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<span>Drainage</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Drainage-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Drainage subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Drainage-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Hamilton_Disston's_canals" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Hamilton_Disston's_canals"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.1</span> <span>Hamilton Disston's canals</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Hamilton_Disston's_canals-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Henry_Flagler's_railroads" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Henry_Flagler's_railroads"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.2</span> <span>Henry Flagler's railroads</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Henry_Flagler's_railroads-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Broward's_"Empire_of_the_Everglades"" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Broward's_"Empire_of_the_Everglades""> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.3</span> <span>Broward's "Empire of the Everglades"</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Broward's_"Empire_of_the_Everglades"-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Boom_and_plume_harvesting" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Boom_and_plume_harvesting"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3</span> <span>Boom and plume harvesting</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Boom_and_plume_harvesting-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Hurricanes" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Hurricanes"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> <span>Hurricanes</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Hurricanes-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Hurricanes subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Hurricanes-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-1926_Miami_Hurricane" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#1926_Miami_Hurricane"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.1</span> <span>1926 Miami Hurricane</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-1926_Miami_Hurricane-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-1928_Okeechobee_Hurricane" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#1928_Okeechobee_Hurricane"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.2</span> <span>1928 Okeechobee Hurricane</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-1928_Okeechobee_Hurricane-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Herbert_Hoover_Dike" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Herbert_Hoover_Dike"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.3</span> <span>Herbert Hoover Dike</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Herbert_Hoover_Dike-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Drought" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Drought"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>Drought</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Drought-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Drought subsection</span> </button> 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id="toc-Central_and_Southern_Florida_Flood_Control_Project" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Central_and_Southern_Florida_Flood_Control_Project"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.1</span> <span>Central and Southern Florida Flood Control Project</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Central_and_Southern_Florida_Flood_Control_Project-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Everglades_Agricultural_Area" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Everglades_Agricultural_Area"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.2</span> <span>Everglades Agricultural Area</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Everglades_Agricultural_Area-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Turning_point" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Turning_point"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7</span> <span>Turning point</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Turning_point-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8</span> <span>See also</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Notes_and_references" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Notes_and_references"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9</span> <span>Notes and references</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Notes_and_references-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Bibliography" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" 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<div class="vector-body-before-content"> <div class="mw-indicators"> <div id="mw-indicator-coordinates" class="mw-indicator"><div class="mw-parser-output"><span id="coordinates"><a href="/wiki/Geographic_coordinate_system" title="Geographic coordinate system">Coordinates</a>: <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1156832818">.mw-parser-output .geo-default,.mw-parser-output .geo-dms,.mw-parser-output .geo-dec{display:inline}.mw-parser-output .geo-nondefault,.mw-parser-output .geo-multi-punct,.mw-parser-output .geo-inline-hidden{display:none}.mw-parser-output .longitude,.mw-parser-output .latitude{white-space:nowrap}</style><span class="plainlinks nourlexpansion"><a class="external text" href="https://geohack.toolforge.org/geohack.php?pagename=Draining_and_development_of_the_Everglades&params=26_N_80.7_W_region:US-FL_scale:2000000"><span class="geo-nondefault"><span class="geo-dms" title="Maps, aerial photos, and other data for this location"><span class="latitude">26°00′N</span> <span class="longitude">80°42′W</span></span></span><span class="geo-multi-punct"> / </span><span class="geo-default"><span class="geo-dec" title="Maps, aerial photos, and other data for this location">26.0°N 80.7°W</span><span style="display:none"> / <span class="geo">26.0; -80.7</span></span></span></a></span></span></div></div> <div id="mw-indicator-featured-star" class="mw-indicator"><div class="mw-parser-output"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Featured_articles*" title="This is a featured article. Click here for more information."><img alt="Featured article" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/e/e7/Cscr-featured.svg/20px-Cscr-featured.svg.png" decoding="async" width="20" height="19" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/e/e7/Cscr-featured.svg/30px-Cscr-featured.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/e/e7/Cscr-featured.svg/40px-Cscr-featured.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="466" data-file-height="443" /></a></span></div></div> </div> <div id="siteSub" class="noprint">From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia</div> </div> <div id="contentSub"><div id="mw-content-subtitle"></div></div> <div id="mw-content-text" class="mw-body-content"><div class="mw-content-ltr mw-parser-output" lang="en" dir="ltr"><div class="shortdescription nomobile noexcerpt noprint searchaux" style="display:none">Development of the Florida Everglades</div> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:USGS_Northern_Everglades_image_2001.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="A color satellite image of the northern Everglades showing green chunks of Everglades surrounded by white settlement areas of the South Florida Metropolitan Area to the east and red agricultural fields in the Everglades Agricultural Area to the north" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c4/USGS_Northern_Everglades_image_2001.jpg/250px-USGS_Northern_Everglades_image_2001.jpg" decoding="async" width="250" height="197" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c4/USGS_Northern_Everglades_image_2001.jpg/375px-USGS_Northern_Everglades_image_2001.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c4/USGS_Northern_Everglades_image_2001.jpg/500px-USGS_Northern_Everglades_image_2001.jpg 2x" data-file-width="553" data-file-height="436" /></a><figcaption>Satellite image of the northern <a href="/wiki/Everglades" title="Everglades">Everglades</a> with developed areas in 2001, including the Everglades Agricultural Area (in red), Water Conservation Areas 1, 2, and 3, and the <a href="/wiki/South_Florida_metropolitan_area" class="mw-redirect" title="South Florida metropolitan area">South Florida metropolitan area</a> <br />Source: <a href="/wiki/U.S._Geological_Survey" class="mw-redirect" title="U.S. Geological Survey">U.S. Geological Survey</a></figcaption></figure> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:USGS_Southern_Everglades_Image_2001.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="A color satellite image of the southern Everglades, Florida Bay, Atlantic Ocean, and Gulf of Mexico; the Everglades are green with large sections of blue water, with some brown raised areas and the southernmost tip of the South Florida Metropolitan Area in white" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4a/USGS_Southern_Everglades_Image_2001.jpg/250px-USGS_Southern_Everglades_Image_2001.jpg" decoding="async" width="250" height="181" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4a/USGS_Southern_Everglades_Image_2001.jpg/375px-USGS_Southern_Everglades_Image_2001.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4a/USGS_Southern_Everglades_Image_2001.jpg/500px-USGS_Southern_Everglades_Image_2001.jpg 2x" data-file-width="613" data-file-height="445" /></a><figcaption>Satellite image of the southern <a href="/wiki/Everglades" title="Everglades">Everglades</a> with developed areas in 2001, including <a href="/wiki/Everglades_National_Park" title="Everglades National Park">Everglades National Park</a>, <a href="/wiki/Big_Cypress_National_Preserve" title="Big Cypress National Preserve">Big Cypress National Preserve</a>, <a href="/wiki/Florida_Bay" title="Florida Bay">Florida Bay</a> and the southern tip of the <a href="/wiki/South_Florida_metropolitan_area" class="mw-redirect" title="South Florida metropolitan area">South Florida metropolitan area</a> <br />Source: <a href="/wiki/U.S._Geological_Survey" class="mw-redirect" title="U.S. Geological Survey">U.S. Geological Survey</a></figcaption></figure> <p>A national push for expansion and progress toward the latter part of the 19th century stimulated interest in draining the <a href="/wiki/Everglades" title="Everglades">Everglades</a>, a region of tropical <a href="/wiki/Wetland" title="Wetland">wetlands</a> in southern <a href="/wiki/Florida" title="Florida">Florida</a>, for agricultural use. According to historians, "From the middle of the nineteenth century to the middle of the twentieth century, the United States went through a period in which wetland removal was not questioned. Indeed, it was considered the proper thing to do."<sup id="cite_ref-meindl_1-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-meindl-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>A pattern of political and financial motivation, and a lack of understanding of the <a href="/wiki/Geography_and_ecology_of_the_Everglades" title="Geography and ecology of the Everglades">geography and ecology of the Everglades</a> have plagued the history of drainage projects. The Everglades are a part of a massive <a href="/wiki/Drainage_basin" title="Drainage basin">watershed</a> that originates near <a href="/wiki/Orlando,_Florida" title="Orlando, Florida">Orlando</a> and drains into <a href="/wiki/Lake_Okeechobee" title="Lake Okeechobee">Lake Okeechobee</a>, a vast and shallow lake. As the lake exceeds its capacity in the wet season, the water forms a flat and very wide river, about 100 miles (160 km) long and 60 miles (97 km) wide. As the land from Lake Okeechobee slopes gradually to <a href="/wiki/Florida_Bay" title="Florida Bay">Florida Bay</a>, water flows at a rate of half a mile (0.8 km) a day. Before human activity in the Everglades, the system comprised the lower third of the Florida peninsula. The first attempt to drain the region was made by real estate developer <a href="/wiki/Hamilton_Disston" title="Hamilton Disston">Hamilton Disston</a> in 1881. Disston's sponsored canals were unsuccessful, but the land he purchased for them stimulated economic and population growth that attracted railway developer <a href="/wiki/Henry_Flagler" title="Henry Flagler">Henry Flagler</a>. Flagler built a <a href="/wiki/Florida_East_Coast_Railroad" class="mw-redirect" title="Florida East Coast Railroad">railroad</a> along the east coast of Florida and <a href="/wiki/Overseas_Railroad" title="Overseas Railroad">eventually</a> to <a href="/wiki/Key_West,_Florida" class="mw-redirect" title="Key West, Florida">Key West</a>; towns grew and farmland was cultivated along the rail line. </p><p>During his 1904 campaign to be elected governor, <a href="/wiki/Napoleon_Bonaparte_Broward" class="mw-redirect" title="Napoleon Bonaparte Broward">Napoleon Bonaparte Broward</a> promised to drain the Everglades, and his later projects were more effective than Disston's. Broward's promises sparked a land boom facilitated by blatant errors in an engineer's report, pressure from real estate developers, and the burgeoning tourist industry throughout south Florida. The increased population brought hunters who went unchecked and had a devastating impact on the numbers of <a href="/wiki/Wading_birds" title="Wading birds">wading birds</a> (hunted for their plumes), alligators, and other Everglades animals. </p><p>Severe hurricanes in <a href="/wiki/1926_Atlantic_hurricane_season" title="1926 Atlantic hurricane season">1926</a> and <a href="/wiki/1928_Atlantic_hurricane_season" title="1928 Atlantic hurricane season">1928</a> caused catastrophic damage and flooding from Lake Okeechobee that prompted the <a href="/wiki/United_States_Army_Corps_of_Engineers" title="United States Army Corps of Engineers">Army Corps of Engineers</a> to build a <a href="/wiki/Dike_(construction)" class="mw-redirect" title="Dike (construction)">dike</a> around the lake. Further floods in 1947 prompted an unprecedented construction of canals throughout southern Florida. Following another population boom after <a href="/wiki/World_War_II" title="World War II">World War II</a>, and the creation of the <a href="/wiki/Central_and_Southern_Florida_Flood_Control_Project" class="mw-redirect" title="Central and Southern Florida Flood Control Project">Central and Southern Florida Flood Control Project</a>, the Everglades was divided into sections separated by canals and water control devices that delivered water to agricultural and newly developed urban areas. However, in the late 1960s, following a proposal to construct a massive <a href="/wiki/Dade-Collier_Training_and_Transition_Airport" title="Dade-Collier Training and Transition Airport">airport</a> next to <a href="/wiki/Everglades_National_Park" title="Everglades National Park">Everglades National Park</a>, national attention turned from developing the land to restoring the Everglades. </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Exploration">Exploration</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Draining_and_development_of_the_Everglades&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Exploration"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Seminole_War_in_Everglades.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="A black and white drawing of Seminoles crouched behind the massive roots of a mangrove tree while U.S. Marines in three canoes are shown in the background" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a2/Seminole_War_in_Everglades.jpg/220px-Seminole_War_in_Everglades.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="147" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a2/Seminole_War_in_Everglades.jpg/330px-Seminole_War_in_Everglades.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a2/Seminole_War_in_Everglades.jpg/440px-Seminole_War_in_Everglades.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2864" data-file-height="1915" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/United_States_Marine_Corps" title="United States Marine Corps">Marines</a> search for <a href="/wiki/Seminole" title="Seminole">Seminoles</a> among the <a href="/wiki/Mangrove" title="Mangrove">mangroves</a> during the <a href="/wiki/Second_Seminole_War" title="Second Seminole War">Second Seminole War</a></figcaption></figure> <p>American involvement in the Everglades began during the <a href="/wiki/Second_Seminole_War" title="Second Seminole War">Second Seminole War</a> (1836–42), a costly and very unpopular conflict. The United States spent between $30 million and $40 million and lost between 1,500 and 3,000 lives. The U.S. military drove the Seminoles into the Everglades and were charged with the task of finding them, defeating them, and moving them to Oklahoma <a href="/wiki/Indian_territory" class="mw-redirect" title="Indian territory">Indian territory</a>. Almost 4,000 Seminoles were killed in the war or were removed.<sup id="cite_ref-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-dovell_3-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-dovell-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The U.S. military was completely unprepared for the conditions they found in the Everglades. They tore their clothes on <a href="/wiki/Cladium" title="Cladium">sawgrass</a>, ruined their boots on the uneven <a href="/wiki/Limestone" title="Limestone">limestone</a> floor, and were plagued by <a href="/wiki/Mosquito" title="Mosquito">mosquitoes</a>. Soldiers' legs, feet, and arms were cut open on the sawgrass and <a href="/wiki/Gangrene" title="Gangrene">gangrene</a> infection set in, taking many lives and limbs. Many died of mosquito-borne illness. After slogging through mud, one private died in his tracks of exhaustion in 1842.<sup id="cite_ref-dovell_3-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-dovell-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> General <a href="/wiki/Thomas_Jesup" title="Thomas Jesup">Thomas Jesup</a> admitted the military was overwhelmed by the terrain when he wrote to the <a href="/wiki/United_States_Secretary_of_War" title="United States Secretary of War">Secretary of War</a> in 1838, trying to dissuade him from prolonging the war.<sup id="cite_ref-dovell_3-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-dovell-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p> Opinion about the value of Florida to the Union was mixed: some thought it a useless land of swamps and horrible animals, while others thought it a gift from God for national prosperity.<sup id="cite_ref-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In 1838 comments in <i>The Army and Navy Chronicle</i> supported future development of southern Florida: </p><blockquote><p>[The] climate [is] most delightful; but, from want of actual observation, [it] could not speak so confidently of the soil, although, from the appearance of the surrounding vegetation, a portion of it, at least, must be rich. Whenever the aborigines shall be forced from their fastnesses, as eventually they must be, the enterprising spirit of our countrymen will very soon discover the sections best adapted to cultivation, and the now barren or unproductive everglades will be made to blossom like a garden. It is the general impression that these everglades are uninhabitable during the summer months, by reason of their being overflowed by the abundant rains of the season; but if it should prove that these inundations are caused or increased by obstructions to the natural courses of the rivers, as outlets to the numerous lakes, American industry will remove these obstructions.