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id="toc-Etymology" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Etymology"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.1</span> <span>Etymology</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Etymology-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Definitions" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Definitions"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.2</span> <span>Definitions</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Definitions-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Criticism_of_the_term" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Criticism_of_the_term"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.3</span> <span>Criticism of the term</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Criticism_of_the_term-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-History" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#History"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2</span> <span>History</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-History-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Beliefs" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Beliefs"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3</span> <span>Beliefs</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Beliefs-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Beliefs subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Beliefs-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Soul_and_spirit_concepts" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Soul_and_spirit_concepts"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.1</span> <span>Soul and spirit concepts</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Soul_and_spirit_concepts-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Practice" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Practice"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> <span>Practice</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Practice-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Practice subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Practice-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Music_and_songs" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Music_and_songs"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.1</span> <span>Music and songs</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Music_and_songs-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Initiation_and_learning" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Initiation_and_learning"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.2</span> <span>Initiation and learning</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Initiation_and_learning-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Other_practices" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Other_practices"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.3</span> <span>Other practices</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Other_practices-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Items_used_in_spiritual_practice" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Items_used_in_spiritual_practice"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.4</span> <span>Items used in spiritual practice</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Items_used_in_spiritual_practice-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Roles" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Roles"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>Roles</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Roles-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Ecological_aspect" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Ecological_aspect"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6</span> <span>Ecological aspect</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Ecological_aspect-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Economics" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Economics"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7</span> <span>Economics</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Economics-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Academic_study" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Academic_study"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8</span> <span>Academic study</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Academic_study-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Academic study subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Academic_study-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Cognitive_and_evolutionary_approaches" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Cognitive_and_evolutionary_approaches"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8.1</span> <span>Cognitive and evolutionary approaches</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Cognitive_and_evolutionary_approaches-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Ecological_approaches_and_systems_theory" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Ecological_approaches_and_systems_theory"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8.2</span> <span>Ecological approaches and systems theory</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Ecological_approaches_and_systems_theory-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Historical_origins" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Historical_origins"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8.3</span> <span>Historical origins</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Historical_origins-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Semiotic_and_hermeneutic_approaches" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Semiotic_and_hermeneutic_approaches"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8.4</span> <span>Semiotic and hermeneutic approaches</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Semiotic_and_hermeneutic_approaches-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Medical_anthropology_approaches" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Medical_anthropology_approaches"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8.5</span> <span>Medical anthropology approaches</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Medical_anthropology_approaches-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Decline_and_revitalization_and_tradition-preserving_movements" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Decline_and_revitalization_and_tradition-preserving_movements"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9</span> <span>Decline and revitalization and tradition-preserving movements</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Decline_and_revitalization_and_tradition-preserving_movements-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Regional_variations" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Regional_variations"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">10</span> <span>Regional variations</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Regional_variations-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">11</span> <span>See also</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">12</span> <span>References</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-References-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle References subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Citations" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Citations"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">12.1</span> <span>Citations</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Citations-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Sources" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Sources"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">12.2</span> <span>Sources</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Sources-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Further_reading" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Further_reading"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">13</span> <span>Further reading</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Further_reading-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">14</span> <span>External links</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-listBullet mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-listBullet"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Toggle the table of contents</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading"><span class="mw-page-title-main">Shamanism</span></h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. Available in 96 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-96" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-language-progressive mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-language-progressive"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">96 languages</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-af mw-list-item"><a href="https://af.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sjamanisme" title="Sjamanisme – Afrikaans" lang="af" hreflang="af" data-title="Sjamanisme" data-language-autonym="Afrikaans" data-language-local-name="Afrikaans" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Afrikaans</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B4%D8%A7%D9%85%D8%A7%D9%86%D9%8A%D8%A9" title="شامانية – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="شامانية" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>العربية</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ast mw-list-item"><a href="https://ast.wikipedia.org/wiki/Xamanismu" title="Xamanismu – Asturian" lang="ast" hreflang="ast" data-title="Xamanismu" data-language-autonym="Asturianu" data-language-local-name="Asturian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Asturianu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gn mw-list-item"><a href="https://gn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Avapaje" title="Avapaje – Guarani" lang="gn" hreflang="gn" data-title="Avapaje" data-language-autonym="Avañe'ẽ" data-language-local-name="Guarani" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Avañe'ẽ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-az mw-list-item"><a href="https://az.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C5%9Eamanizm" title="Şamanizm – Azerbaijani" lang="az" hreflang="az" data-title="Şamanizm" data-language-autonym="Azərbaycanca" data-language-local-name="Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Azərbaycanca</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-azb mw-list-item"><a href="https://azb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B4%D8%A7%D9%85%D8%A7%D9%86%DB%8C%D8%B2%D9%85" title="شامانیزم – South Azerbaijani" lang="azb" hreflang="azb" data-title="شامانیزم" data-language-autonym="تۆرکجه" data-language-local-name="South Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>تۆرکجه</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bn mw-list-item"><a href="https://bn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A6%93%E0%A6%9D%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%AC%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%A6" title="ওঝাবাদ – Bangla" lang="bn" hreflang="bn" data-title="ওঝাবাদ" data-language-autonym="বাংলা" data-language-local-name="Bangla" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>বাংলা</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-min-nan mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh-min-nan.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sat-bo%C3%A1n-k%C3%A0u" title="Sat-boán-kàu – Minnan" lang="nan" hreflang="nan" data-title="Sat-boán-kàu" data-language-autonym="閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gú" data-language-local-name="Minnan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gú</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ba mw-list-item"><a href="https://ba.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A8%D0%B0%D0%BC%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%BB%D1%8B%D2%A1" title="Шаманлыҡ – Bashkir" lang="ba" hreflang="ba" data-title="Шаманлыҡ" data-language-autonym="Башҡортса" data-language-local-name="Bashkir" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Башҡортса</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be mw-list-item"><a href="https://be.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A8%D0%B0%D0%BC%D0%B0%D0%BD%D1%96%D0%B7%D0%BC" title="Шаманізм – Belarusian" lang="be" hreflang="be" data-title="Шаманізм" data-language-autonym="Беларуская" data-language-local-name="Belarusian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Беларуская</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be-x-old mw-list-item"><a href="https://be-tarask.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A8%D0%B0%D0%BC%D0%B0%D0%BD%D1%96%D0%B7%D0%BC" title="Шаманізм – Belarusian (Taraškievica orthography)" lang="be-tarask" hreflang="be-tarask" data-title="Шаманізм" data-language-autonym="Беларуская (тарашкевіца)" data-language-local-name="Belarusian (Taraškievica orthography)" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Беларуская (тарашкевіца)</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bg mw-list-item"><a href="https://bg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A8%D0%B0%D0%BC%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%B8%D0%B7%D1%8A%D0%BC" title="Шаманизъм – Bulgarian" lang="bg" hreflang="bg" data-title="Шаманизъм" data-language-autonym="Български" data-language-local-name="Bulgarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Български</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Xamanisme" title="Xamanisme – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Xamanisme" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Català</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs mw-list-item"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C5%A0amanismus" title="Šamanismus – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="Šamanismus" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="Czech" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Čeština</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cy mw-list-item"><a href="https://cy.wikipedia.org/wiki/Siamanaeth" title="Siamanaeth – Welsh" lang="cy" hreflang="cy" data-title="Siamanaeth" data-language-autonym="Cymraeg" data-language-local-name="Welsh" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Cymraeg</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-da mw-list-item"><a href="https://da.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shamanisme" title="Shamanisme – Danish" lang="da" hreflang="da" data-title="Shamanisme" data-language-autonym="Dansk" data-language-local-name="Danish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Dansk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Schamanismus" title="Schamanismus – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Schamanismus" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Deutsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-et mw-list-item"><a href="https://et.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C5%A0amanism" title="Šamanism – Estonian" lang="et" hreflang="et" data-title="Šamanism" data-language-autonym="Eesti" data-language-local-name="Estonian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Eesti</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-el mw-list-item"><a href="https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%A3%CE%B1%CE%BC%CE%B1%CE%BD%CE%B9%CF%83%CE%BC%CF%8C%CF%82" title="Σαμανισμός – Greek" lang="el" hreflang="el" data-title="Σαμανισμός" data-language-autonym="Ελληνικά" data-language-local-name="Greek" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ελληνικά</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chamanismo" title="Chamanismo – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Chamanismo" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Español</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eo mw-list-item"><a href="https://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C5%9Camanismo" title="Ŝamanismo – Esperanto" lang="eo" hreflang="eo" data-title="Ŝamanismo" data-language-autonym="Esperanto" data-language-local-name="Esperanto" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Esperanto</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eu mw-list-item"><a href="https://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Xamanismo" title="Xamanismo – Basque" lang="eu" hreflang="eu" data-title="Xamanismo" data-language-autonym="Euskara" data-language-local-name="Basque" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Euskara</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B4%D9%85%D9%86%E2%80%8C%D8%A8%D8%A7%D9%88%D8%B1%DB%8C" title="شمن‌باوری – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="شمن‌باوری" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>فارسی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chamanisme" title="Chamanisme – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Chamanisme" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Français</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fy badge-Q17437798 badge-goodarticle mw-list-item" title="good article badge"><a href="https://fy.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sjamanisme" title="Sjamanisme – Western Frisian" lang="fy" hreflang="fy" data-title="Sjamanisme" data-language-autonym="Frysk" data-language-local-name="Western Frisian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Frysk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ga mw-list-item"><a href="https://ga.wikipedia.org/wiki/Seamanachas" title="Seamanachas – Irish" lang="ga" hreflang="ga" data-title="Seamanachas" data-language-autonym="Gaeilge" data-language-local-name="Irish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Gaeilge</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gl mw-list-item"><a href="https://gl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Xamanismo" title="Xamanismo – Galician" lang="gl" hreflang="gl" data-title="Xamanismo" data-language-autonym="Galego" data-language-local-name="Galician" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Galego</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EC%83%A4%EB%A8%B8%EB%8B%88%EC%A6%98" title="샤머니즘 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="샤머니즘" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>한국어</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hy mw-list-item"><a href="https://hy.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D5%87%D5%A1%D5%B4%D5%A1%D5%B6%D5%B8%D6%82%D5%A9%D5%B5%D5%B8%D6%82%D5%B6" title="Շամանություն – Armenian" lang="hy" hreflang="hy" data-title="Շամանություն" data-language-autonym="Հայերեն" data-language-local-name="Armenian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Հայերեն</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hi mw-list-item"><a href="https://hi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%93%E0%A4%9D%E0%A4%BE" title="ओझा – Hindi" lang="hi" hreflang="hi" data-title="ओझा" data-language-autonym="हिन्दी" data-language-local-name="Hindi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>हिन्दी</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hr mw-list-item"><a href="https://hr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C5%A0amanizam" title="Šamanizam – Croatian" lang="hr" hreflang="hr" data-title="Šamanizam" data-language-autonym="Hrvatski" data-language-local-name="Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Hrvatski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shamanisme" title="Shamanisme – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Shamanisme" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Indonesia</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-iu mw-list-item"><a href="https://iu.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%90%8A%E1%96%93%E1%92%83%E1%91%AF%E1%96%85" title="ᐊᖓᒃᑯᖅ – Inuktitut" lang="iu" hreflang="iu" data-title="ᐊᖓᒃᑯᖅ" data-language-autonym="ᐃᓄᒃᑎᑐᑦ / inuktitut" data-language-local-name="Inuktitut" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ᐃᓄᒃᑎᑐᑦ / inuktitut</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sciamanesimo" title="Sciamanesimo – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Sciamanesimo" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Italiano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he mw-list-item"><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%A9%D7%9E%D7%90%D7%A0%D7%99%D7%96%D7%9D" title="שמאניזם – Hebrew" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="שמאניזם" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="Hebrew" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>עברית</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ka mw-list-item"><a href="https://ka.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%A8%E1%83%90%E1%83%9B%E1%83%90%E1%83%9C%E1%83%98%E1%83%96%E1%83%9B%E1%83%98" title="შამანიზმი – Georgian" lang="ka" hreflang="ka" data-title="შამანიზმი" data-language-autonym="ქართული" data-language-local-name="Georgian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ქართული</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kk mw-list-item"><a href="https://kk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%91%D0%B0%D2%9B%D1%81%D1%8B%D0%BB%D1%8B%D2%9B" title="Бақсылық – Kazakh" lang="kk" hreflang="kk" data-title="Бақсылық" data-language-autonym="Қазақша" data-language-local-name="Kazakh" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Қазақша</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gcr mw-list-item"><a href="https://gcr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chamanism" title="Chamanism – Guianan Creole" lang="gcr" hreflang="gcr" data-title="Chamanism" data-language-autonym="Kriyòl gwiyannen" data-language-local-name="Guianan Creole" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Kriyòl gwiyannen</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ky mw-list-item"><a href="https://ky.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A8%D0%B0%D0%BC%D0%B0%D0%BD%D1%87%D1%8B%D0%BB%D1%8B%D0%BA" title="Шаманчылык – Kyrgyz" lang="ky" hreflang="ky" data-title="Шаманчылык" data-language-autonym="Кыргызча" data-language-local-name="Kyrgyz" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Кыргызча</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-la mw-list-item"><a href="https://la.wikipedia.org/wiki/Samanismus" title="Samanismus – Latin" lang="la" hreflang="la" data-title="Samanismus" data-language-autonym="Latina" data-language-local-name="Latin" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Latina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lv mw-list-item"><a href="https://lv.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C5%A0amanisms" title="Šamanisms – Latvian" lang="lv" hreflang="lv" data-title="Šamanisms" data-language-autonym="Latviešu" data-language-local-name="Latvian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Latviešu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lb mw-list-item"><a href="https://lb.wikipedia.org/wiki/Schamanismus" title="Schamanismus – Luxembourgish" lang="lb" hreflang="lb" data-title="Schamanismus" data-language-autonym="Lëtzebuergesch" data-language-local-name="Luxembourgish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Lëtzebuergesch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lt mw-list-item"><a href="https://lt.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C5%A0amanizmas" title="Šamanizmas – Lithuanian" lang="lt" hreflang="lt" data-title="Šamanizmas" data-language-autonym="Lietuvių" data-language-local-name="Lithuanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Lietuvių</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-li mw-list-item"><a href="https://li.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sjamanisme" title="Sjamanisme – Limburgish" lang="li" hreflang="li" data-title="Sjamanisme" data-language-autonym="Limburgs" data-language-local-name="Limburgish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Limburgs</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-olo mw-list-item"><a href="https://olo.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C5%A0amanizmu" title="Šamanizmu – Livvi-Karelian" lang="olo" hreflang="olo" data-title="Šamanizmu" data-language-autonym="Livvinkarjala" data-language-local-name="Livvi-Karelian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Livvinkarjala</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hu mw-list-item"><a href="https://hu.wikipedia.org/wiki/S%C3%A1m%C3%A1nizmus" title="Sámánizmus – Hungarian" lang="hu" hreflang="hu" data-title="Sámánizmus" data-language-autonym="Magyar" data-language-local-name="Hungarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Magyar</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mk mw-list-item"><a href="https://mk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A8%D0%B0%D0%BC%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%B8%D0%B7%D0%B0%D0%BC" title="Шаманизам – Macedonian" lang="mk" hreflang="mk" data-title="Шаманизам" data-language-autonym="Македонски" data-language-local-name="Macedonian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Македонски</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mg mw-list-item"><a href="https://mg.wikipedia.org/wiki/Samanisma" title="Samanisma – Malagasy" lang="mg" hreflang="mg" data-title="Samanisma" data-language-autonym="Malagasy" data-language-local-name="Malagasy" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Malagasy</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-xmf mw-list-item"><a href="https://xmf.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%A8%E1%83%90%E1%83%9B%E1%83%90%E1%83%9C%E1%83%98%E1%83%96%E1%83%9B%E1%83%98" title="შამანიზმი – Mingrelian" lang="xmf" hreflang="xmf" data-title="შამანიზმი" data-language-autonym="მარგალური" data-language-local-name="Mingrelian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>მარგალური</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-arz mw-list-item"><a href="https://arz.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B4%D8%A7%D9%85%D8%A7%D9%86%D9%8A%D9%87" title="شامانيه – Egyptian Arabic" lang="arz" hreflang="arz" data-title="شامانيه" data-language-autonym="مصرى" data-language-local-name="Egyptian Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>مصرى</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ms mw-list-item"><a href="https://ms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kepawangan" title="Kepawangan – Malay" lang="ms" hreflang="ms" data-title="Kepawangan" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Melayu" data-language-local-name="Malay" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Melayu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mdf mw-list-item"><a href="https://mdf.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A8%D0%B0%D0%BC%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%B8%D0%B7%D0%BC%D0%B0%D1%81%D1%8C" title="Шаманизмась – Moksha" lang="mdf" hreflang="mdf" data-title="Шаманизмась" data-language-autonym="Мокшень" data-language-local-name="Moksha" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Мокшень</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mn mw-list-item"><a href="https://mn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%91%D3%A9%D3%A9_%D0%BC%D3%A9%D1%80%D0%B3%D3%A9%D0%BB" title="Бөө мөргөл – Mongolian" lang="mn" hreflang="mn" data-title="Бөө мөргөл" data-language-autonym="Монгол" data-language-local-name="Mongolian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Монгол</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-my mw-list-item"><a href="https://my.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%80%94%E1%80%90%E1%80%BA%E1%80%9E%E1%80%99%E1%80%AC%E1%80%B8%E1%80%90%E1%80%B1%E1%80%AC%E1%80%BA%E1%80%98%E1%80%AC%E1%80%9E%E1%80%AC" title="နတ်သမားတော်ဘာသာ – Burmese" lang="my" hreflang="my" data-title="နတ်သမားတော်ဘာသာ" data-language-autonym="မြန်မာဘာသာ" data-language-local-name="Burmese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>မြန်မာဘာသာ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sjamanisme" title="Sjamanisme – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Sjamanisme" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Nederlands</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ne mw-list-item"><a href="https://ne.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%A7%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%AE%E0%A5%80%E0%A4%9D%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%81%E0%A4%95%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%80" title="धामीझाँक्री – Nepali" lang="ne" hreflang="ne" data-title="धामीझाँक्री" data-language-autonym="नेपाली" data-language-local-name="Nepali" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>नेपाली</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E3%82%B7%E3%83%A3%E3%83%BC%E3%83%9E%E3%83%8B%E3%82%BA%E3%83%A0" title="シャーマニズム – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="シャーマニズム" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>日本語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-no mw-list-item"><a href="https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sjamanisme" title="Sjamanisme – Norwegian Bokmål" lang="nb" hreflang="nb" data-title="Sjamanisme" data-language-autonym="Norsk bokmål" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Bokmål" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk bokmål</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nn mw-list-item"><a href="https://nn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sjamanisme" title="Sjamanisme – Norwegian Nynorsk" lang="nn" hreflang="nn" data-title="Sjamanisme" data-language-autonym="Norsk nynorsk" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Nynorsk" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk nynorsk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-oc mw-list-item"><a href="https://oc.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chamanisme" title="Chamanisme – Occitan" lang="oc" hreflang="oc" data-title="Chamanisme" data-language-autonym="Occitan" data-language-local-name="Occitan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Occitan</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uz mw-list-item"><a href="https://uz.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shomonlik" title="Shomonlik – Uzbek" lang="uz" hreflang="uz" data-title="Shomonlik" data-language-autonym="Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча" data-language-local-name="Uzbek" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pa mw-list-item"><a href="https://pa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A8%B8%E0%A8%BC%E0%A8%AE%E0%A8%A8%E0%A8%B5%E0%A8%BE%E0%A8%A6" title="ਸ਼ਮਨਵਾਦ – Punjabi" lang="pa" hreflang="pa" data-title="ਸ਼ਮਨਵਾਦ" data-language-autonym="ਪੰਜਾਬੀ" data-language-local-name="Punjabi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ਪੰਜਾਬੀ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ps mw-list-item"><a href="https://ps.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B4%D9%85%D9%86_%D8%A8%D8%A7%D9%88%D8%B1%D9%8A" title="شمن باوري – Pashto" lang="ps" hreflang="ps" data-title="شمن باوري" data-language-autonym="پښتو" data-language-local-name="Pashto" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>پښتو</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Szamanizm" title="Szamanizm – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="Szamanizm" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Polish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Polski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Xamanismo" title="Xamanismo – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Xamanismo" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Português</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ro mw-list-item"><a href="https://ro.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C8%98amanism" title="Șamanism – Romanian" lang="ro" hreflang="ro" data-title="Șamanism" data-language-autonym="Română" data-language-local-name="Romanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Română</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-qu mw-list-item"><a href="https://qu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paqu_yachaq" title="Paqu yachaq – Quechua" lang="qu" hreflang="qu" data-title="Paqu yachaq" data-language-autonym="Runa Simi" data-language-local-name="Quechua" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Runa Simi</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A8%D0%B0%D0%BC%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%B8%D0%B7%D0%BC" title="Шаманизм – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Шаманизм" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Русский</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sco mw-list-item"><a href="https://sco.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shamanism" title="Shamanism – Scots" lang="sco" hreflang="sco" data-title="Shamanism" data-language-autonym="Scots" data-language-local-name="Scots" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Scots</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sq mw-list-item"><a href="https://sq.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shamanizmi" title="Shamanizmi – Albanian" lang="sq" hreflang="sq" data-title="Shamanizmi" data-language-autonym="Shqip" data-language-local-name="Albanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Shqip</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-simple mw-list-item"><a href="https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shamanism" title="Shamanism – Simple English" lang="en-simple" hreflang="en-simple" data-title="Shamanism" data-language-autonym="Simple English" data-language-local-name="Simple English" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Simple English</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sk mw-list-item"><a href="https://sk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C5%A0amanizmus" title="Šamanizmus – Slovak" lang="sk" hreflang="sk" data-title="Šamanizmus" data-language-autonym="Slovenčina" data-language-local-name="Slovak" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Slovenčina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sl mw-list-item"><a href="https://sl.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C5%A0amanizem" title="Šamanizem – Slovenian" lang="sl" hreflang="sl" data-title="Šamanizem" data-language-autonym="Slovenščina" data-language-local-name="Slovenian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Slovenščina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ckb mw-list-item"><a href="https://ckb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B4%DB%95%D9%85%DB%95%D9%86%DB%8C%D8%B2%D9%85" title="شەمەنیزم – Central Kurdish" lang="ckb" hreflang="ckb" data-title="شەمەنیزم" data-language-autonym="کوردی" data-language-local-name="Central Kurdish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>کوردی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sr mw-list-item"><a href="https://sr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C5%A0amanizam" title="Šamanizam – Serbian" lang="sr" hreflang="sr" data-title="Šamanizam" data-language-autonym="Српски / srpski" data-language-local-name="Serbian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Српски / srpski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sh mw-list-item"><a href="https://sh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C5%A0amanizam" title="Šamanizam – Serbo-Croatian" lang="sh" hreflang="sh" data-title="Šamanizam" data-language-autonym="Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски" data-language-local-name="Serbo-Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fi mw-list-item"><a href="https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C5%A0amanismi" title="Šamanismi – Finnish" lang="fi" hreflang="fi" data-title="Šamanismi" data-language-autonym="Suomi" data-language-local-name="Finnish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Suomi</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sv mw-list-item"><a href="https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Schamanism" title="Schamanism – Swedish" lang="sv" hreflang="sv" data-title="Schamanism" data-language-autonym="Svenska" data-language-local-name="Swedish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Svenska</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tl mw-list-item"><a href="https://tl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shamanismo" title="Shamanismo – Tagalog" lang="tl" hreflang="tl" data-title="Shamanismo" data-language-autonym="Tagalog" data-language-local-name="Tagalog" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Tagalog</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ta mw-list-item"><a href="https://ta.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%AE%B7%E0%AE%BE%E0%AE%AE%E0%AE%A9%E0%AF%8D_%E0%AE%AE%E0%AE%A4%E0%AE%AE%E0%AF%8D" title="ஷாமன் மதம் – Tamil" lang="ta" hreflang="ta" data-title="ஷாமன் மதம்" data-language-autonym="தமிழ்" data-language-local-name="Tamil" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>தமிழ்</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tt mw-list-item"><a href="https://tt.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A8%D0%B0%D0%BC%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%BB%D1%8B%D0%BA" title="Шаманлык – Tatar" lang="tt" hreflang="tt" data-title="Шаманлык" data-language-autonym="Татарча / tatarça" data-language-local-name="Tatar" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Татарча / tatarça</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-te mw-list-item"><a href="https://te.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B0%B7%E0%B0%BE%E0%B0%AE%E0%B0%BE%E0%B0%A8%E0%B0%BF%E0%B0%9C%E0%B0%82" title="షామానిజం – Telugu" lang="te" hreflang="te" data-title="షామానిజం" data-language-autonym="తెలుగు" data-language-local-name="Telugu" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>తెలుగు</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-th mw-list-item"><a href="https://th.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B9%80%E0%B8%8A%E0%B8%A1%E0%B8%B1%E0%B8%99" title="เชมัน – Thai" lang="th" hreflang="th" data-title="เชมัน" data-language-autonym="ไทย" data-language-local-name="Thai" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ไทย</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tr mw-list-item"><a href="https://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C5%9Eamanizm" title="Şamanizm – Turkish" lang="tr" hreflang="tr" data-title="Şamanizm" data-language-autonym="Türkçe" data-language-local-name="Turkish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Türkçe</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tk mw-list-item"><a href="https://tk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C5%9Eamanizm" title="Şamanizm – Turkmen" lang="tk" hreflang="tk" data-title="Şamanizm" data-language-autonym="Türkmençe" data-language-local-name="Turkmen" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Türkmençe</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tyv mw-list-item"><a href="https://tyv.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A5%D0%B0%D0%BC%D0%BD%D0%B0%D0%B0%D1%88%D0%BA%D1%8B%D0%BD" title="Хамнаашкын – Tuvinian" lang="tyv" hreflang="tyv" data-title="Хамнаашкын" data-language-autonym="Тыва дыл" data-language-local-name="Tuvinian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Тыва дыл</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uk mw-list-item"><a href="https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A8%D0%B0%D0%BC%D0%B0%D0%BD%D1%96%D0%B7%D0%BC" title="Шаманізм – Ukrainian" lang="uk" hreflang="uk" data-title="Шаманізм" data-language-autonym="Українська" data-language-local-name="Ukrainian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Українська</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ur mw-list-item"><a href="https://ur.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B4%D9%85%D9%86_%D9%BE%D8%B1%D8%B3%D8%AA%DB%8C" title="شمن پرستی – Urdu" lang="ur" hreflang="ur" data-title="شمن پرستی" data-language-autonym="اردو" data-language-local-name="Urdu" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>اردو</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ug mw-list-item"><a href="https://ug.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B4%D8%A7%D9%85%D8%A7%D9%86_%D8%AF%D9%89%D9%86%D9%89" title="شامان دىنى – Uyghur" lang="ug" hreflang="ug" data-title="شامان دىنى" data-language-autonym="ئۇيغۇرچە / Uyghurche" data-language-local-name="Uyghur" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ئۇيغۇرچە / Uyghurche</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vi mw-list-item"><a href="https://vi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shaman_gi%C3%A1o" title="Shaman giáo – Vietnamese" lang="vi" hreflang="vi" data-title="Shaman giáo" data-language-autonym="Tiếng Việt" data-language-local-name="Vietnamese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Tiếng Việt</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-war mw-list-item"><a href="https://war.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shamanismo" title="Shamanismo – Waray" lang="war" hreflang="war" data-title="Shamanismo" data-language-autonym="Winaray" data-language-local-name="Waray" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Winaray</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-wuu mw-list-item"><a href="https://wuu.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E8%90%A8%E6%BB%A1%E6%95%99" title="萨满教 – Wu" lang="wuu" hreflang="wuu" data-title="萨满教" data-language-autonym="吴语" data-language-local-name="Wu" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>吴语</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-yi mw-list-item"><a href="https://yi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%A9%D7%90%D7%9E%D7%90%D7%A0%D7%99%D7%96%D7%9D" title="שאמאניזם – Yiddish" lang="yi" hreflang="yi" data-title="שאמאניזם" data-language-autonym="ייִדיש" data-language-local-name="Yiddish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ייִדיש</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-yue mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh-yue.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E8%96%A9%E6%BB%BF%E6%95%99" title="薩滿教 – Cantonese" lang="yue" hreflang="yue" data-title="薩滿教" data-language-autonym="粵語" data-language-local-name="Cantonese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>粵語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bat-smg mw-list-item"><a href="https://bat-smg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C5%A0aman%C4%97zmos" title="Šamanėzmos – Samogitian" lang="sgs" hreflang="sgs" data-title="Šamanėzmos" data-language-autonym="Žemaitėška" data-language-local-name="Samogitian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Žemaitėška</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E8%90%A8%E6%BB%A1%E6%95%99" title="萨满教 – Chinese" lang="zh" hreflang="zh" data-title="萨满教" data-language-autonym="中文" data-language-local-name="Chinese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>中文</span></a></li> </ul> <div class="after-portlet after-portlet-lang"><span class="wb-langlinks-edit 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from <a href="/w/index.php?title=Shaman&redirect=no" class="mw-redirect" title="Shaman">Shaman</a>)</span></div></div> <div id="mw-content-text" class="mw-body-content"><div class="mw-content-ltr mw-parser-output" lang="en" dir="ltr"><div class="shortdescription nomobile noexcerpt noprint searchaux" style="display:none">Religious practice</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">"Shaman" and "Shamans" redirect here. For other uses, see <a href="/wiki/Shaman_(disambiguation)" class="mw-disambig" title="Shaman (disambiguation)">Shaman (disambiguation)</a>.</div> <p class="mw-empty-elt"> </p> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1251242444">.mw-parser-output .ambox{border:1px solid #a2a9b1;border-left:10px solid #36c;background-color:#fbfbfb;box-sizing:border-box}.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+style+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+style+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+link+.ambox{margin-top:-1px}html body.mediawiki .mw-parser-output .ambox.mbox-small-left{margin:4px 1em 4px 0;overflow:hidden;width:238px;border-collapse:collapse;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em}.mw-parser-output .ambox-speedy{border-left:10px solid #b32424;background-color:#fee7e6}.mw-parser-output .ambox-delete{border-left:10px solid #b32424}.mw-parser-output .ambox-content{border-left:10px solid #f28500}.mw-parser-output .ambox-style{border-left:10px solid #fc3}.mw-parser-output .ambox-move{border-left:10px solid #9932cc}.mw-parser-output .ambox-protection{border-left:10px solid #a2a9b1}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-text{border:none;padding:0.25em 0.5em;width:100%}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-image{border:none;padding:2px 0 2px 0.5em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-imageright{border:none;padding:2px 0.5em 2px 0;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-empty-cell{border:none;padding:0;width:1px}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-image-div{width:52px}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .ambox{margin:0 10%}}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .ambox{display:none!important}}</style><table class="box-Lead_too_short plainlinks metadata ambox ambox-content ambox-lead_too_short" role="presentation"><tbody><tr><td class="mbox-image"><div class="mbox-image-div"><span typeof="mw:File"><a 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.sidebar-title-with-pretitle{background:transparent!important}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle a{color:var(--color-progressive)!important}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-list-title,html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle{background:transparent!important}html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle a{color:var(--color-progressive)!important}}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .sidebar{display:none!important}}</style><table class="sidebar sidebar-collapse nomobile"><tbody><tr><td class="sidebar-pretitle" style="padding-top:0.2em;">Part of a series on</td></tr><tr><th class="sidebar-title-with-pretitle" style="background:lavender; padding:0.2em;"><a href="/wiki/Anthropology_of_religion" title="Anthropology of religion">Anthropology of religion</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-image"><span class="notpageimage" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Some_results_of_recent_anthropological_exploration_in_Peru_BHL23999360.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="Two ancient anthropomorphic figures from Peru" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5a/Some_results_of_recent_anthropological_exploration_in_Peru_BHL23999360.jpg/220px-Some_results_of_recent_anthropological_exploration_in_Peru_BHL23999360.