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(PDF) The National College Entrance Examination and the Myth of Meritocracy in Post-Mao China
<!DOCTYPE html> <html > <head> <meta charset="utf-8"> <meta rel="search" type="application/opensearchdescription+xml" href="/open_search.xml" title="Academia.edu"> <meta content="width=device-width, initial-scale=1" name="viewport"> <meta name="google-site-verification" content="bKJMBZA7E43xhDOopFZkssMMkBRjvYERV-NaN4R6mrs"> <meta name="csrf-param" content="authenticity_token" /> <meta name="csrf-token" content="VA_HIk46Oj6pC-JsUO747VtT3FSjP9GkNw-so_nqdFiA9-W51X0PEFw3ugvn1ZcNSXy8DEpv8u_imNqNaVHKxA" /> <meta name="citation_title" content="The National College Entrance Examination and the Myth of Meritocracy in Post-Mao China" /> <meta name="citation_publication_date" content="2022/01/01" /> <meta name="citation_journal_title" content="“The National College Entrance Exam and the Myth of Meritocracy in Post-Mao China.” In Making Meritocracy: Lessons from China and India, from Antiquity to the Present, edited by Tarun Khanna and Michael Szonyi, 206–30. 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In a society dominated by social connections" /> <meta name="twitter:image" content="https://0.academia-photos.com/40870162/50331054/38341617/s200_zachary.howlett.png" /> <meta property="fb:app_id" content="2369844204" /> <meta property="og:type" content="article" /> <meta property="og:url" content="https://www.academia.edu/91865176/The_National_College_Entrance_Examination_and_the_Myth_of_Meritocracy_in_Post_Mao_China" /> <meta property="og:title" content="The National College Entrance Examination and the Myth of Meritocracy in Post-Mao China" /> <meta property="og:image" content="http://a.academia-assets.com/images/open-graph-icons/fb-paper.gif" /> <meta property="og:description" content="China’s National College Entrance Exam, known as the gaokao, is taken by ten million high school seniors every year. The gaokao enshrines the Chinese ideal of open, anonymous, and competitive meritocracy. In a society dominated by social connections" /> <meta property="article:author" content="https://nus.academia.edu/ZacharyHowlett" /> <meta name="description" content="China’s National College Entrance Exam, known as the gaokao, is taken by ten million high school seniors every year. The gaokao enshrines the Chinese ideal of open, anonymous, and competitive meritocracy. In a society dominated by social connections" /> <title>(PDF) The National College Entrance Examination and the Myth of Meritocracy in Post-Mao China</title> <link rel="canonical" href="https://www.academia.edu/91865176/The_National_College_Entrance_Examination_and_the_Myth_of_Meritocracy_in_Post_Mao_China" /> <script async src="https://www.googletagmanager.com/gtag/js?id=G-5VKX33P2DS"></script> <script> window.dataLayer = window.dataLayer || []; function gtag(){dataLayer.push(arguments);} gtag('js', new Date()); gtag('config', 'G-5VKX33P2DS', { cookie_domain: 'academia.edu', send_page_view: false, }); gtag('event', 'page_view', { 'controller': "single_work", 'action': "show", 'controller_action': 'single_work#show', 'logged_in': 'false', 'edge': 'unknown', // Send nil if there is no A/B test bucket, in case some records get logged // with missing data - that way we can distinguish between the two cases. // ab_test_bucket should be of the form <ab_test_name>:<bucket> 'ab_test_bucket': null, }) </script> <script> var $controller_name = 'single_work'; var $action_name = "show"; var $rails_env = 'production'; var $app_rev = '1363409c2f6920b9f6129801bf9c25a45dc9d4a3'; var $domain = 'academia.edu'; var $app_host = "academia.edu"; var $asset_host = "academia-assets.com"; var $start_time = new Date().getTime(); var $recaptcha_key = "6LdxlRMTAAAAADnu_zyLhLg0YF9uACwz78shpjJB"; var $recaptcha_invisible_key = "6Lf3KHUUAAAAACggoMpmGJdQDtiyrjVlvGJ6BbAj"; var $disableClientRecordHit = false; </script> <script> window.require = { config: function() { return function() {} } } </script> <script> window.Aedu = window.Aedu || {}; window.Aedu.hit_data = null; window.Aedu.serverRenderTime = new Date(1740153083000); window.Aedu.timeDifference = new Date().getTime() - 1740153083000; </script> <script type="application/ld+json">{"@context":"https://schema.org","@type":"ScholarlyArticle","abstract":"China’s National College Entrance Exam, known as the gaokao, is taken by ten million high school seniors every year. The gaokao enshrines the Chinese ideal of open, anonymous, and competitive meritocracy. In a society dominated by social connections or guanxi, the exam is widely regarded as the only relatively fair social competition. But skyrocketing social inequality in the post-Mao era (1977–present) has produced wide chasms in exam scores and outcomes between different regions and socioeconomic groups. Why do people nevertheless allow themselves to be recruited into the ideology and social practice of exam-based meritocracy? The gaokao is a fateful rite of passage in which people strive to personify cultural virtues, including diligence, grit, composure, filial piety, quality, and divine favor or luck. Gaokao-based meritocracy is mythical in both senses of the word: an inspiring cultural model and a chimeric ideal.","author":[{"@context":"https://schema.org","@type":"Person","name":"Zachary M Howlett","url":"https://nus.academia.edu/ZacharyHowlett"}],"contributor":[],"dateCreated":"2022-11-29","dateModified":"2022-11-30","datePublished":"2022-01-01","headline":"The National College Entrance Examination and the Myth of Meritocracy in Post-Mao China","image":"https://attachments.academia-assets.com/95074808/thumbnails/1.jpg","inLanguage":"en","keywords":["Education","Rural-to-urban Migration","China","Social Inequality","Meritocracy","Political Meritocracy"],"publication":"“The National College Entrance Exam and the Myth of Meritocracy in Post-Mao China.” In Making Meritocracy: Lessons from China and India, from Antiquity to the Present, edited by Tarun Khanna and Michael Szonyi, 206–30. 