<sup id="cite_ref-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></p></blockquote> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:US_War_Department_Everglades_Map_1856.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="A black and white hand-drawn map of the lower two-thirds of the Florida peninsula" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3d/US_War_Department_Everglades_Map_1856.jpg/170px-US_War_Department_Everglades_Map_1856.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="218" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3d/US_War_Department_Everglades_Map_1856.jpg/255px-US_War_Department_Everglades_Map_1856.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3d/US_War_Department_Everglades_Map_1856.jpg/340px-US_War_Department_Everglades_Map_1856.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1003" data-file-height="1288" /></a><figcaption>Map of the <a href="/wiki/Everglades" title="Everglades">Everglades</a> by the U.S. <a href="/wiki/United_States_Department_of_War" title="United States Department of War">War Department</a> in 1856: Military action during the <a href="/wiki/Seminole_Wars" title="Seminole Wars">Seminole Wars</a> improved understanding of the features of the Everglades.</figcaption></figure> <p>The military penetration of southern Florida offered the opportunity to map a poorly understood part of the country. As late as 1823, official reports doubted the existence of a large inland lake, until the military met the Seminoles at the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Lake_Okeechobee" title="Battle of Lake Okeechobee">Battle of Lake Okeechobee</a> in 1837.<sup id="cite_ref-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> To avenge repeated surprise attacks on himself and ammunition stores, Colonel <a href="/wiki/William_Harney" class="mw-redirect" title="William Harney">William Harney</a> led an expedition into the Everglades in 1840, to hunt for a chief named <a href="/w/index.php?title=Chekika&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Chekika (page does not exist)">Chekika</a>. With Harney were 90 soldiers in 16 canoes. One soldier's account of the trip in the <i>St. Augustine News</i> was the first printed description of the Everglades available to the general public. The anonymous writer described the hunt for Chekika and the terrain they were crossing: "No country that I have ever heard of bears any resemblance to it; it seems like a vast sea filled with grass and green trees, and expressly intended as a retreat for the rascally Indian, from which the white man would never seek to drive them".<sup id="cite_ref-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The final blame for the military stalemate was determined to lie not in military preparation, supplies, leadership, or superior tactics by the Seminoles, but in Florida's impenetrable terrain. An army surgeon wrote: "It is in fact a most hideous region to live in, a perfect paradise for Indians, alligators, serpents, frogs, and every other kind of loathsome reptile."<sup id="cite_ref-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The land seemed to inspire extreme reactions of wonder or hatred. In 1870, an author described the mangrove forests as a "waste of nature's grandest exhibition to have these carnivals of splendid vegetation occurring in isolated places where it is but seldom they are seen."<sup id="cite_ref-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> A band of hunters, naturalists, and collectors ventured through in 1885, taking along with them the 17-year-old grandson of an early resident of Miami. The landscape unnerved the young man shortly after he entered the <a href="/wiki/Shark_River_(Florida)" title="Shark River (Florida)">Shark River</a>: "The place looked wild and lonely. About three o'clock it seemed to get on Henry's nerves and we saw him crying, he would not tell us why, he was just plain scared."<sup id="cite_ref-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In 1897, <a href="/wiki/Hugh_L._Willoughby" title="Hugh L. Willoughby">Hugh L. Willoughby</a> spent eight days canoeing with a party from the mouth of the <a href="/wiki/Harney_River" title="Harney River">Harney River</a> to the <a href="/wiki/Miami_River_(Florida)" title="Miami River (Florida)">Miami River</a>. He wrote about his observations and sent them back to the <i>New Orleans Times-Democrat</i>. Willoughby described the water as healthy and wholesome, with numerous <a href="/wiki/Spring_(hydrosphere)" class="mw-redirect" title="Spring (hydrosphere)">springs</a>, and 10,000 <a href="/wiki/Alligator" title="Alligator">alligators</a> "more or less" in Lake Okeechobee. The party encountered thousands of birds near the Shark River, "killing hundreds, but they continued to return".<sup id="cite_ref-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Willoughby pointed out that much of the rest of the country had been mapped and explored except for this part of Florida, writing, "(w)e have a tract of land one hundred and thirty miles long and seventy miles wide that is as much unknown to the white man as the heart of Africa."<sup id="cite_ref-stephan_12-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-stephan-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Drainage">Drainage</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Draining_and_development_of_the_Everglades&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Drainage"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div><p> As early as 1837, a visitor to the Everglades suggested the value of the land without the water:</p><blockquote><p>Could it be drained by deepening the natural outlets? Would it not open to cultivation immense tracts of rich vegetable soil? Could the waterpower, obtained by draining, be improved to any useful purpose? Would such draining render the country unhealthy? ... Many queries like these passed through our minds. They can only be solved by a thorough examination of the whole country. Could the waters be lowered ten feet, it would probably drain six hundred thousand acres; should this prove to be a rich soil, as would seem probable, what a field it would open for tropical productions! What facilities for commerce!<sup id="cite_ref-dovell_3-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-dovell-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></p></blockquote> <p>Territorial representative <a href="/wiki/David_Levy_Yulee" title="David Levy Yulee">David Levy</a> proposed a resolution that was passed in <a href="/wiki/United_States_Congress" title="United States Congress">Congress</a> in 1842: "that the Secretary of War be directed to place before this House such information as can be obtained in relation to the practicability and probable expense of draining the everglades of Florida."<sup id="cite_ref-dovell_3-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-dovell-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> From this directive <a href="/wiki/United_States_Secretary_of_the_Treasury" title="United States Secretary of the Treasury">Secretary of the Treasury</a> <a href="/wiki/Robert_J._Walker" title="Robert J. Walker">Robert J. Walker</a> requested <a href="/wiki/Thomas_Buckingham_Smith" class="mw-redirect" title="Thomas Buckingham Smith">Thomas Buckingham Smith</a> from <a href="/wiki/St._Augustine,_Florida" title="St. Augustine, Florida">St. Augustine</a> to consult those with experience in the Everglades on the feasibility of draining them, saying that he had been told two or three <a href="/wiki/Canal" title="Canal">canals</a> to the <a href="/wiki/Gulf_of_Mexico" title="Gulf of Mexico">Gulf of Mexico</a> would be sufficient. Smith asked officers who had served in the Seminole Wars to respond, and many favored the idea, promoting the land as a future agricultural asset to the South. A few disagreed, such as Captain John Sprague, who wrote he "never supposed the country would excite an inquiry, other than as a hiding place for Indians, and had it occurred to me that so great an undertaking, one so utterly impracticable, as draining the Ever Glades was to be discussed, I should not have destroyed the scratch of pen upon a subject so fruitful, and which cannot be understood but by those who have waded the water belly deep and examined carefully the western coast by land and by water."<sup id="cite_ref-dovell_3-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-dovell-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p> Nevertheless, Smith returned a report to the Secretary of the Treasury asking for $500,000 to do the job.<sup id="cite_ref-13" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The report is the first published study on the topic of the Everglades, and concluded with the statement: </p><blockquote><p>The Ever Glades are now suitable only for the haunt of noxious vermin or the resort of pestilent reptiles. The statesman whose exertions shall cause the millions of acres they contain, now worse than worthless, to teem with the products of agricultural industry; that man who thus adds to the resources of his country ... will merit a high place in public favor, not only with his own generation, but with posterity. He will have created a State!<sup id="cite_ref-dovell_3-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-dovell-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></p></blockquote><p> Smith suggested cutting through the rim of the Everglades (known today as the <a href="/wiki/Atlantic_Coastal_Ridge" title="Atlantic Coastal Ridge">Atlantic Coastal Ridge</a>), connecting the heads of rivers to the coastline so that 4 feet (1.2 m) of water would be drained from the area. The result, Smith hoped, would yield farmland suitable for corn, sugar, rice, cotton, and tobacco.<sup id="cite_ref-dovell1948_14-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-dovell1948-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In 1850 Congress passed a law that gave several states wetlands within their state boundaries.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="margin-left:0.1em; white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Please_clarify" title="Wikipedia:Please clarify"><span title="The text near this tag may need clarification or removal of jargon. (May 2023)">clarification needed</span></a></i>]</sup> The <a href="/wiki/Swamp_Land_Act_of_1850" title="Swamp Land Act of 1850">Swamp Land Act of 1850</a> ensured that the state would be responsible for funding the attempts at developing wetlands into farmlands.<sup id="cite_ref-dovell1948_14-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-dovell1948-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Florida quickly formed a committee to consolidate grants to pay for such attempts, though attention and funds were diverted owing to the <a href="/wiki/American_Civil_War" title="American Civil War">Civil War</a> and <a href="/wiki/Reconstruction_era_of_the_United_States" class="mw-redirect" title="Reconstruction era of the United States">Reconstruction</a>. Not until after 1877 did attention return to the Everglades. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Hamilton_Disston's_canals"><span id="Hamilton_Disston.27s_canals"></span>Hamilton Disston's canals</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Draining_and_development_of_the_Everglades&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Hamilton Disston's canals"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Hamilton_Disston_Land_Sale_Notice.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="A black and white image of a land sale notice announcing 4 million acres (16,000 km2) purchased by Hamilton Disston; 20,000 acres (81 km2) are up for sale, specifically featuring town lots for sale" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bb/Hamilton_Disston_Land_Sale_Notice.jpg/170px-Hamilton_Disston_Land_Sale_Notice.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="286" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/b/bb/Hamilton_Disston_Land_Sale_Notice.jpg 1.5x" data-file-width="238" data-file-height="400" /></a><figcaption>Hamilton Disston's land sale notice</figcaption></figure> <p>After the Civil War, an agency named the Internal Improvement Fund (IIF), charged with using grant money to <a href="/wiki/Internal_improvements" title="Internal improvements">improve Florida's infrastructure</a> through canals, rail lines, and roads, was eager to be rid of the debt incurred by the Civil War. IIF trustees found a <a href="/wiki/Pennsylvania" title="Pennsylvania">Pennsylvania</a> real estate developer named <a href="/wiki/Hamilton_Disston" title="Hamilton Disston">Hamilton Disston</a> who was interested in implementing plans to drain the land for agriculture. Disston was persuaded to buy 4,000,000 acres (16,000 km<sup>2</sup>) of land for $1 million in 1881<sup id="cite_ref-davis-1_15-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-davis-1-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> ($31.6 million in 2023). <i><a href="/wiki/The_New_York_Times" title="The New York Times">The New York Times</a></i> declared it the largest purchase of land ever by any individual.<sup id="cite_ref-16" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Disston began building canals near <a href="/wiki/St._Cloud,_Florida" title="St. Cloud, Florida">St. Cloud</a> to lower the basin of the <a href="/wiki/Caloosahatchee_River" title="Caloosahatchee River">Caloosahatchee</a> and <a href="/wiki/Kissimmee_River" title="Kissimmee River">Kissimmee Rivers</a>. His workers and engineers faced conditions similar to those of the soldiers during the Seminole Wars; it was harrowing, backbreaking labor in dangerous conditions. The canals seemed at first to work in lowering the water levels in the wetlands surrounding the rivers. Another dredged waterway between the <a href="/wiki/Gulf_of_Mexico" title="Gulf of Mexico">Gulf of Mexico</a> and Lake Okeechobee was built, opening the region to <a href="/wiki/Steamboat" title="Steamboat">steamboat</a> traffic.<sup id="cite_ref-17" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Disston's engineers focused on Lake Okeechobee as well. As one colleague put it, "Okeechobee is the point to attack"; the canals were to be "equal or greater than the inflow from the Kissimmee valley, which is the source of all the evil."<sup id="cite_ref-18" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Disston sponsored the digging of a canal 11 miles (18 km) long from Lake Okeechobee towards Miami, but it was abandoned when the rock proved denser than the engineers had expected. Though the canals lowered the groundwater, their capacity was inadequate for the wet season. A report that evaluated the failure of the project concluded: "The reduction of the waters is simply a question of sufficient capacity in the canals which may be dug for their relief".<sup id="cite_ref-19" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Though Disston's canals did not drain, his purchase primed the economy of Florida. It made news and attracted tourists and land buyers alike. Within four years property values doubled, and the population increased significantly.<sup id="cite_ref-davis-1_15-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-davis-1-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> One newcomer was the inventor <a href="/wiki/Thomas_Edison" title="Thomas Edison">Thomas Edison</a>, who bought <a href="/wiki/Thomas_Edison_Winter_Estate" class="mw-redirect" title="Thomas Edison Winter Estate">a home in Fort Myers</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-20" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Disston opened real estate offices throughout the United States and Europe, and sold tracts of land for $5 an acre, establishing towns on the west coast and in central Florida. English tourists in particular were targeted and responded in large numbers.<sup id="cite_ref-21" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Florida passed its first water laws to "build drains, ditches, or water courses upon petition of two or more landowners" in 1893.<sup id="cite_ref-22" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Henry_Flagler's_railroads"><span id="Henry_Flagler.27s_railroads"></span>Henry Flagler's railroads</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Draining_and_development_of_the_Everglades&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Henry Flagler's railroads"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Due to Disston's purchase, the IIF was able to sponsor railroad projects, and the opportunity presented itself when oil tycoon <a href="/wiki/Henry_Flagler" title="Henry Flagler">Henry Flagler</a> became enchanted with St. Augustine during a vacation. He built the opulent <a href="/wiki/Ponce_de_Leon_Hotel" title="Ponce de Leon Hotel">Ponce de Leon Hotel</a> in <a href="/wiki/St._Augustine,_Florida" title="St. Augustine, Florida">St. Augustine</a> in 1888, and began buying land and building <a href="/wiki/Florida_East_Coast_Railroad" class="mw-redirect" title="Florida East Coast Railroad">rail lines</a> along the east coast of Florida, first from <a href="/wiki/Jacksonville,_Florida" title="Jacksonville, Florida">Jacksonville</a> to <a href="/wiki/Daytona_Beach,_Florida" title="Daytona Beach, Florida">Daytona</a>, then as far south as <a href="/wiki/Palm_Beach,_Florida" title="Palm Beach, Florida">Palm Beach</a> in 1893. Flagler's establishment of "the Styx", a settlement for hotel and rail line workers across the river from the barrier island containing Palm Beach, became <a href="/wiki/West_Palm_Beach,_Florida" title="West Palm Beach, Florida">West Palm Beach</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-23" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Along the way he built resort hotels, transforming territorial outposts into tourist destinations and the land bordering the rail lines into citrus farms.<sup id="cite_ref-24" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The winter of 1894–1895 produced a bitter frost that killed citrus trees as far south as Palm Beach. Miami resident <a href="/wiki/Julia_Tuttle" title="Julia Tuttle">Julia Tuttle</a> sent Flagler a pristine orange blossom and an invitation to visit Miami, to persuade him to build the railroad farther south. Although he had earlier turned her down several times, Flagler finally agreed, and by 1896 the rail line had been extended to <a href="/wiki/Biscayne_Bay" title="Biscayne Bay">Biscayne Bay</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-bramson_25-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-bramson-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Three months after the first train arrived, the residents of Miami, 512 in all, voted to incorporate the town. Flagler publicized Miami as a "Magic City" throughout the United States and it became a prime destination for the extremely wealthy after the <a href="/wiki/Royal_Palm_Hotel_(Miami)" title="Royal Palm Hotel (Miami)">Royal Palm Hotel</a> was opened.<sup id="cite_ref-26" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Broward's_"Empire_of_the_Everglades""><span id="Broward.27s_.22Empire_of_the_Everglades.22"></span>Broward's "Empire of the Everglades"</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Draining_and_development_of_the_Everglades&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Broward's "Empire of the Everglades""><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Canal_in_the_Everglades_Drainage_District_1915.