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5a/Some_results_of_recent_anthropological_exploration_in_Peru_BHL23999360.jpg/330px-Some_results_of_recent_anthropological_exploration_in_Peru_BHL23999360.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5a/Some_results_of_recent_anthropological_exploration_in_Peru_BHL23999360.jpg/440px-Some_results_of_recent_anthropological_exploration_in_Peru_BHL23999360.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2864" data-file-height="2148" /></a></span><div class="sidebar-caption">Two ancient anthropomorphic figures from Peru</div></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)"><div class="sidebar-list-title-c">Basic concepts</div></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content nowraplinks hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Afterlife" title="Afterlife">Afterlife</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Animism" title="Animism">Animism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Augury" title="Augury">Augury</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Communitas" title="Communitas">Communitas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Comparative_religion" title="Comparative religion">Comparative religion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Divination" title="Divination">Divination</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Divine_language" title="Divine language">Divine language</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolutionary_origin_of_religion" title="Evolutionary origin of religion">Evolutionary origin of religion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fetishism" title="Fetishism">Fetishism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Great_Spirit" title="Great Spirit">Great Spirit</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Henotheism" title="Henotheism">Henotheism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Initiation" title="Initiation">Initiation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Laying_on_of_hands" title="Laying on of hands">Laying on of hands</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liminality" title="Liminality">Liminality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Magic_(supernatural)" title="Magic (supernatural)">Magic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mana_(Oceanian_cultures)" title="Mana (Oceanian cultures)">Mana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Monotheism" title="Monotheism">Monotheism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nympholepsy" title="Nympholepsy">Nympholepsy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oracle" title="Oracle">Oracle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pilgrimage" title="Pilgrimage">Pilgrimage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Polytheism" title="Polytheism">Polytheism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rite_of_passage" title="Rite of passage">Rite of passage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ritual" title="Ritual">Ritual</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sacred_language" title="Sacred language">Sacred language</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sacred%E2%80%93profane_dichotomy" class="mw-redirect" title="Sacred–profane dichotomy">Sacred–profane dichotomy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sacred_site" class="mw-redirect" title="Sacred site">Sacred site</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Shamanism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Soul_dualism" title="Soul dualism">Soul dualism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Superstition" title="Superstition">Superstition</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theories_about_religion" title="Theories about religion">Theories about religion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Totem" title="Totem">Totem</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transtheism" title="Transtheism">Transtheism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Veneration_of_the_dead" title="Veneration of the dead">Veneration of the dead</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)"><div class="sidebar-list-title-c">Case studies</div></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content nowraplinks hlist"> <dl><dt>Magic</dt></dl> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Coral_Gardens_and_Their_Magic" title="Coral Gardens and Their Magic">Coral Gardens and Their Magic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trait%C3%A9_sur_les_apparitions_des_esprits_et_sur_les_vampires_ou_les_revenans_de_Hongrie,_de_Moravie,_%26c." title="Traité sur les apparitions des esprits et sur les vampires ou les revenans de Hongrie, de Moravie, &c.">Treatise on the Apparitions of<br />Spirits and on Vampires or Revenants</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Enchanted_Feminism" title="Enchanted Feminism">Neo-Paganism</a></li></ul> <dl><dt>Ritual</dt></dl> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Angakkuq" title="Angakkuq">Angakkuq</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Babaylan" class="mw-redirect" title="Babaylan">Babaylan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bobohizan" title="Bobohizan">Bobohizan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bomoh" title="Bomoh">Bomoh</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bora_(Australian)" title="Bora (Australian)">Bora</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dukun" title="Dukun">Dukun</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Miko" title="Miko">Miko</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jh%C4%81kri" title="Jhākri">Jhākri</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pawang" title="Pawang">Pawang</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slametan" title="Slametan">Slametan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wu_(shaman)" title="Wu (shaman)">Wu</a></li></ul> <dl><dt>Revitalization movements</dt></dl> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cargo_cult" title="Cargo cult">Cargo cult</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ghost_Dance" title="Ghost Dance">Ghost Dance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Handsome_Lake" title="Handsome Lake">Handsome Lake</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)"><div class="sidebar-list-title-c">Related articles</div></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content nowraplinks hlist"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Elementary_Forms_of_the_Religious_Life" title="The Elementary Forms of the Religious Life">The Elementary Forms<br />of the Religious Life</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Purity_and_Danger" title="Purity and Danger">Purity and Danger</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Myth_and_ritual" title="Myth and ritual">Myth and ritual</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Archaeology_of_religion_and_ritual" title="Archaeology of religion and ritual">Archaeology of religion and ritual</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ceremonial_pole" title="Ceremonial pole">Poles in mythology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lived_religion" title="Lived religion">Lived religion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Elite_religion" title="Elite religion">Elite religion</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)"><div class="sidebar-list-title-c">Major theorists</div></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content nowraplinks hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Antoine_Augustin_Calmet" title="Antoine Augustin Calmet">Augustin Calmet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Akbar_Ahmed" title="Akbar Ahmed">Akbar S. Ahmed</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Talal_Asad" title="Talal Asad">Talal Asad</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joseph_Campbell" title="Joseph Campbell">Joseph Campbell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mary_Douglas" title="Mary Douglas">Mary Douglas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%C3%89mile_Durkheim" title="Émile Durkheim">Émile Durkheim</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mircea_Eliade" title="Mircea Eliade">Mircea Eliade</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arnold_van_Gennep" title="Arnold van Gennep">Arnold van Gennep</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ren%C3%A9_Girard" title="René Girard">René Girard</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/E._E._Evans-Pritchard" title="E. E. Evans-Pritchard">E. E. Evans-Pritchard</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_George_Frazer" title="James George Frazer">James Frazer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Numa_Denis_Fustel_de_Coulanges" title="Numa Denis Fustel de Coulanges">Fustel de Coulanges</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Clifford_Geertz" title="Clifford Geertz">Clifford Geertz</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robin_W._G._Horton" title="Robin W. G. Horton">Robin Horton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Claude_L%C3%A9vi-Strauss" title="Claude Lévi-Strauss">Claude Lévi-Strauss</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robert_Ranulph_Marett" title="Robert Ranulph Marett">Robert Marett</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Steven_Ozment" title="Steven Ozment">Steven Ozment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roy_Rappaport" title="Roy Rappaport">Roy Rappaport</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Saba_Mahmood" title="Saba Mahmood">Saba Mahmood</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marshall_Sahlins" title="Marshall Sahlins">Marshall Sahlins</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Melford_Spiro" title="Melford Spiro">Melford Spiro</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stanley_Jeyaraja_Tambiah" title="Stanley Jeyaraja Tambiah">Stanley Tambiah</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Victor_Turner" title="Victor Turner">Victor Turner</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Edward_Burnett_Tylor" title="Edward Burnett Tylor">Edward Burnett Tylor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Daniel_Martin_Varisco" title="Daniel Martin Varisco">Daniel Martin Varisco</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anthony_F._C._Wallace" title="Anthony F. C. Wallace">Anthony F. C. Wallace</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)"><div class="sidebar-list-title-c">Journals</div></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content nowraplinks hlist"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Anthropological_Perspectives_on_Religion" class="mw-redirect" title="Anthropological Perspectives on Religion">Anthropological Perspectives on Religion</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Folklore_Society" title="The Folklore Society">Folklore</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Hibbert_Journal" title="The Hibbert Journal">The Hibbert Journal</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Journal_of_Religion" title="The Journal of Religion">The Journal of Religion</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Oceania_(journal)" title="Oceania (journal)">Oceania</a></i></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)"><div class="sidebar-list-title-c"><a href="/wiki/List_of_religions_and_spiritual_traditions" title="List of religions and spiritual traditions">Religions</a></div></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content nowraplinks hlist"> <dl><dt><a href="/wiki/Ethnic_religion" title="Ethnic religion">Ethnic</a> and <a href="/wiki/Folk_religion" title="Folk religion">folk religions</a></dt></dl> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Afro-American_religion" class="mw-redirect" title="Afro-American religion">Afro-American religion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alaska_Native_religion" title="Alaska Native religion">Alaska Native religion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anito" title="Anito">Anito</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Atua" title="Atua">Atua</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mongolian_shamanism" title="Mongolian shamanism">Böö mörgöl</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_folk_religion" title="Chinese folk religion">Chinese folk religion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hanitu" title="Hanitu">Hanitu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hausa_animism" title="Hausa animism">Hausa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kejaw%C3%A8n" title="Kejawèn">Kejawèn</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Native_American_religion" class="mw-redirect" title="Native American religion">Native American religion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Noaidi" title="Noaidi">Noaidi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Korean_shamanism" title="Korean shamanism">Shindo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shamanism_in_Siberia" title="Shamanism in Siberia">Shamanism in Siberia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shinto" title="Shinto">Shinto</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tengrism" title="Tengrism">Tengrism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Traditional_African_religions" title="Traditional African religions">Traditional African religions</a></li></ul> <dl><dt><a href="/wiki/Buddhism" title="Buddhism">Buddhism</a></dt></dl> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Mahayana" title="Mahayana">Mahayana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nichiren_Buddhism" title="Nichiren Buddhism">Nichiren</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pure_Land_Buddhism" title="Pure Land Buddhism">Pure Land</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shingon_Buddhism" title="Shingon Buddhism">Shingon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theravada" title="Theravada">Theravada</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tiantai" title="Tiantai">Tiantai</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tibetan_Buddhism" title="Tibetan Buddhism">Tibetan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vajrayana" title="Vajrayana">Vajrayana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zen" title="Zen">Zen</a></li></ul> <dl><dt><a href="/wiki/Christianity" title="Christianity">Christianity</a></dt></dl> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Adventism" title="Adventism">Adventism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anglicanism" title="Anglicanism">Anglicanism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Armenian_Apostolic_Church" title="Armenian Apostolic Church">Armenian Apostolic Church</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Baptists" title="Baptists">Baptists</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Calvinism" class="mw-redirect" title="Calvinism">Calvinism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Catholic_Church" title="Catholic Church">Catholic Church</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Coptic_Orthodox_Church" title="Coptic Orthodox Church">Coptic Orthodoxy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eastern_Orthodox_Church" title="Eastern Orthodox Church">Eastern Orthodoxy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethiopian_Orthodox_Tewahedo_Church" title="Ethiopian Orthodox Tewahedo Church">Ethiopian Orthodoxy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Greek_Orthodox_Church" title="Greek Orthodox Church">Greek Orthodoxy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lutheranism" title="Lutheranism">Lutheranism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Methodism" title="Methodism">Methodism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nestorianism" title="Nestorianism">Nestorianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oriental_Orthodoxy" class="mw-redirect" title="Oriental Orthodoxy">Oriental Orthodoxy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pentecostalism" title="Pentecostalism">Pentecostalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Protestantism" title="Protestantism">Protestantism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quakers" title="Quakers">Quakers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Russian_Orthodox_Church" title="Russian Orthodox Church">Russian Orthodoxy</a></li></ul> <dl><dt><a href="/wiki/Hinduism" title="Hinduism">Hinduism</a></dt></dl> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hindu_denominations" title="Hindu denominations">Hindu denominations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shaivism" title="Shaivism">Shaivism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shaktism" title="Shaktism">Shaktism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Smartism" class="mw-redirect" title="Smartism">Smartism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vaishnavism" title="Vaishnavism">Vaishnavism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ayyavazhi" title="Ayyavazhi">Ayyavazhi</a></li></ul> <dl><dt><a href="/wiki/Islam" title="Islam">Islam</a></dt></dl> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ahmadiyya" title="Ahmadiyya">Ahmadiyya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ibadi" class="mw-redirect" title="Ibadi">Ibadi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mahdavia" class="mw-redirect" title="Mahdavia">Mahdavia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Non-denominational_Muslim" title="Non-denominational Muslim">Non-denominational</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quranism" title="Quranism">Quranists</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shia_Islam" title="Shia Islam">Shia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sufism" title="Sufism">Sufism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sunni_Islam" title="Sunni Islam">Sunni</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yazd%C3%A2nism" title="Yazdânism">Yazdânism</a></li></ul> <dl><dt><a href="/wiki/Judaism" title="Judaism">Judaism</a></dt></dl> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Conservative_Judaism" title="Conservative Judaism">Conservative</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Haredi_Judaism" title="Haredi Judaism">Haredi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hasidic_Judaism" title="Hasidic Judaism">Hasidic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Haymanot" title="Haymanot">Haymanot</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Karaite_Judaism" title="Karaite Judaism">Karaite</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Orthodox_Judaism" title="Orthodox Judaism">Orthodox</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reform_Judaism" title="Reform Judaism">Reform</a></li></ul> <dl><dt><a href="/wiki/Jainism" title="Jainism">Jainism</a></dt></dl> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Digambara" title="Digambara">Digambara</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%C5%9Avet%C4%81mbara" title="Śvetāmbara">Śvetāmbara</a></li></ul> <dl><dt><a href="/wiki/Sikhism" title="Sikhism">Sikhism</a></dt></dl></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-below" style="padding-top:0.15em;"> <a href="/wiki/Social_anthropology" title="Social anthropology">Social</a> and <a href="/wiki/Cultural_anthropology" title="Cultural anthropology">cultural anthropology</a></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-navbar"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239400231">.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar ul{display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::before{margin-right:-0.125em;content:"[ "}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::after{margin-left:-0.125em;content:" ]"}.mw-parser-output .navbar li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .navbar a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini abbr{font-variant:small-caps;border-bottom:none;text-decoration:none;cursor:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-full{font-size:114%;margin:0 7em}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-mini{font-size:114%;margin:0 4em}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}}</style><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Anthropology_of_religion" title="Template:Anthropology of religion"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Anthropology_of_religion" title="Template talk:Anthropology of religion"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Anthropology_of_religion" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Anthropology of religion"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1246091330"><table class="sidebar sidebar-collapse nomobile nowraplinks vcard hlist"><tbody><tr><td class="sidebar-pretitle">Part of <a href="/wiki/Category:Alternative_medicine" title="Category:Alternative medicine">a series</a> on</td></tr><tr><th class="sidebar-title-with-pretitle"><a href="/wiki/Alternative_medicine" title="Alternative medicine">Alternative medicine</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-image"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Outline-body-aura.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6c/Outline-body-aura.svg/60px-Outline-body-aura.svg.png" decoding="async" width="60" height="100" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6c/Outline-body-aura.svg/90px-Outline-body-aura.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6c/Outline-body-aura.svg/120px-Outline-body-aura.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="720" data-file-height="1200" /></a></span></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="text-align:center; background:lavender;;color: var(--color-base)">General information</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Alternative_medicine" title="Alternative medicine">Alternative medicine</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_alternative_medicine" title="History of alternative medicine">History</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Terminology_of_alternative_medicine" title="Terminology of alternative medicine">Terminology</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alternative_veterinary_medicine" title="Alternative veterinary medicine">Alternative veterinary medicine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quackery" title="Quackery">Quackery</a> (health fraud)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_medicine#19th_century:_rise_of_modern_medicine" title="History of medicine">Rise of modern medicine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pseudoscience" title="Pseudoscience">Pseudoscience</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Antiscience" title="Antiscience">Antiscience</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Skepticism" title="Skepticism">Skepticism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Scientific_skepticism" title="Scientific skepticism">Scientific</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Therapeutic_nihilism" title="Therapeutic nihilism">Therapeutic nihilism</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="text-align:center; background:lavender;;color: var(--color-base)">Fringe medicine and science</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Acupressure" title="Acupressure">Acupressure</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Acupuncture" title="Acupuncture">Acupuncture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alkaline_diet" title="Alkaline diet">Alkaline diet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anthroposophic_medicine" title="Anthroposophic medicine">Anthroposophic medicine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Apitherapy" title="Apitherapy">Apitherapy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Applied_kinesiology" title="Applied kinesiology">Applied kinesiology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aromatherapy" title="Aromatherapy">Aromatherapy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Association_for_Research_and_Enlightenment" title="Association for Research and Enlightenment">Association for Research and Enlightenment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Auriculotherapy" title="Auriculotherapy">Auriculotherapy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bates_method" title="Bates method">Bates method</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biological_terrain_assessment" title="Biological terrain assessment">Biological terrain assessment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Black_salve" title="Black salve">Black salve</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bodywork_(alternative_medicine)" title="Bodywork (alternative medicine)">Bodywork</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Traditional_bone-setting" title="Traditional bone-setting">Bone-setting</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bowen_technique" title="Bowen technique">Bowen technique</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Breathwork_(New_Age)" title="Breathwork (New Age)">Breathwork</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_unproven_methods_against_COVID-19" title="List of unproven methods against COVID-19">Fake COVID-19 treatments</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Camel_urine" title="Camel urine">Camel urine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alternative_cancer_treatments" title="Alternative cancer treatments">Cancer treatments</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Activated_charcoal_cleanse" title="Activated charcoal cleanse">Charcoal cleanse</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chiropractic" title="Chiropractic">Chiropractic</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Chiropractic_treatment_techniques" title="Chiropractic treatment techniques">Chiropractic treatment techniques</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vertebral_subluxation" title="Vertebral subluxation">Vertebral subluxation</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christian_Science" title="Christian Science">Christian Science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chromotherapy" title="Chromotherapy">Chromotherapy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Colloidal_silver" class="mw-redirect" title="Colloidal silver">Colloidal silver</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Colon_cleansing" title="Colon cleansing">Colon cleansing</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Coffee_enema" title="Coffee enema">Coffee enema</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Colorpuncture" title="Colorpuncture">Colorpuncture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conversion_therapy" title="Conversion therapy">Conversion therapy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Craniosacral_therapy" title="Craniosacral therapy">Craniosacral therapy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crystal_healing" title="Crystal healing">Crystal healing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cupping_therapy" title="Cupping therapy">Cupping therapy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dental_amalgam_controversy" title="Dental amalgam controversy">Dental amalgam controversy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Detoxification_(alternative_medicine)" title="Detoxification (alternative medicine)">Detoxification</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Detoxification_foot_baths" title="Detoxification foot baths">Foot detox</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dry_needling" title="Dry needling">Dry needling</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ear_candling" title="Ear candling">Ear candling</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Energy_medicine" title="Energy medicine">Energy medicine</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Correactology" title="Correactology">Correactology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Energy_(esotericism)" title="Energy (esotericism)">Esoteric energy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reiki" title="Reiki">Reiki</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Therapeutic_touch" title="Therapeutic touch">Therapeutic touch</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Estrogen_dominance" title="Estrogen dominance">Estrogen dominance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fabunan_Antiviral_Injection" title="Fabunan Antiviral Injection">Fabunan Antiviral Injection</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Facilitated_communication" title="Facilitated communication">Facilitated communication</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/FasciaBlaster" title="FasciaBlaster">FasciaBlaster</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feldenkrais_Method" title="Feldenkrais Method">Feldenkrais Method</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Functional_medicine" title="Functional medicine">Functional medicine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hair_analysis_(alternative_medicine)" title="Hair analysis (alternative medicine)">Hair analysis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Holistic_dentistry" title="Holistic dentistry">Holistic dentistry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hologram_bracelet" title="Hologram bracelet">Hologram bracelet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Homeopathy" title="Homeopathy">Homeopathy</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bach_flower_remedies" title="Bach flower remedies">Bach flower remedies</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hydrotherapy" title="Hydrotherapy">Hydrotherapy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hypnotherapy" title="Hypnotherapy">Hypnotherapy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ionized_jewelry" title="Ionized jewelry">Ionized jewelry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iridology" title="Iridology">Iridology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jilly_Juice" title="Jilly Juice">Jilly Juice</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Lightning_Process" title="The Lightning Process">Lightning Process</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lymphotherapy" title="Lymphotherapy">Lymphotherapy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Magnet_therapy" title="Magnet therapy">Magnet therapy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Manual_therapy" title="Manual therapy">Manual therapy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Manual_lymphatic_drainage" title="Manual lymphatic drainage">Manual lymphatic drainage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Medical_intuitive" title="Medical intuitive">Medical intuitive</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Megavitamin_therapy" title="Megavitamin therapy">Megavitamin therapy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Animal_magnetism" title="Animal magnetism">Mesmerism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mind%E2%80%93body_interventions" title="Mind–body interventions">Mind–body interventions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Miracle_Mineral_Supplement" title="Miracle Mineral Supplement">MMS</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Myofascial_release" title="Myofascial release">Myofascial release</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nambudripad%27s_Allergy_Elimination_Techniques" title="Nambudripad's Allergy Elimination Techniques">NAET</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Naturopathy" title="Naturopathy">Naturopathy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oil_pulling" title="Oil pulling">Oil pulling</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Orgone" title="Orgone">Orgone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Orthomolecular_medicine" title="Orthomolecular medicine">Orthomolecular medicine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Orthopathy" title="Orthopathy">Orthopathy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Osteomyology" title="Osteomyology">Osteomyology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Osteopathy" title="Osteopathy">Osteopathy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ozone_therapy" title="Ozone therapy">Ozone therapy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Parapsychology" title="Parapsychology">Parapsychology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phrenology" title="Phrenology">Phrenology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Postural_Integration" title="Postural Integration">Postural Integration</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Psychic_surgery" title="Psychic surgery">Psychic surgery</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Psychodermatology" title="Psychodermatology">Psychodermatology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quantum_healing" title="Quantum healing">Quantum healing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Radionics" title="Radionics">Radionics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rapid_prompting_method" title="Rapid prompting method">Rapid prompting method</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reflexology" title="Reflexology">Reflexology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reichian_body-oriented_psychotherapy" class="mw-redirect" title="Reichian body-oriented psychotherapy">RBOP</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rolfing" title="Rolfing">Rolfing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scientific_racism" title="Scientific racism">Scientific racism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/ThetaHealing" title="ThetaHealing">ThetaHealing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomsonianism" title="Thomsonianism">Thomsonianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thought_Field_Therapy" title="Thought Field Therapy">Thought Field Therapy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Urophagia" title="Urophagia">Urophagia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vaginal_steaming" title="Vaginal steaming">Vaginal steaming</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vegetotherapy" title="Vegetotherapy">Vegetotherapy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vision_therapy" title="Vision therapy">Vision therapy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vitalism" title="Vitalism">Vitalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Young_blood_transfusion" title="Young blood transfusion">Young blood transfusion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zero_balancing" title="Zero balancing">Zero balancing</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="text-align:center; background:lavender;;color: var(--color-base)">Controversies</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Big_Pharma_conspiracy_theories" title="Big Pharma conspiracy theories">Big Pharma conspiracy theories</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/HIV/AIDS_denialism" title="HIV/AIDS denialism">HIV/AIDS denialism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Oral_polio_vaccine_AIDS_hypothesis" title="Oral polio vaccine AIDS hypothesis">OPV AIDS hypothesis</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-vaccine_activism" title="Anti-vaccine activism">Anti-vaccinationism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Vaccine_misinformation" title="Vaccine misinformation">Vaccine misinformation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vaccines_and_autism" title="Vaccines and autism">Vaccines and autism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/MMR_vaccine_and_autism" title="MMR vaccine and autism">MMR vaccine and autism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-vaccinationism_in_chiropractic" title="Anti-vaccinationism in chiropractic">in chiropractic</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Water_fluoridation_controversy" title="Water fluoridation controversy">Water fluoridation controversy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/COVID-19_misinformation" title="COVID-19 misinformation">COVID-19 misinformation</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Turbo_cancer" title="Turbo cancer">Turbo cancer</a></li></ul></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="text-align:center; background:lavender;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Alternative_medicine#NCCIH_classification" title="Alternative medicine">Classifications</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Alternative_medical_systems" title="Category:Alternative medical systems">Alternative medical systems</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Mind%E2%80%93body_interventions" title="Category:Mind–body interventions">Mind–body intervention</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Biologically_based_therapies" title="Category:Biologically based therapies">Biologically based therapy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Manual_therapy" title="Category:Manual therapy">Manipulative methods</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Energy_therapies" title="Category:Energy therapies">Energy therapy</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="text-align:center; background:lavender;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Traditional_medicine" title="Traditional medicine">Traditional medicine</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Traditional_African_medicine" title="Traditional African medicine">African</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Muti" title="Muti">Muti</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Traditional_healers_of_Southern_Africa" title="Traditional healers of Southern Africa">Southern Africa</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ayurveda" title="Ayurveda">Ayurveda</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Dosha" title="Dosha">Dosha</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maharishi_Vedic_Approach_to_Health" title="Maharishi Vedic Approach to Health">MVAH</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Balneotherapy" title="Balneotherapy">Balneotherapy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Brazilian_traditional_medicine" title="Brazilian traditional medicine">Brazilian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bush_medicine" title="Bush medicine">Bush medicine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Traditional_Cambodian_medicine" title="Traditional Cambodian medicine">Cambodian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Traditional_Chinese_medicine" title="Traditional Chinese medicine">Chinese</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Blood_stasis" title="Blood stasis">Blood stasis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_herbology" title="Chinese 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oil</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prophetic_medicine" title="Prophetic medicine">Prophetic medicine</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Shamanism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shiatsu" title="Shiatsu">Shiatsu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Siddha_medicine" title="Siddha medicine">Siddha</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sri_Lankan_traditional_medicine" title="Sri Lankan traditional medicine">Sri Lankan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thai_massage" class="mw-redirect" title="Thai massage">Thai massage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Traditional_Tibetan_medicine" class="mw-redirect" title="Traditional Tibetan medicine">Tibetan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Unani_medicine" title="Unani medicine">Unani</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Traditional_Vietnamese_medicine" title="Traditional Vietnamese medicine">Vietnamese</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="text-align:center; background:lavender;;color: var(--color-base)">Alternative diagnoses</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Adrenal_fatigue" title="Adrenal fatigue">Adrenal fatigue</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aerotoxic_syndrome" title="Aerotoxic syndrome">Aerotoxic syndrome</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Candida_hypersensitivity" title="Candida hypersensitivity">Candida hypersensitivity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chronic_Lyme_disease" title="Chronic Lyme disease">Chronic Lyme disease</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Electromagnetic_hypersensitivity" title="Electromagnetic hypersensitivity">Electromagnetic hypersensitivity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Heavy_legs" title="Heavy legs">Heavy legs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Leaky_gut_syndrome" title="Leaky gut syndrome">Leaky gut syndrome</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Multiple_chemical_sensitivity" title="Multiple chemical sensitivity">Multiple chemical sensitivity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/PANDAS" title="PANDAS">PANDAS</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vertebral_subluxation" title="Vertebral subluxation">Vertebral subluxation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wilson%27s_temperature_syndrome" title="Wilson's temperature syndrome">Wilson's temperature syndrome</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-navbar"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Alternative_medicine_sidebar" title="Template:Alternative medicine sidebar"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Alternative_medicine_sidebar" title="Template talk:Alternative medicine sidebar"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Alternative_medicine_sidebar" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Alternative medicine sidebar"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <p><b>Shamanism</b> is a spiritual practice that involves a practitioner (<b>shaman</b>) interacting with the <a href="/wiki/Spirit_world_(Spiritualism)" title="Spirit world (Spiritualism)">spirit world</a> through <a href="/wiki/Altered_state_of_consciousness" title="Altered state of consciousness">altered states of consciousness</a>, such as <a href="/wiki/Trance" title="Trance">trance</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Singh-2018_1-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Singh-2018-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The goal of this is usually to <a href="/wiki/Magic_(supernatural)" title="Magic (supernatural)">direct</a> <a href="/wiki/Non-physical_entity" title="Non-physical entity">spirits</a> or <a href="/wiki/Energy_(esotericism)" title="Energy (esotericism)">spiritual energies</a> into the physical world for the purpose of healing, <a href="/wiki/Divination" title="Divination">divination</a>, or to aid human beings in some other way.<sup id="cite_ref-Singh-2018_1-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Singh-2018-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Beliefs and practices categorized as "shamanic" have attracted the interest of scholars from a variety of disciplines, including anthropologists, archeologists, historians, religious studies scholars, philosophers and psychologists. Hundreds of books and <a href="/wiki/Academic_publishing#Scholarly_paper" title="Academic publishing">academic papers</a> on the subject have been produced, with a peer-reviewed academic journal being devoted to the study of shamanism. </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Terminology">Terminology</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Shamanism&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Terminology"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Etymology">Etymology</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Shamanism&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Etymology"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Witsen%27s_Shaman.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/36/Witsen%27s_Shaman.JPG/220px-Witsen%27s_Shaman.JPG" decoding="async" width="220" height="116" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/36/Witsen%27s_Shaman.JPG/330px-Witsen%27s_Shaman.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/36/Witsen%27s_Shaman.JPG/440px-Witsen%27s_Shaman.JPG 2x" data-file-width="758" data-file-height="400" /></a><figcaption>The earliest known depiction of a Siberian shaman, by the Dutch explorer <a href="/wiki/Nicolaes_Witsen" title="Nicolaes Witsen">Nicolaes Witsen</a>, 17th century. Witsen called him a "priest of the Devil" and drew clawed feet for the supposed demonic qualities.<sup id="cite_ref-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></figcaption></figure> <p>The <a href="/wiki/Modern_English" title="Modern English">Modern English</a> word <i>shamanism</i> derives from the <a href="/wiki/Russian_language" title="Russian language">Russian</a> word <span title="Russian-language text"><span lang="ru">шаман</span></span>, <span title="ISO 9 Cyrillic (Russian language) transliteration"><i lang="ru-Latn">šamán</i></span>, which itself comes from the word <span title="Tungus languages collective text"><i lang="tuw">samān</i></span> from a <a href="/wiki/Tungusic_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Tungusic language">Tungusic language</a><sup id="cite_ref-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> – possibly from the southwestern dialect of the <a href="/wiki/Evenki_language" title="Evenki language">Evenki</a> spoken by the Sym Evenki peoples,<sup id="cite_ref-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> or from the <a href="/wiki/Manchu_language" title="Manchu language">Manchu language</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The etymology of the word is sometimes connected to the Tungus root <span title="Tungus languages collective text"><i lang="tuw">sā-</i></span>, meaning "to know".<sup id="cite_ref-cogmap_7-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-cogmap-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Diószegi_1962:13_8-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Diószegi_1962:13-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> However, Finnish <a href="/wiki/Ethnolinguistics" title="Ethnolinguistics">ethnolinguist</a> <a href="/wiki/Juha_Janhunen" title="Juha Janhunen">Juha Janhunen</a> questions this connection on linguistic grounds: "The possibility cannot be completely rejected, but neither should it be accepted without reservation since the assumed derivational relationship is phonologically irregular (note especially the vowel quantities)."<sup id="cite_ref-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><a href="/wiki/Mircea_Eliade" title="Mircea Eliade">Mircea Eliade</a> noted that the <a href="/wiki/Sanskrit" title="Sanskrit">Sanskrit</a> word <span title="Sanskrit-language text"><span lang="sa">श्रमण</span></span>, <span title="International Alphabet of Sanskrit transliteration"><i lang="sa-Latn"><a href="/wiki/%C5%9Arama%E1%B9%87a" title="Śramaṇa">śramaṇa</a></i></span>, designating a wandering monastic or holy figure, has spread to many Central Asian languages along with <a href="/wiki/Buddhism" title="Buddhism">Buddhism</a> and could be the ultimate origin of the word shaman.