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window.loswp.willEdgeCache = false; window.loswp.work = {"work":{"id":91865176,"created_at":"2022-11-29T09:01:59.184-08:00","from_world_paper_id":null,"updated_at":"2022-12-20T23:18:36.895-08:00","_data":{"abstract":"China’s National College Entrance Exam, known as the gaokao, is taken by ten million high school seniors every year. The gaokao enshrines the Chinese ideal of open, anonymous, and competitive meritocracy. In a society dominated by social connections or guanxi, the exam is widely regarded as the only relatively fair social competition. But skyrocketing social inequality in the post-Mao era (1977–present) has produced wide chasms in exam scores and outcomes between different regions and socioeconomic groups. Why do people nevertheless allow themselves to be recruited into the ideology and social practice of exam-based meritocracy? The gaokao is a fateful rite of passage in which people strive to personify cultural virtues, including diligence, grit, composure, filial piety, quality, and divine favor or luck. Gaokao-based meritocracy is mythical in both senses of the word: an inspiring cultural model and a chimeric ideal.","publication_date":"2022,,","publication_name":"“The National College Entrance Exam and the Myth of Meritocracy in Post-Mao China.” In Making Meritocracy: Lessons from China and India, from Antiquity to the Present, edited by Tarun Khanna and Michael Szonyi, 206–30. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2022."},"document_type":"paper","pre_hit_view_count_baseline":null,"quality":"high","language":"en","title":"The National College Entrance Examination and the Myth of Meritocracy in Post-Mao China","broadcastable":true,"draft":null,"has_indexable_attachment":true,"indexable":true}}["work"]; window.loswp.workCoauthors = [40870162]; window.loswp.locale = "en"; window.loswp.countryCode = "SG"; window.loswp.cwvAbTestBucket = ""; window.loswp.designVariant = "ds_vanilla"; window.loswp.fullPageMobileSutdModalVariant = "control"; window.loswp.useOptimizedScribd4genScript = false; window.loginModal = {}; window.loginModal.appleClientId = 'edu.academia.applesignon'; window.userInChina = "false";</script><script defer="" src="https://accounts.google.com/gsi/client"></script><div class="ds-loswp-container"><div class="ds-work-card--grid-container"><div class="ds-work-card--container js-loswp-work-card"><div class="ds-work-card--cover"><div class="ds-work-cover--wrapper"><div class="ds-work-cover--container"><button class="ds-work-cover--clickable js-swp-download-button" data-signup-modal="{"location":"swp-splash-paper-cover","attachmentId":95074808,"attachmentType":"pdf"}"><img alt="First page of “The National College Entrance Examination and the Myth of Meritocracy in Post-Mao China”" class="ds-work-cover--cover-thumbnail" src="https://0.academia-photos.com/attachment_thumbnails/95074808/mini_magick20221130-1-1seox63.png?1669818673" /><img alt="PDF Icon" class="ds-work-cover--file-icon" src="//a.academia-assets.com/images/single_work_splash/adobe_icon.svg" /><div class="ds-work-cover--hover-container"><span class="material-symbols-outlined" style="font-size: 20px" translate="no">download</span><p>Download Free PDF</p></div><div class="ds-work-cover--ribbon-container">Download Free PDF</div><div class="ds-work-cover--ribbon-triangle"></div></button></div></div></div><div class="ds-work-card--work-information"><h1 class="ds-work-card--work-title">The National College Entrance Examination and the Myth of Meritocracy in Post-Mao China</h1><div class="ds-work-card--work-authors ds-work-card--detail"><a class="ds-work-card--author js-wsj-grid-card-author ds2-5-body-md ds2-5-body-link" data-author-id="40870162" href="https://nus.academia.edu/ZacharyHowlett"><img alt="Profile image of Zachary M Howlett" class="ds-work-card--author-avatar" src="https://0.academia-photos.com/40870162/50331054/38341617/s65_zachary.howlett.png" />Zachary M Howlett</a></div><div class="ds-work-card--detail"><p class="ds-work-card--detail ds2-5-body-sm">2022, “The National College Entrance Exam and the Myth of Meritocracy in Post-Mao China.” In Making Meritocracy: Lessons from China and India, from Antiquity to the Present, edited by Tarun Khanna and Michael Szonyi, 206–30. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2022.