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="A black and white photograph of a canal lock built in the Everglades, directing millions of gallons of water toward the Atlantic Ocean" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/58/Canal_in_the_Everglades_Drainage_District_1915.jpg/220px-Canal_in_the_Everglades_Drainage_District_1915.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="168" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/58/Canal_in_the_Everglades_Drainage_District_1915.jpg/330px-Canal_in_the_Everglades_Drainage_District_1915.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/58/Canal_in_the_Everglades_Drainage_District_1915.jpg/440px-Canal_in_the_Everglades_Drainage_District_1915.jpg 2x" data-file-width="600" data-file-height="459" /></a><figcaption>A canal lock in the Everglades Drainage District around 1915</figcaption></figure> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Geography_and_ecology_of_the_Everglades" title="Geography and ecology of the Everglades">Geography and ecology of the Everglades</a></div> <p>Despite the sale of 4,000,000 acres (16,000 km<sup>2</sup>) to Disston and the skyrocketing price of land, by the turn of the 20th century the IIF was bankrupt due to mismanagement.<sup id="cite_ref-27" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Legal battles ensued between the State of Florida and the railroad owners about who owned the rights to sell reclaimed land in the Everglades. In 1904 <a href="/wiki/Governor" title="Governor">gubernatorial</a> campaigning, the strongest candidate, <a href="/wiki/Napoleon_Bonaparte_Broward" class="mw-redirect" title="Napoleon Bonaparte Broward">Napoleon Bonaparte Broward</a>, made draining the Everglades a major plan. He called the future of south Florida the "Empire of the Everglades" and compared its potential to that of <a href="/wiki/Netherlands" title="Netherlands">Holland</a> and <a href="/wiki/Egypt" title="Egypt">Egypt</a>: "It would indeed be a commentary on the intelligence and energy of the State of Florida to confess that so simple an engineering feat as the drainage of a body of land above the sea was above their power", he wrote to voters.<sup id="cite_ref-28" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Soon after his election, he fulfilled his promise to "drain that abominable pestilence-ridden swamp"<sup id="cite_ref-29" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and pushed the Florida legislature to form a group of commissioners to oversee reclamation of flooded lands. They began by taxing counties that would be affected by the drainage attempts, at 5 cents an acre, and formed the Everglades Drainage District in 1907.<sup id="cite_ref-dovell_3-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-dovell-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Broward asked James O. Wright—an engineer on loan to the State of Florida from the <a href="/wiki/U.S._Department_of_Agriculture" class="mw-redirect" title="U.S. Department of Agriculture">USDA</a>'s Bureau of Drainage Investigations—to draw up plans for drainage in 1906. Two dredges were built by 1908, but had cut only 6 miles (9.7 km) of canals. The project quickly ran out of money, so Broward sold real estate developer <a href="/wiki/Richard_%22Dicky%22_J._Bolles" class="mw-redirect" title="Richard "Dicky" J. Bolles">Richard "Dicky" J. Bolles</a> a million dollars worth of land in the Everglades, 500,000 acres (2,000 km<sup>2</sup>), before the engineer's report had been submitted.<sup id="cite_ref-30" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Abstracts from Wright's report were given to the IIF stating that eight canals would be enough to drain 1,850,000 acres (7,500 km<sup>2</sup>) at a cost of a dollar an acre.<sup id="cite_ref-McCally96_31-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-McCally96-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The abstracts were released to real estate developers who used them in their advertisements, and Wright and the USDA were pressed by the real estate industry to publicize the report as quickly as possible.<sup id="cite_ref-McCally96_31-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-McCally96-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Wright's supervisor noted errors in the report, as well as undue enthusiasm for draining, and delayed its release in 1910. Different unofficial versions of the report circulated—some that had been altered by real estate interests—and a version hastily put together by Senator <a href="/wiki/Duncan_U._Fletcher" title="Duncan U. Fletcher">Duncan U. Fletcher</a> called <i>U.S. Senate Document 89</i> included early unrevised statements, causing a frenzy of speculation.<sup id="cite_ref-meindl_1-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-meindl-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Blueprint_for_Everglades_canals1921.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="A blueprint of Fort Lauderdale, Florida, and the surrounding Everglades to the west divided into lots for potential sale, featuring the canal systems" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/04/Blueprint_for_Everglades_canals1921.jpg/170px-Blueprint_for_Everglades_canals1921.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="230" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/04/Blueprint_for_Everglades_canals1921.jpg/255px-Blueprint_for_Everglades_canals1921.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/04/Blueprint_for_Everglades_canals1921.jpg/340px-Blueprint_for_Everglades_canals1921.jpg 2x" data-file-width="554" data-file-height="750" /></a><figcaption>Blueprint for drainage canals in the Everglades in 1921</figcaption></figure> <p>Wright's initial report concluded that drainage would not be difficult. Building canals would be more cost effective than constructing a dike around <a href="/wiki/Lake_Okeechobee" title="Lake Okeechobee">Lake Okeechobee</a>. The soil would be fertile after drainage, the climate would not be adversely affected, and the enormous lake would be able to irrigate farmland in the dry season.<sup id="cite_ref-meindl_1-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-meindl-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Wright based his conclusions on 15 years of weather data since the recording of precipitation began in the 1890s. His calculations concentrated on the towns of <a href="/wiki/Jupiter,_Florida" title="Jupiter, Florida">Jupiter</a> and <a href="/wiki/Kissimmee,_Florida" title="Kissimmee, Florida">Kissimmee</a>. Since weather data had not been recorded for any area within the Everglades, none was included in the report. Furthermore, the heaviest year of rain on record, Wright assumed, was atypical, and he urged that canals should not be constructed to bear that amount of water due to the expense. Wright's calculations for what canals should be able to hold were off by 55 percent.<sup id="cite_ref-32" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> His most fundamental mistake, however, was designing the canals for a maximum rainfall of 4 inches (10 cm) of water a day, based on flawed data for July and August rainfall, despite available data that indicated torrential downpours of 10 inches (25 cm) and 12 inches (30 cm) had occurred in 24-hour periods.<sup id="cite_ref-meindl_1-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-meindl-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Though a few voices expressed skepticism of the report's conclusions—notably <a href="/w/index.php?title=Frank_Stoneman&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Frank Stoneman (page does not exist)">Frank Stoneman</a>, editor of the <i><a href="/wiki/Miami_Evening_Record" class="mw-redirect" title="Miami Evening Record">Miami Evening Record</a></i> and the later <i><a href="/wiki/Miami_Morning_News-Record" class="mw-redirect" title="Miami Morning News-Record">Miami Morning News-Record</a></i> (predecessors of the <i><a href="/wiki/Miami_Herald" title="Miami Herald">Miami Herald</a></i>)—the report was hailed as impeccable, coming from a branch of the U.S. government.<sup id="cite_ref-33" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In 1912 Florida appointed Wright to oversee the drainage, and the real estate industry energetically misrepresented this mid-level engineer as the world's foremost authority on wetlands drainage, in charge of the <a href="/wiki/U.S._Bureau_of_Reclamation" class="mw-redirect" title="U.S. Bureau of Reclamation">U.S. Bureau of Reclamation</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-meindl_1-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-meindl-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> However, the <a href="/wiki/U.S._House_of_Representatives" class="mw-redirect" title="U.S. House of Representatives">U.S. House of Representatives</a> investigated Wright since no report had officially been published despite the money paid for it. Wright eventually retired when it was discovered that his colleagues disagreed with his conclusions and refused to approve the report's publication. One testified at the hearings: "I regard Mr. Wright as absolutely and completely incompetent for any engineering work".<sup id="cite_ref-34" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Governor Broward ran for the <a href="/wiki/U.S._Senate" class="mw-redirect" title="U.S. Senate">U.S. Senate</a> in 1908 but lost. Broward and his predecessor, <a href="/wiki/William_Sherman_Jennings" title="William Sherman Jennings">William Jennings</a>, were paid by Richard Bolles to tour the state to promote drainage. Broward was elected to the Senate in 1910, but died before he could take office. He was eulogized across Florida for his leadership and progressive inspiration. Rapidly growing <a href="/wiki/Fort_Lauderdale,_Florida" title="Fort Lauderdale, Florida">Fort Lauderdale</a> paid him tribute by naming <a href="/wiki/Broward_County,_Florida" title="Broward County, Florida">Broward County</a> after him (the town's original plan had been to name it Everglades County). Land in the Everglades was being sold for $15 an acre a month after Broward died.<sup id="cite_ref-35" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Meanwhile, Henry Flagler continued to build railway stations at towns as soon as the populations warranted them. News of the <a href="/wiki/Panama_Canal" title="Panama Canal">Panama Canal</a> inspired him to connect his rail line to the closest deep water port. Biscayne Bay was too shallow, so Flagler sent railway scouts to explore the possibility of building the line through to the tip of mainland Florida. The scouts reported that not enough land was present to build through the Everglades, so Flagler instead changed the plan to build to <a href="/wiki/Key_West" title="Key West">Key West</a> in 1912.<sup id="cite_ref-bramson_25-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-bramson-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Boom_and_plume_harvesting">Boom and plume harvesting</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Draining_and_development_of_the_Everglades&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Boom and plume harvesting"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Florida_land_boom_of_the_1920s" title="Florida land boom of the 1920s">Florida land boom of the 1920s</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Everglades_real_estate_tour_buses.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="A black and white photograph of a line of at least seven open-air buses filled with potential real estate investors, showing banners that read "HI-A-LE-AH", stopped on white dirt roads surrounded by lawns in undeveloped neighborhoods; some houses in the background" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cc/Everglades_real_estate_tour_buses.jpg/220px-Everglades_real_estate_tour_buses.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="173" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cc/Everglades_real_estate_tour_buses.jpg/330px-Everglades_real_estate_tour_buses.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cc/Everglades_real_estate_tour_buses.jpg/440px-Everglades_real_estate_tour_buses.jpg 2x" data-file-width="600" data-file-height="472" /></a><figcaption>A group of tour buses leads prospective buyers to newly drained lots in <a href="/wiki/Hialeah,_Florida" title="Hialeah, Florida">Hialeah</a> in 1921</figcaption></figure> <p>Real estate companies continued to advertise and sell land along newly dug canals. In April 1912—the end of the dry season—reporters from all over the U.S. were given a tour of what had recently been drained, and they returned to their papers and raved about the progress.<sup id="cite_ref-36" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Land developers sold 20,000 lots in a few months. But as news about the Wright report continued to be negative, land values plummeted, and sales decreased. Developers were sued and arrested for <a href="/wiki/Mail_fraud" class="mw-redirect" title="Mail fraud">mail fraud</a> when people who had spent their life savings to buy land arrived in south Florida expecting to find a dry parcel of land to build upon and instead found it completely underwater.<sup id="cite_ref-37" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Advertisements promised land that would yield crops in eight weeks, but for many it took at least as long just to clear. Some burned off the sawgrass or other vegetation only to discover that the underlying peat continued to burn. Animals and tractors used for plowing got mired in the muck and were useless. When the muck dried, it turned to a fine black powder and created dust storms.<sup id="cite_ref-38" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Settlers encountered rodents, <a href="/wiki/Skink" title="Skink">skinks</a>, and biting insects, and faced dangers from mosquitoes, poisonous snakes and alligators. Though at first crops sprouted quickly and lushly, they just as quickly wilted and died, seemingly without reason.<sup id="cite_ref-39" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-39"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It was discovered later that the peat and muck lacked <a href="/wiki/Copper" title="Copper">copper</a> and other trace elements. The USDA released a pamphlet in 1915 that declared land along the <a href="/wiki/New_River_(Broward_County,_Florida)" title="New River (Broward County, Florida)">New River Canal</a> would be too costly to keep drained and fertilized; people in Ft. Lauderdale responded by collecting all of the pamphlets and burning them.<sup id="cite_ref-40" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>With the increasing population in towns near the Everglades came hunting opportunities. Even decades earlier, <a href="/wiki/Harriet_Beecher_Stowe" title="Harriet Beecher Stowe">Harriet Beecher Stowe</a> had been horrified at the hunting by visitors, and she wrote the first conservation publication for Florida in 1877: "[t]he decks of boats are crowded with men, whose only feeling amid our magnificent forests, seems to be a wild desire to shoot something and who fire at every living thing on shore."<sup id="cite_ref-41" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-41"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>41<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Otters and raccoons were the most widely hunted for their skins. Otter pelts could fetch between $8 and $15 each. Raccoons, more plentiful, only warranted 75 cents each in 1915 ($22.59 in 2023). Hunting often went unchecked; on a single trip, one Lake Okeechobee hunter killed 250 alligators and 172 otters.<sup id="cite_ref-McCally117_42-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-McCally117-42"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>42<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Magazine_cutout_ladies_plume_hats.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="Color painting of two women in fine dresses and hats with large pink and purple bird plumes" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1b/Magazine_cutout_ladies_plume_hats.jpg/170px-Magazine_cutout_ladies_plume_hats.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="243" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1b/Magazine_cutout_ladies_plume_hats.jpg/255px-Magazine_cutout_ladies_plume_hats.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1b/Magazine_cutout_ladies_plume_hats.jpg/340px-Magazine_cutout_ladies_plume_hats.jpg 2x" data-file-width="548" data-file-height="784" /></a><figcaption>A 1904 magazine cutout showing the plumes for women's hats that were harvested from wading birds in the Everglades</figcaption></figure> <p><a href="/wiki/Wader" title="Wader">Wading birds</a> were a particular target. Their feathers were used in women's hats from the late 19th century until the 1920s. In 1886, five million birds were estimated to have been killed for their feathers.<sup id="cite_ref-43" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-43"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>43<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> They were usually shot in the spring, when their feathers were colored for mating and nesting. <a href="/wiki/Aigrette" title="Aigrette">Aigrettes</a>, as the plumes were called in the <a href="/wiki/Hatmaking" title="Hatmaking">millinery</a> business, sold in 1915 for $32 an ounce, also the price of gold.<sup id="cite_ref-McCally117_42-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-McCally117-42"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>42<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Millinery was a $17-million-a-year industry<sup id="cite_ref-44" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-44"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>44<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> that motivated <a href="/wiki/Plume_hunting" title="Plume hunting">plume harvesters</a> to lie in wait at the nests of <a href="/wiki/Egret" title="Egret">egrets</a> and other large birds during the nesting season, shoot the parents with small-bore rifles, and leave the chicks to starve.<sup id="cite_ref-McCally117_42-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-McCally117-42"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>42<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Many hunters refused to participate after watching the gruesome results of a plume hunt.<sup id="cite_ref-McCally117_42-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-McCally117-42"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>42<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-45" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-45"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>45<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Still, plumes from Everglades wading birds could be found in Havana, New York City, London, and Paris. A dealer in New York paid at least 60 hunters to provide him with "almost anything that wore feathers, but particularly the Herons, Spoonbills, and showy birds". Hunters could collect plumes from a hundred birds on a good day.