ritual as the litany "Libera domine". This litany was figuratively used in a certain sequence as a symbol, for the <a href="/wiki/Binding_of_Isaac" title="Binding of Isaac">sacrifice</a> of <a href="/wiki/Isaac" title="Isaac">Isaac</a> was regarded as a symbol of the <a href="/wiki/Crucifixion" title="Crucifixion">crucifixion</a> of <a href="/wiki/Jesus" title="Jesus">Jesus</a>, since the early religions, and the act of sacrifice emblemized the death on the cross. </p><p>Abraham was represented as the symbol of the power of faith and Isaac as the sacrificed redeemer. The ascension of <a href="/wiki/Elijah" title="Elijah">Elijah</a> (english : Elia or Elias) was believed to typify the <a href="/wiki/Ascension_of_Jesus_Christ" class="mw-redirect" title="Ascension of Jesus Christ">ascension of Jesus Christ</a>, who was regarded by Christian symbolism as an analogue to Elijah, although this ascension was also taken as a type of the general <a href="/wiki/Resurrection" title="Resurrection">resurrection</a> from the dead. Job sitting among the ashes was the symbol of patience and of the power of resistance of the flesh; and <a href="/wiki/Hananiah,_Azariah,_and_Mishael" class="mw-redirect" title="Hananiah, Azariah, and Mishael">Hananiah</a>, <a href="/wiki/Meshach" class="mw-redirect" title="Meshach">Mishael</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Abednego" class="mw-redirect" title="Abednego">Azariah</a> in the fiery furnace typified steadfastness in persecution and faith in the aid of God. Christian <a href="/wiki/Sarcophagi" class="mw-redirect" title="Sarcophagi">sarcophagi</a> contained artistic representations of the fall of man, <a href="/wiki/Noah" title="Noah">Noah</a> and the ark, scenes from the life of <a href="/wiki/Moses" title="Moses">Moses</a> in three variations, <a href="/wiki/Joshua" title="Joshua">Joshua</a>, <a href="/wiki/David" title="David">David</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Daniel_(biblical_figure)" title="Daniel (biblical figure)">Daniel</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Christian_symbolism&action=edit&section=25" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239009302">.mw-parser-output .portalbox{padding:0;margin:0.5em 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class="mw-file-description"><img alt="icon" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/79/P_christianity.svg/31px-P_christianity.svg.png" decoding="async" width="31" height="28" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/79/P_christianity.svg/47px-P_christianity.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/79/P_christianity.svg/62px-P_christianity.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="400" data-file-height="360" /></a></span></span><span class="portalbox-link"><a href="/wiki/Portal:Christianity" title="Portal:Christianity">Christianity portal</a></span></li></ul> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1184024115"><div class="div-col" style="column-width: 35em;"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Arma_Christi" title="Arma Christi">Arma Christi</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bestiary" title="Bestiary">Bestiary</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christian_demonology" title="Christian demonology">Christian 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title="Nordic Cross flag">Nordic Cross flag</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peace_symbols" title="Peace symbols">Peace symbols</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religious_symbolism" class="mw-redirect" title="Religious symbolism">Religious symbolism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Saint_symbolism" title="Saint symbolism">Saint symbolism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sator_Square" title="Sator Square">Sator Square</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shield_of_the_Trinity" title="Shield of the Trinity">Shield of the Trinity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trefoil" title="Trefoil">Trefoil</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Triquetra" title="Triquetra">Triquetra</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Wordless_Book" title="Wordless Book">Wordless Book</a></i></li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Christian_symbolism&action=edit&section=26" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-1">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">"The cross as a Christian symbol or 'seal' came into use at least as early as the second century (see "Apost. Const." iii. 17; Epistle of Barnabas, xi.-xii.; Justin, "Apologia," i. 55–60; "Dial. cum Tryph." 85–97); and the marking of a cross upon the forehead and the chest was regarded as a talisman against the powers of demons (Tertullian, "De Corona," iii.; Cyprian, "Testimonies," xi. 21–22; Lactantius, "Divinæ Institutiones," iv. 27, and elsewhere). The Christian Fathers had to defend themselves, as early as the second century, against the charge of being worshipers of the cross, as may be learned from Tertullian, "Apologia," xii., xvii., and Minucius Felix, "Octavius," xxix. Christians used to swear by the power of the cross. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://jewishencyclopedia.com/view.jsp?artid=899&letter=C">CROSS:</a>, <a href="/wiki/Jewish_Encyclopaedia" class="mw-redirect" title="Jewish Encyclopaedia">Jewish Encyclopaedia</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-2">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">"Crosses, moreover, we neither worship nor wish for.1815 You, indeed, who consecrate gods of wood, adore wooden crosses perhaps as parts of your gods. For your very standards, as well as your banners; and flags of your camp, what else are they but crosses glided and adorned? Your victorious trophies not only imitate the appearance of a simple cross, but also that of a man affixed to it. We assuredly see the sign of a cross,1816 naturally, in the ship when it is carried along with swelling sails, when it glides forward with expanded oars; and when the military yoke is lifted up, it is the sign of a cross; and when a man adores God with a pure mind, with hands outstretched. Thus the sign of the cross either is sustained by a natural reason, or your own religion is formed with respect to it." <i>Cruces etiam nec colimus, nec optamus. Vos plane qui ligneos deos consecratis, cruces ligneas, ut deorum vestrorum partes, forsitan adoratis. (0332B) Nam et signa ipsa et cantabra et vexilla castrorum, quid aliud quam inauratae cruces sunt et ornatae? Tropaea vestra victricia, non tantum simplicis crucis faciem, verum et affixi hominis imitantur. Signum sane crucis naturaliter visimus in navi, quum velis tumentibus vehitur, quum expansis palmulis labitur; et quum erigitur iugum, crucis signum est, et quum homo, porrectis manibus, Deum pura mente veneratur. Ita signo crucis aut ratio naturalis innititur, aut vestra religio formatur.</i> (<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.ccel.org/fathers2/ANF-04/anf04-34.htm#P5713_906729">Octavius of Minucius Felix</a>, chapter 29)</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-CA-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-CA_3-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.earlychristianwritings.com/text/clement-stromata-book6.html">Stromata, book VI, chapter XI</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-4">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.newadvent.org/fathers/0301.htm"><i>Apology</i>., chapter xvi.