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<a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Intervals_between_refreshments"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.3 Intervals between refreshments </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Intervals_between_refreshments-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Local_methods" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Local_methods"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.4 Local methods </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Local_methods-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Baking" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Baking"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.5 Baking </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Baking-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Biology_and_chemistry_of_sourdough" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Biology_and_chemistry_of_sourdough"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4 Biology and chemistry of sourdough </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Biology_and_chemistry_of_sourdough-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Biology and chemistry of sourdough subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Biology_and_chemistry_of_sourdough-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Lactic_acid_bacteria" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Lactic_acid_bacteria"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.1 Lactic acid bacteria </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Lactic_acid_bacteria-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Yeasts" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Yeasts"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.2 Yeasts </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Yeasts-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Type_I_sourdough" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Type_I_sourdough"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.3 Type I sourdough </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Type_I_sourdough-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Type_II_sourdough" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Type_II_sourdough"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.4 Type II sourdough </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Type_II_sourdough-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Type_III_sourdough" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Type_III_sourdough"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.5 Type III sourdough </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Type_III_sourdough-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Types_of_bread" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Types_of_bread"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5 Types of bread </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Types_of_bread-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Possible_fermentation_effects" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Possible_fermentation_effects"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6 Possible fermentation effects </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Possible_fermentation_effects-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7 See also </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Notes" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Notes"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 8 Notes </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Notes-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div 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The present address (URL) is a <a href="/wiki/Help:Permanent_link" title="Help:Permanent link">permanent link</a> to this revision, which may differ significantly from the <a class="external text" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sourdough">current revision</a>.<div id="revision-info-plain" style="display: none;">Revision as of 15:05, 4 November 2024 by <a href="/w/index.php?title=User:Mfoshee2&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new mw-userlink" title="User:Mfoshee2 (page does not exist)" data-mw-revid="1255360562"><bdi>Mfoshee2</bdi></a> (<a href="/wiki/User_talk:Mfoshee2" class="mw-usertoollinks-talk" title="User talk:Mfoshee2">talk</a> | <a href="/wiki/Special:Contributions/Mfoshee2" class="mw-usertoollinks-contribs" title="Special:Contributions/Mfoshee2">contribs</a>)</div></div><div id="mw-revision-nav">(<a href="/w/index.php?title=Sourdough&diff=prev&oldid=1255360562" title="Sourdough">diff</a>) <a href="/w/index.php?title=Sourdough&direction=prev&oldid=1255360562" title="Sourdough">← Previous revision</a> | <a href="/wiki/Sourdough" title="Sourdough">Latest revision</a> (<a href="/w/index.php?title=Sourdough&diff=cur&oldid=1255360562" title="Sourdough">diff</a>) | <a href="/w/index.php?title=Sourdough&direction=next&oldid=1255360562" title="Sourdough">Newer revision →</a> (<a href="/w/index.php?title=Sourdough&diff=next&oldid=1255360562" title="Sourdough">diff</a>)</div></div></div></div></div> <div id="mw-content-text" class="mw-body-content"><div class="mw-content-ltr mw-parser-output" lang="en" dir="ltr"><div class="shortdescription nomobile noexcerpt noprint searchaux" style="display:none">Type of sour bread</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">For other uses, see <a href="/wiki/Sourdough_(disambiguation)" class="mw-disambig" title="Sourdough (disambiguation)">Sourdough (disambiguation)</a>.</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1257001546">.mw-parser-output .infobox-subbox{padding:0;border:none;margin:-3px;width:auto;min-width:100%;font-size:100%;clear:none;float:none;background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .infobox-3cols-child{margin:auto}.mw-parser-output .infobox .navbar{font-size:100%}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data:not(.notheme)>div:not(.notheme)[style]{background:#1f1f23!important;color:#f8f9fa}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data:not(.notheme) div:not(.notheme){background:#1f1f23!important;color:#f8f9fa}}@media(min-width:640px){body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table{display:table!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table>caption{display:table-caption!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table>tbody{display:table-row-group}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table tr{display:table-row!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table th,body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table td{padding-left:inherit;padding-right:inherit}}</style><table class="infobox hrecipe adr"><caption class="infobox-title fn">Sourdough bread</caption><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-image"><a href="/wiki/File:Home_made_sour_dough_bread.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3b/Home_made_sour_dough_bread.jpg/220px-Home_made_sour_dough_bread.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="142" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3b/Home_made_sour_dough_bread.jpg/330px-Home_made_sour_dough_bread.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3b/Home_made_sour_dough_bread.jpg/440px-Home_made_sour_dough_bread.jpg 2x" data-file-width="8688" data-file-height="5607" /></a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="line-height:1.15em; padding-right:0.65em;">Type</th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Bread" title="Bread">Bread</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="line-height:1.15em; padding-right:0.65em;">Main ingredients</th><td class="infobox-data ingredient"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1129693374">.mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul{margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt,.mw-parser-output .hlist li{margin:0;display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul ul{display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist .mw-empty-li{display:none}.mw-parser-output .hlist dt::after{content:": "}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li::after{content:" · ";font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li:last-child::after{content:none}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd dd:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dd dt:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dd li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt dd:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt dt:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dd:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dt:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li li:first-child::before{content:" (";font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dd dt:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dd li:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt dt:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt li:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dt:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li li:last-child::after{content:")";font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .hlist ol{counter-reset:listitem}.mw-parser-output .hlist ol>li{counter-increment:listitem}.mw-parser-output .hlist ol>li::before{content:" "counter(listitem)"\a0 "}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd ol>li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt ol>li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li ol>li:first-child::before{content:" ("counter(listitem)"\a0 "}</style><div class="hlist"><ul><li><a href="/wiki/Flour" title="Flour">Flour</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Water" title="Water">water</a></li><li>sourdough culture</li><li><a href="/wiki/Salt" title="Salt">salt</a></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-below" style="border-top:1px solid #aaa;padding-top:0.25em;"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1126788409">.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul{line-height:inherit;list-style:none;margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol li,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul li{margin-bottom:0}</style><div class="plainlist"><ul><li> <a href="/wiki/File:Commons-logo.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/12px-Commons-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="12" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/18px-Commons-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/24px-Commons-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="1376" /></a> <a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Sour_dough_breads" class="extiw" title="commons:Category:Sour dough breads">Media: Sourdough bread</a></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table> Sourdough or sourdough bread is a <a href="/wiki/Bread" title="Bread">bread</a> made by the <a href="/wiki/Fermentation" title="Fermentation">fermentation</a> of <a href="/wiki/Dough" title="Dough">dough</a> using wild <a href="/wiki/Lactobacillaceae" title="Lactobacillaceae">lactobacillaceae</a> and <a href="/wiki/Yeast" title="Yeast">yeast</a>. <a href="/wiki/Lactic_acid" title="Lactic acid">Lactic acid</a> from fermentation imparts a sour taste and improves keeping-qualities.<a href="#cite_note-Gänzle-2014-1">[1]</a><a href="#cite_note-2">[2]</a> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="History">History</h2></div> In the Encyclopedia of Food Microbiology, Michael Gaenzle writes: "One of the oldest sourdough breads dates from 3700 BCE and was excavated in Switzerland, but the origin of sourdough <a href="/wiki/Fermentation" title="Fermentation">fermentation</a> likely relates to the origin of agriculture in the <a href="/wiki/Fertile_Crescent" title="Fertile Crescent">Fertile Crescent</a> and Egypt several thousand years earlier",<a href="#cite_note-Gaenzle-3">[3]</a> and "Bread production relied on the use of sourdough as a leavening agent for most of human history; the use of <a href="/wiki/Baker%27s_yeast" title="Baker's yeast">baker's yeast</a> as a leavening agent dates back less than 150 years".<a href="#cite_note-Gaenzle-3">[3]</a> Sourdough remained the usual form of leavening down into the European <a href="/wiki/Middle_Ages" title="Middle Ages">Middle Ages</a><a href="#cite_note-Gobbetti6-4">[4]</a> until being replaced by <a href="/wiki/Barm" title="Barm">barm</a> from the <a href="/wiki/Beer" title="Beer">beer</a> brewing process, and after 1871 by purpose-cultured yeast. Bread made from 100% rye flour, popular in northern Europe, is typically leavened with sourdough rather than baker’s yeast, as rye lacks sufficient gluten to support yeast leavening. Instead, rye bread’s structure relies on the starch in the flour and other carbohydrates known as pentosans. However, rye amylase remains active at higher temperatures than wheat amylase, which can cause the bread’s structure to weaken as the starches break down during baking. The lowered pH of a sourdough starter inactivates the amylases when heat alone cannot, allowing the carbohydrates to gel and set properly in the bread structure. In southern Europe, sourdough remains traditional for certain breads like panettone. However, in the 20th century, sourdough became less common, replaced by the faster-acting baker’s yeast. Sometimes, this yeast is supplemented with longer fermentation periods to allow some bacterial activity, which adds flavor. During the 2010s, sourdough fermentation regained popularity as a major method in bread production, often used alongside baker’s yeast as a leavening agent. <pre>- Do they matter for microbial ecology and bread quality?|url=<a rel="nofollow" class="external free" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/30172443/%7Cjournal=International">https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/30172443/%7Cjournal=International</a> Journal of Food Microbiology|volume=302|pages=15–23|doi=10.1016/j.ijfoodmicro.2018.08.019|issn=1879-3460|pmid=30172443|s2cid=52143236}}</ref> </pre> French bakers brought sourdough techniques to <a href="/wiki/Northern_California" title="Northern California">Northern California</a> during the <a href="/wiki/California_Gold_Rush" class="mw-redirect" title="California Gold Rush">California Gold Rush</a>, and it remains a part of the culture of <a href="/wiki/San_Francisco" title="San Francisco">San Francisco</a> today. (The nickname remains in "<a href="/wiki/Sourdough_Sam" title="Sourdough Sam">Sourdough Sam</a>", the <a href="/wiki/Mascot" title="Mascot">mascot</a> of the <a href="/wiki/San_Francisco_49ers" title="San Francisco 49ers">San Francisco 49ers</a>.) Sourdough has long been associated with the 1849 gold prospectors, though they were more likely to make bread with commercial yeast or baking soda.<a href="#cite_note-5">[5]</a> The "celebrated"<a href="#cite_note-Davidson-6">[6]</a> San Francisco sourdough is a white bread characterized by a pronounced sourness, and indeed the strain of Lactobacillus in sourdough starters is named <a href="/wiki/Fructilactobacillus_sanfranciscensis" title="Fructilactobacillus sanfranciscensis">Fructilactobacillus sanfranciscensis</a> (previously Lactobacillus sanfranciscensis),<a href="#cite_note-7">[7]</a> alongside the sourdough yeast Kasachstania humilis (previously Candida milleri) found in the same cultures.