<sup id="cite_ref-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The word has been reported in <a href="/wiki/Gandhari_language" title="Gandhari language">Gandhari</a> as <span title="Gāndhārī-language text"><i lang="pgd">ṣamana</i></span>, in <a href="/wiki/Tocharian_languages" title="Tocharian languages">Tocharian A</a> as <span title="Tokharian A-language text"><i lang="xto">ṣāmaṃ</i></span>, in Tocharian B as <span title="Tokharian B-language text"><i lang="txb">ṣamāne</i></span> and in Chinese as <span title="Chinese-language text"><span lang="zh">沙門</span></span>, <span title="Pinyin transliteration"><i lang="zh-Latn">shāmén</i></span>.<sup id="cite_ref-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The term was adopted by Russians interacting with the indigenous peoples in <a href="/wiki/Siberia" title="Siberia">Siberia</a>. It is found in the memoirs of the exiled Russian churchman <a href="/wiki/Avvakum" title="Avvakum">Avvakum</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-12" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It was brought to Western Europe twenty years later by the Dutch statesman <a href="/wiki/Nicolaes_Witsen" title="Nicolaes Witsen">Nicolaes Witsen</a>, who reported his stay and journeys among the Tungusic- and <a href="/wiki/Samoyedic_languages" title="Samoyedic languages">Samoyedic</a>-speaking <a href="/wiki/Indigenous_peoples_of_Siberia" title="Indigenous peoples of Siberia">Indigenous peoples of Siberia</a> in his book <i>Noord en Oost Tataryen</i> (1692).<sup id="cite_ref-13" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Adam_Brand_(explorer)" title="Adam Brand (explorer)">Adam Brand</a>, a merchant from <a href="/wiki/L%C3%BCbeck" title="Lübeck">Lübeck</a>, published in 1698 his account of a Russian embassy to China; a translation of his book, published the same year, introduced the word <i>shaman</i> to English speakers.<sup id="cite_ref-14" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Anthropologist and archeologist Silvia Tomaskova argued that by the mid-1600s, many Europeans applied the <a href="/wiki/Arabic_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Arabic language">Arabic</a> term <i><a href="/wiki/Shaitan" title="Shaitan">shaitan</a></i> (meaning "devil") to the non-Christian practices and beliefs of Indigenous peoples beyond the <a href="/wiki/Ural_Mountains" title="Ural Mountains">Ural Mountains</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-15" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> She suggests that <i>shaman</i> may have entered the various Tungus dialects as a corruption of this term, and then been told to <a href="/wiki/Christian_missionaries" class="mw-redirect" title="Christian missionaries">Christian missionaries</a>, explorers, soldiers and colonial administrators with whom the people had increasing contact for centuries. </p><p>A female shaman is sometimes called a <i><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238216509">.mw-parser-output .vanchor>:target~.vanchor-text{background-color:#b1d2ff}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .vanchor>:target~.vanchor-text{background-color:#0f4dc9}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .vanchor>:target~.vanchor-text{background-color:#0f4dc9}}</style><span class="vanchor"><span id="shamanka"></span><span class="vanchor-text">shamanka</span></span></i>, which is not an actual Tungus term but simply <i>shaman</i> plus the Russian suffix <i><i lang="ru"><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/-%D0%BA%D0%B0#Russian" class="extiw" title="wikt:-ка">-ka</a></i></i> (for <a href="/wiki/Grammatical_gender" title="Grammatical gender">feminine</a> nouns).<sup id="cite_ref-16" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Definitions">Definitions</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Shamanism&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Definitions"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:SB_-_Altay_shaman_with_drum.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2d/SB_-_Altay_shaman_with_drum.jpg/170px-SB_-_Altay_shaman_with_drum.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="261" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2d/SB_-_Altay_shaman_with_drum.jpg/255px-SB_-_Altay_shaman_with_drum.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2d/SB_-_Altay_shaman_with_drum.jpg/340px-SB_-_Altay_shaman_with_drum.jpg 2x" data-file-width="395" data-file-height="607" /></a><figcaption>An <a href="/wiki/Altai_people" title="Altai people">Altay</a> shaman, <a href="/wiki/Russian_Empire" title="Russian Empire">Russian Empire</a>, 1908<sup id="cite_ref-17" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></figcaption></figure> <p>There is no single agreed-upon definition for the word "shamanism" among anthropologists. Thomas Downson suggests three shared elements of shamanism: practitioners consistently alter consciousness, the community regards altering consciousness as an important ritual practice, and the knowledge about the practice is controlled. </p><p>The English historian <a href="/wiki/Ronald_Hutton" title="Ronald Hutton">Ronald Hutton</a> noted that by the dawn of the 21st century, there were four separate definitions of the term which appeared to be in use: </p> <ol><li>To refer to "anybody who contacts a spirit world while in an altered state of consciousness".</li> <li>Those who contact a spirit world while in an altered state of consciousness at the behest of others.</li> <li>In an attempt to distinguish shamans from other magico-religious specialists who are believed to contact spirits, such as "<a href="/wiki/Mediumship" title="Mediumship">mediums</a>", "<a href="/wiki/Witch_doctor" title="Witch doctor">witch doctors</a>", "spiritual healers" or "prophets," this definition claims that shamans undertake some particular technique not used by the others. (Problematically, scholars advocating the third view have failed to agree on what the defining technique should be.)</li> <li>"Shamanism" referring to the <a href="/wiki/Indigenous_religions" class="mw-redirect" title="Indigenous religions">Indigenous religions</a> of Siberia and neighboring parts of Asia.<sup id="cite_ref-18" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> According to the Golomt Center for Shamanic Studies, a Mongolian organization of shamans, the Evenk word <i>shaman</i> would more accurately be translated as "priest".<sup id="cite_ref-19" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li></ol> <p>According to the <i><a href="/wiki/Oxford_English_Dictionary" title="Oxford English Dictionary">Oxford English Dictionary</a></i>, a shaman (<span class="rt-commentedText nowrap"><span class="IPA nopopups noexcerpt" lang="en-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Help:IPA/English" title="Help:IPA/English">/<span style="border-bottom:1px dotted"><span title="/ˈ/: primary stress follows">ˈ</span><span title="/ʃ/: 'sh' in 'shy'">ʃ</span><span title="/ɑː/: 'a' in 'father'">ɑː</span><span title="'m' in 'my'">m</span><span title="/ə/: 'a' in 'about'">ə</span><span title="'n' in 'nigh'">n</span></span>/</a></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Help:Pronunciation_respelling_key" title="Help:Pronunciation respelling key"><i title="English pronunciation respelling"><span style="font-size:90%">SHAH</span>-men</i></a>, <span class="rt-commentedText nowrap"><span class="IPA nopopups noexcerpt" lang="en-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Help:IPA/English" title="Help:IPA/English">/<span style="border-bottom:1px dotted"><span title="/ˈ/: primary stress follows">ˈ</span><span title="/ʃ/: 'sh' in 'shy'">ʃ</span><span title="/æ/: 'a' in 'bad'">æ</span><span title="'m' in 'my'">m</span><span title="/ə/: 'a' in 'about'">ə</span><span title="'n' in 'nigh'">n</span></span>/</a></span></span> or <span class="rt-commentedText nowrap"><span class="IPA nopopups noexcerpt" lang="en-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Help:IPA/English" title="Help:IPA/English">/<span style="border-bottom:1px dotted"><span title="/ˈ/: primary stress follows">ˈ</span><span title="/ʃ/: 'sh' in 'shy'">ʃ</span><span title="/eɪ/: 'a' in 'face'">eɪ</span><span title="'m' in 'my'">m</span><span title="/ə/: 'a' in 'about'">ə</span><span title="'n' in 'nigh'">n</span></span>/</a></span></span>)<sup id="cite_ref-OED_20-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-OED-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> is someone who is regarded as having access to, and influence in, the world of <a href="/wiki/Evocation" title="Evocation">benevolent and malevolent spirits</a>, who typically enters into a <a href="/wiki/Trance" title="Trance">trance</a> state during a <a href="/wiki/Ritual" title="Ritual">ritual</a>, and practices <a href="/wiki/Divination" title="Divination">divination</a> and <a href="/wiki/Healing" title="Healing">healing</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Singh-2018_1-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Singh-2018-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-OED_20-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-OED-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The word "shaman" probably originates from the Tungusic <a href="/wiki/Evenki_language" title="Evenki language">Evenki language</a> of <a href="/wiki/North_Asia" title="North Asia">North Asia</a>. According to Juha Janhunen, "the word is attested in all of the Tungusic idioms" such as <a href="/wiki/Negidal_language" title="Negidal language">Negidal</a>, <a href="/wiki/Even_language" title="Even language">Lamut</a>, <a href="/wiki/Udege_language" title="Udege language">Udehe</a>/<a href="/wiki/Oroch_language" title="Oroch language">Orochi</a>, <a href="/wiki/Nanai_language" title="Nanai language">Nanai</a>, Ilcha, <a href="/wiki/Orok_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Orok language">Orok</a>, <a href="/wiki/Manchu_language" title="Manchu language">Manchu</a> and <a href="/wiki/Ulch_language" title="Ulch language">Ulcha</a>, and "nothing seems to contradict the assumption that the meaning 'shaman' also derives from <a href="/wiki/Tungusic_languages" title="Tungusic languages">Proto-Tungusic</a>" and may have roots that extend back in time at least two millennia.<sup id="cite_ref-21" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The term was introduced to the west after Russian forces <a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Kazan" title="Siege of Kazan">conquered</a> the shamanistic <a href="/wiki/Khanate_of_Kazan" title="Khanate of Kazan">Khanate of Kazan</a> in 1552. </p><p>The term "shamanism" was first applied by <a href="/wiki/Western_world" title="Western world">Western</a> anthropologists as outside observers of the ancient religion of the <a href="/wiki/Turkic_peoples" title="Turkic peoples">Turks</a> and <a href="/wiki/Mongols" title="Mongols">Mongols</a>, as well as those of the neighbouring Tungusic- and <a href="/wiki/Samoyedic_languages" title="Samoyedic languages">Samoyedic</a>-speaking peoples. Upon observing more religious traditions around the world, some Western anthropologists began to also use the term in a very broad sense. The term was used to describe unrelated magicoreligious practices found within the <a href="/wiki/Ethnic_religion" title="Ethnic religion">ethnic religions</a> of other parts of Asia, Africa, Australasia and even completely unrelated parts of the Americas, as they believed these practices to be similar to one another.<sup id="cite_ref-22" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> While the term has been incorrectly applied by cultural outsiders to many Indigenous spiritual practices, the words “shaman” and “shamanism” do not accurately describe the variety and complexity that is Indigenous spirituality. Each nation and tribe has its own way of life, and uses terms in their own languages.<sup id="cite_ref-23" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><a href="/wiki/Mircea_Eliade" title="Mircea Eliade">Mircea Eliade</a> writes, "A first definition of this complex phenomenon, and perhaps the least hazardous, will be: shamanism = 'technique of <a href="/wiki/Religious_ecstasy" title="Religious ecstasy">religious ecstasy</a>'."<sup id="cite_ref-Eli72_24-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Eli72-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Shamanism encompasses the premise that shamans are intermediaries or messengers between the human world and the spirit worlds. Shamans are said to treat ailments and illnesses by mending the soul. Alleviating traumas affecting the soul or spirit are believed to restore the physical body of the individual to balance and wholeness. Shamans also claim to enter <a href="/wiki/Otherworld" title="Otherworld">supernatural realms</a> or <a href="/wiki/Plane_(esotericism)" title="Plane (esotericism)">dimensions</a> to obtain solutions to problems afflicting the community. Shamans claim to visit other worlds or dimensions to bring guidance to misguided souls and to ameliorate illnesses of the human soul caused by foreign elements. Shamans operate primarily within the spiritual world, which, they believe, in turn affects the human world. The restoration of balance is said to result in the elimination of the ailment.<sup id="cite_ref-Eli72_24-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Eli72-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Criticism_of_the_term">Criticism of the term</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Shamanism&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Criticism of the term"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Medicine_man" title="Medicine man">Medicine man</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Shaman_tableau.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b5/Shaman_tableau.png/220px-Shaman_tableau.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="173" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b5/Shaman_tableau.png/330px-Shaman_tableau.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b5/Shaman_tableau.png/440px-Shaman_tableau.png 2x" data-file-width="1705" data-file-height="1342" /></a><figcaption>A tableau presenting figures from various cultures described as "shamans" in Western academic literature.</figcaption></figure> <p>The anthropologist <a href="/wiki/Alice_Kehoe" class="mw-redirect" title="Alice Kehoe">Alice Kehoe</a> criticizes the term "shaman" in her book <i>Shamans and Religion: An Anthropological Exploration in Critical Thinking</i>. Part of this criticism involves the notion of <a href="/wiki/Cultural_appropriation" title="Cultural appropriation">cultural appropriation</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Waveland_Press_25-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Waveland_Press-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This includes criticism of <a href="/wiki/New_Age" title="New Age">New Age</a> and modern Western forms of shamanism, which, according to Kehoe, misrepresent or dilute Indigenous practices. Kehoe also believes that the term reinforces racist ideas such as the <a href="/wiki/Noble_savage" class="mw-redirect" title="Noble savage">noble savage</a>. </p><p>Kehoe is highly critical of <a href="/wiki/Mircea_Eliade" title="Mircea Eliade">Mircea Eliade</a>'s work on shamanism as an invention synthesized from various sources unsupported by more direct research. To Kehoe, citing practices such as <a href="/wiki/Drum" title="Drum">drumming</a>, trance, <a href="/wiki/Chant" title="Chant">chanting</a>, <a href="/wiki/Entheogen" title="Entheogen">entheogen</a> and <a href="/wiki/Hallucinogen" title="Hallucinogen">hallucinogen</a> use, <a href="/wiki/Mediumship" title="Mediumship">spirit communication</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Healing" title="Healing">healing</a> as definitive of shamanism ignores the fact that they exist outside of what is defined as shamanism and even play similar roles in nonshamanic cultures, for example chanting in the <a href="/wiki/Abrahamic_religions" title="Abrahamic religions">Abrahamic religions</a>. She argues that these expression are unique to each culture that uses them and that such practices cannot be generalized easily, accurately, or usefully into a global religion of shamanism. Because of this, Kehoe is also highly critical of the hypothesis that shamanism is an ancient, unchanged, and surviving religion from the Paleolithic period.<sup id="cite_ref-Waveland_Press_25-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Waveland_Press-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The term has been criticized<sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Manual_of_Style/Words_to_watch#Unsupported_attributions" title="Wikipedia:Manual of Style/Words to watch"><span title="The material near this tag may use weasel words or too-vague attribution. (February 2021)">by whom?</span></a></i>]</sup> for its perceived colonial roots, and as a tool to perpetuate perceived contemporary linguistic colonialism. By Western scholars, the term "shamanism" is used to refer to a variety of different cultures and practices around the world, which can vary dramatically and may not be accurately represented by a single concept. Billy-Ray Belcourt, an author and award-winning scholar from the Driftpile Cree Nation in Canada, argues that using language with the intention of simplifying culture that is diverse, such as Shamanism, as it is prevalent in communities around the world and is made up of many complex components, works to conceal the complexities of the social and political violence that Indigenous communities have experienced at the hands of settlers.<sup id="cite_ref-Fatal_Naming_Rituals_26-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Fatal_Naming_Rituals-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Belcourt argues that language used to imply “simplicity” in regards to Indigenous culture, is a tool used to belittle Indigenous cultures, as it views Indigenous communities solely as a result of a history embroiled in violence, that leaves Indigenous communities only capable of simplicity and plainness. </p><p>Anthropologist <a href="/w/index.php?title=Mih%C3%A1ly_Hopp%C3%A1l&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Mihály Hoppál (page does not exist)">Mihály Hoppál</a><span class="noprint" style="font-size:85%; font-style: normal;"> [<a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mih%C3%A1ly_Hopp%C3%A1l" class="extiw" title="de:Mihály Hoppál">de</a>]</span> also discusses whether the term "shamanism" is appropriate. He notes that for many readers, "-ism" implies a particular dogma, like Buddhism, Catholicism or Judaism. He recommends using the term "shamanhood"<sup id="cite_ref-summer_27-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-summer-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> or "shamanship"<sup id="cite_ref-28" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> (a term used in old Russian and German <a href="/wiki/Ethnography" title="Ethnography">ethnographic</a> reports at the beginning of the 20th century) for stressing the diversity and the specific features of the discussed cultures. He believes that this places more stress on the local variations<sup id="cite_ref-cogmap_7-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-cogmap-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and emphasizes that shamanism is not a religion of sacred <a href="/wiki/Dogma" title="Dogma">dogmas</a>, but linked to the everyday life in a practical way.<sup id="cite_ref-29" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Following similar thoughts, he also conjectures a contemporary paradigm shift.<sup id="cite_ref-summer_27-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-summer-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Piers_Vitebsky" title="Piers Vitebsky">Piers Vitebsky</a> also mentions that, despite really astonishing similarities, there is no unity in shamanism. The various, fragmented shamanistic practices and beliefs coexist with other beliefs everywhere. There is no record of pure shamanistic societies (although their existence is not impossible).<sup id="cite_ref-30" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Norwegian social anthropologist Hakan Rydving has likewise argued for the abandonment of the terms "shaman" and "shamanism" as "scientific illusions."<sup id="cite_ref-31" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Dulam Bumochir has affirmed the above critiques of "shamanism" as a Western construct created for comparative purposes and, in an extensive article, has documented the role of Mongols themselves, particularly "the partnership of scholars and shamans in the reconstruction of shamanism" in post-1990/post-communist Mongolia.<sup id="cite_ref-32" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This process has also been documented by Swiss anthropologist Judith Hangartner in her landmark study of Darhad shamans in Mongolia.<sup id="cite_ref-33" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Historian Karena Kollmar-Polenz argues that the social construction and reification of shamanism as a religious "other" actually began with the 18th-century writings of Tibetan Buddhist monks in Mongolia and later "probably influenced the formation of European discourse on Shamanism".<sup id="cite_ref-The_Invention_of_Shamanism_in_18t_34-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-The_Invention_of_Shamanism_in_18t-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="History">History</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Shamanism&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: History"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><span class="anchor" id="History_of_shamanism"></span> Shamanism is a system of religious practice.<sup id="cite_ref-35" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Historically, it is often associated with <a href="/wiki/Indigenous_peoples" title="Indigenous peoples">Indigenous</a> and <a href="/wiki/Tribal_societies" class="mw-redirect" title="Tribal societies">tribal societies</a>, and involves belief that shamans, with a connection to the <a href="/wiki/Otherworld" title="Otherworld">otherworld</a>, have the power to heal the sick, communicate with spirits, and escort souls of the dead to the <a href="/wiki/Afterlife" title="Afterlife">afterlife</a>. The origins of Shamanism stem from indigenous peoples of far northern Europe and Siberia.<sup id="cite_ref-36" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Despite structural implications of colonialism and imperialism that have limited the ability of Indigenous peoples to practice traditional spiritualities, many communities are undergoing resurgence through self-determination<sup id="cite_ref-37" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and the reclamation of dynamic traditions.<sup id="cite_ref-38" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Other groups have been able to avoid some of these structural impediments by virtue of their isolation, such as the nomadic <a href="/wiki/Tuvans" title="Tuvans">Tuvan</a> (with an estimated population of 3000 people surviving from this tribe).<sup id="cite_ref-39" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-39"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Tuva is one of the most isolated Asiatic tribes in Russia where the art of shamanism has been preserved until today due to its isolated existence, allowing it to be free from the influences of other major religions.<sup id="cite_ref-40" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Beliefs">Beliefs</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Shamanism&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Beliefs"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1246091330"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r886047488">.mw-parser-output .nobold{font-weight:normal}</style><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886047488"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886047488"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886047488"><table class="sidebar sidebar-collapse nomobile nowraplinks"><tbody><tr><td class="sidebar-pretitle" style="background: #efefef">Part of <a href="/wiki/Category:Witchcraft" title="Category:Witchcraft">a series</a> on</td></tr><tr><th class="sidebar-title-with-pretitle" style="background: #efefef;font-size:170%;"><a href="/wiki/Witchcraft" title="Witchcraft">Witchcraft</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-image"><span class="mw-default-size notpageimage" typeof="mw:File/Frameless"><a href="/wiki/File:John_William_Waterhouse_-_Magic_Circle_(cropped).JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/19/John_William_Waterhouse_-_Magic_Circle_%28cropped%29.JPG/200px-John_William_Waterhouse_-_Magic_Circle_%28cropped%29.JPG" decoding="async" width="200" height="208" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/19/John_William_Waterhouse_-_Magic_Circle_%28cropped%29.JPG/300px-John_William_Waterhouse_-_Magic_Circle_%28cropped%29.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/19/John_William_Waterhouse_-_Magic_Circle_%28cropped%29.JPG/400px-John_William_Waterhouse_-_Magic_Circle_%28cropped%29.JPG 2x" data-file-width="1165" data-file-height="1211" /></a></span></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-above"> <div class="hlist"> <ul><li><span class="nobold"><a href="/wiki/Neopagan_Witchcraft" class="mw-redirect" title="Neopagan Witchcraft">Neopagan</a></span> <ul><li><span class="nobold"><a href="/wiki/Wicca" title="Wicca">Wicca</a></span></li></ul></li> <li><span class="nobold"><a href="/wiki/Witchcraft_(feminist)" class="mw-redirect" title="Witchcraft (feminist)">Feminist</a></span> <ul><li><span class="nobold"><a href="/wiki/Dianic_Wicca" title="Dianic Wicca">Dianic</a></span></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content hlist" style="padding:0.2em 0.2em 0.3em;"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background: #efefef;background:#ccccff;padding:0;color:#333399;;color: var(--color-base)"><div class="sidebar-list-title-c">By region</div></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Witchcraft_in_Africa" title="Witchcraft in Africa">Africa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Asian_witchcraft" title="Asian witchcraft">Asia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/European_witchcraft" title="European witchcraft">Europe</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Sorcery_(goetia)" title="Sorcery (goetia)">Goetia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/European_witchcraft#Romania_and_the_Roma" title="European witchcraft">Roma</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Witchcraft_in_Latin_America" title="Witchcraft in Latin America">Latin America</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Witchcraft_in_the_Middle_East" title="Witchcraft in the Middle East">Middle East</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Witchcraft_in_North_America" title="Witchcraft in North America">North America</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Witchcraft_in_Oceania" class="mw-redirect" title="Witchcraft in Oceania">Oceania</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content hlist" style="padding:0.2em 0.2em 0.3em;"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background: #efefef;background:#ccccff;padding:0;color:#333399;;color: var(--color-base)"><div class="sidebar-list-title-c">Related topics</div></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cunning_folk" title="Cunning folk">Cunning folk</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Folk_religion" title="Folk religion">Folk religion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Magic_(supernatural)" title="Magic (supernatural)">Magic</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Black_magic" title="Black magic">Black</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Grey_magic" class="mw-redirect" title="Grey magic">Grey</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/White_magic" title="White magic">White</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Magic_and_religion" title="Magic and religion">Magic and religion</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Shamanism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Witch_(archetype)" title="Witch (archetype)">Witch as an archetype</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Witch-cult_hypothesis" title="Witch-cult hypothesis">Witch-cult hypothesis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Witch_hunt" title="Witch hunt">Witch hunt</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Witch_trials_in_the_early_modern_period" title="Witch trials in the early modern period">in the early modern period</a></li></ul></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-navbar"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Witchcraft_sidebar" title="Template:Witchcraft sidebar"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Witchcraft_sidebar" title="Template talk:Witchcraft sidebar"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Witchcraft_sidebar" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Witchcraft sidebar"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <p>There are many variations of shamanism throughout the world, but several common beliefs are shared by all forms of shamanism. Common beliefs identified by <a href="/wiki/Mircea_Eliade" title="Mircea Eliade">Eliade</a> (1972)<sup id="cite_ref-Eli72_24-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Eli72-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> are the following: </p> <ul><li>Spirits exist and they play important roles both in individual lives and in human society</li> <li>The shaman can communicate with the spirit world</li> <li>Spirits can be benevolent or malevolent</li> <li>The shaman can treat sickness caused by malevolent spirits</li> <li>The shaman can employ <a href="/wiki/Trance" title="Trance">trances</a> inducing techniques to incite visionary ecstasy and go on <a href="/wiki/Vision_quest" title="Vision quest">vision quests</a></li> <li>The shaman's spirit can leave the body to enter the <a href="/wiki/Supernatural" title="Supernatural">supernatural</a> world to search for answers</li> <li>The shaman evokes animal images as <a href="/wiki/Spirit_guides" class="mw-redirect" title="Spirit guides">spirit guides</a>, <a href="/wiki/Omen" title="Omen">omens</a>, and message-bearers</li> <li>The shaman can perform other varied forms of <a href="/wiki/Divination" title="Divination">divination</a>, <a href="/wiki/Scry" class="mw-redirect" title="Scry">scry</a>, throw bones, and sometimes foretell of future events</li></ul> <p>Shamanism is based on the premise that the visible world is pervaded by invisible forces or spirits which affect the lives of the living.<sup id="cite_ref-Peru_41-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Peru-41"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>41<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Although the causes of disease lie in the spiritual realm, inspired by malicious spirits, both spiritual and physical methods are used to heal. Commonly, a shaman "enters the body" of the patient to confront the spiritual infirmity and heals by banishing the infectious spirit. </p><p>Many shamans have expert knowledge of medicinal plants native to their area, and an herbal treatment is often prescribed. In many places shamans learn directly from the plants, harnessing their effects and healing properties, after obtaining permission from the indwelling or patron spirits. In the Peruvian Amazon Basin, shamans and <i><a href="/wiki/Curandero" title="Curandero">curanderos</a></i> use medicine songs called <i><a href="/wiki/Icaro" title="Icaro">icaros</a></i> to evoke spirits. Before a spirit can be summoned it must teach the shaman its song.<sup id="cite_ref-Peru_41-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Peru-41"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>41<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The use of <a href="/wiki/Totem" title="Totem">totemic</a> items such as rocks with special powers and an <a href="/wiki/Animism" title="Animism">animating spirit</a> is common. </p><p>Such practices are presumably very ancient. <a href="/wiki/Plato" title="Plato">Plato</a> wrote in his <i><a href="/wiki/Phaedrus_(dialogue)" title="Phaedrus (dialogue)">Phaedrus</a></i> that the "first prophecies were the words of an oak", and that those who lived at that time found it rewarding enough to "listen to an oak or a stone, so long as it was telling the truth". </p><p>Belief in witchcraft and sorcery, known as <i><a href="/wiki/Brujer%C3%ADa" class="mw-redirect" title="Brujería">brujería</a></i> in Latin America, exists in many societies. Other societies assert all shamans have the power to both cure and kill. Those with shamanic knowledge usually enjoy great power and prestige in the community, but they may also be regarded suspiciously or fearfully as potentially harmful to others.<sup id="cite_ref-42" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-42"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>42<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>By engaging in their work, a shaman is exposed to significant personal risk as shamanic plant materials can be toxic or fatal if misused. <a href="/wiki/Spell_(paranormal)" class="mw-redirect" title="Spell (paranormal)">Spells</a> are commonly used in an attempt to protect against these dangers, and the use of more dangerous plants is often very highly ritualized. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Soul_and_spirit_concepts">Soul and spirit concepts</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Shamanism&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Soul and spirit concepts"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Soul_dualism" title="Soul dualism">Soul dualism</a></div> <dl><dt>Soul</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/Soul_(spirit)" class="mw-redirect" title="Soul (spirit)">Soul</a> can generally explain more, seemingly unassociated phenomena in shamanism:<sup id="cite_ref-all-soul_43-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-all-soul-43"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>43<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-44" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-44"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>44<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-soulsham_45-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-soulsham-45"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>45<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></dd></dl> <dl><dt>Healing</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/Healing" title="Healing">Healing</a> may be based closely on the soul concepts of the belief system of the people served by the shaman.<sup id="cite_ref-sem-shamheal_46-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-sem-shamheal-46"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>46<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It may consist of the supposed retrieving the lost soul of the ill person.<sup id="cite_ref-resoul_47-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-resoul-47"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>47<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></dd></dl> <dl><dt>Scarcity of hunted game</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/Scarcity" title="Scarcity">Scarcity</a> of hunted game can be solved by "releasing" the souls of the animals from their hidden abodes. Besides that, many <a href="/wiki/Taboo" title="Taboo">taboos</a> may prescribe the behavior of people towards game, so that the souls of the animals do not feel angry or hurt, or the pleased soul of the already killed prey can tell the other, still living animals, that they can allow themselves to be caught and killed.<sup id="cite_ref-48" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-48"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>48<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Gab-KarEszk_49-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Gab-KarEszk-49"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>49<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></dd></dl> <dl><dt>Spirits</dt> <dd>Spirits are invisible entities that only shamans can see. They are seen as persons that can assume a human or animal body.<sup id="cite_ref-Swancutt-2018_50-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Swancutt-2018-50"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>50<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Some animals in their physical forms are also seen as spirits such as the case of the <a href="/wiki/Eagle" title="Eagle">eagle</a>, <a href="/wiki/Snake" title="Snake">snake</a>, <a href="/wiki/Jaguar" title="Jaguar">jaguar</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Rat" title="Rat">rat</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Swancutt-2018_50-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Swancutt-2018-50"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>50<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Beliefs related to spirits can explain many different phenomena.<sup id="cite_ref-51" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-51"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>51<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> For example, the importance of storytelling, or acting as a singer, can be understood better if the whole belief system is examined. A person who can memorize long texts or songs, and play an instrument, may be regarded as the beneficiary of contact with the spirits (e.g. <a href="/wiki/Khanty" title="Khanty">Khanty</a> people).<sup id="cite_ref-singtellplay_52-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-singtellplay-52"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>52<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></dd></dl> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Practice">Practice</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Shamanism&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Practice"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Religious_ecstasy" title="Religious ecstasy">Religious ecstasy</a></div> <p>Generally, shamans traverse the <a href="/wiki/Axis_mundi" title="Axis mundi">axis mundi</a> and enter the "spirit world" by effecting a transition of consciousness, entering into an <a href="/wiki/Religious_ecstasy" title="Religious ecstasy">ecstatic</a> trance, either <a href="/wiki/Autosuggestion" title="Autosuggestion">autohypnotically</a> or through the use of <a href="/wiki/Entheogen" title="Entheogen">entheogens</a> or ritual performances.<sup id="cite_ref-53" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-53"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>53<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-54" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-54"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>54<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The methods employed are diverse, and are often used together. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Music_and_songs">Music and songs</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Shamanism&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Music and songs"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Shamanic_music" title="Shamanic music">Shamanic music</a> and <a href="/wiki/Imitation_of_sounds_in_shamanism" title="Imitation of sounds in shamanism">Imitation of sounds in shamanism</a></div> <p>Just like shamanism itself,<sup id="cite_ref-cogmap_7-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-cogmap-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> music and songs related to it in various cultures are diverse. In several instances, songs related to shamanism are intended to imitate <a href="/wiki/Natural_sounds" title="Natural sounds">natural sounds</a>, via <a href="/wiki/Onomatopoeia" title="Onomatopoeia">onomatopoeia</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-onom_55-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-onom-55"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>55<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><a href="/wiki/Sound_mimesis_in_various_cultures" title="Sound mimesis in various cultures">Sound mimesis in various cultures</a> may serve other functions not necessarily related to shamanism: practical goals such as luring game in the hunt;<sup id="cite_ref-natt_56-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-natt-56"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>56<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> or entertainment (<a href="/wiki/Inuit_throat_singing" title="Inuit throat singing">Inuit throat singing</a>).<sup id="cite_ref-natt_56-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-natt-56"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>56<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-desch_57-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-desch-57"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>57<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Initiation_and_learning">Initiation and learning</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Shamanism&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Initiation and learning"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Shamans often claim to have been called through dreams or signs. However, some say their powers are inherited. In traditional societies shamanic training varies in length, but generally takes years. </p><p>Turner and colleagues<sup id="cite_ref-58" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-58"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>58<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> mention a phenomenon called "shamanistic initiatory crisis", a <a href="/wiki/Rite_of_passage" title="Rite of passage">rite of passage</a> for shamans-to-be, commonly involving physical illness or psychological crisis. The significant role of initiatory illnesses in the calling of a shaman can be found in the case history of <a href="/wiki/Oroqen_people#Religion" title="Oroqen people">Chuonnasuan</a>, who was one of the last shamans among the Tungus peoples in <a href="/wiki/Northeast_China" title="Northeast China">Northeast China</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-59" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-59"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>59<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The <a href="/wiki/Wounded_healer" title="Wounded healer">wounded healer</a> is an <a href="/wiki/Archetype" title="Archetype">archetype</a> for a shamanic trial and journey. This process is important to young shamans. They undergo a type of sickness that pushes them to the brink of death. This is said to happen for two reasons: </p> <ul><li>The shaman crosses over to the underworld. This happens so the shaman can venture to its depths to bring back vital information for the sick and the tribe.</li> <li>The shaman must become sick to understand sickness. When the shaman overcomes their own sickness, they believe that they will hold the cure to heal all that suffer.<sup id="cite_ref-60" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-60"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>60<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Other_practices">Other practices</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Shamanism&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Other practices"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ecstatic_dance" title="Ecstatic dance">Ecstatic dancing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vigil" title="Vigil">Vigils</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fasting" title="Fasting">Fasting</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Mariri" class="mw-redirect" title="Mariri">Mariri</a></i></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Items_used_in_spiritual_practice">Items used in spiritual practice</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Shamanism&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Items used in spiritual practice"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Shamans may employ varying materials in spiritual practice in different cultures. </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Goldes_shaman_priest_in_his_regalia.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5e/Goldes_shaman_priest_in_his_regalia.png/220px-Goldes_shaman_priest_in_his_regalia.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="173" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5e/Goldes_shaman_priest_in_his_regalia.png/330px-Goldes_shaman_priest_in_his_regalia.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5e/Goldes_shaman_priest_in_his_regalia.png/440px-Goldes_shaman_priest_in_his_regalia.png 2x" data-file-width="621" data-file-height="489" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Nanai_people" title="Nanai people">Goldes</a> shaman priest in his <a href="/wiki/Regalia#Other_uses" title="Regalia">regalia</a></figcaption></figure> <ul><li><b>Drums</b> – The <a href="/wiki/Drum" title="Drum">drum</a> is used by shamans of several peoples in Siberia.<sup id="cite_ref-61" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-61"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>61<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-62" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-62"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>62<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The beating of the drum allows the shaman to achieve an altered state of consciousness or to travel on a journey between the physical and spiritual worlds. Much fascination surrounds the role that the acoustics of the drum play to the shaman. Shaman drums are generally constructed of an animal-skin stretched over a bent wooden hoop, with a handle across the hoop.</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Roles">Roles</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Shamanism&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: Roles"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:COLLECTIE_TROPENMUSEUM_Een_shamaan_op_Zuid-Boeroe_bezweert_boze_geesten_de_kinderen_te_verlaten_waarbij_hij_een_geldstuk_en_een_sirihnoot_offert_TMnr_10001031.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/COLLECTIE_TROPENMUSEUM_Een_shamaan_op_Zuid-Boeroe_bezweert_boze_geesten_de_kinderen_te_verlaten_waarbij_hij_een_geldstuk_en_een_sirihnoot_offert_TMnr_10001031.jpg/220px-thumbnail.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="157" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/COLLECTIE_TROPENMUSEUM_Een_shamaan_op_Zuid-Boeroe_bezweert_boze_geesten_de_kinderen_te_verlaten_waarbij_hij_een_geldstuk_en_een_sirihnoot_offert_TMnr_10001031.jpg/330px-thumbnail.