</a> Tertullian uses <i>crux</i> "cross", <i>palus</i> "pole" and <i>stipes</i> "stake" interchangeably for rhetoric effect: "Then, if any of you think we render superstitious adoration to the cross, in that adoration he is sharer with us. If you offer homage to a piece of wood at all, it matters little what it is like when the substance is the same: it is of no consequence the form, if you have the very body of the god. And yet how far does the Athenian Pallas differ from the stock of the cross, or the Pharian Ceres as she is put up uncarved to sale, a mere rough stake and piece of shapeless wood? Every stake fixed in an upright position is a portion of the cross; we render our adoration, if you will have it so, to a god entire and complete. We have shown before that your deities are derived from shapes modelled from the cross." <i>Sed et qui crucis nos religiosos putat, consecraneus noster erit. Cum lignum aliquod propitiatur, viderit habitus, dum materiae qualitas eadem sit; viderit forma, dum id ipsum dei corpus sit. Et tamen quanto distinguitur a crucis stipite Pallas Attica, et Ceres Pharia, quae sine effigie rudi palo et informi ligno prostat? Pars crucis est omne robur, quod erecta statione defigitur; nos, si forte, integrum et totum deum colimus. Diximus originem deorum vestrorum a plastis de cruce induci.</i></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-5">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">"At every forward step and movement, at every going in and out, when we put on our clothes and shoes, when we bathe, when we sit at table, when we light the lamps, on couch, on seat, in all the ordinary actions of daily life, we trace upon the forehead the sign" (<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.ccel.org/ccel/schaff/anf03.iv.vi.iii.html"><i>De Corona</i>, chapter 3</a>)</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-6"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-6">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">see: "Granite Objects in Kerala Churches", in <i>Glimpses of Nazraney Heritage</i>, George Menachery, SARAS, 2005; and "Thomas Christian Architecture", in George Menachery, ed. <i>The St. Thomas Christian Encyclopaedia of India</i>, Vol. 2, 1973</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-7"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-7">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="/wiki/Gertrud_Schiller" title="Gertrud Schiller">Schiller, Gertrud</a>, <i> Iconography of Christian Art</i>, Vol. II, 1972, 89–90, fig. 321.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-8"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-8">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Schiller, Gertrud, <i> Iconography of Christian Art</i>, Vol. II, 1972, 89–90, figs. 322–326.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-9"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-9">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.britannica.com/eb/article-9028045/crucifixion">Encyclopædia Britannica Online</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-10"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-10">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">M.-M. Davy, <i>Initiation à la Symbolique Romane</i>. Nouv. éd. Paris: Flammarion, 1977.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-cefish-11"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-cefish_11-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite id="CITEREFMaurice_Hassett1913" class="citation encyclopaedia cs1">Maurice Hassett (1913). <span class="cs1-ws-icon" title="s:Catholic Encyclopedia (1913)/Symbolism of the Fish"><a class="external text" href="https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Catholic_Encyclopedia_(1913)/Symbolism_of_the_Fish">"Symbolism of the Fish" </a></span>. In Herbermann, Charles (ed.). <i><a href="/wiki/Catholic_Encyclopedia" title="Catholic Encyclopedia">Catholic Encyclopedia</a></i>. New York: Robert Appleton Company.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Symbolism+of+the+Fish&rft.btitle=Catholic+Encyclopedia&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=Robert+Appleton+Company&rft.date=1913&rft.au=Maurice+Hassett&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChristian+symbolism" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-12"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-12">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAugustine" class="citation cs1"><a href="/wiki/Augustine" class="mw-redirect" title="Augustine">Augustine</a>. <span class="cs1-ws-icon" title="s:The City of God/Book XVIII/Chapter 23"><a class="external text" href="https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/The_City_of_God/Book_XVIII/Chapter_23"><i>The City of God</i> </a></span>. XVIII, 23 – via <a href="/wiki/Wikisource" title="Wikisource">Wikisource</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+City+of+God&rft.pages=XVIII%2C+23&rft.au=Augustine&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChristian+symbolism" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Hurtado-13"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Hurtado_13-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Hurtado_13-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHurtado2006" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Larry_W._Hurtado" class="mw-redirect" title="Larry W. Hurtado">Hurtado, Larry</a> (2006). "The Staurogram in Early Christian Manuscripts: the earliest visual reference to the crucified Jesus?". In Kraus, Thomas (ed.). <span class="id-lock-limited" title="Free access subject to limited trial, subscription normally required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/newtestamentmanu00krau_595"><i>New Testament Manuscripts</i></a></span>. Leiden: Brill. pp. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/newtestamentmanu00krau_595/page/n219">207</a>–26. <a href="/wiki/Hdl_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Hdl (identifier)">hdl</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://hdl.handle.net/1842%2F1204">1842/1204</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-90-04-14945-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-90-04-14945-8"><bdi>978-90-04-14945-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=The+Staurogram+in+Early+Christian+Manuscripts%3A+the+earliest+visual+reference+to+the+crucified+Jesus%3F&rft.btitle=New+Testament+Manuscripts&rft.place=Leiden&rft.pages=207-26&rft.pub=Brill&rft.date=2006&rft_id=info%3Ahdl%2F1842%2F1204&rft.isbn=978-90-04-14945-8&rft.aulast=Hurtado&rft.aufirst=Larry&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fnewtestamentmanu00krau_595&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChristian+symbolism" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Bagatti-14"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Bagatti_14-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Bagatti_14-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Bagatti_14-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBagatti1984" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Bellarmino_Bagatti" title="Bellarmino Bagatti">Bagatti, Bellarmino</a> (1984). <i>The Church from the Circumcision: History and Archaeology of the Judaeo-Christians</i>. Studium Biblicum Franciscanum, Collectio Minor, n.2. Jerusalem: Franciscan Print. Press. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/17529706">17529706</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Church+from+the+Circumcision%3A+History+and+Archaeology+of+the+Judaeo-Christians&rft.place=Jerusalem&rft.series=Studium+Biblicum+Franciscanum%2C+Collectio+Minor%2C+n.2&rft.pub=Franciscan+Print.