<sup id="cite_ref-46" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-46"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>46<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Plume harvesting became a dangerous business. The <a href="/wiki/Audubon_Society" class="mw-redirect" title="Audubon Society">Audubon Society</a> became concerned with the amount of hunting being done in rookeries in the mangrove forests. In 1902, they hired a warden, <a href="/wiki/Guy_Bradley" title="Guy Bradley">Guy Bradley</a>, to watch the rookeries around Cuthbert Lake. Bradley had lived in <a href="/wiki/Flamingo,_Florida" class="mw-redirect" title="Flamingo, Florida">Flamingo</a> within the Everglades, and was murdered in 1905 by one of his neighbors after he tried to prevent him from hunting.<sup id="cite_ref-47" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-47"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>47<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Protection of birds was the reason for establishing the first <a href="/wiki/Wildlife_refuge" class="mw-redirect" title="Wildlife refuge">wildlife refuge</a> when President <a href="/wiki/Theodore_Roosevelt" title="Theodore Roosevelt">Theodore Roosevelt</a> set <a href="/wiki/Pelican_Island_National_Wildlife_Refuge" title="Pelican Island National Wildlife Refuge">Pelican Island</a> as a sanctuary in 1903. </p><p>In the 1920s, after birds were protected and alligators hunted nearly to extinction, <a href="/wiki/Prohibition_in_the_United_States" title="Prohibition in the United States">Prohibition</a> created a living for those willing to smuggle alcohol into the U.S. from Cuba. <a href="/wiki/Rum-runner" class="mw-redirect" title="Rum-runner">Rum-runners</a> used the vast Everglades as a hiding spot: there were never enough law enforcement officers to patrol it.<sup id="cite_ref-48" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-48"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>48<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The advent of the fishing industry, the arrival of the railroad, and the discovery of the benefits of adding copper to Okeechobee muck soon created unprecedented numbers of residents in new towns like <a href="/wiki/Moore_Haven,_Florida" title="Moore Haven, Florida">Moore Haven</a>, <a href="/wiki/Clewiston,_Florida" title="Clewiston, Florida">Clewiston</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Belle_Glade,_Florida" title="Belle Glade, Florida">Belle Glade</a>. By 1921, 2,000 people lived in 16 new towns around Lake Okeechobee.<sup id="cite_ref-dovell_3-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-dovell-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Sugarcane" title="Sugarcane">Sugarcane</a> became the primary crop grown in south Florida and it began to be mass-produced. Miami experienced a second real estate boom that earned a developer in <a href="/wiki/Coral_Gables,_Florida" title="Coral Gables, Florida">Coral Gables</a> $150 million and saw undeveloped land north of Miami sell for $30,600 an acre.<sup id="cite_ref-49" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-49"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>49<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Miami became cosmopolitan and experienced a renaissance of architecture and culture. Hollywood movie stars vacationed in the area and industrialists built lavish homes. Miami's population multiplied fivefold, and Ft. Lauderdale and Palm Beach grew many times over as well. In 1925, Miami newspapers published editions weighing over 7 pounds (3.2 kg), most of it real estate advertising.<sup id="cite_ref-50" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-50"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>50<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Waterfront property was the most highly valued. Mangrove trees were cut down and replaced with palm trees to improve the view. Acres of south Florida <a href="/wiki/Slash_pine" class="mw-redirect" title="Slash pine">slash pine</a> were taken down, some for lumber, but the wood was found to be dense and it split apart when nails were driven into it. It was also <a href="/wiki/Termite" title="Termite">termite</a>-resistant, but homes were needed quickly. Most of the pine forests in <a href="/wiki/Miami-Dade_County,_Florida" title="Miami-Dade County, Florida">Dade County</a> were cleared for development.<sup id="cite_ref-51" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-51"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>51<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Hurricanes">Hurricanes</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Draining_and_development_of_the_Everglades&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Hurricanes"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/List_of_Florida_hurricanes" title="List of Florida hurricanes">List of Florida hurricanes</a></div> <p>The canals proposed by Wright were unsuccessful in making the lands south of Lake Okeechobee fulfill the promises made by real estate developers to local farmers. The winter of 1922 was unseasonably wet and the region was underwater. The town of <a href="/wiki/Moore_Haven,_Florida" title="Moore Haven, Florida">Moore Haven</a> received 46 inches (1,200 mm) of rain in six weeks in 1924.<sup id="cite_ref-52" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-52"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>52<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Engineers were pressured to regulate the water flow, not only for farmers but also for commercial fishers, who often requested conflicting water levels in the lake. Fred Elliot, who was in charge of building the canals after James Wright retired, commented: "A man on one side of the canal wants it raised for his particular use and a man on the other side wants it lowered for his particular use".<sup id="cite_ref-53" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-53"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>53<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="1926_Miami_Hurricane">1926 Miami Hurricane</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Draining_and_development_of_the_Everglades&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: 1926 Miami Hurricane"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/1926_Miami_Hurricane" class="mw-redirect" title="1926 Miami Hurricane">1926 Miami Hurricane</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Baker%27s_Haulover_Inlet_1927.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="A black and white photograph of the ruins of a bridge taken from a beach with broken and uprooted trees recently damaged by a hurricane" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cd/Baker%27s_Haulover_Inlet_1927.jpg/220px-Baker%27s_Haulover_Inlet_1927.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="135" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cd/Baker%27s_Haulover_Inlet_1927.jpg/330px-Baker%27s_Haulover_Inlet_1927.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cd/Baker%27s_Haulover_Inlet_1927.jpg/440px-Baker%27s_Haulover_Inlet_1927.jpg 2x" data-file-width="600" data-file-height="369" /></a><figcaption>Remains of a bridge damaged during the <a href="/wiki/1926_Miami_Hurricane" class="mw-redirect" title="1926 Miami Hurricane">1926 Miami Hurricane</a>.</figcaption></figure> <p>The 1920s brought several favorable conditions that helped the land and population boom, one of which was an absence of any severe storms. The <a href="/wiki/1906_Florida_Keys_hurricane" title="1906 Florida Keys hurricane">last severe hurricane, in 1906, had struck the Florida Keys</a>. Many homes were constructed hastily and poorly as a result of this lull in storms.<sup id="cite_ref-steinberg_54-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-steinberg-54"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>54<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> However, on September 18, 1926, a storm that became known as the <a href="/wiki/1926_Miami_Hurricane" class="mw-redirect" title="1926 Miami Hurricane">1926 Miami Hurricane</a> struck with winds over 140 miles per hour (230 km/h), and caused massive devastation. The <a href="/wiki/Storm_surge" title="Storm surge">storm surge</a> was as high as 15 feet (4.6 m) in some places. <a href="/wiki/Henry_Flagler" title="Henry Flagler">Henry Flagler</a>'s opulent <a href="/wiki/Royal_Palm_Hotel_(Miami)" title="Royal Palm Hotel (Miami)">Royal Palm Hotel</a> was destroyed along with many other hotels and buildings. Most people who died did so when they ran out into the street in disbelief while the <a href="/wiki/Eye_(cyclone)" title="Eye (cyclone)">eye of the hurricane</a> passed over, not knowing the wind was coming in from the other direction. "The lull lasted 35 minutes, and during that time the streets of the city became crowded with people", wrote Richard Gray, the local weather chief. "As a result, many lives were lost during the second phase of the storm."<sup id="cite_ref-Merzer2006_55-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Merzer2006-55"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>55<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In Miami alone, 115 people were counted dead—although the true figure may have been as high as 175, because death totals were <a href="/wiki/Racial_segregation" title="Racial segregation">racially segregated</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-steinberg_54-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-steinberg-54"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>54<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> More than 25,000 people were homeless in the city. The town of <a href="/wiki/Moore_Haven" class="mw-redirect" title="Moore Haven">Moore Haven</a>, bordering Lake Okeechobee, was hardest hit. A <a href="/wiki/Levee" title="Levee">levee</a> built of muck collapsed, drowning almost 400 of the town's entire 1,200 residents.<sup id="cite_ref-56" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-56"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>56<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The tops of Lake Okeechobee levees were only 18 to 24 inches (46 to 61 cm) above the lake itself and the engineers were aware of the danger. Two days before the hurricane, an engineer predicted, "[i]f we have a blow, even a gale, Moore Haven is going under water". The engineer lost his wife and daughter in the flood.<sup id="cite_ref-57" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-57"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>57<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Okeechobee_hurricane_1928_noaa_pics.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="Two black and white images of Okeechobee, Florida, immediately following the 1928 hurricane; both pictures show the town in ruins" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e2/Okeechobee_hurricane_1928_noaa_pics.jpg/170px-Okeechobee_hurricane_1928_noaa_pics.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="268" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e2/Okeechobee_hurricane_1928_noaa_pics.jpg/255px-Okeechobee_hurricane_1928_noaa_pics.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e2/Okeechobee_hurricane_1928_noaa_pics.jpg/340px-Okeechobee_hurricane_1928_noaa_pics.jpg 2x" data-file-width="630" data-file-height="992" /></a><figcaption>Pictures of the destruction in the town of <a href="/wiki/Okeechobee,_Florida" title="Okeechobee, Florida">Okeechobee</a> in 1928</figcaption></figure> <p>The City of Miami responded to the hurricane by downplaying its effects and turning down aid. <i>The Miami Herald</i> declared two weeks after the storm that almost everything in the city had returned to normal. The governor supported the efforts to minimize the appearance of the destruction by refusing to call a special legislative session to appropriate emergency funds for relief. As a result, the <a href="/wiki/American_Red_Cross" title="American Red Cross">American Red Cross</a> was able to collect only $3 million of $5 million needed.<sup id="cite_ref-steinberg_54-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-steinberg-54"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>54<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The 1926 hurricane effectively ended the land boom in Miami, despite the attempts at hiding the effects. It also forced drainage commissioners to re-evaluate the effectiveness of the canals. A $20 million plan to build a dike around Lake Okeechobee, to be paid by property taxes, was turned down after a skeptical constituency sued to stop it;<sup id="cite_ref-58" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-58"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>58<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> more than $14 million had been spent on canals and they were ineffective in taking away excess water or delivering it when needed.<sup id="cite_ref-59" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-59"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>59<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="1928_Okeechobee_Hurricane">1928 Okeechobee Hurricane</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Draining_and_development_of_the_Everglades&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: 1928 Okeechobee Hurricane"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/1928_Okeechobee_Hurricane" class="mw-redirect" title="1928 Okeechobee Hurricane">1928 Okeechobee Hurricane</a></div> <p>The weather was unremarkable for two years. In 1928, construction was completed on the <a href="/wiki/Tamiami_Trail" title="Tamiami Trail">Tamiami Trail</a>, named because it was the only road spanning between <a href="/wiki/Tampa,_Florida" title="Tampa, Florida">Tampa</a> and Miami. The builders attempted to construct the road several times before they blasted the muck down to the limestone, filled it with rock and paved over it.<sup id="cite_ref-60" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-60"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>60<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Hard rains in the summer caused Lake Okeechobee to rise several feet; this was noticed by a local newspaper editor who demanded it be lowered. However, on September 16, 1928, came a massive storm, now known as the <a href="/wiki/1928_Okeechobee_Hurricane" class="mw-redirect" title="1928 Okeechobee Hurricane">1928 Okeechobee Hurricane</a>. Thousands drowned when Lake Okeechobee breached its levees; the range of estimates of the dead spanned from 1,770 (according to the Red Cross) to 3,000 or more.<sup id="cite_ref-Brochu_61-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Brochu-61"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>61<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Many were swept away and never recovered.<sup id="cite_ref-steinberg_54-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-steinberg-54"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>54<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-62" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-62"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>62<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The majority of the dead were black migrant workers who had recently settled in or near Belle Glade. The catastrophe made national news, and although the governor again refused aid, after he toured the area and counted 126 bodies still unburied or uncollected a week after the storm, he activated the National Guard to assist in the cleanup,<sup id="cite_ref-steinberg_54-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-steinberg-54"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>54<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and declared in a telegram: "Without exaggeration, the situation in the storm area beggars description".<sup id="cite_ref-63" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-63"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>63<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Herbert_Hoover_Dike">Herbert Hoover Dike</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Draining_and_development_of_the_Everglades&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Herbert Hoover Dike"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Army_CoE_sign_Hoover_Dike.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="A color advertisement created by the Army Corps of Engineers for the Herbert Hoover Dike with text reading: "1926 and 1928 Devastating hurricanes, Loss of 2,500 lives, Hoover Dike authorized 1930, Completed 1937"" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/56/Army_CoE_sign_Hoover_Dike.jpg/220px-Army_CoE_sign_Hoover_Dike.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="142" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/5/56/Army_CoE_sign_Hoover_Dike.jpg 1.5x" data-file-width="233" data-file-height="150" /></a><figcaption>A sign advertising the completion of the <a href="/wiki/Herbert_Hoover_Dike" title="Herbert Hoover Dike">Herbert Hoover Dike</a></figcaption></figure> <p>The focus of government agencies quickly shifted to the control of floods rather than drainage. The Okeechobee Flood Control District, financed by both state and federal funds, was created in 1929. President <a href="/wiki/Herbert_Hoover" title="Herbert Hoover">Herbert Hoover</a> toured the towns affected by the 1928 Okeechobee Hurricane and, an engineer himself, ordered the <a href="/wiki/United_States_Army_Corps_of_Engineers" title="United States Army Corps of Engineers">Army Corps of Engineers</a> to assist the communities surrounding the lake.<sup id="cite_ref-64" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-64"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>64<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Between 1930 and 1937, a dike 66 miles (106 km) long was built around the southern edge of the lake, and a shorter one around the northern edge. It was 34 feet (10 m) tall and 3.5 feet (1.1 m) thick on the lake side, 3 feet (0.91 m) thick on the top, and 2 feet (0.61 m) thick toward land. Control of the <a href="/wiki/Hoover_Dike" class="mw-redirect" title="Hoover Dike">Hoover Dike</a> and the waters of <a href="/wiki/Lake_Okeechobee" title="Lake Okeechobee">Lake Okeechobee</a> were delegated to federal powers: the United States declared legal limits of the lake to be 14 feet (4.3 m) and 17 feet (5.2 m).<sup id="cite_ref-stephan_12-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-stephan-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>A massive canal 80 feet (24 m) wide and 6 feet (1.8 m) deep was also dug through the <a href="/wiki/Caloosahatchee_River" title="Caloosahatchee River">Caloosahatchee River</a>; when the lake rose too high, the excess water left through the canal to the <a href="/wiki/Gulf_of_Mexico" title="Gulf of Mexico">Gulf of Mexico</a>. Exotic trees were planted along the north shore levee: <a href="/wiki/Casuarina" title="Casuarina">Australian pines</a>, <a href="/wiki/Eucalyptus" title="Eucalyptus">Australian oaks</a>, <a href="/wiki/Willow" title="Willow">willows</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Bamboo" title="Bamboo">bamboo</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-stephan_12-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-stephan-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> More than $20 million was spent on the entire project. Sugarcane production soared after the dike and canal were built. The populations of the small towns surrounding the lake jumped from 3,000 to 9,000 after <a href="/wiki/World_War_II" title="World War II">World War II</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-65" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-65"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>65<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Drought">Drought</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Draining_and_development_of_the_Everglades&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Drought"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The effects of the Hoover Dike were seen immediately. An extended drought occurred in the 1930s, and with the wall preventing water leaving Lake Okeechobee and canals and ditches removing other water, the Everglades became parched. Peat turned to dust, and salty ocean water entered Miami's wells. When the city brought in an expert to investigate, he discovered that the water in the Everglades was the area's <a href="/wiki/Groundwater" title="Groundwater">groundwater</a>—here, it appeared on the surface. Draining the Everglades removed this groundwater, which was replaced by ocean water seeping into the area's wells.