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/COLLECTIE_TROPENMUSEUM_Een_shamaan_op_Zuid-Boeroe_bezweert_boze_geesten_de_kinderen_te_verlaten_waarbij_hij_een_geldstuk_en_een_sirihnoot_offert_TMnr_10001031.jpg/440px-thumbnail.jpg 2x" data-file-width="700" data-file-height="499" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Maluku_Islands" title="Maluku Islands">South Moluccan</a> shaman in an <a href="/wiki/Exorcising" class="mw-redirect" title="Exorcising">exorcism</a> ritual involving children, <a href="/wiki/Buru" title="Buru">Buru</a>, Indonesia (1920)</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:An_Itneg_shaman_renewing_an_offering_to_the_spirit_shield_(1922,_Philippines).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/89/An_Itneg_shaman_renewing_an_offering_to_the_spirit_shield_%281922%2C_Philippines%29.jpg/220px-An_Itneg_shaman_renewing_an_offering_to_the_spirit_shield_%281922%2C_Philippines%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="130" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/89/An_Itneg_shaman_renewing_an_offering_to_the_spirit_shield_%281922%2C_Philippines%29.jpg/330px-An_Itneg_shaman_renewing_an_offering_to_the_spirit_shield_%281922%2C_Philippines%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/89/An_Itneg_shaman_renewing_an_offering_to_the_spirit_shield_%281922%2C_Philippines%29.jpg/440px-An_Itneg_shaman_renewing_an_offering_to_the_spirit_shield_%281922%2C_Philippines%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2751" data-file-height="1629" /></a><figcaption>A <a href="/wiki/Philippine_shamans" class="mw-redirect" title="Philippine shamans">shaman</a> of the <a href="/wiki/Itneg_people" title="Itneg people">Itneg people</a> in the Philippines renewing an offering to the spirit (<i><a href="/wiki/Anito" title="Anito">anito</a></i>) of a warrior's shield (<i><a href="/wiki/Kalasag" title="Kalasag">kalasag</a></i>) (1922)<sup id="cite_ref-cole_63-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-cole-63"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>63<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></figcaption></figure> <p>Shamans have been conceptualized as those who are able to gain knowledge and power to heal in the <a href="/wiki/Spirit_world_(Spiritualism)" title="Spirit world (Spiritualism)">spiritual world</a> or dimension. Most shamans have dreams or <a href="/wiki/Vision_(spirituality)" title="Vision (spirituality)">visions</a> that convey certain messages. Shamans may claim to have or have acquired many <a href="/wiki/Spirit_guides" class="mw-redirect" title="Spirit guides">spirit guides</a>, who they believe guide and direct them in their travels in the spirit world. These spirit guides are always thought to be present within the shaman, although others are said to encounter them only when the shaman is in a <a href="/wiki/Trance" title="Trance">trance</a>. The spirit guide energizes the shamans, enabling them to enter the spiritual dimension. Shamans claim to heal within the communities and the spiritual dimension by returning lost parts of the human soul from wherever they have gone. Shamans also claim to cleanse excess negative energies, which are said to confuse or pollute the soul. Shamans act as <a href="/wiki/Mediation" title="Mediation">mediators</a> in their cultures.<sup id="cite_ref-mediator_64-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-mediator-64"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>64<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-mediator2_65-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-mediator2-65"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>65<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Shamans claim to communicate with the spirits on behalf of the community, including the spirits of the deceased. Shamans believe they can communicate with both living and dead to alleviate unrest, unsettled issues, and to deliver gifts to the spirits. </p><p>Shamans perform a variety of functions depending upon their respective cultures;<sup id="cite_ref-multfunc_66-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-multfunc-66"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>66<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> healing,<sup id="cite_ref-sem-shamheal_46-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-sem-shamheal-46"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>46<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-67" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-67"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>67<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> leading a <a href="/wiki/Sacrifice" title="Sacrifice">sacrifice</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-68" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-68"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>68<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> preserving traditions by storytelling and songs,<sup id="cite_ref-memory_69-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-memory-69"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>69<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Fortune-telling" title="Fortune-telling">fortune-telling</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-70" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-70"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>70<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and acting as a <a href="/wiki/Psychopomp" title="Psychopomp">psychopomp</a> ("guide of souls").<sup id="cite_ref-psychopomp_71-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-psychopomp-71"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>71<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> A single shaman may fulfill several of these functions.<sup id="cite_ref-multfunc_66-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-multfunc-66"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>66<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The responsibilities of a shaman may include either guiding to their proper abode the souls of the dead (which may be guided either one-at-a-time or in a group, depending on the culture), and the curing of ailments. The ailments may be either purely physical afflictions—such as disease, which are claimed to be cured by gifting, flattering, threatening, or wrestling the disease-spirit (sometimes trying all these, sequentially), and which may be completed by displaying a supposedly extracted token of the disease-spirit (displaying this, even if "fraudulent", is supposed to impress the disease-spirit that it has been, or is in the process of being, defeated so that it will retreat and stay out of the patient's body), or else mental (including psychosomatic) afflictions—such as persistent terror, which is likewise believed to be cured by similar methods. In most languages a different term other than the one translated "shaman" is usually applied to a religious official leading sacrificial rites ("priest"), or to a raconteur ("sage") of traditional lore; there may be more of an overlap in functions (with that of a shaman), however, in the case of an interpreter of omens or of dreams. </p><p>There are distinct types of shamans who perform more specialized functions. For example, among the <a href="/wiki/Nanai_people" title="Nanai people">Nanai people</a>, a distinct kind of shaman acts as a psychopomp.<sup id="cite_ref-72" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-72"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>72<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Other specialized shamans may be distinguished according to the type of spirits, or realms of the spirit world, with which the shaman most commonly interacts. These roles vary among the <a href="/wiki/Nenets_people" class="mw-redirect" title="Nenets people">Nenets</a>, <a href="/wiki/Enets_people" class="mw-redirect" title="Enets people">Enets</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Selkup_people" title="Selkup people">Selkup</a> shamans.<sup id="cite_ref-73" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-73"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>73<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-74" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-74"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>74<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The assistant of an <a href="/wiki/Oroqen_people" title="Oroqen people">Oroqen</a> shaman (called <i>jardalanin</i>, or "second spirit") knows many things about the associated beliefs. He or she accompanies the rituals and interprets the behaviors of the shaman.<sup id="cite_ref-Guan_Kouni_75-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Guan_Kouni-75"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>75<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Despite these functions, the <i>jardalanin</i> is not a shaman. For this interpretative assistant, it would be unwelcome to fall into a trance.<sup id="cite_ref-interpreter_76-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-interpreter-76"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>76<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Ecological_aspect">Ecological aspect</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Shamanism&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: Ecological aspect"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>As the primary teacher of tribal symbolism, the shaman may have a leading role in this <a href="/wiki/Ecology" title="Ecology">ecological</a> management, actively restricting hunting and fishing. Among the <a href="/wiki/Tucano_people" title="Tucano people">Tucano people</a>, a sophisticated system exists for <a href="/wiki/Environmental_resource_management" title="Environmental resource management">environmental resources management</a> and for avoiding resource depletion through overhunting. This system is conceptualized mythologically and symbolically by the belief that breaking hunting restrictions may cause illness. <sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (August 2024)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> The shaman is able to "release" game animals, or their souls, from their hidden abodes.<sup id="cite_ref-eco_77-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-eco-77"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>77<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-78" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-78"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>78<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The <a href="/wiki/Piaroa_people" title="Piaroa people">Piaroa people</a> have ecological concerns related to shamanism.<sup id="cite_ref-ecopia_79-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ecopia-79"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>79<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Among the <a href="/wiki/Inuit" title="Inuit">Inuit</a> the <i><a href="/wiki/Angakkuq" title="Angakkuq">angakkuq</a></i> (shamans) fetch the souls of game from remote places,<sup id="cite_ref-80" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-80"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>80<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-81" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-81"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>81<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> or <a href="/wiki/Astral_projection" title="Astral projection">soul travel</a> to ask for game from mythological beings like the <a href="/wiki/Sedna_(mythology)" title="Sedna (mythology)">Sea Woman</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-82" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-82"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>82<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Economics">Economics</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Shamanism&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: Economics"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The way shamans get sustenance and take part in everyday life varies across cultures. In many Inuit groups, they provide services for the community and get a "due payment",<sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Manual_of_Style/Words_to_watch#Unsupported_attributions" title="Wikipedia:Manual of Style/Words to watch"><span title="The material near this tag possibly uses too-vague attribution or weasel words. (February 2012)">who?</span></a></i>]</sup> and believe the payment is given to the helping spirits.<sup id="cite_ref-mshare_83-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-mshare-83"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>83<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> An account states that the gifts and payments that a shaman receives are given by his partner spirit. Since it obliges the shaman to use his gift and to work regularly in this capacity, the spirit rewards him with the goods that it receives.<sup id="cite_ref-84" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-84"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>84<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> These goods, however, are only "welcome addenda". They are not enough to enable a full-time shaman. Shamans live like any other member of the group, as a hunter or housewife. Due to the popularity of <a href="/wiki/Ayahuasca" title="Ayahuasca">ayahuasca tourism</a> in South America, there are practitioners in areas frequented by backpackers who make a living from leading ceremonies.<sup id="cite_ref-failed-shaman_85-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-failed-shaman-85"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>85<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-mshare_83-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-mshare-83"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>83<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Furthermore, due to the predominant number of female shamans over males, shamanism was and continues to be an integral part of women’s economic liberation. <sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="Citation below to Jonghyun (2009) deals specifically with Korean shamanism, but this is phrased globally. There are some cultures where shamans are typically male. (December 2023)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> Shamanism often serves as an economic resource due to the requirement of payment for service. This economic revenue was vital for female shamans, especially those living during the Chosun Dynasty in Korea (A.D. 1392–1910). In a culture that disapproved of female economic autonomy, the practice of shamanism allowed women to advance themselves financially and independently, in a way that had not been possible for them before.<sup id="cite_ref-86" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-86"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>86<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Academic_study">Academic study</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Shamanism&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: Academic study"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Shaman.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d1/Shaman.jpg/170px-Shaman.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="232" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d1/Shaman.jpg/255px-Shaman.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d1/Shaman.jpg/340px-Shaman.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1313" data-file-height="1792" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/S%C3%A1mi_people" class="mw-redirect" title="Sámi people">Sámi</a> <i><a href="/wiki/Noaidi" title="Noaidi">noaidi</a> with his drum</i></figcaption></figure> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Cognitive_and_evolutionary_approaches">Cognitive and evolutionary approaches</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Shamanism&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: Cognitive and evolutionary approaches"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>There are two major frameworks among cognitive and evolutionary scientists for explaining shamanism. The first, proposed by anthropologist Michael Winkelman, is known as the "neurotheological theory".<sup id="cite_ref-87" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-87"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>87<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-88" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-88"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>88<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> According to Winkelman, shamanism develops reliably in human societies because it provides valuable benefits to the practitioner, their group, and individual clients. In particular, the trance states induced by dancing, hallucinogens, and other triggers are hypothesized to have an "integrative" effect on cognition, allowing communication among mental systems that specialize in <a href="/wiki/Theory_of_mind" title="Theory of mind">theory of mind</a>, social intelligence, and natural history.<sup id="cite_ref-89" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-89"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>89<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> With this cognitive integration, the shaman can better predict the movement of animals, resolve group conflicts, plan migrations, and provide other useful services. </p> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1246091330"><table class="sidebar sidebar-collapse nomobile nowraplinks"><tbody><tr><td class="sidebar-pretitle" style="background: #efefef">Part of <a href="/wiki/Category:Magic_(supernatural)" title="Category:Magic (supernatural)">a series</a> on</td></tr><tr><th class="sidebar-title-with-pretitle" style="background: #efefef;font-size:170%;"><a href="/wiki/Magic_(supernatural)" title="Magic (supernatural)">Magic</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-image" style="background:#ffffff"><span class="mw-default-size notpageimage" typeof="mw:File/Frameless"><a href="/wiki/File:Heptameron_magic_circle.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/02/Heptameron_magic_circle.jpg/110px-Heptameron_magic_circle.jpg" decoding="async" width="110" height="106" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/02/Heptameron_magic_circle.jpg/165px-Heptameron_magic_circle.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/02/Heptameron_magic_circle.jpg/220px-Heptameron_magic_circle.jpg 2x" data-file-width="529" data-file-height="510" /></a></span></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content hlist" style="padding:0.2em 0.2em 0.3em;"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background: #efefef;background:#ccccff;padding:0;color:#333399;;color: var(--color-base)"><div class="sidebar-list-title-c">Background</div></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_magic" title="History of magic">History of magic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Magic_and_religion" title="Magic and religion">Magic and religion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Psychological_theories_of_magic" title="Psychological theories of magic">Psychological theories of magic</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content hlist" style="padding:0.2em 0.2em 0.3em;"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background: #efefef;background:#ccccff;padding:0;color:#333399;;color: var(--color-base)"><div class="sidebar-list-title-c">Forms</div></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Apotropaic_magic" title="Apotropaic magic">Apotropaic magic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Black_magic" title="Black magic">Black magic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ceremonial_magic" title="Ceremonial magic">Ceremonial magic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chaos_magic" title="Chaos magic">Chaos magic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Divination" title="Divination">Divination</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evocation" title="Evocation">Evocation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sorcery_(goetia)" title="Sorcery (goetia)">Goetia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gray_magic" title="Gray magic">Gray magic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Invocation" title="Invocation">Invocation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Natural_magic" title="Natural magic">Natural magic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Necromancy" title="Necromancy">Necromancy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sex_magic" title="Sex magic">Sex magic</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Shamanism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sigil" title="Sigil">Sigils</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sympathetic_magic" title="Sympathetic magic">Sympathetic magic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thaumaturgy" title="Thaumaturgy">Thaumaturgy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theurgy" title="Theurgy">Theurgy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/White_magic" title="White magic">White magic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Witchcraft" title="Witchcraft">Witchcraft</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content hlist" style="padding:0.2em 0.2em 0.3em;"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background: #efefef;background:#ccccff;padding:0;color:#333399;;color: var(--color-base)"><div class="sidebar-list-title-c">Religion</div></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Magic_and_religion" title="Magic and religion">Magic and religion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christian_views_on_magic" title="Christian views on magic">Christian views on magic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Folk_religion" title="Folk religion">Folk religion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islam_and_magic" title="Islam and magic">Islam and magic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mysticism" title="Mysticism">Mysticism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shinto" title="Shinto">Shinto</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thelema" title="Thelema">Thelema</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content hlist" style="padding:0.2em 0.2em 0.3em;"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background: #efefef;background:#ccccff;padding:0;color:#333399;;color: var(--color-base)"><div class="sidebar-list-title-c">Related topics</div></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Incantation" title="Incantation">Incantation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Magical_formula" title="Magical formula">Magical formula</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Magical_organization" title="Magical organization">Magical organization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Occult" title="Occult">Occult</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Western_esotericism" title="Western esotericism">Western esotericism</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-navbar"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Magic_sidebar" title="Template:Magic sidebar"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Template_talk:Magic_sidebar&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Template talk:Magic sidebar (page does not exist)"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Magic_sidebar" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Magic sidebar"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <p>The neurotheological theory contrasts with the "by-product" or "subjective" model of shamanism developed by Harvard anthropologist Manvir Singh.<sup id="cite_ref-Singh-2018_1-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Singh-2018-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-90" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-90"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>90<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-91" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-91"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>91<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> According to Singh, shamanism is a cultural technology that adapts to (or hacks) our psychological biases to convince us that a specialist can influence important but uncontrollable outcomes.<sup id="cite_ref-92" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-92"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>92<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Citing work on <a href="/wiki/Psychological_theories_of_magic" title="Psychological theories of magic">the psychology of magic</a> and <a href="/wiki/Superstition#Superstition_and_psychology" title="Superstition">superstition</a>, Singh argues that humans search for ways of influencing uncertain events, such as healing illness, controlling rain, or attracting animals. As specialists compete to help their clients control these outcomes, they drive the evolution of psychologically compelling magic, producing traditions adapted to people's cognitive biases. Shamanism, Singh argues, is the culmination of this cultural evolutionary process—a psychologically appealing method for controlling uncertainty. For example, some shamanic practices exploit our intuitions about humanness: Practitioners use trance and dramatic initiations to seemingly become entities distinct from normal humans and thus more apparently capable of interacting with the invisible forces believed to oversee important outcomes. Influential cognitive and anthropological scientists, such as <a href="/wiki/Pascal_Boyer" title="Pascal Boyer">Pascal Boyer</a> and <a href="/wiki/Nicholas_Humphrey" title="Nicholas Humphrey">Nicholas Humphrey</a>, have endorsed Singh's approach,<sup id="cite_ref-93" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-93"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>93<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-94" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-94"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>94<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> although other researchers have criticized Singh's dismissal of individual- and group-level benefits.<sup id="cite_ref-95" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-95"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>95<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Ecological_approaches_and_systems_theory">Ecological approaches and systems theory</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Shamanism&action=edit&section=18" title="Edit section: Ecological approaches and systems theory"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Gerardo_Reichel-Dolmatoff" title="Gerardo Reichel-Dolmatoff">Gerardo Reichel-Dolmatoff</a> relates these concepts to developments in the ways that modern science (systems theory, ecology, new approaches in anthropology and archeology) treats <a href="/wiki/Causality" title="Causality">causality</a> in a less linear fashion.<sup id="cite_ref-eco_77-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-eco-77"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>77<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> He also suggests a cooperation of modern science and Indigenous lore.<sup id="cite_ref-coop_96-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-coop-96"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>96<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Historical_origins">Historical origins</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Shamanism&action=edit&section=19" title="Edit section: Historical origins"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Shamanic practices may originate as early as the <a href="/wiki/Paleolithic" title="Paleolithic">Paleolithic</a>, predating all organized religions,<sup id="cite_ref-97" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-97"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>97<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Narr_98-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Narr-98"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>98<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and certainly as early as the <a href="/wiki/Neolithic" title="Neolithic">Neolithic</a> period.<sup id="cite_ref-Narr_98-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Narr-98"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>98<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The earliest known undisputed burial of a shaman (and by extension the earliest undisputed evidence of shamans and shamanic practices) dates back to the early <a href="/wiki/Upper_Paleolithic" title="Upper Paleolithic">Upper Paleolithic era</a> (c. 30,000 BP) in what is now the Czech Republic.<sup id="cite_ref-99" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-99"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>99<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Sanskrit scholar and comparative mythologist <a href="/wiki/Michael_Witzel" title="Michael Witzel">Michael Witzel</a> proposes that all of the world's mythologies, and also the concepts and practices of shamans, can be traced to the migrations of two prehistoric populations: the "<a href="/wiki/Gondwana" title="Gondwana">Gondwana</a>" type (of circa 65,000 years ago) and the "<a href="/wiki/Laurasia" title="Laurasia">Laurasian</a>" type (of circa 40,000 years ago).<sup id="cite_ref-100" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-100"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>100<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In November 2008, researchers from the Hebrew University of Jerusalem announced the discovery of a 12,000-year-old site in <a href="/wiki/Pre-history_of_the_Southern_Levant" class="mw-redirect" title="Pre-history of the Southern Levant">Israel</a> that is perceived as one of the earliest-known shaman burials. The elderly woman had been arranged on her side, with her legs apart and folded inward at the knee. Ten large stones were placed on the head, pelvis, and arms. Among her unusual <a href="/wiki/Grave_goods" title="Grave goods">grave goods</a> were 50 complete tortoise shells, a human foot, and certain body parts from animals such as a cow tail and eagle wings. Other animal remains came from a boar, leopard, and two martens. "It seems that the woman … was perceived as being in a close relationship with these animal spirits", researchers noted. The grave was one of at least 28 graves at the site, located in a cave in lower <a href="/wiki/Galilee" title="Galilee">Galilee</a> and belonging to the <a href="/wiki/Natufian_culture" title="Natufian culture">Natufian culture</a>, but is said to be unlike any other among the Epipaleolithic Natufians or in the Paleolithic period.<sup id="cite_ref-101" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-101"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>101<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Semiotic_and_hermeneutic_approaches">Semiotic and hermeneutic approaches</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Shamanism&action=edit&section=20" title="Edit section: Semiotic and hermeneutic approaches"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>A debated etymology of the word "shaman" is "one who knows",<sup id="cite_ref-Diószegi_1962:13_8-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Diószegi_1962:13-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Hoppál_2005:14_102-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Hoppál_2005:14-102"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>102<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> implying, among other things, that the shaman is an expert in keeping together the multiple <a href="/wiki/Code" title="Code">codes</a> of the society, and that to be effective, shamans must maintain a comprehensive view in their mind which gives them certainty of <a href="/wiki/Knowledge" title="Knowledge">knowledge</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-cogmap_7-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-cogmap-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> According to this view, the shaman uses (and the audience understands) multiple codes, expressing meanings in many ways: verbally, musically, artistically, and in dance. Meanings may be manifested in objects such as <a href="/wiki/Amulet" title="Amulet">amulets</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Hoppál_2005:14_102-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Hoppál_2005:14-102"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>102<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> If the shaman knows the culture of their community well,<sup id="cite_ref-mediator2_65-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-mediator2-65"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>65<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-103" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-103"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>103<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-knowncult_104-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-knowncult-104"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>104<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and acts accordingly, their audience will know the used symbols and meanings and therefore trust the shamanic worker.<sup id="cite_ref-knowncult_104-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-knowncult-104"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>104<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-etym2_105-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-etym2-105"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>105<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>There are also <a href="/wiki/Semiotics" title="Semiotics">semiotic</a>, theoretical approaches to shamanism,<sup id="cite_ref-semi_106-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-semi-106"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>106<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-107" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-107"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>107<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-108" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-108"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>108<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and examples of "mutually opposing symbols" in academic studies of Siberian lore, distinguishing a "white" shaman who contacts sky spirits for good aims by day, from a "black" shaman who contacts evil spirits for bad aims by night.<sup id="cite_ref-semiotics_of_shamanism_109-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-semiotics_of_shamanism-109"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>109<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> (Series of such opposing symbols referred to a world-view behind them. Analogously to the way grammar arranges words to express meanings and convey a world, also this formed a cognitive map).<sup id="cite_ref-cogmap_7-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-cogmap-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-hop-natworsib_110-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-hop-natworsib-110"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>110<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Shaman's lore is rooted in the folklore of the community, which provides a "mythological mental map."<sup id="cite_ref-111" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-111"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>111<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Hoppál_2007c_25_112-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Hoppál_2007c_25-112"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>112<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Juha_Pentik%C3%A4inen" title="Juha Pentikäinen">Juha Pentikäinen</a> uses the concept <i>"grammar of mind."</i><sup id="cite_ref-Hoppál_2007c_25_112-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Hoppál_2007c_25-112"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>112<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-113" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-113"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>113<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Armin Geertz coined and introduced the <a href="/wiki/Hermeneutics" title="Hermeneutics">hermeneutics</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-114" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-114"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>114<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> or "ethnohermeneutics",<sup id="cite_ref-hop-natworsib_110-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-hop-natworsib-110"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>110<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> interpretation. Hoppál extended the term to include not only the interpretation of oral and written texts, but that of "visual texts as well (including motions, gestures and more complex rituals, and ceremonies performed, for instance, by shamans)".<sup id="cite_ref-ethnohermeneutics_115-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ethnohermeneutics-115"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>115<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Revealing the <a href="/wiki/Animism" title="Animism">animistic</a> views in shamanism, but also their relevance to the contemporary world, where ecological problems have validated paradigms of balance and protection.<sup id="cite_ref-Hoppál_2007c_25_112-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Hoppál_2007c_25-112"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>112<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Medical_anthropology_approaches">Medical anthropology approaches</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Shamanism&action=edit&section=21" title="Edit section: Medical anthropology approaches"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In many societies where shamanism is practiced, the understanding and treatment of illness are closely tied to social and cultural processes. Disease is often seen not just as a biological condition but as a disruption in the balance of spiritual and social relationships. The concept of the body in these contexts is multifaceted, encompassing physical, social, and cultural dimensions.<sup id="cite_ref-Joralemon-2017_116-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Joralemon-2017-116"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>116<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Anthropologists Nancy Scheper-Hughes and Margaret Lock expand on this by introducing the idea of "the three bodies": the "individual body," relating to personal health experiences; the "social body," connecting health to social and cultural values; and the "body politic," reflecting the influence of power structures on health outcomes.<sup id="cite_ref-117" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-117"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>117<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>According to anthropologist Donald Joralemon, the practice of medicine is inherently a social process, both in shamanistic societies and contemporary biomedicine.<sup id="cite_ref-Joralemon-2017_116-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Joralemon-2017-116"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>116<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Joralemon argues that healing rituals, diagnoses, and treatments are deeply embedded in the cultural norms and social expectations of a community. This is particularly evident in shamanism, where the shaman addresses not only physical symptoms but also the spiritual and communal aspects of illness. The shaman's role is to restore harmony within the individual and the community, reinforcing the social bonds believed to influence health. Joralemon emphasizes that in both traditional and modern medical practices, disease is not merely a biological fact but a social phenomenon, shaped by the cultural and societal contexts in which it occurs .<sup id="cite_ref-Joralemon-2017_116-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Joralemon-2017-116"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>116<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Where a Shaman is present within a community - the group determines whether an individual is true Shaman or not. The group also determines whether an individual is sick and doomed by sorcery,<sup id="cite_ref-118" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-118"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>118<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> this is where a Shaman is given the role to dispel an illness.<sup id="cite_ref-119" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-119"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>119<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Shaman does not become a great Shaman because they cure a person, it is because they are known by the group as great Shamans.<sup id="cite_ref-120" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-120"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>120<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Community members known as dreamers also listen in on private conversations to convey an individual’s known sickness.<sup id="cite_ref-121" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-121"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>121<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Decline_and_revitalization_and_tradition-preserving_movements">Decline and revitalization and tradition-preserving movements</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Shamanism&action=edit&section=22" title="Edit section: Decline and revitalization and tradition-preserving movements"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Traditional, Indigenous shamanism is believed to be declining around the world. Whalers who frequently interacted with Inuit groups are one source of this decline in that region.<sup id="cite_ref-122" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-122"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>122<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Kyzyl_Shaman.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4f/Kyzyl_Shaman.jpg/170px-Kyzyl_Shaman.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="266" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4f/Kyzyl_Shaman.jpg/255px-Kyzyl_Shaman.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4f/Kyzyl_Shaman.jpg/340px-Kyzyl_Shaman.jpg 2x" data-file-width="377" data-file-height="591" /></a><figcaption>A shaman doctor of <a href="/wiki/Kyzyl" title="Kyzyl">Kyzyl</a>, 2005. Attempts are being made to preserve and revitalize <a href="/wiki/Tuvans" title="Tuvans">Tuvan</a> shamanism:<sup id="cite_ref-tuva_123-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-tuva-123"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>123<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> former authentic shamans have begun to practice again, and young apprentices are being educated in an organized way.<sup id="cite_ref-authentic-revitalization-tuva_124-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-authentic-revitalization-tuva-124"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>124<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></figcaption></figure> <p>In many areas, former shamans ceased to fulfill the functions in the community they used to, as they felt mocked by their own community,<sup id="cite_ref-125" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-125"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>125<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> or regarded their own past as deprecated and were unwilling to talk about it to ethnographers.<sup id="cite_ref-shamed_126-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-shamed-126"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>126<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Besides personal communications of former shamans, folklore texts may narrate directly about a deterioration process. For example, a <a href="/wiki/Buryats" title="Buryats">Buryat</a> epic text details the wonderful deeds of the ancient "first shaman" Kara-Gürgän:<sup id="cite_ref-Kara-Gurgan_127-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Kara-Gurgan-127"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>127<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> he could even compete with God, create life, steal back the soul of the sick from God without his consent. A subsequent text laments that shamans of older times were stronger, possessing capabilities like omnividence,<sup id="cite_ref-flatland_128-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-flatland-128"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>128<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> fortune-telling even for decades in the future, moving as fast as a bullet.<sup id="cite_ref-deter_129-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-deter-129"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>129<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In most affected areas, shamanic practices ceased to exist, with authentic shamans dying and their personal experiences dying with them. The loss of memories is not always lessened by the fact the shaman is not always the only person in a community who knows the beliefs and motives related to the local shaman-hood.