<a href="#cite_note-Davidson-6">[6]</a> The sourdough tradition was carried into the <a href="/wiki/Department_of_Alaska" title="Department of Alaska">Department of Alaska</a> in the United States and the <a href="/wiki/Yukon_Territory" class="mw-redirect" title="Yukon Territory">Yukon Territory</a> in Canada during the <a href="/wiki/Klondike_Gold_Rush" title="Klondike Gold Rush">Klondike Gold Rush</a> of 1898. Conventional leavenings such as yeast and baking soda were much less reliable in the conditions faced by the prospectors. Experienced miners and other settlers frequently carried a pouch of starter either around their neck or on a belt; these were fiercely guarded to keep from freezing. However, freezing does not kill a sourdough starter; excessive heat does. Old hands came to be called "sourdoughs", a term that is still applied to any Alaskan or Klondike old-timer.<a href="#cite_note-8">[8]</a> The significance of the nickname's association with Yukon culture was immortalized in the writings of <a href="/wiki/Robert_W._Service" title="Robert W. Service">Robert Service</a>, particularly his collection of "<a href="/wiki/Songs_of_a_Sourdough" title="Songs of a Sourdough">Songs of a Sourdough</a>".[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] In English-speaking countries, where wheat-based breads predominate, sourdough is no longer the standard method for bread leavening. It was gradually replaced, first by the use of <a href="/wiki/Barm" title="Barm">barm</a> from beer making,<a href="#cite_note-9">[9]</a> then, after the confirmation of <a href="/wiki/Germ_theory_of_disease" title="Germ theory of disease">germ theory</a> by <a href="/wiki/Louis_Pasteur" title="Louis Pasteur">Louis Pasteur</a>, by cultured yeasts.<a href="#cite_note-10">[10]</a> Although sourdough bread was superseded in commercial bakeries in the 20th century, it has undergone a revival among artisan bakers and, more recently, in industrial bakeries.<a href="#cite_note-Gänzle-2019-11">[11]</a><a href="#cite_note-Griggs-12">[12]</a> In countries where there is no legal definition of sourdough bread, the dough for some products named or marketed as such is leavened using baker's yeast or chemical raising agents as well as, or instead of, a live sourdough starter culture. The Real Bread Campaign calls these products sourfaux.<a href="#cite_note-13">[13]</a><a href="#cite_note-14">[14]</a> Manufacturers of non-sourdough breads make up for the lack of yeast and bacterial culture by introducing into their dough an artificially made mix known as <a href="/wiki/Flour_treatment_agent" class="mw-redirect" title="Flour treatment agent">bread improver</a> or flour improver.<a href="#cite_note-15">[15]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Modern_culture">Modern culture</h2></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Sourdough_starter.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="Sourdough starter from overhead" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/02/Sourdough_starter.jpg/220px-Sourdough_starter.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="147" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/02/Sourdough_starter.jpg/330px-Sourdough_starter.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/02/Sourdough_starter.jpg/440px-Sourdough_starter.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1920" data-file-height="1280" /></a><figcaption>Sourdough starter</figcaption></figure> Sourdough baking has a devoted community today. Many devotees share starters and tips via the <a href="/wiki/Internet" title="Internet">Internet</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Gastronomica_Harris-16">[16]</a> Hobbyists often share their work on <a href="/wiki/Social_media" title="Social media">social media</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Nordhagen-2020-17">[17]</a><a href="#cite_note-Inlander_Chey-18">[18]</a> Sourdough cultures contain communities of living organisms, with a history unique to each individual starter, and bakers can feel an obligation to maintain them. The different yeasts present in the air in any region also enter sourdough, causing starters to change depending on location.<a href="#cite_note-Gastronomica_Harris-16">[16]</a> Some devotees find interest in history. Sourdough expert Ed Wood isolated millennia-old yeast from an ancient Egyptian bakery near the <a href="/wiki/Giza_pyramid_complex" title="Giza pyramid complex">pyramids of Giza</a>,<a href="#cite_note-Gastronomica_Harris-16">[16]</a> and many individual starters, such as <a href="/wiki/Carl_Griffith%27s_sourdough_starter" title="Carl Griffith's sourdough starter">Carl Griffith's 1847 starter</a>, have been passed down through generations.<a href="#cite_note-TheVirginian_Eaton2-19">[19]</a> "I like the throwback of traditional bread, the things our great grandmothers ate," writes professional baker Stacie Kearney.<a href="#cite_note-Inlander_Chey-18">[18]</a> Some bakers describe starters generations old,<a href="#cite_note-TheVirginian_Eaton2-19">[19]</a> though Griffith's seems exceptional.<a href="#cite_note-Gastronomica_Harris-16">[16]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:What_is_autolyse.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f8/What_is_autolyse.jpg/220px-What_is_autolyse.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="293" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f8/What_is_autolyse.jpg/330px-What_is_autolyse.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f8/What_is_autolyse.jpg/440px-What_is_autolyse.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3024" data-file-height="4032" /></a><figcaption>Bubbly active starter</figcaption></figure> Sourdough baking became more popular during the <a href="/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic" title="COVID-19 pandemic">COVID-19 pandemic</a>, as increased interest in home baking caused shortages of baker's yeast in stores, whereas sourdough can be propagated at home.<a href="#cite_note-Inlander_Chey-18">[18]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Mixing_Sourdough_starter_into_the_flour.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e0/Mixing_Sourdough_starter_into_the_flour.jpg/220px-Mixing_Sourdough_starter_into_the_flour.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="275" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e0/Mixing_Sourdough_starter_into_the_flour.jpg/330px-Mixing_Sourdough_starter_into_the_flour.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e0/Mixing_Sourdough_starter_into_the_flour.jpg/440px-Mixing_Sourdough_starter_into_the_flour.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1200" data-file-height="1500" /></a><figcaption>Mixing bread using sourdough starter</figcaption></figure> Sourdough baking requires minimal equipment and simple ingredients – flour, salt, and water – but invites practice.<a href="#cite_note-Inlander_Chey-18">[18]</a> Purism is a part of the appeal. As described by one enthusiast, "If you take flour, water, (wild) yeast and salt, and play around with time and temperature, what comes out of the oven is something utterly transformed." Many bakers feed their starters on elaborate schedules, and many name them. Some approach sourdough as science, attempting to optimize flavor and acidity with careful measurements, experimentation, and correspondence with professional microbiologists. Some lineages of starter are freely shared, and others can be purchased, but many prefer to cultivate their own. Some techniques for doing so are fiercely debated, such as the use of commercial yeast to jump-start a culture while capturing wild yeasts, or adding grapes or milk.<a href="#cite_note-Gastronomica_Harris-16">[16]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Preparation">Preparation</h2></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Sourdough-process.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/99/Sourdough-process.svg/220px-Sourdough-process.svg.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="314" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/99/Sourdough-process.svg/330px-Sourdough-process.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/99/Sourdough-process.svg/440px-Sourdough-process.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="984" data-file-height="1406" /></a><figcaption>How to make and maintain firm sourdough</figcaption></figure> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Starter">Starter</h3></div> The preparation of sourdough begins with a <a href="/wiki/Pre-ferment" title="Pre-ferment">pre-ferment</a> (the "starter" or "leaven", also known as the "chief", "chef", "head", "mother" or "sponge"), a fermented mixture of flour and water, containing a colony of <a href="/wiki/Microorganisms" class="mw-redirect" title="Microorganisms">microorganisms</a> including wild <a href="/wiki/Yeast" title="Yeast">yeast</a> and <a href="/wiki/Lactobacilli" class="mw-redirect" title="Lactobacilli">lactobacilli</a>.<a href="#cite_note-HamelmanBread-20">[20]</a> The purpose of the starter is to produce a vigorous leaven and to develop the flavour of the bread. In practice there are several kinds of starters, as the ratio of water to flour in the starter (hydration) varies. A starter may be a liquid batter or a stiff dough.<a href="#cite_note-21">[21]</a> Flour naturally contains a variety of yeasts and bacteria.<a href="#cite_note-22">[22]</a><a href="#cite_note-23">[23]</a> When wheat flour comes into contact with water, the naturally occurring enzyme <a href="/wiki/Amylase" title="Amylase">amylase</a> breaks down the <a href="/wiki/Starch" title="Starch">starch</a> into the sugars <a href="/wiki/Glucose" title="Glucose">glucose</a> and <a href="/wiki/Maltose" title="Maltose">maltose</a>, which sourdough's natural yeast can metabolize.<a href="#cite_note-Schlegel-24">[24]</a> With sufficient time, temperature, and refreshments with new or fresh dough, the mixture develops a stable culture.<a href="#cite_note-HamelmanBread-20">[20]</a><a href="#cite_note-Scheirlinck.Schoor.population.dynamics-25">[25]</a> This culture will cause a dough to rise.<a href="#cite_note-HamelmanBread-20">[20]</a> The bacteria ferment starches that the yeast cannot metabolise, and the by-products, chiefly maltose, are metabolised by the yeast, which produces carbon dioxide gas, leavening the dough.<a href="#cite_note-Decock.Cappele-26">[26]</a><a href="#cite_note-maltose.glucose.lactobacilli-27">[27]</a><a href="#cite_note-Sugihara.Kline.Miller-28">[28]</a><a href="#cite_note-Kline.Sugihara.San_Francisco.-29">[29]</a><a href="#cite_note-Daeschel.Andersson.Fleming-30">[30]</a><a href="#cite_note-32">[note 1]</a> Obtaining a satisfactory rise from sourdough takes longer than a dough leavened with baker's yeast because the yeast in a sourdough is less vigorous.<a href="#cite_note-33">[32]</a><a href="#cite_note-34">[33]</a> In the presence of lactic acid bacteria, however, some sourdough yeasts have been observed to produce twice the gas of baker's yeast.<a href="#cite_note-35">[34]</a> The acidic conditions in sourdough, along with the bacteria also producing enzymes that break down proteins, result in weaker gluten and may produce a denser finished product.<a href="#cite_note-36">[35]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Refreshment/feeding_of_the_starter">Refreshment/feeding of the starter</h3></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Sourdough.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0a/Sourdough.jpg/220px-Sourdough.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="299" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0a/Sourdough.jpg/330px-Sourdough.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0a/Sourdough.jpg/440px-Sourdough.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2362" data-file-height="3215" /></a><figcaption>Recently refreshed sourdough</figcaption></figure> As it ferments, sometimes for several days, the volume of the starter is increased by periodic additions of flour and water, called "refreshments" or referred to as a "feeding".<a href="#cite_note-37">[36]</a> As long as this starter culture is fed flour and water regularly, it will remain active.<a href="#cite_note-38">[37]</a><a href="#cite_note-39">[38]</a><a href="#cite_note-Khachatourians.food.biotechnology-40">[39]</a> The ratio of fermented starter to fresh flour and water is critical in the development and maintenance of a starter. This ratio is called the refreshment ratio.<a href="#cite_note-41">[40]</a><a href="#cite_note-42">[41]</a> Higher refreshment ratios are associated with greater microbial stability in the sourdough. In San Francisco sourdough, the <a href="/wiki/Ratio" title="Ratio">ratio</a><a href="#cite_note-43">[42]</a> is 40% of the total weight, which is roughly equivalent to 67% of the new-dough's weight. A high refreshment ratio keeps acidity of the refreshed dough relatively low.<a href="#cite_note-Khachatourians.food.biotechnology-40">[39]</a> Acidity levels of below pH 4.0 inhibit lactobacilli and favor acid-tolerant yeasts.[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] A starter prepared from scratch with a salted wheat-rye dough takes about 54 hours at 27 °C (81 °F) to stabilise at a pH between 4.4 and 4.6.<a href="#cite_note-44">[43]</a> 4% salt inhibits L. sanfranciscensis, while C. milleri can withstand 8%.<a href="#cite_note-modeling.growth-45">[44]</a> A drier and cooler starter has less bacterial activity and more yeast growth, which results in the bacterial production of more <a href="/wiki/Acetic_acid" title="Acetic acid">acetic acid</a> relative to lactic acid. Conversely, a wetter and warmer starter has more bacterial activity and less yeast growth, with more lactic acid relative to acetic acid.<a href="#cite_note-d.wink-46">[45]</a> The yeasts produce mainly CO2 and ethanol.<a href="#cite_note-47">[46]</a> High amounts of lactic acid are desired in rye and mixed-rye fermentations, while relatively higher amounts of acetic acid are desired in wheat fermentations.<a href="#cite_note-48">[47]</a> A dry, cool starter produces a sourer loaf than a wet, warm one.<a href="#cite_note-d.wink-46">[45]</a> Firm starters (such as the Flemish <a href="/wiki/Desem" title="Desem">Desem</a> starter, which may be buried in a large container of flour to prevent drying out) tend to be more resource-intensive than wet ones.[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Intervals_between_refreshments">Intervals between refreshments</h3></div> A stable culture in which <a href="/wiki/Lactobacillus_sanfranciscensis" class="mw-redirect" title="Lactobacillus sanfranciscensis">F. sanfranciscensis</a> is the dominant bacterium requires a temperature between 25–30 °C (77–86 °F) and refreshments every 24 hours for about two weeks. Refreshment intervals of longer than three days acidify the dough and may change the microbial ecosystem.<a href="#cite_note-daniel.wing.michael.ganzle.correspondence-31">[31]</a> The intervals between refreshments of the starter may be reduced in order to increase the rate of gas (CO2) production, a process described as "acceleration."<a href="#cite_note-49">[48]</a> In this process, the ratio of yeasts to lactobacilli may be altered.