+Press&rft.date=1984&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F17529706&rft.aulast=Bagatti&rft.aufirst=Bellarmino&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChristian+symbolism" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-15"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-15">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRedknap1991" class="citation book cs1">Redknap, Mark (1991). <i>The Christian Celts: treasures of late Celtic Wales</i>. Cardiff: National Museum of Wales. p. 61. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7200-0354-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-7200-0354-3"><bdi>978-0-7200-0354-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Christian+Celts%3A+treasures+of+late+Celtic+Wales&rft.place=Cardiff&rft.pages=61&rft.pub=National+Museum+of+Wales&rft.date=1991&rft.isbn=978-0-7200-0354-3&rft.aulast=Redknap&rft.aufirst=Mark&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChristian+symbolism" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-16"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-16">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHurtado2006" class="citation book cs1">Hurtado, Larry (2006). <span class="id-lock-limited" title="Free access subject to limited trial, subscription normally required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/earliestchristia00hurt"><i>The earliest Christian artifacts : manuscripts and Christian origins</i></a></span>. William B. Eerdmans Pub. Co. pp. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/earliestchristia00hurt/page/n128">114</a>–115. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8028-2895-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8028-2895-8"><bdi>978-0-8028-2895-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+earliest+Christian+artifacts+%3A+manuscripts+and+Christian+origins&rft.pages=114-115&rft.pub=William+B.+Eerdmans+Pub.+Co&rft.date=2006&rft.isbn=978-0-8028-2895-8&rft.aulast=Hurtado&rft.aufirst=Larry&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fearliestchristia00hurt&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChristian+symbolism" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-17"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-17">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Irenaeus, Adv Haer, 1.15.2</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-ces_dove-18"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-ces_dove_18-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFArthur_Barnes1913" class="citation encyclopaedia cs1">Arthur Barnes (1913). <span class="cs1-ws-icon" title="s:Catholic Encyclopedia (1913)/Dove"><a class="external text" href="https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Catholic_Encyclopedia_(1913)/Dove">"Dove" </a></span>. In Herbermann, Charles (ed.). <i><a href="/wiki/Catholic_Encyclopedia" title="Catholic Encyclopedia">Catholic Encyclopedia</a></i>. New York: Robert Appleton Company.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Dove&rft.btitle=Catholic+Encyclopedia&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=Robert+Appleton+Company&rft.date=1913&rft.au=Arthur+Barnes&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChristian+symbolism" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-ces-19"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-ces_19-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHerbert_Thurston1913" class="citation encyclopaedia cs1">Herbert Thurston (1913). <span class="cs1-ws-icon" title="s:Catholic Encyclopedia (1913)/Symbolism"><a class="external text" href="https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Catholic_Encyclopedia_(1913)/Symbolism">"Symbolism" </a></span>. In Herbermann, Charles (ed.). <i><a href="/wiki/Catholic_Encyclopedia" title="Catholic Encyclopedia">Catholic Encyclopedia</a></i>. New York: Robert Appleton Company.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Symbolism&rft.btitle=Catholic+Encyclopedia&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=Robert+Appleton+Company&rft.date=1913&rft.au=Herbert+Thurston&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChristian+symbolism" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-20"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-20">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Irenaeus, Adv Haer, 1.14.6</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-21"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-21">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://biblehub.com/commentaries/ellicott/psalms/68.htm">Commentary on Psalm 68:13</a> - "Though ye have lien among the pots, yet shall ye be as the wings of a dove covered with silver, and her feathers with yellow gold."</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-22"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-22">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">"Birds, symbolic." Peter and Linda Murray, Oxford Dictionary of Christian Art (2004).</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-23"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-23">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJenner2004" class="citation book cs1">Jenner, Henry (2004) [1910]. <i>Christian Symbolism</i>. Kessinger Publishing. p. 37.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Christian+Symbolism&rft.pages=37&rft.pub=Kessinger+Publishing&rft.date=2004&rft.aulast=Jenner&rft.aufirst=Henry&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChristian+symbolism" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-CEanchor-24"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-CEanchor_24-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-CEanchor_24-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMaurice_Hassett1913" class="citation encyclopaedia cs1">Maurice Hassett (1913). <span class="cs1-ws-icon" title="s:Catholic Encyclopedia (1913)/The Anchor (as Symbol)"><a class="external text" href="https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Catholic_Encyclopedia_(1913)/The_Anchor_(as_Symbol)">"The Anchor (as Symbol)" </a></span>. In Herbermann, Charles (ed.). <i><a href="/wiki/Catholic_Encyclopedia" title="Catholic Encyclopedia">Catholic Encyclopedia</a></i>. New York: Robert Appleton Company.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=The+Anchor+%28as+Symbol%29&rft.btitle=Catholic+Encyclopedia&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=Robert+Appleton+Company&rft.date=1913&rft.au=Maurice+Hassett&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChristian+symbolism" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-25"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-25">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKlöpping2012" class="citation book cs1">Klöpping, Laura (2012). <i>Customs, Habits and Symbols of the Protestant Religion</i>. GRIN Verlag. p. 5. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3-656-13453-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-3-656-13453-4"><bdi>978-3-656-13453-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Customs%2C+Habits+and+Symbols+of+the+Protestant+Religion&rft.pages=5&rft.pub=GRIN+Verlag&rft.date=2012&rft.isbn=978-3-656-13453-4&rft.aulast=Kl%C3%B6pping&rft.aufirst=Laura&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChristian+symbolism" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-26"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-26">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFThrelkeld1726" class="citation book cs1">Threlkeld, Caleb (1726). <i>Synopsis Stirpium Hibernicarum .....Dispositarum sive Commentatio de Plantis Indigenis praesertim Dublinensibus instituta</i>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Synopsis+Stirpium+Hibernicarum+.....Dispositarum+sive+Commentatio+de+Plantis+Indigenis+praesertim+Dublinensibus+instituta&rft.date=1726&rft.aulast=Threlkeld&rft.aufirst=Caleb&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChristian+symbolism" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-27"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-27">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Bible_(King_James)/Acts#2:3" class="extiw" title="s:Bible (King James)/Acts">Acts 2:3</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-28"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-28">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Bible_(King_James)/Matthew#5:14" class="extiw" title="s:Bible (King James)/Matthew">Matthew 5:14</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-soc-29"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-soc_29-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-soc_29-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"> Dilasser, Maurice. <i>The Symbols of the Church</i> (1999). Collegeville, MN: Liturgical Press, hardcover: <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-8146-2538-X" title="Special:BookSources/0-8146-2538-X">0-8146-2538-X</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-30"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-30">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHarries2019" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Richard_Harries,_Baron_Harries_of_Pentregarth" title="Richard Harries, Baron Harries of Pentregarth">Harries, Richard</a> (23 July 2019) [2004]. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=ZwTFDwAAQBAJ"><i>The Passion in Art</i></a>. Routledge Studies in Theology, Imagination and the Arts. London: Routledge. p. 77. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781351884426" title="Special:BookSources/9781351884426"><bdi>9781351884426</bdi></a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">23 February</span> 2022</span>. <q>During the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries, there developed in Europe a most unusual, haunting and beautiful depiction of the Crucifixion: Christ is shown crucified, not on a Cross, but on a lily. The origin of this idea lies in the biblical conviction that Jesus was descended from Jesse, the father of King David. [...]This idea received pictorial form in 'The Tree of Jesse' Jesse is depicted lying on the ground, and from his chest grows a branching tree or vine. On the branches are shown the descendents of Jesse, kings and prophets, up to Jesus. [...] The tree of Jesse seems to have originated in the middle of the eleventh century in France. Sometimes, on the apex of this tree is a lily and hanging on the flowers is Christ crucified.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Passion+in+Art&rft.place=London&rft.series=Routledge+Studies+in+Theology%2C+Imagination+and+the+Arts&rft.pages=77&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=2019-07-23&rft.isbn=9781351884426&rft.aulast=Harries&rft.aufirst=Richard&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DZwTFDwAAQBAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChristian+symbolism" class="Z3988"></span> </span> </li> <li id="cite_note-31"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-31">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.wellingtonteamchurches.org.uk/wellingtonChurch.html">"St John the Baptist, Wellington"</a>. Wellington and District Team Ministry<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">1 September</span> 2011</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=St+John+the+Baptist%2C+Wellington&rft.pub=Wellington+and+District+Team+Ministry&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.wellingtonteamchurches.org.uk%2FwellingtonChurch.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChristian+symbolism" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-ceimage-32"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-ceimage_32-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-ceimage_32-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-ceimage_32-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-ceimage_32-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFortescue1912" class="citation encyclopaedia cs1">Fortescue, Adrian (1912). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/07664a.htm">"Veneration of Images"</a>. <i>Catholic Encyclopedia</i>. Robert Appleton Company<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2007-11-26</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Veneration+of+Images&rft.btitle=Catholic+Encyclopedia&rft.pub=Robert+Appleton+Company&rft.date=1912&rft.aulast=Fortescue&rft.aufirst=Adrian&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.newadvent.org%2Fcathen%2F07664a.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChristian+symbolism" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-33"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-33">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation book cs1"><i>Treasures of Britain and Treasures of Ireland</i> (1976 ed.). Drive Publications Limited. p. 679.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Treasures+of+Britain+and+Treasures+of+Ireland&rft.pages=679&rft.edition=1976&rft.pub=Drive+Publications+Limited&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChristian+symbolism" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-ce-34"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-ce_34-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-ce_34-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-ce_34-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKennedy1912" class="citation encyclopaedia cs1">Kennedy, D.J (1912). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/13295a.htm#IV">"Sacraments"</a>. <i>Catholic Encyclopedia</i>. Robert Appleton Company<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2007-11-26</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Sacraments&rft.btitle=Catholic+Encyclopedia&rft.pub=Robert+Appleton+Company&rft.date=1912&rft.aulast=Kennedy&rft.aufirst=D.J&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.newadvent.org%2Fcathen%2F13295a.htm%23IV&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChristian+symbolism" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-35"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-35">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKitzinger1954" class="citation cs2">Kitzinger, Ernst (1954), <i>The Cult of Images in the Age before Iconoclasm</i>, Dumbarton Oaks</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Cult+of+Images+in+the+Age+before+Iconoclasm&rft.place=Dumbarton+Oaks&rft.date=1954&rft.aulast=Kitzinger&rft.aufirst=Ernst&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChristian+symbolism" class="Z3988"></span><span class="cs1-maint citation-comment"><code class="cs1-code">{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Citation" title="Template:Citation">citation</a>}}</code>: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (<a href="/wiki/Category:CS1_maint:_location_missing_publisher" title="Category:CS1 maint: location missing publisher">link</a>)</span>, quoted by <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJaroslav1974" class="citation cs2">Jaroslav, Pelikan (1974), <i>The Spirit of Eastern Christendom 600–1700</i>, University of Chicago