<sup id="cite_ref-Guan_Kouni_75-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Guan_Kouni-75"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>75<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-interpreter_76-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-interpreter-76"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>76<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Although the shaman is often believed and trusted precisely because they "accommodate" to the beliefs of the community,<sup id="cite_ref-knowncult_104-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-knowncult-104"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>104<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> several parts of the knowledge related to the local shamanhood consist of personal experiences of the shaman, or root in their family life,<sup id="cite_ref-drum-symbols_130-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-drum-symbols-130"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>130<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> thus, those are lost with their death. Besides that, in many cultures, the entire traditional belief system has become endangered (often together with a partial or total <a href="/wiki/Language_shift" title="Language shift">language shift</a>), with the other people of the community remembering the associated beliefs and practices (or the language at all) grew old or died, many folklore memories, songs, and texts were forgotten—which may threaten even such peoples who could preserve their isolation until the middle of the 20th century, like the <a href="/wiki/Nganasan_people" title="Nganasan people">Nganasan</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-131" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-131"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>131<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Some areas could enjoy a prolonged resistance due to their remoteness. </p> <ul><li>Variants of <a href="/wiki/Inuit_religion" title="Inuit religion">shamanism among Inuit</a> were once a widespread (and very diverse) phenomenon, but today is rarely practiced, as well as already having been in decline among many groups, even while the first major ethnological research was being done,<sup id="cite_ref-132" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-132"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>132<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> e.g. among Inuit, at the end of the 19th century, Sagloq, the last <a href="/wiki/Angakkuq" title="Angakkuq">angakkuq</a> who was believed to be able to travel to the sky and under the sea died—and many other former shamanic capacities were lost during that time as well, like ventriloquism and sleight of hand.<sup id="cite_ref-133" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-133"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>133<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>The isolated location of Nganasan people allowed shamanism to be a living phenomenon among them even at the beginning of the 20th century,<sup id="cite_ref-hop_134-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-hop-134"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>134<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> the last notable Nganasan shaman's ceremonies were recorded on film in the 1970s.<sup id="cite_ref-Hoppal_135-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Hoppal-135"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>135<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li></ul> <p>After exemplifying the general decline even in the most remote areas, there are revitalizations or tradition-preserving efforts as a response. Besides collecting the memories,<sup id="cite_ref-collect_136-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-collect-136"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>136<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> there are also tradition-preserving<sup id="cite_ref-137" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-137"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>137<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and even revitalization efforts,<sup id="cite_ref-138" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-138"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>138<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> led by authentic former shamans (for example among the Sakha people<sup id="cite_ref-authentic-revitalization-sakha_139-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-authentic-revitalization-sakha-139"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>139<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and Tuvans).<sup id="cite_ref-authentic-revitalization-tuva_124-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-authentic-revitalization-tuva-124"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>124<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><a href="/wiki/Native_Americans_in_the_United_States" title="Native Americans in the United States">Native Americans in the United States</a> do not call their traditional spiritual ways "shamanism." However, according to Richard L. Allen, research and policy analyst for the <a href="/wiki/Cherokee_Nation" title="Cherokee Nation">Cherokee Nation</a>, they are regularly overwhelmed with inquiries by and about <a href="/wiki/Plastic_shaman" title="Plastic shaman">fraudulent shamans</a>, (aka "plastic medicine people").<sup id="cite_ref-140" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-140"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>140<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> He adds, "One may assume that anyone claiming to be a Cherokee 'shaman, spiritual healer, or pipe-carrier', is equivalent to a modern day medicine show and snake-oil vendor."<sup id="cite_ref-RG_141-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-RG-141"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>141<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Regional_variations">Regional variations</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Shamanism&action=edit&section=23" title="Edit section: Regional variations"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Regional_forms_of_shamanism" title="Regional forms of shamanism">Regional forms of shamanism</a></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Shamanism&action=edit&section=24" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1184024115">.mw-parser-output .div-col{margin-top:0.3em;column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .div-col-small{font-size:90%}.mw-parser-output .div-col-rules{column-rule:1px solid #aaa}.mw-parser-output .div-col dl,.mw-parser-output .div-col ol,.mw-parser-output .div-col ul{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .div-col li,.mw-parser-output .div-col dd{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}</style><div class="div-col" style="column-width: 16em;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Divine_madness#Shamanism" title="Divine madness">Divine madness</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dukun" title="Dukun">Dukun</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paganism" title="Paganism">Paganism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_ritual_mastery_traditions" title="Chinese ritual mastery traditions">Fashi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Folk_healer" title="Folk healer">Folk healer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/White_magick" class="mw-redirect" title="White magick">White magick</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fugara" title="Fugara">Fugara</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Itako" title="Itako">Itako</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jagar_(ritual)" title="Jagar (ritual)">Jagar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mu_(shaman)" title="Mu (shaman)">Mu (shaman)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neuroanthropology" title="Neuroanthropology">Neuroanthropology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pawang" title="Pawang">Pawang</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plastic_shaman" title="Plastic shaman">Plastic shaman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prehistoric_medicine" title="Prehistoric medicine">Prehistoric medicine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reincarnation#Ho-Chunk" title="Reincarnation">Reincarnation (Ho-Chunk)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sei%C3%B0r" title="Seiðr">Seiðr</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shaking_Tent_Ceremony" class="mw-redirect" title="Shaking Tent Ceremony">Shaking Tent Ceremony</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Shaman_King" title="Shaman King">Shaman King</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Soul_catcher" class="mw-redirect" title="Soul catcher">Soul catcher</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Soul_flight" title="Soul flight">Soul flight</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spirit_spouse" title="Spirit spouse">Spirit spouse</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tangki" class="mw-redirect" title="Tangki">Tangki</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tlamatini" title="Tlamatini">Tlamatini</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zduha%C4%87" title="Zduhać">Zduhać</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spirit_(supernatural_entity)" title="Spirit (supernatural entity)">Spirit (supernatural entity)</a></li></ul></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Shamanism&action=edit&section=25" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Citations">Citations</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Shamanism&action=edit&section=26" title="Edit section: Citations"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-Singh-2018-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Singh-2018_1-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Singh-2018_1-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Singh-2018_1-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Singh-2018_1-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite id="CITEREFSingh2018" class="citation journal cs1">Singh, Manvir (2018). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.researchgate.net/publication/318255042">"The cultural evolution of shamanism"</a>. <i>Behavioral and Brain Sciences</i>. <b>41</b>: e66: 1–61. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1017%2FS0140525X17001893">10.1017/S0140525X17001893</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/28679454">28679454</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:206264885">206264885</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Behavioral+and+Brain+Sciences&rft.atitle=The+cultural+evolution+of+shamanism&rft.volume=41&rft.pages=e66%3A+1-61&rft.date=2018&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A206264885%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F28679454&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1017%2FS0140525X17001893&rft.aulast=Singh&rft.aufirst=Manvir&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.researchgate.net%2Fpublication%2F318255042&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AShamanism" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-2">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMircea_EliadeVilmos_Diószegi2020" class="citation web cs1">Mircea Eliade; Vilmos Diószegi (May 12, 2020). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.britannica.com/topic/shamanism">"Shamanism"</a>. <i>Encyclopædia Britannica</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">May 20,</span> 2020</span>. <q>Shamanism, religious phenomenon centred on the shaman, a person believed to achieve various powers through trance or ecstatic or unifying, religious experience. Although shamans' repertoires vary from one culture to the next, they are typically thought to have the ability to heal the sick, to communicate with the otherworld, and often to escort the souls of the dead to that otherworld.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Encyclop%C3%A6dia+Britannica&rft.atitle=Shamanism&rft.date=2020-05-12&rft.au=Mircea+Eliade&rft.au=Vilmos+Di%C3%B3szegi&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.britannica.com%2Ftopic%2Fshamanism&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AShamanism" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-3">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#Hut01">Hutton 2001</a>. p. 32.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-4">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHutton2001" class="citation book cs1">Hutton, Ronald (2001). <i>Shamans: Siberian Spirituality and the Western Imagination</i>. TPB. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/940167815">940167815</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Shamans%3A+Siberian+Spirituality+and+the+Western+Imagination&rft.pub=TPB&rft.date=2001&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F940167815&rft.aulast=Hutton&rft.aufirst=Ronald&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AShamanism" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-5">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Juha Janhunan, Siberian shamanistic terminology, <i>Mémoires de la Société Finno-Ougrienne</i> 1986, 194:97.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-6"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-6">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCrossley1996" class="citation book cs1">Crossley, Pamela Kyle (1996). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/manchus00cros"><i>The Manchus</i></a>. Blackwell Publishers. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-55786-560-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-55786-560-1"><bdi>978-1-55786-560-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Manchus&rft.pub=Blackwell+Publishers&rft.date=1996&rft.isbn=978-1-55786-560-1&rft.aulast=Crossley&rft.aufirst=Pamela+Kyle&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fmanchus00cros&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AShamanism" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-cogmap-7"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-cogmap_7-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-cogmap_7-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-cogmap_7-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-cogmap_7-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-cogmap_7-4"><sup><i><b>e</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Hoppál 2005: 15</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Diószegi_1962:13-8"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Diószegi_1962:13_8-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Diószegi_1962:13_8-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Diószegi 1962: 13</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-9"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-9">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Januhnan, 1986: 98.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-10"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-10">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFEliade1989" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Mircea_Eliade" title="Mircea Eliade">Eliade, Mircea</a> (1989). <i>Shamanism</i>. Arkana Books. p. 495.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Shamanism&rft.pages=495&rft.pub=Arkana+Books&rft.date=1989&rft.aulast=Eliade&rft.aufirst=Mircea&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AShamanism" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-11"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-11">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external free" href="https://gandhari.org/dictionary/1ṣamana">https://gandhari.org/dictionary/1ṣamana</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-12"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-12">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Written before 1676, first printed in 1861; see <a href="#Hut01">Hutton 2001</a>. p. vii.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-13"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-13">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#Hut01">Hutton 2001</a>, p. 32.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-14"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-14">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Adam Brand, <i>Driejaarige Reize naar China</i>, Amsterdam 1698; transl. <i>A Journal of an Ambassy</i>, London 1698; see Laufer B., "Origin of the Word Shaman," <i>American Anthropologist,</i> 19 (1917): 361–71 and Bremmer J., "Travelling souls? Greek shamanism reconsidered", in Bremmer J.N. (ed.), <i>The Rise and Fall of the Afterlife,</i> London: Routledge, 2002, pp. 7–40. (<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://theol.eldoc.ub.rug.nl/FILES/root/2002/594/c3.pdf">PDF</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20131202222218/http://theol.eldoc.ub.rug.nl/FILES/root/2002/594/c3.pdf">Archived</a> 2013-12-02 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>)</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-15"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-15">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Tomaskova, 2013, 76–78, 104–105.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-16"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-16">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFChadwickChadwick1968" class="citation book cs1">Chadwick, Hector Munro; Chadwick, Nora Kershaw (1968). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=bgq0AAAAIAAJ"><i>The Growth of Literature</i></a>. The University Press. p. 13. <q>The terms <i>shaman</i> and the <a href="/wiki/Russian_language" title="Russian language">Russianized</a> feminine form <i>shamanka</i>, 'shamaness', '<a href="/wiki/Seeress" class="mw-redirect" title="Seeress">seeress</a>', are in general use to denote any persons of the Native professional class among the heathen <a href="/wiki/Siberians" title="Siberians">Siberians</a> and <a href="/wiki/Tatars" title="Tatars">Tatars</a> generally, and there can be no doubt that they have come to be applied to a large number of different classes of people.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Growth+of+Literature&rft.pages=13&rft.pub=The+University+Press&rft.date=1968&rft.aulast=Chadwick&rft.aufirst=Hector+Munro&rft.au=Chadwick%2C+Nora+Kershaw&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Dbgq0AAAAIAAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AShamanism" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-17"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-17">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHoppál2005" class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">Hoppál, Mihály (2005). <i>Sámánok Eurázsiában</i> (in Hungarian). Budapest: Akadémiai Kiadó. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-963-05-8295-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-963-05-8295-7"><bdi>978-963-05-8295-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=S%C3%A1m%C3%A1nok+Eur%C3%A1zsi%C3%A1ban&rft.place=Budapest&rft.pub=Akad%C3%A9miai+Kiad%C3%B3&rft.date=2005&rft.isbn=978-963-05-8295-7&rft.aulast=Hopp%C3%A1l&rft.aufirst=Mih%C3%A1ly&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AShamanism" class="Z3988"></span> pp. 77, 287; <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFZnamensky2005" class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">Znamensky, Andrei A. (2005). "Az ősiség szépsége: altáji török sámánok a szibériai regionális gondolkodásban (1860–1920)". In Molnár, Ádám (ed.). <i>Csodaszarvas. Őstörténet, vallás és néphagyomány. Vol. I</i> (in Hungarian). Budapest: Molnár Kiadó. pp. 117–34. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-963-218-200-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-963-218-200-1"><bdi>978-963-218-200-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Az+%C5%91sis%C3%A9g+sz%C3%A9ps%C3%A9ge%3A+alt%C3%A1ji+t%C3%B6r%C3%B6k+s%C3%A1m%C3%A1nok+a+szib%C3%A9riai+region%C3%A1lis+gondolkod%C3%A1sban+%281860%E2%80%931920%29&rft.btitle=Csodaszarvas.+%C5%90st%C3%B6rt%C3%A9net%2C+vall%C3%A1s+%C3%A9s+n%C3%A9phagyom%C3%A1ny.+Vol.+I&rft.place=Budapest&rft.pages=117-34&rft.pub=Moln%C3%A1r+Kiad%C3%B3&rft.date=2005&rft.isbn=978-963-218-200-1&rft.aulast=Znamensky&rft.aufirst=Andrei+A.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AShamanism" class="Z3988"></span>, p. 128</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-18"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-18">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#Hut01">Hutton 2001</a>. pp. vii–viii.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-19"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-19">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20130126071823/http://www.tengerism.org/table_of_contents.html">"Circle of Tengerism"</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.tengerism.org/table_of_contents.html">the original</a> on January 26, 2013.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Circle+of+Tengerism&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.tengerism.org%2Ftable_of_contents.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AShamanism" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-OED-20"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-OED_20-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-OED_20-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20170402074808/https://en.oxforddictionaries.com/definition/shaman">"Definition of Shaman by Oxford Dictionaries"</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://en.oxforddictionaries.com/definition/shaman">the original</a> on April 2, 2017.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Definition+of+Shaman+by+Oxford+Dictionaries&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fen.oxforddictionaries.com%2Fdefinition%2Fshaman&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AShamanism" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-21"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-21">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Juha Janhunen, Siberian shamanistic terminology, <i>Suomalais-ugrilaisen Seuran toimituksia/ Mémoires de la Société Finno-Ougrienne,</i> 1986, 194: 97–98</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-22"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-22">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAlberts2015" class="citation book cs1">Alberts, Thomas (2015). <i>Shamanism, Discourse, Modernity</i>. Farnham: Ashgate. pp. 73–79. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4724-3986-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-4724-3986-4"><bdi>978-1-4724-3986-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Shamanism%2C+Discourse%2C+Modernity&rft.place=Farnham&rft.pages=73-79&rft.pub=Ashgate&rft.date=2015&rft.isbn=978-1-4724-3986-4&rft.aulast=Alberts&rft.aufirst=Thomas&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AShamanism" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-23"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-23">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://hazlitt.net/feature/fatal-naming-rituals">"Fatal Naming Rituals"</a>. <i>Hazlitt</i>. July 19, 2018<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">March 5,</span> 2020</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Hazlitt&rft.atitle=Fatal+Naming+Rituals&rft.date=2018-07-19&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fhazlitt.net%2Ffeature%2Ffatal-naming-rituals&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AShamanism" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Eli72-24"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Eli72_24-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Eli72_24-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Eli72_24-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Mircea Eliade, <i>Shamanism, Archaic Techniques of Ecstasy</i>, Bollingen Series LXXVI, Princeton University Press 1972, pp. 3–7.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Waveland_Press-25"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Waveland_Press_25-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Waveland_Press_25-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKehoe2000" class="citation book cs1">Kehoe, Alice Beck (2000). <i>Shamans and religion : an anthropological exploration in critical thinking</i>. Prospect Heights, Ill.: Waveland Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-57766-162-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-57766-162-7"><bdi>978-1-57766-162-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Shamans+and+religion+%3A+an+anthropological+exploration+in+critical+thinking&rft.place=Prospect+Heights%2C+Ill.&rft.pub=Waveland+Press&rft.date=2000&rft.isbn=978-1-57766-162-7&rft.aulast=Kehoe&rft.aufirst=Alice+Beck&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AShamanism" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Fatal_Naming_Rituals-26"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Fatal_Naming_Rituals_26-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBelcourt2018" class="citation web cs1">Belcourt, Billy-Ray (July 19, 2018). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://hazlitt.net/feature/fatal-naming-rituals">"Fatal Naming Rituals"</a>. <i>Hazlitt</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">March 3,</span> 2020</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Hazlitt&rft.atitle=Fatal+Naming+Rituals&rft.date=2018-07-19&rft.aulast=Belcourt&rft.aufirst=Billy-Ray&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fhazlitt.net%2Ffeature%2Ffatal-naming-rituals&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AShamanism" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-summer-27"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-summer_27-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-summer_27-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.folkscene.hu/magzines/shaman/coming.html">ISSR, 2001 Summer</a>, abstract online in second half of second paragraph</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-28"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-28">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Hoppál & Szathmári & Takács 2006: 14</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-29"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-29">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Hoppál 1998: 40</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-30"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-30">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Vitebsky 1996: 11</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-31"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-31">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRydving2011" class="citation journal cs1">Rydving, Hakan (2011). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.4000%2Femscat.1815">"Le chamanisme aujourd'hui: constructions et deconstructions d'une illusion scientifique"</a>. <i>Études Mongoles et Siberiennes, Centrasiatiques et Tibétaines</i>. <b>42</b> (42). <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.4000%2Femscat.1815">10.4000/emscat.1815</a></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=%C3%89tudes+Mongoles+et+Siberiennes%2C+Centrasiatiques+et+Tib%C3%A9taines&rft.atitle=Le+chamanisme+aujourd%27hui%3A+constructions+et+deconstructions+d%27une+illusion+scientifique&rft.volume=42&rft.issue=42&rft.date=2011&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.4000%2Femscat.1815&rft.aulast=Rydving&rft.aufirst=Hakan&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.4000%252Femscat.1815&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AShamanism" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-32"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-32">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBumochir2014" class="citation journal cs1">Bumochir, Dulam (2014). "Institutionalization of Mongolian shamanism: from primitivism to civilization". <i>Asian Ethnicity</i>. <b>15</b> (4): 473–491. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1080%2F14631369.2014.939331">10.1080/14631369.2014.939331</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:145329835">145329835</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Asian+Ethnicity&rft.atitle=Institutionalization+of+Mongolian+shamanism%3A+from+primitivism+to+civilization&rft.volume=15&rft.issue=4&rft.pages=473-491&rft.date=2014&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1080%2F14631369.2014.939331&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A145329835%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.aulast=Bumochir&rft.aufirst=Dulam&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AShamanism" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-33"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-33">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHangartner2011" class="citation book cs1">Hangartner, Judith (2011). <i>The Constitution and Contestation of Darhad Shamans' Power in Contemporary Mongolia</i>. Leiden: Global Oriental. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-906876-11-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-906876-11-1"><bdi>978-1-906876-11-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Constitution+and+Contestation+of+Darhad+Shamans%27+Power+in+Contemporary+Mongolia&rft.place=Leiden&rft.pub=Global+Oriental&rft.date=2011&rft.isbn=978-1-906876-11-1&rft.aulast=Hangartner&rft.aufirst=Judith&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AShamanism" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-The_Invention_of_Shamanism_in_18t-34"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-The_Invention_of_Shamanism_in_18t_34-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKollmar-Paulenz2012" class="citation journal cs1">Kollmar-Paulenz, Karenina (2012). "The Invention of "Shamanism" in 18th Century Mongolian Elite Discourse". <i>Rocznik Orientalistyczny</i>. <b>LXV</b> (1): 90–106.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Rocznik+Orientalistyczny&rft.atitle=The+Invention+of+%22Shamanism%22+in+18th+Century+Mongolian+Elite+Discourse&rft.volume=LXV&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=90-106&rft.date=2012&rft.aulast=Kollmar-Paulenz&rft.aufirst=Karenina&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AShamanism" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-35"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-35">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation encyclopaedia cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.britannica.com/topic/shamanism">"Shamanism | religion"</a>. <i>Encyclopædia Britannica</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">September 7,</span> 2018</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Shamanism+%7C+religion&rft.btitle=Encyclop%C3%A6dia+Britannica&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.britannica.com%2Ftopic%2Fshamanism&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AShamanism" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-36"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-36">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/shamanism">"Definition of Shamanism"</a>. <i>Merriam-Webster.com</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">September 7,</span> 2018</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Merriam-Webster.com&rft.atitle=Definition+of+Shamanism&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.merriam-webster.com%2Fdictionary%2Fshamanism&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AShamanism" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-37"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-37">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation cs2">"Using the United Nations Declaration on the Rights of Indigenous Peoples in Litigation", <i>Reflections on the UN Declaration on the Rights of Indigenous Peoples</i>, Hart Publishing, 2011, <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.5040%2F9781472565358.ch-005">10.5040/9781472565358.ch-005</a>, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-84113-878-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-84113-878-7"><bdi>978-1-84113-878-7</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Using+the+United+Nations+Declaration+on+the+Rights+of+Indigenous+Peoples+in+Litigation&rft.btitle=Reflections+on+the+UN+Declaration+on+the+Rights+of+Indigenous+Peoples&rft.pub=Hart+Publishing&rft.date=2011&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.5040%2F9781472565358.ch-005&rft.isbn=978-1-84113-878-7&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AShamanism" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-38"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-38">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFOostenLaugrandRemie2006" class="citation journal cs1">Oosten, Jarich; Laugrand, Frédéric; Remie, Cornelius (Summer 2006). "Perceptions of Decline: Inuit Shamanism in the Canadian Arctic". <i>Ethnohistory</i>. <b>53</b> (3): 445–447. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1215%2F00141801-2006-001">10.1215/00141801-2006-001</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Ethnohistory&rft.atitle=Perceptions+of+Decline%3A+Inuit+Shamanism+in+the+Canadian+Arctic&rft.ssn=summer&rft.volume=53&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=445-447&rft.date=2006&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1215%2F00141801-2006-001&rft.aulast=Oosten&rft.aufirst=Jarich&rft.au=Laugrand%2C+Fr%C3%A9d%C3%A9ric&rft.au=Remie%2C+Cornelius&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AShamanism" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-39"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-39">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation news cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.lonelyplanet.com/mongolia/travel-tips-and-articles/mongolias-lost-secrets-in-pictures-the-last-tuvan-shaman/40625c8c-8a11-5710-a052-1479d2767e50">"Mongolia's Lost Secrets in Pictures: The Last Tuvan Shaman"</a>. <i>Lonely Planet</i>. August 21, 2014<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">October 19,</span> 2018</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Lonely+Planet&rft.atitle=Mongolia%27s+Lost+Secrets+in+Pictures%3A+The+Last+Tuvan+Shaman&rft.date=2014-08-21&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.lonelyplanet.com%2Fmongolia%2Ftravel-tips-and-articles%2Fmongolias-lost-secrets-in-pictures-the-last-tuvan-shaman%2F40625c8c-8a11-5710-a052-1479d2767e50&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AShamanism" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-40"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-40">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJardineKupfer" class="citation news cs1">Jardine, Bradley; Kupfer, Matthew. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://thediplomat.com/2016/10/welcome-to-the-tuva-republic/">"Welcome to the Tuva Republic"</a>. <i>The Diplomat</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">October 19,</span> 2018</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Diplomat&rft.atitle=Welcome+to+the+Tuva+Republic&rft.aulast=Jardine&rft.aufirst=Bradley&rft.au=Kupfer%2C+Matthew&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fthediplomat.com%2F2016%2F10%2Fwelcome-to-the-tuva-republic%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AShamanism" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Peru-41"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Peru_41-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Peru_41-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSalak" class="citation web cs1">Salak, Kira. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.kirasalak.com/Peru.html">"Hell and Back"</a>. National Geographic Adventure.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Hell+and+Back&rft.pub=National+Geographic+Adventure&rft.aulast=Salak&rft.aufirst=Kira&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.kirasalak.com%2FPeru.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AShamanism" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-42"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-42">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWilbertVidal2004" class="citation book cs1">Wilbert, Johannes; Vidal, Silvia M. (2004). Whitehead, Neil L.; Wright, Robin (eds.). <i>In Darkness and Secrecy: The Anthropology of Assault Sorcery and Witchcraft in Amazonia</i>. Durham, NC: Duke University Press. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1215%2F9780822385837">10.1215/9780822385837</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8223-3333-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8223-3333-3"><bdi>978-0-8223-3333-3</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:146752685">146752685</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=In+Darkness+and+Secrecy%3A+The+Anthropology+of+Assault+Sorcery+and+Witchcraft+in+Amazonia&rft.place=Durham%2C+NC&rft.pub=Duke+University+Press&rft.date=2004&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A146752685%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1215%2F9780822385837&rft.isbn=978-0-8223-3333-3&rft.aulast=Wilbert&rft.aufirst=Johannes&rft.au=Vidal%2C+Silvia+M.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AShamanism" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-all-soul-43"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-all-soul_43-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#Mer85">Merkur 1985</a>: 4</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-44"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-44">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#Vit96">Vitebsky 1996</a>: 11–14, 107</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-soulsham-45"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-soulsham_45-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#Hop05">Hoppál 2005</a>: 27, 30, 36</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-sem-shamheal-46"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-sem-shamheal_46-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-sem-shamheal_46-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSem" class="citation web cs1">Sem, Tatyana. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.museum.state.il.us/exhibits/changing/journey/healing.html">"Shamanic Healing Rituals"</a>. Russian Museum of Ethnography.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Shamanic+Healing+Rituals&rft.pub=Russian+Museum+of+Ethnography&rft.aulast=Sem&rft.aufirst=Tatyana&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.museum.state.il.us%2Fexhibits%2Fchanging%2Fjourney%2Fhealing.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AShamanism" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-resoul-47"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-resoul_47-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Hoppál 2005: 27</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-48"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-48">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Kleivan & Sonne 1985: 7, 19–21</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Gab-KarEszk-49"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Gab-KarEszk_49-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Gabus, Jean: A karibu eszkimók. Gondolat Kiadó, Budapest, 1970. (Hungarian translation of the original: Vie et coutumes des Esquimaux Caribous, Libraire Payot Lausanne, 1944.) It describes the life of Caribou Eskimo groups.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Swancutt-2018-50"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Swancutt-2018_50-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Swancutt-2018_50-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSwancuttMazard2018" class="citation book cs1">Swancutt, Katherine; Mazard, Mireille (2018). <i>Animism beyond the Soul: Ontology, Reflexivity, and the Making of Anthropological Knowledge</i>. New York: Berghahn Books. p. 102. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-78533-865-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-78533-865-6"><bdi>978-1-78533-865-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Animism+beyond+the+Soul%3A+Ontology%2C+Reflexivity%2C+and+the+Making+of+Anthropological+Knowledge&rft.place=New+York&rft.pages=102&rft.pub=Berghahn+Books&rft.date=2018&rft.isbn=978-1-78533-865-6&rft.aulast=Swancutt&rft.aufirst=Katherine&rft.au=Mazard%2C+Mireille&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AShamanism" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-51"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-51">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#Hop07c">Hoppál 2007c</a>: 18</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-singtellplay-52"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-singtellplay_52-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Hoppál 2005: 99</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-53"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-53">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMcCoy2018" class="citation book cs1">McCoy, V. R. (March 30, 2018). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=jVFiDwAAQBAJ&q=shaman+axis+mundi&pg=PT37"><i>Shaman-the Dawn's People</i></a>. BookBaby. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-7321874-0-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-7321874-0-5"><bdi>978-1-7321874-0-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Shaman-the+Dawn%27s+People&rft.pub=BookBaby&rft.date=2018-03-30&rft.isbn=978-1-7321874-0-5&rft.aulast=McCoy&rft.aufirst=V.+R.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DjVFiDwAAQBAJ%26q%3Dshaman%2Baxis%2Bmundi%26pg%3DPT37&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AShamanism" class="Z3988"></span><sup class="noprint Inline-Template"><span style="white-space: nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Link_rot" title="Wikipedia:Link rot"><span title=" Dead link tagged October 2023">permanent dead link</span></a></i><span style="visibility:hidden; color:transparent; padding-left:2px">‍</span>]</span></sup></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-54"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-54">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBuenaflor2019" class="citation book cs1">Buenaflor, Erika (May 28, 2019). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=FuFsDwAAQBAJ&q=shaman+axis+mundi+entheogen&pg=PT61"><i>Curanderismo Soul Retrieval: Ancient Shamanic Wisdom to Restore the Sacred Energy of the Soul</i></a>. Simon and Schuster. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-59143-341-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-59143-341-5"><bdi>978-1-59143-341-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Curanderismo+Soul+Retrieval%3A+Ancient+Shamanic+Wisdom+to+Restore+the+Sacred+Energy+of+the+Soul&rft.pub=Simon+and+Schuster&rft.date=2019-05-28&rft.isbn=978-1-59143-341-5&rft.aulast=Buenaflor&rft.aufirst=Erika&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DFuFsDwAAQBAJ%26q%3Dshaman%2Baxis%2Bmundi%2Bentheogen%26pg%3DPT61&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AShamanism" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-onom-55"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-onom_55-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150402105719/http://dasa.baua.de/nn_35984/sid_2C8A99B3F31A58C62BBE3312986DC568/nsc_true/de/Presse/Pressematerialien/Sonderausstellung_20Macht_20Musik/Schamanen-Musik.pdf">"healthCheck"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://dasa.baua.de/nn_35984/sid_2C8A99B3F31A58C62BBE3312986DC568/nsc_true/de/Presse/Pressematerialien/Sonderausstellung_20Macht_20Musik/Schamanen-Musik.pdf">the original</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span> on April 2, 2015<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">June 6,</span> 2015</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=healthCheck&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fdasa.baua.de%2Fnn_35984%2Fsid_2C8A99B3F31A58C62BBE3312986DC568%2Fnsc_true%2Fde%2FPresse%2FPressematerialien%2FSonderausstellung_20Macht_20Musik%2FSchamanen-Musik.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AShamanism" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-natt-56"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-natt_56-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-natt_56-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Nattiez: 5</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-desch-57"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-desch_57-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.mustrad.org.uk/articles/inuit.htm">"Inuit Throat-Singing"</a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">June 6,</span> 2015</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Inuit+Throat-Singing&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.mustrad.org.uk%2Farticles%2Finuit.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AShamanism" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-58"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-58">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Turner et al., p. 440</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-59"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-59">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#NoSh04">Noll & Shi 2004</a> (avail. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20090326115313/http://www.desales.edu/assets/desales/SocScience/Oroqen_shaman_FSSForumAug07.pdf">online: Internet Archive copy</a>)</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-60"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-60">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHalifax1982" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Joan_Halifax" title="Joan Halifax">Halifax, Joan</a> (1982). <i>Shaman: The Wounded Healer</i>. London: <a href="/wiki/Thames_%26_Hudson" title="Thames & Hudson">Thames & Hudson</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-500-81029-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-500-81029-3"><bdi>978-0-500-81029-3</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/8800269">8800269</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Shaman%3A+The+Wounded+Healer&rft.place=London&rft.pub=Thames+%26+Hudson&rft.date=1982&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F8800269&rft.isbn=978-0-500-81029-3&rft.aulast=Halifax&rft.aufirst=Joan&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AShamanism" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-61"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-61">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Barüske 1969: 24, 50–51</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-62"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-62">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Kleivan & Sonne 1985: 25</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-cole-63"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-cole_63-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFay-Cooper_Cole_&_Albert_Gale1922" class="citation journal cs1">Fay-Cooper Cole & Albert Gale (1922). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/tinguiansocialre142cole">"The Tinguian; Social, Religious, and Economic life of a Philippine tribe"</a>. <i>Field Museum of Natural History: Anthropological Series</i>. <b>14</b> (2): <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/tinguiansocialre142cole/page/235">235</a>–493.