<a href="#cite_note-bakery.products.science.technology-50">[49]</a> Generally, if once-daily refreshment-intervals have not been reduced to several hours, the percentage amount of starter in the final dough should be reduced to obtain a satisfactory rise during proof.<a href="#cite_note-51">[50]</a> Faster starter processes, requiring fewer refreshments, have been devised, sometimes using commercial sourdough starters as inoculants.<a href="#cite_note-52">[51]</a> These starters generally fall into two types. One is made from traditionally maintained and stable starter doughs, often dried, in which the ratios of microorganisms are uncertain. Another is made from microorganisms carefully isolated from <a href="/wiki/Petri_dish" title="Petri dish">Petri dishes</a>, grown into large, homogeneous populations in fermentors, and processed into combined baker's products with numerically defined ratios and known quantities of microorganisms well suited to particular bread styles.<a href="#cite_note-pain_au_levain-53">[52]</a><a href="#cite_note-Khachatourians.food.biotechnology-40">[39]</a> Maintaining metabolically active sourdough with high leavening activity typically requires several refreshments per day, which is achieved in bakeries that use sourdough as sole leavening agents but not by amateur bakers that use the sourdough only weekly or even less frequently.[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Local_methods">Local methods</h3></div> Bakers have devised several ways of encouraging a stable culture of micro-organisms in the starter. <a href="/wiki/Flour_bleaching_agent" title="Flour bleaching agent">Unbleached</a>, <a href="/wiki/Potassium_bromate" title="Potassium bromate">unbromated flour</a> contains more micro-organisms than more processed flours. <a href="/wiki/Bran" title="Bran">Bran</a>-containing (wholemeal) flour provides the greatest variety of organisms and additional minerals, though some cultures use an initial mixture of white flour and rye or whole wheat flour or "seed" the culture using unwashed organic <a href="/wiki/Grape" title="Grape">grapes</a> (for the wild yeasts on their skins). Grapes and grape <a href="/wiki/Must" title="Must">must</a> are also sources of lactic acid bacteria,<a href="#cite_note-54">[53]</a><a href="#cite_note-55">[54]</a> as are many other edible plants.<a href="#cite_note-pmid17542335-56">[55]</a><a href="#cite_note-57">[56]</a> Basil leaves are soaked in room-temperature water for an hour to seed traditional Greek sourdough.<a href="#cite_note-pmid12450829-58">[57]</a> Using water from boiled potatoes is said to increase the activity of the bacteria by providing additional starch.[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] The piped drinking water supplied in most urban areas is treated by <a href="/wiki/Water_chlorination" title="Water chlorination">chlorination</a> or <a href="/wiki/Chloramination" title="Chloramination">chloramination</a>, adding small amounts of substances that inhibit potentially dangerous micro-organisms but are harmless to animals. Some bakers recommend unchlorinated water for feeding cultures.<a href="#cite_note-HamelmanBread-20">[20]</a>: 353  Because a sourdough fermentation relies on microorganisms, using water without these agents may produce better results. Bottled drinking water is suitable; chlorine, but not <a href="/wiki/Monochloramine#Removing_chloramines_from_water" title="Monochloramine">chloramines</a>, can be removed from tap water by boiling it for a time, or simply by leaving it uncovered for at least 24 hours. Chlorine and chloramines can both be removed by activated <a href="/wiki/Carbon_filtering" title="Carbon filtering">carbon filters</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Maher-59">[58]</a> Adding a small quantity of <a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/diastatic" class="extiw" title="wikt:diastatic">diastatic</a> <a href="/wiki/Malt" title="Malt">malt</a> provides <a href="/wiki/Maltase" title="Maltase">maltase</a> and simple sugars to support the yeasts initially.<a href="#cite_note-60">[59]</a> Bakers often make loaves with fermented dough from a previous batch (which they call "mother dough",<a href="#cite_note-63">[note 2]</a> "mother sponge", "chef", or "seed sour") rather than making a new starter every time they bake. The original starter culture may be many years old. Because of their pH level and the presence of antibacterial agents, such cultures are stable and able to prevent colonization by unwanted yeasts and bacteria. For this reason, sourdough products inherently keep fresh for a longer time than other breads, and are good at resisting spoilage and mold without the additives required to retard spoiling of other types of bread.<a href="#cite_note-64">[62]</a> The flavour of sourdough bread varies from place to place according to the method used, the hydration of the starter and the final dough, the refreshment ratio, the length of the fermentation periods, ambient temperature, humidity, and elevation, all of which contribute to the microbiology of the sourdough.[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Baking">Baking</h3></div> The starter must be fed 4 to 12 hours prior to being added to dough, by mixing flour and water to the starter. This creates an active leaven, which should grow in size and is ready to use when it is bubbly and floats in water. The leaven is mixed with flour and water to make a final dough of the desired consistency. The starter weight is usually 13% to 25% of the total flour weight, though formulas may vary.<a href="#cite_note-pain_au_levain-53">[52]</a><a href="#cite_note-65">[63]</a><a href="#cite_note-66">[64]</a> Using a smaller ratio of cold un-feed starter in the range of 5% to 10% can also create good sourdough loaves, however, the fermentation time will be longer and can result in improved flavor. The dough is shaped into loaves, left to rise, and then baked. A number of 'no knead' methods are available for sourdough bread. Due to the length of time sourdough bread takes to proof, many bakers may refrigerate their loaves prior to baking. This process is known as 'retardation' to slow down the proofing process. This process has the added benefit of developing a richer flavoured bread.[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Homemade_Sourdough_Boule.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="A freshly baked homemade sourdough boule within a cast iron dutch oven" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5f/Homemade_Sourdough_Boule.jpg/220px-Homemade_Sourdough_Boule.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="228" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5f/Homemade_Sourdough_Boule.jpg/330px-Homemade_Sourdough_Boule.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5f/Homemade_Sourdough_Boule.jpg/440px-Homemade_Sourdough_Boule.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3024" data-file-height="3136" /></a><figcaption>Homemade sourdough bakers commonly use cast iron dutch ovens for baking</figcaption></figure> Because the rise time of most sourdough starters is longer than that of breads made with baker's yeasts, sourdough starters are generally unsuitable for use in a <a href="/wiki/Bread_machine" title="Bread machine">bread machine</a>. However, sourdough that has been proofed over many hours, using a <a href="/wiki/Sourdough_starter" class="mw-redirect" title="Sourdough starter">sourdough starter</a> or <a href="/wiki/Mother_dough" class="mw-redirect" title="Mother dough">mother dough</a>, can then be transferred to the machine, utilizing only the baking segment of the bread-making program, bypassing timed mechanical kneading by the machine's paddle. This may be convenient for single loaf production, but the complex blistered and slashed crust characteristics of oven-baked sourdough bread cannot be achieved in a bread making machine, as this usually requires the use of a <a href="/wiki/Baking_stone" title="Baking stone">baking stone</a> in the oven and misting of the dough to produce steam. Furthermore, ideal crust development requires loaves of shapes not achievable in a machine's loaf tin.[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Biology_and_chemistry_of_sourdough">Biology and chemistry of sourdough</h2></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Lactic_acid_fermentation" title="Lactic acid fermentation">Lactic acid fermentation</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Masa_madre.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5b/Masa_madre.jpg/220px-Masa_madre.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="135" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5b/Masa_madre.jpg/330px-Masa_madre.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5b/Masa_madre.jpg/440px-Masa_madre.jpg 2x" data-file-width="777" data-file-height="477" /></a><figcaption>Sourdough starter made with flour and liquid refreshed for three or more days</figcaption></figure> Sourdough is a stable culture of <a href="/wiki/Lactic_acid_bacteria" title="Lactic acid bacteria">lactic acid bacteria</a> and <a href="/wiki/Yeast" title="Yeast">yeast</a> in a mixture of <a href="/wiki/Flour" title="Flour">flour</a> and <a href="/wiki/Water" title="Water">water</a>. Broadly speaking, the yeast produces gas (<a href="/wiki/Carbon_dioxide" title="Carbon dioxide">carbon dioxide</a>) which leavens the dough, and the lactic acid bacteria produce lactic acid, which contributes flavor in the form of sourness. The lactic acid bacteria metabolize sugars that the yeast cannot, while the yeast metabolizes the by-products of <a href="/wiki/Lactic_acid_fermentation" title="Lactic acid fermentation">lactic acid fermentation</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Gänzle-2015-67">[65]</a><a href="#cite_note-68">[66]</a> During sourdough fermentation, many cereal enzymes, particularly phytases, proteases and pentosanases, are activated through acidification and contribute to biochemical changes during sourdough fermentation.<a href="#cite_note-Gänzle-2014-1">[1]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Lactic_acid_bacteria">Lactic acid bacteria</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Lactic_acid_bacteria" title="Lactic acid bacteria">Lactic acid bacteria</a></div> Every starter consists of different lactic acid bacteria which are introduced to the starter through the environment, water, and flour used to create the starter.<a href="#cite_note-69">[67]</a> The lactic acid bacteria are a group of <a href="/wiki/Gram-positive_bacteria" title="Gram-positive bacteria">gram-positive bacteria</a> capable of converting carbohydrate substrates into organic acids and producing a wide range of metabolites. Organic acids, including propionic, formic, acetic acid, and lactic acid, create an unfavorable environment for the growth of spoilage and pathogenic microorganisms.<a href="#cite_note-70">[68]</a> Lactic acid bacteria commonly found in sourdough include Leuconostoc, Pediococcus, Weissella and other genera. But by far, the most prevalent species belong to the very large and diverse genus, Lactobacillus.<a href="#cite_note-71">[69]</a> Lactic acid bacteria are a group comprising <a href="/wiki/Anaerobic_organism" title="Anaerobic organism">aerotolerant anaerobes</a>, meaning anaerobes that can multiply in the presence of oxygen, and <a href="/wiki/Microaerophile" title="Microaerophile">microaerophiles</a>, meaning microbes that multiply at levels of oxygen lower than atmospheric.<a href="#cite_note-72">[70]</a> Major lactic acid bacteria in sourdough are heterofermentative (producing more than one product) organisms and convert hexoses by the phosphoketolase pathway to lactate, CO2 and acetate or ethanol;<a href="#cite_note-Gänzle-2015-67">[65]</a> heterofermentative lactic acid bacteria are usually associated with homofermentative (producing mainly one product) lactobacilli, particularly Lactobacillus and Companilactobacillus species.[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Yeasts">Yeasts</h3></div> The most common yeast species in sourdough are <a href="/wiki/Kazachstania_exigua" title="Kazachstania exigua">Kazachstania exigua</a> (Saccharomyces exiguus), <a href="/wiki/Saccharomyces_cerevisiae" title="Saccharomyces cerevisiae">Saccharomyces cerevisiae</a>, K. exiguus and K. humilis (previously <a href="/wiki/Candida_milleri" class="mw-redirect" title="Candida milleri">Candida milleri</a> or <a href="/wiki/Candida_humilis" title="Candida humilis">Candida humilis</a>).<a href="#cite_note-73">[71]</a><a href="#cite_note-fermented.bread-74">[72]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Type_I_sourdough">Type I sourdough</h3></div> Traditional sourdoughs used as sole leavening agent are referred to as Type I sourdough; examples include sourdoughs used for San Francisco Sourdough Bread, Panettone, and rye bread.<a href="#cite_note-p179isbn0-387-23180-3-75">[73]</a> Type I sourdoughs are generally firm doughs,<a href="#cite_note-fermented.bread-74">[72]</a> have a pH range of 3.8 to 4.5, and are fermented in a temperature range of 20 to 30 °C (68 to 86 °F). <a href="/wiki/Lactobacillus_sanfranciscensis" class="mw-redirect" title="Lactobacillus sanfranciscensis">Fructilactobacillus sanfranciscensis</a> was named for its discovery in San Francisco sourdough starters, though it is not <a href="/wiki/Endemism" title="Endemism">endemic</a> to San Francisco. F. sanfranciscensis and Limosilactobacillus pontis often highlight a lactic-acid bacterial flora that includes Limosilactobacillus fermentum, Fructilactobacillus fructivorans, Levilactobacillus brevis, and Companilactobacillus paralimentarius.<a href="#cite_note-pmid12450829-58">[57]</a><a href="#cite_note-p179isbn0-387-23180-3-75">[73]</a><a href="#cite_note-pmid17008161-76">[74]</a><a href="#cite_note-Gänzle-2019-11">[11]</a> The yeasts Saccharomyces exiguus, Kasachstania humilis, or Candida holmii<a href="#cite_note-p179isbn0-387-23180-3-75">[73]</a> usually populate sourdough cultures symbiotically with <a href="/wiki/Lactobacillus_sanfranciscensis" class="mw-redirect" title="Lactobacillus sanfranciscensis">Fructilactobacillus sanfranciscensis</a>.<a href="#cite_note-modeling.growth-45">[44]</a> The perfect yeast S. exiguus is related to the imperfect yeasts C. milleri and C. holmii. Torulopsis holmii, Torula holmii, and S. rosei are synonyms used prior to 1978. C. milleri and C. holmii are physiologically similar, but DNA testing established them as distinct. Other yeasts reported found include C. humilis, C. krusei, Pichia anomaola, C. peliculosa, P. membranifaciens, and C. valida.<a href="#cite_note-0-8493-9849-5-77">[75]</a><a href="#cite_note-1-4020-8291-6-78">[76]</a> There have been changes in the <a href="/wiki/Taxonomy_(biology)" title="Taxonomy (biology)">taxonomy</a> of yeasts in recent decades.<a href="#cite_note-0-8493-9849-5-77">[75]</a><a href="#cite_note-1-4020-8291-6-78">[76]</a> F. sanfranciscensis requires maltose,<a href="#cite_note-Neubauer_1994-79">[77]</a> while C. milleri is maltase negative and thus cannot consume maltose.<a href="#cite_note-Decock.Cappele-26">[26]</a><a href="#cite_note-maltose.glucose.lactobacilli-27">[27]</a><a href="#cite_note-Sugihara.Kline.Miller-28">[28]</a><a href="#cite_note-Kline.Sugihara.San_Francisco.-29">[29]</a><a href="#cite_note-Daeschel.Andersson.Fleming-30">[30]</a> C. milleri can grow under conditions of low pH and relatively high acetate levels, a factor contributing to sourdough flora's stability.