<sup id="cite_ref-66" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-66"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>66<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In 1939, 1 million acres (4,000 km<sup>2</sup>) of Everglades burned, and the black clouds of peat and sawgrass fires hung over Miami. Underground peat fires burned roots of trees and plants without burning the plants in some places.<sup id="cite_ref-67" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-67"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>67<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Scientists who took soil samples before draining had not taken into account that the organic composition of peat and muck in the Everglades was mixed with bacteria that added little to the process of decomposition underwater because they were not mixed with oxygen. As soon as the water was drained and oxygen mixed with the soil, the bacteria began to break down the soil. In some places, homes had to be moved on to stilts and 8 feet (2.4 m) of topsoil was lost.<sup id="cite_ref-68" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-68"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>68<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Conservation_attempts">Conservation attempts</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Draining_and_development_of_the_Everglades&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Conservation attempts"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Harry_Truman_at_Everglades_National_Park.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="A black and white photograph of President Harry Truman standing at a podium bearing the presidential seal on a stage with people behind him applauding" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cc/Harry_Truman_at_Everglades_National_Park.jpg/220px-Harry_Truman_at_Everglades_National_Park.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="175" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cc/Harry_Truman_at_Everglades_National_Park.jpg/330px-Harry_Truman_at_Everglades_National_Park.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cc/Harry_Truman_at_Everglades_National_Park.jpg/440px-Harry_Truman_at_Everglades_National_Park.jpg 2x" data-file-width="600" data-file-height="478" /></a><figcaption>President <a href="/wiki/Harry_Truman" class="mw-redirect" title="Harry Truman">Harry Truman</a> dedicating <a href="/wiki/Everglades_National_Park" title="Everglades National Park">Everglades National Park</a> on December 6, 1947</figcaption></figure> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Everglades_National_Park" title="Everglades National Park">Everglades National Park</a></div> <p>Conservationists concerned about the Everglades have been a vocal minority ever since Miami was a young city. South Florida's first and perhaps most enthusiastic naturalist was <a href="/wiki/Charles_Torrey_Simpson" title="Charles Torrey Simpson">Charles Torrey Simpson</a>, who retired from the <a href="/wiki/Smithsonian_Institution" title="Smithsonian Institution">Smithsonian Institution</a> to Miami in 1905 when he was 53. Nicknamed "the Sage of Biscayne Bay", Simpson wrote several books about tropical plant life around Miami. His backyard contained a <a href="/wiki/Tropical_hardwood_hammock" title="Tropical hardwood hammock">tropical hardwood hammock</a>, which he estimated he showed to about 50,000 people. Though he tended to avoid controversy regarding development, in <i>Ornamental Gardening in Florida</i> he wrote, "Mankind everywhere has an insane desire to waste and destroy the good and beautiful things this nature has lavished upon him".<sup id="cite_ref-69" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-69"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>69<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Although the idea of protecting a portion of the Everglades arose in 1905, a crystallized effort was formed in 1928 when Miami landscape designer <a href="/wiki/Ernest_F._Coe" title="Ernest F. Coe">Ernest F. Coe</a> established the Everglades Tropical National Park Association. It had enough support to be declared a national park by Congress in 1934, but there was not enough money during the <a href="/wiki/Great_Depression" title="Great Depression">Great Depression</a> to buy the proposed 2,000,000 acres (8,100 km<sup>2</sup>) for the park. It took another 13 years for it to be dedicated on December 6, 1947. <sup id="cite_ref-enpsite_70-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-enpsite-70"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>70<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> One month before the dedication of the park, the former editor of <i><a href="/wiki/The_Miami_Herald" class="mw-redirect" title="The Miami Herald">The Miami Herald</a></i> and freelance writer <a href="/wiki/Marjory_Stoneman_Douglas" title="Marjory Stoneman Douglas">Marjory Stoneman Douglas</a> published her first book, <i><a href="/wiki/The_Everglades:_River_of_Grass" title="The Everglades: River of Grass">The Everglades: River of Grass</a></i>. After researching the region for five years, she described the history and ecology of the south of Florida in great detail, characterizing the Everglades as a river instead of a stagnant swamp.<sup id="cite_ref-davis-2_71-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-davis-2-71"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>71<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Douglas later wrote, "My colleague Art Marshall said that with [the words "River of Grass"] I changed everybody's knowledge and educated the world as to what the Everglades meant".<sup id="cite_ref-72" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-72"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>72<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The last chapter was titled "The Eleventh Hour" and warned that the Everglades were approaching death, although the course could be reversed.<sup id="cite_ref-73" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-73"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>73<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Its first printing sold out a month after its release.<sup id="cite_ref-davis-3_74-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-davis-3-74"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>74<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Flood_control">Flood control</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Draining_and_development_of_the_Everglades&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: Flood control"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Coinciding with the dedication of Everglades National Park, 1947 in south Florida saw two hurricanes and a wet season responsible for 100 inches (250 cm) of rain, ending the decade-long drought. Although there were no human casualties, cattle and deer were drowned and standing water was left in suburban areas for months. Agricultural interests lost about $59 million. The embattled head of the Everglades Drainage District carried a gun for protection after being threatened.<sup id="cite_ref-75" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-75"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>75<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Central_and_Southern_Florida_Flood_Control_Project">Central and Southern Florida Flood Control Project</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Draining_and_development_of_the_Everglades&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: Central and Southern Florida Flood Control Project"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In 1948 Congress approved the <a href="/wiki/Central_and_Southern_Florida_Project_for_Flood_Control" class="mw-redirect" title="Central and Southern Florida Project for Flood Control">Central and Southern Florida Project for Flood Control</a> and Other Purposes (C&SF) and consolidated the Everglades Drainage District and the Okeechobee Flood Control District under this.<sup id="cite_ref-light_76-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-light-76"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>76<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The C&SF used four methods in flood management: levees, water storage areas, canal improvements, and large pumps to assist gravity. Between 1952 and 1954 in cooperation with the state of Florida it built a levee 100 miles (160 km) long between the eastern Everglades and suburbs from Palm Beach to <a href="/wiki/Homestead,_Florida" title="Homestead, Florida">Homestead</a>, and blocked the flow of water into populated areas.<sup id="cite_ref-77" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-77"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>77<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Between 1954 and 1963 it divided the Everglades into basins. In the northern Everglades were Water Conservation Areas (WCAs), and the Everglades Agricultural Area (EAA) bordering to the south of Lake Okeechobee. In the southern Everglades was Everglades National Park. Levees and pumping stations bordered each WCA, which released water in drier times and removed it and pumped it to the ocean or Gulf of Mexico in times of flood. The WCAs took up about 37 percent of the original Everglades.<sup id="cite_ref-78" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-78"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>78<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>During the 1950s and 1960s the <a href="/wiki/South_Florida_metropolitan_area" class="mw-redirect" title="South Florida metropolitan area">South Florida metropolitan area</a> grew four times as fast as the rest of the nation. Between 1940 and 1965, 6 million people moved to south Florida: 1,000 people moved to Miami every week.<sup id="cite_ref-79" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-79"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>79<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Urban development between the mid-1950s and the late 1960s quadrupled. Much of the water reclaimed from the Everglades was sent to newly developed areas.<sup id="cite_ref-Caulfield55_80-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Caulfield55-80"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>80<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> With metropolitan growth came urban problems associated with rapid expansion: traffic jams; <a href="/wiki/School_overcrowding" class="mw-redirect" title="School overcrowding">school overcrowding</a>; crime; overloaded sewage treatment plants; and, for the first time in south Florida's urban history, water shortages in times of drought.<sup id="cite_ref-81" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-81"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>81<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The C&SF constructed over 1,000 miles (1,600 km) of canals, and hundreds of pumping stations and levees within three decades. It produced a film, <i>Waters of Destiny</i>, characterized by author Michael Grunwald as <a href="/wiki/Propaganda" title="Propaganda">propaganda</a>, that likened nature to a villainous, shrieking force of rage and declared the C&SF's mission was to tame nature and make the Everglades useful.<sup id="cite_ref-82" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-82"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>82<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Everglades National Park management and Marjory Stoneman Douglas initially supported the C&SF, as it promised to maintain the Everglades and manage the water responsibly. However, an early report by the project reflected local attitudes about the Everglades as a priority to people in nearby developed areas: "The aesthetic appeal of the Park can never be as strong as the demands of home and livelihood. The manatee and the orchid mean something to people in an abstract way, but the former cannot line their purse, nor the latter fill their empty bellies."<sup id="cite_ref-83" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-83"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>83<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Establishment of the C&SF made Everglades National Park completely dependent upon another political entity for its survival.<sup id="cite_ref-gilmour_84-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-gilmour-84"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>84<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> One of the C&SF's projects was Levee 29, laid along the Tamiami Trail on the northern border of the park. Levee 29 featured four flood control gates that controlled all the water entering Everglades National Park; before construction, water flowed in through open drain pipes. The period from 1962 to 1965 was one of drought for the Everglades, and Levee 29 remained closed to allow the <a href="/wiki/Biscayne_Aquifer" title="Biscayne Aquifer">Biscayne Aquifer</a>—the fresh water source for South Florida—to stay filled.<sup id="cite_ref-85" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-85"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>85<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Animals began to cross Tamiami Trail for the water held in WCA 3, and many were killed by cars. Biologists estimate the population of alligators in Everglades National Park was halved; otters nearly became extinct.<sup id="cite_ref-Caulfield55_80-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Caulfield55-80"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>80<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The populations of wading birds had been reduced by 90 percent from the 1940s.<sup id="cite_ref-sklar_86-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-sklar-86"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>86<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> When park management and the U.S. Department of the Interior asked the C&SF for assistance, the C&SF offered to build a levee along the southern border of Everglades National Park to retain waters that historically flowed through the <a href="/wiki/Mangrove" title="Mangrove">mangroves</a> and into <a href="/wiki/Florida_Bay" title="Florida Bay">Florida Bay</a>. Though the C&SF refused to send the park more water, they constructed Canal 67, bordering the east side of the park and carrying excess water from Lake Okeechobee to the Atlantic.<sup id="cite_ref-Caulfield55_80-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Caulfield55-80"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>80<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Everglades_Agricultural_Area">Everglades Agricultural Area</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Draining_and_development_of_the_Everglades&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: Everglades Agricultural Area"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Everglades_canal.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="A color photograph taken from the air showing the Everglades bisected by a highway; at the bottom is a sawgrass field flooded with water bordered by a full canal; at the top are some homes and a dry sawgrass field" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a1/Everglades_canal.jpg/220px-Everglades_canal.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="143" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a1/Everglades_canal.jpg/330px-Everglades_canal.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a1/Everglades_canal.jpg/440px-Everglades_canal.jpg 2x" data-file-width="600" data-file-height="390" /></a><figcaption>A 2003 U.S. Geological Survey photo showing the border between Water Conservation Area 3 (bottom) with water, and <a href="/wiki/Everglades_National_Park" title="Everglades National Park">Everglades National Park</a>, dry (top)</figcaption></figure> <p>The C&SF established 470,000 acres (1,900 km<sup>2</sup>) for the Everglades Agricultural Area—27 percent of the Everglades before development.<sup id="cite_ref-87" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-87"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>87<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In the late 1920s, agricultural experiments indicated that adding large amounts of <a href="/wiki/Manganese_sulfate" class="mw-redirect" title="Manganese sulfate">manganese sulfate</a> to Everglades muck produced profitable vegetable harvests. Adding 100 pounds (45 kg) of the compound was more cost effective than adding 1 short ton (0.91 t) of manure.<sup id="cite_ref-88" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-88"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>88<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The primary cash crop in the EAA is sugarcane, though <a href="/wiki/Sod" title="Sod">sod</a>, beans, lettuce, celery, and rice are also grown. Sugarcane became more consolidated an industry than did any other crop; in 1940 the coalition of farms was renamed <a href="/wiki/US_Sugar_Corporation" class="mw-redirect" title="US Sugar Corporation">U.S. Sugar</a> and this produced 86 percent of Everglades sugar.<sup id="cite_ref-89" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-89"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>89<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> During the 1930s the sugarcane farmers' coalition came under investigation for labor practices that bordered on slavery. Potential employees—primarily young black men—were lured from all over the U.S. by the promise of jobs, but they were held financially responsible for training, transportation, room and board and other costs. Quitting while debts were owed was punishable with jail time. By 1942, U.S. Sugar was indicted for <a href="/wiki/Peonage" class="mw-redirect" title="Peonage">peonage</a> in federal court, though the charges were eventually dismissed on a technicality. U.S. Sugar benefited significantly from the <a href="/wiki/United_States_embargo_against_Cuba" title="United States embargo against Cuba">U.S. embargo on Cuban goods</a> beginning in the early 1960s.<sup id="cite_ref-90" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-90"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>90<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In 1958, before the <a href="/wiki/Fidel_Castro" title="Fidel Castro">Castro</a> regime, 47,000 acres (190 km<sup>2</sup>) of sugarcane were harvested in Florida; by the 1964–1965 season, 228,000 acres (920 km<sup>2</sup>) were harvested. From 1959 to 1962 the region went from two sugar mills to six, one of which in Belle Glade set several world records for sugar production.