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<?xml version="1.0"?> <feed xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2005/Atom" xml:lang="en"> <id>https://en.wikipedia.org/w/api.php?action=feedcontributions&feedformat=atom&user=%CE%92%CE%B1%CF%84%CE%BF</id> <title>Wikipedia - User contributions [en]</title> <link rel="self" type="application/atom+xml" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/api.php?action=feedcontributions&feedformat=atom&user=%CE%92%CE%B1%CF%84%CE%BF"/> <link rel="alternate" type="text/html" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:Contributions/%CE%92%CE%B1%CF%84%CE%BF"/> <updated>2024-11-27T20:32:18Z</updated> <subtitle>User contributions</subtitle> <generator>MediaWiki 1.44.0-wmf.4</generator> <entry> <id>https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Dita_e_Ver%C3%ABs&diff=1257596820</id> <title>Dita e Verës</title> <link rel="alternate" type="text/html" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Dita_e_Ver%C3%ABs&diff=1257596820"/> <updated>2024-11-15T19:25:07Z</updated> <summary type="html">Βατο: clarification <hr /> <div>{{Short description|Albanian traditional festival and public holiday in Albania, March 14}} {{Infobox holiday | holiday_name = Dita e Verës | type = National | image = | imagesize = 300px | caption = Albanians celebrating Dita e Verës with Ballokume and Verore. | official_name = | nickname = | observedby = [[Albanians]] | litcolor = Red, White | longtype = [[Albanian paganism|Pagan]] Holiday | significance = | begins = | ends = | date = March 14 | scheduling = | duration = 2 days | frequency = Annual | celebrations = [[March equinox|Spring equinox]]: the beginning of the [[Spring (season)|spring]]-[[Summer (season)|summer]] period | observances = | relatedto = }} {{Use mdy dates|date=May 2012}} '''Dita e Verës''' or '''Verëza''' (English &quot;Summer Day&quot;) is an [[Albanians|Albanian]] [[Spring Day|spring festival]] and [[Albanian paganism|pagan]] holiday celebrated (also officially in [[Albania]]) on [[March 14]] of the [[Gregorian calendar]] (March 1 of the [[Julian calendar]]), for the beginning of the [[Spring (season)|spring]]-[[Summer (season)|summer]] period. In the old Albanian calendar, Verëza corresponds to the first three days of the new year ({{langx|sq|Kryeviti, Kryet e Motmotit, Motmoti i Ri, Nata e Mojit}}) and marks the end of the [[winter]] season (the second half of the year) and the beginning of the &quot;summer&quot; season (the first half of the year) on the [[March equinox|spring equinox]] ({{langx|sq|sadita-nata}}), the period of the year when daylight is longer than night. Dita e Verës is a chief festivity in traditional [[Albanian paganism|Albanian]] religion, celebrating the strengthening of the Sun ([[Dielli (Albanian paganism)|Dielli]]) and the renewal of nature, also respecting the vegetation and the Earth ([[Dheu (Albanian paganism)|Dheu]]).{{sfn|Tirta|2004|pp=253–255}}{{Sfn|Elsie|2001|pp=259–260}}{{sfn|Qafleshi|2011|pp=43–71}}{{sfn|Halimi|Halimi-Statovci|Xhemaj|2011|pp=2–5, 7–18, 41}}{{sfn|Sela|2017|pp=63–66}} == Description == [[File:Zjarri.jpg|thumb|[[Zjarri (Albanian paganism)|Zjarri]] for the celebration of Dita e Verës in [[Tropojë]], northern Albania. Kindled on the eve or before sunrise in order to give strength to the Sun ([[Dielli (Albanian paganism)|Dielli]]), people dance and sing around it or jump across it, a ritual practiced for the end of winter, renewal, purification and apotropaic purposes.]] ''Dita e Verës'' is celebrated on March 1 of the [[Julian calendar]], the first day of the new year (which is March 14 in the Gregorian calendar). It is celebrated both in the Northern and Southern regions, but with regional differences. On the eve or before sunrise, bonfires ([[Zjarri (Albanian paganism)|zjarre]]) are traditionally lit in yards throughout Abanian-inhabited territories with the function to drive away the darkness of the winter season and for the strengthening of the [[Sun]], as well as for purification and apotropaic purposes. The ritual is performed with people dancing and singing around the fire or jumping across it.{{sfn|Tirta|2004|pp=253–255}}{{Sfn|Elsie|2001|pp=259–260}} The shrine of Diana of Cermenika, located in the Albanian city of [[Elbasan]], celebrates [[Diana (mythology)|Diana]] the goddess of forests, greenery and nature.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=http://www.gazetadita.al/dita-e-veres/|title=Dita e Verës|website=Gazeta Dita|language=en-US|access-date=2018-04-27}}&lt;/ref&gt; The distinctive sign of this holiday is baking ''[[ballokume]]'', a sugar cookie made with Albanian corn. In [[Lezha]], ''Dita e Verës'' fires are lit to signify the sun's purity and strength. Although the holiday continues to be highlighted in the ancient city of [[Elbasan]], it is celebrated by all Albanians. A Red and White wool bracelet called &quot;[[Verore]]&quot; is worn to celebrate the beginning of summer. This along with other March Summer Balkan traditions is a UNESCO recognized &quot;intangible cultural heritage&quot;.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://globalvoices.org/2017/12/14/unesco-protects-balkan-grandma-march-day-custom-as-cultural-heritage/|title=UNESCO Protects Balkan Grandma March Day Custom As Cultural Heritage|website=globalvoices|language=en-US|access-date=2022-03-14}}&lt;/ref&gt; The holiday maintains a family and traditional atmosphere, in which parents, children and families celebrate together. On this day Albanians congratulate each other on living long and happy lives. Families would jump over a small fire, signifying a full cleansing going into a new year.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=http://telegraf.al/kulture/historia-e-dites-se-veres-nga-ermenika-deri-ne-elbasan|title=Historia e Ditës së Verës, nga Çermenika deri në Elbasan|last=Telegraf|first=Gazeta|website=Gazeta Telegraf|language=en|access-date=2018-05-04}}&lt;/ref&gt; Thanas Meksi, a renowned researcher and musicologist, divided the festival into four phases:&lt;ref name=&quot;:0&quot;&gt;{{Cite book |last=Meksi |first=Thanas |title=Dita e Veres |publisher=Albanian production |year=1999 |url=https://www.oeaw.ac.at/resources/Record/993588676104498 |location=Elbasan Albania |pages=50–75 |trans-title=The albanian summer day}}&lt;/ref&gt; # Preparatory Phase: This begins with the collection of necessary items for the Summer Day. # Summer Night: Starting on the evening of March 13, this phase is marked by fire. # Morning of Summer Day: Commences on March 14, bringing joy and festivity. # Summer Day Picnic: Held at noon on March 14, this phase embodies communal celebration. Rituals of the Summer Day include washing eyes with summer flowers, drinking water from &quot;the pig's trough&quot; (a wild spring found underground in forested areas), symbolizing a healthy and prosperous year. Another tradition is the boiling of eggs on the night of March 13th and washing the eyes with this water on the morning of March 14th. The morning of March 14 begins with visits to relatives, where the youngest son delivers shared goods. The picnic starts at 10:00&amp;nbsp;am, although in recent years activities have begun an hour earlier. [[Albanians]] head to scenic spots for this celebration. Each year, the festival evolves, reflecting the spirit of its people. [[Elbasan]] becomes a pilgrimage center on March 14, with the entire city dressing up in vibrant decorations. The local government allocates special funds for the festival, planning concerts, traditional games, and comedic performances in tourist spots and parks, enhancing the festive atmosphere and community bonding.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |last=Bashkia Tirane |title=Dita e Veres |url=https://blog.visit-tirana.com/2017/03/summer-day-unique-festive-day-of-albania.html#:~:text=14%20March%20is%20a%20unique,before%20the%20birth%20of%20Christianity.}}&lt;/ref&gt; [[Edith Durham]] – who collected Albanian ethnographic material from northern Albania and Montenegro – reported that [[Albanian traditional tattooing]] of girls was practiced on March 19, which falls in the days of the Albanian spring celebrations.{{sfn|Tirta|2004|p=254}} == Ballokume == [[File:Ballokume elbasani.jpg|thumb|Ballokume from Elbasan, Albania|300x300px]] [[Ballokume]] is a dessert unique to [[Elbasan]] and is synonymous with the Summer Day celebration. It's widely enjoyed across [[Albania]] and in [[Albanians|Albanian]] communities around the world. This cookie is especially associated with Dita e Verës. The name Ballokume is believed to have originated from a 15th-century [[Ottoman Empire|Ottoman]] ruler's exclamation, &quot;Është ba si llokume!&quot; which means &quot;It’s as good as a [[Turkish delight|lokum]]!&quot; after tasting a small cake made from corn flour cooked in a wood fire. This term, over time, evolved into Ballokume. The primary ingredients of Ballokume include [[butter]], [[sugar]], [[Eggs as food|eggs]], and [[cornmeal|cornflour]]. Traditionally, it is kneaded in a copper bowl to enhance the texture of the dough, a process that involves vigorous kneading, often done by men in the household due to the strength required. The cookie sometimes contains finj, a mixture of ashes from a wood stove boiled in water, adding a unique flavor to the cookie. == Traditions across regions == Source:&lt;ref name=&quot;:0&quot; /&gt; === [[Tropojë|Tropoja]] === In Tropojë, this season gathers many people in the village of Luzhë, where they seek help and prosperity from tombs that have now been turned into idols. Adults and children travel for kilometers across mountainous terrains to reach these truly sacred and divine tombs. === [[Dibër County|Dibra]] === In Dibër, children light fires in the evening. Around four in the morning, people there wake up &quot;to close the doors.&quot; This term means to wake up early and tie the gate's lock with wool. The symbolism of this action is not known. [[Boiled egg|Boiled eggs]] are also an indicator of this day in [[Dibër County|Dibra.]] === [[Elbasan]] === Elbasan is believed to be the birthplace of the so-called Summer Day. In [[Elbasan]], the festive dimensions are larger than anywhere else. They take on a popular character, and participation is at a national level. Songs, dances, crowds filling the city, boiled eggs painted in various colors, and the famous sweets called Ballokume that fill the markets. On this day, citizens from many cities of the country visit the city of Elbasan. === [[Skrapar]] and [[Lushnjë]] === In Skrapar and Lushnjë once the verore is removed, a wish is thought of, and then the bracelet is thrown into a bush or rose, or placed on a tree branch in the hope that a swallow will come to take it to build its nest, thereby fulfilling the thought wish. On this day, children in Skrapar go door to door singing the song of Summer Day, receiving as gifts colored eggs which they crack on each other's heads. The typical dish of Skrapar for this festival, besides Ballokume, is also Anak (a type of pie) with wild greens. Just like in Tropojë, in the evening, fires are lit to produce smoke, bidding farewell to the old and the bad, while children sing and dance around the fire. In [[Lushnjë]], along with eggs, corn and wheat are also boiled to give to the children that come singing. Despite this, in [[Lushnjë]] Summer Day is not always celebrated on March 14; in fact, for [[Eastern Orthodoxy|Orthodox Christian]]s, it is celebrated on March 1, while [[Muslims]] celebrate it on March 14. === [[Berat]] === The celebration starts early in the morning with groups of children from neighborhoods of this city. The children, dressed as if in the day of the [[Carnival|carnivals]] improvising the devil, appeared with various masks as a symbol of the Summer Day festival. Various groups of children from kindergartens, schools, and high schools with their masks have traversed all the roads leading to the city's central square, performing humorous gestures. On the other hand, a car is displayed, which has the portrait of the devil on its body, ahead of which a carriage with brides symbolizes the day of the celebration. === [[Korçë|Korcë]] === [[Korçë]], along with [[Kolonjë]], are regions that utilize both calendars for the celebration of the Summer Day. In these areas, the festival is celebrated on both March 1st and March 14th. Particularly on March 14 and on the evening before, the youth and children of Korçë roam through the city's neighborhoods lighting fires. Traditionally, children compete to find more scraps to make the biggest fire. Then, for prosperity, everyone tries to jump over the fire as a symbol of successfully overcoming winter's cold, the revival, and the warming of the blood that Spring brings. Families in their homes bake sweet or salty cakes, symbolizing life, revival, and abundance. === [[Kosovo]] === The Summer Day, also known as &quot;Dita e Verëzës,&quot; has been celebrated in the [[Kosovo]]. The festivities include young men and women going out to village squares and mountainsides, gathering the first flowers of the season, dancing, singing, lighting fires, and preparing special dishes made with corn and wheat flour, which are similar yet distinct from Elbasan's ballokume. This festival is celebrated with the belief that the Summer Day brings luck, health, prosperity, rejuvenation, and human love, and the rituals are connected with the awakening of vegetation, the revival of life, and the transition from winter to spring. === [[Albanians in North Macedonia]] === In North Macedonia ethnologist Afet Jashari notes that for this festival various caves such as the Vertop Cave or the Red Water Cave are visited. It is believed that washing with their water, especially on Summer Day, brings fertility and good luck for women, health for children. ==See also== *[[Culture of Albania]] *[[Albanian paganism]] *[[Ballokume]] ==Sources== ===Citations=== {{Reflist}} ===Bibliography=== &lt;!-- E --&gt; *{{cite book|last=Elsie|first=Robert|author-link=Robert Elsie|title=A Dictionary of Albanian Religion, Mythology and Folk Culture|place=London|publisher=Hurst &amp; Company|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=N_IXHrXIsYkC|isbn=1-85065-570-7|year=2001}} &lt;!-- H --&gt; *{{cite book|last1=Halimi|first1=Zanita|last2=Halimi-Statovci|first2=Drita|last3=Xhemaj|first3=Ukë|translator=Lumnije Kadriu|title=Rite dhe Aktualiteti|trans-title=Rites and Contemporariness/Present Time|publisher=[[University of Prishtina]]|year=2011|url=https://chwbkosova.org/wp-content/uploads/2014/09/Publication_2011_7-min.pdf}} &lt;!-- Q --&gt; *{{cite book|last=Qafleshi|first=Muharrem|title=Opoja dhe Gora ndër shekuj|trans-title=Opoja and Gora During Centuries|publisher=[[Albanological Institute of Pristina]]|year=2011|isbn=978-9951-596-51-0}} &lt;!-- S --&gt; *{{cite book|last=Sela|first=Jonida|title=International Conference &quot;Education and Cultural Heritage&quot;|chapter=Values and Traditions in Ritual Dances of All-Year Celebrations in Korça Region, Albania|volume=1|publisher=Association of Heritage and Education|year=2017|pages=62–71}} &lt;!-- T --&gt; *{{cite book|last=Tirta|first=Mark|title=Mitologjia ndër shqiptarë|language=sq|editor=Petrit Bezhani|publisher=Mësonjëtorja|year=2004|place=Tirana|isbn=99927-938-9-9}} {{DEFAULTSORT:Dita e Verës}} [[Category:Albanian paganism]] [[Category:Culture of Albania]] [[Category:Albanian traditions]] [[Category:Festivals in Albania]] [[Category:March observances]] [[Category:Folk festivals in Albania]] [[Category:Spring (season) events in Albania]] [[Category:Events in Elbasan]] [[Category:Spring equinox]] {{Albania-stub}}</div></summary> <author><name>Βατο</name></author> </entry> <entry> <id>https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Dodola_and_Perperuna&diff=1257594509</id> <title>Dodola and Perperuna</title> <link rel="alternate" type="text/html" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Dodola_and_Perperuna&diff=1257594509"/> <updated>2024-11-15T19:07:35Z</updated> <summary type="html">Βατο: ce <hr /> <div>{{Short description|Rainmaking rituals in Southeast Europe}} [[File:&quot;Watering of Dodola&quot; by Uroš Predić, published in magazine &quot;Orao&quot; in 1892.jpg|300px|thumb|The sprinkling of ''Dodola'' with water by [[Uroš Predić]] (1892)]] '''Dodola''' (also spelled ''Dodole'', ''Dudola'', ''Dudula'', ''Diva-Dodola'' etc.), '''Perperuna''' (also spelled ''Peperuda'', ''Preperuda'', ''Preperuša'', ''Prporuša'', ''Papaluga'', ''Peperuna'' etc.), '''riti i ndjelljes/thirrjes së shiut''' (&quot;Rain-Invoking/Calling Ritual&quot; or &quot;Rite of Invoking/Calling the Rain&quot;) or simply '''thirrja e shiut''' (&quot;Call of the Rain&quot;), '''riti me dordolecin''' (&quot;Dordoleci Ritual&quot;), '''riti i dodolisë''' (&quot;Dodoli Ritual&quot;) are [[Rainmaking (ritual)|rainmaking]] [[Paganism|pagan]] customs widespread among different peoples in [[Southeast Europe]] until the 20th century, found in [[Albania]], [[Bulgaria]], [[Croatia]], [[Greece]], [[Hungary]], [[Kosovo]], [[Moldova]], [[Montenegro]], [[North Macedonia]], [[Romania]], and [[Serbia]]. It is still practiced in remote [[Albanians|Albanian]] ethnographic regions, but only in rare events, when the summer is dry and without atmospheric precipitation.&lt;ref&gt;{{harvnb|Qafleshi|2011|pp=51–52|}}; {{harvnb|Ministria|2014|p=66}}.&lt;/ref&gt; The ceremonial ritual is an analogical-imitative [[incantation|magic rite]] that consists of singing and dancing done by young boys and girls in processions following a main performer who is dressed with fresh branches, leaves and herbs, with the purpose of invoking rain, usually practiced in times of [[drought]]s, especially in the summer season, when drought endangers crops and pastures, even human life itself.&lt;ref&gt;{{harvnb|Qafleshi|2011|pp=51–52|}}; {{harvnb|Halimi|Halimi-Statovci|Xhemaj|2011|pp=2–6, 32–43}}&lt;/ref&gt; In Albanian rainmaking ritual songs, besides the divine figure that is invoked and also personified by boys or girls during the procession, other Albanian divine figures are invoked: [[Dielli (Albanian paganism)|Dielli]] (the Sun), [[Perëndi]] (the [[Sky]], or deity of weather), and Ilia ([[Elijah]], who in Christianized Albanian folklore has replaced the Sun god and the thunder or weather god, also [[Drangue]]).{{sfn|Gjoni|2012|pp=85–86}}{{sfn|Elsie|2001a|pp=46–47}}{{sfn|Elsie|2000|pp=43–45}}{{sfn|Gamkrelidze|1995|p=528}}{{sfn|Sela|2017|pp=69–70}} In Slavic rainmaking ritual songs also the sky or Elijah are invoked. In Slavic Christianized folklore Elijah has replaced [[Perun]], the Slavic thunder-god, cognate to IE ''[[*Perkʷūnos]]''.{{sfn|Jakobson|1985|p=6}} According to some interpretations of [[Slavic folklore]], the Slavic rainmaking rituals found in the Balkans were related to the [[Slavic pantheon|Slavic]] supreme deity Perun (god of thunder, weather, fertility and oak trees).&lt;ref&gt;https://www.scribd.com/doc/243198115/Slavic-Pagan-World&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;https://www.omda.bg/page.php?tittle=Ezicheska_obrednost_-_Peperuda&amp;IDMenu=309&amp;IDArticle=2221&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;https://ibl.bas.bg/pishi_pravilno/perun-i-veles/&lt;/ref&gt; Some scholars suggest that Perperuna could have been a Slavic goddess of rain, the consort of Perun, or that the name Perperuna is the reduplicated feminine form derived from the name of Perun.&lt;ref&gt;https://www.srku.edu.in/read?s=Dodola+and+Perperuna#:~:text=Zyzlila)%20Perperuna%20and-,Dodola,-(Paparuda%2C%20Prporu%C5%A1a%2C%20Dudula&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;https://arheologija.fr.gd/Perun-English-Versione.htm&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;https://www.academia.edu/44578714/Perperuna_a_%C4%8Fal%C5%A1ie_reflexy_dru%C5%BEky_praindoeur%C3%B3pskeho_Hromovl%C3%A1dcu_Consort_of_the_Proto_Indo_European_Thundergod_and_her_reflexes?sm=b&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;https://www.mifologia.com/pantheons/slavic-pantheon-2/perun/&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/pdf/10.1080/00437956.1955.11659581&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;https://www.oporabg.com/sites/default/files/peperuda_DV.pdf&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;https://www.starisloveni.com/English/Perun.html&lt;/ref&gt; But recent research criticize [[List of Slavic pseudo-deities|invention]] of a Slavic female goddess,{{sfn|Łuczyński|2020|p=141}} and other etymologies have been provided as well.{{sfn|Burns|2008|pp=231–232}}{{sfn|Čulinović-Konstantinović|1963|p=94}}{{sfn|Čulinović-Konstantinović|1963|p=94}}{{sfn|Skok|1973|p=55}}{{sfn|Urbańczyk|1991|p=150}}{{sfn|Łuczyński|2020|p=141}} == Names == {{quote box|align=right|quote=&lt;poem&gt;&lt;small&gt;Περπερούνα περπατεί / Perperouna perambulates Κή τόν θεό περικαλεί / And to God prays Θέ μου, βρέξε μια βροχή / My God, send a rain Μιἁ βροχή βασιλική / A right royal rain Οσ ἀστἀχυα ς τἀ χωράΦια / That as many (as are there) ears of corn in the fields Τόσα κούτσουρα ς τ ἁμπέλια / So many stems (may spring) on the vines&lt;/small&gt; &lt;/poem&gt;|source=&lt;br /&gt;&lt;small&gt;Shatista near [[Siatista]], [[Western Macedonia]], Ottoman Empire, 1903&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book |last=Abbott |first=George Frederick |author-link=George Frederick Abbott |date=1903 |title=Macedonian Folklore |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=M7o8AAAAIAAJ |location=Cambridge |publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]] |page=119}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;/small&gt;}} Rainmaking rites are generally called after the divine figure invoked in the ritual songs, as well as the boy or girl who perform the rite, who are called with different names among different peoples (South Slavs, Albanians, Greeks, Hungarians, Moldovans, Romanians, Vlachs or Aromanians (including regions of [[Bukovina]] and [[Bessarabia]])).:&lt;ref&gt;{{harvnb|Ḱulavkova|2020|p=19}}&lt;/ref&gt; *''Preperuna'', ''Peperuna'', ''Preperuda/Peperuda'', ''Pepereda'', ''Preperuga/Peperuga'', ''Peperunga'', ''Pemperuga'' in [[Bulgaria]] and [[North Macedonia]]: ''Prporuša'', ''Parparuša'', ''Preporuša/Preporuča'', ''Preperuša'', ''Barburuša/Barbaruša'' in [[Croatia]]; ''Peperuda'', ''Papaluga'', ''Papaluda/Paparudă'', ''Babaruta'', ''Mamaruta'' in [[Romania]] and [[Moldova]]; ''Perperouna'', ''Perperinon'', ''Perperouga'', ''Parparouna'' in [[Greece]]; ''Perperona/Perperone'' in [[Albania]]; ''Pirpirunã'' among [[Aromanians]]; *''Dodola'' among previous countries as well as [[Serbia]], with variants ''Dodole'', ''Dudola'', ''Dudula'', ''Dudule'', ''Dudulica'', ''Doda'', ''Dodočka'', ''Dudulejka'', ''Didjulja'', etc.{{sfn|Gimbutas|1967|p=743}}{{sfn|Evans|1974|p=100}}{{sfn|Jakobson|1985|p=22–24|ps=:Mythological associations linked with the butterfly (cf. her Serbian name ''Vještica'') also explain the Bulgarian entomological names ''peperuda'', ''peperuga''}}{{sfn|Čulinović-Konstantinović|1963|p=80, 93}}{{Sfn|Puchner|2009|p=346}} *''Rona'', used by Albanians alternatively to ''Perperona/Perperone'';{{sfn|Norris|1993|p=34}}{{sfn|Tirta|2004|pp=310–312}} *''Dordoleci'' (''durduleci''), used by Albanians for this custom in association with a male figure.{{sfn|Tirta|2004|pp=310–312}} In [[Albanian language|Albanian]] the rainmaking ritual is called ''riti i ndjelljes së shiut'' (&quot;Rain-Invoking Ritual&quot;), ''riti i thirrjes së shiut'' (&quot;Rain-Calling Ritual&quot; or &quot;Rite of Calling the Rain&quot;) or simply ''thirrja e shiut'' (&quot;Call of the Rain&quot;), ''riti i thatësisë'' (&quot;Drought Ritual&quot;), as well as ''riti me dordolecin'' or ''riti i dordolecit'' (&quot;Dordoleci Ritual&quot;), ''riti i dodolisë'' (&quot;Dodoli Ritual&quot;), etc.&lt;ref&gt;{{harvnb|Tirta|2004|pp=310–312}}; {{harvnb|Qafleshi|2011|pp=51–52|}}; {{harvnb|Ministria|2014|p=66}}; {{harvnb|Halimi|Halimi-Statovci|Xhemaj|2011|pp=2–6, 32–43}}&lt;/ref&gt; In Albanian rainmaking ritual songs, besides the divine figure that is invoked and also personified by boys or girls during the procession, other Albanian divine figures are invoked: [[Dielli (Albanian paganism)|Dielli]] (the Sun), [[Perëndi]], and Ilia.{{sfn|Gjoni|2012|pp=85–86}}{{sfn|Gamkrelidze|1995|p=528}}{{sfn|Sela|2017|pp=69–70}} Perëndi is a name that is used for &quot;god&quot;, &quot;deity&quot;, &quot;sky&quot; in Albanian, but considered by some scholars to be an Albanian thunder-god, cognate to Indo-European ''[[*Perkʷūnos]]'';{{sfn|Gamkrelidze|1995|p=528}} Ilia is [[Elijah]], who in Christianized Albanian folklore has replaced the Sun god and the thunder or weather god (also [[Drangue]]).{{sfn|Gjoni|2012|pp=85–86}}{{sfn|Elsie|2001a|pp=46–47}}{{sfn|Elsie|2000|pp=43–45}} In Slavic rainmaking ritual songs also the sky or Elijah are invoked. In Slavic Christianized folklore Elijah has replaced [[Perun]], the Slavic thunder-god, cognate to IE ''*Perkʷūnos''.{{sfn|Jakobson|1985|p=6}} ===Etymologies=== Some scholars consider all the Balkan names of the type ''per-'', ''perper-'', ''peper-'', ''papar-'', etc. to be taboo-alternations to &quot;avoid profaning the holy name&quot; of the pagan [[Proto-Indo-European mythology|Indo-European]] god ''[[*Perkʷūnos]]''.{{sfn|Evans|1974|p=116}}{{sfn|Gimbutas|1967|p=743}} According to [[Roman Jakobson]] and others ''perperuna'' is formed by reduplication of the Indo-European root &quot;per-&quot; (to strike/beat).{{sfn|Gimbutas|1967|p=743}}{{sfn|Jakobson|1985|p=23}}&lt;ref name=&quot;Katicic&quot;/&gt; Those with root &quot;peper-&quot;, &quot;papar-&quot; and &quot;pirpir-&quot; were changed accordingly modern words for [[Schinus molle|pepper-tree]] and [[poppy]] plant,{{sfn|Gimbutas|1967|p=743}}{{Sfn|Puchner|2009|p=348}} possibly also [[Hyperpyron|perper]] and else.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal |last=Puchner |first=Walter |author-link=Walter Puchner |date=1983 |title=Бележки към ономатологията и етимологиятана българските и гръцките названия на обреда за дъжд додола/перперуна |trans-title=Notes on the Onomatology and the Etymology of Bulgarian and Greek Names for the Dodola / Perperuna Rite |url=https://www.ceeol.com/search/article-detail?id=17959 |journal=Bulgarian Folklore |volume=IX |issue=1 |pages=59–65 |language=bg}}&lt;/ref&gt;{{Sfn|Puchner|2009|p=347–349}} Some scholars consider in particular that the name ''Perperuna'' can be identified as the reduplicated feminine [[Morphological derivation|derivative]] of the name of the Slavic thunder god ''[[Perun]]'' (''per-perun-a''), allegedly being his female consort, wife and goddess of rain ''Perperuna Dodola'', which would parallel the Old Norse couple [[Fjörgyn and Fjörgynn|Fjörgyn–Fjörgynn]] and the Lithuanian Perkūnas–Perkūnija.{{sfn|Jakobson|1985|p=22–23}}{{Sfn|Puhvel|1987|p=235}}{{Sfn|Jackson|2002|p=70}}&lt;ref name=&quot;York&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |last=York |first=Michael |author-link=Michael York (religious studies scholar) |date=1993 |title=Toward a Proto-Indo-European vocabulary of the sacred |journal=[[Word (journal)|Word]] |volume=44 |issue=2 |pages=240, 251 |doi=10.1080/00437956.1993.11435902|doi-access=free }}&lt;/ref&gt;{{sfn|Ḱulavkova|2020|p=19–20a|ps=:The Balkan rainmaking customs themselves go by different names. They are usually referred to as the Dodola or Peperuga(Peperuda) rituals, after the name of the goddess of rain, wife or consort of the Slavic sky-god Perun ... According to others, these rain-rituals derive specifically from Slavic languages, and the names Peperuda, Peperuga, Peperuna, and Perperuna are cognate with that of the storm-god Perun.}} According to another theory the Balkan names with the root ''per-'' are connected to the Greek [[Persephone]], a fertility goddess, daughter of the sky god [[Zeus]], and of the earth goddess [[Demeter]].{{sfn|Burns|2008|pp=231–232}} Dimitar Marinov derived it from Bulgarian word for butterfly where in folk beliefs has supernatural powers related to rain,{{sfn|Čulinović-Konstantinović|1963|p=94}} but according to Jakobson the mythological context of the customs and links explains the Bulgarian entomological names.&lt;ref&gt;{{harvnb|Jakobson|1985|p=22|ps=:Mythological associations linked with the butterfly (cf. her Serbian name ''Vještica'') also explain the Bulgarian entomological names ''peperuda'', ''peperuga''}}&lt;/ref&gt; [[Michail Arnaudov]] derived it from Slavic verb &quot;pršiti&quot; (spray).{{sfn|Čulinović-Konstantinović|1963|p=94}} [[Petar Skok]] considered ''prporuša'' a metaphorical derivation from Slavic ''prpor/pŕpa'' (hot ash), ''pórusa'' (&quot;when water is poured on burning ash&quot;{{sfn|Burns|2008|p=232}}).&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book |last=Skok |first=Petar |author-link=Petar Skok |title=Etimologijski rječnik hrvatskoga ili srpskoga jezika: poni-Ž |url=https://archive.org/details/EtimologijskiRjecnikHrvatskogaIliSrpskogaJezika |language=sh |year=1973 |location=Zagreb |publisher=[[JAZU]] |volume=3 |page=55}}&lt;/ref&gt; [[Stanisław Urbańczyk]] and Michal Łuczyński put into question Jakobson's theonymic derivation, deriving instead from Proto-Slavic ''*perpera'', ''*perperъka'' (in Polish ''przepiórka''), name for [[Common quail]], which has a role in Polish harvest rituals and the name of the bride in the wedding dance.{{sfn|Urbańczyk|1991|p=150}}{{sfn|Łuczyński|2020|p=141}} These are also related to ''*pъrpati'' (onomatopoeic), cf. Polish dial. ''perpotać'', ''perpac'', Old East Slavic ''poropriti''.{{sfn|Łuczyński|2020|p=141}} The name ''Dodola'' has been suggested to be a cognate to the Lithuanian ''Dundulis'', a word for &quot;thunder&quot; and another name of the Baltic thunder-god Perkūnas.{{sfn|Jakobson|1985|p=23}}{{Sfn|Puhvel|1987|p=235}} It is also hypothesised to be distantly related to Greek [[Dodona]] and [[Daedala]].{{sfn|Evans|1974|p=127–128}}&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book |last=Dauksta |first=Dainis |date=2011 |chapter=From Post to Pillar – The Development and Persistence of an Arboreal Metaphor |title=New Perspectives on People and Forests |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=XxB-HZlbTe0C |publisher=Springer |page=112 |isbn=978-94-007-1150-1}}&lt;/ref&gt; Bulgarian variant ''Didjulja'' is similar to alleged Polish goddess [[Dzidzilela]], and Polish language also has verb ''dudnić'' (&quot;to thunder&quot;).{{sfn|Jakobson|1985|p=22–23}} The uncertainty of the etymologies provided by scholars leads to a call for a &quot;detailed and in-depth comparative analysis of formulas, set phrases and patterns of imagery in rainmaking songs from ''all'' the Balkan languages&quot;.{{sfn|Burns|2008|pp=232–233}} == Origin == The rainmaking practice is a shared tradition among Balkan peoples, and it is not clear who borrowed it from whom.&lt;ref name=Wachtel&gt;{{harvnb|Wachtel|2008|ps=:Anthropologists have noted shared traditions as well, such as a rainmaking ritual in which a young woman covered in a costume of leaves would sing and dance through the village: this ritual was practiced among Greek, Albanian, Romanian, and Slavic speakers throughout the region, and it is not clear who borrowed it from whom.}}&lt;/ref&gt; The fact so similar customs in the Balkans are known by two different names the differences are considered not to be from the same time period and ethnic groups.{{sfn|Čulinović-Konstantinović|1963|p=93}} Similar customs outside the Balkans have been observed in the Caucasus, Middle East, and North Africa.{{sfn|Čulinović-Konstantinović|1963|p=84, 93}}{{sfn|Kulišić|1979|p=108}}&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal |last1=Başgöz |first1=İlhan |date=2007 |title=Rain Making Ceremonies in Iran |journal=[[Iranian Studies (journal)|Iranian Studies]] |volume=40 |issue=3 |pages=385–403 |doi=10.1080/00210860701390588 |jstor=4311905 |s2cid=162315052 |quote=Type II in the classification (that is, the procession with a doll, or ''chomcha gelin'', and its sub-group, which consists in a real child's proceeding through the neighborhood) ... Although the same ceremony is performed in other parts of Turkey, the ladle bride is given different names: ''Bodi Bodi'' among the Karalar Turkmen tribe in Adana province, ''Dodo'' or ''Dodu'' in Kars ... As the type spreads toward the west, sub-type (a) becomes dominant and (b) disappears. In Bulgaria, the girl who visits the houses during the ceremony is called ''doldol'' or ''Perperuga''.46 In Greece, the ceremony is sometimes incorporated into the Epiphany, the ritual throwing of the cross into a river, or sometimes is performed as an independent rain ritual.47 In Yugoslavia, the Turks, Serbians, and the Albanians practice the ritual, naming it ''dodola'' or ''dodoliče'' (little ''dodola'').48 The ritual is known in Hungary and is performed there under the name of ''doldola'', being especially common in villages inhabited by Gypsies and Serbians.49 The custom has spread to Rumania, but there the ''chomcha gelin'' is replaced by a coffin with a clay figure in it. This is reminiscent of Type II in Iran.50 The ''chomcha gelin'' is also observed in Iraq among the Kerkuk Turkmens, who call it &quot;the bride with ladle&quot; (''Chomchalı Gelin'').51 In Syria, the Arabs call the doll ''Umm al-Guys'' (&quot;mother of rain&quot;).52 The Christians in Syria practice the ceremony and call the doll &quot;the bride of God&quot;.53 In North Africa, the doll is called &quot;the mother of Bangau&quot;,54 and a similar symbol carried during the ritual is called Al Gonja.55 In Uzbekistan, Turks and Tajiks perform the ritual, calling the doll ''suskhatun'' (probably meaning &quot;water woman&quot;).56}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book |last=Chirikba |first=Viacheslav |author-link=Viacheslav Chirikba |date=2015 |chapter=Between Christianity and Islam: Heathen Heritage in the Caucasus |title=Studies on Iran and The Caucasus: In Honour of Garnik Asatrian |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=iLS9CwAAQBAJ |location=Leiden |publisher=Brill |pages=169–171 |isbn=978-90-04-30206-8 |quote=Thus, during the festival welcoming the spring, the Avars made ... In the ritual of summoning rains there figured a specially made doll called Dodola ... The Dagestan doll Dodola and the ritual strikingly resemble the Balkan rituals for summoning rain, whereby girls called Dodola would undressed and put on leaves, flowers and herbs to perform the rainmaking ceremony. The Balkan Dodola is regarded as being connected with the Slavic cult of the thunder-god Perun (cf. Tokarev 1991: 391).}}&lt;/ref&gt; [[William Ralston Shedden-Ralston|William Shedden-Ralston]] noted that [[Jacob Grimm]] thought Perperuna/Dodola were &quot;originally identical with the Bavarian ''Wasservogel'' and the Austrian ''Pfingstkönig''&quot; rituals.&lt;ref name=&quot;Ralston&quot;&gt;{{cite book |last=Shedden-Ralston |first=William Ralston |author-link=William Ralston Shedden-Ralston |date=1872 |title=The Songs of the Russian People: As Illustrative of Slavonic Mythology and Russian Social Life |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=429UAAAAcAAJ |location=London |publisher=Ellis &amp; Green |pages=227–229}}&lt;/ref&gt; Ancient rainmaking practices have been widespread [[Mediterranean]] traditions, already documented in the Balkans since [[Minoan]] and [[Mycenaean Greece|Mycenaean]] times.{{sfn|Burns|2008|pp=228–231}}{{sfn|Håland|2001|pp=197–201}} There is a lack of any strong historical evidence for a link between the figures and practices of the ancient times and those that survided to the end of the 20th century, however, according to [[Richard Berengarten]], if seen as &quot;typologically parallel&quot; practices in the ancient world, they may be interpretable at least as forerunners, even if not as direct progenitors of the modern Balkan rainmaking customs.{{sfn|Burns|2008|pp=228–231}} Some consider the ''perperuna'' figure to have a mythological and etymological Slavic origin related to Slavic thunder-god [[Perun]],{{#tag:ref|&lt;ref&gt;{{harvnb|Čulinović-Konstantinović|1963|pp=93–94|ps=:Ovakav obred za kišu poznat je i u Madžarskoj. Analizirao ga je Z. Ujvary te je u svojoj studiji citirao mnoge madžarske autore koji su o tome pisali. Prema njegovu mišljenju, običaj se tamo proširio pod utjecajem Slavena i Rumunja ... M. S. Thompson, međutim, misli da riječ &quot;perperuna&quot; potječe od imena slavenskog boga Peruna, boga gromovnika ... Teoriju o slavenskom porijeklu ovog običaja prihvatili su osim M. S. Thompsona još i G. F. Abbott i E. Fischer.}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;Katicic&quot;&gt;{{cite book |last=Katičić |first=Radoslav |author-link=Radoslav Katičić |title=Naša stara vjera: Tragovima svetih pjesama naše pretkršćanske starine |trans-title=Our Old Faith: Tracing the Sacred Poems of Our Pre-Christian Antiquity |year=2017 |publisher=Ibis Grafika, [[Matica hrvatska]] |location=Zagreb |language=hr |isbn=978-953-6927-98-2 |page=105}}&lt;/ref&gt;{{sfn|Gieysztor|2006|p=89, 104–106}}&lt;ref name=&quot;Zecevic&quot;&gt;{{cite book |last=Zečević |first=Slobodan |date=1974 |title=Elementi naše mitologije u narodnim obredima uz igru |language=sr |location=Zenica |publisher=Muzej grada Zenice |pages=125–128, 132–133}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book |author=Institut za književnost i umetnost (Hatidža Krnjević) |title=Rečnik književnih termina |trans-title=Dictionary of literary terms |year=1985 |publisher=Nolit |location=Beograd |language=sr |isbn=978-86-19-00635-4 |pages=130, 618}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book |last=Sikimić |first=Biljana |date=1996 |title=Etimologija i male folklorne forme |language=sr |location=Beograd |publisher=SANU |pages=85–86 |quote=О vezi Peruna i prporuša up. Ivanov i Toporov 1974: 113: можно думать об одновременной связи имени nеnеруна - nрnоруша как с обозначением nорошения дождя, его распыления (ср. с.-хорв. ирпошuмu (се), nрnошка и Т.Д.; чешск. pršeti, prch, prš), так и с именем Громовержца. Связъ с порошением дождя представляется тем более вероятной, что соответствующий глагол в ряде индоевропейских язЪП&lt;ов выступает с архаическим удвоением&quot;. Za etimologiju sh. ргроrušа up. i Gavazzi 1985: 164.}}&lt;/ref&gt;{{sfn|Belaj|2007|p=80, 112}}{{Sfn|Dragić|2007|p=80, 112}}{{Sfn|Lajoye|2015|p=114}}}} and became widespread in the Southeastern Europe with the [[Slavic migrations to Southeastern Europe|Slavic migration]] (6th–10th century).&lt;ref&gt;{{harvnb|Gimbutas|1967|p=743|ps=:The names applied to the Balkan rain-ceremonies and to those who perform them suggest, by the modest, degree of variation from one another, by the large number of different variants, and their distribution (not only throughout Romania but in Albania and Greek Epirus and Macedonia), the diffusion of a Slavic ritual linked with the name of Perun in any one of its numerous minor variants.}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{harvnb|Jakobson|1985|pp=22, 24|ps=:The ritual call for rain was transmitted long ago from the Balkan Slavs to neighboring peoples, who evidently preserved the original form of the mythological name ... But even if one leaves aside the late, conjectural echoes of Perun's name, one is still forced to conclude that his cult had wide dissemination and deep roots in Slavic paganism, a fact that is clearly reflected not only in the texts, but also in onomastics, as well as in the folklore of the Slavs and their neighbors.}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal |last=Zaroff |first=Roman |date=1999 |title=Organized pagan cult in Kievan Rus': The invention of foreign elite or evolution of local tradition? |url=https://ojs.zrc-sazu.si/sms/article/view/1844 |journal=[[Studia mythologica Slavica]] |volume=2 |page=57 |doi=10.3986/sms.v2i0.1844 |quote=As a consequence of the relatively early Christianisation of the Southern Slavs, there are no more direct accounts in relation to Perun from the Balkans. Nevertheless, as late as the first half of the 12th century, in Bulgaria and Macedonia, peasants performed a certain ceremony meant to induce rain. A central figure in the rite was a young girl called Perperuna, a name clearly related to Perun. At the same time, the association of Perperuna with rain shows conceptual similarities with the Indian god Parjanya. There was a strong Slavic penetration of Albania, Greece and Romania, between the 6th and 10th centuries. Not surprisingly the folklore of northern Greece also knows Perperuna, Albanians know Pirpirúnă, and also the Romanians have their Perperona. Also, in a certain Bulgarian folk riddle the word ''perušan'' is a substitute for the Bulgarian word ''гърмомеҽица'' (grmotevitsa) for thunder. Moreover, the name of Perun is also commonly found in Southern Slavic toponymy. There are places called: Perun, Perunac, Perunovac, Perunika, Perunićka Glava, Peruni Vrh, Perunja Ves, Peruna Dubrava, Perunuša, Perušice, Perudina and Perutovac.|doi-access=free }}&lt;/ref&gt; According to the Slavic theory, it is a (Balto-)Slavic heritage of Proto-Indo-European origin related to Slavic thunder-god Perun. It has parallels in ritual prayers for bringing rain in times of drought dedicated to rain-thunder deity [[Parjanya]] recorded in the ''[[Vedas]]'' and Baltic thunder-god [[Perkūnas]], [[cognates]] alongside Perun of Proto-Indo-European weather-god [[Perkwunos]].{{sfn|Jakobson|1985|p=6–7, 21, 23}} An early medieval Ruthenian manuscript mentions the East Slavic deity [[Pereplut]], who was worshiped with whirling and libations.{{sfn|Jakobson|1955|p=616}}{{sfn|Gimbutas|1967|p=743}}{{sfn|Jakobson|1985|p=23–24}} According to Jakobson, ''[[Novgorod Chronicle]]'' (&quot;dožd prapruden&quot;) and ''Pskov Chronicle'' (&quot;dožd praprudoju neiskazaemo silen&quot;) could have &quot;East Slavic trace of Peperuda calling forth the rain&quot;, and West Slavic god [[Pripegala]] reminds of ''Preperuga/Prepeluga'' variation and connection with Perun.{{sfn|Gimbutas|1967|p=743}}{{sfn|Jakobson|1985|p=24}} Serbo-Croatian archaic variant ''Prporuša'' and verb ''prporiti se'' (&quot;to fight&quot;) also have parallels in Old Russian (&quot;porъprjutъsja&quot;).{{sfn|Jakobson|1985|p=23}} Perun's battle against [[Veles (god)|Veles]] because of Perperuna/Dodola's kidnapping{{clarify|date=August 2024}} has parallels in [[Zeus]] saving of [[Persephone]] after [[Hades]] carried her underground causing big drought on Earth, also seen in the similarity of the names Perperuna and Persephone.