</p><div class="ds-work-card--work-metadata"><div class="ds-work-card--work-metadata__stat"><span class="material-symbols-outlined" style="font-size: 20px" translate="no">visibility</span><p class="ds2-5-body-sm" id="work-metadata-view-count">…</p></div><div class="ds-work-card--work-metadata__stat"><span class="material-symbols-outlined" style="font-size: 20px" translate="no">description</span><p class="ds2-5-body-sm">23 pages</p></div><div class="ds-work-card--work-metadata__stat"><span class="material-symbols-outlined" style="font-size: 20px" translate="no">link</span><p class="ds2-5-body-sm">1 file</p></div></div><script>(async () => { const workId = 91865176; const worksViewsPath = "/v0/works/views?subdomain_param=api&work_ids%5B%5D=91865176"; const getWorkViews = async (workId) => { const response = await fetch(worksViewsPath); if (!response.ok) { throw new Error('Failed to load work views'); } const data = await response.json(); return data.views[workId]; }; // Get the view count for the work - we send this immediately rather than waiting for // the DOM to load, so it can be available as soon as possible (but without holding up // the backend or other resource requests, because it's a bit expensive and not critical). const viewCount = await getWorkViews(workId); const updateViewCount = (viewCount) => { try { const viewCountNumber = parseInt(viewCount, 10); if (viewCountNumber === 0) { // Remove the whole views element if there are zero views. document.getElementById('work-metadata-view-count')?.parentNode?.remove(); return; } const commaizedViewCount = viewCountNumber.toLocaleString(); const viewCountBody = document.getElementById('work-metadata-view-count'); if (!viewCountBody) { throw new Error('Failed to find work views element'); } viewCountBody.textContent = `${commaizedViewCount} views`; } catch (error) { // Remove the whole views element if there was some issue parsing. document.getElementById('work-metadata-view-count')?.parentNode?.remove(); throw new Error(`Failed to parse view count: ${viewCount}`, error); } }; // If the DOM is still loading, wait for it to be ready before updating the view count. if (document.readyState === "loading") { document.addEventListener('DOMContentLoaded', () => { updateViewCount(viewCount); }); // Otherwise, just update it immediately. } else { updateViewCount(viewCount); } })();</script></div><p class="ds-work-card--work-abstract ds-work-card--detail ds2-5-body-md">China’s National College Entrance Exam, known as the gaokao, is taken by ten million high school seniors every year. The gaokao enshrines the Chinese ideal of open, anonymous, and competitive meritocracy. In a society dominated by social connections or guanxi, the exam is widely regarded as the only relatively fair social competition. But skyrocketing social inequality in the post-Mao era (1977–present) has produced wide chasms in exam scores and outcomes between different regions and socioeconomic groups. Why do people nevertheless allow themselves to be recruited into the ideology and social practice of exam-based meritocracy? The gaokao is a fateful rite of passage in which people strive to personify cultural virtues, including diligence, grit, composure, filial piety, quality, and divine favor or luck. Gaokao-based meritocracy is mythical in both senses of the word: an inspiring cultural model and a chimeric ideal.</p><div class="ds-work-card--button-container"><button class="ds2-5-button js-swp-download-button" data-signup-modal="{"location":"continue-reading-button--work-card","attachmentId":95074808,"attachmentType":"pdf","workUrl":"https://www.academia.edu/91865176/The_National_College_Entrance_Examination_and_the_Myth_of_Meritocracy_in_Post_Mao_China"}">See full PDF</button><button class="ds2-5-button ds2-5-button--secondary js-swp-download-button" data-signup-modal="{"location":"download-pdf-button--work-card","attachmentId":95074808,"attachmentType":"pdf","workUrl":"https://www.academia.edu/91865176/The_National_College_Entrance_Examination_and_the_Myth_of_Meritocracy_in_Post_Mao_China"}"><span class="material-symbols-outlined" style="font-size: 20px" translate="no">download</span>Download PDF</button></div><div class="ds-signup-banner-trigger-container"><div class="ds-signup-banner-trigger ds-signup-banner-trigger-control"></div></div><div class="ds-signup-banner ds-signup-banner-control"><div id="ds-signup-banner-close-button"><button class="ds2-5-button ds2-5-button--secondary ds2-5-button--inverse"><span class="material-symbols-outlined" style="font-size: 20px" translate="no">close</span></button></div><div class="ds-signup-banner-ctas"><img src="//a.academia-assets.com/images/academia-logo-capital-white.svg" /><h4 class="ds2-5-heading-serif-sm">Sign up for access to the world's latest research</h4><button class="ds2-5-button ds2-5-button--inverse ds2-5-button--full-width js-swp-download-button" data-signup-modal="{"location":"signup-banner"}">Sign up for free<span class="material-symbols-outlined" style="font-size: 20px" translate="no">arrow_forward</span></button></div><div class="ds-signup-banner-divider"></div><div class="ds-signup-banner-reasons"><div class="ds-signup-banner-reasons-item"><span class="material-symbols-outlined" style="font-size: 24px" translate="no">check</span><span>Get notified about relevant papers</span></div><div class="ds-signup-banner-reasons-item"><span class="material-symbols-outlined" style="font-size: 24px" translate="no">check</span><span>Save papers to use in your research</span></div><div class="ds-signup-banner-reasons-item"><span class="material-symbols-outlined" style="font-size: 24px" translate="no">check</span><span>Join the discussion with peers</span></div><div class="ds-signup-banner-reasons-item"><span class="material-symbols-outlined" style="font-size: 24px" translate="no">check</span><span>Track your impact</span></div></div></div><script>(() => { // Set up signup banner show/hide behavior: // 1. 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Based on long-term ethnographic research, this article examines how Gaokao warriors combine two types of agency that are conventionally considered contradictory: the docile cultivation of virtue and the struggle against social marginalization. I argue that analyzing this nuli fendou, or diligent struggle, can contribute to a more complex understanding of the Gaokao and similar educational competitions.