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Field+Museum+of+Natural+History%3A+Anthropological+Series&rft.atitle=The+Tinguian%3B+Social%2C+Religious%2C+and+Economic+life+of+a+Philippine+tribe&rft.volume=14&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=235-493&rft.date=1922&rft.au=Fay-Cooper+Cole+%26+Albert+Gale&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Ftinguiansocialre142cole&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AShamanism" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-mediator-64"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-mediator_64-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Hoppál 2005: 45</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-mediator2-65"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-mediator2_65-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-mediator2_65-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Boglár 2001: 24</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-multfunc-66"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-multfunc_66-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-multfunc_66-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Hoppál 2005: 25</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-67"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-67">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Hoppál 2005: 27–28</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-68"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-68">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Hoppál 2005: 28–33</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-memory-69"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-memory_69-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Hoppál 2005: 37</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-70"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-70">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Hoppál 2005: 34–35</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-psychopomp-71"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-psychopomp_71-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Hoppál 2005: 36</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-72"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-72">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Hoppál 2005: 61–64</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-73"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-73">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Hoppál 2005: 87–95</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-74"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-74">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.sacred-texts.com/sha/sis/sis05.htm">"Shamanism in Siberia: Part III. Religion: Chapter IX. Types of Shamans"</a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">June 6,</span> 2015</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Shamanism+in+Siberia%3A+Part+III.+Religion%3A+Chapter+IX.+Types+of+Shamans&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.sacred-texts.com%2Fsha%2Fsis%2Fsis05.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AShamanism" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Guan_Kouni-75"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Guan_Kouni_75-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Guan_Kouni_75-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#NoSh04">Noll & Shi 2004</a>: 10, footnote 10 (see <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20090326115313/http://www.desales.edu/assets/desales/SocScience/Oroqen_shaman_FSSForumAug07.pdf">online: Internet Archive copy</a>)</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-interpreter-76"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-interpreter_76-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-interpreter_76-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#NoSh04">Noll & Shi 2004</a>: 8–9 (see <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20090326115313/http://www.desales.edu/assets/desales/SocScience/Oroqen_shaman_FSSForumAug07.pdf">online: Internet Archive copy</a>)</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-eco-77"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-eco_77-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-eco_77-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Reichel-Dolmatoff 1997</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-78"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-78">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Vitebsky 1996: 107</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-ecopia-79"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-ecopia_79-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Boglár 2001: 26</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-80"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-80">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Merkur 1985: 5</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-81"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-81">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Vitebsky 1996: 108</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-82"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-82">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Kleivan & Sonne: 27–28</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-mshare-83"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-mshare_83-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-mshare_83-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Merkur 1985: 3</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-84"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-84">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFOelschlaegel2016" class="citation book cs1">Oelschlaegel, Anett C. (2016). <i>Plural World Interpretations</i>. Berlin: LIT Verlag Münster. p. 206. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3-643-90788-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-3-643-90788-2"><bdi>978-3-643-90788-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Plural+World+Interpretations&rft.place=Berlin&rft.pages=206&rft.pub=LIT+Verlag+M%C3%BCnster&rft.date=2016&rft.isbn=978-3-643-90788-2&rft.aulast=Oelschlaegel&rft.aufirst=Anett+C.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AShamanism" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-failed-shaman-85"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-failed-shaman_85-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Kleivan & Sonne 1985: 24</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-86"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-86">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLee2009" class="citation journal cs1">Lee, Jonghyun (May 2009). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1177/0886109909331756">"Shamanism and Its Emancipatory Power for Korean Women"</a>. <i>Affilia</i>. <b>24</b> (2): 186–198. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1177%2F0886109909331756">10.1177/0886109909331756</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0886-1099">0886-1099</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:144331213">144331213</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Affilia&rft.atitle=Shamanism+and+Its+Emancipatory+Power+for+Korean+Women&rft.volume=24&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=186-198&rft.date=2009-05&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A144331213%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.issn=0886-1099&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1177%2F0886109909331756&rft.aulast=Lee&rft.aufirst=Jonghyun&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fjournals.sagepub.com%2Fdoi%2F10.1177%2F0886109909331756&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AShamanism" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-87"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-87">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWinkelman2000" class="citation book cs1">Winkelman, Michael (2000). <i>Shamanism : the neural ecology of consciousness and healing</i>. 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New York: Bantam</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-100"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-100">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Witzel, 2011.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-101"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-101">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">"Earliest known shaman grave site found: study", reported by <a href="/wiki/Reuters" title="Reuters">Reuters</a> via <a href="/wiki/Yahoo!_News" class="mw-redirect" title="Yahoo! News">Yahoo! News</a>, November 4, 2008, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.today/20191216202317/https://www.webcitation.org/5c5MCHK7R?url=http://news.yahoo.com/s/nm/20081104/sc_nm/us_shaman_israel/print">archived.</a> see <i>Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences</i>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Hoppál_2005:14-102"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Hoppál_2005:14_102-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Hoppál_2005:14_102-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Hoppál 2005: 14</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-103"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-103">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a class="mw-selflink-fragment" href="#Pen95">Pentikäinen 1995</a>: 270</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-knowncult-104"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-knowncult_104-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-knowncult_104-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-knowncult_104-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Hoppál 2005: 25–26,43</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-etym2-105"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-etym2_105-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Hoppál 2004: 14</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-semi-106"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-semi_106-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Hoppál 2005: 13–15, 58, 197</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-107"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-107">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Hoppál 2006a: 11</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-108"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-108">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Hoppál 2006b: 175</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-semiotics_of_shamanism-109"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-semiotics_of_shamanism_109-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a class="mw-selflink-fragment" href="#Hop07c">Hoppál 2007c</a>: 24–25</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-hop-natworsib-110"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-hop-natworsib_110-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-hop-natworsib_110-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Hoppál, Mihály: <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.folklore.ee/folklore/vol4/hoppal.htm">Nature worship in Siberian shamanism</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-111"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-111">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a class="mw-selflink-fragment" href="#Hop07b">Hoppál 2007b</a>: 12–13</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Hoppál_2007c_25-112"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Hoppál_2007c_25_112-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Hoppál_2007c_25_112-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Hoppál_2007c_25_112-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a class="mw-selflink-fragment" href="#Hop07c">Hoppál 2007c</a>: 25</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-113"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-113">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a class="mw-selflink-fragment" href="#Pen95">Pentikäinen 1995</a>: 270–71</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-114"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-114">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Merkur 1985: v</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-ethnohermeneutics-115"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-ethnohermeneutics_115-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a class="mw-selflink-fragment" href="#Hop07b">Hoppál 2007b</a>: 13</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Joralemon-2017-116"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Joralemon-2017_116-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Joralemon-2017_116-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Joralemon-2017_116-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJoralemon2017" class="citation book cs1">Joralemon, Donald (March 16, 2017). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.taylorfrancis.com/books/9781315470603"><i>Exploring Medical Anthropology</i></a> (4 ed.). Routledge. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.4324%2F9781315470610">10.4324/9781315470610</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-315-47061-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-315-47061-0"><bdi>978-1-315-47061-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Exploring+Medical+Anthropology&rft.edition=4&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=2017-03-16&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.4324%2F9781315470610&rft.isbn=978-1-315-47061-0&rft.aulast=Joralemon&rft.aufirst=Donald&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.taylorfrancis.com%2Fbooks%2F9781315470603&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AShamanism" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-117"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-117">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFScheper-HughesLock1987" class="citation journal cs1">Scheper-Hughes, Nancy; Lock, Margaret M. (1987). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://anthrosource.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1525/maq.1987.1.1.02a00020">"The Mindful Body: A Prolegomenon to Future Work in Medical Anthropology"</a>. <i>Medical Anthropology Quarterly</i>. <b>1</b> (1): 6–41. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1525%2Fmaq.1987.1.1.02a00020">10.1525/maq.1987.1.1.02a00020</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0745-5194">0745-5194</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Medical+Anthropology+Quarterly&rft.atitle=The+Mindful+Body%3A+A+Prolegomenon+to+Future+Work+in+Medical+Anthropology&rft.volume=1&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=6-41&rft.date=1987&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1525%2Fmaq.1987.1.1.02a00020&rft.issn=0745-5194&rft.aulast=Scheper-Hughes&rft.aufirst=Nancy&rft.au=Lock%2C+Margaret+M.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fanthrosource.onlinelibrary.wiley.com%2Fdoi%2F10.1525%2Fmaq.1987.1.1.02a00020&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AShamanism" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-118"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-118">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Lévi-Strauss, C., 2016. The sorcerer and his magic. In Understanding and Applying Medical Anthropology (pp. 197-203). Routledge.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-119"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-119">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Lévi-Strauss, C., 2016. The sorcerer and his magic. In Understanding and Applying Medical Anthropology (pp. 197-203). Routledge.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-120"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-120">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Lévi-Strauss, C., 2016. The sorcerer and his magic. In Understanding and Applying Medical Anthropology (pp. 197-203). Routledge.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-121"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-121">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Lévi-Strauss, C., 2016. The sorcerer and his magic. In Understanding and Applying Medical Anthropology (pp. 197-203). Routledge.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-122"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-122">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFOostenLaugrandRemie2006" class="citation journal cs1">Oosten, Jarich; Laugrand, Frederic; Remie, Cornelius (2006). "Perceptions of Decline: Inuit Shamanism in the Canadian Arctic". <i>Ethnohistory</i>. <b>53</b> (3): 445–77. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1215%2F00141801-2006-001">10.1215/00141801-2006-001</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Ethnohistory&rft.atitle=Perceptions+of+Decline%3A+Inuit+Shamanism+in+the+Canadian+Arctic&rft.volume=53&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=445-77&rft.date=2006&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1215%2F00141801-2006-001&rft.aulast=Oosten&rft.aufirst=Jarich&rft.au=Laugrand%2C+Frederic&rft.au=Remie%2C+Cornelius&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AShamanism" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-tuva-123"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-tuva_123-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Hoppál 2005: 117</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-authentic-revitalization-tuva-124"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-authentic-revitalization-tuva_124-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-authentic-revitalization-tuva_124-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Hoppál 2005: 259</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-125"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-125">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Boglár 2001: 19–20</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-shamed-126"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-shamed_126-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Diószegi 1960: 37–39</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Kara-Gurgan-127"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Kara-Gurgan_127-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#Eli01">Eliade 2001</a>: 76 (Chpt 3 about obtaining shamanic capabilities)</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-flatland-128"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-flatland_128-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Omnividence: A word created by Edwin A. Abbott in his book titled <a href="/wiki/Flatland" title="Flatland">Flatland</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-deter-129"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-deter_129-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Diószegi 1960: 88–89</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-drum-symbols-130"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-drum-symbols_130-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Hoppál 2005: 224</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-131"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-131">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Nagy 1998: 232</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-132"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-132">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Merkur 1985: 132</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-133"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-133">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Merkur 1985: 134</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-hop-134"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-hop_134-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Hoppál 2005: 92</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Hoppal-135"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Hoppal_135-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Hoppál 1994: 62</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-collect-136"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-collect_136-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Hoppál 2005: 88</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-137"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-137">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Hoppál 2005: 93</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-138"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-138">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Hoppál 2005: 111, 117–19, 128, 132, 133–34, 252–63</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-authentic-revitalization-sakha-139"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-authentic-revitalization-sakha_139-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Hoppál 2005: 257–58</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-140"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-140">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Hagan, Helene E. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.sonomacountyfreepress.com/features/spirg-hagan.html">"The Plastic Medicine People Circle."</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20130305155048/http://www.sonomacountyfreepress.com/features/spirg-hagan.html">Archived</a> 2013-03-05 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> <i>Sonoma Free County Press.</i> Accessed 31 Jan 2013.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-RG-141"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-RG_141-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.thepeoplespaths.net/Articles2001/RLAllen-CherokeeStatement-Shamans.htm">"Pseudo Shamans Cherokee Statement"</a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">June 23,</span> 2008</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Pseudo+Shamans+Cherokee+Statement&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.thepeoplespaths.net%2FArticles2001%2FRLAllen-CherokeeStatement-Shamans.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AShamanism" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Sources">Sources</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Shamanism&action=edit&section=27" title="Edit section: Sources"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239549316">.mw-parser-output .refbegin{margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul{margin-left:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{margin-left:0;padding-left:3.2em;text-indent:-3.2em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul,.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul li{list-style:none}@media(max-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{padding-left:1.6em;text-indent:-1.6em}}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns ul{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .refbegin{font-size:90%}}</style><div class="refbegin" style=""> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBarüske1969" class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">Barüske, Heinz (1969). <i>Eskimo Märchen</i>. Die Märchen der Weltliteratur (in German). Düsseldorf • Köln: Eugen Diederichs Verlag.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Eskimo+M%C3%A4rchen&rft.place=D%C3%BCsseldorf+%E2%80%A2+K%C3%B6ln&rft.series=Die+M%C3%A4rchen+der+Weltliteratur&rft.pub=Eugen+Diederichs+Verlag&rft.date=1969&rft.aulast=Bar%C3%BCske&rft.aufirst=Heinz&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AShamanism" class="Z3988"></span> The title means: "Eskimo tales", the series means: "The tales of world literature".</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBoglár2001" class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">Boglár, Lajos (2001). <i>A kultúra arcai. Mozaikok a kulturális antropológia köreiből</i>. TÁRStudomány (in Hungarian). Budapest: Napvilág Kiadó. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-963-9082-94-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-963-9082-94-6"><bdi>978-963-9082-94-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+kult%C3%BAra+arcai.+Mozaikok+a+kultur%C3%A1lis+antropol%C3%B3gia+k%C3%B6reib%C5%91l&rft.place=Budapest&rft.series=T%C3%81RStudom%C3%A1ny&rft.pub=Napvil%C3%A1g+Kiad%C3%B3&rft.date=2001&rft.isbn=978-963-9082-94-6&rft.aulast=Bogl%C3%A1r&rft.aufirst=Lajos&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AShamanism" class="Z3988"></span> The title means "The faces of culture. Mosaics from the area of cultural anthropology".</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCzaplicka1914" class="citation book cs1">Czaplicka, M.A. (1914). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.sacred-texts.com/sha/sis/sis05.htm">"Types of shaman"</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.sacred-texts.com/sha/sis/sis00.htm"><i>Shamanism in Siberia. Aboriginal Siberia. A study in social anthropology</i></a>. preface by Marett, R.R. Somerville College, University of Oxford; Clarendon Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-60506-060-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-60506-060-6"><bdi>978-1-60506-060-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Types+of+shaman&rft.btitle=Shamanism+in+Siberia.+Aboriginal+Siberia.+A+study+in+social+anthropology&rft.pub=Somerville+College%2C+University+of+Oxford%3B+Clarendon+Press&rft.date=1914&rft.isbn=978-1-60506-060-6&rft.aulast=Czaplicka&rft.aufirst=M.A.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.sacred-texts.com%2Fsha%2Fsis%2Fsis05.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AShamanism" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDeschênes2002" class="citation web cs1">Deschênes, Bruno (2002). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.mustrad.org.uk/articles/inuit.htm">"Inuit Throat-Singing"</a>. <i>Musical Traditions</i>. The Magazine for Traditional Music Throughout the World.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Musical+Traditions&rft.atitle=Inuit+Throat-Singing&rft.date=2002&rft.aulast=Desch%C3%AAnes&rft.aufirst=Bruno&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.mustrad.org.uk%2Farticles%2Finuit.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AShamanism" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDiószegi1968" class="citation book cs1">Diószegi, Vilmos (1968). <i>Tracing shamans in Siberia. The story of an ethnographical research expedition</i>. Translated by Anita Rajkay Babó (from Hungarian). Oosterhout: Anthropological Publications.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Tracing+shamans+in+Siberia.+The+story+of+an+ethnographical+research+expedition&rft.place=Oosterhout&rft.pub=Anthropological+Publications&rft.date=1968&rft.aulast=Di%C3%B3szegi&rft.aufirst=Vilmos&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AShamanism" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDiószegi1962" class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">Diószegi, Vilmos (1962). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://mek.oszk.hu/01600/01639/"><i>Samanizmus</i></a>. Élet és Tudomány Kiskönyvtár (in Hungarian). Budapest: Gondolat. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-963-9147-13-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-963-9147-13-3"><bdi>978-963-9147-13-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Samanizmus&rft.place=Budapest&rft.series=%C3%89let+%C3%A9s+Tudom%C3%A1ny+Kisk%C3%B6nyvt%C3%A1r&rft.pub=Gondolat&rft.date=1962&rft.isbn=978-963-9147-13-3&rft.aulast=Di%C3%B3szegi&rft.aufirst=Vilmos&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fmek.oszk.hu%2F01600%2F01639%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AShamanism" class="Z3988"></span> The title means: "Shamanism".</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDiószegi1998" class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">Diószegi, Vilmos (1998) [1958]. <i>A sámánhit emlékei a magyar népi műveltségben</i> (in Hungarian) (1st reprint ed.). Budapest: Akadémiai Kiadó. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-963-05-7542-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-963-05-7542-3"><bdi>978-963-05-7542-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+s%C3%A1m%C3%A1nhit+eml%C3%A9kei+a+magyar+n%C3%A9pi+m%C5%B1velts%C3%A9gben&rft.place=Budapest&rft.edition=1st+reprint&rft.pub=Akad%C3%A9miai+Kiad%C3%B3&rft.date=1998&rft.isbn=978-963-05-7542-3&rft.aulast=Di%C3%B3szegi&rft.aufirst=Vilmos&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AShamanism" class="Z3988"></span> The title means: "Remnants of shamanistic beliefs in Hungarian folklore".</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFienup-Riordan1994" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Ann_Fienup-Riordan" title="Ann Fienup-Riordan">Fienup-Riordan, Ann</a> (1994). <i>Boundaries and Passages: Rule and Ritual in Yup'ik Eskimo Oral Tradition</i>. Norman, Oklahoma: University of Oklahoma Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-585-12190-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-585-12190-1"><bdi>978-0-585-12190-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Boundaries+and+Passages%3A+Rule+and+Ritual+in+Yup%27ik+Eskimo+Oral+Tradition&rft.place=Norman%2C+Oklahoma&rft.pub=University+of+Oklahoma+Press&rft.date=1994&rft.isbn=978-0-585-12190-1&rft.aulast=Fienup-Riordan&rft.aufirst=Ann&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AShamanism" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFock1963" class="citation book cs1">Fock, Niels (1963). <i>Waiwai. Religion and society of an Amazonian tribe</i>. Nationalmuseets skrifter, Etnografisk Række (Ethnographical series), VIII. Copenhagen: The National Museum of Denmark.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Waiwai.+Religion+and+society+of+an+Amazonian+tribe&rft.place=Copenhagen&rft.series=Nationalmuseets+skrifter%2C+Etnografisk+R%C3%A6kke+%28Ethnographical+series%29%2C+VIII&rft.pub=The+National+Museum+of+Denmark&rft.date=1963&rft.aulast=Fock&rft.aufirst=Niels&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AShamanism" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFreuchen1961" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Peter_Freuchen" title="Peter Freuchen">Freuchen, Peter</a> (1961). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/peterfreuchensfa00pete"><i>Book of the Eskimos</i></a>. Cleveland • New York: The World Publishing Company. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-449-30802-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-449-30802-8"><bdi>978-0-449-30802-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Book+of+the+Eskimos&rft.place=Cleveland+%E2%80%A2+New+York&rft.pub=The+World+Publishing+Company&rft.date=1961&rft.isbn=978-0-449-30802-8&rft.aulast=Freuchen&rft.aufirst=Peter&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fpeterfreuchensfa00pete&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AShamanism" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHajdú1975" class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">Hajdú, Péter (1975). "A rokonság nyelvi háttere". In Hajdú, Péter (ed.). <i>Uráli népek. Nyelvrokonaink kultúrája és hagyományai</i> (in Hungarian). Budapest: Corvina Kiadó. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-963-13-0900-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-963-13-0900-3"><bdi>978-963-13-0900-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=A+rokons%C3%A1g+nyelvi+h%C3%A1ttere&rft.btitle=Ur%C3%A1li+n%C3%A9pek.+Nyelvrokonaink+kult%C3%BAr%C3%A1ja+%C3%A9s+hagyom%C3%A1nyai&rft.place=Budapest&rft.pub=Corvina+Kiad%C3%B3&rft.date=1975&rft.isbn=978-963-13-0900-3&rft.aulast=Hajd%C3%BA&rft.aufirst=P%C3%A9ter&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AShamanism" class="Z3988"></span> The title means: "Uralic peoples. Culture and traditions of our linguistic relatives"; the chapter means "Linguistical background of the relationship".</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHoppál1994" class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">Hoppál, Mihály (1994). <i>Sámánok, lelkek és jelképek</i> (in Hungarian). Budapest: Helikon Kiadó. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-963-208-298-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-963-208-298-1"><bdi>978-963-208-298-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=S%C3%A1m%C3%A1nok%2C+lelkek+%C3%A9s+jelk%C3%A9pek&rft.place=Budapest&rft.pub=Helikon+Kiad%C3%B3&rft.date=1994&rft.isbn=978-963-208-298-1&rft.aulast=Hopp%C3%A1l&rft.aufirst=Mih%C3%A1ly&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AShamanism" class="Z3988"></span> The title means "Shamans, souls and symbols".</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHoppál1998" class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">Hoppál, Mihály (1998). "A honfoglalók hitvilága és a magyar samanizmus". <i>Folklór és közösség</i> (in Hungarian). Budapest: Széphalom Könyvműhely. pp. 40–45. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-963-9028-14-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-963-9028-14-2"><bdi>978-963-9028-14-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=A+honfoglal%C3%B3k+hitvil%C3%A1ga+%C3%A9s+a+magyar+samanizmus&rft.btitle=Folkl%C3%B3r+%C3%A9s+k%C3%B6z%C3%B6ss%C3%A9g&rft.place=Budapest&rft.pages=40-45&rft.pub=Sz%C3%A9phalom+K%C3%B6nyvm%C5%B1hely&rft.date=1998&rft.isbn=978-963-9028-14-2&rft.aulast=Hopp%C3%A1l&rft.aufirst=Mih%C3%A1ly&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AShamanism" class="Z3988"></span> The title means "The belief system of Hungarians when they entered the Pannonian Basin, and their shamanism".</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="Hop05" class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">Hoppál, Mihály (2005). <i>Sámánok Eurázsiában</i> (in Hungarian). Budapest: Akadémiai Kiadó. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-963-05-8295-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-963-05-8295-7"><bdi>978-963-05-8295-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=S%C3%A1m%C3%A1nok+Eur%C3%A1zsi%C3%A1ban&rft.place=Budapest&rft.pub=Akad%C3%A9miai+Kiad%C3%B3&rft.date=2005&rft.isbn=978-963-05-8295-7&rft.aulast=Hopp%C3%A1l&rft.aufirst=Mih%C3%A1ly&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AShamanism" class="Z3988"></span> The title means "Shamans in Eurasia", the book is published also in German, Estonian and Finnish. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.akkrt.hu/main.php?folderID=906&pn=2&cnt=31&catID=&prodID=17202&pdetails=1">Site of publisher with short description on the book (in Hungarian)</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20100102125239/http://www.akkrt.hu/main.php?folderID=906&pn=2&cnt=31&catID=&prodID=17202&pdetails=1">Archived</a> 2010-01-02 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>.</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHoppál2006a" class="citation book cs1">Hoppál, Mihály (2006a). "Sámánok, kultúrák és kutatók az ezredfordulón". In Hoppál, Mihály; Szathmári, Botond; Takács, András (eds.). <i>Sámánok és kultúrák</i>. Budapest: Gondolat. pp. 9–25. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-963-9450-28-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-963-9450-28-8"><bdi>978-963-9450-28-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=S%C3%A1m%C3%A1nok%2C+kult%C3%BAr%C3%A1k+%C3%A9s+kutat%C3%B3k+az+ezredfordul%C3%B3n&rft.btitle=S%C3%A1m%C3%A1nok+%C3%A9s+kult%C3%BAr%C3%A1k&rft.place=Budapest&rft.pages=9-25&rft.pub=Gondolat&rft.date=2006&rft.isbn=978-963-9450-28-8&rft.aulast=Hopp%C3%A1l&rft.aufirst=Mih%C3%A1ly&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AShamanism" class="Z3988"></span> The chapter title means "Shamans, cultures and researchers in the millenary", the book title means "Shamans and cultures".</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="Hop07b" class="citation book cs1">Hoppál, Mihály (2007b). "Is Shamanism a Folk Religion?". <i>Shamans and Traditions (Vol. 13)</i>. Bibliotheca Shamanistica. Budapest: Akadémiai Kiadó. pp. 11–16. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-963-05-8521-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-963-05-8521-7"><bdi>978-963-05-8521-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Is+Shamanism+a+Folk+Religion%3F&rft.btitle=Shamans+and+Traditions+%28Vol.+13%29&rft.place=Budapest&rft.series=Bibliotheca+Shamanistica&rft.pages=11-16&rft.pub=Akad%C3%A9miai+Kiad%C3%B3&rft.date=2007&rft.isbn=978-963-05-8521-7&rft.aulast=Hopp%C3%A1l&rft.aufirst=Mih%C3%A1ly&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AShamanism" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="Hop07c" class="citation book cs1">Hoppál, Mihály (2007c). "Eco-Animism of Siberian Shamanhood". <i>Shamans and Traditions (Vol 13)</i>. Bibliotheca Shamanistica. Budapest: Akadémiai Kiadó. pp. 17–26. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-963-05-8521-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-963-05-8521-7"><bdi>978-963-05-8521-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Eco-Animism+of+Siberian+Shamanhood&rft.btitle=Shamans+and+Traditions+%28Vol+13%29&rft.place=Budapest&rft.series=Bibliotheca+Shamanistica&rft.pages=17-26&rft.pub=Akad%C3%A9miai+Kiad%C3%B3&rft.date=2007&rft.isbn=978-963-05-8521-7&rft.aulast=Hopp%C3%A1l&rft.aufirst=Mih%C3%A1ly&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AShamanism" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li>Janhunen, Juha. Siberian shamanistic terminology. <i>Mémoires de la Société Finno-Ougrienne,</i> 1986, 194: 97–117.</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHugh-Jones1980" class="citation book cs1">Hugh-Jones, Christine (1980). <span class="id-lock-registration" title="Free registration required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/frommilkriverspa0000hugh"><i>From the Milk River: Spatial and Temporal Processes in Northwest Amazonia</i></a></span>. Cambridge Studies in Social and Cultural Anthropology. Cambridge University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-521-22544-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-521-22544-1"><bdi>978-0-521-22544-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=From+the+Milk+River%3A+Spatial+and+Temporal+Processes+in+Northwest+Amazonia&rft.series=Cambridge+Studies+in+Social+and+Cultural+Anthropology&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=1980&rft.isbn=978-0-521-22544-1&rft.aulast=Hugh-Jones&rft.aufirst=Christine&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Ffrommilkriverspa0000hugh&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AShamanism" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHugh-Jones1980" class="citation book cs1">Hugh-Jones, Stephen (1980). <span class="id-lock-registration" title="Free registration required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/palmpleiadesinit0000hugh"><i>The Palm and the Pleiades. Initiation and Cosmology in Northwest Amazonia</i></a></span>. Cambridge Studies in Social and Cultural Anthropology. Cambridge University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-521-21952-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-521-21952-5"><bdi>978-0-521-21952-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Palm+and+the+Pleiades.+Initiation+and+Cosmology+in+Northwest+Amazonia&rft.series=Cambridge+Studies+in+Social+and+Cultural+Anthropology&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=1980&rft.isbn=978-0-521-21952-5&rft.aulast=Hugh-Jones&rft.aufirst=Stephen&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fpalmpleiadesinit0000hugh&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AShamanism" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKleivanB._Sonne1985" class="citation book cs1">Kleivan, Inge; B. Sonne (1985). <i>Eskimos: Greenland and Canada</i>. Iconography of religions, section VIII, "Arctic Peoples", fascicle 2. Leiden, The Netherlands: Institute of Religious Iconography • State University Groningen. E.J. Brill. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-90-04-07160-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-90-04-07160-5"><bdi>978-90-04-07160-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Eskimos%3A+Greenland+and+Canada&rft.place=Leiden%2C+The+Netherlands&rft.series=Iconography+of+religions%2C+section+VIII%2C+%22Arctic+Peoples%22%2C+fascicle+2&rft.pub=Institute+of+Religious+Iconography+%E2%80%A2+State+University+Groningen.+E.J.+Brill&rft.date=1985&rft.isbn=978-90-04-07160-5&rft.aulast=Kleivan&rft.aufirst=Inge&rft.au=B.+Sonne&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AShamanism" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMenovščikov1968" class="citation book cs1">Menovščikov, G.A. (= Г. А. Меновщиков) (1968). "Popular Conceptions, Religious Beliefs and Rites of the Asiatic Eskimoes". In Diószegi, Vilmos (ed.). <i>Popular beliefs and folklore tradition in Siberia</i>. Budapest: Akadémiai Kiadó.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Popular+Conceptions%2C+Religious+Beliefs+and+Rites+of+the+Asiatic+Eskimoes&rft.btitle=Popular+beliefs+and+folklore+tradition+in+Siberia&rft.place=Budapest&rft.pub=Akad%C3%A9miai+Kiad%C3%B3&rft.date=1968&rft.aulast=Menov%C5%A1%C4%8Dikov&rft.aufirst=G.A.+%28%3D+%D0%93.+%D0%90.+%D0%9C%D0%B5%D0%BD%D0%BE%D0%B2%D1%89%D0%B8%D0%BA%D0%BE%D0%B2%29&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AShamanism" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFNagy1998" class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">Nagy, Beáta Boglárka (1998). "Az északi szamojédok". In Csepregi, Márta (ed.). <i>Finnugor kalauz</i>. Panoráma (in Hungarian). Budapest: Medicina Könyvkiadó. pp. 221–34. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-963-243-813-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-963-243-813-9"><bdi>978-963-243-813-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Az+%C3%A9szaki+szamoj%C3%A9dok&rft.btitle=Finnugor+kalauz&rft.place=Budapest&rft.series=Panor%C3%A1ma&rft.pages=221-34&rft.pub=Medicina+K%C3%B6nyvkiad%C3%B3&rft.date=1998&rft.isbn=978-963-243-813-9&rft.aulast=Nagy&rft.aufirst=Be%C3%A1ta+Bogl%C3%A1rka&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AShamanism" class="Z3988"></span> The chapter means "Northern Samoyedic peoples", the title means <i>Finno-Ugric guide</i>.</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFNattiez" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Jean-Jacques_Nattiez" title="Jean-Jacques Nattiez">Nattiez, Jean Jacques</a>. <i>Inuit Games and Songs / Chants et Jeux des Inuit</i>. Musiques & musiciens du monde / Musics & musicians of the world. Montreal: Research Group in <a href="/wiki/Music_semiology" title="Music semiology">Musical Semiotics</a>, Faculty of Music, University of Montreal.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Inuit+Games+and+Songs+%2F+Chants+et+Jeux+des+Inuit&rft.place=Montreal&rft.series=Musiques+%26+musiciens+du+monde+%2F+Musics+%26+musicians+of+the+world&rft.pub=Research+Group+in+Musical+Semiotics%2C+Faculty+of+Music%2C+University+of+Montreal&rft.aulast=Nattiez&rft.aufirst=Jean+Jacques&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AShamanism" class="Z3988"></span>. The songs are <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.ubu.com/ethno/soundings/inuit.html">available online</a>, on the <a href="/wiki/Ethnopoetics" title="Ethnopoetics">ethnopoetics</a> website curated by <a href="/wiki/Jerome_Rothenberg" title="Jerome Rothenberg">Jerome Rothenberg</a>.</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="NoSh04" class="citation news cs1"><a href="/wiki/Richard_Noll" title="Richard Noll">Noll, Richard</a>; Shi, Kun (2004). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20090326115313/http://www.desales.edu/assets/desales/SocScience/Oroqen_shaman_FSSForumAug07.pdf">"Chuonnasuan (Meng Jin Fu), The Last Shaman of the Oroqen of Northeast China"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. <i>韓國宗敎硏究 (Journal of Korean Religions)</i>. Vol. 6. Seoul KR: 西江大學校宗教硏究所 (Sŏgang Taehakkyo Chonggyo Yŏn'guso). pp. 135–62. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.desales.edu/assets/desales/SocScience/Oroqen_shaman_FSSForumAug07.pdf">the original</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span> on March 26, 2009<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">May 28,</span> 2020</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=%E9%9F%93%E5%9C%8B%E5%AE%97%E6%95%8E%E7%A1%8F%E7%A9%B6+%28Journal+of+Korean+Religions%29&rft.atitle=Chuonnasuan+%28Meng+Jin+Fu%29%2C+The+Last+Shaman+of+the+Oroqen+of+Northeast+China&rft.volume=6&rft.pages=135-62&rft.date=2004&rft.aulast=Noll&rft.aufirst=Richard&rft.au=Shi%2C+Kun&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.desales.edu%2Fassets%2Fdesales%2FSocScience%2FOroqen_shaman_FSSForumAug07.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AShamanism" class="Z3988"></span>. It describes the life of Chuonnasuan, the last shaman of the <a href="/wiki/Oroqen_people" title="Oroqen people">Oroqen</a> of Northeast China.</li> <li>Reinhard, Johan (1976) "Shamanism and Spirit Possession: The Definition Problem." In <i>Spirit Possession in the Nepal Himalayas</i>, J. Hitchcock & R. Jones (eds.), New Delhi: Vikas Publishing House, pp. 12–20.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ippei_Shimamura" title="Ippei Shimamura">Shimamura, Ippei</a> <i>The roots Seekers: Shamanism and Ethnicity Among the Mongol Buryats.</i> Yokohama, Japan: Shumpusha, 2014.</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSingh2018" class="citation journal cs1">Singh, Manvir (2018). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.researchgate.net/publication/318255042">"The cultural evolution of shamanism"</a>. <i>Behavioral & Brain Sciences</i>. <b>41</b>: e66, 1–61. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1017%2FS0140525X17001893">10.1017/S0140525X17001893</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/28679454">28679454</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:206264885">206264885</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Behavioral+%26+Brain+Sciences&rft.atitle=The+cultural+evolution+of+shamanism&rft.volume=41&rft.pages=e66%2C+1-61&rft.date=2018&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A206264885%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F28679454&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1017%2FS0140525X17001893&rft.aulast=Singh&rft.aufirst=Manvir&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.researchgate.net%2Fpublication%2F318255042&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AShamanism" class="Z3988"></span> Summary of the cultural evolutionary and cognitive foundations of shamanism; published with commentaries by 25 scholars (including anthropologists, philosophers, and psychologists).</li> <li>Turner, Robert P.; Lukoff, David; Barnhouse, Ruth Tiffany & Lu, Francis G. (1995) <i>Religious or Spiritual Problem. A Culturally Sensitive Diagnostic Category in the DSM-IV</i>. Journal of Nervous and Mental Disease, Vol.183, No. 7, pp. 435–44</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFVoigt2000" class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">Voigt, Miklós (2000). "Sámán – a szó és értelme". <i>Világnak kezdetétől fogva. Történeti folklorisztikai tanulmányok</i> (in Hungarian). Budapest: Universitas Könyvkiadó. pp. 41–45. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-963-9104-39-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-963-9104-39-6"><bdi>978-963-9104-39-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=S%C3%A1m%C3%A1n+%E2%80%93+a+sz%C3%B3+%C3%A9s+%C3%A9rtelme&rft.btitle=Vil%C3%A1gnak+kezdet%C3%A9t%C5%91l+fogva.