&lt;ref name=&quot;York&quot;/&gt;{{sfn|Evans|1974|p=116–117}}{{sfn|Burns|2008|p=232}} Recent research criticize invention of a Slavic female goddess.{{sfn|Łuczyński|2020|p=141}} Some scholars relate ''Dodole'' with pagan custom and songs of ''Lade'' (Ladarice) in [[Hrvatsko Zagorje]] (so-called &quot;Ladarice Dodolske&quot;),&lt;ref name=&quot;Cubelic&quot;&gt;{{cite book |last=Čubelić |first=Tvrtko |date=1990 |title=Povijest i historija usmene narodne književnosti: historijske i literaturno-teorijske osnove te genološki aspekti: analitičko-sintetički pogledi |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=hb1iAAAAMAAJ |language=hr |location=Zagreb |publisher=Ante Pelivan i Danica Pelivan |pages=75–76 |isbn=978-86-81703-01-4}}&lt;/ref&gt;{{Sfn|Dragić|2007|p=279, 283}}&lt;ref name=&quot;Dragic2012&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |last=Dragić |first=Marko |date=2012 |title=Lada i Ljeljo u folkloristici Hrvata i slavenskom kontekstu |trans-title=Lada and Ljeljo in the folklore of Croats and Slavic context |url=https://hrcak.srce.hr/136243 |language=hr |journal=Zbornik radova Filozofskog fakulteta u Splitu |volume=5 |pages=45, 53–55}}&lt;/ref&gt; and in [[Žumberak]]-[[Križevci]] for the ''Preperuša'' custom was also used term ''Ladekarice''.{{sfn|Čulinović-Konstantinović|1963|p=80–81}}{{sfn|Muraj|1987|p=160–161}} Other scholars, due to the geographical distribution, consider that the rainmaking ritual is of [[Paleo-Balkan mythology|Paleo-Balkan]] origin.{{sfn|Kulišić|1979|p=205}}{{sfn|Belaj|2007|p=80}} Some of them consider such origin even relating the ritual to Perun's cult. One theory, in particular, argues that Slavic deity Perun and Perperuna/Dodola customs are of [[Thracians|Thracian]] origin,&lt;ref&gt;Dimitǔr Dechev, ''[https://books.google.com/books/about/Die_thrakischen_Sprachreste.html?id=CrA_AAAAIAAJ Die thrakischen Sprachreste]'', Wien: R.M. Rohrer, 1957, pp. 144, 151&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;Sorin&quot;&gt;{{cite web|author=[[Sorin Paliga]]|title=Influenţe romane și preromane în limbile slave de sud|date=2003|url=http://egg.mnir.ro/pdf/Paliga_InflRomane.pdf|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131228002745/http://egg.mnir.ro/pdf/Paliga_InflRomane.pdf |archive-date=December 28, 2013}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal |first=Mihai |last=Dragnea |url=https://www.academia.edu/9334808 |title=The Thraco-Dacian Origin of the Paparuda/Dodola Rain-Making Ritual |journal=Brukenthalia Acta Musei |issue=4 |date=2014 |pages=18–27}}&lt;/ref&gt;{{sfn|Ḱulavkova|2020|p=19–20b|ps=:According to some researchers ... these pagan rites of worship are thought to be of Thracian origin ... According to other beliefs, Perun, Perin, or Pirin was the supreme deity of the Thracians.}} however, the name of the Slavic thunder-god [[Perun]] is commonly accepted to be formed from the [[Proto-Slavic]] root ''*per'' &quot;to strike&quot; attached to the common agent suffix ''-unŭ'', explained as &quot;the Striker&quot;.{{sfn|West|2007|p=242}} == Ritual == Rainmaking rituals were performed in times of summer drought to make it rain, usually in June and July, but sometimes also in the spring months when there was severe drought. The ritual was a village kinship or community type performance, and an imitative type of [[Incantation|magic practice]] that reproduced rainfall and soil irrigation, accompanied with ritual songs that addressed prayers to the pagan deity associated with rain as well as agriculture and vegetation. The ritual practice traces back to times when the social structure was based on the common property of the land and of the products, which belonged to the whole tribe/clan.{{sfn|Tirta|2004|pp=310–312}} They essentially belong to rituals related to [[Fertility rite|fertility]], but over time differentiated to a specific form connected with water and vegetation.{{sfn|Čulinović-Konstantinović|1963|p=73, 75–76, 91}}{{clarification needed|date=August 2024}} Perperuna and Dodola are considered very similar pagan customs with common origin,{{sfn|Čulinović-Konstantinović|1963|p=75, 78, 93, 95}}&lt;ref name=&quot;Revija&quot;&gt;{{cite magazine |last=Vukelić |first=Deniver |date=2010 |title=Pretkršćanski prežici u hrvatskim narodnim tradicijam |trans-title=Pre-Christian belief traces in Croatian folk traditions |url=https://www.matica.hr/hr/360/PRETKR%C5%A0%C4%86ANSKI%20PRE%C5%BDICI%20U%20HRVATSKIM%20NARODNIM%20TRADICIJAMA%20/ |language=hr |magazine=[[Hrvatska revija]] |issue=4 |publisher=[[Matica hrvatska]] |access-date=20 July 2022}}&lt;/ref&gt; with main difference being in the most common gender of the central character (possibly related to social hierarchy of the specific ethnic or regional group{{sfn|Čulinović-Konstantinović|1963|p=85, 95}}), lyric verses, sometimes religious content, and presence or absence of a chorus.{{sfn|Čulinović-Konstantinović|1963|p=84–85, 90}} They represent a group of rituals with a human collective going on a procession around houses and fields of a village, but with a central live character which differentiates them from other similar collective rituals in the same region and period (''[[Kermesse (festival)|Krstonoše]]'', ''[[Carnival|Poklade]]'', ''[[Koledari|Kolade]]'', ''[[German (mythology)|German]]'', ''Ladarice'', those during ''[[Jurjevo]]'' and ''[[Saint John's Eve|Ivandan]]'' and so on).{{sfn|Čulinović-Konstantinović|1963|p=74–75, 80}}{{Sfn|Dragić|2007|p=276}}{{Sfn|Puchner|2009|p=289, 345}} In the valley of [[Skopje]] in [[North Macedonia]] the Dodola were held on Thursday which was Perun's day.{{Sfn|Dragić|2007|p=291}} In [[Hungary]] the ritual was usually held on [[Saint George's Day|St. George's Day]].&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |last=T. |first=Dömötör |date=1967 |title=Dodola |url=https://gepeskonyv.btk.elte.hu/adatok/Neprajz/82Vereb%E9lyi/folklorisztika_es_rokonteruleteinek_fogalmi_rendszere/dodola.html}}&lt;/ref&gt; The core of the song always mentions a type of rain and list of regional crops.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book |last=Puchner |first=Walter |author-link=Walter Puchner |date=2016 |title=Die Folklore Südosteuropas: Eine komparative Übersicht |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=hZpVDAAAQBAJ |language=de |publisher=Böhlau Verlag Wien |page=65 |isbn=978-3-205-20312-4}}&lt;/ref&gt; The first written mentions and descriptions of the pagan custom are from the 18th century by [[Dimitrie Cantemir]] in ''[[Descriptio Moldaviae]]'' (1714/1771, ''Papaluga''),{{Sfn|Puchner|2009|p=346}}&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book |last=Cantemir |first=Dimitrie |author-link=Dimitrie Cantemir |date=1771 |title=Descriptio antiqui et hodierni status Moldaviae |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=2rZfAAAAcAAJ |location=Frankfurt, Leipzig |language=de |pages=315–316 |quote=Im Sommer, wenn dem Getreide wegen der Dürre Gefabr bevorzustehen fcheinet, ziehen die Landleute einem kleinen Ragdchen, welches noch nicht über zehen Jahr alt ist, ein Hemde an, welches aus Blattern von Baumen und Srantern gemacht wird. Alle andere Ragdchen und stnaben vol gleiechem Alter folgen ihr, und siehen mit Tanzen und Singen durch die ganze Racharfchaft; wo sie aber hin komuien, da pflegen ihnen die alten Weiber kalt Wasser auf den Stopf zu gieffen. Das Lied, welches fie fingen, ist ohngefähr von folegendem Innbalte: &quot;Papaluga! steige nech dem Himmel, öffne feine Thüren, fend von oben Regen ber, daß der Roggen, Weizen, Hirfe u. f. w. gut wachsen.&quot;}}&lt;/ref&gt; then in a Greek law book from [[Bucharest]] (1765, it invoked 62nd Cannon to stop the custom of ''Paparuda''),{{Sfn|Puchner|2009|p=346}}&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book |last=Puchner |first=Walter |author-link=Walter Puchner |date=2017 |chapter=2 - Byzantium High Culture without Theatre or Dramatic Literature? |title=Greek Theatre between Antiquity and Independence: A History of Reinvention from the Third Century BC to 1830 |chapter-url=https://www.cambridge.org/core/books/abs/greek-theatre-between-antiquity-and-independence/byzantium/AD8A310DFF20316E196BA81890C36797 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |page=73 |isbn=978-1-107-44502-4 |doi=10.1017/9781107445024.004 |quote=...in 1765, a Greek law book from Bucharest quotes the 62nd Canon of the Trullanum in order to forbid public dancing by girls in a custom well known throughout the Balkans as 'paparuda', 'perperuna' or 'dodole', a ritual processional rain dance.}}&lt;/ref&gt; and by the Bulgarian [[hieromonk]] [[Spiridon Gabrovski]] who also noted to be related to Perun (1792, ''Peperud'').{{sfn|Belaj|2007|p=80}}&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite book|url=https://archive.org/details/istoriiavokratt00spirgoog|title=История во кратце о болгарском народе славенском. Сочинися и исписа в лето 1792|last=Габровски|first=Спиридон Иеросхимонах|publisher=изд. Св. Синод на Българската Църква|year=1900|location=София|pages=[https://archive.org/details/istoriiavokratt00spirgoog/page/n156 14]}}&lt;/ref&gt; Peoples generally used to organise the Perperuna/Dodola ritual in times of spring and especially summer [[drought]]s, where they worshipped the god/goddess and prayed to him/her for rain (and fertility, later also asked for other field and house blessings). The central character of the ceremony of Perperuna was usually a young boy, while of Dodola usually a young girl, both aged between 10 and 15 years. Purity was important, and sometimes to be orphans. They would be naked, but were not anymore in latest forms of 19-20th century, wearing a skirt and dress densely made of fresh green knitted vines, leaves and flowers of ''[[Sambucus nigra]]'', ''[[Sambucus ebulus]]'', ''[[Clematis flammula]]'', ''[[Clematis vitalba]]'', [[fern]] and other deciduous shrubs and vines, small branches of ''[[Tilia]]'', [[Oak]] and other. The green cover initially covered all body so that the central person figure was almost unrecognizable, but like the necessity of direct skin contact with greenery it also greatly decreased and was very simple in modern period. They whirled and were followed by a small procession of children who walked and danced with them around the same village and fields, sometimes carrying oak or [[Fagus sylvatica|beech]] branches, singing the ritual prayer, stopping together at every house yard, where the hosts would sprinkle water on chosen boy/girl who would shake and thus sprinkle everyone and everything around it (example of &quot;analogical magic&quot;{{Sfn|Puchner|2009|p=346}}), hosts also gifted treats (bread, eggs, cheese, sausages etc., in a later period also money) to children who shared and consumed them among them and sometimes even hosts would drink wine, seemingly as a sacrifice in Perun's honor.&lt;ref name=&quot;Ribaric&quot;&gt;{{Cite book|last=Ribarić|first=Josip|title=O istarskim dijalektima: razmještaj južnoslavenskih dijalekata na poluotoku Istri s opisom vodičkog govora|publisher=Josip Turčinović|date=2002|location=Pazin|orig-date=1916|language=hr|isbn=953-6262-43-6|pages=84–85, 206}}&lt;/ref&gt;{{sfn|Gimbutas|1967|p=743–744}}{{sfn|Evans|1974|p=100, 119}}{{sfn|Jakobson|1985|p=21, 23}}{{sfn|Čulinović-Konstantinović|1963|p=74–77, 83–93}}{{sfn|Muraj|1987|p=158–163}}{{Sfn|Dragić|2007|p=290–293}} The chosen boy/girl was called by one of the name variants of the ritual itself, however in [[Istria]] was also known as ''Prporuš'' and in [[Dalmatia]]-[[Boka Kotorska]] as ''Prpac/Prpats'' and both regions his companions as ''Prporuše'',&lt;ref name=&quot;Ralston&quot;/&gt;{{Sfn|Dragić|2007|p=291}}&lt;ref name=&quot;Ribaric&quot;/&gt;{{sfn|Čulinović-Konstantinović|1963|p=76, 80}} while at [[Pirot]] and [[Nišava District]] in [[Southern Serbia (geographical region)|Southern Serbia]] near Bulgarian border were called as ''dodolće'' and ''preperuđe'', and as in Macedonia both names appear in the same song.{{sfn|Čulinović-Konstantinović|1963|p=79, 95}}{{sfn|Burns|2008|p=220, 222|ps=:The finely documented account by Đorđević of a version of the Balkan rainmaking custom, performed near the River Morava in south-eastern Serbia near the Bulgarian border ... Fly, fly, peperuga/Oh, dodolas, Dear Lord!}} [[File:Пеперуда в Добруджа 1950.jpg|thumb|right|250px|''Peperuda'' performed by Romani in [[Dobruja]], Bulgaria, 1950s.]] By the 20th century once common rituals almost vanished in the Balkans, although rare examples of practice can be traced until 1950-1980s and remained in folk memory. The main reason is the development of agriculture and consequently lack of practical need for existence of mystical connection and customs with nature and weather. Christian church also tried to diminish pagan beliefs and customs, resulting in &quot;dual belief&quot; (''dvoeverie'') in rural populations, a conscious preservation of pre-Christian beliefs and practices alongside Christianity. Into customs and songs were mixed elements from other rituals including Christianity, but they also influenced the creation of Christian songs and prayers invoking the rain which were used as a close Christian alternative (decline was reportedly faster among Catholics{{sfn|Muraj|1987|p=161}}).{{sfn|Čulinović-Konstantinović|1963|p=77, 91–93}}{{sfn|Predojević|2019|p=581, 583, 589–591}} According to [[:hr:Velimir Deželić mlađi|Velimir Deželić Jr.]] in 1937, it was an old custom that &quot;Christians approved it, took it over and further refined it. In the old days, ''Prporuša'' were very much like a [[Piety|pious]] ritual, only later the leaders - ''Prpac'' - began to boast too much, and ''Prporuše'' seemed to be more interested in gifts than beautiful singing and prayer&quot;.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book |last=Deželić Jr. |first=Velimir |date=1937 |title=Kolede: Obrađeni hrvatski godišnji običaji |trans-title=Kolede: Examined Croatian annual customs |url=https://archive.org/details/kolede_obradjeni_hrvatski_godisnji_obicaji-velimir_dezelic_sin/ |language=hr |publisher=Hrvatsko književno društvo svetog Jeronima |page=70 |quote=Ljeti, kad zategnu suše, pošle bi našim selima Prporuše moliti od Boga kišu. Posvuda su Hrvatskom išle Prporuše, a običaj je to prastar — iz pretkršćanskih vremena — ali lijep, pa ga kršćani odobrili, preuzeli i još dotjerali. U stara vremena Prporuše su bile veoma nalik nekom pobožnom obredu, tek poslije su predvodnici — Prpci— počeli suviše lakrdijati, a Prporušama ko da je više do darova, nego do lijepa pjevanja i molitve.}}&lt;/ref&gt; Depending on region, instead of village boys and girls the pagan ritual by then was mostly done by migrating [[Romani people]] from other villages and for whom it became a professional performance motivated by gifts, sometimes followed by financially poor members from other ethnic groups.{{sfn|Čulinović-Konstantinović|1963|p=77, 91–93}}{{sfn|Predojević|2019|p=581, 583, 589–591}}&lt;ref name=&quot;Horvat&quot;&gt;{{cite book |last=Horvat |first=Josip |date=1939 |title=Kultura Hrvata kroz 1000 godina |trans-title=Culture of Croats through 1000 years |url=https://archive.org/details/kultura_hrvata_kroz_1000_godina_ii.izdanje_1939-josip_horvat |language=hr |location=Zagreb |publisher=A. Velzek |pages=23–24}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book |last=Kovačević |first=Ivan |date=1985 |title=Semiologija rituala |trans-title=Semiology of ritual |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=qPMXAAAAIAAJ |language=sr |location=Beograd |publisher=Prosveta |page=79}}&lt;/ref&gt;{{Sfn|Dragić|2007|p=278, 290}} Due to [[Anti-Romani sentiment]], the association with Romani also caused repulsion, shame and ignorance among last generations of members of ethnic groups who originally performed it.{{sfn|Predojević|2019|p=583–584, 589}} Eventually it led to a dichotomy of identification with own traditional heritage, Christianity and stereotypes about Romani witchcraft.{{sfn|Predojević|2019|p=581–582, 584}} In the present days, older generations of Albanians demonstrate the common practice of rainmaking rituals in their life, but newer generations generally see them as something applied in the past, a tradition that their parents have gone through. Nevertheless, elders still accompany [[processions]] of boys and girls, who perform the rainmaking rite dressed with their best [[Albanian traditional clothing|traditional clothing]] except for the main boy or girl, who is dressed entirely in fresh branches, leaves and herbs.&lt;ref&gt;{{harvnb|Qafleshi|2011|pp=51–52|}}; {{harvnb|Ministria|2014|p=66}}; {{harvnb|Halimi|Halimi-Statovci|Xhemaj|2011|pp=2–6, 32–43}}&lt;/ref&gt; Public exhibitions of the ritual are usually performed during Albanian festivals, often for the local audience, but also in the [[Gjirokastër National Folk Festival]], one of the most important events of Albanian culture.{{sfn|Sela|2017|pp=69–70}} ===Perperuna songs=== [[Ioan Slavici]] reported in 1881 that the custom of ''Paparuga'' was already &quot;very disbanded&quot; in Romania.{{sfn|Nodilo|1981|p=51}} Stjepan Žiža in 1889/95 reported that the once common ritual almost vanished in Southwestern and Central-Eastern Istria, Croatia.{{sfn|Čulinović-Konstantinović|1963|p=78}} [[:hr:Ivan Milčetić|Ivan Milčetić]] recorded in 1896 that the custom of ''Prporuša'' also almost vanished from the North Adriatic island of [[Krk]], although almost recently it was well known in all Western parts of Croatia, while in other parts as ''Dodola''.&lt;ref name=&quot;Milcetic&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |last=Milčetić |first=Ivan |date=1896 |title=Prporuša |journal=Zbornik za narodni život i običaje južnih Slavena |location=Belgrade |publisher=[[JAZU]] |volume=1 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=8TwSAAAAYAAJ |pages=217–218 |quote=Čini mi se da je već nestalo prporuše i na otoku Krku, a bijaše još nedavno poznata svuda po zapadnim stranama hrvatskog naroda, dok je po drugim krajevima živjela dodola. Nego i za dodolu već malo gdje znadu. Tako mi piše iz Vir‐Pazara g. L. Jovović, koga sam pitao, da li još Crnogorci poznaju koledu...}}&lt;/ref&gt; Croatian linguist Josip Ribarić recorded in 1916 that it was still alive in Southwestern Istria and [[Ćićarija]] (and related it to the 16th century migration from Dalmatia of speakers of [[Southwestern Istrian]] dialect).&lt;ref name=&quot;Ribaric&quot;/&gt; On island of Krk was also known as ''Barburuša/Barbaruša/Bambaruša'' (occurrence there is possibly related to the 15th century migration which included besides Croats also [[Vlachs of Croatia|Vlach]]-[[Istro-Romanians|Istro-Romanian]] shepherds{{sfn|Zebec|2005|p=68–71, 248}}).{{sfn|Čulinović-Konstantinović|1963|p=80}}{{sfn|Zebec|2005|p=71}} It was also widespread in [[Dalmatia]] (especially [[Zadar]] hinterland, coast and islands), [[Žumberak]] (also known as ''Pepeluše'', ''Prepelice''{{sfn|Muraj|1987|p=161}}) and Western [[Slavonia]] (Križevci).&lt;ref name=&quot;Ralston&quot;/&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;Revija&quot;/&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;Horvat&quot;/&gt;{{sfn|Zebec|2005|p=71}}{{sfn|Čulinović-Konstantinović|1963|p=78, 80–81}}{{Sfn|Dragić|2007|p=291–293}} It was held in Istria at least until the 1950s,{{sfn|Čulinović-Konstantinović|1963|p=82}} in Žumberak until the 1960s,{{sfn|Muraj|1987|p=165}} while according to one account in [[Jezera, Tisno|Jezera]] on island [[Murter]] the last were in the late 20th century.{{Sfn|Dragić|2007|p=292}} In Serbia, Perperuna was only found in [[Kosovo]], Southern and Eastern Serbia near Bulgarian border.{{sfn|Čulinović-Konstantinović|1963|p=79}} According to [[Natko Nodilo]] the discrepancy in distribution between these two countries makes an idea that originally Perperuna was Croatian while Dodola was Serbian custom.{{sfn|Nodilo|1981|p=50a|ps=:Po tome, pa i po različitome imenu za stvar istu, mogao bi ko pomisliti, da su dodole, prvim postankom, čisto srpske, a prporuše hrvatske. U Bosni, zapadno od Vrbasa, zovu se čaroice. Kad bi ovo bilo hrvatski naziv za njih, onda bi prporuše bila riječ, koja k nama pregje od starih Slovenaca.}} Seemingly it was not present in Slovenia, Northern Croatia, almost all of Bosnia and Herzegovina and Montenegro (only sporadically in [[Boka Kotorska]]).{{sfn|Muraj|1987|p=159}} Luka Jovović from [[Virpazar]], Montenegro reported in 1896 that in Montenegro existed some ''koleda'' custom for summer droughts, but was rare and since 1870s not practiced anymore.&lt;ref name=&quot;Milcetic&quot;/&gt; {|class=&quot;wikitable&quot; ||Bulgaria&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book |last=Антонова |first=Илонка Цанова |date=2015 |title=Календарни празници и обичаи на българите |trans-title=Calendar holidays and customs of the Bulgarians |language=bg |location=Sofia |publisher=Издателство на Българската академия на науките &quot;Проф. Марин Дринов&quot; |pages=66–68 |isbn=978-954-322-764-8}}&lt;/ref&gt;||Albania&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book|last=Pipa|first=Arshi|title=Albanian Folk Verse: Structure and Genre|publisher=O. Harrassowitz|year=1978|isbn=3-87828-119-6|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=WCIHAQAAIAAJ|page=58}}&lt;/ref&gt;||Croatia-Krk&lt;br /&gt;&lt;small&gt;([[Dubašnica]], 1896&lt;ref name=&quot;Milcetic&quot;/&gt;)&lt;/small&gt;||Croatia-Istria&lt;br /&gt;&lt;small&gt;([[Lanišće|Vodice]], 1916&lt;ref name=&quot;Ribaric&quot;/&gt;)&lt;/small&gt;||Croatia-Istria&lt;br /&gt;&lt;small&gt;([[Polje Čepić|Čepić]], 1896&lt;ref name=&quot;Milcetic&quot;/&gt;/Štifanići near [[Baderna]], 1906/08&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book |last=Ribarić |first=Josip |editor=Tanja Perić-Polonijo |date=1992 |title=Narodne pjesme Ćićarije |language=hr |location=Pazin |publisher=Istarsko književno društvo &quot;Juraj Dobrila&quot; |pages=11, 208}}&lt;/ref&gt;)&lt;/small&gt;||Croatia-Dalmatia&lt;br /&gt;&lt;small&gt;([[Ražanac]], 1905{{sfn|Čulinović-Konstantinović|1963|p=81}})&lt;/small&gt;||Croatia-Dalmatia&lt;br /&gt;&lt;small&gt;([[Ravni Kotari]], 1867&lt;ref name=&quot;Vuk&quot;&gt;{{cite book |last=Karadžić |first=Vuk Stefanović |author-link=Vuk Stefanović Karadžić |date=1867 |title=Život i običaji naroda srpskoga |trans-title=Life and customs of Serbian nation |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=fX0RAAAAYAAJ |language=sr |location=Vienna |publisher=A. Karacić |pages=61–66}}&lt;/ref&gt;)&lt;/small&gt;||Croatia-Žumberak&lt;br /&gt;&lt;small&gt;(Pavlanci, 1890{{sfn|Muraj|1987|p=164}})&lt;/small&gt;||Macedonia&lt;br /&gt;&lt;small&gt;([[Struga]], 1861&lt;ref name=&quot;Miladinovci&quot;/&gt;)&lt;/small&gt; |- | &lt;poem&gt; &lt;small&gt;Letela e peperuda Daĭ, Bozhe, dŭzhd Daĭ, Bozhe, dŭzhd Ot orache na kopache Da se rodi zhito, proso Zhito, proso i pshenitsa Da se ranyat siracheta Siracheta, siromasi&lt;/small&gt; &lt;/poem&gt; || &lt;poem&gt; &lt;small&gt;Rona-rona, Peperona Bjerë shi ndë arat tona! Të bëhetë thekëri I gjatë gjer në çati Gruri gjer në perëndi Ashtu edhe misëri!&lt;/small&gt; &lt;/poem&gt; || &lt;poem&gt; &lt;small&gt;Prporuša hodila Službu boga molila Dajte sira, dajte jaj Da nam bog da mladi daž Od šenice višnji klas! A ti, bože vični Smiluj se na nas!&lt;/small&gt; &lt;/poem&gt; || &lt;poem&gt; &lt;small&gt;Prporuše hodile Slavu Boga molile I šenice bilice Svake dobre sričice Bog nan ga daj Jedan tihi daž!&lt;/small&gt; &lt;/poem&gt; || &lt;poem&gt; &lt;small&gt;Preporuči hodili / Prporuše hodile Iz Prepora grada / 's Prpora grada Kuda hodili / Da nam bog da dažda Tuda Boga molili / Crljenoga mažda Da nam Bog da dažda / I šenice bilice I crljenoga masta / Svake dobre sričice I šenice bilice / Šenica nan rodila I svake dobre srećice / Dičica prohodila Šenica narodila / Šenicu pojili Dica nam prohodila / Dicu poženili I šenicu pojili / Skupi, bože, oblake! I dicu poženili / Struni bojžu rosicu Skupi, Bože, oblake / Na tu svetu zemljicu! Hiti božju kapljicu / Amen, amen, amen Na ovu svetu zemljicu! Amen&lt;/small&gt; &lt;/poem&gt; || &lt;poem&gt; &lt;small&gt;Prporuše hodile Putom Boga molile Da ni pane kišica Da ni rodi šenica bilica I vinova lozica&lt;/small&gt; &lt;/poem&gt; || &lt;poem&gt; &lt;small&gt;Prporuše hodile Terem Boga molile Da nam dade kišicu Da nam rodi godina I šenica bjelica I vinova lozica I nevjesta đetića Do prvoga božića Daruj nama, striko naša Oku brašna, striko naša Bublu masla, striko naša Runce vune, striko naša Jedan sirčić, striko naša Šaku soli, striko naša Dva, tri jajca, striko naša Ostaj s Bogom, striko naša Koja si nas darovala&lt;/small&gt; &lt;/poem&gt; || &lt;poem&gt; &lt;small&gt;Preperuša odila Za nas Boga molila Daj nam Bože kišice Na ovu našu ljetinu Da pokvasi mladinu Pucaj, pucaj ledeno Škrapaj, škrapaj godino Mi smo tebi veseli Kano Isus Mariji Kaj Marija Isusu Kano mati djetetu&lt;/small&gt; &lt;/poem&gt; || &lt;poem&gt; &lt;small&gt;Otletala preperuga, oj ljule, oj! Ot oracha na oracha, oj ljule, oj! Ot kopacha na kopacha, oj ljule, oj! Ot rezhacha na rezhacha; oj ljule, oj! Da zarosit sitna rosa, oj ljule, oj! Sitna rosa beriketna, oj ljule, oj! I po pole i po more; oj ljule, oj! Da se rodit s' beriket, oj ljule, oj! S' beriket vino-zhito; oj ljule, oj! Cheincite do gredite, oj ljule, oj! Jachmenite do streite, oj ljule, oj! Lenoite do pojasi, oj ljule, oj! Uroite do kolena; oj ljule, oj! Da se ranet siromasi, oj ljule, oj! Drvete ne so osito, oj ljule, oj! Da je sita godina; oj ljule, oj! Drvete ne so oshnica, oj ljule, oj! Da ja polna koshnica; oj ljule, oj! Drvete ne so jamache, oj ljule, oj! Da je tuchna godina, oj ljule, oj!&lt;/small&gt; &lt;/poem&gt; |} ===Dodola songs=== The oldest record for Dodole rituals in Macedonia is the song &quot;Oj Ljule&quot; from [[Struga]] region, recorded in 1861.&lt;ref name=&quot;Miladinovci&quot;&gt;{{cite book|last = Miladinovci|title = Зборник|publisher = Kočo Racin|year = 1962|location = Skopje|url = http://www.gbiblsk.edu.mk/images/stories/eknigi/zbornik.pdf|page = 462|archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20120216225647/http://www.gbiblsk.edu.mk/images/stories/eknigi/zbornik.pdf |archive-date = 2012-02-16}}&lt;/ref&gt; The Dodola rituals in Macedonia were actively held until the 1960s.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book|last=Veličkovska|first=Rodna|title=Музичките дијалекти во македонското традиционално народно пеење: обредно пеење|trans-title=Musical dialects in the Macedonian traditional folk singing: ritual singing| publisher=Institute of folklore &quot;Marko Cepenkov&quot;|year=2009|location=Skopje|language=mk|page=45}}&lt;/ref&gt; In Bulgaria the chorus was also &quot;Oj Ljule&quot;.{{sfn|Nodilo|1981|p=50b}} The oldest record in Serbia was by [[Vuk Karadžić]] (1841),{{sfn|Čulinović-Konstantinović|1963|p=79}} where was widespread all over the country and held at least until 1950/70s.&lt;ref name=&quot;Zecevic&quot;/&gt;{{sfn|Čulinović-Konstantinović|1963|p=77–78, 86, 88}} In Croatia was found in Eastern Slavonia, Southern [[Baranya (region)|Baranja]] and Southeastern [[Srijem]].&lt;ref name=&quot;Horvat&quot;/&gt;{{sfn|Čulinović-Konstantinović|1963|p=77–78, 90}}{{sfn|Muraj|1987|p=159}}{{sfn|Dragić|2012|p=54}}&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book |last=Janković |first=Slavko |date=1956 |title=Kuhačeva zbirka narodnih popijevaka (analizirana): od br. 1801 do br. 2000 |url=https://repozitorij.dief.eu/a/?pr=i&amp;id=69581 |quote=Naša doda moli Boga ([[Otok, Vukovar-Syrmia County|Otok]], Slavonia, 1881, sken ID: IEF_RKP_N0096_0_155; IEF_RKP_N0096_0_156A) - Ide doda preko sela ([[Erdevik]], Srijem, 1885, sken ID: IEF_RKP_N0096_0_163; IEF_RKP_N0096_0_164A) - Filip i Jakob, Koleda na kišu ([[Gibarac]], Srijem, 1886, sken ID: IEF_RKP_N0096_0_165; IEF_RKP_N0096_0_166A)}}&lt;/ref&gt; [[August Šenoa]] in his writing about the travel to Okić-grad near [[Samobor]], Croatia mentioned that saw two dodole.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |url=https://www.knjizevnost.hr/zagrebulje-1866-august-senoa/ |title=Zagrebulje I (1866.) |last=Šenoa |first=August |author-link=August Šenoa |date=1866 |website=Književnost.hr |publisher=informativka d.o.o. |access-date=23 July 2022 |quote=...već se miču niz Okić put naše šljive dvije u zeleno zavite dodole. S ovoga dodolskoga dualizma sjetih se odmah kakvi zecevi u tom grmu idu, i moja me nada ne prevari. Eto ti pred nas dva naša junaka, ne kao dodole, kao bradurina i trbušina, već kao pravi pravcati bogovi – kao Bako i Gambrinus... Naša dva boga, u zeleno zavita, podijeliše društvu svoj blagoslov, te bjehu sa živim usklikom primljeni. No i ova mitologička šala i mrcvarenje božanske poezije po našem generalkvartirmeštru pobudi bogove na osvetu; nad našim glavama zgrnuše se oblaci, i naskoro udari kiša.}}&lt;/ref&gt; To them is related the custom of Lade/Ladarice from other parts of Croatia, having chorus &quot;''Oj Lado, oj!''&quot; and similar verses &quot;''Molimo se višnjem Bogu/Da popuhne tihi vjetar, Da udari rodna kiša/Da porosi naša polja, I travicu mekušicu/Da nam stada Lado, Ugoje se naša stada''&quot;.&lt;ref name=&quot;Cubelic&quot;/&gt;{{Sfn|Dragić|2007|p=279, 283}}&lt;ref name=&quot;Dragic2012&quot;/&gt; {|class=&quot;wikitable&quot; ||Serbia&lt;br /&gt;&lt;small&gt;(1841&lt;ref name=&quot;Vuk&quot;/&gt;{{sfn|Čulinović-Konstantinović|1963|p=88}})&lt;/small&gt;||Serbia&lt;br /&gt;&lt;small&gt;(1867&lt;ref name=&quot;Vuk&quot;/&gt;)&lt;/small&gt;||Serbia&lt;br /&gt;&lt;small&gt;(1867&lt;ref name=&quot;Vuk&quot;/&gt;)&lt;/small&gt;||Croatia-Slavonia&lt;br /&gt;&lt;small&gt;([[Đakovo]]&lt;ref name=&quot;Dragic2012&quot;/&gt;)&lt;/small&gt;||Croatia-Slavonia&lt;br /&gt;&lt;small&gt;(Đakovo, 1957{{sfn|Čulinović-Konstantinović|1963|p=77, 90}})&lt;/small&gt;||Croatia-Srijem&lt;br /&gt;&lt;small&gt;([[Tovarnik]], 1979&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal |last=Černelić |first=Milana |date=1998 |title=Kroz godinu dana srijemskih običaja vukovarskog kraja |trans-title=Annual customs of Srijem in the Vukovar region |url=https://hrcak.srce.hr/80816 |language=hr |journal=Etnološka tribina |volume=28 |issue=21 |page=135}}&lt;/ref&gt;)&lt;/small&gt; |- | &lt;poem&gt; &lt;small&gt;Mi idemo preko sela, Oj dodo, oj dodo le! A oblaci preko neba, Oj dodo, oj dodo le! A mi brže, oblak brže, Oj dodo, oj dodo le! Oblaci nas pretekoše, Oj dodo, oj dodo le! Žito, vino porosiše, Oj dodo, oj dodo le!&lt;/small&gt; &lt;/poem&gt; || &lt;poem&gt; &lt;small&gt;Molimo se višnjem Bogu, Oj dodo, oj dodo le! Da udari rosna kiša, Oj dodo, oj dodo le! Da porosi naša polja, Oj dodo, oj dodo le! I šenicu ozimicu, Oj dodo, oj dodo le! I dva pera kukuruza, Oj dodo, oj dodo le!&lt;/small&gt; &lt;/poem&gt; || &lt;poem&gt; &lt;small&gt;Naša doda Boga moli, Oj dodo, oj dodo le! Da udari rosna kiša, Oj dodo, oj dodo le! Da pokisnu svi orači, Oj dodo, oj dodo le! Svi orači i kopači, Oj dodo, oj dodo le! I po kući poslovači, Oj dodo, oj dodo le!&lt;/small&gt; &lt;/poem&gt; || &lt;poem&gt; &lt;small&gt;Naša doda moli Boga Oj dodole, moj božole! Da porosi rosna kiša Oj dodole, moj božole! Da pokvasi naša polja Oj dodole, moj božole! Da urode, da prerode Oj dodole, moj božole!&lt;/small&gt; &lt;/poem&gt; || &lt;poem&gt; &lt;small&gt;Naša dojda moli boga da kiša pada Da pokisne suvo polje, oj, dojdole! Da pokisnu svi orači Svi orači i kopači, oj, dojdole! I po kući poslovači Oj, dojdole, oj, dojdole! I dva pera kukuruza I lanovi za darove, oj, dojdole! Da urodi, da prerodi, da ne polegne Oj, dojdole, oj, dojdole!&lt;/small&gt; &lt;/poem&gt; || &lt;poem&gt; &lt;small&gt;Naša doda moli Boga Da nam Bog da rosne kiše Rosne kiše malo više Na orače i kopače I na naše suve bašće Oj dodo, oj dodole! Da trava raste Da paun pase Da sunce sija Da žito zrija Oj dodo, oj dodole!&lt;/small&gt; &lt;/poem&gt; |} ==Other== According to [[Albanian folk beliefs]], the Sun ([[Dielli (Albanian paganism)|Dielli]]) makes the sky cloudy or clears it up.&lt;ref&gt;{{harvnb|Tirta|2004|pp=71–72}}; {{harvnb|Gjoni|2012|pp=85–86}}&lt;/ref&gt; Albanians used to invoke the Sun with rainmaking and soil fertility rituals. In rainmaking rituals from the [[Albanian Ionian Sea Coast]], Albanians used to pray to the Sun, in particular facing Mount [[Shëndelli]] (Mount &quot;Holy Sun&quot;), by invoking the names ''Dielli'', ''Shën Dëlliu'', ''Ilia'' or ''[[Perëndi]]a''. Children used to dress a boy with fresh branches, calling him ''dordolec''. A typical invocation song repeated three times during the ritual was:{{sfn|Gjoni|2012|pp=85–86}} {{blockquote|&quot;O Ilia, Ilia,&lt;br /&gt;Peperuga rrugëzaj&lt;br /&gt;Bjerë shi o Perëndi,&lt;br /&gt;Se qajnë ca varfëri,&lt;br /&gt;Me lot e logori&lt;br /&gt;Thekëri gjer mbë çati,&lt;br /&gt;Gruri gjer në Perëndi.&quot;}} Afterwards, people used to say: ''Do kemi shi se u nxi Shëndëlliu'' (&quot;We will have rain because ''Shëndëlliu'' went dark&quot;).{{sfn|Gjoni|2012|pp=85–86}} The Sun used to be also invoked when reappearing after the rain, prayed for increased production in agriculture.{{sfn|Gjoni|2012|pp=85–86}} == See also == {{commons category|Dodola}} * [[Albanian paganism]] * [[Folklore of Romania]] * [[Slavic paganism]] * [[Caloian]] * [[Perëndi]] * [[Porenut]] * [[Porevit]] == References == {{reflist}} === Bibliography === {{Refbegin|30em|indent=yes}} &lt;!-- B --&gt; *{{cite book |last=Belaj |first=Vitomir |author-link=Vitomir Belaj |date=2007 |orig-date=1998 |title=Hod kroz godinu: Mitska pozadina hrvatskih narodnih običaja i vjerovanja |trans-title=The walk within a year: the mythic background of the Croatian folk customs and beliefs |language=hr |location=Zagreb |publisher=Golden marketing-Tehnička knjiga |isbn=978-953-212-334-0}} *{{cite journal|last=Burns|first=Richard|title=Rain and Dust|journal=[[Studia Mythologica Slavica]]|volume=XI|issn=1581-128X|doi=10.3986/sms.v11i0.1696|year=2008|pages=217–236|doi-access=free}} &lt;!-- C --&gt; *{{cite journal |last=Čulinović-Konstantinović |first=Vesna |date=1963 |title=Dodole i prporuše: narodni običaji za prizivanje kiše |trans-title=Dodole and prporuše: folk customs for invoking the rain |url=https://hrcak.srce.hr/34409 |language=hr |journal=Narodna Umjetnost |volume=2 |issue=1 |pages=73–95}} &lt;!-- D --&gt; *{{cite journal |last=Dragić |first=Marko |date=2007 |title=Ladarice, kraljice i dodole u hrvatskoj tradicijskoj kulturi i slavenskom kontekstu |trans-title=Ladarice, Queens and Dodole in Croatian Traditionary Culture and Slavic Context |url=https://www.bib.irb.hr/299913 |language=hr |journal=Hercegovina, godišnjak za kulturno i povijesno naslijeđe |volume=21 |pages=275–296}} &lt;!-- G --&gt; *{{cite book|last=Gamkrelidze|first=Ivanov|title=Indo-European and the Indoeuropeans|publisher=Mouton de Gruyter|year=1995}} *{{cite book |last=Gieysztor |first=Aleksander |author-link=Aleksander Gieysztor |date=2006 |orig-date=1982 |edition=II |title=Mitologia Slowian |publisher=Wydawn. Uniwersytetu Warszawskiego |location=Warszawa |language=pl |isbn=978-83-235-0234-0}} *{{cite book |last=Gimbutas |first=Marija |author-link=Marija Gimbutas |date=1967 |chapter=Ancient Slavic Religion: A Synopsis |title=To honor Roman Jakobson: essays on the occasion of his seventieth birthday, 11 October 1966 (Vol. I) |pages=738–759 |publisher=Mouton |doi=10.1515/9783111604763-064 |isbn=978-3-11-122958-4}} *{{cite thesis|type=PhD|last=Gjoni|first=Irena|title=Marrëdhënie të miteve dhe kulteve të bregdetit të Jonit me areale të tjera mitike|publisher=University of Tirana, Faculty of History and Philology|language=sq|year=2012|place=Tirana}} &lt;!-- E --&gt; * {{cite book|last=Elsie|first=Robert|year=2000|title=The Christian Saints of Albania|publisher=Balkanistica|url=http://home.olemiss.edu/~mldyer/balk/article2.html|volume=13}} * {{cite book|last=Elsie|first=Robert|author-link=Robert Elsie|title=A Dictionary of Albanian Religion, Mythology and Folk Culture|place=London|publisher=Hurst &amp; Company|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=N_IXHrXIsYkC|isbn=1-85065-570-7|year=2001a}} *{{cite book|last=Elsie|first=Robert|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ve4SAQAAIAAJ|title=Albanian Folktales and Legends|year=2001b|publisher=Dukagjini Publishing House}} *{{cite book |last=Evans |first=David |date=1974 |chapter=Dodona, Dodola, and Daedala |title=Myth in Indo-European Antiquity |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=QNzuDwAAQBAJ |pages=99–130 |publisher=University of California Press |isbn=978-0-520-02378-9}} &lt;!-- H --&gt; *{{cite journal|last=Håland|first=Evy Johanne|title=Rituals of Magical Rain-Making in Modern and Ancient Greece: A Comparative Approach|journal=Cosmos|volume=17|year=2001|pages=197–251}} *{{cite book|last1=Halimi|first1=Zanita|last2=Halimi-Statovci|first2=Drita|last3=Xhemaj|first3=Ukë|translator=Lumnije Kadriu|title=Rite dhe Aktualiteti|trans-title=Rites and Contemporariness/Present Time|publisher=[[University of Prishtina]]|year=2011|url=https://chwbkosova.org/wp-content/uploads/2014/09/Publication_2011_7-min.pdf}} &lt;!-- J --&gt; *{{cite journal|last=Jackson|first=Peter|date=2002|title=Light from Distant Asterisks. Towards a Description of the Indo-European Religious Heritage|journal=Numen|volume=49|issue=1|pages=61–102|issn=0029-5973|jstor=3270472|doi=10.1163/15685270252772777}} *{{cite journal |last1=Jakobson |first1=Roman |author-link=Roman Jakobson |date=1955 |title=While Reading Vasmer's Dictionary |url=https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/pdf/10.1080/00437956.1955.11659581 |journal=[[Word (journal)|Word]] |volume=11 |issue=4 |pages=611–617 |doi=10.1080/00437956.1955.11659581}} *{{cite book |last=Jakobson |first=Roman |author-link=Roman Jakobson |date=1985 |title=Selected Writings VII: Contributions to Comparative Mythology |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=db7iuvTX1bkC |publisher=[[Walter de Gruyter]] |isbn=978-3-11-010617-6}} &lt;!-- K --&gt; *{{cite journal |last=Ḱulavkova |first=Katica |date=2020 |title=A Poetic Ritual Invoking Rain and Well-Being: Richard Berengarten's In a Time of Drought |url=https://scholarworks.iu.edu/journals/index.php/aeer/article/view/28956 |journal=Anthropology of East Europe Review |volume=37 |issue=1 |pages=17–26}} *{{cite book |last=Kulišić |first=Špiro |author-link=Špiro Kulišić |editor=[[Alojz Benac]] |date=1979 |title=Stara slovenska religija u svjetlu novijih istraživanja – posebno balkanoloških |language=sh |volume=Djela LVI, CBI knjiga 3 |location=Sarajevo |publisher=Centre for Balkan Studies, [[ANUBIH]]}} &lt;!-- L --&gt; *{{cite book |last=Lajoye |first=Patrice |author-link=Patrice Lajoye |date=2015 |title=Perun, dieu slave de l'orage: Archéologie, histoire, folklore |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=o5LdCgAAQBAJ |language=fr |publisher=Lingva |isbn=979-10-94441-25-1}} *{{cite book|last=Łuczyński|first=Michal|year=2020|title=Bogowie dawnych Słowian: Studium onomastyczne|publisher=Kieleckie Towarzystwo Naukowe|location=Kielce|isbn=978-83-60777-83-1|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=rv-izQEACAAJ|language=pl}} &lt;!-- M --&gt; *{{cite book|author=Ministria e Mjedisit dhe Planifikimit Hapësinor|title=Parku Kombëtar &quot;Sharri&quot; – Plani Hapësinor|publisher=Kosovo Environmental Protection Agency, Institute for Spatial Planning|year=2014|ref={{harvid|Ministria|2014}}}} *{{cite journal |last=Muraj |first=Aleksandra |date=1987 |title=Iz istraživanja Žumberka (preperuše, preslice, tara) |trans-title=From Research on Žumberak (preperuše, spindles, tara) |url=https://hrcak.srce.hr/clanak/76272 |language=hr |journal=Narodna Umjetnost |volume=24 |issue=1 |pages=157–175}} &lt;!-- N --&gt; *{{cite book |last=Nodilo |first=Natko |author-link=Natko Nodilo |date=1981 |orig-date=1884 |title=Stara Vjera Srba i Hrvata |trans-title=Old Faith of Serbs and Croats |url=https://archive.org/details/StaraVjeraSrbaIHrvata/ |language=hr |location=Split |publisher=Logos}} *{{cite book|last=Norris|first=Harry Thirlwall|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=RGmzir-ITtUC&amp;pg=PA34|title=Islam in the Balkans: Religion and Society Between Europe and the Arab World|publisher=University of South Carolina Press|year=1993|isbn=9780872499775|location=Columbia, S.C|pages=211|language=en|oclc=28067651}} &lt;!-- P --&gt; *{{cite book |last=Predojević |first=Željko |date=2019 |chapter=O pučkim postupcima i vjerovanjima za prizivanje kiše iz južne Baranje u kontekstu dvovjerja |trans-chapter=On folk practices and beliefs for invoking rain from southern Baranja in the context of dual belif |chapter-url=https://www.bib.irb.hr/1100049 |title=XIV. međunarodni kroatistički znanstveni skup |editor=István Blazsetin |editor-link=István Blazsetin (born 1963) |location=Pečuh |publisher=Znanstveni zavod Hrvata u Mađarskoj |language=hr |pages=581–593 |isbn=978-963-89731-5-3}} *{{cite book |last=Puchner |first=Walter |author-link=Walter Puchner |date=2009 |title=Studien zur Volkskunde Südosteuropas und des mediterranen Raums |url=https://library.oapen.org/handle/20.500.12657/34402 |location=Wien, Köln, Weimar |publisher=Böhlau Verlag |hdl=20.500.12657/34402 |language=de |isbn=978-3-205-78369-5}} *{{cite book|last1=Puhvel|first1=Jaan|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=OMPagyYOe8gC|title=Comparative Mythology|date=1987|publisher=Johns Hopkins University Press|isbn=978-0-8018-3938-2|author-link=Jaan Puhvel}} &lt;!-- Q --&gt; *{{cite book|last=Qafleshi|first=Muharrem|title=Opoja dhe Gora ndër shekuj|trans-title=Opoja and Gora During Centuries|publisher=[[Albanological Institute of Pristina]]|year=2011|isbn=978-9951-596-51-0}} &lt;!-- S --&gt; *{{cite book|last=Sela|first=Jonida|title=International Conference &quot;Education and Cultural Heritage&quot;|chapter=Values and Traditions in Ritual Dances of All-Year Celebrations in Korça Region, Albania|volume=1|publisher=Association of Heritage and Education|year=2017|pages=62–71}} &lt;!-- T --&gt; *{{cite book|last=Tirta|first=Mark|title=Mitologjia ndër shqiptarë|language=sq|editor=Petrit Bezhani|publisher=Mësonjëtorja|year=2004|place=Tirana|isbn=99927-938-9-9}} &lt;!-- U --&gt; *{{cite book|last=Urbańczyk|first=Stanisław|author-link=Stanisław Urbańczyk|year=1991|title=Dawni Słowianie: wiara i kult|trans-title=Old Slavs: faith and cult|publisher=Ossolineum, Polska Akademia Nauk, Komitet Słowianoznawstwa|location=Kraków|isbn=978-83-04-03825-7|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=4iUtAAAAMAAJ|language=pl}} &lt;!