<a href="#cite_note-0-8247-4264-8-80">[78]</a> In order to produce acetic acid, F. sanfrancisensis needs maltose and <a href="/wiki/Fructose" title="Fructose">fructose</a>.<a href="#cite_note-81">[79]</a> Wheat dough contains abundant starch and some <a href="/wiki/Sinistrin" title="Sinistrin">polyfructosanes</a>, which enzymes degrade to "maltose, fructose and little <a href="/wiki/Glucose" title="Glucose">glucose</a>."<a href="#cite_note-82">[80]</a> The terms "fructosan, glucofructan, sucrosyl fructan, polyfructan, and polyfructosan" are all used to describe a class of compounds that are "structurally and metabolically" related to <a href="/wiki/Sucrose" title="Sucrose">sucrose</a>, where "carbon is stored as sucrose and polymers of fructose (<a href="/wiki/Fructan" title="Fructan">fructans</a>)."<a href="#cite_note-83">[81]</a> Yeasts have the ability to free fructose from glucofructans which compose about 1–2% of the dough. Glucofructans are long strings of fructose molecules attached to a single glucose molecule. Sucrose can be considered the shortest glucofructan, with only a single fructose molecule attached.<a href="#cite_note-0-8247-4264-8-80">[78]</a> When L. sanfrancisensis reduces all available fructose, it stops producing acetic acid and begins producing ethanol. If the fermenting dough gets too warm, the yeasts slow down, producing less fructose. Fructose depletion is more of a concern in doughs with lower enzymatic activities.<a href="#cite_note-d.wing-84">[82]</a> A Belgian study of <a href="/wiki/Wheat" title="Wheat">wheat</a> and <a href="/wiki/Spelt" title="Spelt">spelt</a> doughs refreshed once every 24 hours and fermented at 30 °C (86 °F) in a laboratory environment provides insight into the three-phase evolution of first-generation-to-stable sourdough ecosystems. In the first two days of refreshment, atypical genera Enterococcus and Lactococcus bacteria highlighted the doughs. During days 2–5, sourdough-specific bacteria belonging to the genera Lactobacillus, Pediococcus, and Weissella outcompete earlier strains. Yeasts grew more slowly and reached population peaks near days 4–5. By days 5–7, "well-adapted" Lactobacillus strains such as L. fermentum and Lactiplantibacillus plantarum had emerged. At their peaks, yeast populations were in the range of about 1–10% of the lactobacilli populations or 1:10–1:100. One characteristic of a stable dough is that the heterofermentative have outcompeted homofermentative lactobacilli.<a href="#cite_note-Scheirlinck.Schoor.population.dynamics-25">[25]</a> F. sanfranciscensis has typically not been identified in spontaneous sourdoughs, even after multiple cycles of back-slopping; it was rapidly introduced in wheat sourdoughs, however, when plant materials were used to start the fermentation.<a href="#cite_note-85">[83]</a> Investigations of wheat sourdough found that S. cerevisiae died off after two refreshment cycles.<a href="#cite_note-0-8247-4264-8-80">[78]</a> S. cerevisiae has less tolerance to acetic acid than other sourdough yeasts.<a href="#cite_note-0-8493-9849-5-77">[75]</a> Continuously maintained, stable sourdough cannot be unintentionally contaminated by S. cerevisiae.<a href="#cite_note-daniel.wing.michael.ganzle.correspondence-31">[31]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Type_II_sourdough">Type II sourdough</h3></div> In Type II sourdoughs, <a href="/wiki/Baker%27s_yeast" title="Baker's yeast">baker's yeast</a> or <a href="/wiki/Saccharomyces_cerevisiae" title="Saccharomyces cerevisiae">Saccharomyces cerevisiae</a><a href="#cite_note-86">[84]</a> is added to leaven the dough; L. pontis and Limosilactobacillus panis in association with Lactobacillus species are dominant members of type II sourdoughs.<a href="#cite_note-fermented.bread-74">[72]</a><a href="#cite_note-p179isbn0-387-23180-3-75">[73]</a><a href="#cite_note-pmid17008161-76">[74]</a><a href="#cite_note-Gänzle-2019-11">[11]</a> They have a pH less than 3.5, and are fermented within a temperature range of 30 to 50 °C (86 to 122 °F) for several days without feedings, which reduces the flora's activity.<a href="#cite_note-87">[85]</a> This process was adopted by some in industry, in part, due to simplification of the multiple-step build typical of Type I sourdoughs.<a href="#cite_note-88">[86]</a> In Type II sourdoughs, yeast growth is slowed or stopped due to higher fermentation temperatures. These doughs are more liquid and once fermented may be chilled and stored for up to a week. They are pumpable and used in continuous bread production systems.<a href="#cite_note-fermented.bread-74">[72]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Type_III_sourdough">Type III sourdough</h3></div> Type III sourdoughs are Type II sourdoughs subjected to a drying process, usually either <a href="/wiki/Spray_drying" title="Spray drying">spray</a> or <a href="/wiki/Drum_drying" title="Drum drying">drum drying</a>, and are mainly used at an industrial level as flavoring agents. They are dominated by "drying-resistant [lactic acid bacteria] such as Pediococcus pentosaceus, L. plantarum, and L. brevis." The drying conditions, time and heat applied, may be varied in order to influence <a href="/wiki/Caramelize" class="mw-redirect" title="Caramelize">caramelization</a> and produce desired characteristics in the baked product.<a href="#cite_note-fermented.bread-74">[72]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Types_of_bread">Types of bread</h2></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/List_of_sourdough_breads" title="List of sourdough breads">List of sourdough breads</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Homemade_Sourdough_Bread_with_Oil.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b8/Homemade_Sourdough_Bread_with_Oil.jpg/220px-Homemade_Sourdough_Bread_with_Oil.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="293" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b8/Homemade_Sourdough_Bread_with_Oil.jpg/330px-Homemade_Sourdough_Bread_with_Oil.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b8/Homemade_Sourdough_Bread_with_Oil.jpg/440px-Homemade_Sourdough_Bread_with_Oil.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3024" data-file-height="4032" /></a><figcaption>Slices of sourdough bread paired with vinegar and oil for dipping</figcaption></figure> There are many breads that use techniques similar to that used in the making of sourdough bread. Danish <a href="/wiki/Rugbr%C3%B8d" title="Rugbrød">rugbrød</a> (rye bread) is a dense, dark bread best known from its use in the Danish <a href="/wiki/Sm%C3%B8rrebr%C3%B8d" title="Smørrebrød">smørrebrød</a> (open-faced sandwiches).<a href="#cite_note-89">[87]</a><a href="#cite_note-90">[88]</a> The Mexican <a href="/w/index.php?title=Birote_salado&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Birote salado (page does not exist)">birote salado</a> started out in the city of <a href="/wiki/Guadalajara" title="Guadalajara">Guadalajara</a> as a short French <a href="/wiki/Baguette" title="Baguette">baguette</a>[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] that replaces the <a href="/wiki/Yeast" title="Yeast">yeast</a> with a sourdough fermentation process, yielding a bread that is crunchy outside but soft and savory inside.<a href="#cite_note-91">[89]</a> <a href="/wiki/Amish_friendship_bread" title="Amish friendship bread">Amish friendship bread</a> uses a sourdough starter that includes <a href="/wiki/Sugar" title="Sugar">sugar</a> and <a href="/wiki/Milk" title="Milk">milk</a>. It is also leavened with baking powder and baking soda. An Amish sourdough is fed with sugar and potato flakes every 3–5 days. German <a href="/wiki/Pumpernickel" title="Pumpernickel">pumpernickel</a> is traditionally made from a sourdough starter,<a href="#cite_note-92">[90]</a> although modern pumpernickel loaves often use commercial yeasts, sometimes spiked with <a href="/wiki/Citric_acid" title="Citric acid">citric acid</a> or <a href="/wiki/Lactic_acid" title="Lactic acid">lactic acid</a> to inactivate the amylases in the rye flour. Flemish <a href="/wiki/Desem" title="Desem">desem</a> bread (the word means 'starter') is a whole-wheat sourdough.<a href="#cite_note-93">[91]</a> Whole-wheat sourdough flatbreads are traditionally eaten in Azerbaijan.<a href="#cite_note-94">[92]</a> In Ethiopia, <a href="/wiki/Teff" title="Teff">teff</a> flour is fermented to make <a href="/wiki/Injera" title="Injera">injera</a>.<a href="#cite_note-95">[93]</a> A similar variant is eaten in Somalia, Djibouti, and Yemen (where it is known as <a href="/wiki/Lahoh" title="Lahoh">lahoh</a>).<a href="#cite_note-96">[94]</a> In India, <a href="/wiki/Idli" title="Idli">idlis</a> and <a href="/wiki/Dosa_(food)" title="Dosa (food)">dosa</a> are made from a sourdough fermentation of rice and <a href="/wiki/Vigna_mungo" title="Vigna mungo">Vigna mungo</a>.<a href="#cite_note-97">[95]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Possible_fermentation_effects">Possible fermentation effects</h2></div> Sourdough bread has a relatively low <a href="/wiki/Glycemic_index" title="Glycemic index">glycemic index</a> compared with other types of bread.<a href="#cite_note-StamatakiYanni2017-98">[96]</a><a href="#cite_note-Nutr-99">[97]</a><a href="#cite_note-Gobbetti-2019-100">[98]</a> The activity of cereal enzymes during sourdough fermentation hydrolyses <a href="/wiki/Phytic_acid" title="Phytic acid">phytates</a>, which improves the absorption of some <a href="/wiki/Dietary_mineral" class="mw-redirect" title="Dietary mineral">dietary minerals</a><a href="#cite_note-Gobbetti-2019-100">[98]</a> and vitamins, most of which are found in the bran. Sourdough fermentation reduces wheat components that may contribute to non-celiac wheat sensitivity and <a href="/wiki/Irritable_bowel_syndrome" title="Irritable bowel syndrome">irritable bowel syndrome</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Gobbetti-2019-100">[98]</a><a href="#cite_note-101">[99]</a><a href="#cite_note-102">[100]</a> Sourdough fermentation and lactic acid bacteria may be useful to improve the quality of <a href="/wiki/Gluten-free_diet" title="Gluten-free diet">gluten-free</a> breads, such as by enhancing texture, aroma, and <a href="/wiki/Shelf_life" title="Shelf life">shelf life</a>.<a href="#cite_note-103">[101]</a><a href="#cite_note-104">[102]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1259569809">.mw-parser-output .portalbox{padding:0;margin:0.5em 0;display:table;box-sizing:border-box;max-width:175px;list-style:none}.mw-parser-output .portalborder{border:1px solid var(--border-color-base,#a2a9b1);padding:0.1em;background:var(--background-color-neutral-subtle,#f8f9fa)}.mw-parser-output .portalbox-entry{display:table-row;font-size:85%;line-height:110%;height:1.9em;font-style:italic;font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output .portalbox-image{display:table-cell;padding:0.2em;vertical-align:middle;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .portalbox-link{display:table-cell;padding:0.2em 0.2em 0.2em 0.3em;vertical-align:middle}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .portalleft{clear:left;float:left;margin:0.5em 1em 0.5em 0}.mw-parser-output .portalright{clear:right;float:right;margin:0.5em 0 0.5em 1em}}</style><ul role="navigation" aria-label="Portals" class="noprint portalbox portalborder portalright"> <li class="portalbox-entry"><a href="/wiki/File:Foodlogo2.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="icon" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d6/Foodlogo2.svg/32px-Foodlogo2.svg.png" decoding="async" width="32" height="23" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d6/Foodlogo2.svg/48px-Foodlogo2.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d6/Foodlogo2.svg/64px-Foodlogo2.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="146" data-file-height="106" /></a><a href="/wiki/Portal:Food" title="Portal:Food">Food portal</a></li></ul> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1184024115">.mw-parser-output .div-col{margin-top:0.3em;column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .div-col-small{font-size:90%}.mw-parser-output .div-col-rules{column-rule:1px solid #aaa}.mw-parser-output .div-col dl,.mw-parser-output .div-col ol,.mw-parser-output .div-col ul{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .div-col li,.mw-parser-output .div-col dd{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}</style><div class="div-col" style="column-width: 30em;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_sourdough_breads" title="List of sourdough breads">List of sourdough breads</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biga_(bread_baking)" title="Biga (bread baking)">Biga</a>, a pre-fermentation technique in Italian baking</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Herman_cake" title="Herman cake">Herman cake</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_California_bread" class="mw-redirect" title="History of California bread">History of California bread</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kyselo" class="mw-redirect" title="Kyselo">Kyselo</a>, <a href="/wiki/Czech_cuisine" title="Czech cuisine">Czech</a> soup made from sourdough</li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_microorganisms_found_in_sourdough" title="List of microorganisms found in sourdough">List of microorganisms found in sourdough</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Salt-rising_bread" title="Salt-rising bread">Salt-rising bread</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sour_mash" title="Sour mash">Sour mash</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sour_rye_soup" class="mw-redirect" title="Sour rye soup">Sour rye soup</a>, Polish soup (zurek) made with rye flour soured in the same process that occurs in the forming of sourdough</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Injera" title="Injera">Injera</a></li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Notes">Notes</h2></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-32"><a href="#cite_ref-32">^</a> Michael Gänzle has said Markus Brandt estimated that, in a properly maintained sourdough of sufficient age, the yeasts and lactobacilli each contribute roughly 50% of the total CO2. Gänzle pointed out that while there are fewer yeasts, they are larger.<a href="#cite_note-daniel.wing.michael.ganzle.correspondence-31">[31]</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-63"><a href="#cite_ref-63">^</a> The term mother dough sometimes refers to a yeast sponge,<a href="#cite_note-61">[60]</a><a href="#cite_note-62">[61]</a> so one must look at the ingredients and process to understand if it is a multi-refreshment sourdough or instead a <a href="/wiki/Sponge_and_dough" title="Sponge and dough">sponge</a> made from only fresh ingredients. </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239543626"><div class="reflist reflist-columns references-column-width" style="column-width: 30em;"> <ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-Gänzle-2014-1">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Gänzle-2014_1-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Gänzle-2014_1-1">b</a> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite id="CITEREFGänzle2014" class="citation journal cs1">Gänzle, Michael G. (2014). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0740002013000762">"Enzymatic and bacterial conversions during sourdough fermentation"</a>. Food Microbiology. V International Symposium on Sourdough - Cereal Fermentation for Future Foods, Helsinki 10–12 October 2012. 37: 2–10. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.fm.2013.04.007">10.1016/j.fm.2013.04.007</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0740-0020">0740-0020</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/24230468">24230468</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Food+Microbiology&rft.atitle=Enzymatic+and+bacterial+conversions+during+sourdough+fermentation&rft.volume=37&rft.pages=2-10&rft.date=2014&rft.issn=0740-0020&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F24230468&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1016%2Fj.fm.2013.04.007&rft.aulast=G%C3%A4nzle&rft.aufirst=Michael+G.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.sciencedirect.com%2Fscience%2Farticle%2Fpii%2FS0740002013000762&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASourdough" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-2"><a href="#cite_ref-2">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGadsbyWeeks" class="citation web cs1">Gadsby, Patricia; Weeks, Eric. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://discovermagazine.com/2003/sep/featscienceof">"The Biology of... Sourdough"</a>. Discover. Discover Magazine. Retrieved June 13, 2019.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Discover&rft.atitle=The+Biology+of...+Sourdough&rft.aulast=Gadsby&rft.aufirst=Patricia&rft.au=Weeks%2C+Eric&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fdiscovermagazine.com%2F2003%2Fsep%2Ffeatscienceof&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASourdough" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Gaenzle-3">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Gaenzle_3-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Gaenzle_3-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGaenzle,_Michael2014" class="citation book cs1">Gaenzle, Michael (1 April 2014). "Sourdough Bread". In Batt, Carl (ed.). Encyclopedia of Food Microbiology (2nd ed.). 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New York: John Wiley. pp. 6–362. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-471-16857-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-471-16857-7"><bdi>978-0-471-16857-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Bread%3A+a+baker%27s+book+of+techniques+and+recipes&rft.place=New+York&rft.pages=6-362&rft.pub=John+Wiley&rft.date=2004&rft.isbn=978-0-471-16857-7&rft.au=Jeffrey+Hamelman&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASourdough" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-21"><a href="#cite_ref-21">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFReinhart,_Peter2016" class="citation book cs1">Reinhart, Peter (2016). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=GHjNDAAAQBAJ&q=bread+baker%27s+apprentice">The Bread Baker's Apprentice: Mastering the Art of Extraordinary Bread</a>. Berkeley, Calif: Ten Speed Press. p. 244. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-60774-865-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-60774-865-6"><bdi>978-1-60774-865-6</bdi></a>. Retrieved September 22, 2021.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Bread+Baker%27s+Apprentice%3A+Mastering+the+Art+of+Extraordinary+Bread&rft.place=Berkeley%2C+Calif&rft.pages=244&rft.pub=Ten+Speed+Press&rft.date=2016&rft.isbn=978-1-60774-865-6&rft.au=Reinhart%2C+Peter&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DGHjNDAAAQBAJ%26q%3Dbread%2Bbaker%2527s%2Bapprentice&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASourdough" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-22"><a href="#cite_ref-22">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRogers,_R.F.Hesseltine,_C.W.1978" class="citation journal cs1">Rogers, R.F. & Hesseltine, C.W. (1978). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20181120071612/https://naldc.nal.usda.gov/download/25386/PDF">"Microflora of wheat and wheat flour from six areas of the United States"</a>. Cereal Chemistry. 55 (6): 889–898. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://naldc.nal.usda.gov/download/25386/PDF">the original</a> (PDF) on November 20, 2018. Retrieved Feb 4, 2013.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Cereal+Chemistry&rft.atitle=Microflora+of+wheat+and+wheat+flour+from+six+areas+of+the+United+States&rft.volume=55&rft.issue=6&rft.pages=889-898&rft.date=1978&rft.au=Rogers%2C+R.F.&rft.au=Hesseltine%2C+C.W.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fnaldc.nal.usda.gov%2Fdownload%2F25386%2FPDF&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASourdough" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-23"><a href="#cite_ref-23">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation book cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=Yy_oBodctoIC&pg=PA410">Micro-Organisms in Foods 6 Microbial Ecology of Food Commodities</a>. New York: Kluwer Academic/Plenum Publishers. 2005. pp. 409–411. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-387-28801-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-387-28801-7"><bdi>978-0-387-28801-7</bdi></a>. Retrieved 2013-02-04.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Micro-Organisms+in+Foods+6+Microbial+Ecology+of+Food+Commodities&rft.place=New+York&rft.pages=409-411&rft.pub=Kluwer+Academic%2FPlenum+Publishers&rft.date=2005&rft.isbn=978-0-387-28801-7&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DYy_oBodctoIC%26pg%3DPA410&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASourdough" class="Z3988">See Table 8.9, bottom of page 410 </li> <li id="cite_note-Schlegel-24"><a href="#cite_ref-Schlegel_24-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSchlegel1993" class="citation book cs1">Schlegel, Hans G. (1993). General Microbiology (7 ed.). Cambridge University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0521439800" title="Special:BookSources/978-0521439800"><bdi>978-0521439800</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=General+Microbiology&rft.edition=7&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=1993&rft.isbn=978-0521439800&rft.aulast=Schlegel&rft.aufirst=Hans+G.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASourdough" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Scheirlinck.Schoor.population.dynamics-25">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Scheirlinck.Schoor.population.dynamics_25-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Scheirlinck.Schoor.population.dynamics_25-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFVan_der_MeulenScheirlinckVan_Schoor2007" class="citation journal cs1">Van der Meulen R, Scheirlinck I, Van Schoor A, et al. (August 2007). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1951026">"Population dynamics and metabolite target analysis of lactic acid bacteria during laboratory fermentations of wheat and spelt sourdoughs"</a>. Appl. Environ. Microbiol. 73 (15): 4741–50. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2007ApEnM..73.4741V">2007ApEnM..73.4741V</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1128%2FAEM.00315-07">10.1128/AEM.00315-07</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1951026">1951026</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/17557853">17557853</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Appl.+Environ.+Microbiol.&rft.atitle=Population+dynamics+and+metabolite+target+analysis+of+lactic+acid+bacteria+during+laboratory+fermentations+of+wheat+and+spelt+sourdoughs&rft.volume=73&rft.issue=15&rft.pages=4741-50&rft.date=2007-08&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC1951026%23id-name%3DPMC&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F17557853&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1128%2FAEM.00315-07&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2007ApEnM..73.4741V&rft.aulast=Van+der+Meulen&rft.aufirst=R&rft.au=Scheirlinck%2C+I&rft.au=Van+Schoor%2C+A&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC1951026&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASourdough" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Decock.Cappele-26">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Decock.Cappele_26-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Decock.Cappele_26-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDecockCappelle,_Stefan2005" class="citation journal cs1">Decock, Pieter; Cappelle, Stefan (January–March 2005). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20201112034123/http://www.aseanfood.info/articles/11015364.pdf">"Bread technology and sourdough technology"</a> (PDF). Trends in Food Science & Technology. 16 (1–3): 113–120. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.tifs.2004.04.012">10.1016/j.tifs.2004.04.012</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.aseanfood.info/Articles/11015364.pdf">the original</a> (PDF) on November 12, 2020. Retrieved Dec 17, 2011.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Trends+in+Food+Science+%26+Technology&rft.atitle=Bread+technology+and+sourdough+technology&rft.volume=16&rft.issue=1%E2%80%933&rft.pages=113-120&rft.date=2005-01%2F2005-03&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1016%2Fj.tifs.2004.04.012&rft.aulast=Decock&rft.aufirst=Pieter&rft.au=Cappelle%2C+Stefan&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.aseanfood.info%2FArticles%2F11015364.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASourdough" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-maltose.glucose.lactobacilli-27">^ <a href="#cite_ref-maltose.glucose.lactobacilli_27-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-maltose.glucose.lactobacilli_27-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFStolz,_PeterBöcker,_GeorgVogel,_Rudi_F.Hammes,_Walter_P.1993" class="citation journal cs1">Stolz, Peter; Böcker, Georg; Vogel, Rudi F.; Hammes, Walter P. (1993). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2F0378-1097%2893%2990026-x">"Utilisation of maltose and glucose by lactobacilli isolated from sourdough"</a>. FEMS Microbiology Letters. 109 (2–3): 237–242. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2F0378-1097%2893%2990026-x">10.1016/0378-1097(93)90026-x</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0378-1097">0378-1097</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=FEMS+Microbiology+Letters&rft.atitle=Utilisation+of+maltose+and+glucose+by+lactobacilli+isolated+from+sourdough&rft.volume=109&rft.issue=2%E2%80%933&rft.pages=237-242&rft.date=1993&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1016%2F0378-1097%2893%2990026-x&rft.issn=0378-1097&rft.au=Stolz%2C+Peter&rft.au=B%C3%B6cker%2C+Georg&rft.au=Vogel%2C+Rudi+F.&rft.au=Hammes%2C+Walter+P.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.1016%252F0378-1097%252893%252990026-x&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASourdough" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Sugihara.Kline.Miller-28">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Sugihara.Kline.Miller_28-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Sugihara.Kline.Miller_28-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSugiharaKlineMiller1971" class="citation journal cs1">Sugihara TF, Kline L, Miller MW (March 1971). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC377202">"Microorganisms of the San Francisco sour dough bread process. I. Yeasts responsible for the leavening action"</a>. Appl Microbiol. 21 (3): 456–8. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1128%2FAEM.21.3.456-458.1971">10.1128/AEM.21.3.456-458.1971</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC377202">377202</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/5553284">5553284</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Appl+Microbiol&rft.atitle=Microorganisms+of+the+San+Francisco+sour+dough+bread+process.+I.+Yeasts+responsible+for+the+leavening+action&rft.volume=21&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=456-8&rft.date=1971-03&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC377202%23id-name%3DPMC&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F5553284&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1128%2FAEM.21.3.456-458.1971&rft.aulast=Sugihara&rft.aufirst=TF&rft.au=Kline%2C+L&rft.au=Miller%2C+MW&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC377202&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASourdough" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Kline.Sugihara.San_Francisco.-29">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Kline.Sugihara.San_Francisco._29-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Kline.Sugihara.San_Francisco._29-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKlineSugihara1971" class="citation journal cs1">Kline L, Sugihara TF (March 1971). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC377203">"Microorganisms of the San Francisco sour dough bread process. II. Isolation and characterization of undescribed bacterial species responsible for the souring activity"</a>. Appl Microbiol. 21 (3): 459–65. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1128%2FAEM.21.3.459-465.1971">10.1128/AEM.21.3.459-465.1971</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC377203">377203</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/5553285">5553285</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Appl+Microbiol&rft.atitle=Microorganisms+of+the+San+Francisco+sour+dough+bread+process.+II.+Isolation+and+characterization+of+undescribed+bacterial+species+responsible+for+the+souring+activity&rft.volume=21&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=459-65&rft.date=1971-03&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC377203%23id-name%3DPMC&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F5553285&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1128%2FAEM.21.3.459-465.1971&rft.aulast=Kline&rft.aufirst=L&rft.au=Sugihara%2C+TF&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC377203&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASourdough" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Daeschel.Andersson.Fleming-30">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Daeschel.Andersson.Fleming_30-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Daeschel.Andersson.Fleming_30-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDaeschel,_M.A.Andersson,_R.E.Fleming,_H.P.1987" class="citation journal cs1">Daeschel, M.A.; Andersson, R.E.; Fleming, H.P. (1987). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1111%2Fj.1574-6968.1987.tb02472.x">"Microbial ecology of fermenting plant materials"</a>. FEMS Microbiology Letters. 46 (3): 357–367. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1111%2Fj.1574-6968.1987.tb02472.x">10.1111/j.1574-6968.1987.tb02472.x</a>. <q>The bacterium Lactobacillus sanfrancisco ferments maltose, but not glucose. Some glucose is provided by the action of the maltose phosphorylase pathway which is then fermented by the acid-tolerant yeast, Saccharomyces exiguus, which cannot use maltose. The yeast in turn provides growth stimulants for the bacterium.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=FEMS+Microbiology+Letters&rft.atitle=Microbial+ecology+of+fermenting+plant+materials&rft.volume=46&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=357-367&rft.date=1987&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1111%2Fj.1574-6968.1987.tb02472.x&rft.au=Daeschel%2C+M.A.