+T%C3%B6rt%C3%A9neti+folklorisztikai+tanulm%C3%A1nyok&rft.place=Budapest&rft.pages=41-45&rft.pub=Universitas+K%C3%B6nyvkiad%C3%B3&rft.date=2000&rft.isbn=978-963-9104-39-6&rft.aulast=Voigt&rft.aufirst=Mikl%C3%B3s&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AShamanism" class="Z3988"></span> The chapter discusses the etymology and meaning of word "shaman".</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWinkelman2000" class="citation book cs1">Winkelman, Michael (2000). <i>Shamanism: The neural ecology of consciousness and healing</i>. Westport, CT: Bergen & Gavey. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-963-9104-39-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-963-9104-39-6"><bdi>978-963-9104-39-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Shamanism%3A+The+neural+ecology+of+consciousness+and+healing&rft.place=Westport%2C+CT&rft.pub=Bergen+%26+Gavey&rft.date=2000&rft.isbn=978-963-9104-39-6&rft.aulast=Winkelman&rft.aufirst=Michael&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AShamanism" class="Z3988"></span> Major work on the evolutionary and psychological origins of shamanism.</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWitzel2011" class="citation journal cs1">Witzel, Michael (2011). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://dash.harvard.edu/bitstream/handle/1/8456537/Witzel_ShamanismNorthern.pdf?sequence=2">"Shamanism in Northern and Southern Eurasia: their distinctive methods and change of consciousness"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. <i>Social Science Information</i>. <b>50</b> (1): 39–61. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1177%2F0539018410391044">10.1177/0539018410391044</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:144745844">144745844</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Social+Science+Information&rft.atitle=Shamanism+in+Northern+and+Southern+Eurasia%3A+their+distinctive+methods+and+change+of+consciousness&rft.volume=50&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=39-61&rft.date=2011&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1177%2F0539018410391044&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A144745844%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.aulast=Witzel&rft.aufirst=Michael&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdash.harvard.edu%2Fbitstream%2Fhandle%2F1%2F8456537%2FWitzel_ShamanismNorthern.pdf%3Fsequence%3D2&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AShamanism" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Further_reading">Further reading</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Shamanism&action=edit&section=28" title="Edit section: Further reading"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239549316"><div class="refbegin refbegin-columns references-column-width" style="column-width: 30em"> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Joseph_Campbell" title="Joseph Campbell">Campbell, Joseph</a> (1976) [1959]. <i>The Masks of God: Primitive Mythology</i>. New York and London: Penguin Books. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-14-019443-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-14-019443-2"><bdi>978-0-14-019443-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Masks+of+God%3A+Primitive+Mythology&rft.place=New+York+and+London&rft.pub=Penguin+Books&rft.date=1976&rft.isbn=978-0-14-019443-2&rft.aulast=Campbell&rft.aufirst=Joseph&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AShamanism" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation journal cs1">Hultkrantz, Åke. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.folkscene.hu/magzines/shaman/about.htm">"Shaman"</a>. <i>Journal of the International Society for Shamanistic Research</i>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+the+International+Society+for+Shamanistic+Research&rft.atitle=Shaman&rft.aulast=Hultkrantz&rft.aufirst=%C3%85ke&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.folkscene.hu%2Fmagzines%2Fshaman%2Fabout.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AShamanism" class="Z3988"></span><sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources#What_information_to_include" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources"><span title="A complete citation is needed. (October 2024)">full citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation book cs1">Kehoe, Alice (2000). <i>Shamans and Religion: An Anthropological Exploration in Critical Thinking</i>. London: Waveland Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-57766-162-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-57766-162-7"><bdi>978-1-57766-162-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Shamans+and+Religion%3A+An+Anthropological+Exploration+in+Critical+Thinking&rft.place=London&rft.pub=Waveland+Press&rft.date=2000&rft.isbn=978-1-57766-162-7&rft.aulast=Kehoe&rft.aufirst=Alice&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AShamanism" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation journal cs1">Kendall, Laurel (September 1996). "Korean Shamans and the Spirits of Capitalism". <i>American Anthropologist</i>. <b>98</b> (3): 512–527. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1525%2FAA.1996.98.3.02A00060">10.1525/AA.1996.98.3.02A00060</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0002-7294">0002-7294</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=American+Anthropologist&rft.atitle=Korean+Shamans+and+the+Spirits+of+Capitalism&rft.volume=98&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=512-527&rft.date=1996-09&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1525%2FAA.1996.98.3.02A00060&rft.issn=0002-7294&rft.aulast=Kendall&rft.aufirst=Laurel&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AShamanism" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation journal cs1">Kim, Andrew Eungi (2000). "Christianity, Shamanism, and Modernization in South Korea". <i>CrossCurrents</i>. <b>50</b> (1–2): 112–119. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0011-1953">0011-1953</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/24461237">24461237</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=CrossCurrents&rft.atitle=Christianity%2C+Shamanism%2C+and+Modernization+in+South+Korea&rft.volume=50&rft.issue=1%E2%80%932&rft.pages=112-119&rft.date=2000&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F24461237%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.issn=0011-1953&rft.aulast=Kim&rft.aufirst=Andrew+Eungi&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AShamanism" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation book cs1">Kim, Chongho, ed. (2018). <i>Korean Shamanism: The Cultural Paradox</i>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.4324%2F9781315198156">10.4324/9781315198156</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-315-19815-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-315-19815-6"><bdi>978-1-315-19815-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Korean+Shamanism%3A+The+Cultural+Paradox&rft.date=2018&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.4324%2F9781315198156&rft.isbn=978-1-315-19815-6&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AShamanism" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/David_Charles_Manners" title="David Charles Manners">Manners, David Charles</a> (2011). <i>In the Shadow of Crows</i>. Oxford: Signal Books. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-904955-92-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-904955-92-4"><bdi>978-1-904955-92-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=In+the+Shadow+of+Crows&rft.place=Oxford&rft.pub=Signal+Books&rft.date=2011&rft.isbn=978-1-904955-92-4&rft.aulast=Manners&rft.aufirst=David+Charles&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AShamanism" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation book cs1">Paper, Jordan D. (1995). <i>The Spirits are Drunk: Comparative Approaches to Chinese Religion</i>. Albany, New York: State University of New York Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7914-2315-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-7914-2315-8"><bdi>978-0-7914-2315-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Spirits+are+Drunk%3A+Comparative+Approaches+to+Chinese+Religion&rft.place=Albany%2C+New+York&rft.pub=State+University+of+New+York+Press&rft.date=1995&rft.isbn=978-0-7914-2315-8&rft.aulast=Paper&rft.aufirst=Jordan+D.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AShamanism" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation book cs1">Smith, Frederick M. (2006). <i>The Self Possessed: Deity and Spirit Possession in South Asian Literature</i>. Columbia University Press. pp. 195–202. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-231-13748-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-231-13748-5"><bdi>978-0-231-13748-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Self+Possessed%3A+Deity+and+Spirit+Possession+in+South+Asian+Literature&rft.pages=195-202&rft.pub=Columbia+University+Press&rft.date=2006&rft.isbn=978-0-231-13748-5&rft.aulast=Smith&rft.aufirst=Frederick+M.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AShamanism" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation book cs1">Tedlock, Barbara (1992). <i>Time and the Highland Maya</i>. University of New Mexico Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8263-1358-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8263-1358-4"><bdi>978-0-8263-1358-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Time+and+the+Highland+Maya&rft.pub=University+of+New+Mexico+Press&rft.date=1992&rft.isbn=978-0-8263-1358-4&rft.aulast=Tedlock&rft.aufirst=Barbara&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AShamanism" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation book cs1">Tomášková, Silvia (2013). <i>Wayward Shamans: The Prehistory of an Idea</i>. University of California Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-520-27532-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-520-27532-4"><bdi>978-0-520-27532-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Wayward+Shamans%3A+The+Prehistory+of+an+Idea&rft.pub=University+of+California+Press&rft.date=2013&rft.isbn=978-0-520-27532-4&rft.aulast=Tom%C3%A1%C5%A1kov%C3%A1&rft.aufirst=Silvia&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AShamanism" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation book cs1">Znamenski, Andrei (2003). <i>Shamanism in Siberia: Russian Records of Siberian Spirituality</i>. Dordrech and Boston: Kluwer/Springer. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4020-1740-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-4020-1740-7"><bdi>978-1-4020-1740-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Shamanism+in+Siberia%3A+Russian+Records+of+Siberian+Spirituality&rft.place=Dordrech+and+Boston&rft.pub=Kluwer%2FSpringer&rft.date=2003&rft.isbn=978-1-4020-1740-7&rft.aulast=Znamenski&rft.aufirst=Andrei&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AShamanism" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation book cs1">Znamenski, Andrei (2007). <i>The Beauty of the Primitive: Shamanism and Western Imagination</i>. New York: Oxford University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-1951-7231-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-1951-7231-7"><bdi>978-0-1951-7231-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Beauty+of+the+Primitive%3A+Shamanism+and+Western+Imagination&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2007&rft.isbn=978-0-1951-7231-7&rft.aulast=Znamenski&rft.aufirst=Andrei&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AShamanism" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Shamanism&action=edit&section=29" title="Edit section: External links"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link 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src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/30px-Commons-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="30" height="40" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/45px-Commons-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/59px-Commons-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="1376" /></span></span></div> <div class="side-box-text plainlist">Wikimedia Commons has media related to <span style="font-weight: bold; font-style: italic;"><a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Shamanism" class="extiw" title="commons:Category:Shamanism">Shamanism</a></span>.</div></div> </div> <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20190121215816/http://www.akhathai.org/">AFECT</a> A charitable organization protecting traditional cultures in northern Thailand</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20090326115313/http://www.desales.edu/assets/desales/SocScience/Oroqen_shaman_FSSForumAug07.pdf">Chuonnasuan</a> (Meng Jin Fu), The Last Shaman of the <a href="/wiki/Oroqen_people" title="Oroqen people">Oroqen</a> of Northeast China, by Richard Noll and Kun Shi (<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.desales.edu/assets/desales/SocScience/Oroqen_shaman_FSSForumAug07.pdf">Internet Archive copy from</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://newagefraud.org/">New Age Frauds and Plastic Shamans</a>, an organization devoted to alerting seekers about fraudulent teachers, and helping them avoid being exploited or participating in exploitation</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.museum.state.il.us/exhibits/changing/journey/healing.html">Shamanic Healing Rituals</a> by Tatyana Sem, Russian Museum of Ethnography</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.folklore.ee/folklore/vol10/pdf/teuton.pdf">Shamanism and the Image of the Teutonic Deity, Óðinn</a> by A. Asbjorn Jon</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.krupar.com/index.php?file=www/en/gallery/gallery.html&cat=5">Shamanism in Siberia</a> – photographs by Standa Krupar</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://haldjas.folklore.ee/~aado/">Studies in Siberian Shamanism and Religions of the Finno-Ugrian Peoples</a> by Aado Lintrop, Folk Belief and Media Group of the Estonian Literary Museum</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20041027152526/http://www.theecologist.info/page9.html">A View from the Headwaters</a> by Gerardo Reichel-Dolmatoff Amazonian Indigenous peoples and ecology</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://samgaldai.mn">Samgaldai NGO</a> – A charitable, non-for-profit NGO for preserving Mongolian traditional Shamanic practices and rituals, operating in Mongolia.</li></ul> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" 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href="/wiki/Intelligent_design" title="Intelligent design">Intelligent design</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Miracle" title="Miracle">Miracle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Problem_of_evil" title="Problem of evil">Problem of evil</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Soul" title="Soul">Soul</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vitalism" title="Vitalism">Spirit</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theodicy" title="Theodicy">Theodicy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theological_veto" title="Theological veto">Theological veto</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align:center;"><a href="/wiki/Conceptions_of_God" title="Conceptions of God">Conceptions of God</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Brahman" title="Brahman">Brahman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Demiurge" title="Demiurge">Demiurge</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Divine_simplicity" title="Divine simplicity">Divine simplicity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethical_egoism" title="Ethical egoism">Egoism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Holy_Spirit" title="Holy Spirit">Holy Spirit</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Misotheism" title="Misotheism">Misotheism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pandeism" title="Pandeism">Pandeism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Personal_god" title="Personal god">Personal god</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Process_theology" title="Process theology">Process theology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/God" title="God">Supreme Being</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Unmoved_mover" title="Unmoved mover">Unmoved mover</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:4em;font-weight:normal; text-align:center;">God in</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/God_in_Abrahamic_religions" title="God in Abrahamic religions">Abrahamic religions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Creator_in_Buddhism" title="Creator in Buddhism">Buddhism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/God_in_Christianity" title="God in Christianity">Christianity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/God_in_Hinduism" title="God in Hinduism">Hinduism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/God_in_Islam" title="God in Islam">Islam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/God_in_Jainism" title="God in Jainism">Jainism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/God_in_Judaism" title="God in Judaism">Judaism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/God_in_Mormonism" title="God in Mormonism">Mormonism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/God_in_Sikhism" title="God in Sikhism">Sikhism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/God_in_the_Bah%C3%A1%CA%BC%C3%AD_Faith" title="God in the Baháʼí Faith">Baháʼí Faith</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wiccan_views_of_divinity" title="Wiccan views of divinity">Wicca</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align:center;"><a href="/wiki/Existence_of_God" title="Existence of God">Existence of God</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:4em;font-weight:normal; text-align:center;">For</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Argument_from_beauty" title="Argument from beauty">Beauty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christological_argument" title="Christological argument">Christological</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Argument_from_consciousness" title="Argument from consciousness">Consciousness</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cosmological_argument" title="Cosmological argument">Cosmological</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Kalam_cosmological_argument" title="Kalam cosmological argument">Kalam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cosmological_argument#Argument_from_contingency" title="Cosmological argument">Contingency</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Argument_from_degree" title="Argument from degree">Degree</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Argument_from_desire" title="Argument from desire">Desire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Argument_from_religious_experience" title="Argument from religious experience">Experience</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fine-tuned_universe" title="Fine-tuned universe">Fine-tuning of the universe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Argument_from_love" title="Argument from love">Love</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Argument_from_miracles" title="Argument from miracles">Miracles</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Argument_from_morality" title="Argument from morality">Morality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Proof_of_the_Truthful" title="Proof of the Truthful">Necessary existent</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ontological_argument" title="Ontological argument">Ontological</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pascal%27s_wager" title="Pascal's wager">Pascal's wager</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reformed_epistemology" title="Reformed epistemology">Proper basis and Reformed epistemology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Argument_from_reason" title="Argument from reason">Reason</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Teleological_argument" title="Teleological argument">Teleological</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Natural-law_argument" title="Natural-law argument">Natural law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Watchmaker_analogy" title="Watchmaker analogy">Watchmaker analogy</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transcendental_argument_for_the_existence_of_God" title="Transcendental argument for the existence of God">Transcendental</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:4em;font-weight:normal; text-align:center;">Against</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ultimate_Boeing_747_gambit" title="Ultimate Boeing 747 gambit">747 gambit</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Atheist%27s_Wager" class="mw-redirect" title="Atheist's Wager">Atheist's Wager</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Problem_of_evil" title="Problem of evil">Evil</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Argument_from_free_will" title="Argument from free will">Free will</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Problem_of_Hell" title="Problem of Hell">Hell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Argument_from_inconsistent_revelations" class="mw-redirect" title="Argument from inconsistent revelations">Inconsistent revelations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Argument_from_nonbelief" title="Argument from nonbelief">Nonbelief</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theological_noncognitivism" title="Theological noncognitivism">Noncognitivism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Occam%27s_razor" title="Occam's razor">Occam's razor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Omnipotence_paradox" title="Omnipotence paradox">Omnipotence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Argument_from_poor_design" title="Argument from poor design">Poor design</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Russell%27s_teapot" title="Russell's teapot">Russell's teapot</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align:center;"><a href="/wiki/Theology" title="Theology">Theology</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Acosmism" title="Acosmism">Acosmism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Agnosticism" title="Agnosticism">Agnosticism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Animism" title="Animism">Animism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Antireligion" title="Antireligion">Antireligion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Atheism" title="Atheism">Atheism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Creationism" title="Creationism">Creationism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dharma" title="Dharma">Dharmism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deism" title="Deism">Deism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Demonology" title="Demonology">Demonology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Divine_command_theory" title="Divine command theory">Divine command theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dualism_in_cosmology" title="Dualism in cosmology">Dualism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Western_esotericism" title="Western esotericism">Esotericism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Exclusivism" title="Exclusivism">Exclusivism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Existentialism" title="Existentialism">Existentialism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Christian_existentialism" title="Christian existentialism">Christian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Atheistic_existentialism" title="Atheistic existentialism">Atheistic</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feminist_theology" title="Feminist theology">Feminist theology</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Thealogy" title="Thealogy">Thealogy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Womanist_theology" title="Womanist theology">Womanist theology</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fideism" title="Fideism">Fideism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fundamentalism" title="Fundamentalism">Fundamentalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gnosticism" title="Gnosticism">Gnosticism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Henotheism" title="Henotheism">Henotheism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Humanism" title="Humanism">Humanism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Religious_humanism" title="Religious humanism">Religious</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Secular_humanism" title="Secular humanism">Secular</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christian_humanism" title="Christian humanism">Christian</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Inclusivism" title="Inclusivism">Inclusivism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theories_about_religions" class="mw-redirect" title="Theories about religions">Theories about religions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Monism" title="Monism">Monism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Monotheism" title="Monotheism">Monotheism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mysticism" title="Mysticism">Mysticism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Naturalism_(philosophy)" title="Naturalism (philosophy)">Naturalism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Metaphysical_naturalism" title="Metaphysical naturalism">Metaphysical</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religious_naturalism" title="Religious naturalism">Religious</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Humanistic_naturalism" class="mw-redirect" title="Humanistic naturalism">Humanistic</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/New_Age" title="New Age">New Age</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nondualism" title="Nondualism">Nondualism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nontheism" title="Nontheism">Nontheism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pandeism" title="Pandeism">Pandeism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Panentheism" title="Panentheism">Panentheism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pantheism" title="Pantheism">Pantheism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Perennial_philosophy" title="Perennial philosophy">Perennialism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Polytheism" title="Polytheism">Polytheism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Possibilianism" title="Possibilianism">Possibilianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Process_theology" title="Process theology">Process theology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religious_skepticism" title="Religious skepticism">Religious skepticism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spiritualism_(beliefs)" title="Spiritualism (beliefs)">Spiritualism</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Shamanism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/East_Asian_religions" title="East Asian religions">Taoic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theism" title="Theism">Theism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transcendentalism" title="Transcendentalism">Transcendentalism</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/List_of_philosophies" title="List of philosophies">more...</a></i></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align:center;"><a href="/wiki/Problem_of_religious_language" title="Problem of religious language">Religious language</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Eschatological_verification" title="Eschatological verification">Eschatological verification</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Language_game_(philosophy)" title="Language game (philosophy)">Language game</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Logical_positivism" title="Logical positivism">Logical positivism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Apophatic_theology" title="Apophatic theology">Apophatic theology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Verificationism" title="Verificationism">Verificationism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align:center;"><a href="/wiki/Problem_of_evil" title="Problem of evil">Problem of evil</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Augustinian_theodicy" title="Augustinian theodicy">Augustinian theodicy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Best_of_all_possible_worlds" title="Best of all possible worlds">Best of all possible worlds</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Euthyphro_dilemma" title="Euthyphro dilemma">Euthyphro dilemma</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Inconsistent_triad" title="Inconsistent triad">Inconsistent triad</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Irenaean_theodicy" title="Irenaean theodicy">Irenaean theodicy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Natural_evil" title="Natural evil">Natural evil</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theodicy" title="Theodicy">Theodicy</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align:center;"><div style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0;"><a href="/wiki/Category:Philosophers_of_religion" title="Category:Philosophers of religion">Philosophers<br />of religion</a></div><br />(by date active)</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> </div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:4em;font-weight:normal;text-align:center;"><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greek_philosophy" title="Ancient Greek philosophy">Ancient</a> and<br /><a href="/wiki/Medieval_philosophy" title="Medieval philosophy">medieval</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anselm_of_Canterbury" title="Anselm of Canterbury">Anselm of Canterbury</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Augustine_of_Hippo" title="Augustine of Hippo">Augustine of Hippo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Avicenna" title="Avicenna">Avicenna</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Averroes" title="Averroes">Averroes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Boethius" title="Boethius">Boethius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gaudapada" title="Gaudapada">Gaudapada</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gaunilo_of_Marmoutiers" title="Gaunilo of Marmoutiers">Gaunilo of Marmoutiers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Giovanni_Pico_della_Mirandola" title="Giovanni Pico della Mirandola">Pico della Mirandola</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Heraclitus" title="Heraclitus">Heraclitus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_VI_and_I" title="James VI and I">King James VI and I</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marcion_of_Sinope" title="Marcion of Sinope">Marcion of Sinope</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maimonides" title="Maimonides">Maimonides</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Adi_Shankara" title="Adi Shankara">Adi Shankara</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Aquinas" title="Thomas Aquinas">Thomas Aquinas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_of_Ockham" title="William of Ockham">William of Ockham</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:4em;font-weight:normal;text-align:center;"><a href="/wiki/Early_modern_philosophy" title="Early modern philosophy">Early modern</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Antoine_Augustin_Calmet" title="Antoine Augustin Calmet">Augustin Calmet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ren%C3%A9_Descartes" title="René Descartes">René Descartes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Blaise_Pascal" title="Blaise Pascal">Blaise Pascal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Desiderius_Erasmus" class="mw-redirect" title="Desiderius Erasmus">Desiderius Erasmus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Baruch_Spinoza" title="Baruch Spinoza">Baruch Spinoza</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nicolas_Malebranche" title="Nicolas Malebranche">Nicolas Malebranche</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gottfried_Wilhelm_Leibniz" title="Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz">Gottfried W Leibniz</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_Wollaston" title="William Wollaston">William Wollaston</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Chubb" title="Thomas Chubb">Thomas Chubb</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/David_Hume" title="David Hume">David Hume</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Baron_d%27Holbach" title="Baron d'Holbach">Baron d'Holbach</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Immanuel_Kant" title="Immanuel Kant">Immanuel Kant</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Johann_Gottfried_Herder" title="Johann Gottfried Herder">Johann G Herder</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:4em;font-weight:normal;text-align:center;">1800<br />1850</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Friedrich_Schleiermacher" title="Friedrich Schleiermacher">Friedrich Schleiermacher</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Karl_Christian_Friedrich_Krause" title="Karl Christian Friedrich Krause">Karl C F Krause</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Georg_Wilhelm_Friedrich_Hegel" title="Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel">Georg W F Hegel</a></li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Carlyle" title="Thomas Carlyle">Thomas Carlyle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_Whewell" title="William Whewell">William Whewell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ludwig_Feuerbach" title="Ludwig Feuerbach">Ludwig Feuerbach</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/S%C3%B8ren_Kierkegaard" title="Søren Kierkegaard">Søren Kierkegaard</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Karl_Marx" title="Karl Marx">Karl Marx</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Albrecht_Ritschl" title="Albrecht Ritschl">Albrecht Ritschl</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Afrikan_Spir" title="Afrikan Spir">Afrikan Spir</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:4em;font-weight:normal;text-align:center;">1880<br />1900</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ernst_Haeckel" title="Ernst Haeckel">Ernst Haeckel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_Kingdon_Clifford" title="William Kingdon Clifford">W K Clifford</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Friedrich_Nietzsche" title="Friedrich Nietzsche">Friedrich Nietzsche</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Harald_H%C3%B8ffding" title="Harald Høffding">Harald Høffding</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_James" title="William James">William James</a></li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Vladimir_Solovyov_(philosopher)" title="Vladimir Solovyov (philosopher)">Vladimir Solovyov</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ernst_Troeltsch" title="Ernst Troeltsch">Ernst Troeltsch</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rudolf_Otto" title="Rudolf Otto">Rudolf Otto</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lev_Shestov" title="Lev Shestov">Lev Shestov</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sergei_Bulgakov" title="Sergei Bulgakov">Sergei Bulgakov</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pavel_Florensky" title="Pavel Florensky">Pavel Florensky</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ernst_Cassirer" title="Ernst Cassirer">Ernst Cassirer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joseph_Mar%C3%A9chal" title="Joseph Maréchal">Joseph Maréchal</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:4em;font-weight:normal;text-align:center;">1920<br />postwar</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/George_Santayana" title="George Santayana">George Santayana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bertrand_Russell" title="Bertrand Russell">Bertrand Russell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Martin_Buber" title="Martin Buber">Martin Buber</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ren%C3%A9_Gu%C3%A9non" title="René Guénon">René Guénon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paul_Tillich" title="Paul Tillich">Paul Tillich</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Karl_Barth" title="Karl Barth">Karl Barth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Emil_Brunner" title="Emil Brunner">Emil Brunner</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rudolf_Bultmann" title="Rudolf Bultmann">Rudolf Bultmann</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gabriel_Marcel" title="Gabriel Marcel">Gabriel Marcel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reinhold_Niebuhr" title="Reinhold Niebuhr">Reinhold Niebuhr</a></li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Charles_Hartshorne" title="Charles Hartshorne">Charles Hartshorne</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mircea_Eliade" title="Mircea Eliade">Mircea Eliade</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Frithjof_Schuon" title="Frithjof Schuon">Frithjof Schuon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/J._L._Mackie" title="J. L. Mackie">J L Mackie</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Walter_Kaufmann_(philosopher)" title="Walter Kaufmann (philosopher)">Walter Kaufmann</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Martin_Lings" title="Martin Lings">Martin Lings</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peter_Geach" title="Peter Geach">Peter Geach</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/George_I._Mavrodes" title="George I. Mavrodes">George I Mavrodes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_Alston" title="William Alston">William Alston</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Antony_Flew" title="Antony Flew">Antony Flew</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:4em;font-weight:normal;text-align:center;">1970<br />1990<br />2010</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/William_L._Rowe" title="William L. Rowe">William L Rowe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dewi_Zephaniah_Phillips" title="Dewi Zephaniah Phillips">Dewi Z Phillips</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alvin_Plantinga" title="Alvin Plantinga">Alvin Plantinga</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anthony_Kenny" title="Anthony Kenny">Anthony Kenny</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nicholas_Wolterstorff" title="Nicholas Wolterstorff">Nicholas Wolterstorff</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Richard_Swinburne" title="Richard Swinburne">Richard Swinburne</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robert_Merrihew_Adams" title="Robert Merrihew Adams">Robert Merrihew Adams</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ravi_Zacharias" title="Ravi Zacharias">Ravi Zacharias</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peter_van_Inwagen" title="Peter van Inwagen">Peter van Inwagen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Daniel_Dennett" title="Daniel Dennett">Daniel Dennett</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Loyal_Rue" title="Loyal Rue">Loyal Rue</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jean-Luc_Marion" title="Jean-Luc Marion">Jean-Luc Marion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_Lane_Craig" title="William Lane Craig">William Lane Craig</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ali_Akbar_Rashad" title="Ali Akbar Rashad">Ali Akbar Rashad</a></li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Alexander_Pruss" title="Alexander Pruss">Alexander Pruss</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align:center;">Related topics</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Criticism_of_religion" title="Criticism of religion">Criticism of religion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Desacralization_of_knowledge" title="Desacralization of knowledge">Desacralization of knowledge</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethics_in_religion" title="Ethics in religion">Ethics in religion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Exegesis" title="Exegesis">Exegesis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_religion" title="History of religion">History of religion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion" title="Religion">Religion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Problem_of_religious_language" title="Problem of religious language">Religious language</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religious_philosophy" title="Religious philosophy">Religious philosophy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Relationship_between_religion_and_science" title="Relationship between religion and science">Relationship between religion and science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Faith_and_rationality" title="Faith and rationality">Faith and rationality</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Index_of_philosophy_of_religion_articles" title="Index of philosophy of religion articles">more...