</p><div class="ds-related-work--ctas"><button class="ds2-5-text-link ds2-5-text-link--inline js-swp-download-button" data-signup-modal="{"location":"wsj-grid-card-download-pdf-modal","work_title":"Gaokao Warriors: Diligent Struggle in China's College Entrance Exam","attachmentId":95030625,"attachmentType":"pdf","work_url":"https://www.academia.edu/88827713/Gaokao_Warriors_Diligent_Struggle_in_Chinas_College_Entrance_Exam","alternativeTracking":true}"><span class="material-symbols-outlined" style="font-size: 18px" translate="no">download</span><span class="ds2-5-text-link__content">Download free PDF</span></button><a class="ds2-5-text-link ds2-5-text-link--inline js-wsj-grid-card-view-pdf" href="https://www.academia.edu/88827713/Gaokao_Warriors_Diligent_Struggle_in_Chinas_College_Entrance_Exam"><span class="ds2-5-text-link__content">View PDF</span><span class="material-symbols-outlined" style="font-size: 18px" translate="no">chevron_right</span></a></div></div><div class="ds-related-work--container js-wsj-grid-card" data-collection-position="1" data-entity-id="97691781" data-sort-order="default"><a class="ds-related-work--title js-wsj-grid-card-title ds2-5-body-md ds2-5-body-link" href="https://www.academia.edu/97691781/The_National_College_Entrance_Examination_in_China_Gaokao_A_Discreet_Driver_for_Global_Social_Change">The National College Entrance Examination in China (Gaokao): A Discreet Driver for Global Social Change</a><div class="ds-related-work--metadata"><a class="js-wsj-grid-card-author ds2-5-body-sm ds2-5-body-link" data-author-id="4784727" href="https://ied.academia.edu/EmiliaSzekely%E7%88%B1%E7%B1%B3">Emilia Szekely 爱米</a></div><p class="ds-related-work--metadata ds2-5-body-xs">The Palgrave Handbook of Global Social Change, 2023</p><p class="ds-related-work--abstract ds2-5-body-sm">As a requirement for admission to higher education, the Gaokao (高考) or National College Entrance Examination is one of the main drivers of social change in China. This document explores how, with its rules and criteria for merit, it has influenced the profile of one of the largest and most influential populations on the planet and how, with the reform that the country has been promoting since 2013, this profile is being transformed. The experience with the Gaokao contributes many interesting elements to the global discussion on the possibilities and challenges of education. Cite as : Szekely, E. (2023). The National College Entrance Examination in China (Gaokao): A Discreet Driver for Global Social Change. In: The Palgrave Handbook of Global Social Change. Palgrave Macmillan, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-87624-1_244-1</p><div class="ds-related-work--ctas"><button class="ds2-5-text-link ds2-5-text-link--inline js-swp-download-button" data-signup-modal="{"location":"wsj-grid-card-download-pdf-modal","work_title":"The National College Entrance Examination in China (Gaokao): A Discreet Driver for Global Social Change","attachmentId":99249594,"attachmentType":"pdf","work_url":"https://www.academia.edu/97691781/The_National_College_Entrance_Examination_in_China_Gaokao_A_Discreet_Driver_for_Global_Social_Change","alternativeTracking":true}"><span class="material-symbols-outlined" style="font-size: 18px" translate="no">download</span><span class="ds2-5-text-link__content">Download free PDF</span></button><a class="ds2-5-text-link ds2-5-text-link--inline js-wsj-grid-card-view-pdf" href="https://www.academia.edu/97691781/The_National_College_Entrance_Examination_in_China_Gaokao_A_Discreet_Driver_for_Global_Social_Change"><span class="ds2-5-text-link__content">View PDF</span><span class="material-symbols-outlined" style="font-size: 18px" translate="no">chevron_right</span></a></div></div><div class="ds-related-work--container js-wsj-grid-card" data-collection-position="2" data-entity-id="4257892" data-sort-order="default"><a class="ds-related-work--title js-wsj-grid-card-title ds2-5-body-md ds2-5-body-link" href="https://www.academia.edu/4257892/China_s_Meritocratic_Examinations_and_the_Ideal_of_Virtuous_Talents_in_East_Asian_Challenge_for_Democracy_eds_D_Bell_and_C_LI_2013_340_362_">China’s Meritocratic Examinations and the Ideal of Virtuous Talents (in "East Asian Challenge for Democracy, eds. 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Here's to dive bars. Also, I wish to thank Sharon Rallis, who mentored me in so many ways, encouraged me in my interests, and was always up for eating Chinese food. And much thanks to Laurel Smith-Doerr, for her advice and assistance with thorny institutional theory issues, and for referencing the Tardis in class. Big thanks are in order for Jack Guo Qin Gong, my interpreter, whose input and assistance with translations were invaluable. And many thanks to Yi Sun and Shamo Thar, for their patient and generous help with corrections and language issues, and great Chinese cooking. Special thanks also to the teachers, administrators, students and parents of Gaozhong high school, without whom this research would never have been completed. I also wish to thank the faculty, students/fellow colleagues, and Barbara at CIE for their friendship, help, support, and awesome baked goods.