-- W --&gt; *{{cite book|last=Wachtel|first=Andrew Baruch|year=2008|title=The Balkans in World History|publisher=Oxford University Press|location=Oxford, England|isbn=978-0-19-988273-1|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=t6CeBgAAQBAJ}} *{{cite book|last=West|first=M. L.|title=Indo-European Poetry and Myth|publisher=Oxford University Press|year=2007|isbn=978-0-19-928075-9}} &lt;!-- Z --&gt; *{{cite book |last=Zebec |first=Tvrtko |date=2005 |title=Krčki tanci: plesno-etnološka studija |trans-title=Tanac dances on the island of Krk: dance ethnology study |url=https://www.academia.edu/35914079 |location=Zagreb, Rijeka |publisher=Institut za etnologiju i folkloristiku, Adamić |language=hr |isbn=953-219-223-9}} {{refend}} === Further reading === {{refbegin}} * {{ill|Bellosics, Bálint|hu|Bellosics Bálint}}. &quot;[http://real-j.mtak.hu/17297/ Dodola (Adatok az esőcsináláshoz)]&quot; [Dodola, Beiträge zum Regenmachen]. In: ''Ethnographia'' 6 (1895): 418–422. (In Hungarian) *{{cite book |last=Beza |first=Marcu |author-link=Marcu Beza |date=1928 |chapter=The Paparude and Kalojan |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=m2jTDwAAQBAJ |title=Paganism in Roumanian Folklore |location=London |publisher=J.M.Dent &amp; Sons LTD. |pages=27–36|isbn=978-3-8460-4695-1 }} * Boghici, Constantina. &quot;Archaic Elements in the Romanian Spring-Summer Traditions. Landmarks for Dâmboviţa County&quot;. In: ''Bulletin of the Transilvania University of Braşov'', Series VIII: Performing Arts 2 (2013): 17–18. https://ceeol.azurewebsites.net/search/article-detail?id=258246 * {{cite book |last=Cook |first=Arthur Bernard |author-link=Arthur Bernard Cook |date=1940 |chapter=Zeus and the Rain: Rain-magic in modern Greece |title=Zeus: A Study in Ancient Religion: God of the Dark Sky (earthquakes, clouds, wind, dew, rain, meteorites) |volume=3 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=2Yk8AAAAIAAJ |publisher=Cambridge University Press |pages=284–290 |isbn=978-0-511-69664-0 |doi=10.1017/CBO9780511696640}} * {{ill|Dömötör, Tekla|hu|Dömötor Tekla}}; {{ill|Eperjessy, Ernő|hu|Eperjessy Ernő}}. &quot;[http://real-j.mtak.hu/2925/ Dodola and Other Slavonic Folk-Customs in County Baranya (Hungary)]&quot;. In: ''Acta Ethnographica'', 16 (1967): 399–408. * {{cite journal |title=Paparuda |trans-title=Paparuda |first=Mihai |last=Dragnea |publisher=MUZEUL ETNOGRAFIC AL TRANSILVANIEI |journal=Anuarul Muzeului Etnografic al Transilvaniei |date=2012 |issue=6 |pages=73–81 |lang=Romanian}} * {{Cite journal |title=Песента в обреда Пеперуда |trans-title=The Song in the Peperuda Ritual |first=Bozhanka |last=Ganeva |publisher=Институт за етнология и фолклористика с Етнографски музей при БАН |journal=Български фолклор |volume=XXIX |date=2003 |issue=1 |pages=40–49 |lang=BG}} * Janković, Danica S., and Ljubica S. Janković. &quot;Serbian Folk Dance Tradition in Prizren&quot;. In: ''Ethnomusicology'' 6, no. 2 (1962): 117. https://doi.org/10.2307/924671. * {{cite journal |title=Вариантн на обредите Пеперуда и Герман |trans-title=Variants of the Rites Peperuda and German |first=Rusko |last=Kalev |publisher=Институт за етнология и фолклористика с Етнографски музей при БАН |journal=Български фолклор |volume=XII |date=1986 |issue=3 |pages=47–58 |lang=BG}} * {{cite journal |title=Słownictwo związane z wywoływaniem deszczu w dialektach sztokawskich |trans-title=Vocabulary related to rain calling in Shtokavian dialects |first=Agata |last=Kruszec |publisher=Instytut Slawistyki Polskiej Akademii Nauk |journal=Studia z Filologii Polskiej i Słowiańskiej |date=2008 |issue=43 |pages=141–148 |lang=PL}} * Мандич, Мария. &quot;[https://dais.sanu.ac.rs/123456789/7850 &quot;Жизнь&quot; ритуала после &quot;угасания&quot;: Пример додолы из села Сигетчеп в Венгрии]&quot; [The 'life' of an extinguished ritual: The case of the rain ritual dodola from Szigetcsép in Hungary]. In: &quot;Славяноведение&quot; 6 (2019): 15–29. DOI: 10.31857/S0869544X0006755-3 (In Russian) * {{cite book |last1=Marushiakova |first1=E. |last2=Popov |first2=V. |date=2016 |chapter=Roma Culture: Problems and Challenges |editor1-first=E. |editor1-last=Marushiakova |editor2-first=V. |editor2-last=Popov |title=Roma Culture: Myths and Realities |page=48 |location=München |publisher=Lincom Academic Publishers |url=https://www.academia.edu/26969260}} * {{cite journal |title=Женска антропоморфна пластика в два обреда за дъжд от Ямболски окръг |trans-title=Female Anthropomorphic Figures in Two Rain-Making Ceremonies from the District of Yambol |first=Lyubomir |last=Mikov |publisher=Институт за етнология и фолклористика с Етнографски музей при БАН |journal=Български фолклор |volume=XI |date=1985 |issue=4 |pages=19–27 |lang=BG}} * Puchner, Walter. &quot;Liedtextstudien Zur Balkanischen Regenlitanei: Mit Spezieller Berücksichtigung Der Bulgarischen Und Griechischen Varianten&quot;. In: ''Jahrbuch Für Volksliedforschung'' 29 (1984): 100–111. https://doi.org/10.2307/849291. *{{cite book |last=Schneeweis |first=Edmund |date=2019 |orig-date=1961 |title=Serbokroatische Volkskunde: Volksglaube und Volksbrauch |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=bR6bDwAAQBAJ |publisher=Walter de Gruyter GmbH &amp; Co KG |pages=161–163 |language=de |isbn=978-3-11-133764-7}} *{{cite book |last=MacDermott |first=Mercia |author-link=Mercia MacDermott |date=2003 |title=Explore Green Men |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=vT1NAAAAYAAJ |publisher=Heart of Albion Press |pages=17–19 |isbn=978-1-872883-66-3}} *{{citation |title=Dodole |url=https://www.enciklopedija.hr/natuknica.aspx?ID=15709 |author=Croatian Encyclopaedia |author-link=Croatian Encyclopaedia |year=2021}} {{refend}} ===External links=== *{{YouTube|id=X0BgBEtnK4s|title=Dodole ritual on TV in Macedonia}} *{{YouTube|id=aeCQgFUsIKA|title=Reconstruction of Dodole ritual in Bulgaria}} at [[Etar Architectural-Ethnographic Complex]] *{{YouTube|id=n2Vhk_eiwkg|title=&quot;Dodole&quot; song by Croatian ethno-folk rock band Kries}} *[https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=G8O5-a4rCk4 Pirpirouna/Pirpiruna/Perperouna – Rainmaking ritual song], and its [https://www.oeaw.ac.at/fileadmin/kommissionen/vanishinglanguages/Collections/Greek_varieties/Macedonian_Greek/Transcription_pdfs/mace1251TRV0001a_transcription.pdf lyrics], recorded 2016 by Thede Kahl and Andreea Pascaru in Turkey *[https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=evOGzUGT8kc Dodola/Pirpiruna – Rainmaking ritual song, description of the custom] and [https://www.oeaw.ac.at/fileadmin/kommissionen/vanishinglanguages/Collections/Greek_varieties/Macedonian_Greek/Transcription_pdfs/mace1251TRV0001a_transcription.pdf its lyrics], recorded 2020 in Northeast Greece by Sotirios Rousiakis {{Slavic mythology}} [[Category:Albanian folklore]] [[Category:Aromanian culture]] [[Category:Bulgarian folklore]] [[Category:Bulgarian traditions]] [[Category:Croatian folklore]] [[Category:Greek folklore]] [[Category:Macedonian traditions]] [[Category:Moldovan traditions]] [[Category:Rainmaking (ritual)]] [[Category:Romanian folklore]] [[Category:Romanian traditions]] [[Category:Serbian folklore]] [[Category:Serbian traditions]] [[Category:Slavic pseudo-deities]] [[Category:South Slavic culture]]</div></summary> <author><name>Βατο</name></author> </entry> <entry> <id>https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Dodola_and_Perperuna&diff=1257594155</id> <title>Dodola and Perperuna</title> <link rel="alternate" type="text/html" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Dodola_and_Perperuna&diff=1257594155"/> <updated>2024-11-15T19:05:01Z</updated> <summary type="html">Βατο: ce <hr /> <div>{{Short description|Rainmaking rituals in Southeast Europe}} [[File:&quot;Watering of Dodola&quot; by Uroš Predić, published in magazine &quot;Orao&quot; in 1892.jpg|300px|thumb|The sprinkling of ''Dodola'' with water by [[Uroš Predić]] (1892)]] '''Dodola''' (also spelled ''Dodole'', ''Dudola'', ''Dudula'', ''Diva-Dodola'' etc.), '''Perperuna''' (also spelled ''Peperuda'', ''Preperuda'', ''Preperuša'', ''Prporuša'', ''Papaluga'', ''Peperuna'' etc.), '''riti i ndjelljes/thirrjes së shiut''' (&quot;Rain-Invoking/Calling Ritual&quot; or &quot;Rite of Invoking/Calling the Rain&quot;) or simply '''thirrja e shiut''' (&quot;Call of the Rain&quot;), '''riti me dordolecin''' (&quot;Dordoleci Ritual&quot;), '''riti i dodolisë''' (&quot;Dodoli Ritual&quot;) are [[Rainmaking (ritual)|rainmaking]] [[Paganism|pagan]] customs widespread among different peoples in [[Southeast Europe]] until the 20th century, found in [[Albania]], [[Bulgaria]], [[Croatia]], [[Greece]], [[Hungary]], [[Kosovo]], [[Moldova]], [[Montenegro]], [[North Macedonia]], [[Romania]], and [[Serbia]]. It is still practiced in remote [[Albanians|Albanian]] ethnographic regions, but only in rare events, when the summer is dry and without atmospheric precipitation.&lt;ref&gt;{{harvnb|Qafleshi|2011|pp=51–52|}}; {{harvnb|Ministria|2014|p=66}}.&lt;/ref&gt; The ceremonial ritual is an analogical-imitative [[incantation|magic rite]] that consists of singing and dancing done by young boys and girls in processions following a main performer who is dressed with fresh branches, leaves and herbs, with the purpose of invoking rain, usually practiced in times of [[drought]]s, especially in the summer season, when drought endangers crops and pastures, even human life itself.&lt;ref&gt;{{harvnb|Qafleshi|2011|pp=51–52|}}; {{harvnb|Halimi|Halimi-Statovci|Xhemaj|2011|pp=2–6, 32–43}}&lt;/ref&gt; In Albanian rainmaking ritual songs, besides the divine figure that is invoked and also personified by boys or girls during the procession, other Albanian divine figures are invoked: [[Dielli (Albanian paganism)|Dielli]] (the Sun), [[Perëndi]] (the [[Sky]], or deity of weather), and Ilia ([[Elijah]], who in Christianized Albanian folklore has replaced the Sun god and the thunder or weather god, also [[Drangue]]).{{sfn|Gjoni|2012|pp=85–86}}{{sfn|Elsie|2001a|pp=46–47}}{{sfn|Elsie|2000|pp=43–45}}{{sfn|Gamkrelidze|1995|p=528}}{{sfn|Sela|2017|pp=69–70}} In Slavic rainmaking ritual songs also the sky or Elijah are invoked. In Slavic Christianized folklore Elijah has replaced [[Perun]], the Slavic thunder-god, cognate to IE ''[[*Perkʷūnos]]''.{{sfn|Jakobson|1985|p=6}} According to some interpretations of [[Slavic folklore]], the Slavic rainmaking rituals found in the Balkans were related to the [[Slavic pantheon|Slavic]] supreme deity Perun (god of thunder, weather, fertility and oak trees).&lt;ref&gt;https://www.scribd.com/doc/243198115/Slavic-Pagan-World&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;https://www.omda.bg/page.php?tittle=Ezicheska_obrednost_-_Peperuda&amp;IDMenu=309&amp;IDArticle=2221&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;https://ibl.bas.bg/pishi_pravilno/perun-i-veles/&lt;/ref&gt; Some scholars suggest that Perperuna could have been a Slavic goddess of rain, the consort of Perun, or that the name Perperuna is the reduplicated feminine form derived from the name of Perun.&lt;ref&gt;https://www.srku.edu.in/read?s=Dodola+and+Perperuna#:~:text=Zyzlila)%20Perperuna%20and-,Dodola,-(Paparuda%2C%20Prporu%C5%A1a%2C%20Dudula&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;https://arheologija.fr.gd/Perun-English-Versione.htm&lt;/ref&gt; &lt;ref&gt;https://www.academia.edu/44578714/Perperuna_a_%C4%8Fal%C5%A1ie_reflexy_dru%C5%BEky_praindoeur%C3%B3pskeho_Hromovl%C3%A1dcu_Consort_of_the_Proto_Indo_European_Thundergod_and_her_reflexes?sm=b&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;https://www.mifologia.com/pantheons/slavic-pantheon-2/perun/&lt;/ref&gt; &lt;ref&gt;https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/pdf/10.1080/00437956.1955.11659581&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;https://www.oporabg.com/sites/default/files/peperuda_DV.pdf&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;https://www.starisloveni.com/English/Perun.html&lt;/ref&gt; But recent research criticize [[List of Slavic pseudo-deities|invention]] of a Slavic female goddess,{{sfn|Łuczyński|2020|p=141}} and other etymologies have been provided as well.{{sfn|Burns|2008|pp=231–232}}{{sfn|Čulinović-Konstantinović|1963|p=94}}{{sfn|Čulinović-Konstantinović|1963|p=94}}{{sfn|Skok|1973|p=55}}{{sfn|Urbańczyk|1991|p=150}}{{sfn|Łuczyński|2020|p=141}} == Names == {{quote box|align=right|quote=&lt;poem&gt;&lt;small&gt;Περπερούνα περπατεί / Perperouna perambulates Κή τόν θεό περικαλεί / And to God prays Θέ μου, βρέξε μια βροχή / My God, send a rain Μιἁ βροχή βασιλική / A right royal rain Οσ ἀστἀχυα ς τἀ χωράΦια / That as many (as are there) ears of corn in the fields Τόσα κούτσουρα ς τ ἁμπέλια / So many stems (may spring) on the vines&lt;/small&gt; &lt;/poem&gt;|source=&lt;br /&gt;&lt;small&gt;Shatista near [[Siatista]], [[Western Macedonia]], Ottoman Empire, 1903&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book |last=Abbott |first=George Frederick |author-link=George Frederick Abbott |date=1903 |title=Macedonian Folklore |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=M7o8AAAAIAAJ |location=Cambridge |publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]] |page=119}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;/small&gt;}} Rainmaking rites are generally called after the divine figure invoked in the ritual songs, as well as the boy or girl who perform the rite, who are called with different names among different peoples (South Slavs, Albanians, Greeks, Hungarians, Moldovans, Romanians, Vlachs or Aromanians (including regions of [[Bukovina]] and [[Bessarabia]])).:&lt;ref&gt;{{harvnb|Ḱulavkova|2020|p=19}}&lt;/ref&gt; *''Preperuna'', ''Peperuna'', ''Preperuda/Peperuda'', ''Pepereda'', ''Preperuga/Peperuga'', ''Peperunga'', ''Pemperuga'' in [[Bulgaria]] and [[North Macedonia]]: ''Prporuša'', ''Parparuša'', ''Preporuša/Preporuča'', ''Preperuša'', ''Barburuša/Barbaruša'' in [[Croatia]]; ''Peperuda'', ''Papaluga'', ''Papaluda/Paparudă'', ''Babaruta'', ''Mamaruta'' in [[Romania]] and [[Moldova]]; ''Perperouna'', ''Perperinon'', ''Perperouga'', ''Parparouna'' in [[Greece]]; ''Perperona/Perperone'' in [[Albania]]; ''Pirpirunã'' among [[Aromanians]]; *''Dodola'' among previous countries as well as [[Serbia]], with variants ''Dodole'', ''Dudola'', ''Dudula'', ''Dudule'', ''Dudulica'', ''Doda'', ''Dodočka'', ''Dudulejka'', ''Didjulja'', etc.{{sfn|Gimbutas|1967|p=743}}{{sfn|Evans|1974|p=100}}{{sfn|Jakobson|1985|p=22–24|ps=:Mythological associations linked with the butterfly (cf. her Serbian name ''Vještica'') also explain the Bulgarian entomological names ''peperuda'', ''peperuga''}}{{sfn|Čulinović-Konstantinović|1963|p=80, 93}}{{Sfn|Puchner|2009|p=346}} *''Rona'', used by Albanians alternatively to ''Perperona/Perperone'';{{sfn|Norris|1993|p=34}}{{sfn|Tirta|2004|pp=310–312}} *''Dordoleci'' (''durduleci''), used by Albanians for this custom in association with a male figure.{{sfn|Tirta|2004|pp=310–312}} In [[Albanian language|Albanian]] the rainmaking ritual is called ''riti i ndjelljes së shiut'' (&quot;Rain-Invoking Ritual&quot;), ''riti i thirrjes së shiut'' (&quot;Rain-Calling Ritual&quot; or &quot;Rite of Calling the Rain&quot;) or simply ''thirrja e shiut'' (&quot;Call of the Rain&quot;), ''riti i thatësisë'' (&quot;Drought Ritual&quot;), as well as ''riti me dordolecin'' or ''riti i dordolecit'' (&quot;Dordoleci Ritual&quot;), ''riti i dodolisë'' (&quot;Dodoli Ritual&quot;), etc.&lt;ref&gt;{{harvnb|Tirta|2004|pp=310–312}}; {{harvnb|Qafleshi|2011|pp=51–52|}}; {{harvnb|Ministria|2014|p=66}}; {{harvnb|Halimi|Halimi-Statovci|Xhemaj|2011|pp=2–6, 32–43}}&lt;/ref&gt; In Albanian rainmaking ritual songs, besides the divine figure that is invoked and also personified by boys or girls during the procession, other Albanian divine figures are invoked: [[Dielli (Albanian paganism)|Dielli]] (the Sun), [[Perëndi]], and Ilia.{{sfn|Gjoni|2012|pp=85–86}}{{sfn|Gamkrelidze|1995|p=528}}{{sfn|Sela|2017|pp=69–70}} Perëndi is a name that is used for &quot;god&quot;, &quot;deity&quot;, &quot;sky&quot; in Albanian, but considered by some scholars to be an Albanian thunder-god, cognate to Indo-European ''[[*Perkʷūnos]]'';{{sfn|Gamkrelidze|1995|p=528}} Ilia is [[Elijah]], who in Christianized Albanian folklore has replaced the Sun god and the thunder or weather god (also [[Drangue]]).{{sfn|Gjoni|2012|pp=85–86}}{{sfn|Elsie|2001a|pp=46–47}}{{sfn|Elsie|2000|pp=43–45}} In Slavic rainmaking ritual songs also the sky or Elijah are invoked. In Slavic Christianized folklore Elijah has replaced [[Perun]], the Slavic thunder-god, cognate to IE ''*Perkʷūnos''.{{sfn|Jakobson|1985|p=6}} ===Etymologies=== Some scholars consider all the Balkan names of the type ''per-'', ''perper-'', ''peper-'', ''papar-'', etc. to be taboo-alternations to &quot;avoid profaning the holy name&quot; of the pagan [[Proto-Indo-European mythology|Indo-European]] god ''[[*Perkʷūnos]]''.{{sfn|Evans|1974|p=116}}{{sfn|Gimbutas|1967|p=743}} According to [[Roman Jakobson]] and others ''perperuna'' is formed by reduplication of the Indo-European root &quot;per-&quot; (to strike/beat).{{sfn|Gimbutas|1967|p=743}}{{sfn|Jakobson|1985|p=23}}&lt;ref name=&quot;Katicic&quot;/&gt; Those with root &quot;peper-&quot;, &quot;papar-&quot; and &quot;pirpir-&quot; were changed accordingly modern words for [[Schinus molle|pepper-tree]] and [[poppy]] plant,{{sfn|Gimbutas|1967|p=743}}{{Sfn|Puchner|2009|p=348}} possibly also [[Hyperpyron|perper]] and else.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal |last=Puchner |first=Walter |author-link=Walter Puchner |date=1983 |title=Бележки към ономатологията и етимологиятана българските и гръцките названия на обреда за дъжд додола/перперуна |trans-title=Notes on the Onomatology and the Etymology of Bulgarian and Greek Names for the Dodola / Perperuna Rite |url=https://www.ceeol.com/search/article-detail?id=17959 |journal=Bulgarian Folklore |volume=IX |issue=1 |pages=59–65 |language=bg}}&lt;/ref&gt;{{Sfn|Puchner|2009|p=347–349}} Some scholars consider in particular that the name ''Perperuna'' can be identified as the reduplicated feminine [[Morphological derivation|derivative]] of the name of the Slavic thunder god ''[[Perun]]'' (''per-perun-a''), allegedly being his female consort, wife and goddess of rain ''Perperuna Dodola'', which would parallel the Old Norse couple [[Fjörgyn and Fjörgynn|Fjörgyn–Fjörgynn]] and the Lithuanian Perkūnas–Perkūnija.{{sfn|Jakobson|1985|p=22–23}}{{Sfn|Puhvel|1987|p=235}}{{Sfn|Jackson|2002|p=70}}&lt;ref name=&quot;York&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |last=York |first=Michael |author-link=Michael York (religious studies scholar) |date=1993 |title=Toward a Proto-Indo-European vocabulary of the sacred |journal=[[Word (journal)|Word]] |volume=44 |issue=2 |pages=240, 251 |doi=10.1080/00437956.1993.11435902|doi-access=free }}&lt;/ref&gt;{{sfn|Ḱulavkova|2020|p=19–20a|ps=:The Balkan rainmaking customs themselves go by different names. They are usually referred to as the Dodola or Peperuga(Peperuda) rituals, after the name of the goddess of rain, wife or consort of the Slavic sky-god Perun ... According to others, these rain-rituals derive specifically from Slavic languages, and the names Peperuda, Peperuga, Peperuna, and Perperuna are cognate with that of the storm-god Perun.}} According to another theory the Balkan names with the root ''per-'' are connected to the Greek [[Persephone]], a fertility goddess, daughter of the sky god [[Zeus]], and of the earth goddess [[Demeter]].{{sfn|Burns|2008|pp=231–232}} Dimitar Marinov derived it from Bulgarian word for butterfly where in folk beliefs has supernatural powers related to rain,{{sfn|Čulinović-Konstantinović|1963|p=94}} but according to Jakobson the mythological context of the customs and links explains the Bulgarian entomological names.&lt;ref&gt;{{harvnb|Jakobson|1985|p=22|ps=:Mythological associations linked with the butterfly (cf. her Serbian name ''Vještica'') also explain the Bulgarian entomological names ''peperuda'', ''peperuga''}}&lt;/ref&gt; [[Michail Arnaudov]] derived it from Slavic verb &quot;pršiti&quot; (spray).{{sfn|Čulinović-Konstantinović|1963|p=94}} [[Petar Skok]] considered ''prporuša'' a metaphorical derivation from Slavic ''prpor/pŕpa'' (hot ash), ''pórusa'' (&quot;when water is poured on burning ash&quot;{{sfn|Burns|2008|p=232}}).&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book |last=Skok |first=Petar |author-link=Petar Skok |title=Etimologijski rječnik hrvatskoga ili srpskoga jezika: poni-Ž |url=https://archive.org/details/EtimologijskiRjecnikHrvatskogaIliSrpskogaJezika |language=sh |year=1973 |location=Zagreb |publisher=[[JAZU]] |volume=3 |page=55}}&lt;/ref&gt; [[Stanisław Urbańczyk]] and Michal Łuczyński put into question Jakobson's theonymic derivation, deriving instead from Proto-Slavic ''*perpera'', ''*perperъka'' (in Polish ''przepiórka''), name for [[Common quail]], which has a role in Polish harvest rituals and the name of the bride in the wedding dance.{{sfn|Urbańczyk|1991|p=150}}{{sfn|Łuczyński|2020|p=141}} These are also related to ''*pъrpati'' (onomatopoeic), cf. Polish dial. ''perpotać'', ''perpac'', Old East Slavic ''poropriti''.{{sfn|Łuczyński|2020|p=141}} The name ''Dodola'' has been suggested to be a cognate to the Lithuanian ''Dundulis'', a word for &quot;thunder&quot; and another name of the Baltic thunder-god Perkūnas.{{sfn|Jakobson|1985|p=23}}{{Sfn|Puhvel|1987|p=235}} It is also hypothesised to be distantly related to Greek [[Dodona]] and [[Daedala]].{{sfn|Evans|1974|p=127–128}}&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book |last=Dauksta |first=Dainis |date=2011 |chapter=From Post to Pillar – The Development and Persistence of an Arboreal Metaphor |title=New Perspectives on People and Forests |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=XxB-HZlbTe0C |publisher=Springer |page=112 |isbn=978-94-007-1150-1}}&lt;/ref&gt; Bulgarian variant ''Didjulja'' is similar to alleged Polish goddess [[Dzidzilela]], and Polish language also has verb ''dudnić'' (&quot;to thunder&quot;).{{sfn|Jakobson|1985|p=22–23}} The uncertainty of the etymologies provided by scholars leads to a call for a &quot;detailed and in-depth comparative analysis of formulas, set phrases and patterns of imagery in rainmaking songs from ''all'' the Balkan languages&quot;.{{sfn|Burns|2008|pp=232–233}} == Origin == The rainmaking practice is a shared tradition among Balkan peoples, and it is not clear who borrowed it from whom.&lt;ref name=Wachtel&gt;{{harvnb|Wachtel|2008|ps=:Anthropologists have noted shared traditions as well, such as a rainmaking ritual in which a young woman covered in a costume of leaves would sing and dance through the village: this ritual was practiced among Greek, Albanian, Romanian, and Slavic speakers throughout the region, and it is not clear who borrowed it from whom.}}&lt;/ref&gt; The fact so similar customs in the Balkans are known by two different names the differences are considered not to be from the same time period and ethnic groups.{{sfn|Čulinović-Konstantinović|1963|p=93}} Similar customs outside the Balkans have been observed in the Caucasus, Middle East, and North Africa.{{sfn|Čulinović-Konstantinović|1963|p=84, 93}}{{sfn|Kulišić|1979|p=108}}&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal |last1=Başgöz |first1=İlhan |date=2007 |title=Rain Making Ceremonies in Iran |journal=[[Iranian Studies (journal)|Iranian Studies]] |volume=40 |issue=3 |pages=385–403 |doi=10.1080/00210860701390588 |jstor=4311905 |s2cid=162315052 |quote=Type II in the classification (that is, the procession with a doll, or ''chomcha gelin'', and its sub-group, which consists in a real child's proceeding through the neighborhood) ... Although the same ceremony is performed in other parts of Turkey, the ladle bride is given different names: ''Bodi Bodi'' among the Karalar Turkmen tribe in Adana province, ''Dodo'' or ''Dodu'' in Kars ... As the type spreads toward the west, sub-type (a) becomes dominant and (b) disappears. In Bulgaria, the girl who visits the houses during the ceremony is called ''doldol'' or ''Perperuga''.46 In Greece, the ceremony is sometimes incorporated into the Epiphany, the ritual throwing of the cross into a river, or sometimes is performed as an independent rain ritual.47 In Yugoslavia, the Turks, Serbians, and the Albanians practice the ritual, naming it ''dodola'' or ''dodoliče'' (little ''dodola'').48 The ritual is known in Hungary and is performed there under the name of ''doldola'', being especially common in villages inhabited by Gypsies and Serbians.49 The custom has spread to Rumania, but there the ''chomcha gelin'' is replaced by a coffin with a clay figure in it. This is reminiscent of Type II in Iran.50 The ''chomcha gelin'' is also observed in Iraq among the Kerkuk Turkmens, who call it &quot;the bride with ladle&quot; (''Chomchalı Gelin'').51 In Syria, the Arabs call the doll ''Umm al-Guys'' (&quot;mother of rain&quot;).52 The Christians in Syria practice the ceremony and call the doll &quot;the bride of God&quot;.53 In North Africa, the doll is called &quot;the mother of Bangau&quot;,54 and a similar symbol carried during the ritual is called Al Gonja.55 In Uzbekistan, Turks and Tajiks perform the ritual, calling the doll ''suskhatun'' (probably meaning &quot;water woman&quot;).56}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book |last=Chirikba |first=Viacheslav |author-link=Viacheslav Chirikba |date=2015 |chapter=Between Christianity and Islam: Heathen Heritage in the Caucasus |title=Studies on Iran and The Caucasus: In Honour of Garnik Asatrian |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=iLS9CwAAQBAJ |location=Leiden |publisher=Brill |pages=169–171 |isbn=978-90-04-30206-8 |quote=Thus, during the festival welcoming the spring, the Avars made ... In the ritual of summoning rains there figured a specially made doll called Dodola ... The Dagestan doll Dodola and the ritual strikingly resemble the Balkan rituals for summoning rain, whereby girls called Dodola would undressed and put on leaves, flowers and herbs to perform the rainmaking ceremony. The Balkan Dodola is regarded as being connected with the Slavic cult of the thunder-god Perun (cf. Tokarev 1991: 391).}}&lt;/ref&gt; [[William Ralston Shedden-Ralston|William Shedden-Ralston]] noted that [[Jacob Grimm]] thought Perperuna/Dodola were &quot;originally identical with the Bavarian ''Wasservogel'' and the Austrian ''Pfingstkönig''&quot; rituals.&lt;ref name=&quot;Ralston&quot;&gt;{{cite book |last=Shedden-Ralston |first=William Ralston |author-link=William Ralston Shedden-Ralston |date=1872 |title=The Songs of the Russian People: As Illustrative of Slavonic Mythology and Russian Social Life |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=429UAAAAcAAJ |location=London |publisher=Ellis &amp; Green |pages=227–229}}&lt;/ref&gt; Ancient rainmaking practices have been widespread [[Mediterranean]] traditions, already documented in the Balkans since [[Minoan]] and [[Mycenaean Greece|Mycenaean]] times.{{sfn|Burns|2008|pp=228–231}}{{sfn|Håland|2001|pp=197–201}} There is a lack of any strong historical evidence for a link between the figures and practices of the ancient times and those that survided to the end of the 20th century, however, according to [[Richard Berengarten]], if seen as &quot;typologically parallel&quot; practices in the ancient world, they may be interpretable at least as forerunners, even if not as direct progenitors of the modern Balkan rainmaking customs.{{sfn|Burns|2008|pp=228–231}} Some consider the ''perperuna'' figure to have a mythological and etymological Slavic origin related to Slavic thunder-god [[Perun]],{{#tag:ref|&lt;ref&gt;{{harvnb|Čulinović-Konstantinović|1963|pp=93–94|ps=:Ovakav obred za kišu poznat je i u Madžarskoj. Analizirao ga je Z. Ujvary te je u svojoj studiji citirao mnoge madžarske autore koji su o tome pisali. Prema njegovu mišljenju, običaj se tamo proširio pod utjecajem Slavena i Rumunja ... M. S. Thompson, međutim, misli da riječ &quot;perperuna&quot; potječe od imena slavenskog boga Peruna, boga gromovnika ... Teoriju o slavenskom porijeklu ovog običaja prihvatili su osim M. S. Thompsona još i G. F. Abbott i E. Fischer.}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;Katicic&quot;&gt;{{cite book |last=Katičić |first=Radoslav |author-link=Radoslav Katičić |title=Naša stara vjera: Tragovima svetih pjesama naše pretkršćanske starine |trans-title=Our Old Faith: Tracing the Sacred Poems of Our Pre-Christian Antiquity |year=2017 |publisher=Ibis Grafika, [[Matica hrvatska]] |location=Zagreb |language=hr |isbn=978-953-6927-98-2 |page=105}}&lt;/ref&gt;{{sfn|Gieysztor|2006|p=89, 104–106}}&lt;ref name=&quot;Zecevic&quot;&gt;{{cite book |last=Zečević |first=Slobodan |date=1974 |title=Elementi naše mitologije u narodnim obredima uz igru |language=sr |location=Zenica |publisher=Muzej grada Zenice |pages=125–128, 132–133}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book |author=Institut za književnost i umetnost (Hatidža Krnjević) |title=Rečnik književnih termina |trans-title=Dictionary of literary terms |year=1985 |publisher=Nolit |location=Beograd |language=sr |isbn=978-86-19-00635-4 |pages=130, 618}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book |last=Sikimić |first=Biljana |date=1996 |title=Etimologija i male folklorne forme |language=sr |location=Beograd |publisher=SANU |pages=85–86 |quote=О vezi Peruna i prporuša up. Ivanov i Toporov 1974: 113: можно думать об одновременной связи имени nеnеруна - nрnоруша как с обозначением nорошения дождя, его распыления (ср. с.-хорв. ирпошuмu (се), nрnошка и Т.Д.; чешск. pršeti, prch, prš), так и с именем Громовержца. Связъ с порошением дождя представляется тем более вероятной, что соответствующий глагол в ряде индоевропейских язЪП&lt;ов выступает с архаическим удвоением&quot;. Za etimologiju sh. ргроrušа up. i Gavazzi 1985: 164.}}&lt;/ref&gt;{{sfn|Belaj|2007|p=80, 112}}{{Sfn|Dragić|2007|p=80, 112}}{{Sfn|Lajoye|2015|p=114}}}} and became widespread in the Southeastern Europe with the [[Slavic migrations to Southeastern Europe|Slavic migration]] (6th–10th century).&lt;ref&gt;{{harvnb|Gimbutas|1967|p=743|ps=:The names applied to the Balkan rain-ceremonies and to those who perform them suggest, by the modest, degree of variation from one another, by the large number of different variants, and their distribution (not only throughout Romania but in Albania and Greek Epirus and Macedonia), the diffusion of a Slavic ritual linked with the name of Perun in any one of its numerous minor variants.}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{harvnb|Jakobson|1985|pp=22, 24|ps=:The ritual call for rain was transmitted long ago from the Balkan Slavs to neighboring peoples, who evidently preserved the original form of the mythological name ... But even if one leaves aside the late, conjectural echoes of Perun's name, one is still forced to conclude that his cult had wide dissemination and deep roots in Slavic paganism, a fact that is clearly reflected not only in the texts, but also in onomastics, as well as in the folklore of the Slavs and their neighbors.}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal |last=Zaroff |first=Roman |date=1999 |title=Organized pagan cult in Kievan Rus': The invention of foreign elite or evolution of local tradition? |url=https://ojs.zrc-sazu.si/sms/article/view/1844 |journal=[[Studia mythologica Slavica]] |volume=2 |page=57 |doi=10.3986/sms.v2i0.1844 |quote=As a consequence of the relatively early Christianisation of the Southern Slavs, there are no more direct accounts in relation to Perun from the Balkans. Nevertheless, as late as the first half of the 12th century, in Bulgaria and Macedonia, peasants performed a certain ceremony meant to induce rain. A central figure in the rite was a young girl called Perperuna, a name clearly related to Perun. At the same time, the association of Perperuna with rain shows conceptual similarities with the Indian god Parjanya. There was a strong Slavic penetration of Albania, Greece and Romania, between the 6th and 10th centuries. Not surprisingly the folklore of northern Greece also knows Perperuna, Albanians know Pirpirúnă, and also the Romanians have their Perperona. Also, in a certain Bulgarian folk riddle the word ''perušan'' is a substitute for the Bulgarian word ''гърмомеҽица'' (grmotevitsa) for thunder. Moreover, the name of Perun is also commonly found in Southern Slavic toponymy. There are places called: Perun, Perunac, Perunovac, Perunika, Perunićka Glava, Peruni Vrh, Perunja Ves, Peruna Dubrava, Perunuša, Perušice, Perudina and Perutovac.|doi-access=free }}&lt;/ref&gt; According to the Slavic theory, it is a (Balto-)Slavic heritage of Proto-Indo-European origin related to Slavic thunder-god Perun. It has parallels in ritual prayers for bringing rain in times of drought dedicated to rain-thunder deity [[Parjanya]] recorded in the ''[[Vedas]]'' and Baltic thunder-god [[Perkūnas]], [[cognates]] alongside Perun of Proto-Indo-European weather-god [[Perkwunos]].{{sfn|Jakobson|1985|p=6–7, 21, 23}} An early medieval Ruthenian manuscript mentions the East Slavic deity [[Pereplut]], who was worshiped with whirling and libations.{{sfn|Jakobson|1955|p=616}}{{sfn|Gimbutas|1967|p=743}}{{sfn|Jakobson|1985|p=23–24}} According to Jakobson, ''[[Novgorod Chronicle]]'' (&quot;dožd prapruden&quot;) and ''Pskov Chronicle'' (&quot;dožd praprudoju neiskazaemo silen&quot;) could have &quot;East Slavic trace of Peperuda calling forth the rain&quot;, and West Slavic god [[Pripegala]] reminds of ''Preperuga/Prepeluga'' variation and connection with Perun.{{sfn|Gimbutas|1967|p=743}}{{sfn|Jakobson|1985|p=24}} Serbo-Croatian archaic variant ''Prporuša'' and verb ''prporiti se'' (&quot;to fight&quot;) also have parallels in Old Russian (&quot;porъprjutъsja&quot;).{{sfn|Jakobson|1985|p=23}} Perun's battle against [[Veles (god)|Veles]] because of Perperuna/Dodola's kidnapping{{clarify|date=August 2024}} has parallels in [[Zeus]] saving of [[Persephone]] after [[Hades]] carried her underground causing big drought on Earth, also seen in the similarity of the names Perperuna and Persephone.&lt;ref name=&quot;York&quot;/&gt;{{sfn|Evans|1974|p=116–117}}{{sfn|Burns|2008|p=232}} Recent research criticize invention of a Slavic female goddess.{{sfn|Łuczyński|2020|p=141}} Some scholars relate ''Dodole'' with pagan custom and songs of ''Lade'' (Ladarice) in [[Hrvatsko Zagorje]] (so-called &quot;Ladarice Dodolske&quot;),&lt;ref name=&quot;Cubelic&quot;&gt;{{cite book |last=Čubelić |first=Tvrtko |date=1990 |title=Povijest i historija usmene narodne književnosti: historijske i literaturno-teorijske osnove te genološki aspekti: analitičko-sintetički pogledi |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=hb1iAAAAMAAJ |language=hr |location=Zagreb |publisher=Ante Pelivan i Danica Pelivan |pages=75–76 |isbn=978-86-81703-01-4}}&lt;/ref&gt;{{Sfn|Dragić|2007|p=279, 283}}&lt;ref name=&quot;Dragic2012&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |last=Dragić |first=Marko |date=2012 |title=Lada i Ljeljo u folkloristici Hrvata i slavenskom kontekstu |trans-title=Lada and Ljeljo in the folklore of Croats and Slavic context |url=https://hrcak.srce.hr/136243 |language=hr |journal=Zbornik radova Filozofskog fakulteta u Splitu |volume=5 |pages=45, 53–55}}&lt;/ref&gt; and in [[Žumberak]]-[[Križevci]] for the ''Preperuša'' custom was also used term ''Ladekarice''.{{sfn|Čulinović-Konstantinović|1963|p=80–81}}{{sfn|Muraj|1987|p=160–161}} Other scholars, due to the geographical distribution, consider that the rainmaking ritual is of [[Paleo-Balkan mythology|Paleo-Balkan]] origin.{{sfn|Kulišić|1979|p=205}}{{sfn|Belaj|2007|p=80}} Some of them consider such origin even relating the ritual to Perun's cult. One theory, in particular, argues that Slavic deity Perun and Perperuna/Dodola customs are of [[Thracians|Thracian]] origin,&lt;ref&gt;Dimitǔr Dechev, ''[https://books.google.com/books/about/Die_thrakischen_Sprachreste.html?id=CrA_AAAAIAAJ Die thrakischen Sprachreste]'', Wien: R.M. Rohrer, 1957, pp. 144, 151&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;Sorin&quot;&gt;{{cite web|author=[[Sorin Paliga]]|title=Influenţe romane și preromane în limbile slave de sud|date=2003|url=http://egg.mnir.ro/pdf/Paliga_InflRomane.pdf|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131228002745/http://egg.mnir.ro/pdf/Paliga_InflRomane.pdf |archive-date=December 28, 2013}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal |first=Mihai |last=Dragnea |url=https://www.academia.edu/9334808 |title=The Thraco-Dacian Origin of the Paparuda/Dodola Rain-Making Ritual |journal=Brukenthalia Acta Musei |issue=4 |date=2014 |pages=18–27}}&lt;/ref&gt;{{sfn|Ḱulavkova|2020|p=19–20b|ps=:According to some researchers ... these pagan rites of worship are thought to be of Thracian origin ... According to other beliefs, Perun, Perin, or Pirin was the supreme deity of the Thracians.}} however, the name of the Slavic thunder-god [[Perun]] is commonly accepted to be formed from the [[Proto-Slavic]] root ''*per'' &quot;to strike&quot; attached to the common agent suffix ''-unŭ'', explained as &quot;the Striker&quot;.{{sfn|West|2007|p=242}} == Ritual == Rainmaking rituals were performed in times of summer drought to make it rain, usually in June and July, but sometimes also in the spring months when there was severe drought. The ritual was a village kinship or community type performance, and an imitative type of [[Incantation|magic practice]] that reproduced rainfall and soil irrigation, accompanied with ritual songs that addressed prayers to the pagan deity associated with rain as well as agriculture and vegetation. The ritual practice traces back to times when the social structure was based on the common property of the land and of the products, which belonged to the whole tribe/clan.{{sfn|Tirta|2004|pp=310–312}} They essentially belong to rituals related to [[Fertility rite|fertility]], but over time differentiated to a specific form connected with water and vegetation.{{sfn|Čulinović-Konstantinović|1963|p=73, 75–76, 91}}{{clarification needed|date=August 2024}} Perperuna and Dodola are considered very similar pagan customs with common origin,{{sfn|Čulinović-Konstantinović|1963|p=75, 78, 93, 95}}&lt;ref name=&quot;Revija&quot;&gt;{{cite magazine |last=Vukelić |first=Deniver |date=2010 |title=Pretkršćanski prežici u hrvatskim narodnim tradicijam |trans-title=Pre-Christian belief traces in Croatian folk traditions |url=https://www.matica.hr/hr/360/PRETKR%C5%A0%C4%86ANSKI%20PRE%C5%BDICI%20U%20HRVATSKIM%20NARODNIM%20TRADICIJAMA%20/ |language=hr |magazine=[[Hrvatska revija]] |issue=4 |publisher=[[Matica hrvatska]] |access-date=20 July 2022}}&lt;/ref&gt; with main difference being in the most common gender of the central character (possibly related to social hierarchy of the specific ethnic or regional group{{sfn|Čulinović-Konstantinović|1963|p=85, 95}}), lyric verses, sometimes religious content, and presence or absence of a chorus.{{sfn|Čulinović-Konstantinović|1963|p=84–85, 90}} They represent a group of rituals with a human collective going on a procession around houses and fields of a village, but with a central live character which differentiates them from other similar collective rituals in the same region and period (''[[Kermesse (festival)|Krstonoše]]'', ''[[Carnival|Poklade]]'', ''[[Koledari|Kolade]]'', ''[[German (mythology)|German]]'', ''Ladarice'', those during ''[[Jurjevo]]'' and ''[[Saint John's Eve|Ivandan]]'' and so on).{{sfn|Čulinović-Konstantinović|1963|p=74–75, 80}}{{Sfn|Dragić|2007|p=276}}{{Sfn|Puchner|2009|p=289, 345}} In the valley of [[Skopje]] in [[North Macedonia]] the Dodola were held on Thursday which was Perun's day.{{Sfn|Dragić|2007|p=291}} In [[Hungary]] the ritual was usually held on [[Saint George's Day|St. George's Day]].&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |last=T. |first=Dömötör |date=1967 |title=Dodola |url=https://gepeskonyv.btk.elte.hu/adatok/Neprajz/82Vereb%E9lyi/folklorisztika_es_rokonteruleteinek_fogalmi_rendszere/dodola.html}}&lt;/ref&gt; The core of the song always mentions a type of rain and list of regional crops.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book |last=Puchner |first=Walter |author-link=Walter Puchner |date=2016 |title=Die Folklore Südosteuropas: Eine komparative Übersicht |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=hZpVDAAAQBAJ |language=de |publisher=Böhlau Verlag Wien |page=65 |isbn=978-3-205-20312-4}}&lt;/ref&gt; The first written mentions and descriptions of the pagan custom are from the 18th century by [[Dimitrie Cantemir]] in ''[[Descriptio Moldaviae]]'' (1714/1771, ''Papaluga''),{{Sfn|Puchner|2009|p=346}}&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book |last=Cantemir |first=Dimitrie |author-link=Dimitrie Cantemir |date=1771 |title=Descriptio antiqui et hodierni status Moldaviae |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=2rZfAAAAcAAJ |location=Frankfurt, Leipzig |language=de |pages=315–316 |quote=Im Sommer, wenn dem Getreide wegen der Dürre Gefabr bevorzustehen fcheinet, ziehen die Landleute einem kleinen Ragdchen, welches noch nicht über zehen Jahr alt ist, ein Hemde an, welches aus Blattern von Baumen und Srantern gemacht wird. Alle andere Ragdchen und stnaben vol gleiechem Alter folgen ihr, und siehen mit Tanzen und Singen durch die ganze Racharfchaft; wo sie aber hin komuien, da pflegen ihnen die alten Weiber kalt Wasser auf den Stopf zu gieffen. Das Lied, welches fie fingen, ist ohngefähr von folegendem Innbalte: &quot;Papaluga! steige nech dem Himmel, öffne feine Thüren, fend von oben Regen ber, daß der Roggen, Weizen, Hirfe u. f. w. gut wachsen.&quot;}}&lt;/ref&gt; then in a Greek law book from [[Bucharest]] (1765, it invoked 62nd Cannon to stop the custom of ''Paparuda''),{{Sfn|Puchner|2009|p=346}}&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book |last=Puchner |first=Walter |author-link=Walter Puchner |date=2017 |chapter=2 - Byzantium High Culture without Theatre or Dramatic Literature? |title=Greek Theatre between Antiquity and Independence: A History of Reinvention from the Third Century BC to 1830 |chapter-url=https://www.cambridge.org/core/books/abs/greek-theatre-between-antiquity-and-independence/byzantium/AD8A310DFF20316E196BA81890C36797 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |page=73 |isbn=978-1-107-44502-4 |doi=10.1017/9781107445024.004 |quote=...in 1765, a Greek law book from Bucharest quotes the 62nd Canon of the Trullanum in order to forbid public dancing by girls in a custom well known throughout the Balkans as 'paparuda', 'perperuna' or 'dodole', a ritual processional rain dance.