Press</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Spirit+of+Eastern+Christendom+600%E2%80%931700&rft.pub=University+of+Chicago+Press&rft.date=1974&rft.aulast=Jaroslav&rft.aufirst=Pelikan&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChristian+symbolism" class="Z3988"></span>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-36"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-36">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKarlin-Hayter2002" class="citation cs2">Karlin-Hayter, Patricia (2002), <i>Oxford History of Byzantium</i>, Oxford University Press</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Oxford+History+of+Byzantium&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2002&rft.aulast=Karlin-Hayter&rft.aufirst=Patricia&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChristian+symbolism" class="Z3988"></span>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-37"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-37">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSmith1950" class="citation cs2">Smith, Earl Baldwin (1950), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=YXJ42i1ZWjkC"><i>The Dome: A Study in the History of Ideas</i></a>, Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, pp. 53–56, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-691-03875-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-691-03875-9"><bdi>978-0-691-03875-9</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Dome%3A+A+Study+in+the+History+of+Ideas&rft.place=Princeton%2C+NJ&rft.pages=53-56&rft.pub=Princeton+University+Press&rft.date=1950&rft.isbn=978-0-691-03875-9&rft.aulast=Smith&rft.aufirst=Earl+Baldwin&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DYXJ42i1ZWjkC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChristian+symbolism" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-38"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-38">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFTemple2002" class="citation cs2">Temple, Nicholas (May 2002), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://eprints.hud.ac.uk/id/eprint/15132/">"Conversion and Political Expedience: Imperial Themes in the Early Christian Baptistery"</a>, <i>Anales del Instituto de Investigaciones Estéticas</i>, <b>24</b> (80): 7, <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.22201%2Fiie.18703062e.2002.80.2105">10.22201/iie.18703062e.2002.80.2105</a></span></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Anales+del+Instituto+de+Investigaciones+Est%C3%A9ticas&rft.atitle=Conversion+and+Political+Expedience%3A+Imperial+Themes+in+the+Early+Christian+Baptistery&rft.volume=24&rft.issue=80&rft.pages=7&rft.date=2002-05&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.22201%2Fiie.18703062e.2002.80.2105&rft.aulast=Temple&rft.aufirst=Nicholas&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Feprints.hud.ac.uk%2Fid%2Feprint%2F15132%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChristian+symbolism" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-39"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-39">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSmith1950" class="citation cs2">Smith, Earl Baldwin (1950), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=YXJ42i1ZWjkC"><i>The Dome: A Study in the History of Ideas</i></a>, Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, pp. 53–56, 79, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-691-03875-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-691-03875-9"><bdi>978-0-691-03875-9</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Dome%3A+A+Study+in+the+History+of+Ideas&rft.place=Princeton%2C+NJ&rft.pages=53-56%2C+79&rft.pub=Princeton+University+Press&rft.date=1950&rft.isbn=978-0-691-03875-9&rft.aulast=Smith&rft.aufirst=Earl+Baldwin&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DYXJ42i1ZWjkC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChristian+symbolism" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-40"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-40">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGrupico2011" class="citation journal cs1">Grupico, Theresa (2011). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20141129024638/http://forumonpublicpolicy.com/vol2011no3/archive/grupico.pdf">"The Dome in Christian and Islamic Sacred Architecture"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. <i>The Forum on Public Policy</i>. <b>2011</b> (3): 8–9. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://forumonpublicpolicy.com/vol2011no3/archive/grupico.pdf">the original</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span> on November 29, 2014<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">November 16,</span> 2014</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Forum+on+Public+Policy&rft.atitle=The+Dome+in+Christian+and+Islamic+Sacred+Architecture&rft.volume=2011&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=8-9&rft.date=2011&rft.aulast=Grupico&rft.aufirst=Theresa&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fforumonpublicpolicy.com%2Fvol2011no3%2Farchive%2Fgrupico.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChristian+symbolism" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-41"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-41">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFTemple2002" class="citation cs2">Temple, Nicholas (May 2002), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://eprints.hud.ac.uk/id/eprint/15132/">"Conversion and Political Expedience: Imperial Themes in the Early Christian Baptistery"</a>, <i>Anales del Instituto de Investigaciones Estéticas</i>, <b>24</b> (80): 7–9, <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.22201%2Fiie.18703062e.2002.80.2105">10.22201/iie.18703062e.2002.80.2105</a></span></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Anales+del+Instituto+de+Investigaciones+Est%C3%A9ticas&rft.atitle=Conversion+and+Political+Expedience%3A+Imperial+Themes+in+the+Early+Christian+Baptistery&rft.volume=24&rft.issue=80&rft.pages=7-9&rft.date=2002-05&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.22201%2Fiie.18703062e.2002.80.2105&rft.aulast=Temple&rft.aufirst=Nicholas&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Feprints.hud.ac.uk%2Fid%2Feprint%2F15132%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChristian+symbolism" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-42"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-42">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFStewart2008" class="citation cs2">Stewart, Charles Anthony (2008), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=R6ux8tRBHq4C"><i>Domes of Heaven: The Domed Basilicas of Cyprus</i></a> (illustrated ed.), ProQuest LLC, pp. 174–175, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-549-75556-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-549-75556-2"><bdi>978-0-549-75556-2</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Domes+of+Heaven%3A+The+Domed+Basilicas+of+Cyprus&rft.pages=174-175&rft.edition=illustrated&rft.pub=ProQuest+LLC&rft.date=2008&rft.isbn=978-0-549-75556-2&rft.aulast=Stewart&rft.aufirst=Charles+Anthony&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DR6ux8tRBHq4C&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChristian+symbolism" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-43"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-43">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFOusterhout2008" class="citation cs2">Ousterhout, Robert G. (2008), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=OkypnZQ83ckC"><i>Master Builders of Byzantium</i></a> (paperback ed.), Philadelphia, PA: University of Pennsylvania Museum of Archaeology and Anthropology, p. 23, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-934536-03-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-934536-03-2"><bdi>978-1-934536-03-2</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Master+Builders+of+Byzantium&rft.place=Philadelphia%2C+PA&rft.pages=23&rft.edition=paperback&rft.pub=University+of+Pennsylvania+Museum+of+Archaeology+and+Anthropology&rft.date=2008&rft.isbn=978-1-934536-03-2&rft.aulast=Ousterhout&rft.aufirst=Robert+G.