<sup id="cite_ref-snyder_91-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-snyder-91"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>91<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Fields in the EAA are typically 40 acres (16 ha), on two sides bordered by canals that are connected to larger ones by which water is pumped in or out depending on the needs of the crops. The water level for sugarcane is ideally maintained at 20 inches (51 cm) below the surface soil, and after the cane is harvested, the stalks are burned.<sup id="cite_ref-92" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-92"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>92<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Vegetables require more fertilizer than sugarcane, though the fields may resemble the historic hydrology of the Everglades by being flooded in the wet season. Sugarcane, however, requires water in the dry season. The fertilizers used on vegetables, along with high concentrations of <a href="/wiki/Nitrogen" title="Nitrogen">nitrogen</a> and <a href="/wiki/Phosphorus" title="Phosphorus">phosphorus</a> that are the by-product of decayed soil necessary for sugarcane production, were pumped into WCAs south of the EAA, predominantly to Everglades National Park. The introduction of large amounts of these let exotic plants take hold in the Everglades.<sup id="cite_ref-93" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-93"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>93<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> One of the defining characteristics of natural Everglades ecology is its ability to support itself in a nutrient-poor environment, and the introduction of fertilizers began to change this ecology.<sup id="cite_ref-94" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-94"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>94<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Turning_point">Turning point</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Draining_and_development_of_the_Everglades&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: Turning point"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>A turning point for development in the Everglades came in 1969 when a <a href="/wiki/Dade-Collier_Training_and_Transition_Airport" title="Dade-Collier Training and Transition Airport">replacement airport</a> was proposed as <a href="/wiki/Miami_International_Airport" title="Miami International Airport">Miami International Airport</a> outgrew its capacities. Developers began acquiring land, paying $180 an acre in 1968, and the Dade County Port Authority (DCPA) bought 39 square miles (100 km<sup>2</sup>) in the Big Cypress Swamp without consulting the C&SF, management of Everglades National Park or the <a href="/wiki/Department_of_the_Interior" class="mw-redirect" title="Department of the Interior">Department of the Interior</a>. Park management learned of the official purchase and agreement to build the jetport from <i><a href="/wiki/The_Miami_Herald" class="mw-redirect" title="The Miami Herald">The Miami Herald</a></i> the day it was announced.<sup id="cite_ref-gilmour_84-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-gilmour-84"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>84<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The DCPA bulldozed the land it had bought, and laid a single runway it declared was for training pilots. The new jetport was planned to be larger than <a href="/wiki/O%27Hare_International_Airport" title="O'Hare International Airport">O'Hare</a>, <a href="/wiki/Dulles_International_Airport" title="Dulles International Airport">Dulles</a>, <a href="/wiki/John_F._Kennedy_International_Airport" title="John F. Kennedy International Airport">JFK</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Los_Angeles_International_Airport" title="Los Angeles International Airport">LAX</a> airports combined; the location chosen was 6 miles (9.7 km) north of the Everglades National Park, within WCA 3. The deputy director of the DCPA declared: "This is going to be one of the great population centers of America. We will do our best to meet our responsibilities and the responsibilities of all men to exercise dominion over the land, sea, and air above us as the higher order of man intends."<sup id="cite_ref-95" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-95"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>95<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The C&SF brought the jetport proposal to national attention by mailing letters about it to 100 conservation groups in the U.S.<sup id="cite_ref-gilmour_84-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-gilmour-84"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>84<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Initial local press reaction condemned conservation groups who immediately opposed the project. <i><a href="/wiki/Business_Week" class="mw-redirect" title="Business Week">Business Week</a></i> reported real estate prices jumped from $200 to $800 an acre surrounding the planned location, and <i><a href="/wiki/Life_(magazine)" title="Life (magazine)">Life</a></i> wrote of the expectations of the commercial interests in the area.<sup id="cite_ref-gilmour_84-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-gilmour-84"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>84<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The <a href="/wiki/U.S._Geological_Survey" class="mw-redirect" title="U.S. Geological Survey">U.S. Geological Survey</a>'s study of the <a href="/wiki/Environmental_Impact_of_the_Big_Cypress_Swamp_Jetport" title="Environmental Impact of the Big Cypress Swamp Jetport">environmental impact of the jetport</a> started, "Development of the proposed jetport and its attendant facilities ... will inexorably destroy the south Florida ecosystem and thus the Everglades National Park".<sup id="cite_ref-96" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-96"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>96<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The jetport was intended to support a community of a million people and employ 60,000. The DCPA director was reported in <i><a href="/wiki/Time_(magazine)" title="Time (magazine)">Time</a></i> saying, "I'm more interested in people than alligators. This is the ideal place as far as aviation is concerned."<sup id="cite_ref-timejets_97-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-timejets-97"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>97<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>When studies indicated the proposed jetport would create 4,000,000 US gallons (15,000,000 L) of raw sewage a day and 10,000 short tons (9,100 t) of jet engine pollutants a year, the national media snapped to attention. <i><a href="/wiki/Science_(journal)" title="Science (journal)">Science</a></i> magazine wrote, in a series on environmental protection highlighting the jetport project, "Environmental scientists have become increasingly aware that, without careful planning, development of a region and the conservation of its natural resources do not go hand in hand".<sup id="cite_ref-98" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-98"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>98<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <i>The New York Times</i> called it a "blueprint for disaster",<sup id="cite_ref-99" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-99"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>99<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and <a href="/wiki/Wisconsin" title="Wisconsin">Wisconsin</a> senator <a href="/wiki/Gaylord_Nelson" title="Gaylord Nelson">Gaylord Nelson</a> wrote to President <a href="/wiki/Richard_Nixon" title="Richard Nixon">Richard Nixon</a> voicing his opposition: "It is a test of whether or not we are really committed in this country to protecting our environment."<sup id="cite_ref-timejets_97-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-timejets-97"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>97<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Governor <a href="/wiki/Claude_Kirk" class="mw-redirect" title="Claude Kirk">Claude Kirk</a> withdrew his support for the project, and the 78-year-old <a href="/wiki/Marjory_Stoneman_Douglas" title="Marjory Stoneman Douglas">Marjory Stoneman Douglas</a> was persuaded to go on tour to give hundreds of speeches against it. She established <a href="/wiki/Friends_of_the_Everglades" title="Friends of the Everglades">Friends of the Everglades</a> and encouraged more than 3,000 members to join. Initially the <a href="/wiki/U.S._Department_of_Transportation" class="mw-redirect" title="U.S. Department of Transportation">U.S. Department of Transportation</a> pledged funds to support the jetport, but after pressure, Nixon overruled the department. He instead established <a href="/wiki/Big_Cypress_National_Preserve" title="Big Cypress National Preserve">Big Cypress National Preserve</a>, announcing it in the Special Message to the Congress Outlining the 1972 Environmental Program.<sup id="cite_ref-100" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-100"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>100<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Following the jetport proposition, <a href="/wiki/Restoration_of_the_Everglades" title="Restoration of the Everglades">restoration of the Everglades</a> became not only a statewide priority, but an international one as well. In the 1970s the Everglades were declared an <a href="/wiki/International_Biosphere_Reserve" class="mw-redirect" title="International Biosphere Reserve">International Biosphere Reserve</a> and a <a href="/wiki/World_Heritage_Site" title="World Heritage Site">World Heritage Site</a> by <a href="/wiki/UNESCO" title="UNESCO">UNESCO</a>, and a Wetland of International Importance by the <a href="/wiki/Ramsar_Convention" title="Ramsar Convention">Ramsar Convention</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-101" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-101"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>101<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-102" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-102"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>102<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> making it one of only three locations on Earth that have appeared on all three lists.<sup id="cite_ref-103" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-103"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>103<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Draining_and_development_of_the_Everglades&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_issues_in_Florida" title="Environmental issues in Florida">Environmental issues in Florida</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indigenous_people_of_the_Everglades_region" title="Indigenous people of the Everglades region">Indigenous people of the Everglades region</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Seminole" title="Seminole">Seminole</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Miami,_Florida" class="mw-redirect" title="History of Miami, Florida">History of Miami, Florida</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Restoration_of_the_Everglades" title="Restoration of the Everglades">Restoration of the Everglades</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Swamp_Land_Act_of_1850" title="Swamp Land Act of 1850">Swamp Land Act of 1850</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Clean_Water_Act" title="Clean Water Act">Clean Water Act</a> (1972)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/North_American_Wetlands_Conservation_Act" title="North American Wetlands Conservation Act">North American Wetlands Conservation Act</a> (1989)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_canals_in_the_United_States#Irrigation,_industrial_and_drainage_canals" title="List of canals in the United States">List of canals in the United States#Irrigation, industrial and drainage canals</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Notes_and_references">Notes and references</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Draining_and_development_of_the_Everglades&action=edit&section=18" title="Edit section: Notes and references"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist reflist-columns references-column-width" style="column-width: 30em;"> <ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-meindl-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-meindl_1-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-meindl_1-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-meindl_1-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-meindl_1-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-meindl_1-4"><sup><i><b>e</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Meindl, Christopher, et al. (December, 2002). "On the Importance of Claims-Making: The Role of James O. Wright in Promoting the Drainage of Florida's Everglades in the Early Twentieth Century", <i>Annals of the Association of American Geographers</i>, <b>92</b> (4), p. 682–701.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-2">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Douglas, p. 245.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-dovell-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-dovell_3-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-dovell_3-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-dovell_3-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-dovell_3-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-dovell_3-4"><sup><i><b>e</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-dovell_3-5"><sup><i><b>f</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-dovell_3-6"><sup><i><b>g</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-dovell_3-7"><sup><i><b>h</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-dovell_3-8"><sup><i><b>i</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Dovell, J. E. (July 1947). "The Everglades Before Reclamation", <i>The Florida Historical Quarterly</i>, <b>26</b> (1), p. 1–44.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-4">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Grunwald, p. 31–32.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-5">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">White, Frank (October 1959). "The Journals of Lieutenant John Pickell, 1836–1837", <i>The Florida Historical Quarterly</i>, <b>38</b> (2), p. 143–172.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-6"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-6">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Lodge, p. 110</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-7"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-7">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Tebeau, p. 66–67.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-8"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-8">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Grunwald, p. 42.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-9"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-9">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Tebeau, p. 71.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-10"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-10">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Tebeau, p. 75–76.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-11"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-11">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">McCally, p. 65–69.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-stephan-12"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-stephan_12-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-stephan_12-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-stephan_12-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Stephan, L. Lamar (December 1942). "Geographic Role of the Everglades in the Early History of Florida", <i>The Scientific Monthly</i>, <b>55</b>, (6) p. 515–526.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-13"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-13">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Douglas, p. 253.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-dovell1948-14"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-dovell1948_14-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-dovell1948_14-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Dovell, Junius (July 1948). "The Everglades: A Florida Frontier", <i>Agricultural History</i>, <b>22</b> (3), p. 187–197.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-davis-1-15"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-davis-1_15-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-davis-1_15-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Davis, T. Frederick (January 1939). "The Disston Land Purchase ", <i>The Florida Historical Quarterly</i>, <b>17</b> (3), p. 201–211.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-16"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-16">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Barnett, p. 17.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-17"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-17">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Grunwald, p. 92–93.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-18"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-18">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Grunwald, p. 90.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-19"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-19">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Douglas, p. 286.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-20"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-20">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Douglas, p. 284.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-21"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-21">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Patterson, Gordon (Summer 1997). "Ditches and Dreams: Nelson Fell and the Rise of Fellsmere", <i>The Florida Historical Quarterly</i>, 76 (1), p. 1–20.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-22"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-22">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Barnett, p. 18.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-23"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-23">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">"Henry Flagler." <i>Encyclopedia of World Biography Supplement</i>, Vol. 21. Gale Group, 2001.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-24"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-24">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">"Henry Morrison Flagler." <i>Dictionary of American Biography</i> Base Set. American Council of Learned Societies, 1928–1936.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-bramson-25"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-bramson_25-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-bramson_25-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Bramson, Seth (1998). "A Tale of Three Henrys", <i>The Journal of Decorative and Propaganda Arts</i>, <b>23</b>, Florida Theme Issue, p. 113–143.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-26"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-26">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Bush, Gregory (May, 1999). "Playground of the USA", <i>The Pacific Historical Review</i>, <b>62</b> (2), p. 153–172.