}}&lt;/ref&gt; and by the Bulgarian [[hieromonk]] [[Spiridon Gabrovski]] who also noted to be related to Perun (1792, ''Peperud'').{{sfn|Belaj|2007|p=80}}&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite book|url=https://archive.org/details/istoriiavokratt00spirgoog|title=История во кратце о болгарском народе славенском. Сочинися и исписа в лето 1792|last=Габровски|first=Спиридон Иеросхимонах|publisher=изд. Св. Синод на Българската Църква|year=1900|location=София|pages=[https://archive.org/details/istoriiavokratt00spirgoog/page/n156 14]}}&lt;/ref&gt; Peoples generally used to organise the Perperuna/Dodola ritual in times of spring and especially summer [[drought]]s, where they worshipped the god/goddess and prayed to him/her for rain (and fertility, later also asked for other field and house blessings). The central character of the ceremony of Perperuna was usually a young boy, while of Dodola usually a young girl, both aged between 10 and 15 years. Purity was important, and sometimes to be orphans. They would be naked, but were not anymore in latest forms of 19-20th century, wearing a skirt and dress densely made of fresh green knitted vines, leaves and flowers of ''[[Sambucus nigra]]'', ''[[Sambucus ebulus]]'', ''[[Clematis flammula]]'', ''[[Clematis vitalba]]'', [[fern]] and other deciduous shrubs and vines, small branches of ''[[Tilia]]'', [[Oak]] and other. The green cover initially covered all body so that the central person figure was almost unrecognizable, but like the necessity of direct skin contact with greenery it also greatly decreased and was very simple in modern period. They whirled and were followed by a small procession of children who walked and danced with them around the same village and fields, sometimes carrying oak or [[Fagus sylvatica|beech]] branches, singing the ritual prayer, stopping together at every house yard, where the hosts would sprinkle water on chosen boy/girl who would shake and thus sprinkle everyone and everything around it (example of &quot;analogical magic&quot;{{Sfn|Puchner|2009|p=346}}), hosts also gifted treats (bread, eggs, cheese, sausages etc., in a later period also money) to children who shared and consumed them among them and sometimes even hosts would drink wine, seemingly as a sacrifice in Perun's honor.&lt;ref name=&quot;Ribaric&quot;&gt;{{Cite book|last=Ribarić|first=Josip|title=O istarskim dijalektima: razmještaj južnoslavenskih dijalekata na poluotoku Istri s opisom vodičkog govora|publisher=Josip Turčinović|date=2002|location=Pazin|orig-date=1916|language=hr|isbn=953-6262-43-6|pages=84–85, 206}}&lt;/ref&gt;{{sfn|Gimbutas|1967|p=743–744}}{{sfn|Evans|1974|p=100, 119}}{{sfn|Jakobson|1985|p=21, 23}}{{sfn|Čulinović-Konstantinović|1963|p=74–77, 83–93}}{{sfn|Muraj|1987|p=158–163}}{{Sfn|Dragić|2007|p=290–293}} The chosen boy/girl was called by one of the name variants of the ritual itself, however in [[Istria]] was also known as ''Prporuš'' and in [[Dalmatia]]-[[Boka Kotorska]] as ''Prpac/Prpats'' and both regions his companions as ''Prporuše'',&lt;ref name=&quot;Ralston&quot;/&gt;{{Sfn|Dragić|2007|p=291}}&lt;ref name=&quot;Ribaric&quot;/&gt;{{sfn|Čulinović-Konstantinović|1963|p=76, 80}} while at [[Pirot]] and [[Nišava District]] in [[Southern Serbia (geographical region)|Southern Serbia]] near Bulgarian border were called as ''dodolće'' and ''preperuđe'', and as in Macedonia both names appear in the same song.{{sfn|Čulinović-Konstantinović|1963|p=79, 95}}{{sfn|Burns|2008|p=220, 222|ps=:The finely documented account by Đorđević of a version of the Balkan rainmaking custom, performed near the River Morava in south-eastern Serbia near the Bulgarian border ... Fly, fly, peperuga/Oh, dodolas, Dear Lord!}} [[File:Пеперуда в Добруджа 1950.jpg|thumb|right|250px|''Peperuda'' performed by Romani in [[Dobruja]], Bulgaria, 1950s.]] By the 20th century once common rituals almost vanished in the Balkans, although rare examples of practice can be traced until 1950-1980s and remained in folk memory. The main reason is the development of agriculture and consequently lack of practical need for existence of mystical connection and customs with nature and weather. Christian church also tried to diminish pagan beliefs and customs, resulting in &quot;dual belief&quot; (''dvoeverie'') in rural populations, a conscious preservation of pre-Christian beliefs and practices alongside Christianity. Into customs and songs were mixed elements from other rituals including Christianity, but they also influenced the creation of Christian songs and prayers invoking the rain which were used as a close Christian alternative (decline was reportedly faster among Catholics{{sfn|Muraj|1987|p=161}}).{{sfn|Čulinović-Konstantinović|1963|p=77, 91–93}}{{sfn|Predojević|2019|p=581, 583, 589–591}} According to [[:hr:Velimir Deželić mlađi|Velimir Deželić Jr.]] in 1937, it was an old custom that &quot;Christians approved it, took it over and further refined it. In the old days, ''Prporuša'' were very much like a [[Piety|pious]] ritual, only later the leaders - ''Prpac'' - began to boast too much, and ''Prporuše'' seemed to be more interested in gifts than beautiful singing and prayer&quot;.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book |last=Deželić Jr. |first=Velimir |date=1937 |title=Kolede: Obrađeni hrvatski godišnji običaji |trans-title=Kolede: Examined Croatian annual customs |url=https://archive.org/details/kolede_obradjeni_hrvatski_godisnji_obicaji-velimir_dezelic_sin/ |language=hr |publisher=Hrvatsko književno društvo svetog Jeronima |page=70 |quote=Ljeti, kad zategnu suše, pošle bi našim selima Prporuše moliti od Boga kišu. Posvuda su Hrvatskom išle Prporuše, a običaj je to prastar — iz pretkršćanskih vremena — ali lijep, pa ga kršćani odobrili, preuzeli i još dotjerali. U stara vremena Prporuše su bile veoma nalik nekom pobožnom obredu, tek poslije su predvodnici — Prpci— počeli suviše lakrdijati, a Prporušama ko da je više do darova, nego do lijepa pjevanja i molitve.}}&lt;/ref&gt; Depending on region, instead of village boys and girls the pagan ritual by then was mostly done by migrating [[Romani people]] from other villages and for whom it became a professional performance motivated by gifts, sometimes followed by financially poor members from other ethnic groups.{{sfn|Čulinović-Konstantinović|1963|p=77, 91–93}}{{sfn|Predojević|2019|p=581, 583, 589–591}}&lt;ref name=&quot;Horvat&quot;&gt;{{cite book |last=Horvat |first=Josip |date=1939 |title=Kultura Hrvata kroz 1000 godina |trans-title=Culture of Croats through 1000 years |url=https://archive.org/details/kultura_hrvata_kroz_1000_godina_ii.izdanje_1939-josip_horvat |language=hr |location=Zagreb |publisher=A. Velzek |pages=23–24}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book |last=Kovačević |first=Ivan |date=1985 |title=Semiologija rituala |trans-title=Semiology of ritual |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=qPMXAAAAIAAJ |language=sr |location=Beograd |publisher=Prosveta |page=79}}&lt;/ref&gt;{{Sfn|Dragić|2007|p=278, 290}} Due to [[Anti-Romani sentiment]], the association with Romani also caused repulsion, shame and ignorance among last generations of members of ethnic groups who originally performed it.{{sfn|Predojević|2019|p=583–584, 589}} Eventually it led to a dichotomy of identification with own traditional heritage, Christianity and stereotypes about Romani witchcraft.{{sfn|Predojević|2019|p=581–582, 584}} In the present days, older generations of Albanians demonstrate the common practice of rainmaking rituals in their life, but newer generations generally see them as something applied in the past, a tradition that their parents have gone through. Nevertheless, elders still accompany [[processions]] of boys and girls, who perform the rainmaking rite dressed with their best [[Albanian traditional clothing|traditional clothing]] except for the main boy or girl, who is dressed entirely in fresh branches, leaves and herbs.&lt;ref&gt;{{harvnb|Qafleshi|2011|pp=51–52|}}; {{harvnb|Ministria|2014|p=66}}; {{harvnb|Halimi|Halimi-Statovci|Xhemaj|2011|pp=2–6, 32–43}}&lt;/ref&gt; Public exhibitions of the ritual are usually performed during Albanian festivals, often for the local audience, but also in the [[Gjirokastër National Folk Festival]], one of the most important events of Albanian culture.{{sfn|Sela|2017|pp=69–70}} ===Perperuna songs=== [[Ioan Slavici]] reported in 1881 that the custom of ''Paparuga'' was already &quot;very disbanded&quot; in Romania.{{sfn|Nodilo|1981|p=51}} Stjepan Žiža in 1889/95 reported that the once common ritual almost vanished in Southwestern and Central-Eastern Istria, Croatia.{{sfn|Čulinović-Konstantinović|1963|p=78}} [[:hr:Ivan Milčetić|Ivan Milčetić]] recorded in 1896 that the custom of ''Prporuša'' also almost vanished from the North Adriatic island of [[Krk]], although almost recently it was well known in all Western parts of Croatia, while in other parts as ''Dodola''.&lt;ref name=&quot;Milcetic&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |last=Milčetić |first=Ivan |date=1896 |title=Prporuša |journal=Zbornik za narodni život i običaje južnih Slavena |location=Belgrade |publisher=[[JAZU]] |volume=1 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=8TwSAAAAYAAJ |pages=217–218 |quote=Čini mi se da je već nestalo prporuše i na otoku Krku, a bijaše još nedavno poznata svuda po zapadnim stranama hrvatskog naroda, dok je po drugim krajevima živjela dodola. Nego i za dodolu već malo gdje znadu. Tako mi piše iz Vir‐Pazara g. L. Jovović, koga sam pitao, da li još Crnogorci poznaju koledu...}}&lt;/ref&gt; Croatian linguist Josip Ribarić recorded in 1916 that it was still alive in Southwestern Istria and [[Ćićarija]] (and related it to the 16th century migration from Dalmatia of speakers of [[Southwestern Istrian]] dialect).&lt;ref name=&quot;Ribaric&quot;/&gt; On island of Krk was also known as ''Barburuša/Barbaruša/Bambaruša'' (occurrence there is possibly related to the 15th century migration which included besides Croats also [[Vlachs of Croatia|Vlach]]-[[Istro-Romanians|Istro-Romanian]] shepherds{{sfn|Zebec|2005|p=68–71, 248}}).{{sfn|Čulinović-Konstantinović|1963|p=80}}{{sfn|Zebec|2005|p=71}} It was also widespread in [[Dalmatia]] (especially [[Zadar]] hinterland, coast and islands), [[Žumberak]] (also known as ''Pepeluše'', ''Prepelice''{{sfn|Muraj|1987|p=161}}) and Western [[Slavonia]] (Križevci).&lt;ref name=&quot;Ralston&quot;/&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;Revija&quot;/&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;Horvat&quot;/&gt;{{sfn|Zebec|2005|p=71}}{{sfn|Čulinović-Konstantinović|1963|p=78, 80–81}}{{Sfn|Dragić|2007|p=291–293}} It was held in Istria at least until the 1950s,{{sfn|Čulinović-Konstantinović|1963|p=82}} in Žumberak until the 1960s,{{sfn|Muraj|1987|p=165}} while according to one account in [[Jezera, Tisno|Jezera]] on island [[Murter]] the last were in the late 20th century.{{Sfn|Dragić|2007|p=292}} In Serbia, Perperuna was only found in [[Kosovo]], Southern and Eastern Serbia near Bulgarian border.{{sfn|Čulinović-Konstantinović|1963|p=79}} According to [[Natko Nodilo]] the discrepancy in distribution between these two countries makes an idea that originally Perperuna was Croatian while Dodola was Serbian custom.{{sfn|Nodilo|1981|p=50a|ps=:Po tome, pa i po različitome imenu za stvar istu, mogao bi ko pomisliti, da su dodole, prvim postankom, čisto srpske, a prporuše hrvatske. U Bosni, zapadno od Vrbasa, zovu se čaroice. Kad bi ovo bilo hrvatski naziv za njih, onda bi prporuše bila riječ, koja k nama pregje od starih Slovenaca.}} Seemingly it was not present in Slovenia, Northern Croatia, almost all of Bosnia and Herzegovina and Montenegro (only sporadically in [[Boka Kotorska]]).{{sfn|Muraj|1987|p=159}} Luka Jovović from [[Virpazar]], Montenegro reported in 1896 that in Montenegro existed some ''koleda'' custom for summer droughts, but was rare and since 1870s not practiced anymore.&lt;ref name=&quot;Milcetic&quot;/&gt; {|class=&quot;wikitable&quot; ||Bulgaria&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book |last=Антонова |first=Илонка Цанова |date=2015 |title=Календарни празници и обичаи на българите |trans-title=Calendar holidays and customs of the Bulgarians |language=bg |location=Sofia |publisher=Издателство на Българската академия на науките &quot;Проф. Марин Дринов&quot; |pages=66–68 |isbn=978-954-322-764-8}}&lt;/ref&gt;||Albania&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book|last=Pipa|first=Arshi|title=Albanian Folk Verse: Structure and Genre|publisher=O. Harrassowitz|year=1978|isbn=3-87828-119-6|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=WCIHAQAAIAAJ|page=58}}&lt;/ref&gt;||Croatia-Krk&lt;br /&gt;&lt;small&gt;([[Dubašnica]], 1896&lt;ref name=&quot;Milcetic&quot;/&gt;)&lt;/small&gt;||Croatia-Istria&lt;br /&gt;&lt;small&gt;([[Lanišće|Vodice]], 1916&lt;ref name=&quot;Ribaric&quot;/&gt;)&lt;/small&gt;||Croatia-Istria&lt;br /&gt;&lt;small&gt;([[Polje Čepić|Čepić]], 1896&lt;ref name=&quot;Milcetic&quot;/&gt;/Štifanići near [[Baderna]], 1906/08&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book |last=Ribarić |first=Josip |editor=Tanja Perić-Polonijo |date=1992 |title=Narodne pjesme Ćićarije |language=hr |location=Pazin |publisher=Istarsko književno društvo &quot;Juraj Dobrila&quot; |pages=11, 208}}&lt;/ref&gt;)&lt;/small&gt;||Croatia-Dalmatia&lt;br /&gt;&lt;small&gt;([[Ražanac]], 1905{{sfn|Čulinović-Konstantinović|1963|p=81}})&lt;/small&gt;||Croatia-Dalmatia&lt;br /&gt;&lt;small&gt;([[Ravni Kotari]], 1867&lt;ref name=&quot;Vuk&quot;&gt;{{cite book |last=Karadžić |first=Vuk Stefanović |author-link=Vuk Stefanović Karadžić |date=1867 |title=Život i običaji naroda srpskoga |trans-title=Life and customs of Serbian nation |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=fX0RAAAAYAAJ |language=sr |location=Vienna |publisher=A. Karacić |pages=61–66}}&lt;/ref&gt;)&lt;/small&gt;||Croatia-Žumberak&lt;br /&gt;&lt;small&gt;(Pavlanci, 1890{{sfn|Muraj|1987|p=164}})&lt;/small&gt;||Macedonia&lt;br /&gt;&lt;small&gt;([[Struga]], 1861&lt;ref name=&quot;Miladinovci&quot;/&gt;)&lt;/small&gt; |- | &lt;poem&gt; &lt;small&gt;Letela e peperuda Daĭ, Bozhe, dŭzhd Daĭ, Bozhe, dŭzhd Ot orache na kopache Da se rodi zhito, proso Zhito, proso i pshenitsa Da se ranyat siracheta Siracheta, siromasi&lt;/small&gt; &lt;/poem&gt; || &lt;poem&gt; &lt;small&gt;Rona-rona, Peperona Bjerë shi ndë arat tona! Të bëhetë thekëri I gjatë gjer në çati Gruri gjer në perëndi Ashtu edhe misëri!&lt;/small&gt; &lt;/poem&gt; || &lt;poem&gt; &lt;small&gt;Prporuša hodila Službu boga molila Dajte sira, dajte jaj Da nam bog da mladi daž Od šenice višnji klas! A ti, bože vični Smiluj se na nas!&lt;/small&gt; &lt;/poem&gt; || &lt;poem&gt; &lt;small&gt;Prporuše hodile Slavu Boga molile I šenice bilice Svake dobre sričice Bog nan ga daj Jedan tihi daž!&lt;/small&gt; &lt;/poem&gt; || &lt;poem&gt; &lt;small&gt;Preporuči hodili / Prporuše hodile Iz Prepora grada / 's Prpora grada Kuda hodili / Da nam bog da dažda Tuda Boga molili / Crljenoga mažda Da nam Bog da dažda / I šenice bilice I crljenoga masta / Svake dobre sričice I šenice bilice / Šenica nan rodila I svake dobre srećice / Dičica prohodila Šenica narodila / Šenicu pojili Dica nam prohodila / Dicu poženili I šenicu pojili / Skupi, bože, oblake! I dicu poženili / Struni bojžu rosicu Skupi, Bože, oblake / Na tu svetu zemljicu! Hiti božju kapljicu / Amen, amen, amen Na ovu svetu zemljicu! Amen&lt;/small&gt; &lt;/poem&gt; || &lt;poem&gt; &lt;small&gt;Prporuše hodile Putom Boga molile Da ni pane kišica Da ni rodi šenica bilica I vinova lozica&lt;/small&gt; &lt;/poem&gt; || &lt;poem&gt; &lt;small&gt;Prporuše hodile Terem Boga molile Da nam dade kišicu Da nam rodi godina I šenica bjelica I vinova lozica I nevjesta đetića Do prvoga božića Daruj nama, striko naša Oku brašna, striko naša Bublu masla, striko naša Runce vune, striko naša Jedan sirčić, striko naša Šaku soli, striko naša Dva, tri jajca, striko naša Ostaj s Bogom, striko naša Koja si nas darovala&lt;/small&gt; &lt;/poem&gt; || &lt;poem&gt; &lt;small&gt;Preperuša odila Za nas Boga molila Daj nam Bože kišice Na ovu našu ljetinu Da pokvasi mladinu Pucaj, pucaj ledeno Škrapaj, škrapaj godino Mi smo tebi veseli Kano Isus Mariji Kaj Marija Isusu Kano mati djetetu&lt;/small&gt; &lt;/poem&gt; || &lt;poem&gt; &lt;small&gt;Otletala preperuga, oj ljule, oj! Ot oracha na oracha, oj ljule, oj! Ot kopacha na kopacha, oj ljule, oj! Ot rezhacha na rezhacha; oj ljule, oj! Da zarosit sitna rosa, oj ljule, oj! Sitna rosa beriketna, oj ljule, oj! I po pole i po more; oj ljule, oj! Da se rodit s' beriket, oj ljule, oj! S' beriket vino-zhito; oj ljule, oj! Cheincite do gredite, oj ljule, oj! Jachmenite do streite, oj ljule, oj! Lenoite do pojasi, oj ljule, oj! Uroite do kolena; oj ljule, oj! Da se ranet siromasi, oj ljule, oj! Drvete ne so osito, oj ljule, oj! Da je sita godina; oj ljule, oj! Drvete ne so oshnica, oj ljule, oj! Da ja polna koshnica; oj ljule, oj! Drvete ne so jamache, oj ljule, oj! Da je tuchna godina, oj ljule, oj!&lt;/small&gt; &lt;/poem&gt; |} ===Dodola songs=== The oldest record for Dodole rituals in Macedonia is the song &quot;Oj Ljule&quot; from [[Struga]] region, recorded in 1861.&lt;ref name=&quot;Miladinovci&quot;&gt;{{cite book|last = Miladinovci|title = Зборник|publisher = Kočo Racin|year = 1962|location = Skopje|url = http://www.gbiblsk.edu.mk/images/stories/eknigi/zbornik.pdf|page = 462|archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20120216225647/http://www.gbiblsk.edu.mk/images/stories/eknigi/zbornik.pdf |archive-date = 2012-02-16}}&lt;/ref&gt; The Dodola rituals in Macedonia were actively held until the 1960s.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book|last=Veličkovska|first=Rodna|title=Музичките дијалекти во македонското традиционално народно пеење: обредно пеење|trans-title=Musical dialects in the Macedonian traditional folk singing: ritual singing| publisher=Institute of folklore &quot;Marko Cepenkov&quot;|year=2009|location=Skopje|language=mk|page=45}}&lt;/ref&gt; In Bulgaria the chorus was also &quot;Oj Ljule&quot;.{{sfn|Nodilo|1981|p=50b}} The oldest record in Serbia was by [[Vuk Karadžić]] (1841),{{sfn|Čulinović-Konstantinović|1963|p=79}} where was widespread all over the country and held at least until 1950/70s.&lt;ref name=&quot;Zecevic&quot;/&gt;{{sfn|Čulinović-Konstantinović|1963|p=77–78, 86, 88}} In Croatia was found in Eastern Slavonia, Southern [[Baranya (region)|Baranja]] and Southeastern [[Srijem]].&lt;ref name=&quot;Horvat&quot;/&gt;{{sfn|Čulinović-Konstantinović|1963|p=77–78, 90}}{{sfn|Muraj|1987|p=159}}{{sfn|Dragić|2012|p=54}}&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book |last=Janković |first=Slavko |date=1956 |title=Kuhačeva zbirka narodnih popijevaka (analizirana): od br. 1801 do br. 2000 |url=https://repozitorij.dief.eu/a/?pr=i&amp;id=69581 |quote=Naša doda moli Boga ([[Otok, Vukovar-Syrmia County|Otok]], Slavonia, 1881, sken ID: IEF_RKP_N0096_0_155; IEF_RKP_N0096_0_156A) - Ide doda preko sela ([[Erdevik]], Srijem, 1885, sken ID: IEF_RKP_N0096_0_163; IEF_RKP_N0096_0_164A) - Filip i Jakob, Koleda na kišu ([[Gibarac]], Srijem, 1886, sken ID: IEF_RKP_N0096_0_165; IEF_RKP_N0096_0_166A)}}&lt;/ref&gt; [[August Šenoa]] in his writing about the travel to Okić-grad near [[Samobor]], Croatia mentioned that saw two dodole.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |url=https://www.knjizevnost.hr/zagrebulje-1866-august-senoa/ |title=Zagrebulje I (1866.) |last=Šenoa |first=August |author-link=August Šenoa |date=1866 |website=Književnost.hr |publisher=informativka d.o.o. |access-date=23 July 2022 |quote=...već se miču niz Okić put naše šljive dvije u zeleno zavite dodole. S ovoga dodolskoga dualizma sjetih se odmah kakvi zecevi u tom grmu idu, i moja me nada ne prevari. Eto ti pred nas dva naša junaka, ne kao dodole, kao bradurina i trbušina, već kao pravi pravcati bogovi – kao Bako i Gambrinus... Naša dva boga, u zeleno zavita, podijeliše društvu svoj blagoslov, te bjehu sa živim usklikom primljeni. No i ova mitologička šala i mrcvarenje božanske poezije po našem generalkvartirmeštru pobudi bogove na osvetu; nad našim glavama zgrnuše se oblaci, i naskoro udari kiša.}}&lt;/ref&gt; To them is related the custom of Lade/Ladarice from other parts of Croatia, having chorus &quot;''Oj Lado, oj!''&quot; and similar verses &quot;''Molimo se višnjem Bogu/Da popuhne tihi vjetar, Da udari rodna kiša/Da porosi naša polja, I travicu mekušicu/Da nam stada Lado, Ugoje se naša stada''&quot;.&lt;ref name=&quot;Cubelic&quot;/&gt;{{Sfn|Dragić|2007|p=279, 283}}&lt;ref name=&quot;Dragic2012&quot;/&gt; {|class=&quot;wikitable&quot; ||Serbia&lt;br /&gt;&lt;small&gt;(1841&lt;ref name=&quot;Vuk&quot;/&gt;{{sfn|Čulinović-Konstantinović|1963|p=88}})&lt;/small&gt;||Serbia&lt;br /&gt;&lt;small&gt;(1867&lt;ref name=&quot;Vuk&quot;/&gt;)&lt;/small&gt;||Serbia&lt;br /&gt;&lt;small&gt;(1867&lt;ref name=&quot;Vuk&quot;/&gt;)&lt;/small&gt;||Croatia-Slavonia&lt;br /&gt;&lt;small&gt;([[Đakovo]]&lt;ref name=&quot;Dragic2012&quot;/&gt;)&lt;/small&gt;||Croatia-Slavonia&lt;br /&gt;&lt;small&gt;(Đakovo, 1957{{sfn|Čulinović-Konstantinović|1963|p=77, 90}})&lt;/small&gt;||Croatia-Srijem&lt;br /&gt;&lt;small&gt;([[Tovarnik]], 1979&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal |last=Černelić |first=Milana |date=1998 |title=Kroz godinu dana srijemskih običaja vukovarskog kraja |trans-title=Annual customs of Srijem in the Vukovar region |url=https://hrcak.srce.hr/80816 |language=hr |journal=Etnološka tribina |volume=28 |issue=21 |page=135}}&lt;/ref&gt;)&lt;/small&gt; |- | &lt;poem&gt; &lt;small&gt;Mi idemo preko sela, Oj dodo, oj dodo le! A oblaci preko neba, Oj dodo, oj dodo le! A mi brže, oblak brže, Oj dodo, oj dodo le! Oblaci nas pretekoše, Oj dodo, oj dodo le! Žito, vino porosiše, Oj dodo, oj dodo le!&lt;/small&gt; &lt;/poem&gt; || &lt;poem&gt; &lt;small&gt;Molimo se višnjem Bogu, Oj dodo, oj dodo le! Da udari rosna kiša, Oj dodo, oj dodo le! Da porosi naša polja, Oj dodo, oj dodo le! I šenicu ozimicu, Oj dodo, oj dodo le! I dva pera kukuruza, Oj dodo, oj dodo le!&lt;/small&gt; &lt;/poem&gt; || &lt;poem&gt; &lt;small&gt;Naša doda Boga moli, Oj dodo, oj dodo le! Da udari rosna kiša, Oj dodo, oj dodo le! Da pokisnu svi orači, Oj dodo, oj dodo le! Svi orači i kopači, Oj dodo, oj dodo le! I po kući poslovači, Oj dodo, oj dodo le!&lt;/small&gt; &lt;/poem&gt; || &lt;poem&gt; &lt;small&gt;Naša doda moli Boga Oj dodole, moj božole! Da porosi rosna kiša Oj dodole, moj božole! Da pokvasi naša polja Oj dodole, moj božole! Da urode, da prerode Oj dodole, moj božole!&lt;/small&gt; &lt;/poem&gt; || &lt;poem&gt; &lt;small&gt;Naša dojda moli boga da kiša pada Da pokisne suvo polje, oj, dojdole! Da pokisnu svi orači Svi orači i kopači, oj, dojdole! I po kući poslovači Oj, dojdole, oj, dojdole! I dva pera kukuruza I lanovi za darove, oj, dojdole! Da urodi, da prerodi, da ne polegne Oj, dojdole, oj, dojdole!&lt;/small&gt; &lt;/poem&gt; || &lt;poem&gt; &lt;small&gt;Naša doda moli Boga Da nam Bog da rosne kiše Rosne kiše malo više Na orače i kopače I na naše suve bašće Oj dodo, oj dodole! Da trava raste Da paun pase Da sunce sija Da žito zrija Oj dodo, oj dodole!&lt;/small&gt; &lt;/poem&gt; |} ==Other== According to [[Albanian folk beliefs]], the Sun ([[Dielli (Albanian paganism)|Dielli]]) makes the sky cloudy or clears it up.&lt;ref&gt;{{harvnb|Tirta|2004|pp=71–72}}; {{harvnb|Gjoni|2012|pp=85–86}}&lt;/ref&gt; Albanians used to invoke the Sun with rainmaking and soil fertility rituals. In rainmaking rituals from the [[Albanian Ionian Sea Coast]], Albanians used to pray to the Sun, in particular facing Mount [[Shëndelli]] (Mount &quot;Holy Sun&quot;), by invoking the names ''Dielli'', ''Shën Dëlliu'', ''Ilia'' or ''[[Perëndi]]a''. Children used to dress a boy with fresh branches, calling him ''dordolec''. A typical invocation song repeated three times during the ritual was:{{sfn|Gjoni|2012|pp=85–86}} {{blockquote|&quot;O Ilia, Ilia,&lt;br /&gt;Peperuga rrugëzaj&lt;br /&gt;Bjerë shi o Perëndi,&lt;br /&gt;Se qajnë ca varfëri,&lt;br /&gt;Me lot e logori&lt;br /&gt;Thekëri gjer mbë çati,&lt;br /&gt;Gruri gjer në Perëndi.&quot;}} Afterwards, people used to say: ''Do kemi shi se u nxi Shëndëlliu'' (&quot;We will have rain because ''Shëndëlliu'' went dark&quot;).{{sfn|Gjoni|2012|pp=85–86}} The Sun used to be also invoked when reappearing after the rain, prayed for increased production in agriculture.{{sfn|Gjoni|2012|pp=85–86}} == See also == {{commons category|Dodola}} * [[Albanian paganism]] * [[Folklore of Romania]] * [[Slavic paganism]] * [[Caloian]] * [[Perëndi]] * [[Porenut]] * [[Porevit]] == References == {{reflist}} === Bibliography === {{Refbegin|30em|indent=yes}} &lt;!-- B --&gt; *{{cite book |last=Belaj |first=Vitomir |author-link=Vitomir Belaj |date=2007 |orig-date=1998 |title=Hod kroz godinu: Mitska pozadina hrvatskih narodnih običaja i vjerovanja |trans-title=The walk within a year: the mythic background of the Croatian folk customs and beliefs |language=hr |location=Zagreb |publisher=Golden marketing-Tehnička knjiga |isbn=978-953-212-334-0}} *{{cite journal|last=Burns|first=Richard|title=Rain and Dust|journal=[[Studia Mythologica Slavica]]|volume=XI|issn=1581-128X|doi=10.3986/sms.v11i0.1696|year=2008|pages=217–236|doi-access=free}} &lt;!-- C --&gt; *{{cite journal |last=Čulinović-Konstantinović |first=Vesna |date=1963 |title=Dodole i prporuše: narodni običaji za prizivanje kiše |trans-title=Dodole and prporuše: folk customs for invoking the rain |url=https://hrcak.srce.hr/34409 |language=hr |journal=Narodna Umjetnost |volume=2 |issue=1 |pages=73–95}} &lt;!-- D --&gt; *{{cite journal |last=Dragić |first=Marko |date=2007 |title=Ladarice, kraljice i dodole u hrvatskoj tradicijskoj kulturi i slavenskom kontekstu |trans-title=Ladarice, Queens and Dodole in Croatian Traditionary Culture and Slavic Context |url=https://www.bib.irb.hr/299913 |language=hr |journal=Hercegovina, godišnjak za kulturno i povijesno naslijeđe |volume=21 |pages=275–296}} &lt;!-- G --&gt; *{{cite book|last=Gamkrelidze|first=Ivanov|title=Indo-European and the Indoeuropeans|publisher=Mouton de Gruyter|year=1995}} *{{cite book |last=Gieysztor |first=Aleksander |author-link=Aleksander Gieysztor |date=2006 |orig-date=1982 |edition=II |title=Mitologia Slowian |publisher=Wydawn. Uniwersytetu Warszawskiego |location=Warszawa |language=pl |isbn=978-83-235-0234-0}} *{{cite book |last=Gimbutas |first=Marija |author-link=Marija Gimbutas |date=1967 |chapter=Ancient Slavic Religion: A Synopsis |title=To honor Roman Jakobson: essays on the occasion of his seventieth birthday, 11 October 1966 (Vol. I) |pages=738–759 |publisher=Mouton |doi=10.1515/9783111604763-064 |isbn=978-3-11-122958-4}} *{{cite thesis|type=PhD|last=Gjoni|first=Irena|title=Marrëdhënie të miteve dhe kulteve të bregdetit të Jonit me areale të tjera mitike|publisher=University of Tirana, Faculty of History and Philology|language=sq|year=2012|place=Tirana}} &lt;!-- E --&gt; * {{cite book|last=Elsie|first=Robert|year=2000|title=The Christian Saints of Albania|publisher=Balkanistica|url=http://home.olemiss.edu/~mldyer/balk/article2.html|volume=13}} * {{cite book|last=Elsie|first=Robert|author-link=Robert Elsie|title=A Dictionary of Albanian Religion, Mythology and Folk Culture|place=London|publisher=Hurst &amp; Company|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=N_IXHrXIsYkC|isbn=1-85065-570-7|year=2001a}} *{{cite book|last=Elsie|first=Robert|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ve4SAQAAIAAJ|title=Albanian Folktales and Legends|year=2001b|publisher=Dukagjini Publishing House}} *{{cite book |last=Evans |first=David |date=1974 |chapter=Dodona, Dodola, and Daedala |title=Myth in Indo-European Antiquity |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=QNzuDwAAQBAJ |pages=99–130 |publisher=University of California Press |isbn=978-0-520-02378-9}} &lt;!-- H --&gt; *{{cite journal|last=Håland|first=Evy Johanne|title=Rituals of Magical Rain-Making in Modern and Ancient Greece: A Comparative Approach|journal=Cosmos|volume=17|year=2001|pages=197–251}} *{{cite book|last1=Halimi|first1=Zanita|last2=Halimi-Statovci|first2=Drita|last3=Xhemaj|first3=Ukë|translator=Lumnije Kadriu|title=Rite dhe Aktualiteti|trans-title=Rites and Contemporariness/Present Time|publisher=[[University of Prishtina]]|year=2011|url=https://chwbkosova.org/wp-content/uploads/2014/09/Publication_2011_7-min.pdf}} &lt;!-- J --&gt; *{{cite journal|last=Jackson|first=Peter|date=2002|title=Light from Distant Asterisks. Towards a Description of the Indo-European Religious Heritage|journal=Numen|volume=49|issue=1|pages=61–102|issn=0029-5973|jstor=3270472|doi=10.1163/15685270252772777}} *{{cite journal |last1=Jakobson |first1=Roman |author-link=Roman Jakobson |date=1955 |title=While Reading Vasmer's Dictionary |url=https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/pdf/10.1080/00437956.1955.11659581 |journal=[[Word (journal)|Word]] |volume=11 |issue=4 |pages=611–617 |doi=10.1080/00437956.1955.11659581}} *{{cite book |last=Jakobson |first=Roman |author-link=Roman Jakobson |date=1985 |title=Selected Writings VII: Contributions to Comparative Mythology |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=db7iuvTX1bkC |publisher=[[Walter de Gruyter]] |isbn=978-3-11-010617-6}} &lt;!-- K --&gt; *{{cite journal |last=Ḱulavkova |first=Katica |date=2020 |title=A Poetic Ritual Invoking Rain and Well-Being: Richard Berengarten's In a Time of Drought |url=https://scholarworks.iu.edu/journals/index.php/aeer/article/view/28956 |journal=Anthropology of East Europe Review |volume=37 |issue=1 |pages=17–26}} *{{cite book |last=Kulišić |first=Špiro |author-link=Špiro Kulišić |editor=[[Alojz Benac]] |date=1979 |title=Stara slovenska religija u svjetlu novijih istraživanja – posebno balkanoloških |language=sh |volume=Djela LVI, CBI knjiga 3 |location=Sarajevo |publisher=Centre for Balkan Studies, [[ANUBIH]]}} &lt;!-- L --&gt; *{{cite book |last=Lajoye |first=Patrice |author-link=Patrice Lajoye |date=2015 |title=Perun, dieu slave de l'orage: Archéologie, histoire, folklore |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=o5LdCgAAQBAJ |language=fr |publisher=Lingva |isbn=979-10-94441-25-1}} *{{cite book|last=Łuczyński|first=Michal|year=2020|title=Bogowie dawnych Słowian: Studium onomastyczne|publisher=Kieleckie Towarzystwo Naukowe|location=Kielce|isbn=978-83-60777-83-1|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=rv-izQEACAAJ|language=pl}} &lt;!-- M --&gt; *{{cite book|author=Ministria e Mjedisit dhe Planifikimit Hapësinor|title=Parku Kombëtar &quot;Sharri&quot; – Plani Hapësinor|publisher=Kosovo Environmental Protection Agency, Institute for Spatial Planning|year=2014|ref={{harvid|Ministria|2014}}}} *{{cite journal |last=Muraj |first=Aleksandra |date=1987 |title=Iz istraživanja Žumberka (preperuše, preslice, tara) |trans-title=From Research on Žumberak (preperuše, spindles, tara) |url=https://hrcak.srce.hr/clanak/76272 |language=hr |journal=Narodna Umjetnost |volume=24 |issue=1 |pages=157–175}} &lt;!-- N --&gt; *{{cite book |last=Nodilo |first=Natko |author-link=Natko Nodilo |date=1981 |orig-date=1884 |title=Stara Vjera Srba i Hrvata |trans-title=Old Faith of Serbs and Croats |url=https://archive.org/details/StaraVjeraSrbaIHrvata/ |language=hr |location=Split |publisher=Logos}} *{{cite book|last=Norris|first=Harry Thirlwall|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=RGmzir-ITtUC&amp;pg=PA34|title=Islam in the Balkans: Religion and Society Between Europe and the Arab World|publisher=University of South Carolina Press|year=1993|isbn=9780872499775|location=Columbia, S.C|pages=211|language=en|oclc=28067651}} &lt;!-- P --&gt; *{{cite book |last=Predojević |first=Željko |date=2019 |chapter=O pučkim postupcima i vjerovanjima za prizivanje kiše iz južne Baranje u kontekstu dvovjerja |trans-chapter=On folk practices and beliefs for invoking rain from southern Baranja in the context of dual belif |chapter-url=https://www.bib.irb.hr/1100049 |title=XIV. međunarodni kroatistički znanstveni skup |editor=István Blazsetin |editor-link=István Blazsetin (born 1963) |location=Pečuh |publisher=Znanstveni zavod Hrvata u Mađarskoj |language=hr |pages=581–593 |isbn=978-963-89731-5-3}} *{{cite book |last=Puchner |first=Walter |author-link=Walter Puchner |date=2009 |title=Studien zur Volkskunde Südosteuropas und des mediterranen Raums |url=https://library.oapen.org/handle/20.500.12657/34402 |location=Wien, Köln, Weimar |publisher=Böhlau Verlag |hdl=20.500.12657/34402 |language=de |isbn=978-3-205-78369-5}} *{{cite book|last1=Puhvel|first1=Jaan|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=OMPagyYOe8gC|title=Comparative Mythology|date=1987|publisher=Johns Hopkins University Press|isbn=978-0-8018-3938-2|author-link=Jaan Puhvel}} &lt;!-- Q --&gt; *{{cite book|last=Qafleshi|first=Muharrem|title=Opoja dhe Gora ndër shekuj|trans-title=Opoja and Gora During Centuries|publisher=[[Albanological Institute of Pristina]]|year=2011|isbn=978-9951-596-51-0}} &lt;!-- S --&gt; *{{cite book|last=Sela|first=Jonida|title=International Conference &quot;Education and Cultural Heritage&quot;|chapter=Values and Traditions in Ritual Dances of All-Year Celebrations in Korça Region, Albania|volume=1|publisher=Association of Heritage and Education|year=2017|pages=62–71}} &lt;!-- T --&gt; *{{cite book|last=Tirta|first=Mark|title=Mitologjia ndër shqiptarë|language=sq|editor=Petrit Bezhani|publisher=Mësonjëtorja|year=2004|place=Tirana|isbn=99927-938-9-9}} &lt;!-- U --&gt; *{{cite book|last=Urbańczyk|first=Stanisław|author-link=Stanisław Urbańczyk|year=1991|title=Dawni Słowianie: wiara i kult|trans-title=Old Slavs: faith and cult|publisher=Ossolineum, Polska Akademia Nauk, Komitet Słowianoznawstwa|location=Kraków|isbn=978-83-04-03825-7|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=4iUtAAAAMAAJ|language=pl}} &lt;!-- W --&gt; *{{cite book|last=Wachtel|first=Andrew Baruch|year=2008|title=The Balkans in World History|publisher=Oxford University Press|location=Oxford, England|isbn=978-0-19-988273-1|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=t6CeBgAAQBAJ}} *{{cite book|last=West|first=M. L.|title=Indo-European Poetry and Myth|publisher=Oxford University Press|year=2007|isbn=978-0-19-928075-9}} &lt;!-- Z --&gt; *{{cite book |last=Zebec |first=Tvrtko |date=2005 |title=Krčki tanci: plesno-etnološka studija |trans-title=Tanac dances on the island of Krk: dance ethnology study |url=https://www.academia.edu/35914079 |location=Zagreb, Rijeka |publisher=Institut za etnologiju i folkloristiku, Adamić |language=hr |isbn=953-219-223-9}} {{refend}} === Further reading === {{refbegin}} * {{ill|Bellosics, Bálint|hu|Bellosics Bálint}}. &quot;[http://real-j.mtak.hu/17297/ Dodola (Adatok az esőcsináláshoz)]&quot; [Dodola, Beiträge zum Regenmachen]. In: ''Ethnographia'' 6 (1895): 418–422. (In Hungarian) *{{cite book |last=Beza |first=Marcu |author-link=Marcu Beza |date=1928 |chapter=The Paparude and Kalojan |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=m2jTDwAAQBAJ |title=Paganism in Roumanian Folklore |location=London |publisher=J.M.Dent &amp; Sons LTD. |pages=27–36|isbn=978-3-8460-4695-1 }} * Boghici, Constantina. &quot;Archaic Elements in the Romanian Spring-Summer Traditions. Landmarks for Dâmboviţa County&quot;. In: ''Bulletin of the Transilvania University of Braşov'', Series VIII: Performing Arts 2 (2013): 17–18. https://ceeol.azurewebsites.net/search/article-detail?id=258246 * {{cite book |last=Cook |first=Arthur Bernard |author-link=Arthur Bernard Cook |date=1940 |chapter=Zeus and the Rain: Rain-magic in modern Greece |title=Zeus: A Study in Ancient Religion: God of the Dark Sky (earthquakes, clouds, wind, dew, rain, meteorites) |volume=3 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=2Yk8AAAAIAAJ |publisher=Cambridge University Press |pages=284–290 |isbn=978-0-511-69664-0 |doi=10.1017/CBO9780511696640}} * {{ill|Dömötör, Tekla|hu|Dömötor Tekla}}; {{ill|Eperjessy, Ernő|hu|Eperjessy Ernő}}. &quot;[http://real-j.mtak.hu/2925/ Dodola and Other Slavonic Folk-Customs in County Baranya (Hungary)]&quot;. In: ''Acta Ethnographica'', 16 (1967): 399–408. * {{cite journal |title=Paparuda |trans-title=Paparuda |first=Mihai |last=Dragnea |publisher=MUZEUL ETNOGRAFIC AL TRANSILVANIEI |journal=Anuarul Muzeului Etnografic al Transilvaniei |date=2012 |issue=6 |pages=73–81 |lang=Romanian}} * {{Cite journal |title=Песента в обреда Пеперуда |trans-title=The Song in the Peperuda Ritual |first=Bozhanka |last=Ganeva |publisher=Институт за етнология и фолклористика с Етнографски музей при БАН |journal=Български фолклор |volume=XXIX |date=2003 |issue=1 |pages=40–49 |lang=BG}} * Janković, Danica S., and Ljubica S. Janković. &quot;Serbian Folk Dance Tradition in Prizren&quot;. In: ''Ethnomusicology'' 6, no. 2 (1962): 117. https://doi.org/10.2307/924671. * {{cite journal |title=Вариантн на обредите Пеперуда и Герман |trans-title=Variants of the Rites Peperuda and German |first=Rusko |last=Kalev |publisher=Институт за етнология и фолклористика с Етнографски музей при БАН |journal=Български фолклор |volume=XII |date=1986 |issue=3 |pages=47–58 |lang=BG}} * {{cite journal |title=Słownictwo związane z wywoływaniem deszczu w dialektach sztokawskich |trans-title=Vocabulary related to rain calling in Shtokavian dialects |first=Agata |last=Kruszec |publisher=Instytut Slawistyki Polskiej Akademii Nauk |journal=Studia z Filologii Polskiej i Słowiańskiej |date=2008 |issue=43 |pages=141–148 |lang=PL}} * Мандич, Мария. &quot;[https://dais.sanu.ac.rs/123456789/7850 &quot;Жизнь&quot; ритуала после &quot;угасания&quot;: Пример додолы из села Сигетчеп в Венгрии]&quot; [The 'life' of an extinguished ritual: The case of the rain ritual dodola from Szigetcsép in Hungary]. In: &quot;Славяноведение&quot; 6 (2019): 15–29. DOI: 10.31857/S0869544X0006755-3 (In Russian) * {{cite book |last1=Marushiakova |first1=E. |last2=Popov |first2=V. |date=2016 |chapter=Roma Culture: Problems and Challenges |editor1-first=E. |editor1-last=Marushiakova |editor2-first=V. |editor2-last=Popov |title=Roma Culture: Myths and Realities |page=48 |location=München |publisher=Lincom Academic Publishers |url=https://www.academia.edu/26969260}} * {{cite journal |title=Женска антропоморфна пластика в два обреда за дъжд от Ямболски окръг |trans-title=Female Anthropomorphic Figures in Two Rain-Making Ceremonies from the District of Yambol |first=Lyubomir |last=Mikov |publisher=Институт за етнология и фолклористика с Етнографски музей при БАН |journal=Български фолклор |volume=XI |date=1985 |issue=4 |pages=19–27 |lang=BG}} * Puchner, Walter. &quot;Liedtextstudien Zur Balkanischen Regenlitanei: Mit Spezieller Berücksichtigung Der Bulgarischen Und Griechischen Varianten&quot;. In: ''Jahrbuch Für Volksliedforschung'' 29 (1984): 100–111. https://doi.org/10.2307/849291. *{{cite book |last=Schneeweis |first=Edmund |date=2019 |orig-date=1961 |title=Serbokroatische Volkskunde: Volksglaube und Volksbrauch |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=bR6bDwAAQBAJ |publisher=Walter de Gruyter GmbH &amp; Co KG |pages=161–163 |language=de |isbn=978-3-11-133764-7}} *{{cite book |last=MacDermott |first=Mercia |author-link=Mercia MacDermott |date=2003 |title=Explore Green Men |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=vT1NAAAAYAAJ |publisher=Heart of Albion Press |pages=17–19 |isbn=978-1-872883-66-3}} *{{citation |title=Dodole |url=https://www.enciklopedija.hr/natuknica.aspx?ID=15709 |author=Croatian Encyclopaedia |author-link=Croatian Encyclopaedia |year=2021}} {{refend}} ===External links=== *{{YouTube|id=X0BgBEtnK4s|title=Dodole ritual on TV in Macedonia}} *{{YouTube|id=aeCQgFUsIKA|title=Reconstruction of Dodole ritual in Bulgaria}} at [[Etar Architectural-Ethnographic Complex]] *{{YouTube|id=n2Vhk_eiwkg|title=&quot;Dodole&quot; song by Croatian ethno-folk rock band Kries}} *[https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=G8O5-a4rCk4 Pirpirouna/Pirpiruna/Perperouna – Rainmaking ritual song], and its [https://www.oeaw.ac.at/fileadmin/kommissionen/vanishinglanguages/Collections/Greek_varieties/Macedonian_Greek/Transcription_pdfs/mace1251TRV0001a_transcription.pdf lyrics], recorded 2016 by Thede Kahl and Andreea Pascaru in Turkey *[https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=evOGzUGT8kc Dodola/Pirpiruna – Rainmaking ritual song, description of the custom] and [https://www.oeaw.ac.at/fileadmin/kommissionen/vanishinglanguages/Collections/Greek_varieties/Macedonian_Greek/Transcription_pdfs/mace1251TRV0001a_transcription.pdf its lyrics], recorded 2020 in Northeast Greece by Sotirios Rousiakis {{Slavic mythology}} [[Category:Albanian folklore]] [[Category:Aromanian culture]] [[Category:Bulgarian folklore]] [[Category:Bulgarian traditions]] [[Category:Croatian folklore]] [[Category:Greek folklore]] [[Category:Macedonian traditions]] [[Category:Moldovan traditions]] [[Category:Rainmaking (ritual)]] [[Category:Romanian folklore]] [[Category:Romanian traditions]] [[Category:Serbian folklore]] [[Category:Serbian traditions]] [[Category:Slavic pseudo-deities]] [[Category:South Slavic culture]]</div></summary> <author><name>Βατο</name></author> </entry> <entry> <id>https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Dodola_and_Perperuna&diff=1257594042</id> <title>Dodola and Perperuna</title> <link rel="alternate" type="text/html" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Dodola_and_Perperuna&diff=1257594042"/> <updated>2024-11-15T19:04:09Z</updated> <summary type="html">Βατο: ce <hr /> <div>{{Short description|Rainmaking rituals in Southeast Europe}} [[File:&quot;Watering of Dodola&quot; by Uroš Predić, published in magazine &quot;Orao&quot; in 1892.jpg|300px|thumb|The sprinkling of ''Dodola'' with water by [[Uroš Predić]] (1892)]] '''Dodola''' (also spelled ''Dodole'', ''Dudola'', ''Dudula'', ''Diva-Dodola'' etc.), '''Perperuna''' (also spelled ''Peperuda'', ''Preperuda'', ''Preperuša'', ''Prporuša'', ''Papaluga'', ''Peperuna'' etc.), '''riti i ndjelljes/thirrjes së shiut''' (&quot;Rain-Invoking/Calling Ritual&quot; or &quot;Rite of Invoking/Calling the Rain&quot;) or simply '''thirrja e shiut''' (&quot;Call of the Rain&quot;), '''riti me dordolecin''' (&quot;Dordoleci Ritual&quot;), '''riti i dodolisë''' (&quot;Dodoli Ritual&quot;) are [[Rainmaking (ritual)|rainmaking]] [[Paganism|pagan]] customs widespread among different peoples in [[Southeast Europe]] until the 20th century, found in [[Albania]], [[Bulgaria]], [[Croatia]], [[Greece]], [[Hungary]], [[Kosovo]], [[Moldova]], [[Montenegro]], [[North Macedonia]], [[Romania]], and [[Serbia]]. It is still practiced in remote [[Albanians|Albanian]] ethnographic regions, but only in rare events, when the summer is dry and without atmospheric precipitation.