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DOkypnZQ83ckC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChristian+symbolism" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Christian_symbolism&action=edit&section=27" title="Edit section: External links"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1235681985">.mw-parser-output .side-box{margin:4px 0;box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #aaa;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em;background-color:var(--background-color-interactive-subtle,#f8f9fa);display:flow-root}.mw-parser-output .side-box-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{padding:0.25em 0.9em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-image{padding:2px 0 2px 0.9em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-imageright{padding:2px 0.9em 2px 0;text-align:center}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .side-box-flex{display:flex;align-items:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{flex:1;min-width:0}}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .side-box{width:238px}.mw-parser-output .side-box-right{clear:right;float:right;margin-left:1em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-left{margin-right:1em}}</style><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1237033735">@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox{display:none!important}}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox img[src*="Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg"]{background-color:white}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox img[src*="Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg"]{background-color:white}}</style><div class="side-box side-box-right plainlinks sistersitebox"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"> <div class="side-box-flex"> <div class="side-box-image"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/30px-Commons-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="30" height="40" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/45px-Commons-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/59px-Commons-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="1376" /></span></span></div> <div class="side-box-text plainlist">Wikimedia Commons has media related to <span style="font-weight: bold; font-style: italic;"><a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Christian_symbols" class="extiw" title="commons:Category:Christian symbols">Christian symbols</a></span>.</div></div> </div> <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20100715063737/http://www.planetgast.net/symbols">Symbols in Christian Art and Architecture</a> Comprehensive general listing.</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.christiansymbols.net">Christian Symbols Net</a> Very comprehensive site, complete with search engine.</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.gocek.org/christiansymbols/">Christian Symbols and Glossary</a> (keyword searchable, includes symbols of saints)</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.religionfacts.com/christianity/symbols.htm">ReligionFacts.com: Christian Symbols</a> Basic Christian symbols A to T, types of crosses, number symbolism and color symbolism.</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150821065517/http://www.ridingthebeast.com/articles/colors">Color Symbolism in The Bible</a> An in depth study on symbolic color occurrence in The Bible.</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20051026173201/http://www.kwu.edu/campuslife/woodcarvings.htm">Christian Symbol Wood Carvings</a> Forty symbols at Kansas Wesleyan University</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://catholic-resources.org/Art/Koch-ChristianSymbols.htm">Old Christian Symbols from book by Rudolf Koch</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20051022004442/http://www.goldclipart.com/products/crestsymbols.htm">Christian Symbols, Origins and Meanings</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://homepage.ntlworld.com/m.low1">Tree of Jesse Directory by Malcolm Low.</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20081012154246/http://homepage.ntlworld.com/m.low1">Archived</a> 2008-10-12 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150813222713/http://ezartsncrafts.com/christiansymbols.html">Chrismon Templates</a> Symbol outlines that can be used to create Christian themed projects</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20160318033820/http://lutheransonline.com/servlet/CpsServlet/dbpage%3Dcge%26gid%3D20052995655655607101111555%26pg%3D20053040942236960101111555">Christian Symbols and Variations of Crosses – Images and Meanings</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150730101825/https://www.preachingsymbols.com/">PreachingSymbols.com</a> Ways Christian Symbols are used in worship</li></ul> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236075235">.mw-parser-output .navbox{box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #a2a9b1;width:100%;clear:both;font-size:88%;text-align:center;padding:1px;margin:1em auto 0}.mw-parser-output .navbox .navbox{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .navbox+.navbox,.mw-parser-output .navbox+.navbox-styles+.navbox{margin-top:-1px}.mw-parser-output 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class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/History_of_Christianity" title="History of Christianity">History</a><br />(<a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_Christianity" title="Timeline of Christianity">timeline</a>)<br />(<a href="/wiki/Spread_of_Christianity" title="Spread of Christianity">spread</a>)</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Early_Christianity" title="Early Christianity">Early<br />Christianity</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Jesus" title="Jesus">Jesus</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Jesus_in_Christianity" title="Jesus in Christianity">in Christianity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nativity_of_Jesus" title="Nativity of 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title="Investiture Controversy">Investiture Controversy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crusades" title="Crusades">Crusades</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Catholic_Church_and_the_Age_of_Discovery" title="Catholic Church and the Age of Discovery">Age of Discovery</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Christianity_in_the_modern_era" title="Christianity in the modern era">Modern era</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Reformation" title="Reformation">Protestant Reformation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Counter-Reformation" title="Counter-Reformation">Catholic Reformation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thirty_Years%27_War" title="Thirty Years' War">Thirty Years' War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Age_of_Enlightenment" title="Age of Enlightenment">Enlightenment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dechristianization_of_France_during_the_French_Revolution" title="Dechristianization