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-27"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-27">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Douglas, p. 309.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-28"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-28">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Douglas, p. 312.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-29"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-29">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Carter, p. 78.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-30"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-30">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">McCally, p. 93–94.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-McCally96-31"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-McCally96_31-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-McCally96_31-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">McCally, p. 96.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-32"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-32">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">McCally, p. 101.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-33"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-33">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Grunwald, p. 144.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-34"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-34">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">McCally, p. 101–12.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-35"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-35">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Grunwald, p. 148–149.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-36"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-36">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Grunwald, p. 153.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-37"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-37">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">McCally, p. 107–108.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-38"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-38">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">McCally, p. 124–126.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-39"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-39">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Douglas, p. 318.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-40"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-40">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Douglas, p. 325.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-41"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-41">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Grunwald, p. 119–120.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-McCally117-42"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-McCally117_42-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-McCally117_42-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-McCally117_42-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-McCally117_42-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">McCally, p. 117.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-43"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-43">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Grunwald, p. 120.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-44"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-44">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Douglas, p. 310.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-45"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-45">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Grunwald, p. 126.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-46"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-46">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">McCally, p.117–118.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-47"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-47">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Douglas, p. 310–311.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-48"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-48">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Douglas, p. 330.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-49"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-49">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Douglas, p. 334.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-50"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-50">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Grunwald, p. 179.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-51"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-51">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">U.S. Fish & Wildlife Service. "<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.fws.gov/southeast/vbpdfs/commun/pr.pdf">South Florida Multi-Species Recovery Plan: Pine rockland</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20121111003517/http://www.fws.gov/southeast/vbpdfs/commun/pr.pdf">Archived</a> 2012-11-11 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>", Retrieved May 3, 2008.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-52"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-52">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Grunwald, p. 183.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-53"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-53">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Grunwald, p. 186.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-steinberg-54"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-steinberg_54-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-steinberg_54-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-steinberg_54-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-steinberg_54-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-steinberg_54-4"><sup><i><b>e</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Steinberg, Theodore (October 1997). 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Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2009-08-15</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Everglades+National+Park%2C+Florida%2C+United+States+of+America&rft.pub=United+Nations+Environment+Program&rft.date=2003-03&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.unep-wcmc.org%2Fsites%2Fwh%2Fpdf%2FEverglades.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADraining+and+development+of+the+Everglades" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-102"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-102">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.nps.gov/ever/parknews/parkstatistics.htm">"Park Statistics"</a>. <i>Everglades National Park</i>. National Park Service. July 24, 2006<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2008-05-21</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Everglades+National+Park&rft.atitle=Park+Statistics&rft.date=2006-07-24&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.nps.gov%2Fever%2Fparknews%2Fparkstatistics.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADraining+and+development+of+the+Everglades" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-103"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-103">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Maltby, E., P.J. Dugan, "Wetland Ecosystem Management, and Restoration: An International Perspective" in <i>Everglades: The Ecosystem and its Restoration</i>, Steven Davis and John Ogden, eds. (1994), Delray Beach, Fla.: St. Lucie Press. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-9634030-2-8" title="Special:BookSources/0-9634030-2-8">0-9634030-2-8</a></span> </li> </ol></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Bibliography">Bibliography</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Draining_and_development_of_the_Everglades&action=edit&section=19" title="Edit section: Bibliography"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li>Barnett, Cynthia (2007). <i>Mirage: Florida and the Vanishing Water of the Eastern U.S.</i>. Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-472-11563-4" title="Special:BookSources/0-472-11563-4">0-472-11563-4</a></li> <li>Carter, W. Hodding (2004). <i>Stolen Water: Saving the Everglades from its Friends, Foes, and Florida</i>. Atria Books. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-7434-7407-4" title="Special:BookSources/0-7434-7407-4">0-7434-7407-4</a></li> <li>Caulfield, Patricia (1970) <i>Everglades</i>. New York: Sierra Club / Ballantine Books.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marjory_Stoneman_Douglas" title="Marjory Stoneman Douglas">Douglas, Marjory</a> (1947). <i>The Everglades: River of Grass</i>. R. Bemis Publishing, Ltd. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-912451-44-0" title="Special:BookSources/0-912451-44-0">0-912451-44-0</a></li> <li>Douglas, Marjory; Rothchild, John (1987). <i>Marjory Stoneman Douglas: Voice of the River</i>. Pineapple Press. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-910923-33-7" title="Special:BookSources/0-910923-33-7">0-910923-33-7</a></li> <li>Grunwald, Michael (2006). <i>The Swamp: The Everglades, Florida, and the Politics of Paradise</i>. New York: Simon & Schuster. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-7432-5107-5" title="Special:BookSources/0-7432-5107-5">0-7432-5107-5</a></li> <li>Lodge, Thomas E. (1994). <i>The Everglades Handbook: Understanding the Ecosystem</i>. CRC Press. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/1-56670-614-9" title="Special:BookSources/1-56670-614-9">1-56670-614-9</a></li> <li>McCally, David (1999). <i>The Everglades: An Environmental History</i>. Gainesville: University Press of Florida. Available as <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.netlibrary.com/urlapi.asp?action=summary&v=1&bookid=54796">an etext</a>; Boulder, Colo.: NetLibrary, 2001. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-8130-2302-5" title="Special:BookSources/0-8130-2302-5">0-8130-2302-5</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charlton_Tebeau" class="mw-redirect" title="Charlton Tebeau">Tebeau, Charlton</a> (1968). <i>Man in the Everglades: 2000 Years of Human History in the Everglades National Park</i>. Coral Gables: University of Miami Press.</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Draining_and_development_of_the_Everglades&action=edit&section=20" title="Edit section: External links"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://sflwww.er.usgs.gov/virtual_tour/controlling/index.html">U.S. Geological Survey information on the Everglades Agricultural Area</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20160303220320/http://sflwww.er.usgs.gov/virtual_tour/controlling/index.html">Archived</a> 2016-03-03 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://everglades.fiu.edu/reclaim/timeline/timeline6.htm">Everglades Timeline</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://journals.flvc.org/flgeog/article/view/78110/75535">Frank Stoneman and the Florida Everglades During the Early 20th Century</a></li></ul> <p><span class="geo-inline-hidden noexcerpt"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1156832818">.mw-parser-output .geo-default,.mw-parser-output .geo-dms,.mw-parser-output .geo-dec{display:inline}.mw-parser-output .geo-nondefault,.mw-parser-output .geo-multi-punct,.mw-parser-output .geo-inline-hidden{display:none}.mw-parser-output .longitude,.mw-parser-output .latitude{white-space:nowrap}</style><span class="plainlinks nourlexpansion"><a class="external text" href="https://geohack.toolforge.org/geohack.php?pagename=Draining_and_development_of_the_Everglades&params=26_N_80.7_W_region:US-FL_scale:2000000"><span class="geo-nondefault"><span class="geo-dms" title="Maps, aerial photos, and other data for this location"><span class="latitude">26°00′N</span> <span 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aria-labelledby="Everglades263" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239400231">.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar ul{display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::before{margin-right:-0.125em;content:"[ "}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::after{margin-left:-0.125em;content:" ]"}.mw-parser-output .navbar li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .navbar a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini 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template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Everglades263" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Everglades" title="Everglades">Everglades</a></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Geography_and_ecology_of_the_Everglades" title="Geography and ecology of the Everglades">Geography and ecology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indigenous_people_of_the_Everglades_region" title="Indigenous people of the Everglades region">Indigenous people</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Draining and development</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Restoration_of_the_Everglades" title="Restoration of the Everglades">Restoration</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Everglades_National_Park" title="Everglades National Park">Everglades National Park</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_invasive_species_in_the_Everglades" title="List of invasive species in the Everglades">Invasive species</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">People</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Guy_Bradley" title="Guy Bradley">Guy Bradley</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ernest_F._Coe" title="Ernest F. Coe">Ernest F. Coe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hamilton_Disston" title="Hamilton Disston">Hamilton Disston</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marjory_Stoneman_Douglas" title="Marjory Stoneman Douglas">Marjory Stoneman Douglas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arthur_R._Marshall" title="Arthur R. Marshall">Arthur R. Marshall</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Garald_G._Parker" title="Garald G. Parker">Garald G. Parker</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Protected areas</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Big_Cypress_National_Preserve" title="Big Cypress National Preserve">Big Cypress National Preserve</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biscayne_National_Park" title="Biscayne National Park">Biscayne National Park</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Corkscrew_Swamp_Sanctuary" title="Corkscrew Swamp Sanctuary">Corkscrew Swamp Sanctuary</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fakahatchee_Strand_Preserve_State_Park" title="Fakahatchee Strand Preserve State Park">Fakahatchee Strand Preserve State Park</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Florida_Keys_National_Marine_Sanctuary" title="Florida Keys National Marine Sanctuary">Florida Keys National Marine Sanctuary</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Florida_Panther_National_Wildlife_Refuge" title="Florida Panther National Wildlife Refuge">Florida Panther National Wildlife Refuge</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Loxahatchee_National_Wildlife_Refuge" title="Loxahatchee National Wildlife Refuge">Loxahatchee National Wildlife Refuge</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ten_Thousand_Islands_National_Wildlife_Refuge" title="Ten Thousand Islands National Wildlife Refuge">Ten Thousand Islands National Wildlife Refuge</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Bodies of water</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Biscayne_Bay" title="Biscayne Bay">Biscayne Bay</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Caloosahatchee_River" title="Caloosahatchee River">Caloosahatchee River</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fisheating_Creek" title="Fisheating Creek">Fisheating Creek</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Florida_Bay" title="Florida Bay">Florida Bay</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indian_River_Lagoon" title="Indian River Lagoon">Indian River Lagoon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kissimmee_River" title="Kissimmee River">Kissimmee River</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lake_Okeechobee" title="Lake Okeechobee">Lake Okeechobee</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lake_Worth_Lagoon" title="Lake Worth Lagoon">Lake Worth Lagoon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lostmans_River" title="Lostmans River">Lostmans River</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shark_River_(Florida)" title="Shark River (Florida)">Shark River</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/St._Lucie_River" title="St. Lucie River">St. Lucie River</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Taylor_Slough" title="Taylor Slough">Taylor Slough</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">See also</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Alligator_Alley" class="mw-redirect" title="Alligator Alley">Alligator Alley</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biscayne_Aquifer" title="Biscayne Aquifer">Biscayne Aquifer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Burmese_pythons_in_Florida" title="Burmese pythons in Florida">Burmese pythons in Florida</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Comprehensive_Everglades_Restoration_Plan" title="Comprehensive Everglades Restoration Plan">Comprehensive Everglades Restoration Plan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_Impact_of_the_Big_Cypress_Swamp_Jetport" title="Environmental Impact of the Big Cypress Swamp Jetport">Environmental Impact of the Big Cypress Swamp Jetport</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Everglades_Foundation" title="Everglades Foundation">Everglades Foundation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Friends_of_the_Everglades" title="Friends of the Everglades">Friends of the Everglades</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/South_Florida_Water_Management_District" title="South Florida Water Management District">South Florida Water Management District</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tamiami_Trail" title="Tamiami Trail">Tamiami Trail</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ten_Thousand_Islands" title="Ten Thousand Islands">Ten Thousand Islands</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Everglades:_River_of_Grass" title="The Everglades: River of Grass">The Everglades: River of Grass</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/US_Sugar_Corporation" class="mw-redirect" title="US Sugar Corporation">U.S. Sugar</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow hlist" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><b><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Category"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/23px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/31px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /></span></span> 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title="Special:EditPage/Template:Geography of