&lt;ref&gt;{{harvnb|Qafleshi|2011|pp=51–52|}}; {{harvnb|Ministria|2014|p=66}}.&lt;/ref&gt; The ceremonial ritual is an analogical-imitative [[incantation|magic rite]] that consists of singing and dancing done by young boys and girls in processions following a main performer who is dressed with fresh branches, leaves and herbs, with the purpose of invoking rain, usually practiced in times of [[drought]]s, especially in the summer season, when drought endangers crops and pastures, even human life itself.&lt;ref&gt;{{harvnb|Qafleshi|2011|pp=51–52|}}; {{harvnb|Halimi|Halimi-Statovci|Xhemaj|2011|pp=2–6, 32–43}}&lt;/ref&gt; In Albanian rainmaking ritual songs, besides the divine figure that is invoked and also personified by boys or girls during the procession, other Albanian divine figures are invoked: [[Dielli (Albanian paganism)|Dielli]] (the Sun), [[Perëndi]] (the [[Sky]], or deity of weather), and Ilia ([[Elijah]], who in Christianized Albanian folklore has replaced the Sun god and the thunder or weather god, also [[Drangue]]).{{sfn|Gjoni|2012|pp=85–86}}{{sfn|Elsie|2001a|pp=46–47}}{{sfn|Elsie|2000|pp=43–45}}{{sfn|Gamkrelidze|1995|p=528}}{{sfn|Sela|2017|pp=69–70}} In Slavic rainmaking ritual songs also the sky or Elijah are invoked. In Slavic Christianized folklore Elijah has replaced [[Perun]], the Slavic thunder-god, cognate to IE ''[[*Perkʷūnos]]''.{{sfn|Jakobson|1985|p=6}} According to some interpretations of [[Slavic folklore]], the Slavic rainmaking rituals found in the Balkans were related to the [[[[Slavic pantheon|Slavic]] supreme deity Perun (god of thunder, weather, fertility and oak trees).&lt;ref&gt;https://www.scribd.com/doc/243198115/Slavic-Pagan-World&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;https://www.omda.bg/page.php?tittle=Ezicheska_obrednost_-_Peperuda&amp;IDMenu=309&amp;IDArticle=2221&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;https://ibl.bas.bg/pishi_pravilno/perun-i-veles/&lt;/ref&gt; Some scholars suggest that Perperuna could have been a Slavic goddess of rain, the consort of Perun, or that the name Perperuna is the reduplicated feminine form derived from the name of Perun.&lt;ref&gt;https://www.srku.edu.in/read?s=Dodola+and+Perperuna#:~:text=Zyzlila)%20Perperuna%20and-,Dodola,-(Paparuda%2C%20Prporu%C5%A1a%2C%20Dudula&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;https://arheologija.fr.gd/Perun-English-Versione.htm&lt;/ref&gt; &lt;ref&gt;https://www.academia.edu/44578714/Perperuna_a_%C4%8Fal%C5%A1ie_reflexy_dru%C5%BEky_praindoeur%C3%B3pskeho_Hromovl%C3%A1dcu_Consort_of_the_Proto_Indo_European_Thundergod_and_her_reflexes?sm=b&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;https://www.mifologia.com/pantheons/slavic-pantheon-2/perun/&lt;/ref&gt; &lt;ref&gt;https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/pdf/10.1080/00437956.1955.11659581&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;https://www.oporabg.com/sites/default/files/peperuda_DV.pdf&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;https://www.starisloveni.com/English/Perun.html&lt;/ref&gt; But recent research criticize [[List of Slavic pseudo-deities|invention]] of a Slavic female goddess,{{sfn|Łuczyński|2020|p=141}} and other etymologies have been provided as well.{{sfn|Burns|2008|pp=231–232}}{{sfn|Čulinović-Konstantinović|1963|p=94}}{{sfn|Čulinović-Konstantinović|1963|p=94}}{{sfn|Skok|1973|p=55}}{{sfn|Urbańczyk|1991|p=150}}{{sfn|Łuczyński|2020|p=141}} == Names == {{quote box|align=right|quote=&lt;poem&gt;&lt;small&gt;Περπερούνα περπατεί / Perperouna perambulates Κή τόν θεό περικαλεί / And to God prays Θέ μου, βρέξε μια βροχή / My God, send a rain Μιἁ βροχή βασιλική / A right royal rain Οσ ἀστἀχυα ς τἀ χωράΦια / That as many (as are there) ears of corn in the fields Τόσα κούτσουρα ς τ ἁμπέλια / So many stems (may spring) on the vines&lt;/small&gt; &lt;/poem&gt;|source=&lt;br /&gt;&lt;small&gt;Shatista near [[Siatista]], [[Western Macedonia]], Ottoman Empire, 1903&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book |last=Abbott |first=George Frederick |author-link=George Frederick Abbott |date=1903 |title=Macedonian Folklore |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=M7o8AAAAIAAJ |location=Cambridge |publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]] |page=119}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;/small&gt;}} Rainmaking rites are generally called after the divine figure invoked in the ritual songs, as well as the boy or girl who perform the rite, who are called with different names among different peoples (South Slavs, Albanians, Greeks, Hungarians, Moldovans, Romanians, Vlachs or Aromanians (including regions of [[Bukovina]] and [[Bessarabia]])).:&lt;ref&gt;{{harvnb|Ḱulavkova|2020|p=19}}&lt;/ref&gt; *''Preperuna'', ''Peperuna'', ''Preperuda/Peperuda'', ''Pepereda'', ''Preperuga/Peperuga'', ''Peperunga'', ''Pemperuga'' in [[Bulgaria]] and [[North Macedonia]]: ''Prporuša'', ''Parparuša'', ''Preporuša/Preporuča'', ''Preperuša'', ''Barburuša/Barbaruša'' in [[Croatia]]; ''Peperuda'', ''Papaluga'', ''Papaluda/Paparudă'', ''Babaruta'', ''Mamaruta'' in [[Romania]] and [[Moldova]]; ''Perperouna'', ''Perperinon'', ''Perperouga'', ''Parparouna'' in [[Greece]]; ''Perperona/Perperone'' in [[Albania]]; ''Pirpirunã'' among [[Aromanians]]; *''Dodola'' among previous countries as well as [[Serbia]], with variants ''Dodole'', ''Dudola'', ''Dudula'', ''Dudule'', ''Dudulica'', ''Doda'', ''Dodočka'', ''Dudulejka'', ''Didjulja'', etc.{{sfn|Gimbutas|1967|p=743}}{{sfn|Evans|1974|p=100}}{{sfn|Jakobson|1985|p=22–24|ps=:Mythological associations linked with the butterfly (cf. her Serbian name ''Vještica'') also explain the Bulgarian entomological names ''peperuda'', ''peperuga''}}{{sfn|Čulinović-Konstantinović|1963|p=80, 93}}{{Sfn|Puchner|2009|p=346}} *''Rona'', used by Albanians alternatively to ''Perperona/Perperone'';{{sfn|Norris|1993|p=34}}{{sfn|Tirta|2004|pp=310–312}} *''Dordoleci'' (''durduleci''), used by Albanians for this custom in association with a male figure.{{sfn|Tirta|2004|pp=310–312}} In [[Albanian language|Albanian]] the rainmaking ritual is called ''riti i ndjelljes së shiut'' (&quot;Rain-Invoking Ritual&quot;), ''riti i thirrjes së shiut'' (&quot;Rain-Calling Ritual&quot; or &quot;Rite of Calling the Rain&quot;) or simply ''thirrja e shiut'' (&quot;Call of the Rain&quot;), ''riti i thatësisë'' (&quot;Drought Ritual&quot;), as well as ''riti me dordolecin'' or ''riti i dordolecit'' (&quot;Dordoleci Ritual&quot;), ''riti i dodolisë'' (&quot;Dodoli Ritual&quot;), etc.&lt;ref&gt;{{harvnb|Tirta|2004|pp=310–312}}; {{harvnb|Qafleshi|2011|pp=51–52|}}; {{harvnb|Ministria|2014|p=66}}; {{harvnb|Halimi|Halimi-Statovci|Xhemaj|2011|pp=2–6, 32–43}}&lt;/ref&gt; In Albanian rainmaking ritual songs, besides the divine figure that is invoked and also personified by boys or girls during the procession, other Albanian divine figures are invoked: [[Dielli (Albanian paganism)|Dielli]] (the Sun), [[Perëndi]], and Ilia.{{sfn|Gjoni|2012|pp=85–86}}{{sfn|Gamkrelidze|1995|p=528}}{{sfn|Sela|2017|pp=69–70}} Perëndi is a name that is used for &quot;god&quot;, &quot;deity&quot;, &quot;sky&quot; in Albanian, but considered by some scholars to be an Albanian thunder-god, cognate to Indo-European ''[[*Perkʷūnos]]'';{{sfn|Gamkrelidze|1995|p=528}} Ilia is [[Elijah]], who in Christianized Albanian folklore has replaced the Sun god and the thunder or weather god (also [[Drangue]]).{{sfn|Gjoni|2012|pp=85–86}}{{sfn|Elsie|2001a|pp=46–47}}{{sfn|Elsie|2000|pp=43–45}} In Slavic rainmaking ritual songs also the sky or Elijah are invoked. In Slavic Christianized folklore Elijah has replaced [[Perun]], the Slavic thunder-god, cognate to IE ''*Perkʷūnos''.{{sfn|Jakobson|1985|p=6}} ===Etymologies=== Some scholars consider all the Balkan names of the type ''per-'', ''perper-'', ''peper-'', ''papar-'', etc. to be taboo-alternations to &quot;avoid profaning the holy name&quot; of the pagan [[Proto-Indo-European mythology|Indo-European]] god ''[[*Perkʷūnos]]''.{{sfn|Evans|1974|p=116}}{{sfn|Gimbutas|1967|p=743}} According to [[Roman Jakobson]] and others ''perperuna'' is formed by reduplication of the Indo-European root &quot;per-&quot; (to strike/beat).{{sfn|Gimbutas|1967|p=743}}{{sfn|Jakobson|1985|p=23}}&lt;ref name=&quot;Katicic&quot;/&gt; Those with root &quot;peper-&quot;, &quot;papar-&quot; and &quot;pirpir-&quot; were changed accordingly modern words for [[Schinus molle|pepper-tree]] and [[poppy]] plant,{{sfn|Gimbutas|1967|p=743}}{{Sfn|Puchner|2009|p=348}} possibly also [[Hyperpyron|perper]] and else.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal |last=Puchner |first=Walter |author-link=Walter Puchner |date=1983 |title=Бележки към ономатологията и етимологиятана българските и гръцките названия на обреда за дъжд додола/перперуна |trans-title=Notes on the Onomatology and the Etymology of Bulgarian and Greek Names for the Dodola / Perperuna Rite |url=https://www.ceeol.com/search/article-detail?id=17959 |journal=Bulgarian Folklore |volume=IX |issue=1 |pages=59–65 |language=bg}}&lt;/ref&gt;{{Sfn|Puchner|2009|p=347–349}} Some scholars consider in particular that the name ''Perperuna'' can be identified as the reduplicated feminine [[Morphological derivation|derivative]] of the name of the Slavic thunder god ''[[Perun]]'' (''per-perun-a''), allegedly being his female consort, wife and goddess of rain ''Perperuna Dodola'', which would parallel the Old Norse couple [[Fjörgyn and Fjörgynn|Fjörgyn–Fjörgynn]] and the Lithuanian Perkūnas–Perkūnija.{{sfn|Jakobson|1985|p=22–23}}{{Sfn|Puhvel|1987|p=235}}{{Sfn|Jackson|2002|p=70}}&lt;ref name=&quot;York&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |last=York |first=Michael |author-link=Michael York (religious studies scholar) |date=1993 |title=Toward a Proto-Indo-European vocabulary of the sacred |journal=[[Word (journal)|Word]] |volume=44 |issue=2 |pages=240, 251 |doi=10.1080/00437956.1993.11435902|doi-access=free }}&lt;/ref&gt;{{sfn|Ḱulavkova|2020|p=19–20a|ps=:The Balkan rainmaking customs themselves go by different names. They are usually referred to as the Dodola or Peperuga(Peperuda) rituals, after the name of the goddess of rain, wife or consort of the Slavic sky-god Perun ... According to others, these rain-rituals derive specifically from Slavic languages, and the names Peperuda, Peperuga, Peperuna, and Perperuna are cognate with that of the storm-god Perun.}} According to another theory the Balkan names with the root ''per-'' are connected to the Greek [[Persephone]], a fertility goddess, daughter of the sky god [[Zeus]], and of the earth goddess [[Demeter]].{{sfn|Burns|2008|pp=231–232}} Dimitar Marinov derived it from Bulgarian word for butterfly where in folk beliefs has supernatural powers related to rain,{{sfn|Čulinović-Konstantinović|1963|p=94}} but according to Jakobson the mythological context of the customs and links explains the Bulgarian entomological names.&lt;ref&gt;{{harvnb|Jakobson|1985|p=22|ps=:Mythological associations linked with the butterfly (cf. her Serbian name ''Vještica'') also explain the Bulgarian entomological names ''peperuda'', ''peperuga''}}&lt;/ref&gt; [[Michail Arnaudov]] derived it from Slavic verb &quot;pršiti&quot; (spray).{{sfn|Čulinović-Konstantinović|1963|p=94}} [[Petar Skok]] considered ''prporuša'' a metaphorical derivation from Slavic ''prpor/pŕpa'' (hot ash), ''pórusa'' (&quot;when water is poured on burning ash&quot;{{sfn|Burns|2008|p=232}}).&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book |last=Skok |first=Petar |author-link=Petar Skok |title=Etimologijski rječnik hrvatskoga ili srpskoga jezika: poni-Ž |url=https://archive.org/details/EtimologijskiRjecnikHrvatskogaIliSrpskogaJezika |language=sh |year=1973 |location=Zagreb |publisher=[[JAZU]] |volume=3 |page=55}}&lt;/ref&gt; [[Stanisław Urbańczyk]] and Michal Łuczyński put into question Jakobson's theonymic derivation, deriving instead from Proto-Slavic ''*perpera'', ''*perperъka'' (in Polish ''przepiórka''), name for [[Common quail]], which has a role in Polish harvest rituals and the name of the bride in the wedding dance.{{sfn|Urbańczyk|1991|p=150}}{{sfn|Łuczyński|2020|p=141}} These are also related to ''*pъrpati'' (onomatopoeic), cf. Polish dial. ''perpotać'', ''perpac'', Old East Slavic ''poropriti''.{{sfn|Łuczyński|2020|p=141}} The name ''Dodola'' has been suggested to be a cognate to the Lithuanian ''Dundulis'', a word for &quot;thunder&quot; and another name of the Baltic thunder-god Perkūnas.{{sfn|Jakobson|1985|p=23}}{{Sfn|Puhvel|1987|p=235}} It is also hypothesised to be distantly related to Greek [[Dodona]] and [[Daedala]].{{sfn|Evans|1974|p=127–128}}&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book |last=Dauksta |first=Dainis |date=2011 |chapter=From Post to Pillar – The Development and Persistence of an Arboreal Metaphor |title=New Perspectives on People and Forests |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=XxB-HZlbTe0C |publisher=Springer |page=112 |isbn=978-94-007-1150-1}}&lt;/ref&gt; Bulgarian variant ''Didjulja'' is similar to alleged Polish goddess [[Dzidzilela]], and Polish language also has verb ''dudnić'' (&quot;to thunder&quot;).{{sfn|Jakobson|1985|p=22–23}} The uncertainty of the etymologies provided by scholars leads to a call for a &quot;detailed and in-depth comparative analysis of formulas, set phrases and patterns of imagery in rainmaking songs from ''all'' the Balkan languages&quot;.{{sfn|Burns|2008|pp=232–233}} == Origin == The rainmaking practice is a shared tradition among Balkan peoples, and it is not clear who borrowed it from whom.&lt;ref name=Wachtel&gt;{{harvnb|Wachtel|2008|ps=:Anthropologists have noted shared traditions as well, such as a rainmaking ritual in which a young woman covered in a costume of leaves would sing and dance through the village: this ritual was practiced among Greek, Albanian, Romanian, and Slavic speakers throughout the region, and it is not clear who borrowed it from whom.}}&lt;/ref&gt; The fact so similar customs in the Balkans are known by two different names the differences are considered not to be from the same time period and ethnic groups.{{sfn|Čulinović-Konstantinović|1963|p=93}} Similar customs outside the Balkans have been observed in the Caucasus, Middle East, and North Africa.{{sfn|Čulinović-Konstantinović|1963|p=84, 93}}{{sfn|Kulišić|1979|p=108}}&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal |last1=Başgöz |first1=İlhan |date=2007 |title=Rain Making Ceremonies in Iran |journal=[[Iranian Studies (journal)|Iranian Studies]] |volume=40 |issue=3 |pages=385–403 |doi=10.1080/00210860701390588 |jstor=4311905 |s2cid=162315052 |quote=Type II in the classification (that is, the procession with a doll, or ''chomcha gelin'', and its sub-group, which consists in a real child's proceeding through the neighborhood) ... Although the same ceremony is performed in other parts of Turkey, the ladle bride is given different names: ''Bodi Bodi'' among the Karalar Turkmen tribe in Adana province, ''Dodo'' or ''Dodu'' in Kars ... As the type spreads toward the west, sub-type (a) becomes dominant and (b) disappears. In Bulgaria, the girl who visits the houses during the ceremony is called ''doldol'' or ''Perperuga''.46 In Greece, the ceremony is sometimes incorporated into the Epiphany, the ritual throwing of the cross into a river, or sometimes is performed as an independent rain ritual.47 In Yugoslavia, the Turks, Serbians, and the Albanians practice the ritual, naming it ''dodola'' or ''dodoliče'' (little ''dodola'').48 The ritual is known in Hungary and is performed there under the name of ''doldola'', being especially common in villages inhabited by Gypsies and Serbians.49 The custom has spread to Rumania, but there the ''chomcha gelin'' is replaced by a coffin with a clay figure in it. This is reminiscent of Type II in Iran.50 The ''chomcha gelin'' is also observed in Iraq among the Kerkuk Turkmens, who call it &quot;the bride with ladle&quot; (''Chomchalı Gelin'').51 In Syria, the Arabs call the doll ''Umm al-Guys'' (&quot;mother of rain&quot;).52 The Christians in Syria practice the ceremony and call the doll &quot;the bride of God&quot;.53 In North Africa, the doll is called &quot;the mother of Bangau&quot;,54 and a similar symbol carried during the ritual is called Al Gonja.55 In Uzbekistan, Turks and Tajiks perform the ritual, calling the doll ''suskhatun'' (probably meaning &quot;water woman&quot;).56}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book |last=Chirikba |first=Viacheslav |author-link=Viacheslav Chirikba |date=2015 |chapter=Between Christianity and Islam: Heathen Heritage in the Caucasus |title=Studies on Iran and The Caucasus: In Honour of Garnik Asatrian |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=iLS9CwAAQBAJ |location=Leiden |publisher=Brill |pages=169–171 |isbn=978-90-04-30206-8 |quote=Thus, during the festival welcoming the spring, the Avars made ... In the ritual of summoning rains there figured a specially made doll called Dodola ... The Dagestan doll Dodola and the ritual strikingly resemble the Balkan rituals for summoning rain, whereby girls called Dodola would undressed and put on leaves, flowers and herbs to perform the rainmaking ceremony. The Balkan Dodola is regarded as being connected with the Slavic cult of the thunder-god Perun (cf. Tokarev 1991: 391).}}&lt;/ref&gt; [[William Ralston Shedden-Ralston|William Shedden-Ralston]] noted that [[Jacob Grimm]] thought Perperuna/Dodola were &quot;originally identical with the Bavarian ''Wasservogel'' and the Austrian ''Pfingstkönig''&quot; rituals.&lt;ref name=&quot;Ralston&quot;&gt;{{cite book |last=Shedden-Ralston |first=William Ralston |author-link=William Ralston Shedden-Ralston |date=1872 |title=The Songs of the Russian People: As Illustrative of Slavonic Mythology and Russian Social Life |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=429UAAAAcAAJ |location=London |publisher=Ellis &amp; Green |pages=227–229}}&lt;/ref&gt; Ancient rainmaking practices have been widespread [[Mediterranean]] traditions, already documented in the Balkans since [[Minoan]] and [[Mycenaean Greece|Mycenaean]] times.{{sfn|Burns|2008|pp=228–231}}{{sfn|Håland|2001|pp=197–201}} There is a lack of any strong historical evidence for a link between the figures and practices of the ancient times and those that survided to the end of the 20th century, however, according to [[Richard Berengarten]], if seen as &quot;typologically parallel&quot; practices in the ancient world, they may be interpretable at least as forerunners, even if not as direct progenitors of the modern Balkan rainmaking customs.{{sfn|Burns|2008|pp=228–231}} Some consider the ''perperuna'' figure to have a mythological and etymological Slavic origin related to Slavic thunder-god [[Perun]],{{#tag:ref|&lt;ref&gt;{{harvnb|Čulinović-Konstantinović|1963|pp=93–94|ps=:Ovakav obred za kišu poznat je i u Madžarskoj. Analizirao ga je Z. Ujvary te je u svojoj studiji citirao mnoge madžarske autore koji su o tome pisali. Prema njegovu mišljenju, običaj se tamo proširio pod utjecajem Slavena i Rumunja ... M. S. Thompson, međutim, misli da riječ &quot;perperuna&quot; potječe od imena slavenskog boga Peruna, boga gromovnika ... Teoriju o slavenskom porijeklu ovog običaja prihvatili su osim M. S. Thompsona još i G. F. Abbott i E. Fischer.}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;Katicic&quot;&gt;{{cite book |last=Katičić |first=Radoslav |author-link=Radoslav Katičić |title=Naša stara vjera: Tragovima svetih pjesama naše pretkršćanske starine |trans-title=Our Old Faith: Tracing the Sacred Poems of Our Pre-Christian Antiquity |year=2017 |publisher=Ibis Grafika, [[Matica hrvatska]] |location=Zagreb |language=hr |isbn=978-953-6927-98-2 |page=105}}&lt;/ref&gt;{{sfn|Gieysztor|2006|p=89, 104–106}}&lt;ref name=&quot;Zecevic&quot;&gt;{{cite book |last=Zečević |first=Slobodan |date=1974 |title=Elementi naše mitologije u narodnim obredima uz igru |language=sr |location=Zenica |publisher=Muzej grada Zenice |pages=125–128, 132–133}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book |author=Institut za književnost i umetnost (Hatidža Krnjević) |title=Rečnik književnih termina |trans-title=Dictionary of literary terms |year=1985 |publisher=Nolit |location=Beograd |language=sr |isbn=978-86-19-00635-4 |pages=130, 618}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book |last=Sikimić |first=Biljana |date=1996 |title=Etimologija i male folklorne forme |language=sr |location=Beograd |publisher=SANU |pages=85–86 |quote=О vezi Peruna i prporuša up. Ivanov i Toporov 1974: 113: можно думать об одновременной связи имени nеnеруна - nрnоруша как с обозначением nорошения дождя, его распыления (ср. с.-хорв. ирпошuмu (се), nрnошка и Т.Д.; чешск. pršeti, prch, prš), так и с именем Громовержца. Связъ с порошением дождя представляется тем более вероятной, что соответствующий глагол в ряде индоевропейских язЪП&lt;ов выступает с архаическим удвоением&quot;. Za etimologiju sh. ргроrušа up. i Gavazzi 1985: 164.}}&lt;/ref&gt;{{sfn|Belaj|2007|p=80, 112}}{{Sfn|Dragić|2007|p=80, 112}}{{Sfn|Lajoye|2015|p=114}}}} and became widespread in the Southeastern Europe with the [[Slavic migrations to Southeastern Europe|Slavic migration]] (6th–10th century).&lt;ref&gt;{{harvnb|Gimbutas|1967|p=743|ps=:The names applied to the Balkan rain-ceremonies and to those who perform them suggest, by the modest, degree of variation from one another, by the large number of different variants, and their distribution (not only throughout Romania but in Albania and Greek Epirus and Macedonia), the diffusion of a Slavic ritual linked with the name of Perun in any one of its numerous minor variants.}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{harvnb|Jakobson|1985|pp=22, 24|ps=:The ritual call for rain was transmitted long ago from the Balkan Slavs to neighboring peoples, who evidently preserved the original form of the mythological name ... But even if one leaves aside the late, conjectural echoes of Perun's name, one is still forced to conclude that his cult had wide dissemination and deep roots in Slavic paganism, a fact that is clearly reflected not only in the texts, but also in onomastics, as well as in the folklore of the Slavs and their neighbors.}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal |last=Zaroff |first=Roman |date=1999 |title=Organized pagan cult in Kievan Rus': The invention of foreign elite or evolution of local tradition? |url=https://ojs.zrc-sazu.si/sms/article/view/1844 |journal=[[Studia mythologica Slavica]] |volume=2 |page=57 |doi=10.3986/sms.v2i0.1844 |quote=As a consequence of the relatively early Christianisation of the Southern Slavs, there are no more direct accounts in relation to Perun from the Balkans. Nevertheless, as late as the first half of the 12th century, in Bulgaria and Macedonia, peasants performed a certain ceremony meant to induce rain. A central figure in the rite was a young girl called Perperuna, a name clearly related to Perun. At the same time, the association of Perperuna with rain shows conceptual similarities with the Indian god Parjanya. There was a strong Slavic penetration of Albania, Greece and Romania, between the 6th and 10th centuries. Not surprisingly the folklore of northern Greece also knows Perperuna, Albanians know Pirpirúnă, and also the Romanians have their Perperona. Also, in a certain Bulgarian folk riddle the word ''perušan'' is a substitute for the Bulgarian word ''гърмомеҽица'' (grmotevitsa) for thunder. Moreover, the name of Perun is also commonly found in Southern Slavic toponymy. There are places called: Perun, Perunac, Perunovac, Perunika, Perunićka Glava, Peruni Vrh, Perunja Ves, Peruna Dubrava, Perunuša, Perušice, Perudina and Perutovac.|doi-access=free }}&lt;/ref&gt; According to the Slavic theory, it is a (Balto-)Slavic heritage of Proto-Indo-European origin related to Slavic thunder-god Perun. It has parallels in ritual prayers for bringing rain in times of drought dedicated to rain-thunder deity [[Parjanya]] recorded in the ''[[Vedas]]'' and Baltic thunder-god [[Perkūnas]], [[cognates]] alongside Perun of Proto-Indo-European weather-god [[Perkwunos]].{{sfn|Jakobson|1985|p=6–7, 21, 23}} An early medieval Ruthenian manuscript mentions the East Slavic deity [[Pereplut]], who was worshiped with whirling and libations.{{sfn|Jakobson|1955|p=616}}{{sfn|Gimbutas|1967|p=743}}{{sfn|Jakobson|1985|p=23–24}} According to Jakobson, ''[[Novgorod Chronicle]]'' (&quot;dožd prapruden&quot;) and ''Pskov Chronicle'' (&quot;dožd praprudoju neiskazaemo silen&quot;) could have &quot;East Slavic trace of Peperuda calling forth the rain&quot;, and West Slavic god [[Pripegala]] reminds of ''Preperuga/Prepeluga'' variation and connection with Perun.{{sfn|Gimbutas|1967|p=743}}{{sfn|Jakobson|1985|p=24}} Serbo-Croatian archaic variant ''Prporuša'' and verb ''prporiti se'' (&quot;to fight&quot;) also have parallels in Old Russian (&quot;porъprjutъsja&quot;).{{sfn|Jakobson|1985|p=23}} Perun's battle against [[Veles (god)|Veles]] because of Perperuna/Dodola's kidnapping{{clarify|date=August 2024}} has parallels in [[Zeus]] saving of [[Persephone]] after [[Hades]] carried her underground causing big drought on Earth, also seen in the similarity of the names Perperuna and Persephone.&lt;ref name=&quot;York&quot;/&gt;{{sfn|Evans|1974|p=116–117}}{{sfn|Burns|2008|p=232}} Recent research criticize invention of a Slavic female goddess.{{sfn|Łuczyński|2020|p=141}} Some scholars relate ''Dodole'' with pagan custom and songs of ''Lade'' (Ladarice) in [[Hrvatsko Zagorje]] (so-called &quot;Ladarice Dodolske&quot;),&lt;ref name=&quot;Cubelic&quot;&gt;{{cite book |last=Čubelić |first=Tvrtko |date=1990 |title=Povijest i historija usmene narodne književnosti: historijske i literaturno-teorijske osnove te genološki aspekti: analitičko-sintetički pogledi |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=hb1iAAAAMAAJ |language=hr |location=Zagreb |publisher=Ante Pelivan i Danica Pelivan |pages=75–76 |isbn=978-86-81703-01-4}}&lt;/ref&gt;{{Sfn|Dragić|2007|p=279, 283}}&lt;ref name=&quot;Dragic2012&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |last=Dragić |first=Marko |date=2012 |title=Lada i Ljeljo u folkloristici Hrvata i slavenskom kontekstu |trans-title=Lada and Ljeljo in the folklore of Croats and Slavic context |url=https://hrcak.srce.hr/136243 |language=hr |journal=Zbornik radova Filozofskog fakulteta u Splitu |volume=5 |pages=45, 53–55}}&lt;/ref&gt; and in [[Žumberak]]-[[Križevci]] for the ''Preperuša'' custom was also used term ''Ladekarice''.{{sfn|Čulinović-Konstantinović|1963|p=80–81}}{{sfn|Muraj|1987|p=160–161}} Other scholars, due to the geographical distribution, consider that the rainmaking ritual is of [[Paleo-Balkan mythology|Paleo-Balkan]] origin.{{sfn|Kulišić|1979|p=205}}{{sfn|Belaj|2007|p=80}} Some of them consider such origin even relating the ritual to Perun's cult. One theory, in particular, argues that Slavic deity Perun and Perperuna/Dodola customs are of [[Thracians|Thracian]] origin,&lt;ref&gt;Dimitǔr Dechev, ''[https://books.google.com/books/about/Die_thrakischen_Sprachreste.html?id=CrA_AAAAIAAJ Die thrakischen Sprachreste]'', Wien: R.M. Rohrer, 1957, pp. 144, 151&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;Sorin&quot;&gt;{{cite web|author=[[Sorin Paliga]]|title=Influenţe romane și preromane în limbile slave de sud|date=2003|url=http://egg.mnir.ro/pdf/Paliga_InflRomane.pdf|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131228002745/http://egg.mnir.ro/pdf/Paliga_InflRomane.pdf |archive-date=December 28, 2013}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal |first=Mihai |last=Dragnea |url=https://www.academia.edu/9334808 |title=The Thraco-Dacian Origin of the Paparuda/Dodola Rain-Making Ritual |journal=Brukenthalia Acta Musei |issue=4 |date=2014 |pages=18–27}}&lt;/ref&gt;{{sfn|Ḱulavkova|2020|p=19–20b|ps=:According to some researchers ... these pagan rites of worship are thought to be of Thracian origin ... According to other beliefs, Perun, Perin, or Pirin was the supreme deity of the Thracians.}} however, the name of the Slavic thunder-god [[Perun]] is commonly accepted to be formed from the [[Proto-Slavic]] root ''*per'' &quot;to strike&quot; attached to the common agent suffix ''-unŭ'', explained as &quot;the Striker&quot;.{{sfn|West|2007|p=242}} == Ritual == Rainmaking rituals were performed in times of summer drought to make it rain, usually in June and July, but sometimes also in the spring months when there was severe drought. The ritual was a village kinship or community type performance, and an imitative type of [[Incantation|magic practice]] that reproduced rainfall and soil irrigation, accompanied with ritual songs that addressed prayers to the pagan deity associated with rain as well as agriculture and vegetation. The ritual practice traces back to times when the social structure was based on the common property of the land and of the products, which belonged to the whole tribe/clan.{{sfn|Tirta|2004|pp=310–312}} They essentially belong to rituals related to [[Fertility rite|fertility]], but over time differentiated to a specific form connected with water and vegetation.{{sfn|Čulinović-Konstantinović|1963|p=73, 75–76, 91}}{{clarification needed|date=August 2024}} Perperuna and Dodola are considered very similar pagan customs with common origin,{{sfn|Čulinović-Konstantinović|1963|p=75, 78, 93, 95}}&lt;ref name=&quot;Revija&quot;&gt;{{cite magazine |last=Vukelić |first=Deniver |date=2010 |title=Pretkršćanski prežici u hrvatskim narodnim tradicijam |trans-title=Pre-Christian belief traces in Croatian folk traditions |url=https://www.matica.hr/hr/360/PRETKR%C5%A0%C4%86ANSKI%20PRE%C5%BDICI%20U%20HRVATSKIM%20NARODNIM%20TRADICIJAMA%20/ |language=hr |magazine=[[Hrvatska revija]] |issue=4 |publisher=[[Matica hrvatska]] |access-date=20 July 2022}}&lt;/ref&gt; with main difference being in the most common gender of the central character (possibly related to social hierarchy of the specific ethnic or regional group{{sfn|Čulinović-Konstantinović|1963|p=85, 95}}), lyric verses, sometimes religious content, and presence or absence of a chorus.{{sfn|Čulinović-Konstantinović|1963|p=84–85, 90}} They represent a group of rituals with a human collective going on a procession around houses and fields of a village, but with a central live character which differentiates them from other similar collective rituals in the same region and period (''[[Kermesse (festival)|Krstonoše]]'', ''[[Carnival|Poklade]]'', ''[[Koledari|Kolade]]'', ''[[German (mythology)|German]]'', ''Ladarice'', those during ''[[Jurjevo]]'' and ''[[Saint John's Eve|Ivandan]]'' and so on).{{sfn|Čulinović-Konstantinović|1963|p=74–75, 80}}{{Sfn|Dragić|2007|p=276}}{{Sfn|Puchner|2009|p=289, 345}} In the valley of [[Skopje]] in [[North Macedonia]] the Dodola were held on Thursday which was Perun's day.{{Sfn|Dragić|2007|p=291}} In [[Hungary]] the ritual was usually held on [[Saint George's Day|St. George's Day]].&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |last=T. |first=Dömötör |date=1967 |title=Dodola |url=https://gepeskonyv.btk.elte.hu/adatok/Neprajz/82Vereb%E9lyi/folklorisztika_es_rokonteruleteinek_fogalmi_rendszere/dodola.html}}&lt;/ref&gt; The core of the song always mentions a type of rain and list of regional crops.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book |last=Puchner |first=Walter |author-link=Walter Puchner |date=2016 |title=Die Folklore Südosteuropas: Eine komparative Übersicht |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=hZpVDAAAQBAJ |language=de |publisher=Böhlau Verlag Wien |page=65 |isbn=978-3-205-20312-4}}&lt;/ref&gt; The first written mentions and descriptions of the pagan custom are from the 18th century by [[Dimitrie Cantemir]] in ''[[Descriptio Moldaviae]]'' (1714/1771, ''Papaluga''),{{Sfn|Puchner|2009|p=346}}&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book |last=Cantemir |first=Dimitrie |author-link=Dimitrie Cantemir |date=1771 |title=Descriptio antiqui et hodierni status Moldaviae |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=2rZfAAAAcAAJ |location=Frankfurt, Leipzig |language=de |pages=315–316 |quote=Im Sommer, wenn dem Getreide wegen der Dürre Gefabr bevorzustehen fcheinet, ziehen die Landleute einem kleinen Ragdchen, welches noch nicht über zehen Jahr alt ist, ein Hemde an, welches aus Blattern von Baumen und Srantern gemacht wird. Alle andere Ragdchen und stnaben vol gleiechem Alter folgen ihr, und siehen mit Tanzen und Singen durch die ganze Racharfchaft; wo sie aber hin komuien, da pflegen ihnen die alten Weiber kalt Wasser auf den Stopf zu gieffen. Das Lied, welches fie fingen, ist ohngefähr von folegendem Innbalte: &quot;Papaluga! steige nech dem Himmel, öffne feine Thüren, fend von oben Regen ber, daß der Roggen, Weizen, Hirfe u. f. w. gut wachsen.&quot;}}&lt;/ref&gt; then in a Greek law book from [[Bucharest]] (1765, it invoked 62nd Cannon to stop the custom of ''Paparuda''),{{Sfn|Puchner|2009|p=346}}&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book |last=Puchner |first=Walter |author-link=Walter Puchner |date=2017 |chapter=2 - Byzantium High Culture without Theatre or Dramatic Literature? |title=Greek Theatre between Antiquity and Independence: A History of Reinvention from the Third Century BC to 1830 |chapter-url=https://www.cambridge.org/core/books/abs/greek-theatre-between-antiquity-and-independence/byzantium/AD8A310DFF20316E196BA81890C36797 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |page=73 |isbn=978-1-107-44502-4 |doi=10.1017/9781107445024.004 |quote=...in 1765, a Greek law book from Bucharest quotes the 62nd Canon of the Trullanum in order to forbid public dancing by girls in a custom well known throughout the Balkans as 'paparuda', 'perperuna' or 'dodole', a ritual processional rain dance.}}&lt;/ref&gt; and by the Bulgarian [[hieromonk]] [[Spiridon Gabrovski]] who also noted to be related to Perun (1792, ''Peperud'').{{sfn|Belaj|2007|p=80}}&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite book|url=https://archive.org/details/istoriiavokratt00spirgoog|title=История во кратце о болгарском народе славенском. Сочинися и исписа в лето 1792|last=Габровски|first=Спиридон Иеросхимонах|publisher=изд. Св. Синод на Българската Църква|year=1900|location=София|pages=[https://archive.org/details/istoriiavokratt00spirgoog/page/n156 14]}}&lt;/ref&gt; Peoples generally used to organise the Perperuna/Dodola ritual in times of spring and especially summer [[drought]]s, where they worshipped the god/goddess and prayed to him/her for rain (and fertility, later also asked for other field and house blessings). The central character of the ceremony of Perperuna was usually a young boy, while of Dodola usually a young girl, both aged between 10 and 15 years. Purity was important, and sometimes to be orphans. They would be naked, but were not anymore in latest forms of 19-20th century, wearing a skirt and dress densely made of fresh green knitted vines, leaves and flowers of ''[[Sambucus nigra]]'', ''[[Sambucus ebulus]]'', ''[[Clematis flammula]]'', ''[[Clematis vitalba]]'', [[fern]] and other deciduous shrubs and vines, small branches of ''[[Tilia]]'', [[Oak]] and other. The green cover initially covered all body so that the central person figure was almost unrecognizable, but like the necessity of direct skin contact with greenery it also greatly decreased and was very simple in modern period. They whirled and were followed by a small procession of children who walked and danced with them around the same village and fields, sometimes carrying oak or [[Fagus sylvatica|beech]] branches, singing the ritual prayer, stopping together at every house yard, where the hosts would sprinkle water on chosen boy/girl who would shake and thus sprinkle everyone and everything around it (example of &quot;analogical magic&quot;{{Sfn|Puchner|2009|p=346}}), hosts also gifted treats (bread, eggs, cheese, sausages etc., in a later period also money) to children who shared and consumed them among them and sometimes even hosts would drink wine, seemingly as a sacrifice in Perun's honor.&lt;ref name=&quot;Ribaric&quot;&gt;{{Cite book|last=Ribarić|first=Josip|title=O istarskim dijalektima: razmještaj južnoslavenskih dijalekata na poluotoku Istri s opisom vodičkog govora|publisher=Josip Turčinović|date=2002|location=Pazin|orig-date=1916|language=hr|isbn=953-6262-43-6|pages=84–85, 206}}&lt;/ref&gt;{{sfn|Gimbutas|1967|p=743–744}}{{sfn|Evans|1974|p=100, 119}}{{sfn|Jakobson|1985|p=21, 23}}{{sfn|Čulinović-Konstantinović|1963|p=74–77, 83–93}}{{sfn|Muraj|1987|p=158–163}}{{Sfn|Dragić|2007|p=290–293}} The chosen boy/girl was called by one of the name variants of the ritual itself, however in [[Istria]] was also known as ''Prporuš'' and in [[Dalmatia]]-[[Boka Kotorska]] as ''Prpac/Prpats'' and both regions his companions as ''Prporuše'',&lt;ref name=&quot;Ralston&quot;/&gt;{{Sfn|Dragić|2007|p=291}}&lt;ref name=&quot;Ribaric&quot;/&gt;{{sfn|Čulinović-Konstantinović|1963|p=76, 80}} while at [[Pirot]] and [[Nišava District]] in [[Southern Serbia (geographical region)|Southern Serbia]] near Bulgarian border were called as ''dodolće'' and ''preperuđe'', and as in Macedonia both names appear in the same song.{{sfn|Čulinović-Konstantinović|1963|p=79, 95}}{{sfn|Burns|2008|p=220, 222|ps=:The finely documented account by Đorđević of a version of the Balkan rainmaking custom, performed near the River Morava in south-eastern Serbia near the Bulgarian border ... Fly, fly, peperuga/Oh, dodolas, Dear Lord!}} [[File:Пеперуда в Добруджа 1950.jpg|thumb|right|250px|''Peperuda'' performed by Romani in [[Dobruja]], Bulgaria, 1950s.]] By the 20th century once common rituals almost vanished in the Balkans, although rare examples of practice can be traced until 1950-1980s and remained in folk memory. The main reason is the development of agriculture and consequently lack of practical need for existence of mystical connection and customs with nature and weather. Christian church also tried to diminish pagan beliefs and customs, resulting in &quot;dual belief&quot; (''dvoeverie'') in rural populations, a conscious preservation of pre-Christian beliefs and practices alongside Christianity. Into customs and songs were mixed elements from other rituals including Christianity, but they also influenced the creation of Christian songs and prayers invoking the rain which were used as a close Christian alternative (decline was reportedly faster among Catholics{{sfn|Muraj|1987|p=161}}).{{sfn|Čulinović-Konstantinović|1963|p=77, 91–93}}{{sfn|Predojević|2019|p=581, 583, 589–591}} According to [[:hr:Velimir Deželić mlađi|Velimir Deželić Jr.]] in 1937, it was an old custom that &quot;Christians approved it, took it over and further refined it. In the old days, ''Prporuša'' were very much like a [[Piety|pious]] ritual, only later the leaders - ''Prpac'' - began to boast too much, and ''Prporuše'' seemed to be more interested in gifts than beautiful singing and prayer&quot;.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book |last=Deželić Jr. |first=Velimir |date=1937 |title=Kolede: Obrađeni hrvatski godišnji običaji |trans-title=Kolede: Examined Croatian annual customs |url=https://archive.org/details/kolede_obradjeni_hrvatski_godisnji_obicaji-velimir_dezelic_sin/ |language=hr |publisher=Hrvatsko književno društvo svetog Jeronima |page=70 |quote=Ljeti, kad zategnu suše, pošle bi našim selima Prporuše moliti od Boga kišu. Posvuda su Hrvatskom išle Prporuše, a običaj je to prastar — iz pretkršćanskih vremena — ali lijep, pa ga kršćani odobrili, preuzeli i još dotjerali. U stara vremena Prporuše su bile veoma nalik nekom pobožnom obredu, tek poslije su predvodnici — Prpci— počeli suviše lakrdijati, a Prporušama ko da je više do darova, nego do lijepa pjevanja i molitve.}}&lt;/ref&gt; Depending on region, instead of village boys and girls the pagan ritual by then was mostly done by migrating [[Romani people]] from other villages and for whom it became a professional performance motivated by gifts, sometimes followed by financially poor members from other ethnic groups.{{sfn|Čulinović-Konstantinović|1963|p=77, 91–93}}{{sfn|Predojević|2019|p=581, 583, 589–591}}&lt;ref name=&quot;Horvat&quot;&gt;{{cite book |last=Horvat |first=Josip |date=1939 |title=Kultura Hrvata kroz 1000 godina |trans-title=Culture of Croats through 1000 years |url=https://archive.org/details/kultura_hrvata_kroz_1000_godina_ii.izdanje_1939-josip_horvat |language=hr |location=Zagreb |publisher=A. Velzek |pages=23–24}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book |last=Kovačević |first=Ivan |date=1985 |title=Semiologija rituala |trans-title=Semiology of ritual |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=qPMXAAAAIAAJ |language=sr |location=Beograd |publisher=Prosveta |page=79}}&lt;/ref&gt;{{Sfn|Dragić|2007|p=278, 290}} Due to [[Anti-Romani sentiment]], the association with Romani also caused repulsion, shame and ignorance among last generations of members of ethnic groups who originally performed it.{{sfn|Predojević|2019|p=583–584, 589}} Eventually it led to a dichotomy of identification with own traditional heritage, Christianity and stereotypes about Romani witchcraft.{{sfn|Predojević|2019|p=581–582, 584}} In the present days, older generations of Albanians demonstrate the common practice of rainmaking rituals in their life, but newer generations generally see them as something applied in the past, a tradition that their parents have gone through. Nevertheless, elders still accompany [[processions]] of boys and girls, who perform the rainmaking rite dressed with their best [[Albanian traditional clothing|traditional clothing]] except for the main boy or girl, who is dressed entirely in fresh branches, leaves and herbs.&lt;ref&gt;{{harvnb|Qafleshi|2011|pp=51–52|}}; {{harvnb|Ministria|2014|p=66}}; {{harvnb|Halimi|Halimi-Statovci|Xhemaj|2011|pp=2–6, 32–43}}&lt;/ref&gt; Public exhibitions of the ritual are usually performed during Albanian festivals, often for the local audience, but also in the [[Gjirokastër National Folk Festival]], one of the most important events of Albanian culture.