&rft.au=Andersson%2C+R.E.&rft.au=Fleming%2C+H.P.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.1111%252Fj.1574-6968.1987.tb02472.x&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASourdough" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-daniel.wing.michael.ganzle.correspondence-31">^ <a href="#cite_ref-daniel.wing.michael.ganzle.correspondence_31-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-daniel.wing.michael.ganzle.correspondence_31-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-daniel.wing.michael.ganzle.correspondence_31-2">c</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWing,_Gänzle" class="citation web cs1">Wing, Gänzle. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20181120071611/http://samartha.net/SD/docs/DW-post1-4.html">"Dan Woods long posts 1–4"</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://samartha.net/SD/docs/DW-post1-4.html">the original</a> on November 20, 2018. Retrieved Dec 15, 2011.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Dan+Woods+long+posts+1%E2%80%934&rft.au=Wing%2C+G%C3%A4nzle&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fsamartha.net%2FSD%2Fdocs%2FDW-post1-4.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASourdough" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-33"><a href="#cite_ref-33">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPeterson,_James_A.2002" class="citation book cs1">Peterson, James A. (2002). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=EWSVpBheCnYC&pg=PT197">Glorious French food: a fresh approach to the classics</a>. London: J. Wiley. p. 170. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-471-44276-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-471-44276-9"><bdi>978-0-471-44276-9</bdi></a>. Retrieved 2013-02-04. <q>Because these natural yeasts are less aggressive and more genetically diverse than packaged yeasts, they give the dough a more complex flavor, partially because they allow for the competition of naturally occurring benevolent bacteria.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Glorious+French+food%3A+a+fresh+approach+to+the+classics&rft.place=London&rft.pages=170&rft.pub=J.+Wiley&rft.date=2002&rft.isbn=978-0-471-44276-9&rft.au=Peterson%2C+James+A.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DEWSVpBheCnYC%26pg%3DPT197&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASourdough" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-34"><a href="#cite_ref-34">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFNicolette,_M._Dumke2006" class="citation book cs1">Nicolette, M. Dumke (2006). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=gRePix2Y4yAC&pg=PA95">Easy Breadmaking for Special Diets: Use Your Bread Machine, Food Processor, Mixer, or Tortilla Maker to Make the Bread YOU Need Quickly and Easily</a>. Allergy Adapt, Inc. p. 95. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-887624-11-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-887624-11-4"><bdi>978-1-887624-11-4</bdi></a>. Retrieved 2013-02-04. <q>In addition to the wild yeast being slower producers of the gas that makes bread rise, the lactobacilli take about twelve hours to develop the full flavor you want in your bread.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Easy+Breadmaking+for+Special+Diets%3A+Use+Your+Bread+Machine%2C+Food+Processor%2C+Mixer%2C+or+Tortilla+Maker+to+Make+the+Bread+YOU+Need+Quickly+and+Easily&rft.pages=95&rft.pub=Allergy+Adapt%2C+Inc&rft.date=2006&rft.isbn=978-1-887624-11-4&rft.au=Nicolette%2C+M.+Dumke&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DgRePix2Y4yAC%26pg%3DPA95&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASourdough" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-35"><a href="#cite_ref-35">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHäggmanSalovaara2008" class="citation journal cs1">Häggman, M.; Salovaara, H. (2008). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://zenodo.org/record/1065934">"Microbial re-inoculation reveals differences in the leavening power of sourdough yeast strains"</a>. LWT - Food Science and Technology. 41: 148–154. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.lwt.2007.02.001">10.1016/j.lwt.2007.02.001</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=LWT+-+Food+Science+and+Technology&rft.atitle=Microbial+re-inoculation+reveals+differences+in+the+leavening+power+of+sourdough+yeast+strains&rft.volume=41&rft.pages=148-154&rft.date=2008&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1016%2Fj.lwt.2007.02.001&rft.aulast=H%C3%A4ggman&rft.aufirst=M.&rft.au=Salovaara%2C+H.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fzenodo.org%2Frecord%2F1065934&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASourdough" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-36"><a href="#cite_ref-36">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMcGee,_Harold2004" class="citation book cs1">McGee, Harold (2004). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=bKVCtH4AjwgC&pg=PA544">On food and cooking: the science and lore of the kitchen</a>. New York: Scribner. pp. 544–546. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-684-80001-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-684-80001-1"><bdi>978-0-684-80001-1</bdi></a>. Retrieved June 28, 2010.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=On+food+and+cooking%3A+the+science+and+lore+of+the+kitchen&rft.place=New+York&rft.pages=544-546&rft.pub=Scribner&rft.date=2004&rft.isbn=978-0-684-80001-1&rft.au=McGee%2C+Harold&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DbKVCtH4AjwgC%26pg%3DPA544&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASourdough" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-37"><a href="#cite_ref-37">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation book cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/manualforarmyba00deptgoog">Manual for army bakers</a>. Washington: Government Printing Office. 1910. p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/manualforarmyba00deptgoog/page/n28">22</a>. Retrieved Aug 13, 2011.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Manual+for+army+bakers&rft.place=Washington&rft.pages=22&rft.pub=Government+Printing+Office&rft.date=1910&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fmanualforarmyba00deptgoog&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASourdough" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-38"><a href="#cite_ref-38">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFS._John_Ross" class="citation web cs1">S. John Ross. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20181211153409/http://www222.pair.com/sjohn/blueroom/sour.htm">"Sourdough Bread: How To Begin (easy sourdough for the beginner or novice)"</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www222.pair.com/sjohn/blueroom/sour.htm">the original</a> on December 11, 2018. Retrieved June 17, 2011.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Sourdough+Bread%3A+How+To+Begin+%28easy+sourdough+for+the+beginner+or+novice%29&rft.au=S.+John+Ross&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww222.pair.com%2Fsjohn%2Fblueroom%2Fsour.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASourdough" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-39"><a href="#cite_ref-39">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDon_HolmMyrtle_Holm1972" class="citation book cs1">Don Holm; Myrtle Holm (1972). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/completesourdoug00holm">The Complete Sourdough Cookbook</a>. Caldwell, Idaho: Caxton Press. p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/completesourdoug00holm/page/40">40</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-87004-223-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-87004-223-2"><bdi>978-0-87004-223-2</bdi></a>. Retrieved June 28, 2010.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Complete+Sourdough+Cookbook&rft.place=Caldwell%2C+Idaho&rft.pages=40&rft.pub=Caxton+Press&rft.date=1972&rft.isbn=978-0-87004-223-2&rft.au=Don+Holm&rft.au=Myrtle+Holm&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fcompletesourdoug00holm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASourdough" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Khachatourians.food.biotechnology-40">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Khachatourians.food.biotechnology_40-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Khachatourians.food.biotechnology_40-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Khachatourians.food.biotechnology_40-2">c</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKhachatourians,_George_G.1994" class="citation book cs1">Khachatourians, George G. (1994). Food Biotechnology: Microorganisms. New York: Wiley-Interscience. pp. 799–813. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-471-18570-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-471-18570-3"><bdi>978-0-471-18570-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Food+Biotechnology%3A+Microorganisms&rft.place=New+York&rft.pages=799-813&rft.pub=Wiley-Interscience&rft.date=1994&rft.isbn=978-0-471-18570-3&rft.au=Khachatourians%2C+George+G.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASourdough" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-41"><a href="#cite_ref-41">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFValchevaKorakliOnno2005" class="citation journal cs1">Valcheva R, Korakli M, Onno B, et al. (March 2005). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://ijs.sgmjournals.org/content/55/2/763.long">"Lactobacillus hammesii sp. nov., isolated from French sourdough"</a>. Int. J. Syst. Evol. Microbiol. 55 (Pt 2): 763–7. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1099%2Fijs.0.63311-0">10.1099/ijs.0.63311-0</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/15774659">15774659</a>. <q>... maintained by back slopping or rafraîchi ... in terms of ratio (sourdough/dough),...</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Int.+J.+Syst.+Evol.+Microbiol.&rft.atitle=Lactobacillus+hammesii+sp.+nov.%2C+isolated+from+French+sourdough&rft.volume=55&rft.issue=Pt+2&rft.pages=763-7&rft.date=2005-03&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1099%2Fijs.0.63311-0&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F15774659&rft.aulast=Valcheva&rft.aufirst=R&rft.au=Korakli%2C+M&rft.au=Onno%2C+B&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fijs.sgmjournals.org%2Fcontent%2F55%2F2%2F763.long&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASourdough" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-42"><a href="#cite_ref-42">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.thefreshloaf.com/node/5381/sourdough-rise-time-table">"Sourdough Rise Time Table"</a>. The Fresh Loaf. 2008-03-28. Retrieved 2016-09-15.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Sourdough+Rise+Time+Table&rft.pub=The+Fresh+Loaf&rft.date=2008-03-28&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.thefreshloaf.com%2Fnode%2F5381%2Fsourdough-rise-time-table&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASourdough" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-43"><a href="#cite_ref-43">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPanel_on_the_Applications_of_Biotechnology_to_Traditional_Fermented_Foods,_National_Research_Council1992" class="citation book cs1">Panel on the Applications of Biotechnology to Traditional Fermented Foods, National Research Council (1992). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.nap.edu/openbook.php?record_id=1939&page=14">Applications of Biotechnology in Traditional Fermented Foods</a>. The National Academies Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780309046855" title="Special:BookSources/9780309046855"><bdi>9780309046855</bdi></a>. Retrieved June 28, 2012. <q>This can be achieved by the sourdough process, in which some portion of one batch of fermented dough is used to inoculate another batch. This practice is also referred to as "back-slopping" or inoculum enrichment. The resulting starters are active and should not be stored but used in a continuous manner.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Applications+of+Biotechnology+in+Traditional+Fermented+Foods&rft.pub=The+National+Academies+Press&rft.date=1992&rft.isbn=9780309046855&rft.au=Panel+on+the+Applications+of+Biotechnology+to+Traditional+Fermented+Foods%2C+National+Research+Council&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.nap.edu%2Fopenbook.php%3Frecord_id%3D1939%26page%3D14&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASourdough" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-44"><a href="#cite_ref-44">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCalvel,_Raymond2001" class="citation book cs1">Calvel, Raymond (2001). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=xe0HePwpQrwC&q=primary+culture+levain&pg=PA89">The taste of bread</a>. Gaithersburg, Md: Aspen Publishers. pp. 89–90. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8342-1646-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8342-1646-4"><bdi>978-0-8342-1646-4</bdi></a>. Retrieved June 28, 2010.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+taste+of+bread&rft.place=Gaithersburg%2C+Md&rft.pages=89-90&rft.pub=Aspen+Publishers&rft.date=2001&rft.isbn=978-0-8342-1646-4&rft.au=Calvel%2C+Raymond&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Dxe0HePwpQrwC%26q%3Dprimary%2Bculture%2Blevain%26pg%3DPA89&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASourdough" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-modeling.growth-45">^ <a href="#cite_ref-modeling.growth_45-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-modeling.growth_45-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGänzleEhmannHammes1998" class="citation journal cs1">Gänzle MG, Ehmann M, Hammes WP (July 1998). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC106434">"Modeling of Growth of Lactobacillus sanfranciscensis and Candida milleri in Response to Process Parameters of Sourdough Fermentation"</a>. Appl. Environ. Microbiol. 64 (7): 2616–23. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1998ApEnM..64.2616G">1998ApEnM..64.2616G</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1128%2FAEM.64.7.2616-2623.1998">10.1128/AEM.64.7.2616-2623.1998</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC106434">106434</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/9647838">9647838</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Appl.+Environ.+Microbiol.&rft.atitle=Modeling+of+Growth+of+Lactobacillus+sanfranciscensis+and+Candida+milleri+in+Response+to+Process+Parameters+of+Sourdough+Fermentation&rft.volume=64&rft.issue=7&rft.pages=2616-23&rft.date=1998-07&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC106434%23id-name%3DPMC&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F9647838&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1128%2FAEM.64.7.2616-2623.1998&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F1998ApEnM..64.2616G&rft.aulast=G%C3%A4nzle&rft.aufirst=MG&rft.au=Ehmann%2C+M&rft.au=Hammes%2C+WP&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC106434&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASourdough" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-d.wink-46">^ <a href="#cite_ref-d.wink_46-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-d.wink_46-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.thefreshloaf.com/node/10375/lactic-acid-fermentation-sourdough">"Lactic Acid Fermentation in Sourdough"</a>. The Fresh Loaf. 2009-01-19. Retrieved 2016-09-15.