of France during the French Revolution">French Revolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christianity_and_Islam" title="Christianity and Islam">Relations with Islam</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Christian_influences_on_the_Islamic_world" title="Christian influences on the Islamic world">Influences</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Christian_denomination" title="Christian denomination">Denominations</a><br />(<a href="/wiki/List_of_Christian_denominations" title="List of Christian denominations">list</a>, <a href="/wiki/List_of_Christian_denominations_by_number_of_members" title="List of Christian denominations by number of members">members</a>)</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Western_Christianity" title="Western Christianity">Western</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Catholic_Church" title="Catholic Church">Catholic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Old_Catholic_Church" title="Old Catholic Church">Old Catholic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Independent_Catholicism" title="Independent Catholicism">Independent Catholic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Protestantism" title="Protestantism">Protestant</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Adventism" title="Adventism">Adventist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anabaptism" title="Anabaptism">Anabaptist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anglicanism" title="Anglicanism">Anglican</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Baptists" title="Baptists">Baptist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charismatic_Christianity" title="Charismatic Christianity">Charismatic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evangelicalism" title="Evangelicalism">Evangelical</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Holiness_movement" title="Holiness movement">Holiness</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lutheranism" title="Lutheranism">Lutheran</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Methodism" title="Methodism">Methodist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pentecostalism" title="Pentecostalism">Pentecostal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quakers" title="Quakers">Quakers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reformed_Christianity" title="Reformed Christianity">Reformed</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Western_Rite_Orthodoxy" title="Western Rite Orthodoxy">Western Rite Orthodoxy</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Eastern_Christianity" title="Eastern Christianity">Eastern</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Eastern_Orthodoxy" title="Eastern Orthodoxy">Eastern Orthodox</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Eastern_Orthodox_Church" title="Eastern Orthodox Church">Church</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oriental_Orthodox_Churches" title="Oriental Orthodox Churches">Oriental Orthodox (Miaphysite)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Church_of_the_East" title="Church of the East">Church of the East (Nestorian)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eastern_Catholic_Churches" title="Eastern Catholic Churches">Eastern Catholic</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Restorationism" title="Restorationism">Restorationist</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Jehovah%27s_Witnesses" title="Jehovah's Witnesses">Jehovah's Witnesses</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Latter_Day_Saint_movement" title="Latter Day Saint movement">Latter Day Saint movement</a></li> <li><span title="Tagalog-language text"><span lang="tl" style="font-style: normal;"><a href="/wiki/Iglesia_ni_Cristo" title="Iglesia ni Cristo">Iglesia ni Cristo</a></span></span></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Christian_theology" title="Christian theology">Theology</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/God_in_Christianity" title="God in Christianity">God</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Trinity" title="Trinity">Trinity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/God_the_Father" title="God the Father">Father</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Son_of_God_(Christianity)" title="Son of God (Christianity)">Son</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Holy_Spirit_in_Christianity" title="Holy Spirit in Christianity">Holy Spirit</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christology" title="Christology">Christology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nicene_Creed" title="Nicene Creed">Nicene Creed</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sacred_tradition" title="Sacred tradition">Tradition</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Original_sin" title="Original sin">Original sin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Salvation_in_Christianity" title="Salvation in Christianity">Salvation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Born_again" title="Born again">Born again</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christian_liturgy" title="Christian liturgy">Liturgy</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Catholic_liturgy" title="Catholic liturgy">Catholic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eastern_Catholic_liturgy" title="Eastern Catholic liturgy">Eastern Catholic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eastern_Orthodox_worship" title="Eastern Orthodox worship">Eastern Orthodox</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Protestant_liturgy" title="Protestant liturgy">Protestant</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christian_worship" title="Christian worship">Worship</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mariology" title="Mariology">Mariology</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Theotokos" title="Theotokos">Theotokos</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Saint" title="Saint">Saints</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Angels_in_Christianity" title="Angels in Christianity">Angel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecclesiology" title="Ecclesiology">Ecclesiology</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Four_Marks_of_the_Church" title="Four Marks of the Church">Four marks</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Body_of_Christ" title="Body of Christ">Body of Christ</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/One_true_church" title="One true church">One true church</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/People_of_God" title="People of God">People of God</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Canon_law" title="Canon law">Canon law</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sacrament" title="Sacrament">Sacraments</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Baptism" title="Baptism">Baptism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eucharist" title="Eucharist">Eucharist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christian_views_on_marriage" title="Christian views on marriage">Marriage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Confirmation" title="Confirmation">Confirmation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Penance" title="Penance">Penance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anointing_of_the_sick" title="Anointing of the sick">Anointing of the Sick</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Holy_orders" title="Holy