</p><div class="ds-related-work--ctas"><button class="ds2-5-text-link ds2-5-text-link--inline js-swp-download-button" data-signup-modal="{"location":"wsj-grid-card-download-pdf-modal","work_title":"The Institutional Pillars of China's National College Entrance Exam: A Case Study of Gaozhong High School and NCEE Reforms","attachmentId":118336081,"attachmentType":"pdf","work_url":"https://www.academia.edu/124035953/The_Institutional_Pillars_of_Chinas_National_College_Entrance_Exam_A_Case_Study_of_Gaozhong_High_School_and_NCEE_Reforms","alternativeTracking":true}"><span class="material-symbols-outlined" style="font-size: 18px" translate="no">download</span><span class="ds2-5-text-link__content">Download free PDF</span></button><a class="ds2-5-text-link ds2-5-text-link--inline js-wsj-grid-card-view-pdf" href="https://www.academia.edu/124035953/The_Institutional_Pillars_of_Chinas_National_College_Entrance_Exam_A_Case_Study_of_Gaozhong_High_School_and_NCEE_Reforms"><span class="ds2-5-text-link__content">View PDF</span><span class="material-symbols-outlined" style="font-size: 18px" translate="no">chevron_right</span></a></div></div><div class="ds-related-work--container js-wsj-grid-card" data-collection-position="4" data-entity-id="4257942" data-sort-order="default"><a class="ds-related-work--title js-wsj-grid-card-title ds2-5-body-md ds2-5-body-link" href="https://www.academia.edu/4257942/Chinas_Meritocratic_Examination_and_the_Ideal_of_Virtuous_Talents">China's Meritocratic Examination and the Ideal of Virtuous Talents</a><div class="ds-related-work--metadata"><a class="js-wsj-grid-card-author ds2-5-body-sm ds2-5-body-link" data-author-id="3889994" href="https://northwestians.academia.edu/HongXiao">Hong Xiao</a></div><p class="ds-related-work--metadata ds2-5-body-xs">East Asian Challenge for Democracy: Political Meritocracy in Comparative Perspective (Cmbridge University Press), 340-362, 2013</p><p class="ds-related-work--abstract ds2-5-body-sm">Emphasis on both moral character and talent in selecting government officials has been an intrinsic part of China's meritocratic tradition. 1 From early on, mainstream Chinese political philosophy, particularly of the Confucian heritage, has promoted such an ideal. This quest, however, has also encountered perennial challenges in practice. In this chapter, we examine in historic context the ideal and practice of integrating moral character with talent in selecting government officials. We show that, despite difficulties, searching for virtuous talent in China today has evolved into the most comprehensive and sophisticated process of its kind in history. The first section of this chapter retrieves the history of China's civil examinations and its problems. The second section investigates recent evolutions of China's public servant recruitment as a stepping stone into officialdom. The third section focuses on China's recent reform in the selection of government officials. Finally, we examine to what extent the reformed system causes corruption in China.</p><div class="ds-related-work--ctas"><button class="ds2-5-text-link ds2-5-text-link--inline js-swp-download-button" data-signup-modal="{"location":"wsj-grid-card-download-pdf-modal","work_title":"China's Meritocratic Examination and the Ideal of Virtuous Talents","attachmentId":31737703,"attachmentType":"pdf","work_url":"https://www.academia.edu/4257942/Chinas_Meritocratic_Examination_and_the_Ideal_of_Virtuous_Talents","alternativeTracking":true}"><span class="material-symbols-outlined" style="font-size: 18px" translate="no">download</span><span class="ds2-5-text-link__content">Download free PDF</span></button><a class="ds2-5-text-link ds2-5-text-link--inline js-wsj-grid-card-view-pdf" href="https://www.academia.edu/4257942/Chinas_Meritocratic_Examination_and_the_Ideal_of_Virtuous_Talents"><span class="ds2-5-text-link__content">View PDF</span><span class="material-symbols-outlined" style="font-size: 18px" translate="no">chevron_right</span></a></div></div><div class="ds-related-work--container js-wsj-grid-card" data-collection-position="5" data-entity-id="77221165" data-sort-order="default"><a class="ds-related-work--title js-wsj-grid-card-title ds2-5-body-md ds2-5-body-link" href="https://www.academia.edu/77221165/Historical_and_Contemporary_Exam_driven_Education_Fever_in_China">Historical and Contemporary Exam-driven Education Fever in China</a><div class="ds-related-work--metadata"><a class="js-wsj-grid-card-author ds2-5-body-sm ds2-5-body-link" data-author-id="32938713" href="https://pennstate.academia.edu/HoiSuen">Hoi K Suen</a></div><p class="ds-related-work--metadata ds2-5-body-xs">2014</p><p class="ds-related-work--abstract ds2-5-body-sm">Evidence of education fever in China can be found from the 7th century through today. Both historical and contemporary education fever have been created, promoted and maintained by state-orchestrated systems of high-stakes and extremely competitive exams. This comparative study examines the educational and social consequences of both the historical Civil Service (Keju) exam system and the current National College Entrance Exam (NCEE) system in China. Although the two systems focus on different content domains and serve different explicit purposes – employment versus college entrance – both have led to profound effects on society. Similarities and differences in design features between the two systems were compared. A number of common positive and negative social consequences were identified. It was observed that exam-driven education fever in China has been gained at the expense of many unintended and often serious negative consequences. Education fever and these consequences are al...