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Lactic+Acid+Fermentation+in+Sourdough&rft.pub=The+Fresh+Loaf&rft.date=2009-01-19&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.thefreshloaf.com%2Fnode%2F10375%2Flactic-acid-fermentation-sourdough&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASourdough" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-47"><a href="#cite_ref-47">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.faqs.org/faqs/food/sourdough/faq/section-1.html">"Section - 22. What is the Microbiology of San Francisco Sourdough?"</a>. Retrieved 2013-02-23. <q>...yeasts do not produce appreciable amounts of either lactic or acetic acids, their main metabolites are ethanol and CO2.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Section+-+22.+What+is+the+Microbiology+of+San+Francisco+Sourdough%3F&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.faqs.org%2Ffaqs%2Ffood%2Fsourdough%2Ffaq%2Fsection-1.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASourdough" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-48"><a href="#cite_ref-48">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSimpson,_Benjamin_K.2012" class="citation book cs1">Simpson, Benjamin K. (2012). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=EfAm-G5sYuoC&pg=PA666">Food Biochemistry and Food Processing</a> (2nd ed.). Oxford, UK: John Wiley & Sons, Inc. p. 667. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8138-0874-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8138-0874-1"><bdi>978-0-8138-0874-1</bdi></a>. 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Fermented Bread (2 ed.). <a href="/wiki/CRC_Press" title="CRC Press">CRC Press</a>. pp. 477–526. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1439849040" title="Special:BookSources/978-1439849040"><bdi>978-1439849040</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Fermented+Bread&rft.pages=477-526&rft.edition=2&rft.pub=CRC+Press&rft.date=2012&rft.isbn=978-1439849040&rft.au=Weibiao+Zhou&rft.au=Nantawan+Therdthai&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASourdough" class="Z3988"> <code class="cs1-code">{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Cite_book" title="Template:Cite book">cite book</a>}}</code>: <code class="cs1-code">|journal=</code> ignored (<a href="/wiki/Help:CS1_errors#periodical_ignored" title="Help:CS1 errors">help</a>) </li> <li id="cite_note-p179isbn0-387-23180-3-75">^ <a href="#cite_ref-p179isbn0-387-23180-3_75-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-p179isbn0-387-23180-3_75-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-p179isbn0-387-23180-3_75-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-p179isbn0-387-23180-3_75-3">d</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGolden,_David_M.Jay,_James_M.Martin_J._Loessner2005" class="citation book cs1">Golden, David M.; Jay, James M.; Martin J. Loessner (2005). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=FFjF4HykWv0C&pg=PA179">Modern food microbiology</a>. Berlin: Springer. p. 179. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-387-23180-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-387-23180-8"><bdi>978-0-387-23180-8</bdi></a>. Retrieved June 28, 2010.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Modern+food+microbiology&rft.place=Berlin&rft.pages=179&rft.pub=Springer&rft.date=2005&rft.isbn=978-0-387-23180-8&rft.au=Golden%2C+David+M.&rft.au=Jay%2C+James+M.&rft.au=Martin+J.+Loessner&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DFFjF4HykWv0C%26pg%3DPA179&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASourdough" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-pmid17008161-76">^ <a href="#cite_ref-pmid17008161_76-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-pmid17008161_76-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFArendtRyanDal_Bello2007" class="citation journal cs1">Arendt EK, Ryan LA, Dal Bello F (April 2007). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210428084611/http://www.aseanfood.info/Articles/11017456.pdf">"Impact of sourdough on the texture of bread"</a> (PDF). Food Microbiol. 24 (2): 165–74. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.fm.2006.07.011">10.1016/j.fm.2006.07.011</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/17008161">17008161</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.aseanfood.info/Articles/11017456.pdf">the original</a> (PDF) on April 28, 2021. Retrieved June 28, 2010.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Food+Microbiol.&rft.atitle=Impact+of+sourdough+on+the+texture+of+bread&rft.volume=24&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=165-74&rft.date=2007-04&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1016%2Fj.fm.2006.07.011&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F17008161&rft.aulast=Arendt&rft.aufirst=EK&rft.au=Ryan%2C+LA&rft.au=Dal+Bello%2C+F&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.aseanfood.info%2FArticles%2F11017456.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASourdough" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-0-8493-9849-5-77">^ <a href="#cite_ref-0-8493-9849-5_77-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-0-8493-9849-5_77-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-0-8493-9849-5_77-2">c</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFYiu_H._Hui2006" class="citation book cs1">Yiu H. Hui (2006). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=rTjysvUxB8wC&pg=PA547">Handbook of food science, technology, and engineering</a>. Washington, DC: Taylor & Francis. pp. 183–9–183–11. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8493-9849-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8493-9849-0"><bdi>978-0-8493-9849-0</bdi></a>. Retrieved Dec 20, 2011.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Handbook+of+food+science%2C+technology%2C+and+engineering&rft.place=Washington%2C+DC&rft.pages=183-9-183-11&rft.pub=Taylor+%26+Francis&rft.date=2006&rft.isbn=978-0-8493-9849-0&rft.au=Yiu+H.+Hui&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DrTjysvUxB8wC%26pg%3DPA547&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASourdough" class="Z3988"> See Table 183.6 </li> <li id="cite_note-1-4020-8291-6-78">^ <a href="#cite_ref-1-4020-8291-6_78-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-1-4020-8291-6_78-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGotthard_KunzeSatyanarayana,_T.2009" class="citation book cs1">Gotthard Kunze; Satyanarayana, T. (2009). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=jLFmiervaqMC&pg=PA180">Yeast Biotechnology: Diversity and Applications</a>. Berlin: Springer. p. 180. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2009ybda.book.....S">2009ybda.book.....S</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4020-8291-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-4020-8291-7"><bdi>978-1-4020-8291-7</bdi></a>. 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New York: Marcel Dekker, Inc. pp. 23–50. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8247-4264-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8247-4264-5"><bdi>978-0-8247-4264-5</bdi></a>. Retrieved Dec 15, 2011.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Handbook+of+dough+fermentations&rft.place=New+York&rft.pages=23-50&rft.pub=Marcel+Dekker%2C+Inc&rft.date=2003&rft.isbn=978-0-8247-4264-5&rft.au=Lorenz%2C+Klaus+J.&rft.au=Kulp%2C+Karel&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DeZjIfud742wC%26pg%3DPA23&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASourdough" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-81"><a href="#cite_ref-81">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGobbetti,_M.,_A._Corsetti1997" class="citation journal cs1">Gobbetti, M., A. Corsetti (1997). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://comenius.susqu.edu/biol/312/lactobacillussanfranciscoakeysourdoughlacticacidbacteriumareview.pdf">"Lactobacillus sanfrancisco a key sourdough lactic acid bacterium: a review"</a> (PDF). Food Microbiology. 14 (2): 175–187. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1006%2Ffmic.1996.0083">10.1006/fmic.1996.0083</a>. 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(1997). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://ftb.pbf.hr/index.php/ftb/article/view/147/147">"Microbial ecology of cereal fermentations"</a>. Food Technology and Biotechnology. 35 (1). Retrieved Feb 27, 2013.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Food+Technology+and+Biotechnology&rft.atitle=Microbial+ecology+of+cereal+fermentations&rft.volume=35&rft.issue=1&rft.date=1997&rft.au=Vogel%2C+Rudi+F.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fftb.pbf.hr%2Findex.php%2Fftb%2Farticle%2Fview%2F147%2F147&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASourdough" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-83"><a href="#cite_ref-83">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFC.J._PollockN.J._Chatterton1980" class="citation book cs1">C.J. Pollock; N.J. 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Random House. pp. 111–131. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-307-76116-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-307-76116-3"><bdi>978-0-307-76116-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Laurel%27s+Kitchen+Bread+Book%3A+A+Guide+to+Whole-Grain+Breadmaking&rft.pages=111-131&rft.pub=Random+House&rft.date=2011&rft.isbn=978-0-307-76116-3&rft.aulast=Robertson&rft.aufirst=Laurel&rft.au=Flinders%2C+Carol&rft.au=Godfrey%2C+Bronwen&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DYcAbb07yfbMC%26pg%3DPA111&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASourdough" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-94"><a href="#cite_ref-94">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://azer.com/aiweb/categories/magazine/ai104_folder/104_articles/104_food_north_south.html">"10.4. Forgotten Foods Comparison of the Cuisines of Northern and Southern Azerbaijan by Pirouz Khanlou"</a>. Azer.com. Retrieved 2016-09-15.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=10.4.+Forgotten+Foods+Comparison+of+the+Cuisines+of+Northern+and+Southern+Azerbaijan+by+Pirouz+Khanlou&rft.pub=Azer.com&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fazer.com%2Faiweb%2Fcategories%2Fmagazine%2Fai104_folder%2F104_articles%2F104_food_north_south.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASourdough" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-95"><a href="#cite_ref-95">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.exploratorium.edu/cooking/bread/recipe-injera.html">"Recipe: Ethiopian Injera"</a>. The Accidental Scientist. Retrieved 30 September 2016.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Recipe%3A+Ethiopian+Injera&rft.pub=The+Accidental+Scientist&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.exploratorium.edu%2Fcooking%2Fbread%2Frecipe-injera.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASourdough" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-96"><a href="#cite_ref-96">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.shebayemenifood.com/content/lahoh-sanaani">"Lahoh Sana'ani"</a>. Sheba Yemeni Foods. 18 May 2012. Retrieved 30 September 2016. <q>Lahoh is a sourdough flatbread which is eaten in Yemen Somalia, Djibouti, and Ethiopia.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Lahoh+Sana%27ani&rft.pub=Sheba+Yemeni+Foods&rft.date=2012-05-18&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.shebayemenifood.com%2Fcontent%2Flahoh-sanaani&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASourdough" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-97"><a href="#cite_ref-97">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSteinkraus1995" class="citation book cs1">Steinkraus, Keith (1995). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=VKlHKIvrogUC&pg=PA149">Handbook of Indigenous Fermented Foods, Second Edition</a>. 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International Journal of Food Microbiology. 302: 103–113. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.ijfoodmicro.2018.05.018">10.1016/j.ijfoodmicro.2018.05.018</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/1879-3460">1879-3460</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/29801967">29801967</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:44105613">44105613</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=International+Journal+of+Food+Microbiology&rft.atitle=Novel+insights+on+the+functional%2Fnutritional+features+of+the+sourdough+fermentation&rft.volume=302&rft.pages=103-113&rft.date=2019&rft.issn=1879-3460&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A44105613%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F29801967&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1016%2Fj.ijfoodmicro.2018.05.018&rft.aulast=Gobbetti&rft.aufirst=Marco&rft.au=De+Angelis%2C+Maria&rft.au=Di+Cagno%2C+Raffaella&rft.au=Calasso%2C+Maria&rft.au=Archetti%2C+Gabriele&rft.au=Rizzello%2C+Carlo+Giuseppe&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fpubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2F29801967%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASourdough" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-101"><a href="#cite_ref-101">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLoponenGänzle2018" class="citation journal cs1">Loponen, Jussi; Gänzle, Michael G. 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Foods. 7 (7): 96. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.3390%2Ffoods7070096">10.3390/foods7070096</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/2304-8158">2304-8158</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC6068548">6068548</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/29932101">29932101</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Foods&rft.atitle=Use+of+Sourdough+in+Low+FODMAP+Baking&rft.volume=7&rft.issue=7&rft.pages=96&rft.date=2018&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC6068548%23id-name%3DPMC&rft.issn=2304-8158&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F29932101&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.3390%2Ffoods7070096&rft.aulast=Loponen&rft.aufirst=Jussi&rft.au=G%C3%A4nzle%2C+Michael+G.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC6068548&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASourdough" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-102"><a href="#cite_ref-102">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHuangSchuppanRojas_TovarZevallos2020" class="citation journal cs1">Huang, Xin; Schuppan, Detlef; Rojas Tovar, Luis E.; Zevallos, Victor F.; Loponen, Jussi; Gänzle, Michael (2020). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC7404469">"Sourdough Fermentation Degrades Wheat Alpha-Amylase/Trypsin Inhibitor (ATI) and Reduces Pro-Inflammatory Activity"</a>. Foods. 9 (7): 943. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.3390%2Ffoods9070943">10.3390/foods9070943</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/2304-8158">2304-8158</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC7404469">7404469</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/32708800">32708800</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Foods&rft.atitle=Sourdough+Fermentation+Degrades+Wheat+Alpha-Amylase%2FTrypsin+Inhibitor+%28ATI%29+and+Reduces+Pro-Inflammatory+Activity&rft.volume=9&rft.issue=7&rft.pages=943&rft.date=2020&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC7404469%23id-name%3DPMC&rft.issn=2304-8158&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F32708800&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.3390%2Ffoods9070943&rft.aulast=Huang&rft.aufirst=Xin&rft.au=Schuppan%2C+Detlef&rft.au=Rojas+Tovar%2C+Luis+E.&rft.au=Zevallos%2C+Victor+F.&rft.au=Loponen%2C+Jussi&rft.au=G%C3%A4nzle%2C+Michael&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC7404469&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASourdough" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-103"><a href="#cite_ref-103">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFArendtMoroniZannini2011" class="citation journal cs1">Arendt, E. K.; Moroni, A.; Zannini, E. (2011). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3231922">"Medical nutrition therapy: Use of sourdough lactic acid bacteria as a cell factory for delivering functional biomolecules and food ingredients in gluten free bread"</a>. Microbial Cell Factories. 10 (Suppl 1): S15. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1186%2F1475-2859-10-S1-S15">10.1186/1475-2859-10-S1-S15</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3231922">3231922</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/21995616">21995616</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Microbial+Cell+Factories&rft.atitle=Medical+nutrition+therapy%3A+Use+of+sourdough+lactic+acid+bacteria+as+a+cell+factory+for+delivering+functional+biomolecules+and+food+ingredients+in+gluten+free+bread&rft.volume=10&rft.issue=Suppl+1&rft.pages=S15&rft.date=2011&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC3231922%23id-name%3DPMC&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F21995616&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1186%2F1475-2859-10-S1-S15&rft.aulast=Arendt&rft.aufirst=E.+K.&rft.au=Moroni%2C+A.&rft.au=Zannini%2C+E.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC3231922&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASourdough" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-104"><a href="#cite_ref-104">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAxelZanniniArendt2017" class="citation journal cs1">Axel, C.; Zannini, E.; Arendt, E. K. (2017). "Mold spoilage of bread and its biopreservation: A review of current strategies for bread shelf life extension". Critical Reviews in Food Science and Nutrition. 57 (16): 3528–3542. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1080%2F10408398.2016.1147417">10.1080/10408398.2016.1147417</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/26980564">26980564</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:43288325">43288325</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Critical+Reviews+in+Food+Science+and+Nutrition&rft.atitle=Mold+spoilage+of+bread+and+its+biopreservation%3A+A+review+of+current+strategies+for+bread+shelf+life+extension&rft.volume=57&rft.issue=16&rft.pages=3528-3542&rft.date=2017&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A43288325%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F26980564&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1080%2F10408398.2016.1147417&rft.aulast=Axel&rft.aufirst=C.&rft.au=Zannini%2C+E.&rft.au=Arendt%2C+E.+K.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASourdough" class="Z3988"> </li> </ol></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2></div> <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.pdfmx.com/joshua-weissman-sourdough-starter-pdf-2024/">Joshua Weissman Sourdough Starter PDF</a></li></ul> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236075235">.mw-parser-output .navbox{box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #a2a9b1;width:100%;clear:both;font-size:88%;text-align:center;padding:1px;margin:1em auto 0}.mw-parser-output .navbox .navbox{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .navbox+.navbox,.mw-parser-output .navbox+.navbox-styles+.navbox{margin-top:-1px}.mw-parser-output .navbox-inner,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup{width:100%}.mw-parser-output .navbox-group,.mw-parser-output .navbox-title,.mw-parser-output .navbox-abovebelow{padding:0.25em 1em;line-height:1.5em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .navbox-group{white-space:nowrap;text-align:right}.mw-parser-output .navbox,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup{background-color:#fdfdfd}.mw-parser-output .navbox-list{line-height:1.5em;border-color:#fdfdfd}.mw-parser-output .navbox-list-with-group{text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid}.mw-parser-output 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title="Template talk:Bread"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Bread" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Bread"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Bread" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Bread" title="Bread">Bread</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/List_of_breads" title="List of breads">Types</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Brown_bread" title="Brown bread">Brown bread</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bun" title="Bun">Bun</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Flatbread" title="Flatbread">Flatbread</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Multigrain_bread" title="Multigrain bread">Multigrain</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quick_bread" title="Quick bread">Quick</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rye_bread" title="Rye bread">Rye bread</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Salt-rising_bread" title="Salt-rising bread">Salt-rising</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sandwich_bread" title="Sandwich bread">Sandwich bread</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Soda_bread" title="Soda bread">Soda bread</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Sourdough</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sprouted_bread" title="Sprouted bread">Sprouted</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Unleavened_bread" title="Unleavened bread">Unleavened</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/White_bread" title="White bread">White bread</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Whole_wheat_bread" title="Whole wheat bread">Whole wheat</a></li></ul> </div></td><td class="noviewer navbox-image" rowspan="7" style="width:1px;padding:0 0 0 2px"><div><a href="/wiki/File:Fresh_made_bread_05.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Brown bread"><img alt="Brown bread" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/33/Fresh_made_bread_05.jpg/146px-Fresh_made_bread_05.jpg" decoding="async" width="146" height="97" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/33/Fresh_made_bread_05.jpg/219px-Fresh_made_bread_05.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/33/Fresh_made_bread_05.jpg/292px-Fresh_made_bread_05.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2526" data-file-height="1684" /></a></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Ingredients</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Baker%27s_yeast" title="Baker's yeast">Baker's yeast</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Barm" title="Barm">Barm</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Calcium_propanoate" title="Calcium propanoate">Calcium propanoate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dough_conditioner" title="Dough conditioner">Dough conditioner</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eggs_as_food" title="Eggs as food">Eggs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fat" title="Fat">Fat</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Flour" title="Flour">Flour</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Leavening_agent" title="Leavening agent">Leavening agent</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Milk" title="Milk">Milk</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Salt" title="Salt">Salt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sugar" title="Sugar">Sugar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Water" title="Water">Water</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Equipment</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Oven" title="Oven">Oven</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bread_machine" title="Bread machine">Bread machine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bread_pan" title="Bread pan">Bread pan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dough_scraper" class="mw-redirect" title="Dough scraper">Dough scraper</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Farinograph" title="Farinograph">Farinograph</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lame_(kitchen_tool)" title="Lame (kitchen tool)">Lame</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peel_(tool)" title="Peel (tool)">Peel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mixer_(appliance)" title="Mixer (appliance)">Stand mixer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bread_warmer" title="Bread warmer">Warmer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Toaster" title="Toaster">Toaster</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Weighing_scale" title="Weighing scale">Weighing scales</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Processes and techniques</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Autolysis_(biology)" title="Autolysis (biology)">Autolysis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Baking" title="Baking">Baking</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biga_(bread_baking)" title="Biga (bread baking)">Biga</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chorleywood_bread_process" title="Chorleywood bread process">Chorleywood bread process</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kneading" title="Kneading">Kneading</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Leavening_agent" title="Leavening agent">Leavening</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maillard_reaction" title="Maillard reaction">Maillard reaction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/No-knead_bread" title="No-knead bread">No-knead bread</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Proofing_(baking_technique)" title="Proofing (baking technique)">Proofing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pre-ferment" title="Pre-ferment">Pre-ferment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sliced_bread" title="Sliced bread">Pre-slicing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sponge_and_dough" title="Sponge and dough">Sponge and dough</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Steaming" title="Steaming">Steaming</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Straight_dough" title="Straight dough">Straight dough</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vienna_bread" title="Vienna bread">Vienna process</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Uses</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Breadcrumbs" title="Breadcrumbs">Breadcrumbs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bread_bowl" title="Bread bowl">Bread bowl</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bread_pakora" title="Bread pakora">Bread pakora</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bread_pudding" title="Bread pudding">Bread pudding</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crouton" title="Crouton">Croutons</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/French_toast" title="French toast">French toast</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rusk" title="Rusk">Rusks</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stuffing" title="Stuffing">Stuffing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sandwich" title="Sandwich">Sandwiches</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Toast_(food)" title="Toast (food)">Toast</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Other</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bakery" title="Bakery">Bakery</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bread" title="Bread">Breadmaking</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Baker_percentage" title="Baker percentage">Baker percentage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bread_and_salt" title="Bread and salt">Bread and salt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bread_in_Europe" title="Bread in Europe">Bread in Europe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bread_clip" title="Bread clip">Bread clip</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_bread" title="History of bread">History of bread</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">List articles</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_American_breads" title="List of American breads">American breads</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_brand_name_breads" title="List of brand name breads">Brand name breads</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_bread_dishes" title="List of bread dishes">Bread dishes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_bread_rolls" title="List of bread rolls">Bread rolls</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_British_breads" title="List of British breads">British breads</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_buns" class="mw-redirect" title="List of buns">Buns</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_French_breads" title="List of French breads">French breads</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indian_bread" title="Indian bread">Indian breads</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Pakistani_breads" title="List of Pakistani breads">Pakistani breads</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_quick_breads" title="List of quick breads">Quick breads</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_sourdough_breads" title="List of sourdough breads">Sourdough breads</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_sweet_breads" title="List of sweet breads">Sweet breads</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Swiss_breads" title="List of Swiss breads">Swiss breads</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_toast_dishes" title="List of toast dishes">Toast dishes</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="3"><div><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/23px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/31px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /> <a href="/wiki/Category:Breads" title="Category:Breads">Category</a></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div>    </div><noscript><img src="https://login.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:CentralAutoLogin/start?type=1x1&useformat=desktop" alt="" width="1" height="1" style="border: none; position: absolute;"></noscript> <div class="printfooter" data-nosnippet="">Retrieved from "<a 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