{{sfn|Sela|2017|pp=69–70}} ===Perperuna songs=== [[Ioan Slavici]] reported in 1881 that the custom of ''Paparuga'' was already &quot;very disbanded&quot; in Romania.{{sfn|Nodilo|1981|p=51}} Stjepan Žiža in 1889/95 reported that the once common ritual almost vanished in Southwestern and Central-Eastern Istria, Croatia.{{sfn|Čulinović-Konstantinović|1963|p=78}} [[:hr:Ivan Milčetić|Ivan Milčetić]] recorded in 1896 that the custom of ''Prporuša'' also almost vanished from the North Adriatic island of [[Krk]], although almost recently it was well known in all Western parts of Croatia, while in other parts as ''Dodola''.&lt;ref name=&quot;Milcetic&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |last=Milčetić |first=Ivan |date=1896 |title=Prporuša |journal=Zbornik za narodni život i običaje južnih Slavena |location=Belgrade |publisher=[[JAZU]] |volume=1 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=8TwSAAAAYAAJ |pages=217–218 |quote=Čini mi se da je već nestalo prporuše i na otoku Krku, a bijaše još nedavno poznata svuda po zapadnim stranama hrvatskog naroda, dok je po drugim krajevima živjela dodola. Nego i za dodolu već malo gdje znadu. Tako mi piše iz Vir‐Pazara g. L. Jovović, koga sam pitao, da li još Crnogorci poznaju koledu...}}&lt;/ref&gt; Croatian linguist Josip Ribarić recorded in 1916 that it was still alive in Southwestern Istria and [[Ćićarija]] (and related it to the 16th century migration from Dalmatia of speakers of [[Southwestern Istrian]] dialect).&lt;ref name=&quot;Ribaric&quot;/&gt; On island of Krk was also known as ''Barburuša/Barbaruša/Bambaruša'' (occurrence there is possibly related to the 15th century migration which included besides Croats also [[Vlachs of Croatia|Vlach]]-[[Istro-Romanians|Istro-Romanian]] shepherds{{sfn|Zebec|2005|p=68–71, 248}}).{{sfn|Čulinović-Konstantinović|1963|p=80}}{{sfn|Zebec|2005|p=71}} It was also widespread in [[Dalmatia]] (especially [[Zadar]] hinterland, coast and islands), [[Žumberak]] (also known as ''Pepeluše'', ''Prepelice''{{sfn|Muraj|1987|p=161}}) and Western [[Slavonia]] (Križevci).&lt;ref name=&quot;Ralston&quot;/&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;Revija&quot;/&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;Horvat&quot;/&gt;{{sfn|Zebec|2005|p=71}}{{sfn|Čulinović-Konstantinović|1963|p=78, 80–81}}{{Sfn|Dragić|2007|p=291–293}} It was held in Istria at least until the 1950s,{{sfn|Čulinović-Konstantinović|1963|p=82}} in Žumberak until the 1960s,{{sfn|Muraj|1987|p=165}} while according to one account in [[Jezera, Tisno|Jezera]] on island [[Murter]] the last were in the late 20th century.{{Sfn|Dragić|2007|p=292}} In Serbia, Perperuna was only found in [[Kosovo]], Southern and Eastern Serbia near Bulgarian border.{{sfn|Čulinović-Konstantinović|1963|p=79}} According to [[Natko Nodilo]] the discrepancy in distribution between these two countries makes an idea that originally Perperuna was Croatian while Dodola was Serbian custom.{{sfn|Nodilo|1981|p=50a|ps=:Po tome, pa i po različitome imenu za stvar istu, mogao bi ko pomisliti, da su dodole, prvim postankom, čisto srpske, a prporuše hrvatske. U Bosni, zapadno od Vrbasa, zovu se čaroice. Kad bi ovo bilo hrvatski naziv za njih, onda bi prporuše bila riječ, koja k nama pregje od starih Slovenaca.}} Seemingly it was not present in Slovenia, Northern Croatia, almost all of Bosnia and Herzegovina and Montenegro (only sporadically in [[Boka Kotorska]]).{{sfn|Muraj|1987|p=159}} Luka Jovović from [[Virpazar]], Montenegro reported in 1896 that in Montenegro existed some ''koleda'' custom for summer droughts, but was rare and since 1870s not practiced anymore.&lt;ref name=&quot;Milcetic&quot;/&gt; {|class=&quot;wikitable&quot; ||Bulgaria&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book |last=Антонова |first=Илонка Цанова |date=2015 |title=Календарни празници и обичаи на българите |trans-title=Calendar holidays and customs of the Bulgarians |language=bg |location=Sofia |publisher=Издателство на Българската академия на науките &quot;Проф. Марин Дринов&quot; |pages=66–68 |isbn=978-954-322-764-8}}&lt;/ref&gt;||Albania&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book|last=Pipa|first=Arshi|title=Albanian Folk Verse: Structure and Genre|publisher=O. Harrassowitz|year=1978|isbn=3-87828-119-6|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=WCIHAQAAIAAJ|page=58}}&lt;/ref&gt;||Croatia-Krk&lt;br /&gt;&lt;small&gt;([[Dubašnica]], 1896&lt;ref name=&quot;Milcetic&quot;/&gt;)&lt;/small&gt;||Croatia-Istria&lt;br /&gt;&lt;small&gt;([[Lanišće|Vodice]], 1916&lt;ref name=&quot;Ribaric&quot;/&gt;)&lt;/small&gt;||Croatia-Istria&lt;br /&gt;&lt;small&gt;([[Polje Čepić|Čepić]], 1896&lt;ref name=&quot;Milcetic&quot;/&gt;/Štifanići near [[Baderna]], 1906/08&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book |last=Ribarić |first=Josip |editor=Tanja Perić-Polonijo |date=1992 |title=Narodne pjesme Ćićarije |language=hr |location=Pazin |publisher=Istarsko književno društvo &quot;Juraj Dobrila&quot; |pages=11, 208}}&lt;/ref&gt;)&lt;/small&gt;||Croatia-Dalmatia&lt;br /&gt;&lt;small&gt;([[Ražanac]], 1905{{sfn|Čulinović-Konstantinović|1963|p=81}})&lt;/small&gt;||Croatia-Dalmatia&lt;br /&gt;&lt;small&gt;([[Ravni Kotari]], 1867&lt;ref name=&quot;Vuk&quot;&gt;{{cite book |last=Karadžić |first=Vuk Stefanović |author-link=Vuk Stefanović Karadžić |date=1867 |title=Život i običaji naroda srpskoga |trans-title=Life and customs of Serbian nation |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=fX0RAAAAYAAJ |language=sr |location=Vienna |publisher=A. Karacić |pages=61–66}}&lt;/ref&gt;)&lt;/small&gt;||Croatia-Žumberak&lt;br /&gt;&lt;small&gt;(Pavlanci, 1890{{sfn|Muraj|1987|p=164}})&lt;/small&gt;||Macedonia&lt;br /&gt;&lt;small&gt;([[Struga]], 1861&lt;ref name=&quot;Miladinovci&quot;/&gt;)&lt;/small&gt; |- | &lt;poem&gt; &lt;small&gt;Letela e peperuda Daĭ, Bozhe, dŭzhd Daĭ, Bozhe, dŭzhd Ot orache na kopache Da se rodi zhito, proso Zhito, proso i pshenitsa Da se ranyat siracheta Siracheta, siromasi&lt;/small&gt; &lt;/poem&gt; || &lt;poem&gt; &lt;small&gt;Rona-rona, Peperona Bjerë shi ndë arat tona! Të bëhetë thekëri I gjatë gjer në çati Gruri gjer në perëndi Ashtu edhe misëri!&lt;/small&gt; &lt;/poem&gt; || &lt;poem&gt; &lt;small&gt;Prporuša hodila Službu boga molila Dajte sira, dajte jaj Da nam bog da mladi daž Od šenice višnji klas! A ti, bože vični Smiluj se na nas!&lt;/small&gt; &lt;/poem&gt; || &lt;poem&gt; &lt;small&gt;Prporuše hodile Slavu Boga molile I šenice bilice Svake dobre sričice Bog nan ga daj Jedan tihi daž!&lt;/small&gt; &lt;/poem&gt; || &lt;poem&gt; &lt;small&gt;Preporuči hodili / Prporuše hodile Iz Prepora grada / 's Prpora grada Kuda hodili / Da nam bog da dažda Tuda Boga molili / Crljenoga mažda Da nam Bog da dažda / I šenice bilice I crljenoga masta / Svake dobre sričice I šenice bilice / Šenica nan rodila I svake dobre srećice / Dičica prohodila Šenica narodila / Šenicu pojili Dica nam prohodila / Dicu poženili I šenicu pojili / Skupi, bože, oblake! I dicu poženili / Struni bojžu rosicu Skupi, Bože, oblake / Na tu svetu zemljicu! Hiti božju kapljicu / Amen, amen, amen Na ovu svetu zemljicu! Amen&lt;/small&gt; &lt;/poem&gt; || &lt;poem&gt; &lt;small&gt;Prporuše hodile Putom Boga molile Da ni pane kišica Da ni rodi šenica bilica I vinova lozica&lt;/small&gt; &lt;/poem&gt; || &lt;poem&gt; &lt;small&gt;Prporuše hodile Terem Boga molile Da nam dade kišicu Da nam rodi godina I šenica bjelica I vinova lozica I nevjesta đetića Do prvoga božića Daruj nama, striko naša Oku brašna, striko naša Bublu masla, striko naša Runce vune, striko naša Jedan sirčić, striko naša Šaku soli, striko naša Dva, tri jajca, striko naša Ostaj s Bogom, striko naša Koja si nas darovala&lt;/small&gt; &lt;/poem&gt; || &lt;poem&gt; &lt;small&gt;Preperuša odila Za nas Boga molila Daj nam Bože kišice Na ovu našu ljetinu Da pokvasi mladinu Pucaj, pucaj ledeno Škrapaj, škrapaj godino Mi smo tebi veseli Kano Isus Mariji Kaj Marija Isusu Kano mati djetetu&lt;/small&gt; &lt;/poem&gt; || &lt;poem&gt; &lt;small&gt;Otletala preperuga, oj ljule, oj! Ot oracha na oracha, oj ljule, oj! Ot kopacha na kopacha, oj ljule, oj! Ot rezhacha na rezhacha; oj ljule, oj! Da zarosit sitna rosa, oj ljule, oj! Sitna rosa beriketna, oj ljule, oj! I po pole i po more; oj ljule, oj! Da se rodit s' beriket, oj ljule, oj! S' beriket vino-zhito; oj ljule, oj! Cheincite do gredite, oj ljule, oj! Jachmenite do streite, oj ljule, oj! Lenoite do pojasi, oj ljule, oj! Uroite do kolena; oj ljule, oj! Da se ranet siromasi, oj ljule, oj! Drvete ne so osito, oj ljule, oj! Da je sita godina; oj ljule, oj! Drvete ne so oshnica, oj ljule, oj! Da ja polna koshnica; oj ljule, oj! Drvete ne so jamache, oj ljule, oj! Da je tuchna godina, oj ljule, oj!&lt;/small&gt; &lt;/poem&gt; |} ===Dodola songs=== The oldest record for Dodole rituals in Macedonia is the song &quot;Oj Ljule&quot; from [[Struga]] region, recorded in 1861.&lt;ref name=&quot;Miladinovci&quot;&gt;{{cite book|last = Miladinovci|title = Зборник|publisher = Kočo Racin|year = 1962|location = Skopje|url = http://www.gbiblsk.edu.mk/images/stories/eknigi/zbornik.pdf|page = 462|archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20120216225647/http://www.gbiblsk.edu.mk/images/stories/eknigi/zbornik.pdf |archive-date = 2012-02-16}}&lt;/ref&gt; The Dodola rituals in Macedonia were actively held until the 1960s.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book|last=Veličkovska|first=Rodna|title=Музичките дијалекти во македонското традиционално народно пеење: обредно пеење|trans-title=Musical dialects in the Macedonian traditional folk singing: ritual singing| publisher=Institute of folklore &quot;Marko Cepenkov&quot;|year=2009|location=Skopje|language=mk|page=45}}&lt;/ref&gt; In Bulgaria the chorus was also &quot;Oj Ljule&quot;.{{sfn|Nodilo|1981|p=50b}} The oldest record in Serbia was by [[Vuk Karadžić]] (1841),{{sfn|Čulinović-Konstantinović|1963|p=79}} where was widespread all over the country and held at least until 1950/70s.&lt;ref name=&quot;Zecevic&quot;/&gt;{{sfn|Čulinović-Konstantinović|1963|p=77–78, 86, 88}} In Croatia was found in Eastern Slavonia, Southern [[Baranya (region)|Baranja]] and Southeastern [[Srijem]].&lt;ref name=&quot;Horvat&quot;/&gt;{{sfn|Čulinović-Konstantinović|1963|p=77–78, 90}}{{sfn|Muraj|1987|p=159}}{{sfn|Dragić|2012|p=54}}&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book |last=Janković |first=Slavko |date=1956 |title=Kuhačeva zbirka narodnih popijevaka (analizirana): od br. 1801 do br. 2000 |url=https://repozitorij.dief.eu/a/?pr=i&amp;id=69581 |quote=Naša doda moli Boga ([[Otok, Vukovar-Syrmia County|Otok]], Slavonia, 1881, sken ID: IEF_RKP_N0096_0_155; IEF_RKP_N0096_0_156A) - Ide doda preko sela ([[Erdevik]], Srijem, 1885, sken ID: IEF_RKP_N0096_0_163; IEF_RKP_N0096_0_164A) - Filip i Jakob, Koleda na kišu ([[Gibarac]], Srijem, 1886, sken ID: IEF_RKP_N0096_0_165; IEF_RKP_N0096_0_166A)}}&lt;/ref&gt; [[August Šenoa]] in his writing about the travel to Okić-grad near [[Samobor]], Croatia mentioned that saw two dodole.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |url=https://www.knjizevnost.hr/zagrebulje-1866-august-senoa/ |title=Zagrebulje I (1866.) |last=Šenoa |first=August |author-link=August Šenoa |date=1866 |website=Književnost.hr |publisher=informativka d.o.o. |access-date=23 July 2022 |quote=...već se miču niz Okić put naše šljive dvije u zeleno zavite dodole. S ovoga dodolskoga dualizma sjetih se odmah kakvi zecevi u tom grmu idu, i moja me nada ne prevari. Eto ti pred nas dva naša junaka, ne kao dodole, kao bradurina i trbušina, već kao pravi pravcati bogovi – kao Bako i Gambrinus... Naša dva boga, u zeleno zavita, podijeliše društvu svoj blagoslov, te bjehu sa živim usklikom primljeni. No i ova mitologička šala i mrcvarenje božanske poezije po našem generalkvartirmeštru pobudi bogove na osvetu; nad našim glavama zgrnuše se oblaci, i naskoro udari kiša.}}&lt;/ref&gt; To them is related the custom of Lade/Ladarice from other parts of Croatia, having chorus &quot;''Oj Lado, oj!''&quot; and similar verses &quot;''Molimo se višnjem Bogu/Da popuhne tihi vjetar, Da udari rodna kiša/Da porosi naša polja, I travicu mekušicu/Da nam stada Lado, Ugoje se naša stada''&quot;.&lt;ref name=&quot;Cubelic&quot;/&gt;{{Sfn|Dragić|2007|p=279, 283}}&lt;ref name=&quot;Dragic2012&quot;/&gt; {|class=&quot;wikitable&quot; ||Serbia&lt;br /&gt;&lt;small&gt;(1841&lt;ref name=&quot;Vuk&quot;/&gt;{{sfn|Čulinović-Konstantinović|1963|p=88}})&lt;/small&gt;||Serbia&lt;br /&gt;&lt;small&gt;(1867&lt;ref name=&quot;Vuk&quot;/&gt;)&lt;/small&gt;||Serbia&lt;br /&gt;&lt;small&gt;(1867&lt;ref name=&quot;Vuk&quot;/&gt;)&lt;/small&gt;||Croatia-Slavonia&lt;br /&gt;&lt;small&gt;([[Đakovo]]&lt;ref name=&quot;Dragic2012&quot;/&gt;)&lt;/small&gt;||Croatia-Slavonia&lt;br /&gt;&lt;small&gt;(Đakovo, 1957{{sfn|Čulinović-Konstantinović|1963|p=77, 90}})&lt;/small&gt;||Croatia-Srijem&lt;br /&gt;&lt;small&gt;([[Tovarnik]], 1979&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal |last=Černelić |first=Milana |date=1998 |title=Kroz godinu dana srijemskih običaja vukovarskog kraja |trans-title=Annual customs of Srijem in the Vukovar region |url=https://hrcak.srce.hr/80816 |language=hr |journal=Etnološka tribina |volume=28 |issue=21 |page=135}}&lt;/ref&gt;)&lt;/small&gt; |- | &lt;poem&gt; &lt;small&gt;Mi idemo preko sela, Oj dodo, oj dodo le! A oblaci preko neba, Oj dodo, oj dodo le! A mi brže, oblak brže, Oj dodo, oj dodo le! Oblaci nas pretekoše, Oj dodo, oj dodo le! Žito, vino porosiše, Oj dodo, oj dodo le!&lt;/small&gt; &lt;/poem&gt; || &lt;poem&gt; &lt;small&gt;Molimo se višnjem Bogu, Oj dodo, oj dodo le! Da udari rosna kiša, Oj dodo, oj dodo le! Da porosi naša polja, Oj dodo, oj dodo le! I šenicu ozimicu, Oj dodo, oj dodo le! I dva pera kukuruza, Oj dodo, oj dodo le!&lt;/small&gt; &lt;/poem&gt; || &lt;poem&gt; &lt;small&gt;Naša doda Boga moli, Oj dodo, oj dodo le! Da udari rosna kiša, Oj dodo, oj dodo le! Da pokisnu svi orači, Oj dodo, oj dodo le! Svi orači i kopači, Oj dodo, oj dodo le! I po kući poslovači, Oj dodo, oj dodo le!&lt;/small&gt; &lt;/poem&gt; || &lt;poem&gt; &lt;small&gt;Naša doda moli Boga Oj dodole, moj božole! Da porosi rosna kiša Oj dodole, moj božole! Da pokvasi naša polja Oj dodole, moj božole! Da urode, da prerode Oj dodole, moj božole!&lt;/small&gt; &lt;/poem&gt; || &lt;poem&gt; &lt;small&gt;Naša dojda moli boga da kiša pada Da pokisne suvo polje, oj, dojdole! Da pokisnu svi orači Svi orači i kopači, oj, dojdole! I po kući poslovači Oj, dojdole, oj, dojdole! I dva pera kukuruza I lanovi za darove, oj, dojdole! Da urodi, da prerodi, da ne polegne Oj, dojdole, oj, dojdole!&lt;/small&gt; &lt;/poem&gt; || &lt;poem&gt; &lt;small&gt;Naša doda moli Boga Da nam Bog da rosne kiše Rosne kiše malo više Na orače i kopače I na naše suve bašće Oj dodo, oj dodole! Da trava raste Da paun pase Da sunce sija Da žito zrija Oj dodo, oj dodole!&lt;/small&gt; &lt;/poem&gt; |} ==Other== According to [[Albanian folk beliefs]], the Sun ([[Dielli (Albanian paganism)|Dielli]]) makes the sky cloudy or clears it up.&lt;ref&gt;{{harvnb|Tirta|2004|pp=71–72}}; {{harvnb|Gjoni|2012|pp=85–86}}&lt;/ref&gt; Albanians used to invoke the Sun with rainmaking and soil fertility rituals. In rainmaking rituals from the [[Albanian Ionian Sea Coast]], Albanians used to pray to the Sun, in particular facing Mount [[Shëndelli]] (Mount &quot;Holy Sun&quot;), by invoking the names ''Dielli'', ''Shën Dëlliu'', ''Ilia'' or ''[[Perëndi]]a''. Children used to dress a boy with fresh branches, calling him ''dordolec''. A typical invocation song repeated three times during the ritual was:{{sfn|Gjoni|2012|pp=85–86}} {{blockquote|&quot;O Ilia, Ilia,&lt;br /&gt;Peperuga rrugëzaj&lt;br /&gt;Bjerë shi o Perëndi,&lt;br /&gt;Se qajnë ca varfëri,&lt;br /&gt;Me lot e logori&lt;br /&gt;Thekëri gjer mbë çati,&lt;br /&gt;Gruri gjer në Perëndi.&quot;}} Afterwards, people used to say: ''Do kemi shi se u nxi Shëndëlliu'' (&quot;We will have rain because ''Shëndëlliu'' went dark&quot;).{{sfn|Gjoni|2012|pp=85–86}} The Sun used to be also invoked when reappearing after the rain, prayed for increased production in agriculture.{{sfn|Gjoni|2012|pp=85–86}} == See also == {{commons category|Dodola}} * [[Albanian paganism]] * [[Folklore of Romania]] * [[Slavic paganism]] * [[Caloian]] * [[Perëndi]] * [[Porenut]] * [[Porevit]] == References == {{reflist}} === Bibliography === {{Refbegin|30em|indent=yes}} &lt;!-- B --&gt; *{{cite book |last=Belaj |first=Vitomir |author-link=Vitomir Belaj |date=2007 |orig-date=1998 |title=Hod kroz godinu: Mitska pozadina hrvatskih narodnih običaja i vjerovanja |trans-title=The walk within a year: the mythic background of the Croatian folk customs and beliefs |language=hr |location=Zagreb |publisher=Golden marketing-Tehnička knjiga |isbn=978-953-212-334-0}} *{{cite journal|last=Burns|first=Richard|title=Rain and Dust|journal=[[Studia Mythologica Slavica]]|volume=XI|issn=1581-128X|doi=10.3986/sms.v11i0.1696|year=2008|pages=217–236|doi-access=free}} &lt;!-- C --&gt; *{{cite journal |last=Čulinović-Konstantinović |first=Vesna |date=1963 |title=Dodole i prporuše: narodni običaji za prizivanje kiše |trans-title=Dodole and prporuše: folk customs for invoking the rain |url=https://hrcak.srce.hr/34409 |language=hr |journal=Narodna Umjetnost |volume=2 |issue=1 |pages=73–95}} &lt;!-- D --&gt; *{{cite journal |last=Dragić |first=Marko |date=2007 |title=Ladarice, kraljice i dodole u hrvatskoj tradicijskoj kulturi i slavenskom kontekstu |trans-title=Ladarice, Queens and Dodole in Croatian Traditionary Culture and Slavic Context |url=https://www.bib.irb.hr/299913 |language=hr |journal=Hercegovina, godišnjak za kulturno i povijesno naslijeđe |volume=21 |pages=275–296}} &lt;!-- G --&gt; *{{cite book|last=Gamkrelidze|first=Ivanov|title=Indo-European and the Indoeuropeans|publisher=Mouton de Gruyter|year=1995}} *{{cite book |last=Gieysztor |first=Aleksander |author-link=Aleksander Gieysztor |date=2006 |orig-date=1982 |edition=II |title=Mitologia Slowian |publisher=Wydawn. Uniwersytetu Warszawskiego |location=Warszawa |language=pl |isbn=978-83-235-0234-0}} *{{cite book |last=Gimbutas |first=Marija |author-link=Marija Gimbutas |date=1967 |chapter=Ancient Slavic Religion: A Synopsis |title=To honor Roman Jakobson: essays on the occasion of his seventieth birthday, 11 October 1966 (Vol. I) |pages=738–759 |publisher=Mouton |doi=10.1515/9783111604763-064 |isbn=978-3-11-122958-4}} *{{cite thesis|type=PhD|last=Gjoni|first=Irena|title=Marrëdhënie të miteve dhe kulteve të bregdetit të Jonit me areale të tjera mitike|publisher=University of Tirana, Faculty of History and Philology|language=sq|year=2012|place=Tirana}} &lt;!-- E --&gt; * {{cite book|last=Elsie|first=Robert|year=2000|title=The Christian Saints of Albania|publisher=Balkanistica|url=http://home.olemiss.edu/~mldyer/balk/article2.html|volume=13}} * {{cite book|last=Elsie|first=Robert|author-link=Robert Elsie|title=A Dictionary of Albanian Religion, Mythology and Folk Culture|place=London|publisher=Hurst &amp; Company|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=N_IXHrXIsYkC|isbn=1-85065-570-7|year=2001a}} *{{cite book|last=Elsie|first=Robert|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ve4SAQAAIAAJ|title=Albanian Folktales and Legends|year=2001b|publisher=Dukagjini Publishing House}} *{{cite book |last=Evans |first=David |date=1974 |chapter=Dodona, Dodola, and Daedala |title=Myth in Indo-European Antiquity |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=QNzuDwAAQBAJ |pages=99–130 |publisher=University of California Press |isbn=978-0-520-02378-9}} &lt;!-- H --&gt; *{{cite journal|last=Håland|first=Evy Johanne|title=Rituals of Magical Rain-Making in Modern and Ancient Greece: A Comparative Approach|journal=Cosmos|volume=17|year=2001|pages=197–251}} *{{cite book|last1=Halimi|first1=Zanita|last2=Halimi-Statovci|first2=Drita|last3=Xhemaj|first3=Ukë|translator=Lumnije Kadriu|title=Rite dhe Aktualiteti|trans-title=Rites and Contemporariness/Present Time|publisher=[[University of Prishtina]]|year=2011|url=https://chwbkosova.org/wp-content/uploads/2014/09/Publication_2011_7-min.pdf}} &lt;!-- J --&gt; *{{cite journal|last=Jackson|first=Peter|date=2002|title=Light from Distant Asterisks. Towards a Description of the Indo-European Religious Heritage|journal=Numen|volume=49|issue=1|pages=61–102|issn=0029-5973|jstor=3270472|doi=10.1163/15685270252772777}} *{{cite journal |last1=Jakobson |first1=Roman |author-link=Roman Jakobson |date=1955 |title=While Reading Vasmer's Dictionary |url=https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/pdf/10.1080/00437956.1955.11659581 |journal=[[Word (journal)|Word]] |volume=11 |issue=4 |pages=611–617 |doi=10.1080/00437956.1955.11659581}} *{{cite book |last=Jakobson |first=Roman |author-link=Roman Jakobson |date=1985 |title=Selected Writings VII: Contributions to Comparative Mythology |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=db7iuvTX1bkC |publisher=[[Walter de Gruyter]] |isbn=978-3-11-010617-6}} &lt;!-- K --&gt; *{{cite journal |last=Ḱulavkova |first=Katica |date=2020 |title=A Poetic Ritual Invoking Rain and Well-Being: Richard Berengarten's In a Time of Drought |url=https://scholarworks.iu.edu/journals/index.php/aeer/article/view/28956 |journal=Anthropology of East Europe Review |volume=37 |issue=1 |pages=17–26}} *{{cite book |last=Kulišić |first=Špiro |author-link=Špiro Kulišić |editor=[[Alojz Benac]] |date=1979 |title=Stara slovenska religija u svjetlu novijih istraživanja – posebno balkanoloških |language=sh |volume=Djela LVI, CBI knjiga 3 |location=Sarajevo |publisher=Centre for Balkan Studies, [[ANUBIH]]}} &lt;!-- L --&gt; *{{cite book |last=Lajoye |first=Patrice |author-link=Patrice Lajoye |date=2015 |title=Perun, dieu slave de l'orage: Archéologie, histoire, folklore |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=o5LdCgAAQBAJ |language=fr |publisher=Lingva |isbn=979-10-94441-25-1}} *{{cite book|last=Łuczyński|first=Michal|year=2020|title=Bogowie dawnych Słowian: Studium onomastyczne|publisher=Kieleckie Towarzystwo Naukowe|location=Kielce|isbn=978-83-60777-83-1|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=rv-izQEACAAJ|language=pl}} &lt;!-- M --&gt; *{{cite book|author=Ministria e Mjedisit dhe Planifikimit Hapësinor|title=Parku Kombëtar &quot;Sharri&quot; – Plani Hapësinor|publisher=Kosovo Environmental Protection Agency, Institute for Spatial Planning|year=2014|ref={{harvid|Ministria|2014}}}} *{{cite journal |last=Muraj |first=Aleksandra |date=1987 |title=Iz istraživanja Žumberka (preperuše, preslice, tara) |trans-title=From Research on Žumberak (preperuše, spindles, tara) |url=https://hrcak.srce.hr/clanak/76272 |language=hr |journal=Narodna Umjetnost |volume=24 |issue=1 |pages=157–175}} &lt;!-- N --&gt; *{{cite book |last=Nodilo |first=Natko |author-link=Natko Nodilo |date=1981 |orig-date=1884 |title=Stara Vjera Srba i Hrvata |trans-title=Old Faith of Serbs and Croats |url=https://archive.org/details/StaraVjeraSrbaIHrvata/ |language=hr |location=Split |publisher=Logos}} *{{cite book|last=Norris|first=Harry Thirlwall|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=RGmzir-ITtUC&amp;pg=PA34|title=Islam in the Balkans: Religion and Society Between Europe and the Arab World|publisher=University of South Carolina Press|year=1993|isbn=9780872499775|location=Columbia, S.C|pages=211|language=en|oclc=28067651}} &lt;!-- P --&gt; *{{cite book |last=Predojević |first=Željko |date=2019 |chapter=O pučkim postupcima i vjerovanjima za prizivanje kiše iz južne Baranje u kontekstu dvovjerja |trans-chapter=On folk practices and beliefs for invoking rain from southern Baranja in the context of dual belif |chapter-url=https://www.bib.irb.hr/1100049 |title=XIV. međunarodni kroatistički znanstveni skup |editor=István Blazsetin |editor-link=István Blazsetin (born 1963) |location=Pečuh |publisher=Znanstveni zavod Hrvata u Mađarskoj |language=hr |pages=581–593 |isbn=978-963-89731-5-3}} *{{cite book |last=Puchner |first=Walter |author-link=Walter Puchner |date=2009 |title=Studien zur Volkskunde Südosteuropas und des mediterranen Raums |url=https://library.oapen.org/handle/20.500.12657/34402 |location=Wien, Köln, Weimar |publisher=Böhlau Verlag |hdl=20.500.12657/34402 |language=de |isbn=978-3-205-78369-5}} *{{cite book|last1=Puhvel|first1=Jaan|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=OMPagyYOe8gC|title=Comparative Mythology|date=1987|publisher=Johns Hopkins University Press|isbn=978-0-8018-3938-2|author-link=Jaan Puhvel}} &lt;!-- Q --&gt; *{{cite book|last=Qafleshi|first=Muharrem|title=Opoja dhe Gora ndër shekuj|trans-title=Opoja and Gora During Centuries|publisher=[[Albanological Institute of Pristina]]|year=2011|isbn=978-9951-596-51-0}} &lt;!-- S --&gt; *{{cite book|last=Sela|first=Jonida|title=International Conference &quot;Education and Cultural Heritage&quot;|chapter=Values and Traditions in Ritual Dances of All-Year Celebrations in Korça Region, Albania|volume=1|publisher=Association of Heritage and Education|year=2017|pages=62–71}} &lt;!-- T --&gt; *{{cite book|last=Tirta|first=Mark|title=Mitologjia ndër shqiptarë|language=sq|editor=Petrit Bezhani|publisher=Mësonjëtorja|year=2004|place=Tirana|isbn=99927-938-9-9}} &lt;!-- U --&gt; *{{cite book|last=Urbańczyk|first=Stanisław|author-link=Stanisław Urbańczyk|year=1991|title=Dawni Słowianie: wiara i kult|trans-title=Old Slavs: faith and cult|publisher=Ossolineum, Polska Akademia Nauk, Komitet Słowianoznawstwa|location=Kraków|isbn=978-83-04-03825-7|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=4iUtAAAAMAAJ|language=pl}} &lt;!-- W --&gt; *{{cite book|last=Wachtel|first=Andrew Baruch|year=2008|title=The Balkans in World History|publisher=Oxford University Press|location=Oxford, England|isbn=978-0-19-988273-1|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=t6CeBgAAQBAJ}} *{{cite book|last=West|first=M. L.|title=Indo-European Poetry and Myth|publisher=Oxford University Press|year=2007|isbn=978-0-19-928075-9}} &lt;!-- Z --&gt; *{{cite book |last=Zebec |first=Tvrtko |date=2005 |title=Krčki tanci: plesno-etnološka studija |trans-title=Tanac dances on the island of Krk: dance ethnology study |url=https://www.academia.edu/35914079 |location=Zagreb, Rijeka |publisher=Institut za etnologiju i folkloristiku, Adamić |language=hr |isbn=953-219-223-9}} {{refend}} === Further reading === {{refbegin}} * {{ill|Bellosics, Bálint|hu|Bellosics Bálint}}. &quot;[http://real-j.mtak.hu/17297/ Dodola (Adatok az esőcsináláshoz)]&quot; [Dodola, Beiträge zum Regenmachen]. In: ''Ethnographia'' 6 (1895): 418–422. (In Hungarian) *{{cite book |last=Beza |first=Marcu |author-link=Marcu Beza |date=1928 |chapter=The Paparude and Kalojan |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=m2jTDwAAQBAJ |title=Paganism in Roumanian Folklore |location=London |publisher=J.M.Dent &amp; Sons LTD. |pages=27–36|isbn=978-3-8460-4695-1 }} * Boghici, Constantina. &quot;Archaic Elements in the Romanian Spring-Summer Traditions. Landmarks for Dâmboviţa County&quot;. In: ''Bulletin of the Transilvania University of Braşov'', Series VIII: Performing Arts 2 (2013): 17–18. https://ceeol.azurewebsites.net/search/article-detail?id=258246 * {{cite book |last=Cook |first=Arthur Bernard |author-link=Arthur Bernard Cook |date=1940 |chapter=Zeus and the Rain: Rain-magic in modern Greece |title=Zeus: A Study in Ancient Religion: God of the Dark Sky (earthquakes, clouds, wind, dew, rain, meteorites) |volume=3 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=2Yk8AAAAIAAJ |publisher=Cambridge University Press |pages=284–290 |isbn=978-0-511-69664-0 |doi=10.1017/CBO9780511696640}} * {{ill|Dömötör, Tekla|hu|Dömötor Tekla}}; {{ill|Eperjessy, Ernő|hu|Eperjessy Ernő}}. &quot;[http://real-j.mtak.hu/2925/ Dodola and Other Slavonic Folk-Customs in County Baranya (Hungary)]&quot;. In: ''Acta Ethnographica'', 16 (1967): 399–408. * {{cite journal |title=Paparuda |trans-title=Paparuda |first=Mihai |last=Dragnea |publisher=MUZEUL ETNOGRAFIC AL TRANSILVANIEI |journal=Anuarul Muzeului Etnografic al Transilvaniei |date=2012 |issue=6 |pages=73–81 |lang=Romanian}} * {{Cite journal |title=Песента в обреда Пеперуда |trans-title=The Song in the Peperuda Ritual |first=Bozhanka |last=Ganeva |publisher=Институт за етнология и фолклористика с Етнографски музей при БАН |journal=Български фолклор |volume=XXIX |date=2003 |issue=1 |pages=40–49 |lang=BG}} * Janković, Danica S., and Ljubica S. Janković. &quot;Serbian Folk Dance Tradition in Prizren&quot;. In: ''Ethnomusicology'' 6, no. 2 (1962): 117. https://doi.org/10.2307/924671. * {{cite journal |title=Вариантн на обредите Пеперуда и Герман |trans-title=Variants of the Rites Peperuda and German |first=Rusko |last=Kalev |publisher=Институт за етнология и фолклористика с Етнографски музей при БАН |journal=Български фолклор |volume=XII |date=1986 |issue=3 |pages=47–58 |lang=BG}} * {{cite journal |title=Słownictwo związane z wywoływaniem deszczu w dialektach sztokawskich |trans-title=Vocabulary related to rain calling in Shtokavian dialects |first=Agata |last=Kruszec |publisher=Instytut Slawistyki Polskiej Akademii Nauk |journal=Studia z Filologii Polskiej i Słowiańskiej |date=2008 |issue=43 |pages=141–148 |lang=PL}} * Мандич, Мария. &quot;[https://dais.sanu.ac.rs/123456789/7850 &quot;Жизнь&quot; ритуала после &quot;угасания&quot;: Пример додолы из села Сигетчеп в Венгрии]&quot; [The 'life' of an extinguished ritual: The case of the rain ritual dodola from Szigetcsép in Hungary]. In: &quot;Славяноведение&quot; 6 (2019): 15–29. DOI: 10.31857/S0869544X0006755-3 (In Russian) * {{cite book |last1=Marushiakova |first1=E. |last2=Popov |first2=V. |date=2016 |chapter=Roma Culture: Problems and Challenges |editor1-first=E. |editor1-last=Marushiakova |editor2-first=V. |editor2-last=Popov |title=Roma Culture: Myths and Realities |page=48 |location=München |publisher=Lincom Academic Publishers |url=https://www.academia.edu/26969260}} * {{cite journal |title=Женска антропоморфна пластика в два обреда за дъжд от Ямболски окръг |trans-title=Female Anthropomorphic Figures in Two Rain-Making Ceremonies from the District of Yambol |first=Lyubomir |last=Mikov |publisher=Институт за етнология и фолклористика с Етнографски музей при БАН |journal=Български фолклор |volume=XI |date=1985 |issue=4 |pages=19–27 |lang=BG}} * Puchner, Walter. &quot;Liedtextstudien Zur Balkanischen Regenlitanei: Mit Spezieller Berücksichtigung Der Bulgarischen Und Griechischen Varianten&quot;. In: ''Jahrbuch Für Volksliedforschung'' 29 (1984): 100–111. https://doi.org/10.2307/849291. *{{cite book |last=Schneeweis |first=Edmund |date=2019 |orig-date=1961 |title=Serbokroatische Volkskunde: Volksglaube und Volksbrauch |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=bR6bDwAAQBAJ |publisher=Walter de Gruyter GmbH &amp; Co KG |pages=161–163 |language=de |isbn=978-3-11-133764-7}} *{{cite book |last=MacDermott |first=Mercia |author-link=Mercia MacDermott |date=2003 |title=Explore Green Men |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=vT1NAAAAYAAJ |publisher=Heart of Albion Press |pages=17–19 |isbn=978-1-872883-66-3}} *{{citation |title=Dodole |url=https://www.enciklopedija.hr/natuknica.aspx?ID=15709 |author=Croatian Encyclopaedia |author-link=Croatian Encyclopaedia |year=2021}} {{refend}} ===External links=== *{{YouTube|id=X0BgBEtnK4s|title=Dodole ritual on TV in Macedonia}} *{{YouTube|id=aeCQgFUsIKA|title=Reconstruction of Dodole ritual in Bulgaria}} at [[Etar Architectural-Ethnographic Complex]] *{{YouTube|id=n2Vhk_eiwkg|title=&quot;Dodole&quot; song by Croatian ethno-folk rock band Kries}} *[https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=G8O5-a4rCk4 Pirpirouna/Pirpiruna/Perperouna – Rainmaking ritual song], and its [https://www.oeaw.ac.at/fileadmin/kommissionen/vanishinglanguages/Collections/Greek_varieties/Macedonian_Greek/Transcription_pdfs/mace1251TRV0001a_transcription.pdf lyrics], recorded 2016 by Thede Kahl and Andreea Pascaru in Turkey *[https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=evOGzUGT8kc Dodola/Pirpiruna – Rainmaking ritual song, description of the custom] and [https://www.oeaw.ac.at/fileadmin/kommissionen/vanishinglanguages/Collections/Greek_varieties/Macedonian_Greek/Transcription_pdfs/mace1251TRV0001a_transcription.pdf its lyrics], recorded 2020 in Northeast Greece by Sotirios Rousiakis {{Slavic mythology}} [[Category:Albanian folklore]] [[Category:Aromanian culture]] [[Category:Bulgarian folklore]] [[Category:Bulgarian traditions]] [[Category:Croatian folklore]] [[Category:Greek folklore]] [[Category:Macedonian traditions]] [[Category:Moldovan traditions]] [[Category:Rainmaking (ritual)]] [[Category:Romanian folklore]] [[Category:Romanian traditions]] [[Category:Serbian folklore]] [[Category:Serbian traditions]] [[Category:Slavic pseudo-deities]] [[Category:South Slavic culture]]</div></summary> <author><name>Βατο</name></author> </entry> <entry> <id>https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Dodola_and_Perperuna&diff=1257593803</id> <title>Dodola and Perperuna</title> <link rel="alternate" type="text/html" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Dodola_and_Perperuna&diff=1257593803"/> <updated>2024-11-15T19:02:29Z</updated> <summary type="html">Βατο: added other figures that are unrelated to those speculative interpretations, added clarifications as per sources <hr /> <div>{{Short description|Rainmaking rituals in Southeast Europe}} [[File:&quot;Watering of Dodola&quot; by Uroš Predić, published in magazine &quot;Orao&quot; in 1892.jpg|300px|thumb|The sprinkling of ''Dodola'' with water by [[Uroš Predić]] (1892)]] '''Dodola''' (also spelled ''Dodole'', ''Dudola'', ''Dudula'', ''Diva-Dodola'' etc.), '''Perperuna''' (also spelled ''Peperuda'', ''Preperuda'', ''Preperuša'', ''Prporuša'', ''Papaluga'', ''Peperuna'' etc.), '''riti i ndjelljes/thirrjes së shiut''' (&quot;Rain-Invoking/Calling Ritual&quot; or &quot;Rite of Invoking/Calling the Rain&quot;) or simply '''thirrja e shiut''' (&quot;Call of the Rain&quot;), '''riti me dordolecin''' (&quot;Dordoleci Ritual&quot;), '''riti i dodolisë''' (&quot;Dodoli Ritual&quot;) are [[Rainmaking (ritual)|rainmaking]] [[Paganism|pagan]] customs widespread among different peoples in [[Southeast Europe]] until the 20th century, found in [[Albania]], [[Bulgaria]], [[Croatia]], [[Greece]], [[Hungary]], [[Kosovo]], [[Moldova]], [[Montenegro]], [[North Macedonia]], [[Romania]], and [[Serbia]]. It is still practiced in remote [[Albanians|Albanian]] ethnographic regions, but only in rare events, when the summer is dry and without atmospheric precipitation.&lt;ref&gt;{{harvnb|Qafleshi|2011|pp=51–52|}}; {{harvnb|Ministria|2014|p=66}}.&lt;/ref&gt; The ceremonial ritual is an analogical-imitative [[incantation|magic rite]] that consists of singing and dancing done by young boys and girls in processions following a main performer who is dressed with fresh branches, leaves and herbs, with the purpose of invoking rain, usually practiced in times of [[drought]]s, especially in the summer season, when drought endangers crops and pastures, even human life itself.&lt;ref&gt;{{harvnb|Qafleshi|2011|pp=51–52|}}; {{harvnb|Halimi|Halimi-Statovci|Xhemaj|2011|pp=2–6, 32–43}}&lt;/ref&gt; In Albanian rainmaking ritual songs, besides the divine figure that is invoked and also personified by boys or girls during the procession, other Albanian divine figures are invoked: [[Dielli (Albanian paganism)|Dielli]] (the Sun), [[Perëndi]] (the [[Sky]], or deity of weather), and Ilia ([[Elijah]], who in Christianized Albanian folklore has replaced the Sun god and the thunder or weather god, also [[Drangue]]).{{sfn|Gjoni|2012|pp=85–86}}{{sfn|Elsie|2001a|pp=46–47}}{{sfn|Elsie|2000|pp=43–45}}{{sfn|Gamkrelidze|1995|p=528}}{{sfn|Sela|2017|pp=69–70}} In Slavic rainmaking ritual songs also the sky or Elijah are invoked. In Slavic Christianized folklore Elijah has replaced [[Perun]], the Slavic thunder-god, cognate to IE ''[[*Perkʷūnos]]''.{{sfn|Jakobson|1985|p=6}} According to some interpretations of [[Slavic folklore]], the Slavic rainmaking rituals found in the Balkans were related to the [[[[Slavic pantheon|Slavic]] supreme deity Perun (god of thunder, weather, fertility and oak trees). &lt;ref&gt;https://www.scribd.com/doc/243198115/Slavic-Pagan-World&lt;/ref&gt; &lt;ref&gt;https://www.omda.bg/page.php?tittle=Ezicheska_obrednost_-_Peperuda&amp;IDMenu=309&amp;IDArticle=2221&lt;/ref&gt; &lt;ref&gt;https://ibl.bas.bg/pishi_pravilno/perun-i-veles/&lt;/ref&gt; Some scholars suggest that Perperuna could have been a Slavic goddess of rain, the consort of Perun, or that the name Perperuna is the reduplicated feminine form derived from the name of Perun.&lt;ref&gt;https://www.srku.edu.in/read?s=Dodola+and+Perperuna#:~:text=Zyzlila)%20Perperuna%20and-,Dodola,-(Paparuda%2C%20Prporu%C5%A1a%2C%20Dudula&lt;/ref&gt; &lt;ref&gt;https://arheologija.fr.gd/Perun-English-Versione.htm&lt;/ref&gt; &lt;ref&gt;https://www.academia.edu/44578714/Perperuna_a_%C4%8Fal%C5%A1ie_reflexy_dru%C5%BEky_praindoeur%C3%B3pskeho_Hromovl%C3%A1dcu_Consort_of_the_Proto_Indo_European_Thundergod_and_her_reflexes?sm=b&lt;/ref&gt; &lt;ref&gt;https://www.mifologia.com/pantheons/slavic-pantheon-2/perun/&lt;/ref&gt; &lt;ref&gt;https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/pdf/10.1080/00437956.1955.11659581&lt;/ref&gt; &lt;ref&gt;https://www.oporabg.com/sites/default/files/peperuda_DV.pdf&lt;/ref&gt; &lt;ref&gt;https://www.starisloveni.com/English/Perun.html&lt;/ref&gt; But recent research criticize [[List of Slavic pseudo-deities|invention]] of a Slavic female goddess,{{sfn|Łuczyński|2020|p=141}} and other etymologies have been provided as well.{{sfn|Burns|2008|pp=231–232}}{{sfn|Čulinović-Konstantinović|1963|p=94}}{{sfn|Čulinović-Konstantinović|1963|p=94}}{{sfn|Skok|1973|p=55}}{{sfn|Urbańczyk|1991|p=150}}{{sfn|Łuczyński|2020|p=141}} == Names == {{quote box|align=right|quote=&lt;poem&gt;&lt;small&gt;Περπερούνα περπατεί / Perperouna perambulates Κή τόν θεό περικαλεί / And to God prays Θέ μου, βρέξε μια βροχή / My God, send a rain Μιἁ βροχή βασιλική / A right royal rain Οσ ἀστἀχυα ς τἀ χωράΦια / That as many (as are there) ears of corn in the fields Τόσα κούτσουρα ς τ ἁμπέλια / So many stems (may spring) on the vines&lt;/small&gt; &lt;/poem&gt;|source=&lt;br /&gt;&lt;small&gt;Shatista near [[Siatista]], [[Western Macedonia]], Ottoman Empire, 1903&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book |last=Abbott |first=George Frederick |author-link=George Frederick Abbott |date=1903 |title=Macedonian Folklore |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=M7o8AAAAIAAJ |location=Cambridge |publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]] |page=119}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;/small&gt;}} Rainmaking rites are generally called after the divine figure invoked in the ritual songs, as well as the boy or girl who perform the rite, who are called with different names among different peoples (South Slavs, Albanians, Greeks, Hungarians, Moldovans, Romanians, Vlachs or Aromanians (including regions of [[Bukovina]] and [[Bessarabia]])).:&lt;ref&gt;{{harvnb|Ḱulavkova|2020|p=19}}&lt;/ref&gt; *''Preperuna'', ''Peperuna'', ''Preperuda/Peperuda'', ''Pepereda'', ''Preperuga/Peperuga'', ''Peperunga'', ''Pemperuga'' in [[Bulgaria]] and [[North Macedonia]]: ''Prporuša'', ''Parparuša'', ''Preporuša/Preporuča'', ''Preperuša'', ''Barburuša/Barbaruša'' in [[Croatia]]; ''Peperuda'', ''Papaluga'', ''Papaluda/Paparudă'', ''Babaruta'', ''Mamaruta'' in [[Romania]] and [[Moldova]]; ''Perperouna'', ''Perperinon'', ''Perperouga'', ''Parparouna'' in [[Greece]]; ''Perperona/Perperone'' in [[Albania]]; ''Pirpirunã'' among [[Aromanians]]; *''Dodola'' among previous countries as well as [[Serbia]], with variants ''Dodole'', ''Dudola'', ''Dudula'', ''Dudule'', ''Dudulica'', ''Doda'', ''Dodočka'', ''Dudulejka'', ''Didjulja'', etc.{{sfn|Gimbutas|1967|p=743}}{{sfn|Evans|1974|p=100}}{{sfn|Jakobson|1985|p=22–24|ps=:Mythological associations linked with the butterfly (cf. her Serbian name ''Vještica'') also explain the Bulgarian entomological names ''peperuda'', ''peperuga''}}{{sfn|Čulinović-Konstantinović|1963|p=80, 93}}{{Sfn|Puchner|2009|p=346}} *''Rona'', used by Albanians alternatively to ''Perperona/Perperone'';{{sfn|Norris|1993|p=34}}{{sfn|Tirta|2004|pp=310–312}} *''Dordoleci'' (''durduleci''), used by Albanians for this custom in association with a male figure.{{sfn|Tirta|2004|pp=310–312}} In [[Albanian language|Albanian]] the rainmaking ritual is called ''riti i ndjelljes së shiut'' (&quot;Rain-Invoking Ritual&quot;), ''riti i thirrjes së shiut'' (&quot;Rain-Calling Ritual&quot; or &quot;Rite of Calling the Rain&quot;) or simply ''thirrja e shiut'' (&quot;Call of the Rain&quot;), ''riti i thatësisë'' (&quot;Drought Ritual&quot;), as well as ''riti me dordolecin'' or ''riti i dordolecit'' (&quot;Dordoleci Ritual&quot;), ''riti i dodolisë'' (&quot;Dodoli Ritual&quot;), etc.&lt;ref&gt;{{harvnb|Tirta|2004|pp=310–312}}; {{harvnb|Qafleshi|2011|pp=51–52|}}; {{harvnb|Ministria|2014|p=66}}; {{harvnb|Halimi|Halimi-Statovci|Xhemaj|2011|pp=2–6, 32–43}}&lt;/ref&gt; In Albanian rainmaking ritual songs, besides the divine figure that is invoked and also personified by boys or girls during the procession, other Albanian divine figures are invoked: [[Dielli (Albanian paganism)|Dielli]] (the Sun), [[Perëndi]], and Ilia.{{sfn|Gjoni|2012|pp=85–86}}{{sfn|Gamkrelidze|1995|p=528}}{{sfn|Sela|2017|pp=69–70}} Perëndi is a name that is used for &quot;god&quot;, &quot;deity&quot;, &quot;sky&quot; in Albanian, but considered by some scholars to be an Albanian thunder-god, cognate to Indo-European ''[[*Perkʷūnos]]'';{{sfn|Gamkrelidze|1995|p=528}} Ilia is [[Elijah]], who in Christianized Albanian folklore has replaced the Sun god and the thunder or weather god (also [[Drangue]]).{{sfn|Gjoni|2012|pp=85–86}}{{sfn|Elsie|2001a|pp=46–47}}{{sfn|Elsie|2000|pp=43–45}} In Slavic rainmaking ritual songs also the sky or Elijah are invoked. In Slavic Christianized folklore Elijah has replaced [[Perun]], the Slavic thunder-god, cognate to IE ''*Perkʷūnos''.{{sfn|Jakobson|1985|p=6}} ===Etymologies=== Some scholars consider all the Balkan names of the type ''per-'', ''perper-'', ''peper-'', ''papar-'', etc. to be taboo-alternations to &quot;avoid profaning the holy name&quot; of the pagan [[Proto-Indo-European mythology|Indo-European]] god ''[[*Perkʷūnos]]''.{{sfn|Evans|1974|p=116}}{{sfn|Gimbutas|1967|p=743}} According to [[Roman Jakobson]] and others ''perperuna'' is formed by reduplication of the Indo-European root &quot;per-&quot; (to strike/beat).