</p><div class="ds-related-work--ctas"><button class="ds2-5-text-link ds2-5-text-link--inline js-swp-download-button" data-signup-modal="{"location":"wsj-grid-card-download-pdf-modal","work_title":"Historical and Contemporary Exam-driven Education Fever in China","attachmentId":84643551,"attachmentType":"pdf","work_url":"https://www.academia.edu/77221165/Historical_and_Contemporary_Exam_driven_Education_Fever_in_China","alternativeTracking":true}"><span class="material-symbols-outlined" style="font-size: 18px" translate="no">download</span><span class="ds2-5-text-link__content">Download free PDF</span></button><a class="ds2-5-text-link ds2-5-text-link--inline js-wsj-grid-card-view-pdf" href="https://www.academia.edu/77221165/Historical_and_Contemporary_Exam_driven_Education_Fever_in_China"><span class="ds2-5-text-link__content">View PDF</span><span class="material-symbols-outlined" style="font-size: 18px" translate="no">chevron_right</span></a></div></div><div class="ds-related-work--container js-wsj-grid-card" data-collection-position="6" data-entity-id="1640746" data-sort-order="default"><a class="ds-related-work--title js-wsj-grid-card-title ds2-5-body-md ds2-5-body-link" href="https://www.academia.edu/1640746/2005_review_The_Class_of_1761_Examinations_State_and_Elites_in_18th_Century_China_by_Iona_Man_cheong_The_Journal_of_Asian_Studies_64_2_May_2005_453_454">2005 [review] “The Class of 1761: Examinations, State, and Elites in 18th Century China by Iona Man-cheong.” The Journal of Asian Studies 64:2 (May 2005), 453-454.</a><div class="ds-related-work--metadata"><a class="js-wsj-grid-card-author ds2-5-body-sm ds2-5-body-link" data-author-id="1826404" href="https://kuleuven.academia.edu/HildeDeWeerdt">Hilde De Weerdt</a></div><div class="ds-related-work--ctas"><button class="ds2-5-text-link ds2-5-text-link--inline js-swp-download-button" data-signup-modal="{"location":"wsj-grid-card-download-pdf-modal","work_title":"2005 [review] “The Class of 1761: Examinations, State, and Elites in 18th Century China by Iona Man-cheong.” The Journal of Asian Studies 64:2 (May 2005), 453-454.","attachmentId":33944615,"attachmentType":"pdf","work_url":"https://www.academia.edu/1640746/2005_review_The_Class_of_1761_Examinations_State_and_Elites_in_18th_Century_China_by_Iona_Man_cheong_The_Journal_of_Asian_Studies_64_2_May_2005_453_454","alternativeTracking":true}"><span class="material-symbols-outlined" style="font-size: 18px" translate="no">download</span><span class="ds2-5-text-link__content">Download free PDF</span></button><a class="ds2-5-text-link ds2-5-text-link--inline js-wsj-grid-card-view-pdf" href="https://www.academia.edu/1640746/2005_review_The_Class_of_1761_Examinations_State_and_Elites_in_18th_Century_China_by_Iona_Man_cheong_The_Journal_of_Asian_Studies_64_2_May_2005_453_454"><span class="ds2-5-text-link__content">View PDF</span><span class="material-symbols-outlined" style="font-size: 18px" translate="no">chevron_right</span></a></div></div><div class="ds-related-work--container js-wsj-grid-card" data-collection-position="7" data-entity-id="125342645" data-sort-order="default"><a class="ds-related-work--title js-wsj-grid-card-title ds2-5-body-md ds2-5-body-link" href="https://www.academia.edu/125342645/Climbing_a_Slippery_Social_Ladder_Prevailing_Perspectives_of_Chinese_Students_About_Gaokao">Climbing a Slippery Social Ladder: Prevailing Perspectives of Chinese Students About Gaokao</a><div class="ds-related-work--metadata"><a class="js-wsj-grid-card-author ds2-5-body-sm ds2-5-body-link" data-author-id="283030739" href="https://independent.academia.edu/EfledaTolentino">Efleda Tolentino</a></div><p class="ds-related-work--metadata ds2-5-body-xs">Peter Lang Publishing, 2015</p><p class="ds-related-work--abstract ds2-5-body-sm">prestigious university as well as opportunities to attain jobs immediately after the graduate. As such, there is tremendous pressure on the part of students to attat the highest posible seore so that they may increase their chances to qualify for college education. "Education is a route to social mobility and cconomic prosperit" (Bathmaker. Ingram, & Waller, 2013, p. 723). Gaokao's impact on the lives of students,. parents, teachers, secondary schools, and colleges as well as its infucnce on economics, politics, culture, and technology in Chinese society remains they undisputed. Gaokao is composed of sections that cover mathematics, sCience, English, and Chinese. The test is taken over two days. One of the sections requires students to write an 800-word essay to test their thinking and writing abilities. Although students have the option of retaking the exam to improve their seore, it is only offered once a yeat. As such, students will have to wait a full year before they can retake the exam. Students who are schooled in urban areas that are financially privileged and endowed with resources have a greater probability of earning scores in Gaokao that will qualify them to enter top universities. In addition, students who come from more affuent families are afforded opportunities to take review courses that prepare them to take Gaokao. Typically, a preparatory course can cost as much as 900 USD, the equivalent of half a month's salary for an average family but 70 percent of a farmer's annual income (Wang, 2013). Students from rural areas are, therefore, ill-prepared for academic advancement because of the lack of edu cational resources and opportunities in their schools. The glaring inequities among schools and unequal distribution of wealth among urban and rural areas challenge the principles upon which Gaokao was founded: equal opportunity and a gateway to social mobility.