orders">Holy orders</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christian_mission" title="Christian mission">Mission</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ablution_in_Christianity" title="Ablution in Christianity">Ablution</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hygiene_in_Christianity" title="Hygiene in Christianity">Hygiene</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Christian_philosophy" title="Christian philosophy">Philosophy</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Natural_law" title="Natural law">Natural law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christian_ethics" title="Christian ethics">Ethics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christianity_and_science" title="Christianity and science">Science</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Rejection_of_evolution_by_religious_groups" title="Rejection of evolution by religious groups">Evolution</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christianity_and_politics" title="Christianity and politics">Politics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christian_views_on_poverty_and_wealth" title="Christian views on poverty and wealth">Views on poverty and wealth</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Other<br />features</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Christian_culture" title="Christian culture">Culture</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Church_architecture" title="Church architecture">Architecture</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Architecture_of_cathedrals_and_great_churches" title="Architecture of cathedrals and great churches">Architecture of cathedrals and great churches</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christian_art" title="Christian art">Art</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Depiction_of_Jesus" title="Depiction of Jesus">Jesus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marian_art_in_the_Catholic_Church" title="Marian art in the Catholic Church">Mary</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Trinity_in_art" title="The Trinity in art">Trinity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/God_the_Father_in_Western_art" title="God the Father in Western art">God the Father</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Holy_Spirit_in_Christian_art" title="Holy Spirit in Christian art">Holy Spirit</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Catechesis" title="Catechesis">Education</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Catechism" title="Catechism">Catechism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christian_Flag" title="Christian Flag">Flag</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christian_literature" title="Christian literature">Literature</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christian_music" title="Christian music">Music</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christian_mythology" title="Christian mythology">Mythology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christian_pilgrimage" title="Christian pilgrimage">Pilgrimage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Popular_piety" title="Popular piety">Popular piety</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Church_(building)" title="Church (building)">Church buildings</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Lists_of_cathedrals" title="Lists of cathedrals">Cathedrals</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Role_of_Christianity_in_civilization" title="Role of Christianity in civilization">Role in civilization</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/List_of_Christian_movements" title="List of Christian movements">Movements</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Crusading_movement" title="Crusading movement">Crusading movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christian_anarchism" title="Christian anarchism">Anarchism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charismatic_movement" title="Charismatic movement">Charismatic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christian_democracy" title="Christian democracy">Democracy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christian_views_on_environmentalism" title="Christian views on environmentalism">Environmentalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christian_existentialism" title="Christian existentialism">Existentialism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christian_fundamentalism" title="Christian fundamentalism">Fundamentalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liberation_theology" title="Liberation theology">Liberation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christian_left" title="Christian left">Left</a>/<a href="/wiki/Christian_right" title="Christian right">Right</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christian_mysticism" title="Christian mysticism">Mysticism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christian_pacifism" title="Christian pacifism">Pacifism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prosperity_theology" title="Prosperity theology">Prosperity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Traditionalist_Catholicism" title="Traditionalist Catholicism">Traditionalist Catholicism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Cooperation</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Christendom" title="Christendom">Christendom</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecumenism" title="Ecumenism">Ecumenism</a> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Charta_Oecumenica" title="Charta Oecumenica">Charta Oecumenica</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/World_Council_of_Churches" title="World Council of Churches">World Council of Churches</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/World_Evangelical_Alliance" title="World Evangelical Alliance">World Evangelical Alliance</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nondenominational_Christianity" class="mw-redirect" title="Nondenominational Christianity">Nondenominationalism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Related</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Christian_sentiment" title="Anti-Christian sentiment">Anti-Christian sentiment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christian_universalism" title="Christian universalism">Christian universalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Criticism_of_Christianity" title="Criticism of Christianity">Criticism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cultural_Christians" title="Cultural Christians">Cultural Christians</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Persecution_of_Christians" title="Persecution of Christians">Persecution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christianity_and_other_religions" title="Christianity and other religions">Relations with other religions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Unlimited_atonement" title="Unlimited atonement">Unlimited atonement</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><span class="nowrap"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:P_christianity.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="icon" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/79/P_christianity.svg/16px-P_christianity.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="14" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/79/P_christianity.svg/24px-P_christianity.svg.png 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