{{sfn|Gimbutas|1967|p=743}}{{sfn|Jakobson|1985|p=23}}&lt;ref name=&quot;Katicic&quot;/&gt; Those with root &quot;peper-&quot;, &quot;papar-&quot; and &quot;pirpir-&quot; were changed accordingly modern words for [[Schinus molle|pepper-tree]] and [[poppy]] plant,{{sfn|Gimbutas|1967|p=743}}{{Sfn|Puchner|2009|p=348}} possibly also [[Hyperpyron|perper]] and else.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal |last=Puchner |first=Walter |author-link=Walter Puchner |date=1983 |title=Бележки към ономатологията и етимологиятана българските и гръцките названия на обреда за дъжд додола/перперуна |trans-title=Notes on the Onomatology and the Etymology of Bulgarian and Greek Names for the Dodola / Perperuna Rite |url=https://www.ceeol.com/search/article-detail?id=17959 |journal=Bulgarian Folklore |volume=IX |issue=1 |pages=59–65 |language=bg}}&lt;/ref&gt;{{Sfn|Puchner|2009|p=347–349}} Some scholars consider in particular that the name ''Perperuna'' can be identified as the reduplicated feminine [[Morphological derivation|derivative]] of the name of the Slavic thunder god ''[[Perun]]'' (''per-perun-a''), allegedly being his female consort, wife and goddess of rain ''Perperuna Dodola'', which would parallel the Old Norse couple [[Fjörgyn and Fjörgynn|Fjörgyn–Fjörgynn]] and the Lithuanian Perkūnas–Perkūnija.{{sfn|Jakobson|1985|p=22–23}}{{Sfn|Puhvel|1987|p=235}}{{Sfn|Jackson|2002|p=70}}&lt;ref name=&quot;York&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |last=York |first=Michael |author-link=Michael York (religious studies scholar) |date=1993 |title=Toward a Proto-Indo-European vocabulary of the sacred |journal=[[Word (journal)|Word]] |volume=44 |issue=2 |pages=240, 251 |doi=10.1080/00437956.1993.11435902|doi-access=free }}&lt;/ref&gt;{{sfn|Ḱulavkova|2020|p=19–20a|ps=:The Balkan rainmaking customs themselves go by different names. They are usually referred to as the Dodola or Peperuga(Peperuda) rituals, after the name of the goddess of rain, wife or consort of the Slavic sky-god Perun ... According to others, these rain-rituals derive specifically from Slavic languages, and the names Peperuda, Peperuga, Peperuna, and Perperuna are cognate with that of the storm-god Perun.}} According to another theory the Balkan names with the root ''per-'' are connected to the Greek [[Persephone]], a fertility goddess, daughter of the sky god [[Zeus]], and of the earth goddess [[Demeter]].{{sfn|Burns|2008|pp=231–232}} Dimitar Marinov derived it from Bulgarian word for butterfly where in folk beliefs has supernatural powers related to rain,{{sfn|Čulinović-Konstantinović|1963|p=94}} but according to Jakobson the mythological context of the customs and links explains the Bulgarian entomological names.&lt;ref&gt;{{harvnb|Jakobson|1985|p=22|ps=:Mythological associations linked with the butterfly (cf. her Serbian name ''Vještica'') also explain the Bulgarian entomological names ''peperuda'', ''peperuga''}}&lt;/ref&gt; [[Michail Arnaudov]] derived it from Slavic verb &quot;pršiti&quot; (spray).{{sfn|Čulinović-Konstantinović|1963|p=94}} [[Petar Skok]] considered ''prporuša'' a metaphorical derivation from Slavic ''prpor/pŕpa'' (hot ash), ''pórusa'' (&quot;when water is poured on burning ash&quot;{{sfn|Burns|2008|p=232}}).&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book |last=Skok |first=Petar |author-link=Petar Skok |title=Etimologijski rječnik hrvatskoga ili srpskoga jezika: poni-Ž |url=https://archive.org/details/EtimologijskiRjecnikHrvatskogaIliSrpskogaJezika |language=sh |year=1973 |location=Zagreb |publisher=[[JAZU]] |volume=3 |page=55}}&lt;/ref&gt; [[Stanisław Urbańczyk]] and Michal Łuczyński put into question Jakobson's theonymic derivation, deriving instead from Proto-Slavic ''*perpera'', ''*perperъka'' (in Polish ''przepiórka''), name for [[Common quail]], which has a role in Polish harvest rituals and the name of the bride in the wedding dance.{{sfn|Urbańczyk|1991|p=150}}{{sfn|Łuczyński|2020|p=141}} These are also related to ''*pъrpati'' (onomatopoeic), cf. Polish dial. ''perpotać'', ''perpac'', Old East Slavic ''poropriti''.{{sfn|Łuczyński|2020|p=141}} The name ''Dodola'' has been suggested to be a cognate to the Lithuanian ''Dundulis'', a word for &quot;thunder&quot; and another name of the Baltic thunder-god Perkūnas.{{sfn|Jakobson|1985|p=23}}{{Sfn|Puhvel|1987|p=235}} It is also hypothesised to be distantly related to Greek [[Dodona]] and [[Daedala]].{{sfn|Evans|1974|p=127–128}}&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book |last=Dauksta |first=Dainis |date=2011 |chapter=From Post to Pillar – The Development and Persistence of an Arboreal Metaphor |title=New Perspectives on People and Forests |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=XxB-HZlbTe0C |publisher=Springer |page=112 |isbn=978-94-007-1150-1}}&lt;/ref&gt; Bulgarian variant ''Didjulja'' is similar to alleged Polish goddess [[Dzidzilela]], and Polish language also has verb ''dudnić'' (&quot;to thunder&quot;).{{sfn|Jakobson|1985|p=22–23}} The uncertainty of the etymologies provided by scholars leads to a call for a &quot;detailed and in-depth comparative analysis of formulas, set phrases and patterns of imagery in rainmaking songs from ''all'' the Balkan languages&quot;.{{sfn|Burns|2008|pp=232–233}} == Origin == The rainmaking practice is a shared tradition among Balkan peoples, and it is not clear who borrowed it from whom.&lt;ref name=Wachtel&gt;{{harvnb|Wachtel|2008|ps=:Anthropologists have noted shared traditions as well, such as a rainmaking ritual in which a young woman covered in a costume of leaves would sing and dance through the village: this ritual was practiced among Greek, Albanian, Romanian, and Slavic speakers throughout the region, and it is not clear who borrowed it from whom.}}&lt;/ref&gt; The fact so similar customs in the Balkans are known by two different names the differences are considered not to be from the same time period and ethnic groups.{{sfn|Čulinović-Konstantinović|1963|p=93}} Similar customs outside the Balkans have been observed in the Caucasus, Middle East, and North Africa.{{sfn|Čulinović-Konstantinović|1963|p=84, 93}}{{sfn|Kulišić|1979|p=108}}&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal |last1=Başgöz |first1=İlhan |date=2007 |title=Rain Making Ceremonies in Iran |journal=[[Iranian Studies (journal)|Iranian Studies]] |volume=40 |issue=3 |pages=385–403 |doi=10.1080/00210860701390588 |jstor=4311905 |s2cid=162315052 |quote=Type II in the classification (that is, the procession with a doll, or ''chomcha gelin'', and its sub-group, which consists in a real child's proceeding through the neighborhood) ... Although the same ceremony is performed in other parts of Turkey, the ladle bride is given different names: ''Bodi Bodi'' among the Karalar Turkmen tribe in Adana province, ''Dodo'' or ''Dodu'' in Kars ... As the type spreads toward the west, sub-type (a) becomes dominant and (b) disappears. In Bulgaria, the girl who visits the houses during the ceremony is called ''doldol'' or ''Perperuga''.46 In Greece, the ceremony is sometimes incorporated into the Epiphany, the ritual throwing of the cross into a river, or sometimes is performed as an independent rain ritual.47 In Yugoslavia, the Turks, Serbians, and the Albanians practice the ritual, naming it ''dodola'' or ''dodoliče'' (little ''dodola'').48 The ritual is known in Hungary and is performed there under the name of ''doldola'', being especially common in villages inhabited by Gypsies and Serbians.49 The custom has spread to Rumania, but there the ''chomcha gelin'' is replaced by a coffin with a clay figure in it. This is reminiscent of Type II in Iran.50 The ''chomcha gelin'' is also observed in Iraq among the Kerkuk Turkmens, who call it &quot;the bride with ladle&quot; (''Chomchalı Gelin'').51 In Syria, the Arabs call the doll ''Umm al-Guys'' (&quot;mother of rain&quot;).52 The Christians in Syria practice the ceremony and call the doll &quot;the bride of God&quot;.53 In North Africa, the doll is called &quot;the mother of Bangau&quot;,54 and a similar symbol carried during the ritual is called Al Gonja.55 In Uzbekistan, Turks and Tajiks perform the ritual, calling the doll ''suskhatun'' (probably meaning &quot;water woman&quot;).56}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book |last=Chirikba |first=Viacheslav |author-link=Viacheslav Chirikba |date=2015 |chapter=Between Christianity and Islam: Heathen Heritage in the Caucasus |title=Studies on Iran and The Caucasus: In Honour of Garnik Asatrian |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=iLS9CwAAQBAJ |location=Leiden |publisher=Brill |pages=169–171 |isbn=978-90-04-30206-8 |quote=Thus, during the festival welcoming the spring, the Avars made ... In the ritual of summoning rains there figured a specially made doll called Dodola ... The Dagestan doll Dodola and the ritual strikingly resemble the Balkan rituals for summoning rain, whereby girls called Dodola would undressed and put on leaves, flowers and herbs to perform the rainmaking ceremony. The Balkan Dodola is regarded as being connected with the Slavic cult of the thunder-god Perun (cf. Tokarev 1991: 391).}}&lt;/ref&gt; [[William Ralston Shedden-Ralston|William Shedden-Ralston]] noted that [[Jacob Grimm]] thought Perperuna/Dodola were &quot;originally identical with the Bavarian ''Wasservogel'' and the Austrian ''Pfingstkönig''&quot; rituals.&lt;ref name=&quot;Ralston&quot;&gt;{{cite book |last=Shedden-Ralston |first=William Ralston |author-link=William Ralston Shedden-Ralston |date=1872 |title=The Songs of the Russian People: As Illustrative of Slavonic Mythology and Russian Social Life |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=429UAAAAcAAJ |location=London |publisher=Ellis &amp; Green |pages=227–229}}&lt;/ref&gt; Ancient rainmaking practices have been widespread [[Mediterranean]] traditions, already documented in the Balkans since [[Minoan]] and [[Mycenaean Greece|Mycenaean]] times.{{sfn|Burns|2008|pp=228–231}}{{sfn|Håland|2001|pp=197–201}} There is a lack of any strong historical evidence for a link between the figures and practices of the ancient times and those that survided to the end of the 20th century, however, according to [[Richard Berengarten]], if seen as &quot;typologically parallel&quot; practices in the ancient world, they may be interpretable at least as forerunners, even if not as direct progenitors of the modern Balkan rainmaking customs.{{sfn|Burns|2008|pp=228–231}} Some consider the ''perperuna'' figure to have a mythological and etymological Slavic origin related to Slavic thunder-god [[Perun]],{{#tag:ref|&lt;ref&gt;{{harvnb|Čulinović-Konstantinović|1963|pp=93–94|ps=:Ovakav obred za kišu poznat je i u Madžarskoj. Analizirao ga je Z. Ujvary te je u svojoj studiji citirao mnoge madžarske autore koji su o tome pisali. Prema njegovu mišljenju, običaj se tamo proširio pod utjecajem Slavena i Rumunja ... M. S. Thompson, međutim, misli da riječ &quot;perperuna&quot; potječe od imena slavenskog boga Peruna, boga gromovnika ... Teoriju o slavenskom porijeklu ovog običaja prihvatili su osim M. S. Thompsona još i G. F. Abbott i E. Fischer.}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;Katicic&quot;&gt;{{cite book |last=Katičić |first=Radoslav |author-link=Radoslav Katičić |title=Naša stara vjera: Tragovima svetih pjesama naše pretkršćanske starine |trans-title=Our Old Faith: Tracing the Sacred Poems of Our Pre-Christian Antiquity |year=2017 |publisher=Ibis Grafika, [[Matica hrvatska]] |location=Zagreb |language=hr |isbn=978-953-6927-98-2 |page=105}}&lt;/ref&gt;{{sfn|Gieysztor|2006|p=89, 104–106}}&lt;ref name=&quot;Zecevic&quot;&gt;{{cite book |last=Zečević |first=Slobodan |date=1974 |title=Elementi naše mitologije u narodnim obredima uz igru |language=sr |location=Zenica |publisher=Muzej grada Zenice |pages=125–128, 132–133}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book |author=Institut za književnost i umetnost (Hatidža Krnjević) |title=Rečnik književnih termina |trans-title=Dictionary of literary terms |year=1985 |publisher=Nolit |location=Beograd |language=sr |isbn=978-86-19-00635-4 |pages=130, 618}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book |last=Sikimić |first=Biljana |date=1996 |title=Etimologija i male folklorne forme |language=sr |location=Beograd |publisher=SANU |pages=85–86 |quote=О vezi Peruna i prporuša up. Ivanov i Toporov 1974: 113: можно думать об одновременной связи имени nеnеруна - nрnоруша как с обозначением nорошения дождя, его распыления (ср. с.-хорв. ирпошuмu (се), nрnошка и Т.Д.; чешск. pršeti, prch, prš), так и с именем Громовержца. Связъ с порошением дождя представляется тем более вероятной, что соответствующий глагол в ряде индоевропейских язЪП&lt;ов выступает с архаическим удвоением&quot;. Za etimologiju sh. ргроrušа up. i Gavazzi 1985: 164.}}&lt;/ref&gt;{{sfn|Belaj|2007|p=80, 112}}{{Sfn|Dragić|2007|p=80, 112}}{{Sfn|Lajoye|2015|p=114}}}} and became widespread in the Southeastern Europe with the [[Slavic migrations to Southeastern Europe|Slavic migration]] (6th–10th century).&lt;ref&gt;{{harvnb|Gimbutas|1967|p=743|ps=:The names applied to the Balkan rain-ceremonies and to those who perform them suggest, by the modest, degree of variation from one another, by the large number of different variants, and their distribution (not only throughout Romania but in Albania and Greek Epirus and Macedonia), the diffusion of a Slavic ritual linked with the name of Perun in any one of its numerous minor variants.}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{harvnb|Jakobson|1985|pp=22, 24|ps=:The ritual call for rain was transmitted long ago from the Balkan Slavs to neighboring peoples, who evidently preserved the original form of the mythological name ... But even if one leaves aside the late, conjectural echoes of Perun's name, one is still forced to conclude that his cult had wide dissemination and deep roots in Slavic paganism, a fact that is clearly reflected not only in the texts, but also in onomastics, as well as in the folklore of the Slavs and their neighbors.}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal |last=Zaroff |first=Roman |date=1999 |title=Organized pagan cult in Kievan Rus': The invention of foreign elite or evolution of local tradition? |url=https://ojs.zrc-sazu.si/sms/article/view/1844 |journal=[[Studia mythologica Slavica]] |volume=2 |page=57 |doi=10.3986/sms.v2i0.1844 |quote=As a consequence of the relatively early Christianisation of the Southern Slavs, there are no more direct accounts in relation to Perun from the Balkans. Nevertheless, as late as the first half of the 12th century, in Bulgaria and Macedonia, peasants performed a certain ceremony meant to induce rain. A central figure in the rite was a young girl called Perperuna, a name clearly related to Perun. At the same time, the association of Perperuna with rain shows conceptual similarities with the Indian god Parjanya. There was a strong Slavic penetration of Albania, Greece and Romania, between the 6th and 10th centuries. Not surprisingly the folklore of northern Greece also knows Perperuna, Albanians know Pirpirúnă, and also the Romanians have their Perperona. Also, in a certain Bulgarian folk riddle the word ''perušan'' is a substitute for the Bulgarian word ''гърмомеҽица'' (grmotevitsa) for thunder. Moreover, the name of Perun is also commonly found in Southern Slavic toponymy. There are places called: Perun, Perunac, Perunovac, Perunika, Perunićka Glava, Peruni Vrh, Perunja Ves, Peruna Dubrava, Perunuša, Perušice, Perudina and Perutovac.|doi-access=free }}&lt;/ref&gt; According to the Slavic theory, it is a (Balto-)Slavic heritage of Proto-Indo-European origin related to Slavic thunder-god Perun. It has parallels in ritual prayers for bringing rain in times of drought dedicated to rain-thunder deity [[Parjanya]] recorded in the ''[[Vedas]]'' and Baltic thunder-god [[Perkūnas]], [[cognates]] alongside Perun of Proto-Indo-European weather-god [[Perkwunos]].{{sfn|Jakobson|1985|p=6–7, 21, 23}} An early medieval Ruthenian manuscript mentions the East Slavic deity [[Pereplut]], who was worshiped with whirling and libations.{{sfn|Jakobson|1955|p=616}}{{sfn|Gimbutas|1967|p=743}}{{sfn|Jakobson|1985|p=23–24}} According to Jakobson, ''[[Novgorod Chronicle]]'' (&quot;dožd prapruden&quot;) and ''Pskov Chronicle'' (&quot;dožd praprudoju neiskazaemo silen&quot;) could have &quot;East Slavic trace of Peperuda calling forth the rain&quot;, and West Slavic god [[Pripegala]] reminds of ''Preperuga/Prepeluga'' variation and connection with Perun.{{sfn|Gimbutas|1967|p=743}}{{sfn|Jakobson|1985|p=24}} Serbo-Croatian archaic variant ''Prporuša'' and verb ''prporiti se'' (&quot;to fight&quot;) also have parallels in Old Russian (&quot;porъprjutъsja&quot;).{{sfn|Jakobson|1985|p=23}} Perun's battle against [[Veles (god)|Veles]] because of Perperuna/Dodola's kidnapping{{clarify|date=August 2024}} has parallels in [[Zeus]] saving of [[Persephone]] after [[Hades]] carried her underground causing big drought on Earth, also seen in the similarity of the names Perperuna and Persephone.&lt;ref name=&quot;York&quot;/&gt;{{sfn|Evans|1974|p=116–117}}{{sfn|Burns|2008|p=232}} Recent research criticize invention of a Slavic female goddess.{{sfn|Łuczyński|2020|p=141}} Some scholars relate ''Dodole'' with pagan custom and songs of ''Lade'' (Ladarice) in [[Hrvatsko Zagorje]] (so-called &quot;Ladarice Dodolske&quot;),&lt;ref name=&quot;Cubelic&quot;&gt;{{cite book |last=Čubelić |first=Tvrtko |date=1990 |title=Povijest i historija usmene narodne književnosti: historijske i literaturno-teorijske osnove te genološki aspekti: analitičko-sintetički pogledi |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=hb1iAAAAMAAJ |language=hr |location=Zagreb |publisher=Ante Pelivan i Danica Pelivan |pages=75–76 |isbn=978-86-81703-01-4}}&lt;/ref&gt;{{Sfn|Dragić|2007|p=279, 283}}&lt;ref name=&quot;Dragic2012&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |last=Dragić |first=Marko |date=2012 |title=Lada i Ljeljo u folkloristici Hrvata i slavenskom kontekstu |trans-title=Lada and Ljeljo in the folklore of Croats and Slavic context |url=https://hrcak.srce.hr/136243 |language=hr |journal=Zbornik radova Filozofskog fakulteta u Splitu |volume=5 |pages=45, 53–55}}&lt;/ref&gt; and in [[Žumberak]]-[[Križevci]] for the ''Preperuša'' custom was also used term ''Ladekarice''.{{sfn|Čulinović-Konstantinović|1963|p=80–81}}{{sfn|Muraj|1987|p=160–161}} Other scholars, due to the geographical distribution, consider that the rainmaking ritual is of [[Paleo-Balkan mythology|Paleo-Balkan]] origin.{{sfn|Kulišić|1979|p=205}}{{sfn|Belaj|2007|p=80}} Some of them consider such origin even relating the ritual to Perun's cult. One theory, in particular, argues that Slavic deity Perun and Perperuna/Dodola customs are of [[Thracians|Thracian]] origin,&lt;ref&gt;Dimitǔr Dechev, ''[https://books.google.com/books/about/Die_thrakischen_Sprachreste.html?id=CrA_AAAAIAAJ Die thrakischen Sprachreste]'', Wien: R.M. Rohrer, 1957, pp. 144, 151&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;Sorin&quot;&gt;{{cite web|author=[[Sorin Paliga]]|title=Influenţe romane și preromane în limbile slave de sud|date=2003|url=http://egg.mnir.ro/pdf/Paliga_InflRomane.pdf|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131228002745/http://egg.mnir.ro/pdf/Paliga_InflRomane.pdf |archive-date=December 28, 2013}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal |first=Mihai |last=Dragnea |url=https://www.academia.edu/9334808 |title=The Thraco-Dacian Origin of the Paparuda/Dodola Rain-Making Ritual |journal=Brukenthalia Acta Musei |issue=4 |date=2014 |pages=18–27}}&lt;/ref&gt;{{sfn|Ḱulavkova|2020|p=19–20b|ps=:According to some researchers ... these pagan rites of worship are thought to be of Thracian origin ... According to other beliefs, Perun, Perin, or Pirin was the supreme deity of the Thracians.}} however, the name of the Slavic thunder-god [[Perun]] is commonly accepted to be formed from the [[Proto-Slavic]] root ''*per'' &quot;to strike&quot; attached to the common agent suffix ''-unŭ'', explained as &quot;the Striker&quot;.{{sfn|West|2007|p=242}} == Ritual == Rainmaking rituals were performed in times of summer drought to make it rain, usually in June and July, but sometimes also in the spring months when there was severe drought. The ritual was a village kinship or community type performance, and an imitative type of [[Incantation|magic practice]] that reproduced rainfall and soil irrigation, accompanied with ritual songs that addressed prayers to the pagan deity associated with rain as well as agriculture and vegetation. The ritual practice traces back to times when the social structure was based on the common property of the land and of the products, which belonged to the whole tribe/clan.{{sfn|Tirta|2004|pp=310–312}} They essentially belong to rituals related to [[Fertility rite|fertility]], but over time differentiated to a specific form connected with water and vegetation.{{sfn|Čulinović-Konstantinović|1963|p=73, 75–76, 91}}{{clarification needed|date=August 2024}} Perperuna and Dodola are considered very similar pagan customs with common origin,{{sfn|Čulinović-Konstantinović|1963|p=75, 78, 93, 95}}&lt;ref name=&quot;Revija&quot;&gt;{{cite magazine |last=Vukelić |first=Deniver |date=2010 |title=Pretkršćanski prežici u hrvatskim narodnim tradicijam |trans-title=Pre-Christian belief traces in Croatian folk traditions |url=https://www.matica.hr/hr/360/PRETKR%C5%A0%C4%86ANSKI%20PRE%C5%BDICI%20U%20HRVATSKIM%20NARODNIM%20TRADICIJAMA%20/ |language=hr |magazine=[[Hrvatska revija]] |issue=4 |publisher=[[Matica hrvatska]] |access-date=20 July 2022}}&lt;/ref&gt; with main difference being in the most common gender of the central character (possibly related to social hierarchy of the specific ethnic or regional group{{sfn|Čulinović-Konstantinović|1963|p=85, 95}}), lyric verses, sometimes religious content, and presence or absence of a chorus.{{sfn|Čulinović-Konstantinović|1963|p=84–85, 90}} They represent a group of rituals with a human collective going on a procession around houses and fields of a village, but with a central live character which differentiates them from other similar collective rituals in the same region and period (''[[Kermesse (festival)|Krstonoše]]'', ''[[Carnival|Poklade]]'', ''[[Koledari|Kolade]]'', ''[[German (mythology)|German]]'', ''Ladarice'', those during ''[[Jurjevo]]'' and ''[[Saint John's Eve|Ivandan]]'' and so on).{{sfn|Čulinović-Konstantinović|1963|p=74–75, 80}}{{Sfn|Dragić|2007|p=276}}{{Sfn|Puchner|2009|p=289, 345}} In the valley of [[Skopje]] in [[North Macedonia]] the Dodola were held on Thursday which was Perun's day.{{Sfn|Dragić|2007|p=291}} In [[Hungary]] the ritual was usually held on [[Saint George's Day|St. George's Day]].&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |last=T. |first=Dömötör |date=1967 |title=Dodola |url=https://gepeskonyv.btk.elte.hu/adatok/Neprajz/82Vereb%E9lyi/folklorisztika_es_rokonteruleteinek_fogalmi_rendszere/dodola.html}}&lt;/ref&gt; The core of the song always mentions a type of rain and list of regional crops.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book |last=Puchner |first=Walter |author-link=Walter Puchner |date=2016 |title=Die Folklore Südosteuropas: Eine komparative Übersicht |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=hZpVDAAAQBAJ |language=de |publisher=Böhlau Verlag Wien |page=65 |isbn=978-3-205-20312-4}}&lt;/ref&gt; The first written mentions and descriptions of the pagan custom are from the 18th century by [[Dimitrie Cantemir]] in ''[[Descriptio Moldaviae]]'' (1714/1771, ''Papaluga''),{{Sfn|Puchner|2009|p=346}}&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book |last=Cantemir |first=Dimitrie |author-link=Dimitrie Cantemir |date=1771 |title=Descriptio antiqui et hodierni status Moldaviae |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=2rZfAAAAcAAJ |location=Frankfurt, Leipzig |language=de |pages=315–316 |quote=Im Sommer, wenn dem Getreide wegen der Dürre Gefabr bevorzustehen fcheinet, ziehen die Landleute einem kleinen Ragdchen, welches noch nicht über zehen Jahr alt ist, ein Hemde an, welches aus Blattern von Baumen und Srantern gemacht wird. Alle andere Ragdchen und stnaben vol gleiechem Alter folgen ihr, und siehen mit Tanzen und Singen durch die ganze Racharfchaft; wo sie aber hin komuien, da pflegen ihnen die alten Weiber kalt Wasser auf den Stopf zu gieffen. Das Lied, welches fie fingen, ist ohngefähr von folegendem Innbalte: &quot;Papaluga! steige nech dem Himmel, öffne feine Thüren, fend von oben Regen ber, daß der Roggen, Weizen, Hirfe u. f. w. gut wachsen.&quot;}}&lt;/ref&gt; then in a Greek law book from [[Bucharest]] (1765, it invoked 62nd Cannon to stop the custom of ''Paparuda''),{{Sfn|Puchner|2009|p=346}}&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book |last=Puchner |first=Walter |author-link=Walter Puchner |date=2017 |chapter=2 - Byzantium High Culture without Theatre or Dramatic Literature? |title=Greek Theatre between Antiquity and Independence: A History of Reinvention from the Third Century BC to 1830 |chapter-url=https://www.cambridge.org/core/books/abs/greek-theatre-between-antiquity-and-independence/byzantium/AD8A310DFF20316E196BA81890C36797 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |page=73 |isbn=978-1-107-44502-4 |doi=10.1017/9781107445024.004 |quote=...in 1765, a Greek law book from Bucharest quotes the 62nd Canon of the Trullanum in order to forbid public dancing by girls in a custom well known throughout the Balkans as 'paparuda', 'perperuna' or 'dodole', a ritual processional rain dance.}}&lt;/ref&gt; and by the Bulgarian [[hieromonk]] [[Spiridon Gabrovski]] who also noted to be related to Perun (1792, ''Peperud'').{{sfn|Belaj|2007|p=80}}&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite book|url=https://archive.org/details/istoriiavokratt00spirgoog|title=История во кратце о болгарском народе славенском. Сочинися и исписа в лето 1792|last=Габровски|first=Спиридон Иеросхимонах|publisher=изд. Св. Синод на Българската Църква|year=1900|location=София|pages=[https://archive.org/details/istoriiavokratt00spirgoog/page/n156 14]}}&lt;/ref&gt; Peoples generally used to organise the Perperuna/Dodola ritual in times of spring and especially summer [[drought]]s, where they worshipped the god/goddess and prayed to him/her for rain (and fertility, later also asked for other field and house blessings). The central character of the ceremony of Perperuna was usually a young boy, while of Dodola usually a young girl, both aged between 10 and 15 years. Purity was important, and sometimes to be orphans. They would be naked, but were not anymore in latest forms of 19-20th century, wearing a skirt and dress densely made of fresh green knitted vines, leaves and flowers of ''[[Sambucus nigra]]'', ''[[Sambucus ebulus]]'', ''[[Clematis flammula]]'', ''[[Clematis vitalba]]'', [[fern]] and other deciduous shrubs and vines, small branches of ''[[Tilia]]'', [[Oak]] and other. The green cover initially covered all body so that the central person figure was almost unrecognizable, but like the necessity of direct skin contact with greenery it also greatly decreased and was very simple in modern period. They whirled and were followed by a small procession of children who walked and danced with them around the same village and fields, sometimes carrying oak or [[Fagus sylvatica|beech]] branches, singing the ritual prayer, stopping together at every house yard, where the hosts would sprinkle water on chosen boy/girl who would shake and thus sprinkle everyone and everything around it (example of &quot;analogical magic&quot;{{Sfn|Puchner|2009|p=346}}), hosts also gifted treats (bread, eggs, cheese, sausages etc., in a later period also money) to children who shared and consumed them among them and sometimes even hosts would drink wine, seemingly as a sacrifice in Perun's honor.&lt;ref name=&quot;Ribaric&quot;&gt;{{Cite book|last=Ribarić|first=Josip|title=O istarskim dijalektima: razmještaj južnoslavenskih dijalekata na poluotoku Istri s opisom vodičkog govora|publisher=Josip Turčinović|date=2002|location=Pazin|orig-date=1916|language=hr|isbn=953-6262-43-6|pages=84–85, 206}}&lt;/ref&gt;{{sfn|Gimbutas|1967|p=743–744}}{{sfn|Evans|1974|p=100, 119}}{{sfn|Jakobson|1985|p=21, 23}}{{sfn|Čulinović-Konstantinović|1963|p=74–77, 83–93}}{{sfn|Muraj|1987|p=158–163}}{{Sfn|Dragić|2007|p=290–293}} The chosen boy/girl was called by one of the name variants of the ritual itself, however in [[Istria]] was also known as ''Prporuš'' and in [[Dalmatia]]-[[Boka Kotorska]] as ''Prpac/Prpats'' and both regions his companions as ''Prporuše'',&lt;ref name=&quot;Ralston&quot;/&gt;{{Sfn|Dragić|2007|p=291}}&lt;ref name=&quot;Ribaric&quot;/&gt;{{sfn|Čulinović-Konstantinović|1963|p=76, 80}} while at [[Pirot]] and [[Nišava District]] in [[Southern Serbia (geographical region)|Southern Serbia]] near Bulgarian border were called as ''dodolće'' and ''preperuđe'', and as in Macedonia both names appear in the same song.{{sfn|Čulinović-Konstantinović|1963|p=79, 95}}{{sfn|Burns|2008|p=220, 222|ps=:The finely documented account by Đorđević of a version of the Balkan rainmaking custom, performed near the River Morava in south-eastern Serbia near the Bulgarian border ... Fly, fly, peperuga/Oh, dodolas, Dear Lord!}} [[File:Пеперуда в Добруджа 1950.jpg|thumb|right|250px|''Peperuda'' performed by Romani in [[Dobruja]], Bulgaria, 1950s.]] By the 20th century once common rituals almost vanished in the Balkans, although rare examples of practice can be traced until 1950-1980s and remained in folk memory. The main reason is the development of agriculture and consequently lack of practical need for existence of mystical connection and customs with nature and weather. Christian church also tried to diminish pagan beliefs and customs, resulting in &quot;dual belief&quot; (''dvoeverie'') in rural populations, a conscious preservation of pre-Christian beliefs and practices alongside Christianity. Into customs and songs were mixed elements from other rituals including Christianity, but they also influenced the creation of Christian songs and prayers invoking the rain which were used as a close Christian alternative (decline was reportedly faster among Catholics{{sfn|Muraj|1987|p=161}}).{{sfn|Čulinović-Konstantinović|1963|p=77, 91–93}}{{sfn|Predojević|2019|p=581, 583, 589–591}} According to [[:hr:Velimir Deželić mlađi|Velimir Deželić Jr.]] in 1937, it was an old custom that &quot;Christians approved it, took it over and further refined it. In the old days, ''Prporuša'' were very much like a [[Piety|pious]] ritual, only later the leaders - ''Prpac'' - began to boast too much, and ''Prporuše'' seemed to be more interested in gifts than beautiful singing and prayer&quot;.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book |last=Deželić Jr. |first=Velimir |date=1937 |title=Kolede: Obrađeni hrvatski godišnji običaji |trans-title=Kolede: Examined Croatian annual customs |url=https://archive.org/details/kolede_obradjeni_hrvatski_godisnji_obicaji-velimir_dezelic_sin/ |language=hr |publisher=Hrvatsko književno društvo svetog Jeronima |page=70 |quote=Ljeti, kad zategnu suše, pošle bi našim selima Prporuše moliti od Boga kišu. Posvuda su Hrvatskom išle Prporuše, a običaj je to prastar — iz pretkršćanskih vremena — ali lijep, pa ga kršćani odobrili, preuzeli i još dotjerali. U stara vremena Prporuše su bile veoma nalik nekom pobožnom obredu, tek poslije su predvodnici — Prpci— počeli suviše lakrdijati, a Prporušama ko da je više do darova, nego do lijepa pjevanja i molitve.}}&lt;/ref&gt; Depending on region, instead of village boys and girls the pagan ritual by then was mostly done by migrating [[Romani people]] from other villages and for whom it became a professional performance motivated by gifts, sometimes followed by financially poor members from other ethnic groups.{{sfn|Čulinović-Konstantinović|1963|p=77, 91–93}}{{sfn|Predojević|2019|p=581, 583, 589–591}}&lt;ref name=&quot;Horvat&quot;&gt;{{cite book |last=Horvat |first=Josip |date=1939 |title=Kultura Hrvata kroz 1000 godina |trans-title=Culture of Croats through 1000 years |url=https://archive.org/details/kultura_hrvata_kroz_1000_godina_ii.izdanje_1939-josip_horvat |language=hr |location=Zagreb |publisher=A. Velzek |pages=23–24}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book |last=Kovačević |first=Ivan |date=1985 |title=Semiologija rituala |trans-title=Semiology of ritual |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=qPMXAAAAIAAJ |language=sr |location=Beograd |publisher=Prosveta |page=79}}&lt;/ref&gt;{{Sfn|Dragić|2007|p=278, 290}} Due to [[Anti-Romani sentiment]], the association with Romani also caused repulsion, shame and ignorance among last generations of members of ethnic groups who originally performed it.{{sfn|Predojević|2019|p=583–584, 589}} Eventually it led to a dichotomy of identification with own traditional heritage, Christianity and stereotypes about Romani witchcraft.{{sfn|Predojević|2019|p=581–582, 584}} In the present days, older generations of Albanians demonstrate the common practice of rainmaking rituals in their life, but newer generations generally see them as something applied in the past, a tradition that their parents have gone through. Nevertheless, elders still accompany [[processions]] of boys and girls, who perform the rainmaking rite dressed with their best [[Albanian traditional clothing|traditional clothing]] except for the main boy or girl, who is dressed entirely in fresh branches, leaves and herbs.&lt;ref&gt;{{harvnb|Qafleshi|2011|pp=51–52|}}; {{harvnb|Ministria|2014|p=66}}; {{harvnb|Halimi|Halimi-Statovci|Xhemaj|2011|pp=2–6, 32–43}}&lt;/ref&gt; Public exhibitions of the ritual are usually performed during Albanian festivals, often for the local audience, but also in the [[Gjirokastër National Folk Festival]], one of the most important events of Albanian culture.{{sfn|Sela|2017|pp=69–70}} ===Perperuna songs=== [[Ioan Slavici]] reported in 1881 that the custom of ''Paparuga'' was already &quot;very disbanded&quot; in Romania.{{sfn|Nodilo|1981|p=51}} Stjepan Žiža in 1889/95 reported that the once common ritual almost vanished in Southwestern and Central-Eastern Istria, Croatia.{{sfn|Čulinović-Konstantinović|1963|p=78}} [[:hr:Ivan Milčetić|Ivan Milčetić]] recorded in 1896 that the custom of ''Prporuša'' also almost vanished from the North Adriatic island of [[Krk]], although almost recently it was well known in all Western parts of Croatia, while in other parts as ''Dodola''.&lt;ref name=&quot;Milcetic&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |last=Milčetić |first=Ivan |date=1896 |title=Prporuša |journal=Zbornik za narodni život i običaje južnih Slavena |location=Belgrade |publisher=[[JAZU]] |volume=1 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=8TwSAAAAYAAJ |pages=217–218 |quote=Čini mi se da je već nestalo prporuše i na otoku Krku, a bijaše još nedavno poznata svuda po zapadnim stranama hrvatskog naroda, dok je po drugim krajevima živjela dodola. Nego i za dodolu već malo gdje znadu. Tako mi piše iz Vir‐Pazara g. L. Jovović, koga sam pitao, da li još Crnogorci poznaju koledu...}}&lt;/ref&gt; Croatian linguist Josip Ribarić recorded in 1916 that it was still alive in Southwestern Istria and [[Ćićarija]] (and related it to the 16th century migration from Dalmatia of speakers of [[Southwestern Istrian]] dialect).&lt;ref name=&quot;Ribaric&quot;/&gt; On island of Krk was also known as ''Barburuša/Barbaruša/Bambaruša'' (occurrence there is possibly related to the 15th century migration which included besides Croats also [[Vlachs of Croatia|Vlach]]-[[Istro-Romanians|Istro-Romanian]] shepherds{{sfn|Zebec|2005|p=68–71, 248}}).{{sfn|Čulinović-Konstantinović|1963|p=80}}{{sfn|Zebec|2005|p=71}} It was also widespread in [[Dalmatia]] (especially [[Zadar]] hinterland, coast and islands), [[Žumberak]] (also known as ''Pepeluše'', ''Prepelice''{{sfn|Muraj|1987|p=161}}) and Western [[Slavonia]] (Križevci).&lt;ref name=&quot;Ralston&quot;/&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;Revija&quot;/&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;Horvat&quot;/&gt;{{sfn|Zebec|2005|p=71}}{{sfn|Čulinović-Konstantinović|1963|p=78, 80–81}}{{Sfn|Dragić|2007|p=291–293}} It was held in Istria at least until the 1950s,{{sfn|Čulinović-Konstantinović|1963|p=82}} in Žumberak until the 1960s,{{sfn|Muraj|1987|p=165}} while according to one account in [[Jezera, Tisno|Jezera]] on island [[Murter]] the last were in the late 20th century.{{Sfn|Dragić|2007|p=292}} In Serbia, Perperuna was only found in [[Kosovo]], Southern and Eastern Serbia near Bulgarian border.{{sfn|Čulinović-Konstantinović|1963|p=79}} According to [[Natko Nodilo]] the discrepancy in distribution between these two countries makes an idea that originally Perperuna was Croatian while Dodola was Serbian custom.{{sfn|Nodilo|1981|p=50a|ps=:Po tome, pa i po različitome imenu za stvar istu, mogao bi ko pomisliti, da su dodole, prvim postankom, čisto srpske, a prporuše hrvatske. U Bosni, zapadno od Vrbasa, zovu se čaroice. Kad bi ovo bilo hrvatski naziv za njih, onda bi prporuše bila riječ, koja k nama pregje od starih Slovenaca.}} Seemingly it was not present in Slovenia, Northern Croatia, almost all of Bosnia and Herzegovina and Montenegro (only sporadically in [[Boka Kotorska]]).{{sfn|Muraj|1987|p=159}} Luka Jovović from [[Virpazar]], Montenegro reported in 1896 that in Montenegro existed some ''koleda'' custom for summer droughts, but was rare and since 1870s not practiced anymore.&lt;ref name=&quot;Milcetic&quot;/&gt; {|class=&quot;wikitable&quot; ||Bulgaria&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book |last=Антонова |first=Илонка Цанова |date=2015 |title=Календарни празници и обичаи на българите |trans-title=Calendar holidays and customs of the Bulgarians |language=bg |location=Sofia |publisher=Издателство на Българската академия на науките &quot;Проф. Марин Дринов&quot; |pages=66–68 |isbn=978-954-322-764-8}}&lt;/ref&gt;||Albania&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book|last=Pipa|first=Arshi|title=Albanian Folk Verse: Structure and Genre|publisher=O. Harrassowitz|year=1978|isbn=3-87828-119-6|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=WCIHAQAAIAAJ|page=58}}&lt;/ref&gt;||Croatia-Krk&lt;br /&gt;&lt;small&gt;([[Dubašnica]], 1896&lt;ref name=&quot;Milcetic&quot;/&gt;)&lt;/small&gt;||Croatia-Istria&lt;br /&gt;&lt;small&gt;([[Lanišće|Vodice]], 1916&lt;ref name=&quot;Ribaric&quot;/&gt;)&lt;/small&gt;||Croatia-Istria&lt;br /&gt;&lt;small&gt;([[Polje Čepić|Čepić]], 1896&lt;ref name=&quot;Milcetic&quot;/&gt;/Štifanići near [[Baderna]], 1906/08&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book |last=Ribarić |first=Josip |editor=Tanja Perić-Polonijo |date=1992 |title=Narodne pjesme Ćićarije |language=hr |location=Pazin |publisher=Istarsko književno društvo &quot;Juraj Dobrila&quot; |pages=11, 208}}&lt;/ref&gt;)&lt;/small&gt;||Croatia-Dalmatia&lt;br /&gt;&lt;small&gt;([[Ražanac]], 1905{{sfn|Čulinović-Konstantinović|1963|p=81}})&lt;/small&gt;||Croatia-Dalmatia&lt;br /&gt;&lt;small&gt;([[Ravni Kotari]], 1867&lt;ref name=&quot;Vuk&quot;&gt;{{cite book |last=Karadžić |first=Vuk Stefanović |author-link=Vuk Stefanović Karadžić |date=1867 |title=Život i običaji naroda srpskoga |trans-title=Life and customs of Serbian nation |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=fX0RAAAAYAAJ |language=sr |location=Vienna |publisher=A. Karacić |pages=61–66}}&lt;/ref&gt;)&lt;/small&gt;||Croatia-Žumberak&lt;br /&gt;&lt;small&gt;(Pavlanci, 1890{{sfn|Muraj|1987|p=164}})&lt;/small&gt;||Macedonia&lt;br /&gt;&lt;small&gt;([[Struga]], 1861&lt;ref name=&quot;Miladinovci&quot;/&gt;)&lt;/small&gt; |- | &lt;poem&gt; &lt;small&gt;Letela e peperuda Daĭ, Bozhe, dŭzhd Daĭ, Bozhe, dŭzhd Ot orache na kopache Da se rodi zhito, proso Zhito, proso i pshenitsa Da se ranyat siracheta Siracheta, siromasi&lt;/small&gt; &lt;/poem&gt; || &lt;poem&gt; &lt;small&gt;Rona-rona, Peperona Bjerë shi ndë arat tona! Të bëhetë thekëri I gjatë gjer në çati Gruri gjer në perëndi Ashtu edhe misëri!&lt;/small&gt; &lt;/poem&gt; || &lt;poem&gt; &lt;small&gt;Prporuša hodila Službu boga molila Dajte sira, dajte jaj Da nam bog da mladi daž Od šenice višnji klas! A ti, bože vični Smiluj se na nas!&lt;/small&gt; &lt;/poem&gt; || &lt;poem&gt; &lt;small&gt;Prporuše hodile Slavu Boga molile I šenice bilice Svake dobre sričice Bog nan ga daj Jedan tihi daž!&lt;/small&gt; &lt;/poem&gt; || &lt;poem&gt; &lt;small&gt;Preporuči hodili / Prporuše hodile Iz Prepora grada / 's Prpora grada Kuda hodili / Da nam bog da dažda Tuda Boga molili / Crljenoga mažda Da nam Bog da dažda / I šenice bilice I crljenoga masta / Svake dobre sričice I šenice bilice / Šenica nan rodila I svake dobre srećice / Dičica prohodila Šenica narodila / Šenicu pojili Dica nam prohodila / Dicu poženili I šenicu pojili / Skupi, bože, oblake! I dicu poženili / Struni bojžu rosicu Skupi, Bože, oblake / Na tu svetu zemljicu! Hiti božju kapljicu / Amen, amen, amen Na ovu svetu zemljicu! Amen&lt;/small&gt; &lt;/poem&gt; || &lt;poem&gt; &lt;small&gt;Prporuše hodile Putom Boga molile Da ni pane kišica Da ni rodi šenica bilica I vinova lozica&lt;/small&gt; &lt;/poem&gt; || &lt;poem&gt; &lt;small&gt;Prporuše hodile Terem Boga molile Da nam dade kišicu Da nam rodi godina I šenica bjelica I vinova lozica I nevjesta đetića Do prvoga božića Daruj nama, striko naša Oku brašna, striko naša Bublu masla, striko naša Runce vune, striko naša Jedan sirčić, striko naša Šaku soli, striko naša Dva, tri jajca, striko naša Ostaj s Bogom, striko naša Koja si nas darovala&lt;/small&gt; &lt;/poem&gt; || &lt;poem&gt; &lt;small&gt;Preperuša odila Za nas Boga molila Daj nam Bože kišice Na ovu našu ljetinu Da pokvasi mladinu Pucaj, pucaj ledeno Škrapaj, škrapaj godino Mi smo tebi veseli Kano Isus Mariji Kaj Marija Isusu Kano mati djetetu&lt;/small&gt; &lt;/poem&gt; || &lt;poem&gt; &lt;small&gt;Otletala preperuga, oj ljule, oj! Ot oracha na oracha, oj ljule, oj! Ot kopacha na kopacha, oj ljule, oj! Ot rezhacha na rezhacha; oj ljule, oj! Da zarosit sitna rosa, oj ljule, oj! Sitna rosa beriketna, oj ljule, oj! I po pole i po more; oj ljule, oj! Da se rodit s' beriket, oj ljule, oj! S' beriket vino-zhito; oj ljule, oj! Cheincite do gredite, oj ljule, oj! Jachmenite do streite, oj ljule, oj! Lenoite do pojasi, oj ljule, oj! Uroite do kolena; oj ljule, oj! Da se ranet siromasi, oj ljule, oj! Drvete ne so osito, oj ljule, oj! Da je sita godina; oj ljule, oj! Drvete ne so oshnica, oj ljule, oj! Da ja polna koshnica; oj ljule, oj! Drvete ne so jamache, oj ljule, oj! Da je tuchna godina, oj ljule, oj!