</p><div class="ds-related-work--ctas"><button class="ds2-5-text-link ds2-5-text-link--inline js-swp-download-button" data-signup-modal="{"location":"wsj-grid-card-download-pdf-modal","work_title":"Climbing a Slippery Social Ladder: Prevailing Perspectives of Chinese Students About Gaokao","attachmentId":119404103,"attachmentType":"pdf","work_url":"https://www.academia.edu/125342645/Climbing_a_Slippery_Social_Ladder_Prevailing_Perspectives_of_Chinese_Students_About_Gaokao","alternativeTracking":true}"><span class="material-symbols-outlined" style="font-size: 18px" translate="no">download</span><span class="ds2-5-text-link__content">Download free PDF</span></button><a class="ds2-5-text-link ds2-5-text-link--inline js-wsj-grid-card-view-pdf" href="https://www.academia.edu/125342645/Climbing_a_Slippery_Social_Ladder_Prevailing_Perspectives_of_Chinese_Students_About_Gaokao"><span class="ds2-5-text-link__content">View PDF</span><span class="material-symbols-outlined" style="font-size: 18px" translate="no">chevron_right</span></a></div></div><div class="ds-related-work--container js-wsj-grid-card" data-collection-position="8" data-entity-id="41277504" data-sort-order="default"><a class="ds-related-work--title js-wsj-grid-card-title ds2-5-body-md ds2-5-body-link" href="https://www.academia.edu/41277504/Meritocracy_Aristocracy_and_Literati_Democracy_in_Chinese_imperial_History">Meritocracy, Aristocracy, and ‘Literati Democracy’ in Chinese imperial History</a><div class="ds-related-work--metadata"><a class="js-wsj-grid-card-author ds2-5-body-sm ds2-5-body-link" data-author-id="109072477" href="https://ehess.academia.edu/PabloBlitstein">Pablo Blitstein</a></div><p class="ds-related-work--metadata ds2-5-body-xs">« Meritocracy, Aristocracy, and ‘Literati Democracy’ in Chinese imperial History », in : Jenco, Leigh, Idris, Murad, and Thomas, Megan (eds.), The Oxford Handbook of Comparative Political Theory, New York: Oxford University Press, 580-597., 2019</p><div class="ds-related-work--ctas"><button class="ds2-5-text-link ds2-5-text-link--inline js-swp-download-button" data-signup-modal="{"location":"wsj-grid-card-download-pdf-modal","work_title":"Meritocracy, Aristocracy, and ‘Literati Democracy’ in Chinese imperial History","attachmentId":61497022,"attachmentType":"pdf","work_url":"https://www.academia.edu/41277504/Meritocracy_Aristocracy_and_Literati_Democracy_in_Chinese_imperial_History","alternativeTracking":true}"><span class="material-symbols-outlined" style="font-size: 18px" translate="no">download</span><span class="ds2-5-text-link__content">Download free PDF</span></button><a class="ds2-5-text-link ds2-5-text-link--inline js-wsj-grid-card-view-pdf" href="https://www.academia.edu/41277504/Meritocracy_Aristocracy_and_Literati_Democracy_in_Chinese_imperial_History"><span class="ds2-5-text-link__content">View PDF</span><span class="material-symbols-outlined" style="font-size: 18px" translate="no">chevron_right</span></a></div></div><div class="ds-related-work--container js-wsj-grid-card" data-collection-position="9" data-entity-id="56453657" data-sort-order="default"><a class="ds-related-work--title js-wsj-grid-card-title ds2-5-body-md ds2-5-body-link" href="https://www.academia.edu/56453657/Socio_educational_contexts_of_G%C4%81ok%C7%8Eo_exam_A_qualitative_retrospective_study_of_how_g%C4%81ok%C7%8Eo_is_perceived_by_successful_exam_takers">Socio-educational contexts of Gāokǎo exam: A qualitative retrospective study of how gāokǎo is perceived by successful exam-takers</a><div class="ds-related-work--metadata"><a class="js-wsj-grid-card-author ds2-5-body-sm ds2-5-body-link" data-author-id="468318" href="https://silesian.academia.edu/MarcinGierczyk">Marcin Gierczyk</a></div><p class="ds-related-work--metadata ds2-5-body-xs">International Journal of Chinese Education</p><p class="ds-related-work--abstract ds2-5-body-sm">The Gaokao exam is still a hot topic in contemporary Chinese society designed to select people for the country by testing their knowledge of specific exam subjects. People from all walks of life have different attitudes and understandings towards it. The purpose of this study was to examine how do Chinese female students from Top Universities in China perceive the gāokǎo exam by using a semi-structured, in-depth interview (N = 5) and an open-ended interview questionnaire (N = 7). The findings suggest that an evaluative dichotomy can characterize the exam itself and exam preparation period. Although initially this time was seen in terms of immense sacrifice and was highly intense, positive attitudes to the Gaokao exam dominated, and the exam was considered a relatively fair and equitable selection method. It should be borne in mind that this study does not attempt to be globally representative. However, we do trust that the findings will have a universal appeal to educational communi...