Florida"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Geography_of_Florida246" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Geography_of_Florida" title="Geography of Florida">Geography of Florida</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #FF9C1A;width:1%">Natural features</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0;color: #000033;"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Beaches_of_Florida" title="Category:Beaches of Florida">Beaches</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_caves_in_the_United_States#Florida" title="List of caves in the United States">Caves</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Everglades" title="Everglades">Everglades</a> (<a class="mw-selflink selflink">drainage and development</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Florida_Keys" title="Florida Keys">Keys</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Lakes_of_Florida" title="Category:Lakes of Florida">Lakes</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Lake_Okeechobee" title="Lake Okeechobee">Lake Okeechobee</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Florida_Reef" title="Florida Reef">Reef</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_rivers_of_Florida" title="List of rivers of Florida">Rivers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sinkhole" title="Sinkhole">Sinkholes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_major_springs_in_Florida" title="List of major springs in Florida">Springs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Straits_of_Florida" title="Straits of Florida">Straits</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Florida_swamps" title="Florida swamps">Swamps</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #FF9C1A;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/List_of_regions_of_the_United_States#Florida" title="List of regions of the United States">Regions</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0;color: #000033;"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li>Big Bend <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Big_Bend_(Florida)" title="Big Bend (Florida)">region</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Big_Bend_Coast" title="Big Bend Coast">coast</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Central_Florida" title="Central Florida">Central Florida</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Emerald_Coast" title="Emerald Coast">Emerald Coast</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Everglades" title="Everglades">Everglades</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/First_Coast" title="First Coast">First Coast</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Forgotten_Coast" title="Forgotten Coast">Forgotten Coast</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Miami_metropolitan_area" title="Miami metropolitan area">Gold Coast</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Halifax_area" title="Halifax area">Halifax area</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Florida_Heartland" title="Florida Heartland">Heartland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Florida_Keys" title="Florida Keys">Keys</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nature_Coast" title="Nature Coast">Nature Coast</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/North_central_Florida" title="North central Florida">North central Florida</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/North_Florida" title="North Florida">North Florida</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Florida_panhandle" title="Florida panhandle">Panhandle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/South_Florida" title="South Florida">South Florida</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Southwest_Florida" title="Southwest Florida">Southwest Florida</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Space_Coast" title="Space Coast">Space Coast</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Florida_Suncoast" title="Florida Suncoast">Suncoast</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tampa_Bay_area" title="Tampa Bay area">Tampa Bay Area</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Treasure_Coast" title="Treasure Coast">Treasure Coast</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #FF9C1A;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/List_of_metropolitan_areas_of_Florida" title="List of metropolitan areas of Florida">Metro areas</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0;color: #000033;"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Lee_County,_Florida" title="Lee County, Florida">Cape Coral–Fort Myers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crestview%E2%80%93Fort_Walton_Beach%E2%80%93Destin_metropolitan_area" title="Crestview–Fort Walton Beach–Destin metropolitan area">Crestview-Fort Walton Beach-Destin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deltona%E2%80%93Daytona_Beach%E2%80%93Ormond_Beach,_Florida_Metropolitan_Statistical_Area" title="Deltona–Daytona Beach–Ormond Beach, Florida Metropolitan Statistical Area">Deltona–Daytona Beach–Ormond Beach</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gainesville_metropolitan_area,_Florida" title="Gainesville metropolitan area, Florida">Gainesville</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Citrus_County,_Florida" title="Citrus County, Florida">Homosassa Springs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jacksonville_metropolitan_area" title="Jacksonville metropolitan area">Jacksonville</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lakeland%E2%80%93Winter_Haven_metropolitan_area" class="mw-redirect" title="Lakeland–Winter Haven metropolitan area">Lakeland–Winter Haven</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Miami_metropolitan_area" title="Miami metropolitan area">Miami-Fort Lauderdale-West Palm Beach</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Collier_County,_Florida" title="Collier County, Florida">Naples-Immokalee-Marco Island</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sarasota_metropolitan_area" title="Sarasota metropolitan area">North Port-Sarasota-Bradenton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marion_County,_Florida" title="Marion County, Florida">Ocala</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Greater_Orlando" title="Greater Orlando">Orlando-Kissimmee-Sanford</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Brevard_County,_Florida" title="Brevard County, Florida">Palm Bay-Melbourne-Titusville</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Panama_City,_Florida_metropolitan_area" title="Panama City, Florida metropolitan area">Panama City</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pensacola_metropolitan_area" title="Pensacola metropolitan area">Pensacola-Ferry Pass-Brent</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Treasure_Coast" title="Treasure Coast">Port St. Lucie</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charlotte_County,_Florida" title="Charlotte County, Florida">Punta Gorda</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indian_River_County,_Florida" title="Indian River County, Florida">Sebastian-Vero Beach</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Highlands_County,_Florida" title="Highlands County, Florida">Sebring</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tallahassee_metropolitan_area" title="Tallahassee metropolitan area">Tallahassee</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tampa_Bay_area" title="Tampa Bay area">Tampa-St. Petersburg-Clearwater</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sumter_County,_Florida" title="Sumter County, Florida">The Villages</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #FF9C1A;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/List_of_municipalities_in_Florida" title="List of municipalities in Florida">Largest cities</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0;color: #000033;"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Jacksonville,_Florida" title="Jacksonville, Florida">Jacksonville</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Miami" title="Miami">Miami</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tampa,_Florida" title="Tampa, Florida">Tampa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Orlando,_Florida" title="Orlando, Florida">Orlando</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/St._Petersburg,_Florida" title="St. Petersburg, Florida">St. Petersburg</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hialeah,_Florida" title="Hialeah, Florida">Hialeah</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Port_St._Lucie,_Florida" title="Port St. Lucie, Florida">Port St. Lucie</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tallahassee,_Florida" title="Tallahassee, Florida">Tallahassee</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cape_Coral,_Florida" title="Cape Coral, Florida">Cape Coral</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fort_Lauderdale,_Florida" title="Fort Lauderdale, Florida">Fort Lauderdale</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pembroke_Pines,_Florida" title="Pembroke Pines, Florida">Pembroke Pines</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hollywood,_Florida" title="Hollywood, Florida">Hollywood</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gainesville,_Florida" title="Gainesville, Florida">Gainesville</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Miramar,_Florida" title="Miramar, Florida">Miramar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Coral_Springs,_Florida" title="Coral Springs, Florida">Coral Springs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Palm_Bay,_Florida" title="Palm Bay, Florida">Palm Bay</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/West_Palm_Beach,_Florida" title="West Palm Beach, Florida">West Palm Beach</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Clearwater,_Florida" title="Clearwater, Florida">Clearwater</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lakeland,_Florida" title="Lakeland, Florida">Lakeland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pompano_Beach,_Florida" title="Pompano Beach, Florida">Pompano Beach</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Miami_Gardens,_Florida" title="Miami Gardens, Florida">Miami Gardens</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Davie,_Florida" title="Davie, Florida">Davie</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #FF9C1A;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/List_of_counties_in_Florida" title="List of counties in Florida">Counties</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0;color: #000033;"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Alachua_County,_Florida" title="Alachua County, Florida">Alachua</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Baker_County,_Florida" title="Baker County, Florida">Baker</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bay_County,_Florida" title="Bay County, Florida">Bay</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bradford_County,_Florida" title="Bradford County, Florida">Bradford</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Brevard_County,_Florida" title="Brevard County, Florida">Brevard</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Broward_County,_Florida" title="Broward County, Florida">Broward</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Calhoun_County,_Florida" title="Calhoun County, Florida">Calhoun</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charlotte_County,_Florida" title="Charlotte County, Florida">Charlotte</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Citrus_County,_Florida" title="Citrus County, Florida">Citrus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Clay_County,_Florida" title="Clay County, Florida">Clay</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Collier_County,_Florida" title="Collier County, Florida">Collier</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Columbia_County,_Florida" title="Columbia County, Florida">Columbia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/DeSoto_County,_Florida" title="DeSoto County, Florida">DeSoto</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dixie_County,_Florida" title="Dixie County, Florida">Dixie</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Duval_County,_Florida" title="Duval County, Florida">Duval</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Escambia_County,_Florida" title="Escambia County, Florida">Escambia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Flagler_County,_Florida" title="Flagler County, Florida">Flagler</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Franklin_County,_Florida" title="Franklin County, Florida">Franklin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gadsden_County,_Florida" title="Gadsden County, Florida">Gadsden</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gilchrist_County,_Florida" title="Gilchrist County, Florida">Gilchrist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Glades_County,_Florida" title="Glades County, Florida">Glades</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gulf_County,_Florida" title="Gulf County, Florida">Gulf</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hamilton_County,_Florida" title="Hamilton County, Florida">Hamilton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hardee_County,_Florida" title="Hardee County, Florida">Hardee</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hendry_County,_Florida" title="Hendry County, Florida">Hendry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hernando_County,_Florida" title="Hernando County, Florida">Hernando</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Highlands_County,_Florida" title="Highlands County, Florida">Highlands</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hillsborough_County,_Florida" title="Hillsborough County, Florida">Hillsborough</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Holmes_County,_Florida" title="Holmes County, Florida">Holmes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indian_River_County,_Florida" title="Indian River County, Florida">Indian River</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jackson_County,_Florida" title="Jackson County, Florida">Jackson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jefferson_County,_Florida" title="Jefferson County, Florida">Jefferson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lafayette_County,_Florida" title="Lafayette County, Florida">Lafayette</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lake_County,_Florida" title="Lake County, Florida">Lake</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lee_County,_Florida" title="Lee County, Florida">Lee</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Leon_County,_Florida" title="Leon County, Florida">Leon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Levy_County,_Florida" title="Levy County, Florida">Levy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liberty_County,_Florida" title="Liberty County, Florida">Liberty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Madison_County,_Florida" title="Madison County, Florida">Madison</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Manatee_County,_Florida" title="Manatee County, Florida">Manatee</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marion_County,_Florida" title="Marion County, Florida">Marion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Martin_County,_Florida" title="Martin County, Florida">Martin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Miami-Dade_County,_Florida" title="Miami-Dade County, Florida">Miami‑Dade</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Monroe_County,_Florida" title="Monroe County, Florida">Monroe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mosquito_County,_Florida" title="Mosquito County, Florida">Mosquito</a> (former county)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nassau_County,_Florida" title="Nassau County, Florida">Nassau</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Okaloosa_County,_Florida" title="Okaloosa County, Florida">Okaloosa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Okeechobee_County,_Florida" title="Okeechobee County, Florida">Okeechobee</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Orange_County,_Florida" title="Orange County, Florida">Orange</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Osceola_County,_Florida" title="Osceola County, Florida">Osceola</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Palm_Beach_County,_Florida" title="Palm Beach County, Florida">Palm Beach</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pasco_County,_Florida" title="Pasco County, Florida">Pasco</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pinellas_County,_Florida" title="Pinellas County, Florida">Pinellas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Polk_County,_Florida" title="Polk County, Florida">Polk</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Putnam_County,_Florida" title="Putnam County, Florida">Putnam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Santa_Rosa_County,_Florida" title="Santa Rosa County, Florida">Santa Rosa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sarasota_County,_Florida" title="Sarasota County, Florida">Sarasota</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Seminole_County,_Florida" title="Seminole County, Florida">Seminole</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/St._Johns_County,_Florida" title="St. Johns County, Florida">St. Johns</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/St._Lucie_County,_Florida" title="St. Lucie County, Florida">St. Lucie</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sumter_County,_Florida" title="Sumter County, Florida">Sumter</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Suwannee_County,_Florida" title="Suwannee County, Florida">Suwannee</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Taylor_County,_Florida" title="Taylor County, Florida">Taylor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Union_County,_Florida" title="Union County, Florida">Union</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Volusia_County,_Florida" title="Volusia County, Florida">Volusia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wakulla_County,_Florida" title="Wakulla County, Florida">Wakulla</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Walton_County,_Florida" title="Walton County, Florida">Walton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Washington_County,_Florida" title="Washington County, Florida">Washington</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #FF9C1A;width:1%">Other</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0;color: #000033;"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Florida_state_forests" title="Florida state forests">State forests</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Florida_state_parks" title="List of Florida state parks">State parks</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wakulla_Volcano" title="Wakulla Volcano">Wakulla Volcano</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <p class="mw-empty-elt"> </p>    </div><noscript><img src="https://login.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:CentralAutoLogin/start?useformat=desktop&type=1x1&usesul3=0" alt="" width="1" height="1" style="border: none; position: absolute;"></noscript> <div class="printfooter" data-nosnippet="">Retrieved from "<a dir="ltr" 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