</a></i></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Symbol_portal_class.svg" class="mw-file-description" title="Portal"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/e/e2/Symbol_portal_class.svg/16px-Symbol_portal_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/e/e2/Symbol_portal_class.svg/23px-Symbol_portal_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/e/e2/Symbol_portal_class.svg/31px-Symbol_portal_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /></a></span> <a href="/wiki/Portal:Philosophy" title="Portal:Philosophy">Portal</a></li> <li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Category"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/23px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/31px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Category:Philosophy_of_religion" title="Category:Philosophy of religion">Category</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Magic_and_witchcraft" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Witchcraft" title="Template:Witchcraft"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Witchcraft" title="Template talk:Witchcraft"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Witchcraft" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Witchcraft"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Magic_and_witchcraft" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Magic_(supernatural)" title="Magic (supernatural)">Magic</a> and <a href="/wiki/Witchcraft" title="Witchcraft">witchcraft</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Types</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Region</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Witchcraft_in_Africa" title="Witchcraft in Africa">Africa</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Azande_witchcraft" title="Azande witchcraft">Azande</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Witchcraft_in_Ghana" title="Witchcraft in Ghana">Ghana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Witch_smeller" title="Witch smeller">Witch smeller</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Asian_witchcraft" title="Asian witchcraft">Asia</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Witchcraft_in_the_Philippines" title="Witchcraft in the Philippines">Philippines</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/European_witchcraft" title="European witchcraft">Europe</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Witchcraft_in_Italy" title="Witchcraft in Italy">Italy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Akelarre" title="Akelarre">Akelarre</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Benandanti" title="Benandanti">Benandanti</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cunning_folk" title="Cunning folk">Cunning folk</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Magic_in_the_Greco-Roman_world" title="Magic in the Greco-Roman world">Greece and Rome</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sei%C3%B0r" title="Seiðr">Seiðr</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Seeress_(Germanic)" title="Seeress (Germanic)">Völva</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Witch-cult_hypothesis" title="Witch-cult hypothesis">Witch-cult hypothesis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Witchcraft_in_Anglo-Saxon_England" title="Witchcraft in Anglo-Saxon England">Anglo-Saxon England</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Witchcraft_in_early_modern_Britain" title="Witchcraft in early modern Britain">Britain</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Witchcraft_in_Latin_America" title="Witchcraft in Latin America">Latin America</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Witchcraft_in_the_Middle_East" title="Witchcraft in the Middle East">Middle East</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Witchcraft#Oceania" title="Witchcraft">Oceania</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/M%C4%81kutu" title="Mākutu">Mākutu</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Form</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Chaos_magic" title="Chaos magic">Chaos magic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sorcery_(goetia)" title="Sorcery (goetia)">Goetia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hoodoo_(spirituality)" title="Hoodoo (spirituality)">Hoodoo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Medieval_European_magic" title="Medieval European magic">Medieval</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neopagan_witchcraft" title="Neopagan witchcraft">Neopagan</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Wicca" title="Wicca">Wicca</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Renaissance_magic" title="Renaissance magic">Renaissance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Solitary_practitioner" title="Solitary practitioner">Solitary practitioner</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Warlock" title="Warlock">Warlock</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Witch_doctor" title="Witch doctor">Witch doctor</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Practices</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Animism" title="Animism">Animism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Apotropaic_magic" title="Apotropaic magic">Apotropaic magic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Black_magic" title="Black magic">Black magic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ceremonial_magic" title="Ceremonial magic">Ceremonial magic</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Magical_formula" title="Magical formula">Magical formula</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Coven" title="Coven">Coven</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Curse" title="Curse">Curse</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anathema" title="Anathema">Anathema</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Damnation" title="Damnation">Damnation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jinx" title="Jinx">Jinx</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Demon" title="Demon">Demon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Divination" title="Divination">Divination</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Entheogen" title="Entheogen">Entheogen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evocation" title="Evocation">Evocation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Familiar" title="Familiar">Familiar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gray_magic" title="Gray magic">Gray magic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Incantation" title="Incantation">Incantation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jinn" title="Jinn">Jinn</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Love_magic" title="Love magic">Love magic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mediumship" title="Mediumship">Mediumship</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Moon_magic" title="Moon magic">Moon magic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Necromancy" title="Necromancy">Necromancy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Occult" title="Occult">Occultism</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Shamanism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Black_shamanism" title="Black shamanism">Black</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Regional_forms_of_shamanism" title="Regional forms of shamanism">Regional</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yellow_shamanism" title="Yellow shamanism">Yellow</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sex_magic" title="Sex magic">Sex magic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sigil" title="Sigil">Sigils</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kardecist_spiritism" title="Kardecist spiritism">Spiritism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spiritualism_(movement)" title="Spiritualism (movement)">Spiritualism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sympathetic_magic" title="Sympathetic magic">Sympathetic magic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Witches%27_Sabbath" title="Witches' Sabbath">Witches' Sabbath</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/White_magic" title="White magic">White magic</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Objects</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Amulet" title="Amulet">Amulet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Athame" title="Athame">Athame</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Broom" title="Broom">Broom</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Besom" title="Besom">besom</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Censer" title="Censer">Censer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cloak_of_invisibility" title="Cloak of invisibility">Cloak of invisibility</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crystal_ball" title="Crystal ball">Crystal ball</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Flying_ointment" title="Flying ointment">Flying ointment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Goofer_dust" title="Goofer dust">Goofer dust</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Grimoire" title="Grimoire">Grimoire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Incense" title="Incense">Incense</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Julleuchter" title="Julleuchter">Julleuchter</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kitchen_witch" title="Kitchen witch">Kitchen witch</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Love_magic" title="Love magic">Love charm</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Magic_carpet" title="Magic carpet">Magic carpet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Magic_circle" title="Magic circle">Magic circle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Magic_ring" title="Magic ring">Magic ring</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_magical_weapons" title="List of magical weapons">Magical weapons</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Magic_sword" title="Magic sword">Magic sword</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mojo_(African-American_culture)" title="Mojo (African-American culture)">Mojo bag</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nkisi" title="Nkisi">Nkisi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nkondi" title="Nkondi">Nkondi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Poppet" title="Poppet">Poppet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Potion" title="Potion">Potions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sator_Square" title="Sator Square">Sator Square</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Talisman" title="Talisman">Talisman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wand" title="Wand">Wand</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Witch_ball" title="Witch ball">Witch ball</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Witch%27s_ladder" title="Witch's ladder">Witch's ladder</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Folklore and<br />mythology</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Agamede" title="Agamede">Agamede</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aradia" title="Aradia">Aradia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Baba_Yaga" title="Baba Yaga">Baba Yaga</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Circe" title="Circe">Circe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dayan_(witch)" title="Dayan (witch)">Dayan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Drude" title="Drude">Drude</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Elbow_witch" title="Elbow witch">Elbow witch</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hecate" title="Hecate">Hecate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Huld" title="Huld">Huld</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kalku" title="Kalku">Kalku</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Medea" title="Medea">Medea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Morgan_le_Fay" title="Morgan le Fay">Morgan le Fay</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Muma_P%C4%83durii" title="Muma Pădurii">Muma Pădurii</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nine_sorceresses" title="Nine sorceresses">Nine sorceresses</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Obayifo" title="Obayifo">Obayifo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pasipha%C3%AB" title="Pasiphaë">Pasiphaë</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sebile" title="Sebile">Sebile</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sorginak" title="Sorginak">Sorginak</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spearfinger" title="Spearfinger">Spearfinger</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Three_Witches" title="Three Witches">Three Witches</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Witches_of_Benevento" title="Witches of Benevento">Witches of Benevento</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Witch_of_Endor" title="Witch of Endor">Witch of Endor</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Major<br />historic treatises</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Witchcraft_and_divination_in_the_Hebrew_Bible" title="Witchcraft and divination in the Hebrew Bible">Witchcraft and divination in the Old Testament</a> (8th–2nd centuries BC)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Directorium_Inquisitorum" title="Directorium Inquisitorum">Directorium Inquisitorum</a></i> (1376)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/De_maleficis_mulieribus" class="mw-redirect" title="De maleficis mulieribus">De maleficis mulieribus</a></i> (1440)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Formicarius" title="Formicarius">Formicarius</a></i> (1475)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Summis_desiderantes_affectibus" title="Summis desiderantes affectibus">Summis desiderantes affectibus</a></i> (1484)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Malleus_Maleficarum" title="Malleus Maleficarum">Malleus Maleficarum</a></i> (1487)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/De_Lamiis_et_Pythonicis_Mulieribus" class="mw-redirect" title="De Lamiis et Pythonicis Mulieribus">De Lamiis et Pythonicis Mulieribus</a></i> (1489)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Laienspiegel" title="Laienspiegel">Laienspiegel</a></i> (1509)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/De_praestigiis_daemonum" title="De praestigiis daemonum">De praestigiis daemonum</a></i> (1563)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Discoverie_of_Witchcraft" title="The Discoverie of Witchcraft">The Discoverie of Witchcraft</a></i> (1584)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Newes_from_Scotland" title="Newes from Scotland">Newes from Scotland</a></i> (1591)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/A_Dialogue_Concerning_Witches_and_Witchcrafts" title="A Dialogue Concerning Witches and Witchcrafts">A Dialogue Concerning Witches and Witchcrafts</a></i> (1593)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Daemonolatreiae_libri_tres" title="Daemonolatreiae libri tres">Daemonolatreiae libri tres</a></i> (1595)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Daemonologie" title="Daemonologie">Daemonologie</a></i> (1597)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Magical_Investigations" class="mw-redirect" title="Magical Investigations">Magical Investigations</a></i> (1599)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Compendium_Maleficarum" title="Compendium Maleficarum">Compendium Maleficarum</a></i> (1608)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/A_Guide_to_Grand-Jury_Men" title="A Guide to Grand-Jury Men">A Guide to Grand-Jury Men</a></i> (1627)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Discovery_of_Witches" class="mw-redirect" title="The Discovery of Witches">The Discovery of Witches</a></i> (1647)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Trait%C3%A9_sur_les_apparitions_des_esprits_et_sur_les_vampires_ou_les_revenans_de_Hongrie,_de_Moravie,_%26c." title="Traité sur les apparitions des esprits et sur les vampires ou les revenans de Hongrie, de Moravie, &c.">Treatise on the Apparitions of Spirits and on Vampires or Revenants</a></i> (1751)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Persecution</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Modern_witch_hunts" title="Modern witch hunts">Modern</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Jamyi_Witch_hiring_controversy" title="Jamyi Witch hiring controversy">Jamyi Witch hiring controversy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Witchcraft_accusations_against_children" title="Witchcraft accusations against children">accusations against children</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Witch_hunts_in_India" title="Witch hunts in India">India</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Witch_hunts_in_Nepal" title="Witch hunts in Nepal">Nepal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Witch_hunts_in_Papua_New_Guinea" title="Witch hunts in Papua New Guinea">Papua New Guinea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Witch_camp" title="Witch camp">Witch camp</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Witch_trials_in_the_early_modern_period" title="Witch trials in the early modern period">Early Modern</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Americas</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Maryland_Witch_Trials" class="mw-redirect" title="Maryland Witch Trials">Maryland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Witch_trials_in_New_York" title="Witch trials in New York">New York</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Salem_witch_trials" title="Salem witch trials">Salem</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Witch_trials_in_Virginia" title="Witch trials in Virginia">Virginia</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Eastern Europe</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Witch_trials_in_Hungary" title="Witch trials in Hungary">Hungary</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Northern_Moravia_witch_trials" title="Northern Moravia witch trials">Northern Moravia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Witch_trials_in_Poland" title="Witch trials in Poland">Poland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Witch_trials_in_Russia" title="Witch trials in Russia">Russia</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Northern Europe</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Witch_trials_in_Latvia_and_Estonia" title="Witch trials in Latvia and Estonia">Baltic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Witch_trials_in_Denmark" title="Witch trials in Denmark">Denmark</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Witch_trials_in_England" title="Witch trials in England">England</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Witch_trials_in_Finland" title="Witch trials in Finland">Finland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Witch_trials_in_Iceland" title="Witch trials in Iceland">Iceland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Witch_trials_in_Norway" title="Witch trials in Norway">Norway</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Witch_trials_in_early_modern_Scotland" title="Witch trials in early modern Scotland">Scotland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Witch_trials_in_Sweden" title="Witch trials in Sweden">Sweden</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Western Europe</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Witch_trials_in_France" title="Witch trials in France">France</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geneva_witch_trials" title="Geneva witch trials">Geneva</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Witch_trials_in_Italy" title="Witch trials in Italy">Italy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Witch_trials_in_Spain" title="Witch trials in Spain">Spain</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Basque_witch_trials" title="Basque witch trials">Basque</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Classical</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Witch_trials_in_the_Holy_Roman_Empire" title="Witch trials in the Holy Roman Empire">Witch trials in the Holy Roman Empire</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Related</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Witch_hunt" title="Witch hunt">Witch hunt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Witch%27s_mark" title="Witch's mark">Witch's mark</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pricking" title="Pricking">Pricking</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_people_executed_for_witchcraft" title="List of people executed for witchcraft">List of people executed for witchcraft</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">In popular culture</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Magic_in_fiction" title="Magic in fiction">Magic in fiction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_fictional_witches" title="List of fictional witches">Witches in fiction</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Related</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Witch_(word)" title="Witch (word)">Witch (word)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Witch_(archetype)" title="Witch (archetype)">Witch (archetype)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christian_views_on_magic" title="Christian views on magic">Christian views on magic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Magical_organization" title="Magical organization">Magical organization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maleficium_(sorcery)" class="mw-redirect" title="Maleficium (sorcery)">Maleficium</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Left-hand_path_and_right-hand_path" title="Left-hand path and right-hand path">Left-hand path and right-hand path</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feminist_interpretations_of_witch_trials_in_the_early_modern_period" title="Feminist interpretations of witch trials in the early modern period">Feminist interpretations of witch trials in the early modern period</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Folk_religion" title="Folk religion">Folk religion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Adept" title="Adept">Adept</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Fantasy_fiction" style="text-align:center;;padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Fantasy_fiction" title="Template:Fantasy fiction"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Fantasy_fiction" title="Template talk:Fantasy fiction"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Fantasy_fiction" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Fantasy fiction"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Fantasy_fiction" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Fantasy" title="Fantasy">Fantasy fiction</a></div></th></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_fantasy" title="History of fantasy">History</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fantasy_literature" title="Fantasy literature">Literature</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Magic_in_fiction" title="Magic in fiction">Magic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Early_history_of_fantasy" title="Early history of fantasy">Sources</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Subgenres</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li>Action-adventure <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Lost_world" title="Lost world">Lost world</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sword_and_sorcery" title="Sword and sorcery">Sword and sorcery</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wuxia" title="Wuxia">Wuxia‎</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alternate_history" title="Alternate history">Alternate history</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Contemporary_fantasy" title="Contemporary fantasy">Contemporary</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Children%27s_fantasy" title="Children's fantasy">Children's fantasy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fantasy_comedy" title="Fantasy comedy">Comedy</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bangsian_fantasy" title="Bangsian fantasy">Bangsian</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dark_fantasy" title="Dark fantasy">Dark fantasy</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Grimdark" title="Grimdark">Grimdark</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fairy_tale_parody" title="Fairy tale parody">Fairy tale parodies</a>‎</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fairytale_fantasy" title="Fairytale fantasy">Fairytale fantasy</a>‎</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fantastique" title="Fantastique">Fantastique</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fantasy_of_manners" title="Fantasy of manners">Fantasy of manners</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hard_fantasy" title="Hard fantasy">Hard fantasy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/High_fantasy" title="High fantasy">High fantasy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historical_fantasy" title="Historical fantasy">Historical fantasy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Isekai" title="Isekai">Isekai</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/LitRPG" title="LitRPG">LitRPG</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Low_fantasy" title="Low fantasy">Low fantasy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Magical_girl" title="Magical girl">Magical girl</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mythic_fiction" title="Mythic fiction">Mythic</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Mythpunk" class="mw-redirect" title="Mythpunk">Mythpunk</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mythopoeia" title="Mythopoeia">Mythopoeia‎</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Omegaverse" title="Omegaverse">Omegaverse</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Romantic_fantasy" title="Romantic fantasy">Romantic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Science_fantasy" title="Science fantasy">Science fantasy</a>‎ <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Dying_Earth_(genre)" title="Dying Earth (genre)">Dying Earth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Planetary_romance" title="Planetary romance">Planetary romance</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gods_and_demons_fiction" title="Gods and demons fiction">Shenmo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Urban_fantasy" title="Urban fantasy">Urban fantasy</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Occult_detective_fiction" title="Occult detective fiction">Occult detective fiction‎</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paranormal_romance" title="Paranormal romance">Paranormal romance</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Weird_fiction" title="Weird fiction">Weird fiction</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/New_weird" title="New weird">New weird</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Weird_West" title="Weird West">Weird West</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fantasy_Western" class="mw-redirect" title="Fantasy Western">West‎ern fantasy</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Media</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:7em"><a href="/wiki/Fantasy_film" title="Fantasy film">Film</a> and <a href="/wiki/Fantasy_television" title="Fantasy television">television</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_fantasy_anime" title="List of fantasy anime">Anime</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lists_of_fantasy_films" title="Lists of fantasy films">Films</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_highest-grossing_fantasy_films" title="List of highest-grossing fantasy films">highest-grossing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_sword_and_sorcery_films" title="List of sword and sorcery films">S&S</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_fantasy_television_programs" title="List of fantasy television programs">Television programs</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:7em"><a href="/wiki/Fantasy_literature" title="Fantasy literature">Literature</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_fantasy_authors" title="List of fantasy authors">Authors</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ballantine_Adult_Fantasy_series" title="Ballantine Adult Fantasy series">Ballantine Adult Fantasy series</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fantasy_comics" title="Fantasy comics">Comics</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_fantasy_comics" title="List of fantasy comics">list</a></li></ul></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Encyclopedia_of_Fantasy" title="The Encyclopedia of Fantasy">The Encyclopedia of Fantasy</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fantasy_Masterworks" title="Fantasy Masterworks">Fantasy Masterworks</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Internet_Speculative_Fiction_Database" title="Internet Speculative Fiction Database">Internet Speculative Fiction Database</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_fantasy_novels" class="mw-redirect" title="List of fantasy novels">List of novels</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_fantasy_novels_(A%E2%80%93H)" title="List of fantasy novels (A–H)">A–H</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_fantasy_novels_(I%E2%80%93R)" title="List of fantasy novels (I–R)">I–R</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_fantasy_novels_(S%E2%80%93Z)" title="List of fantasy novels (S–Z)">S–Z</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_fantasy_story_collections" title="List of fantasy story collections">List of story collections</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_science_fiction_publishers" title="List of science fiction publishers">Publishers</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:7em"><a href="/wiki/Fantasy_fiction_magazine" class="mw-redirect" title="Fantasy fiction magazine">Magazines</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Fantastic_(magazine)" title="Fantastic (magazine)">Fantastic</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Fantastic_Adventures" title="Fantastic Adventures">Fantastic Adventures</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Locus_(magazine)" title="Locus (magazine)">Locus</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Magazine_of_Fantasy_%26_Science_Fiction" title="The Magazine of Fantasy & Science Fiction">The Magazine of Fantasy & Science Fiction</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Science_Fantasy_(magazine)" title="Science Fantasy (magazine)">Science Fantasy</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Unknown_(magazine)" title="Unknown (magazine)">Unknown</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Weird_Tales" title="Weird Tales">Weird Tales</a></i></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:7em">Other</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Dungeons_%26_Dragons" title="Dungeons & Dragons">Dungeons & Dragons</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/F%C3%A9erie" title="Féerie">Féeries</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fantasy_podcast" title="Fantasy podcast">Podcasts</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Awards</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Balrog_Award" class="mw-redirect" title="Balrog Award">Balrog</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/British_Fantasy_Award" title="British Fantasy Award">British Fantasy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crawford_Award" title="Crawford Award">Crawford</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dragon_Awards" title="Dragon Awards">Dragon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gandalf_Award" title="Gandalf Award">Gandalf</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/David_Gemmell_Awards_for_Fantasy" title="David Gemmell Awards for Fantasy">Gemmell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hugo_Award" title="Hugo Award">Hugo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/International_Fantasy_Award" title="International Fantasy Award">International Fantasy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Japan_Fantasy_Novel_Award" title="Japan Fantasy Novel Award">Japan Fantasy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Locus_Award" title="Locus Award">Locus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/M%C3%A9li%C3%A8s_d%27Or" title="Méliès d'Or">Méliès d'Or</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mythopoeic_Awards" title="Mythopoeic Awards">Mythopoeic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nebula_Award" title="Nebula Award">Nebula</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Saturn_Awards" title="Saturn Awards">Saturn</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/T%C3%A4htifantasia_Award" title="Tähtifantasia Award">Tähtifantasia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/World_Fantasy_Award" title="World Fantasy Award">World Fantasy</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Fantasy_fandom" title="Fantasy fandom">Fandom</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Fantastic_art" title="Fantastic art">Art</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fanspeak" title="Fanspeak">Fanspeak</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Filk_music" title="Filk music">Filk music</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Harry_Potter_fandom" title="Harry Potter fandom"><i>Harry Potter</i> fandom</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Inklings" class="mw-redirect" title="The Inklings">The Inklings</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lovecraft_fandom" title="Lovecraft fandom">Lovecraft fandom</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mythopoeic_Society" title="Mythopoeic Society">Mythopoeic Society</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tolkien_fandom" title="Tolkien fandom">Tolkien fandom</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tolkien%27s_influence_on_fantasy" class="mw-redirect" title="Tolkien's influence on fantasy">Tolkien's influence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Works_inspired_by_J._R._R._Tolkien" class="mw-redirect" title="Works inspired by J. R. R. Tolkien">Works inspired by J. R. R. Tolkien</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/World_Fantasy_Convention" title="World Fantasy Convention">World Fantasy Convention</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Fantasy_trope" title="Fantasy trope">Tropes</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Legendary_creature" title="Legendary creature">Creatures</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Angel" title="Angel">Angels</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Demon" title="Demon">Demons</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Devil" title="Devil">Devils</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ghoul" title="Ghoul">Ghouls</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Elemental" title="Elemental">Elementals</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fairy" title="Fairy">Faeries</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Familiar" title="Familiar">Familiars</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fire-breathing_monster" title="Fire-breathing monster">Fire-breathing monsters</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Chimera_(mythology)" title="Chimera (mythology)">Chimera</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dragon" title="Dragon">Dragons</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gargoyle_(monster)" title="Gargoyle (monster)">Gargoyles</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Imp" title="Imp">Imps</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jinn" title="Jinn">Jinn</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nymph" title="Nymph">Nymphs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shapeshifting" title="Shapeshifting">Shapeshifters</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Werecat" title="Werecat">Werecats</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Werewolf" title="Werewolf">Werewolves</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Skin-walker" title="Skin-walker">Skin-walkers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Supernatural#Spirit" title="Supernatural">Spirits</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Talking_animals_in_fiction" title="Talking animals in fiction">Talking animals</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Undead" title="Undead">Undead</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Personifications_of_death" title="Personifications of death">Death</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ghost" title="Ghost">Ghosts</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lich" title="Lich">Liches</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mummy_(undead)" title="Mummy (undead)">Mummies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Skeleton_(undead)" title="Skeleton (undead)">Skeletons</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vampire" title="Vampire">Vampires</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zombie" title="Zombie">Zombies</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Unicorn" title="Unicorn">Unicorns</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Y%C5%8Dkai" title="Yōkai">Yōkai</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/List_of_stock_characters" title="List of stock characters">Characters</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Barbarian" title="Barbarian">Barbarian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Caveman" title="Caveman">Caveman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Damsel_in_distress" title="Damsel in distress">Damsel in distress</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dark_lord" title="Dark lord">Dark lord</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Donor_(fairy_tale)" title="Donor (fairy tale)">Donor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dragonslayer" title="Dragonslayer">Dragonslayer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fairy_godmother" title="Fairy godmother">Fairy godmother</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hero" title="Hero">Heroes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Magician_(fantasy)" title="Magician (fantasy)">Magicians</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Occult_detective_fiction" title="Occult detective fiction">Occult detective</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_science_fiction_and_fantasy_detectives" title="List of science fiction and fantasy detectives">list</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wild_man" title="Wild man">Wild man</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Witchcraft" title="Witchcraft">Witches</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Magic_in_fiction" title="Magic in fiction">Magic system</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hard_and_soft_magic_systems" class="mw-redirect" title="Hard and soft magic systems">Hard and soft</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Classical_element" title="Classical element">Elements</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Black_magic" title="Black magic">Dark</a>/<a href="/wiki/Gray_magic" title="Gray magic">neutral</a>/<a href="/wiki/White_magic" title="White magic">light</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ceremonial_magic" title="Ceremonial magic">Ceremonial</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Love_magic" title="Love magic">Love</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Moon_magic" title="Moon magic">Moon</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Magic_item" title="Magic item">Magic item</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Grimoire" title="Grimoire">Grimoire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Magic_ring" title="Magic ring">Magic ring</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_magical_weapons" title="List of magical weapons">Magical weapons</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Magic_sword" title="Magic sword">Magic sword</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Runes" class="mw-redirect" title="Runes">Runes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wand" title="Wand">Wand</a></li></ul></li> <li>Schools <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Alchemy" title="Alchemy">Alchemy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Demonology" title="Demonology">Demonology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Divination" title="Divination">Divination</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Egregore" title="Egregore">Egregore</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evocation" title="Evocation">Evocation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Incantation" title="Incantation">Incantation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Necromancy" title="Necromancy">Necromancy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Runic_magic" title="Runic magic">Runecraft</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Shamanism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shapeshifting" title="Shapeshifting">Shapeshifting</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thaumaturgy" title="Thaumaturgy">Thaumaturgy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theurgy" title="Theurgy">Theurgy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Witchcraft" title="Witchcraft">Witchcraft</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Fantasy_races" class="mw-redirect" title="Fantasy races">Fantasy races</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Centaur" title="Centaur">Centaurs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dwarf_(folklore)" title="Dwarf (folklore)">Dwarves</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Elf" title="Elf">Elves</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ent" title="Ent">Treants</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Giant" title="Giant">Giants</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gnome" title="Gnome">Gnomes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Goblin" title="Goblin">Goblins</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gremlin" title="Gremlin">Gremlins</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Halfling" title="Halfling">Halflings</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hobgoblin" title="Hobgoblin">Hobgoblins</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kobold" title="Kobold">Kobolds</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Leprechaun" title="Leprechaun">Leprechauns</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Merfolk" title="Merfolk">Merfolk</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Mermaid" title="Mermaid">Mermaids</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Merman" title="Merman">Mermen</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ogre" title="Ogre">Ogres</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oni" title="Oni">Oni</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Orc" title="Orc">Orcs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Troll" title="Troll">Trolls</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/List_of_mythological_places" title="List of mythological places">Places and events</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Quest" title="Quest">Quests</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fantasy_world" title="Fantasy world">Worlds</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_fantasy_worlds" title="List of fantasy worlds">list</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fantasy_map" class="mw-redirect" title="Fantasy map">Maps</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lost_city_(fiction)" class="mw-redirect" title="Lost city (fiction)">Lost city</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Subterranean_fiction" title="Subterranean fiction">Hollow Earth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Astral_plane" title="Astral plane">Astral plane</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Dream_world_(plot_device)" title="Dream world (plot device)">Dreamworld</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Castle" title="Castle">Castle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Enchanted_forest" title="Enchanted forest">Enchanted forest</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thieves%27_guild" title="Thieves' guild">Thieves' guild</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_fictional_schools#Magic_schools" title="List of fictional schools">Magic school</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Related</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Allegory" title="Allegory">Allegory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Epic_poetry" title="Epic poetry">Epic poetry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fable" title="Fable">Fable</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fairy_tale" title="Fairy tale">Fairy tale</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ghost_story" title="Ghost story">Ghost stories</a>‎</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gothic_fiction" title="Gothic fiction">Gothic fiction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Horror_fiction" title="Horror fiction">Horror fiction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/LGBT_themes_in_speculative_fiction" title="LGBT themes in speculative fiction">LGBT themes in speculative fiction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mecha" title="Mecha">Mecha</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Myth" title="Myth">Mythology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Science_fiction" title="Science fiction">Science fiction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Supernatural_fiction" title="Supernatural fiction">Supernatural fiction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Superhero_fiction" title="Superhero fiction">Superhero</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tokusatsu" title="Tokusatsu">Tokusatsu‎</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Kaiju" title="Kaiju">Kaiju</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Urban_legends_and_myths" class="mw-redirect" title="Urban legends and myths">Urban legend</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Outline"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/41/Global_thinking.svg/10px-Global_thinking.svg.png" decoding="async" width="10" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/41/Global_thinking.svg/15px-Global_thinking.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/41/Global_thinking.svg/21px-Global_thinking.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="130" data-file-height="200" /></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Outline_of_fantasy" title="Outline of fantasy">Outline</a></li> <li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Category"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/23px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/31px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Category:Fantasy" title="Category:Fantasy">Category</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1038841319">.mw-parser-output .tooltip-dotted{border-bottom:1px dotted;cursor:help}</style><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1038841319"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1038841319"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1038841319"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox authority-control" aria-labelledby="Authority_control_databases_frameless&#124;text-top&#124;10px&#124;alt=Edit_this_at_Wikidata&#124;link=https&#58;//www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q42042#identifiers&#124;class=noprint&#124;Edit_this_at_Wikidata" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Authority_control_databases_frameless&#124;text-top&#124;10px&#124;alt=Edit_this_at_Wikidata&#124;link=https&#58;//www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q42042#identifiers&#124;class=noprint&#124;Edit_this_at_Wikidata" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Help:Authority_control" title="Help:Authority control">Authority control databases</a> <span class="mw-valign-text-top noprint" typeof="mw:File/Frameless"><a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q42042#identifiers" title="Edit this at Wikidata"><img alt="Edit this at Wikidata" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg/10px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg.png" decoding="async" width="10" height="10" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg/15px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg/20px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="20" data-file-height="20" /></a></span></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">International</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><ul><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://id.worldcat.org/fast/1115159/">FAST</a></span></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">National</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><ul><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://d-nb.info/gnd/4052062-6">Germany</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><span class="rt-commentedText tooltip tooltip-dotted" title="Shamanism"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://id.loc.gov/authorities/sh85121085">United States</a></span></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://catalogue.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/cb11931141k">France</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://data.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/cb11931141k">BnF data</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><span class="rt-commentedText tooltip tooltip-dotted" title="šamanismus"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://aleph.nkp.cz/F/?func=find-c&local_base=aut&ccl_term=ica=ph127795&CON_LNG=ENG">Czech Republic</a></span></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://catalogo.bne.es/uhtbin/authoritybrowse.cgi?action=display&authority_id=XX526788">Spain</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://olduli.nli.org.il/F/?func=find-b&local_base=NLX10&find_code=UID&request=987007536322005171">Israel</a></span></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Other</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><ul><li><span class="uid"><span class="rt-commentedText tooltip tooltip-dotted" title="Chamanisme"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.idref.fr/027222381">IdRef</a></span></span><ul><li><span class="uid"><span class="rt-commentedText tooltip tooltip-dotted" title="Chamanisme"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.idref.fr/040838943">2</a></span></span></li></ul></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://islamansiklopedisi.org.tr/samanizm">İslâm Ansiklopedisi</a></span></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div>    </div><noscript><img src="https://login.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:CentralAutoLogin/start?type=1x1" alt="" width="1" height="1" style="border: none; position: absolute;"></noscript> <div class="printfooter" data-nosnippet="">Retrieved from "<a dir="ltr" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Shamanism&oldid=1257994364">https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Shamanism&oldid=1257994364</a>"</div></div> <div id="catlinks" class="catlinks" data-mw="interface"><div id="mw-normal-catlinks" class="mw-normal-catlinks"><a href="/wiki/Help:Category" title="Help:Category">Categories</a>: <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Shamanism" 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