</p><div class="ds-related-work--ctas"><button class="ds2-5-text-link ds2-5-text-link--inline js-swp-download-button" data-signup-modal="{"location":"wsj-grid-card-download-pdf-modal","work_title":"Socio-educational contexts of Gāokǎo exam: A qualitative retrospective study of how gāokǎo is perceived by successful exam-takers","attachmentId":71833117,"attachmentType":"pdf","work_url":"https://www.academia.edu/56453657/Socio_educational_contexts_of_G%C4%81ok%C7%8Eo_exam_A_qualitative_retrospective_study_of_how_g%C4%81ok%C7%8Eo_is_perceived_by_successful_exam_takers","alternativeTracking":true}"><span class="material-symbols-outlined" style="font-size: 18px" translate="no">download</span><span class="ds2-5-text-link__content">Download free PDF</span></button><a class="ds2-5-text-link ds2-5-text-link--inline js-wsj-grid-card-view-pdf" href="https://www.academia.edu/56453657/Socio_educational_contexts_of_G%C4%81ok%C7%8Eo_exam_A_qualitative_retrospective_study_of_how_g%C4%81ok%C7%8Eo_is_perceived_by_successful_exam_takers"><span class="ds2-5-text-link__content">View PDF</span><span class="material-symbols-outlined" style="font-size: 18px" translate="no">chevron_right</span></a></div></div></div></div><div class="ds-sticky-ctas--wrapper js-loswp-sticky-ctas hidden"><div class="ds-sticky-ctas--grid-container"><div class="ds-sticky-ctas--container"><button class="ds2-5-button js-swp-download-button" data-signup-modal="{"location":"continue-reading-button--sticky-ctas","attachmentId":95074808,"attachmentType":"pdf","workUrl":null}">See full PDF</button><button class="ds2-5-button ds2-5-button--secondary js-swp-download-button" data-signup-modal="{"location":"download-pdf-button--sticky-ctas","attachmentId":95074808,"attachmentType":"pdf","workUrl":null}"><span class="material-symbols-outlined" style="font-size: 20px" translate="no">download</span>Download PDF</button></div></div></div><div class="ds-below-fold--grid-container"><div class="ds-work--container js-loswp-embedded-document"><div class="attachment_preview" data-attachment="Attachment_95074808" style="display: none"><div class="js-scribd-document-container"><div class="scribd--document-loading js-scribd-document-loader" style="display: block;"><img alt="Loading..." src="//a.academia-assets.com/images/loaders/paper-load.gif" /><p>Loading Preview</p></div></div><div style="text-align: center;"><div class="scribd--no-preview-alert js-preview-unavailable"><p>Sorry, preview is currently unavailable. You can download the paper by clicking the button above.</p></div></div></div></div><div class="ds-sidebar--container js-work-sidebar"><div class="ds-related-content--container"><h2 class="ds-related-content--heading">Related papers</h2><div class="ds-related-work--container js-related-work-sidebar-card" data-collection-position="0" data-entity-id="85891794" data-sort-order="default"><a class="ds-related-work--title js-related-work-grid-card-title ds2-5-body-md ds2-5-body-link" href="https://www.academia.edu/85891794/The_China_Model_Political_Meritocracy_and_the_Limits_of_Democracy_by_Daniel_A_Bell_Princeton_NJ_Princeton_University_Press_2015_xii_318_pp_US_29_95_19_95_cloth_">The China Model: Political Meritocracy and the Limits of Democracy, by Daniel A. Bell. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 2015. xii+318 pp. US$29.95/£19.95 (cloth)</a><div class="ds-related-work--metadata"><a class="js-related-work-grid-card-author ds2-5-body-sm ds2-5-body-link" data-author-id="8940408" href="https://independent.academia.edu/danielbell3">daniel bell</a></div><p class="ds-related-work--metadata ds2-5-body-xs">The China Journal, 2016</p><div class="ds-related-work--ctas"><button class="ds2-5-text-link ds2-5-text-link--inline js-swp-download-button" data-signup-modal="{"location":"wsj-grid-card-download-pdf-modal","work_title":"The China Model: Political Meritocracy and the Limits of Democracy, by Daniel A. Bell. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 2015. xii+318 pp. US$29.95/£19.95 (cloth)","attachmentId":90459978,"attachmentType":"pdf","work_url":"https://www.academia.edu/85891794/The_China_Model_Political_Meritocracy_and_the_Limits_of_Democracy_by_Daniel_A_Bell_Princeton_NJ_Princeton_University_Press_2015_xii_318_pp_US_29_95_19_95_cloth_","alternativeTracking":true}"><span class="material-symbols-outlined" style="font-size: 18px" translate="no">download</span><span class="ds2-5-text-link__content">Download free PDF</span></button><a class="ds2-5-text-link ds2-5-text-link--inline js-related-work-grid-card-view-pdf" href="https://www.academia.edu/85891794/The_China_Model_Political_Meritocracy_and_the_Limits_of_Democracy_by_Daniel_A_Bell_Princeton_NJ_Princeton_University_Press_2015_xii_318_pp_US_29_95_19_95_cloth_"><span class="ds2-5-text-link__content">View PDF</span><span class="material-symbols-outlined" style="font-size: 18px" translate="no">chevron_right</span></a></div></div><div class="ds-related-work--container js-related-work-sidebar-card" data-collection-position="1" data-entity-id="76985778" data-sort-order="default"><a class="ds-related-work--title js-related-work-grid-card-title ds2-5-body-md ds2-5-body-link" href="https://www.academia.edu/76985778/Political_Social_and_Cultural_Reproduction_via_Civil_Service_Examinations_in_Late_Imperial_China">Political, Social, and Cultural Reproduction via Civil Service Examinations in Late Imperial China</a><div class="ds-related-work--metadata"><a class="js-related-work-grid-card-author ds2-5-body-sm ds2-5-body-link" data-author-id="126522" href="https://princeton.academia.edu/BenElman">Benjamin Elman</a></div><p class="ds-related-work--metadata ds2-5-body-xs">The Journal of Asian Studies, 1991</p><div class="ds-related-work--ctas"><button class="ds2-5-text-link ds2-5-text-link--inline js-swp-download-button" data-signup-modal="{"location":"wsj-grid-card-download-pdf-modal","work_title":"Political, Social, and 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