&lt;/small&gt; &lt;/poem&gt; |} ===Dodola songs=== The oldest record for Dodole rituals in Macedonia is the song &quot;Oj Ljule&quot; from [[Struga]] region, recorded in 1861.&lt;ref name=&quot;Miladinovci&quot;&gt;{{cite book|last = Miladinovci|title = Зборник|publisher = Kočo Racin|year = 1962|location = Skopje|url = http://www.gbiblsk.edu.mk/images/stories/eknigi/zbornik.pdf|page = 462|archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20120216225647/http://www.gbiblsk.edu.mk/images/stories/eknigi/zbornik.pdf |archive-date = 2012-02-16}}&lt;/ref&gt; The Dodola rituals in Macedonia were actively held until the 1960s.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book|last=Veličkovska|first=Rodna|title=Музичките дијалекти во македонското традиционално народно пеење: обредно пеење|trans-title=Musical dialects in the Macedonian traditional folk singing: ritual singing| publisher=Institute of folklore &quot;Marko Cepenkov&quot;|year=2009|location=Skopje|language=mk|page=45}}&lt;/ref&gt; In Bulgaria the chorus was also &quot;Oj Ljule&quot;.{{sfn|Nodilo|1981|p=50b}} The oldest record in Serbia was by [[Vuk Karadžić]] (1841),{{sfn|Čulinović-Konstantinović|1963|p=79}} where was widespread all over the country and held at least until 1950/70s.&lt;ref name=&quot;Zecevic&quot;/&gt;{{sfn|Čulinović-Konstantinović|1963|p=77–78, 86, 88}} In Croatia was found in Eastern Slavonia, Southern [[Baranya (region)|Baranja]] and Southeastern [[Srijem]].&lt;ref name=&quot;Horvat&quot;/&gt;{{sfn|Čulinović-Konstantinović|1963|p=77–78, 90}}{{sfn|Muraj|1987|p=159}}{{sfn|Dragić|2012|p=54}}&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book |last=Janković |first=Slavko |date=1956 |title=Kuhačeva zbirka narodnih popijevaka (analizirana): od br. 1801 do br. 2000 |url=https://repozitorij.dief.eu/a/?pr=i&amp;id=69581 |quote=Naša doda moli Boga ([[Otok, Vukovar-Syrmia County|Otok]], Slavonia, 1881, sken ID: IEF_RKP_N0096_0_155; IEF_RKP_N0096_0_156A) - Ide doda preko sela ([[Erdevik]], Srijem, 1885, sken ID: IEF_RKP_N0096_0_163; IEF_RKP_N0096_0_164A) - Filip i Jakob, Koleda na kišu ([[Gibarac]], Srijem, 1886, sken ID: IEF_RKP_N0096_0_165; IEF_RKP_N0096_0_166A)}}&lt;/ref&gt; [[August Šenoa]] in his writing about the travel to Okić-grad near [[Samobor]], Croatia mentioned that saw two dodole.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |url=https://www.knjizevnost.hr/zagrebulje-1866-august-senoa/ |title=Zagrebulje I (1866.) |last=Šenoa |first=August |author-link=August Šenoa |date=1866 |website=Književnost.hr |publisher=informativka d.o.o. |access-date=23 July 2022 |quote=...već se miču niz Okić put naše šljive dvije u zeleno zavite dodole. S ovoga dodolskoga dualizma sjetih se odmah kakvi zecevi u tom grmu idu, i moja me nada ne prevari. Eto ti pred nas dva naša junaka, ne kao dodole, kao bradurina i trbušina, već kao pravi pravcati bogovi – kao Bako i Gambrinus... Naša dva boga, u zeleno zavita, podijeliše društvu svoj blagoslov, te bjehu sa živim usklikom primljeni. No i ova mitologička šala i mrcvarenje božanske poezije po našem generalkvartirmeštru pobudi bogove na osvetu; nad našim glavama zgrnuše se oblaci, i naskoro udari kiša.}}&lt;/ref&gt; To them is related the custom of Lade/Ladarice from other parts of Croatia, having chorus &quot;''Oj Lado, oj!''&quot; and similar verses &quot;''Molimo se višnjem Bogu/Da popuhne tihi vjetar, Da udari rodna kiša/Da porosi naša polja, I travicu mekušicu/Da nam stada Lado, Ugoje se naša stada''&quot;.&lt;ref name=&quot;Cubelic&quot;/&gt;{{Sfn|Dragić|2007|p=279, 283}}&lt;ref name=&quot;Dragic2012&quot;/&gt; {|class=&quot;wikitable&quot; ||Serbia&lt;br /&gt;&lt;small&gt;(1841&lt;ref name=&quot;Vuk&quot;/&gt;{{sfn|Čulinović-Konstantinović|1963|p=88}})&lt;/small&gt;||Serbia&lt;br /&gt;&lt;small&gt;(1867&lt;ref name=&quot;Vuk&quot;/&gt;)&lt;/small&gt;||Serbia&lt;br /&gt;&lt;small&gt;(1867&lt;ref name=&quot;Vuk&quot;/&gt;)&lt;/small&gt;||Croatia-Slavonia&lt;br /&gt;&lt;small&gt;([[Đakovo]]&lt;ref name=&quot;Dragic2012&quot;/&gt;)&lt;/small&gt;||Croatia-Slavonia&lt;br /&gt;&lt;small&gt;(Đakovo, 1957{{sfn|Čulinović-Konstantinović|1963|p=77, 90}})&lt;/small&gt;||Croatia-Srijem&lt;br /&gt;&lt;small&gt;([[Tovarnik]], 1979&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal |last=Černelić |first=Milana |date=1998 |title=Kroz godinu dana srijemskih običaja vukovarskog kraja |trans-title=Annual customs of Srijem in the Vukovar region |url=https://hrcak.srce.hr/80816 |language=hr |journal=Etnološka tribina |volume=28 |issue=21 |page=135}}&lt;/ref&gt;)&lt;/small&gt; |- | &lt;poem&gt; &lt;small&gt;Mi idemo preko sela, Oj dodo, oj dodo le! A oblaci preko neba, Oj dodo, oj dodo le! A mi brže, oblak brže, Oj dodo, oj dodo le! Oblaci nas pretekoše, Oj dodo, oj dodo le! Žito, vino porosiše, Oj dodo, oj dodo le!&lt;/small&gt; &lt;/poem&gt; || &lt;poem&gt; &lt;small&gt;Molimo se višnjem Bogu, Oj dodo, oj dodo le! Da udari rosna kiša, Oj dodo, oj dodo le! Da porosi naša polja, Oj dodo, oj dodo le! I šenicu ozimicu, Oj dodo, oj dodo le! I dva pera kukuruza, Oj dodo, oj dodo le!&lt;/small&gt; &lt;/poem&gt; || &lt;poem&gt; &lt;small&gt;Naša doda Boga moli, Oj dodo, oj dodo le! Da udari rosna kiša, Oj dodo, oj dodo le! Da pokisnu svi orači, Oj dodo, oj dodo le! Svi orači i kopači, Oj dodo, oj dodo le! I po kući poslovači, Oj dodo, oj dodo le!&lt;/small&gt; &lt;/poem&gt; || &lt;poem&gt; &lt;small&gt;Naša doda moli Boga Oj dodole, moj božole! Da porosi rosna kiša Oj dodole, moj božole! Da pokvasi naša polja Oj dodole, moj božole! Da urode, da prerode Oj dodole, moj božole!&lt;/small&gt; &lt;/poem&gt; || &lt;poem&gt; &lt;small&gt;Naša dojda moli boga da kiša pada Da pokisne suvo polje, oj, dojdole! Da pokisnu svi orači Svi orači i kopači, oj, dojdole! I po kući poslovači Oj, dojdole, oj, dojdole! I dva pera kukuruza I lanovi za darove, oj, dojdole! Da urodi, da prerodi, da ne polegne Oj, dojdole, oj, dojdole!&lt;/small&gt; &lt;/poem&gt; || &lt;poem&gt; &lt;small&gt;Naša doda moli Boga Da nam Bog da rosne kiše Rosne kiše malo više Na orače i kopače I na naše suve bašće Oj dodo, oj dodole! Da trava raste Da paun pase Da sunce sija Da žito zrija Oj dodo, oj dodole!&lt;/small&gt; &lt;/poem&gt; |} ==Other== According to [[Albanian folk beliefs]], the Sun ([[Dielli (Albanian paganism)|Dielli]]) makes the sky cloudy or clears it up.&lt;ref&gt;{{harvnb|Tirta|2004|pp=71–72}}; {{harvnb|Gjoni|2012|pp=85–86}}&lt;/ref&gt; Albanians used to invoke the Sun with rainmaking and soil fertility rituals. In rainmaking rituals from the [[Albanian Ionian Sea Coast]], Albanians used to pray to the Sun, in particular facing Mount [[Shëndelli]] (Mount &quot;Holy Sun&quot;), by invoking the names ''Dielli'', ''Shën Dëlliu'', ''Ilia'' or ''[[Perëndi]]a''. Children used to dress a boy with fresh branches, calling him ''dordolec''. A typical invocation song repeated three times during the ritual was:{{sfn|Gjoni|2012|pp=85–86}} {{blockquote|&quot;O Ilia, Ilia,&lt;br /&gt;Peperuga rrugëzaj&lt;br /&gt;Bjerë shi o Perëndi,&lt;br /&gt;Se qajnë ca varfëri,&lt;br /&gt;Me lot e logori&lt;br /&gt;Thekëri gjer mbë çati,&lt;br /&gt;Gruri gjer në Perëndi.&quot;}} Afterwards, people used to say: ''Do kemi shi se u nxi Shëndëlliu'' (&quot;We will have rain because ''Shëndëlliu'' went dark&quot;).{{sfn|Gjoni|2012|pp=85–86}} The Sun used to be also invoked when reappearing after the rain, prayed for increased production in agriculture.{{sfn|Gjoni|2012|pp=85–86}} == See also == {{commons category|Dodola}} * [[Albanian paganism]] * [[Folklore of Romania]] * [[Slavic paganism]] * [[Caloian]] * [[Perëndi]] * [[Porenut]] * [[Porevit]] == References == {{reflist}} === Bibliography === {{Refbegin|30em|indent=yes}} &lt;!-- B --&gt; *{{cite book |last=Belaj |first=Vitomir |author-link=Vitomir Belaj |date=2007 |orig-date=1998 |title=Hod kroz godinu: Mitska pozadina hrvatskih narodnih običaja i vjerovanja |trans-title=The walk within a year: the mythic background of the Croatian folk customs and beliefs |language=hr |location=Zagreb |publisher=Golden marketing-Tehnička knjiga |isbn=978-953-212-334-0}} *{{cite journal|last=Burns|first=Richard|title=Rain and Dust|journal=[[Studia Mythologica Slavica]]|volume=XI|issn=1581-128X|doi=10.3986/sms.v11i0.1696|year=2008|pages=217–236|doi-access=free}} &lt;!-- C --&gt; *{{cite journal |last=Čulinović-Konstantinović |first=Vesna |date=1963 |title=Dodole i prporuše: narodni običaji za prizivanje kiše |trans-title=Dodole and prporuše: folk customs for invoking the rain |url=https://hrcak.srce.hr/34409 |language=hr |journal=Narodna Umjetnost |volume=2 |issue=1 |pages=73–95}} &lt;!-- D --&gt; *{{cite journal |last=Dragić |first=Marko |date=2007 |title=Ladarice, kraljice i dodole u hrvatskoj tradicijskoj kulturi i slavenskom kontekstu |trans-title=Ladarice, Queens and Dodole in Croatian Traditionary Culture and Slavic Context |url=https://www.bib.irb.hr/299913 |language=hr |journal=Hercegovina, godišnjak za kulturno i povijesno naslijeđe |volume=21 |pages=275–296}} &lt;!-- G --&gt; *{{cite book|last=Gamkrelidze|first=Ivanov|title=Indo-European and the Indoeuropeans|publisher=Mouton de Gruyter|year=1995}} *{{cite book |last=Gieysztor |first=Aleksander |author-link=Aleksander Gieysztor |date=2006 |orig-date=1982 |edition=II |title=Mitologia Slowian |publisher=Wydawn. Uniwersytetu Warszawskiego |location=Warszawa |language=pl |isbn=978-83-235-0234-0}} *{{cite book |last=Gimbutas |first=Marija |author-link=Marija Gimbutas |date=1967 |chapter=Ancient Slavic Religion: A Synopsis |title=To honor Roman Jakobson: essays on the occasion of his seventieth birthday, 11 October 1966 (Vol. I) |pages=738–759 |publisher=Mouton |doi=10.1515/9783111604763-064 |isbn=978-3-11-122958-4}} *{{cite thesis|type=PhD|last=Gjoni|first=Irena|title=Marrëdhënie të miteve dhe kulteve të bregdetit të Jonit me areale të tjera mitike|publisher=University of Tirana, Faculty of History and Philology|language=sq|year=2012|place=Tirana}} &lt;!-- E --&gt; * {{cite book|last=Elsie|first=Robert|year=2000|title=The Christian Saints of Albania|publisher=Balkanistica|url=http://home.olemiss.edu/~mldyer/balk/article2.html|volume=13}} * {{cite book|last=Elsie|first=Robert|author-link=Robert Elsie|title=A Dictionary of Albanian Religion, Mythology and Folk Culture|place=London|publisher=Hurst &amp; Company|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=N_IXHrXIsYkC|isbn=1-85065-570-7|year=2001a}} *{{cite book|last=Elsie|first=Robert|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ve4SAQAAIAAJ|title=Albanian Folktales and Legends|year=2001b|publisher=Dukagjini Publishing House}} *{{cite book |last=Evans |first=David |date=1974 |chapter=Dodona, Dodola, and Daedala |title=Myth in Indo-European Antiquity |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=QNzuDwAAQBAJ |pages=99–130 |publisher=University of California Press |isbn=978-0-520-02378-9}} &lt;!-- H --&gt; *{{cite journal|last=Håland|first=Evy Johanne|title=Rituals of Magical Rain-Making in Modern and Ancient Greece: A Comparative Approach|journal=Cosmos|volume=17|year=2001|pages=197–251}} *{{cite book|last1=Halimi|first1=Zanita|last2=Halimi-Statovci|first2=Drita|last3=Xhemaj|first3=Ukë|translator=Lumnije Kadriu|title=Rite dhe Aktualiteti|trans-title=Rites and Contemporariness/Present Time|publisher=[[University of Prishtina]]|year=2011|url=https://chwbkosova.org/wp-content/uploads/2014/09/Publication_2011_7-min.pdf}} &lt;!-- J --&gt; *{{cite journal|last=Jackson|first=Peter|date=2002|title=Light from Distant Asterisks. Towards a Description of the Indo-European Religious Heritage|journal=Numen|volume=49|issue=1|pages=61–102|issn=0029-5973|jstor=3270472|doi=10.1163/15685270252772777}} *{{cite journal |last1=Jakobson |first1=Roman |author-link=Roman Jakobson |date=1955 |title=While Reading Vasmer's Dictionary |url=https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/pdf/10.1080/00437956.1955.11659581 |journal=[[Word (journal)|Word]] |volume=11 |issue=4 |pages=611–617 |doi=10.1080/00437956.1955.11659581}} *{{cite book |last=Jakobson |first=Roman |author-link=Roman Jakobson |date=1985 |title=Selected Writings VII: Contributions to Comparative Mythology |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=db7iuvTX1bkC |publisher=[[Walter de Gruyter]] |isbn=978-3-11-010617-6}} &lt;!-- K --&gt; *{{cite journal |last=Ḱulavkova |first=Katica |date=2020 |title=A Poetic Ritual Invoking Rain and Well-Being: Richard Berengarten's In a Time of Drought |url=https://scholarworks.iu.edu/journals/index.php/aeer/article/view/28956 |journal=Anthropology of East Europe Review |volume=37 |issue=1 |pages=17–26}} *{{cite book |last=Kulišić |first=Špiro |author-link=Špiro Kulišić |editor=[[Alojz Benac]] |date=1979 |title=Stara slovenska religija u svjetlu novijih istraživanja – posebno balkanoloških |language=sh |volume=Djela LVI, CBI knjiga 3 |location=Sarajevo |publisher=Centre for Balkan Studies, [[ANUBIH]]}} &lt;!-- L --&gt; *{{cite book |last=Lajoye |first=Patrice |author-link=Patrice Lajoye |date=2015 |title=Perun, dieu slave de l'orage: Archéologie, histoire, folklore |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=o5LdCgAAQBAJ |language=fr |publisher=Lingva |isbn=979-10-94441-25-1}} *{{cite book|last=Łuczyński|first=Michal|year=2020|title=Bogowie dawnych Słowian: Studium onomastyczne|publisher=Kieleckie Towarzystwo Naukowe|location=Kielce|isbn=978-83-60777-83-1|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=rv-izQEACAAJ|language=pl}} &lt;!-- M --&gt; *{{cite book|author=Ministria e Mjedisit dhe Planifikimit Hapësinor|title=Parku Kombëtar &quot;Sharri&quot; – Plani Hapësinor|publisher=Kosovo Environmental Protection Agency, Institute for Spatial Planning|year=2014|ref={{harvid|Ministria|2014}}}} *{{cite journal |last=Muraj |first=Aleksandra |date=1987 |title=Iz istraživanja Žumberka (preperuše, preslice, tara) |trans-title=From Research on Žumberak (preperuše, spindles, tara) |url=https://hrcak.srce.hr/clanak/76272 |language=hr |journal=Narodna Umjetnost |volume=24 |issue=1 |pages=157–175}} &lt;!-- N --&gt; *{{cite book |last=Nodilo |first=Natko |author-link=Natko Nodilo |date=1981 |orig-date=1884 |title=Stara Vjera Srba i Hrvata |trans-title=Old Faith of Serbs and Croats |url=https://archive.org/details/StaraVjeraSrbaIHrvata/ |language=hr |location=Split |publisher=Logos}} *{{cite book|last=Norris|first=Harry Thirlwall|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=RGmzir-ITtUC&amp;pg=PA34|title=Islam in the Balkans: Religion and Society Between Europe and the Arab World|publisher=University of South Carolina Press|year=1993|isbn=9780872499775|location=Columbia, S.C|pages=211|language=en|oclc=28067651}} &lt;!-- P --&gt; *{{cite book |last=Predojević |first=Željko |date=2019 |chapter=O pučkim postupcima i vjerovanjima za prizivanje kiše iz južne Baranje u kontekstu dvovjerja |trans-chapter=On folk practices and beliefs for invoking rain from southern Baranja in the context of dual belif |chapter-url=https://www.bib.irb.hr/1100049 |title=XIV. međunarodni kroatistički znanstveni skup |editor=István Blazsetin |editor-link=István Blazsetin (born 1963) |location=Pečuh |publisher=Znanstveni zavod Hrvata u Mađarskoj |language=hr |pages=581–593 |isbn=978-963-89731-5-3}} *{{cite book |last=Puchner |first=Walter |author-link=Walter Puchner |date=2009 |title=Studien zur Volkskunde Südosteuropas und des mediterranen Raums |url=https://library.oapen.org/handle/20.500.12657/34402 |location=Wien, Köln, Weimar |publisher=Böhlau Verlag |hdl=20.500.12657/34402 |language=de |isbn=978-3-205-78369-5}} *{{cite book|last1=Puhvel|first1=Jaan|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=OMPagyYOe8gC|title=Comparative Mythology|date=1987|publisher=Johns Hopkins University Press|isbn=978-0-8018-3938-2|author-link=Jaan Puhvel}} &lt;!-- Q --&gt; *{{cite book|last=Qafleshi|first=Muharrem|title=Opoja dhe Gora ndër shekuj|trans-title=Opoja and Gora During Centuries|publisher=[[Albanological Institute of Pristina]]|year=2011|isbn=978-9951-596-51-0}} &lt;!-- S --&gt; *{{cite book|last=Sela|first=Jonida|title=International Conference &quot;Education and Cultural Heritage&quot;|chapter=Values and Traditions in Ritual Dances of All-Year Celebrations in Korça Region, Albania|volume=1|publisher=Association of Heritage and Education|year=2017|pages=62–71}} &lt;!-- T --&gt; *{{cite book|last=Tirta|first=Mark|title=Mitologjia ndër shqiptarë|language=sq|editor=Petrit Bezhani|publisher=Mësonjëtorja|year=2004|place=Tirana|isbn=99927-938-9-9}} &lt;!-- U --&gt; *{{cite book|last=Urbańczyk|first=Stanisław|author-link=Stanisław Urbańczyk|year=1991|title=Dawni Słowianie: wiara i kult|trans-title=Old Slavs: faith and cult|publisher=Ossolineum, Polska Akademia Nauk, Komitet Słowianoznawstwa|location=Kraków|isbn=978-83-04-03825-7|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=4iUtAAAAMAAJ|language=pl}} &lt;!-- W --&gt; *{{cite book|last=Wachtel|first=Andrew Baruch|year=2008|title=The Balkans in World History|publisher=Oxford University Press|location=Oxford, England|isbn=978-0-19-988273-1|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=t6CeBgAAQBAJ}} *{{cite book|last=West|first=M. L.|title=Indo-European Poetry and Myth|publisher=Oxford University Press|year=2007|isbn=978-0-19-928075-9}} &lt;!-- Z --&gt; *{{cite book |last=Zebec |first=Tvrtko |date=2005 |title=Krčki tanci: plesno-etnološka studija |trans-title=Tanac dances on the island of Krk: dance ethnology study |url=https://www.academia.edu/35914079 |location=Zagreb, Rijeka |publisher=Institut za etnologiju i folkloristiku, Adamić |language=hr |isbn=953-219-223-9}} {{refend}} === Further reading === {{refbegin}} * {{ill|Bellosics, Bálint|hu|Bellosics Bálint}}. &quot;[http://real-j.mtak.hu/17297/ Dodola (Adatok az esőcsináláshoz)]&quot; [Dodola, Beiträge zum Regenmachen]. In: ''Ethnographia'' 6 (1895): 418–422. (In Hungarian) *{{cite book |last=Beza |first=Marcu |author-link=Marcu Beza |date=1928 |chapter=The Paparude and Kalojan |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=m2jTDwAAQBAJ |title=Paganism in Roumanian Folklore |location=London |publisher=J.M.Dent &amp; Sons LTD. |pages=27–36|isbn=978-3-8460-4695-1 }} * Boghici, Constantina. &quot;Archaic Elements in the Romanian Spring-Summer Traditions. Landmarks for Dâmboviţa County&quot;. In: ''Bulletin of the Transilvania University of Braşov'', Series VIII: Performing Arts 2 (2013): 17–18. https://ceeol.azurewebsites.net/search/article-detail?id=258246 * {{cite book |last=Cook |first=Arthur Bernard |author-link=Arthur Bernard Cook |date=1940 |chapter=Zeus and the Rain: Rain-magic in modern Greece |title=Zeus: A Study in Ancient Religion: God of the Dark Sky (earthquakes, clouds, wind, dew, rain, meteorites) |volume=3 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=2Yk8AAAAIAAJ |publisher=Cambridge University Press |pages=284–290 |isbn=978-0-511-69664-0 |doi=10.1017/CBO9780511696640}} * {{ill|Dömötör, Tekla|hu|Dömötor Tekla}}; {{ill|Eperjessy, Ernő|hu|Eperjessy Ernő}}. &quot;[http://real-j.mtak.hu/2925/ Dodola and Other Slavonic Folk-Customs in County Baranya (Hungary)]&quot;. In: ''Acta Ethnographica'', 16 (1967): 399–408. * {{cite journal |title=Paparuda |trans-title=Paparuda |first=Mihai |last=Dragnea |publisher=MUZEUL ETNOGRAFIC AL TRANSILVANIEI |journal=Anuarul Muzeului Etnografic al Transilvaniei |date=2012 |issue=6 |pages=73–81 |lang=Romanian}} * {{Cite journal |title=Песента в обреда Пеперуда |trans-title=The Song in the Peperuda Ritual |first=Bozhanka |last=Ganeva |publisher=Институт за етнология и фолклористика с Етнографски музей при БАН |journal=Български фолклор |volume=XXIX |date=2003 |issue=1 |pages=40–49 |lang=BG}} * Janković, Danica S., and Ljubica S. Janković. &quot;Serbian Folk Dance Tradition in Prizren&quot;. In: ''Ethnomusicology'' 6, no. 2 (1962): 117. https://doi.org/10.2307/924671. * {{cite journal |title=Вариантн на обредите Пеперуда и Герман |trans-title=Variants of the Rites Peperuda and German |first=Rusko |last=Kalev |publisher=Институт за етнология и фолклористика с Етнографски музей при БАН |journal=Български фолклор |volume=XII |date=1986 |issue=3 |pages=47–58 |lang=BG}} * {{cite journal |title=Słownictwo związane z wywoływaniem deszczu w dialektach sztokawskich |trans-title=Vocabulary related to rain calling in Shtokavian dialects |first=Agata |last=Kruszec |publisher=Instytut Slawistyki Polskiej Akademii Nauk |journal=Studia z Filologii Polskiej i Słowiańskiej |date=2008 |issue=43 |pages=141–148 |lang=PL}} * Мандич, Мария. &quot;[https://dais.sanu.ac.rs/123456789/7850 &quot;Жизнь&quot; ритуала после &quot;угасания&quot;: Пример додолы из села Сигетчеп в Венгрии]&quot; [The 'life' of an extinguished ritual: The case of the rain ritual dodola from Szigetcsép in Hungary]. In: &quot;Славяноведение&quot; 6 (2019): 15–29. DOI: 10.31857/S0869544X0006755-3 (In Russian) * {{cite book |last1=Marushiakova |first1=E. |last2=Popov |first2=V. |date=2016 |chapter=Roma Culture: Problems and Challenges |editor1-first=E. |editor1-last=Marushiakova |editor2-first=V. |editor2-last=Popov |title=Roma Culture: Myths and Realities |page=48 |location=München |publisher=Lincom Academic Publishers |url=https://www.academia.edu/26969260}} * {{cite journal |title=Женска антропоморфна пластика в два обреда за дъжд от Ямболски окръг |trans-title=Female Anthropomorphic Figures in Two Rain-Making Ceremonies from the District of Yambol |first=Lyubomir |last=Mikov |publisher=Институт за етнология и фолклористика с Етнографски музей при БАН |journal=Български фолклор |volume=XI |date=1985 |issue=4 |pages=19–27 |lang=BG}} * Puchner, Walter. &quot;Liedtextstudien Zur Balkanischen Regenlitanei: Mit Spezieller Berücksichtigung Der Bulgarischen Und Griechischen Varianten&quot;. In: ''Jahrbuch Für Volksliedforschung'' 29 (1984): 100–111. https://doi.org/10.2307/849291. *{{cite book |last=Schneeweis |first=Edmund |date=2019 |orig-date=1961 |title=Serbokroatische Volkskunde: Volksglaube und Volksbrauch |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=bR6bDwAAQBAJ |publisher=Walter de Gruyter GmbH &amp; Co KG |pages=161–163 |language=de |isbn=978-3-11-133764-7}} *{{cite book |last=MacDermott |first=Mercia |author-link=Mercia MacDermott |date=2003 |title=Explore Green Men |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=vT1NAAAAYAAJ |publisher=Heart of Albion Press |pages=17–19 |isbn=978-1-872883-66-3}} *{{citation |title=Dodole |url=https://www.enciklopedija.hr/natuknica.aspx?ID=15709 |author=Croatian Encyclopaedia |author-link=Croatian Encyclopaedia |year=2021}} {{refend}} ===External links=== *{{YouTube|id=X0BgBEtnK4s|title=Dodole ritual on TV in Macedonia}} *{{YouTube|id=aeCQgFUsIKA|title=Reconstruction of Dodole ritual in Bulgaria}} at [[Etar Architectural-Ethnographic Complex]] *{{YouTube|id=n2Vhk_eiwkg|title=&quot;Dodole&quot; song by Croatian ethno-folk rock band Kries}} *[https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=G8O5-a4rCk4 Pirpirouna/Pirpiruna/Perperouna – Rainmaking ritual song], and its [https://www.oeaw.ac.at/fileadmin/kommissionen/vanishinglanguages/Collections/Greek_varieties/Macedonian_Greek/Transcription_pdfs/mace1251TRV0001a_transcription.pdf lyrics], recorded 2016 by Thede Kahl and Andreea Pascaru in Turkey *[https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=evOGzUGT8kc Dodola/Pirpiruna – Rainmaking ritual song, description of the custom] and [https://www.oeaw.ac.at/fileadmin/kommissionen/vanishinglanguages/Collections/Greek_varieties/Macedonian_Greek/Transcription_pdfs/mace1251TRV0001a_transcription.pdf its lyrics], recorded 2020 in Northeast Greece by Sotirios Rousiakis {{Slavic mythology}} [[Category:Albanian folklore]] [[Category:Aromanian culture]] [[Category:Bulgarian folklore]] [[Category:Bulgarian traditions]] [[Category:Croatian folklore]] [[Category:Greek folklore]] [[Category:Macedonian traditions]] [[Category:Moldovan traditions]] [[Category:Rainmaking (ritual)]] [[Category:Romanian folklore]] [[Category:Romanian traditions]] [[Category:Serbian folklore]] [[Category:Serbian traditions]] [[Category:Slavic pseudo-deities]] [[Category:South Slavic culture]]</div></summary> <author><name>Βατο</name></author> </entry> <entry> <id>https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Talk:Dodola_and_Perperuna&diff=1257590602</id> <title>Talk:Dodola and Perperuna</title> <link rel="alternate" type="text/html" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Talk:Dodola_and_Perperuna&diff=1257590602"/> <updated>2024-11-15T18:41:40Z</updated> <summary type="html">Βατο: <hr /> <div>{{WikiProject banner shell|class=Start|1= {{WikiProject Mythology | importance=Low}} {{WikiProject Albania|importance=low}} {{WikiProject Bulgaria|importance=low}} {{WikiProject Croatia|importance=low}} {{WikiProject Romania|importance=low}} {{WikiProject Serbia| importance=Low}} {{WikiProject North Macedonia| importance=Low}} {{WikiProject Neopaganism | importance=Low}} }} {{old move|date=22 August 2024|destination=Rainmaking (Southeast Europe)|result=no consensus|link=Special:Permalink/1249265199#Requested move 22 August 2024}} ==2004== I deleted almost the entire original article. It was just too incomprehensible. I replaced it with a scrap of info found on the web. --[[User:LeeHunter|LeeHunter]] 00:49, 24 Aug 2004 (UTC) : Wikipedians who understand [[Slavic languages]] and are knowledgeable in [[Slavic mythology]] are invited to sort out the following text (that was replaced by a nice little stub by [[User:LeeHunter]]): :: '''Perperuna''' - originally probably divine partner (wife) of [[Perun]]; probably the name formed by reduplication core &amp;#8220;per-&amp;#8220;, however it could be also personalization (result) of activity of Perun - &amp;#8222;flinging rock&quot; (per-perun-a?) = rain - analog. Ind. Parjanya &amp;#8222;(secondarily) cloud, rain&quot; - surname of Indra. Perperuna is the name behaved as designation of participant of ceremony (noted in SouthSlav. folklore) of summoning of rain, called also [[dodola]], dudula (compare to: Lith. [[Perkunas]] - Dundúlis, Latt. Dundusélis and Gr. [[Dodona]]); if we identify perperuna-dodola with [[beregynja]](*perkynja), we deal with team of names - teonyms embracing with significative range occurrence of worship of fecundity: [[Moko&amp;#353;]] (Mather Earth) - Perkynia / Pergynja(&amp;#8222;Holy Forest - Oak wood&quot; / &amp;#8222;Mountain&quot; - on the ground of analogy Ind. also: &amp;#8222;Cloud, Rain&quot;) - Perperuna (Perun's partner, on the ground of analogy Hett. also: &amp;#8222;Rock&quot;) compactly related with &amp;#8222;masculine&quot; worship Thunderlord - Perun. Hipostasy of goddess was probably a viper (snake) guardian of house - &amp;#382;mija cuvakuca, &amp;#382;mija kucarica (SouthSlav.). : Have fun with it. :-) : -- [[User:PFHLai|PFHLai]] 01:28, 2004 Aug 24 (UTC) : P.S. I think &quot;Moko&amp;#353;&quot; is [[Mokosh]]. ==Old talk== Text from [http://free.bol.bg/slavpagan/deities.html webpage] owned by the contributor How do we KNOW that the contributor owns the webpage? And where has he/she released the material to GFDL? [[User:RickK|Rick]][[User talk:RickK|K]] 05:57, Oct 14, 2004 (UTC) :He/she released it by copying. How do we KNOW anything? He/she told us so. Must he go to notary public first? What is the policy about contributing owned materials? Has he (acting as wikipedian) to send a letter to himself (acting as a webmaster) with request for confirmation? [[User:Mikkalai|Mikkalai]] 06:22, 14 Oct 2004 (UTC) ::BTW, I've already met this situation (related to the bio of some Rumanian professor), asked at pump, and got no answer (and safely forgot about the issue until now). IMO here is a hole in wikipolicies. [[User:Mikkalai|Mikkalai]] 06:25, 14 Oct 2004 (UTC) :::This was done in past. Email of site owner, as given on [http://free.bol.bg/slavpagan/home.html] is ogneslav@abv.bg and anyone interested can contact him and ask is he really Wikipedia user Ogneslav and then copy/paste the email here (I'd do it but it seems that he dislikes me). Perhaps he'd even permit others to use material from his site. [[User:Nikola Smolenski|Nikola]] 09:04, 14 Oct 2004 (UTC) :::: You also didn't understand my question: wikipedia's policies don't say how he '''himself''', from thr very beginning could confirm that he is the author, without '''me''' or '''you'''. [[User:Mikkalai|Mikkalai]] 14:58, 14 Oct 2004 (UTC) :::::Well, he '''himself''' '''''could not''''' from the very beginning confirm that he is the author. Period. ::::::'''That's''' what I am saying: wikipedia's policy has a hole. And there are ways to fix it.[[User:Mikkalai|Mikkalai]] 14:56, 15 Oct 2004 (UTC) :::::I have in past created a few pages where I'd just copy/paste text from a web site with nothing more than saying &quot;Text from http://website used with permission. &lt;nowiki&gt;~~~~&lt;/nowiki&gt;&quot; at the talk page. I was able to do this because, before that, I have contributed to Wikipedia for a long time, and none of my contributions are found to be copyright violations, and so everyone who reviewed the article knew that I understand and respect Wikipedia's copyright policy, and it is very unlikely that I would begin breaking it all of a sudden. On the other hand, this is a new user, who started to contribute copyrighted material, and there is possibility that he could be, as likely website owner, as someone who simply wants to use copyrighted material from the website and make false claims to get away with it. :::::This is all empty talk, however; wouldn't it be far easier and faster to simply e-mail the guy than to talk about what could have happened if something had happened? [[User:Nikola Smolenski|Nikola]] 07:37, 15 Oct 2004 (UTC) ::::::I don't care much about this topic and about the author. Do you think I cannot use e-mail? I am talking about the policy. I am going to summarize the talk at the corresponding pages. This disussion greatly helped me to understand what exactly I have to say. Thanks, guys. [[User:Mikkalai|Mikkalai]] 14:56, 15 Oct 2004 (UTC) :::::Read the copyvio boilerplate language. It says &quot;To the poster: If there was permission to use this material under terms of our license or if you are the copyright holder of the externally linked text, then please indicate so on this page's talk page.&quot;. [[User:RickK|Rick]][[User talk:RickK|K]] 19:26, Oct 14, 2004 (UTC) ::::::This was what was actually said in a frustrated way in the [[Talk:Slavic mythology#So guys]], according to which I entered the above note: ''&quot;Text from [http://free.bol.bg/slavpagan/deities.html webpage] owned by the contributor&quot;''. Your reaction was: &quot;how do we KNOW...&quot;. Please notice that your reaction would be equally valid, if the notice were: ''&quot;Text from [http://free.bol.bg/slavpagan/deities.html webpage] owned by '''me'''.&lt;signature&gt;&quot;''. You seem to miss the legal difference between an e-mail confirmation from an account associated with the webpage in question and a simple notice on the wikipedia talk page. [[User:Mikkalai|Mikkalai]] 19:51, 14 Oct 2004 (UTC) ::::::::I'm still waiting for you to point to the page where the original author of the page said it was his/her copyright and he/she has released it to GFDL in accordance with the line I quoted above. [[User:RickK|Rick]][[User talk:RickK|K]] 23:07, Oct 14, 2004 (UTC) ::::::::* You seem to '''again''' miss the legal difference between an e-mail confirmation from an account associated with the webpage in question and a simple notice on the wikipedia talk page. The advice in the copyvio notice is laughable from legal POV: ''if you are the copyright holder... please indicate so on this page's talk page''. How one may verify that the page editor is the owner? I may &quot;indicate&quot; I own [[Madonna (entertainer)|Madonna]]'s bare ass. And you're supposed to believe me until Madonna sues wikipedia? In this particular case I don't care about this nervous guy. I am pointing at a hole in the policy. The issue is credentials. In the case of an explicit request by another wikieditor, the credentials are the e-mail address of the respondent that matches the webpage info (weak, but triable). The advice you (and I) cited doesn't explain how to provide credentials. [[User:Mikkalai|Mikkalai]] 01:21, 15 Oct 2004 (UTC) ::::::::* Sorry, I forgot to answer your question. I've already pointed the page: [[Talk:Slavic mythology#So guys]]. It has: ''The last drop was that somebody, called &quot;administrator&quot;, deleted a number of my pages 'cause they were COPYRIGHT. He even adviced me in private to write in &quot;my own words&quot; - BUT THESE WERE MY OWN WORDS. He didn't even make the effort to look at the bottom of the source-site to see I am the copyright holder.'' This remark is just as good as any other. Notice also, contrary to your request, he has no duty to explicitely release to GFDL: in wikipedia GFDL is an opt-out; mere editing means release. [[User:Mikkalai|Mikkalai]] 01:29, 15 Oct 2004 (UTC) Great. That's what I was looking for. Now, was that so hard? [[User:RickK|Rick]][[User talk:RickK|K]] 19:26, Oct 15, 2004 (UTC) :No. But an easy way is no fun. [[User:Mikkalai|Mikkalai]] 19:53, 15 Oct 2004 (UTC) ==Perperuna== See [[Talk:Perperuna]]. `'[[user:mikkalai|mikka]] [[user talk:mikkalai|(t)]] 01:53, 25 July 2006 (UTC) == Section on ritual == The &quot;Ritual&quot; section makes four or five claims but has no sources for any of them. I'm not going to try to dig up sources on this subject, since I'm 100% unfamiliar with it, but it would improve the article if sources could be provided. [[User:Poihths|Poihths]] ([[User talk:Poihths|talk]]) 14:38, 14 May 2013 (UTC) == External links modified == Hello fellow Wikipedians, I have just modified {{plural:1|one external link|1 external links}} on [[Dodola]]. Please take a moment to review [https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?diff=prev&amp;oldid=754799110 my edit]. If you have any questions, or need the bot to ignore the links, or the page altogether, please visit [[User:Cyberpower678/FaQs#InternetArchiveBot|this simple FaQ]] for additional information. I made the following changes: *Added archive https://web.archive.org/web/20131228002745/http://egg.mnir.ro:80/pdf/Paliga_InflRomane.pdf to http://egg.mnir.ro/pdf/Paliga_InflRomane.pdf When you have finished reviewing my changes, please set the ''checked'' parameter below to '''true''' or '''failed''' to let others know (documentation at {{tlx|Sourcecheck}}). {{sourcecheck|checked=false}} Cheers.—[[User:InternetArchiveBot|'''&lt;span style=&quot;color:darkgrey;font-family:monospace&quot;&gt;InternetArchiveBot&lt;/span&gt;''']] &lt;span style=&quot;color:green;font-family:Rockwell&quot;&gt;([[User talk:InternetArchiveBot|Report bug]])&lt;/span&gt; 15:55, 14 December 2016 (UTC) == External links modified == Hello fellow Wikipedians, I have just modified one external link on [[Dodola]]. Please take a moment to review [[special:diff/816350836|my edit]]. If you have any questions, or need the bot to ignore the links, or the page altogether, please visit [[User:Cyberpower678/FaQs#InternetArchiveBot|this simple FaQ]] for additional information. I made the following changes: *Added archive https://web.archive.org/web/20120216225647/http://www.gbiblsk.edu.mk/images/stories/eknigi/zbornik.pdf to http://www.gbiblsk.edu.mk/images/stories/eknigi/zbornik.pdf When you have finished reviewing my changes, you may follow the instructions on the template below to fix any issues with the URLs. {{sourcecheck|checked=false|needhelp=}} Cheers.—[[User:InternetArchiveBot|'''&lt;span style=&quot;color:darkgrey;font-family:monospace&quot;&gt;InternetArchiveBot&lt;/span&gt;''']] &lt;span style=&quot;color:green;font-family:Rockwell&quot;&gt;([[User talk:InternetArchiveBot|Report bug]])&lt;/span&gt; 20:24, 20 December 2017 (UTC) == New revision == The article was in dire need of new revision because the old revision had many serious issues for many years. For e.g. most of the text was directly copied from sources but without proper attribution and sometimes from sources which weren't even cited; gave false weight to a dubious fringe theory by non-folklorists/mythologists about Thracian origin which is ignored in all other sources; some explanations, connections were erroneous and couldn't be confirmed in literature; the primary mythological and etymological focus is on Perperuna while Dodola as substitution not other way around; Dodola isn't known as Perperuna nor Perperuna is known as Dodola, these are two separate but very similar pagan customs with common origin; hence the article title will be changed to &quot;Perperuna and Dodola&quot;. [[User:Miki Filigranski|Miki Filigranski]] ([[User talk:Miki Filigranski|talk]]) 10:51, 23 July 2022 (UTC) :Before moving the article, discuss it here, please. I restored it to the name &quot;Dodola&quot; as it seems the most common one. The article title &quot;Perperuna and Dodola&quot; also appears to refer to a tradition that consists of both those figures, which is not the case. – [[User:Βατο|Βατο]] ([[User talk:Βατο|talk]]) 21:12, 23 July 2022 (UTC) ::1) As was already explained and as it is explained in the scientific literature, these are two separate but similar pagan customs which are often related by folklorists. We cannot have in the article title only one custom because they are not synonyms and SCOPE of the article much more focused, as shown by literature, to Perperuna and it's Slavic origin as well as connection to Slavic deity Perun. ::2) In your first [https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Dodola&amp;type=revision&amp;diff=1100019388&amp;oldid=1099979834 edit] you ignorantly and disruptively, as shown in the talk page discussion at [[Talk:Perëndi#Slavic loan]], made an anti-Slavic edit against the consensus in scientific literature about the connection with Slavic deity Perun, all of which was cited in the article, and replaced it in the LEAD with two irrelevant sources promoting or fringe theories making [[WP:FALSEBALANCE]] (Ḱulavkova's about Thracian origin which is ignored in almost all other cited literature besides three which were by linguists and historians i.e. also non-experts on the field violating [[WP:WEIGHT]]) or non-expert minor viewpoint by [[Andrew Wachtel]] instead of many other reliable sources which claim exactly the opposite. ::3) In anoted [https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Dodola&amp;diff=next&amp;oldid=1100019761 edit] removed the part that the fringe theory argues Thracian origin of Perun, claiming to be &quot;original research&quot; on my part although noted the pages in which is clearly stated by Kulavkova at pg. 20 (&quot;'''According to other beliefs, Perun, Perin, or Pirin was the supreme deity of the Thracians.'''&quot;) and by Dragnea at pg. 19, citing Paliga's fringe theory. ::4) [https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Dodola&amp;type=revision&amp;diff=1100025353&amp;oldid=1100021497 ignoring and removing] sourced viewpoint from reliable and reputable scholars, bringing false balance with a controversial source. ::5) [https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Dodola&amp;diff=next&amp;oldid=1100025353 removing] sourced information.--[[User:Miki Filigranski|Miki Filigranski]] ([[User talk:Miki Filigranski|talk]]) 21:51, 23 July 2022 (UTC) :Hey, thanks for improving the article, I would not have been able to collect these songs and history myself. I can't support &quot;origin&quot; part tho. There is literally 0 evidence for Perperuna being goddess and there is 0 evidence for direct connection to Perun. Pereplut is also unrelated name. Perun, Perkunas and Fjoryn are [[false cognate]]s and PIE [[perkwunos]] didn't exist (this article is not best place for this topic tho). Connecting Dodola with [[Dzidzilela]] (forged goddess) is folk etymology, the latter word comes from PS ''*did-'' &quot;big, great&quot; and it can't be different. [[Lada (mythology)|Lada]] is also forged goddess. Connecting Perperuna with [[Pripegala]] is also folk etymology. &quot;Perun's battle against Veles becuase of Perperuna/Dodola's kidnapping&quot; - where is this story attested? &quot;sometimes even hosts would drink wine in Perun's honor.&quot; - are you telling me that people still worshipped Perun in 19/20th century? This is not only nonneutral, but also just false. Etymology is more like speculation now, we should add modern, scientific views (Snoj maybe?) on this name (might be of onomatopeic orign and I don't think there is evidence that the Slavs created names by reduplication of the root). [[User:Sławobóg|Sławobóg]] ([[User talk:Sławobóg|talk]]) 21:29, 23 July 2022 (UTC) ::Don't get me wrong, but nobody cares about your personal opinion. I became tired months ago of reading these paragraphs of opinion. The vast majority of sources by relevant scholars claim there's a connection. Everything what you wrote is written in reliable and modern sources. Editing or removing that would be &quot;nonneutral&quot;. If there are any other modern, reliable sources by experts please list them here to check on them.--[[User:Miki Filigranski|Miki Filigranski]] ([[User talk:Miki Filigranski|talk]]) 21:51, 23 July 2022 (UTC) :::@Miki Filigranski there is no consensus, the rainmaking custom is a shared tradition among Balkan peoples, your preferred origin theory is just one of the proposed hypotheses. As for the name Perperuna, I think it is likely from Perun, but [[User:Sławobóg|Sławobóg]] maybe has a point here, and more recent academic sources should be analysed. The name Dodola is of uncertain origin. – [[User:Βατο|Βατο]] ([[User talk:Βατο|talk]]) 22:05, 23 July 2022 (UTC) ::::You don't have a basic clue of what you're saying, don't know anything about the topic, neither read all the sources, neither understand [[WP:WEIGHT]] policy as showed before. No, as showed and claimed on other article talk page, you're the one who has a preffered theory (and fringe one at best!), wants to [[WP:OWN]] the article by making false balance! --[[User:Miki Filigranski|Miki Filigranski]] ([[User talk:Miki Filigranski|talk]]) 22:18, 23 July 2022 (UTC) :::::No, the false balance is the [[WP:POV]] and [[WP:OR]] wording of the lead section: {{tquote|are Slavic rainmaking pagan customs which were mainly preserved among South Slavs and neighboring people until 20th century.}} Albanians, Greeks, Romanians, Aromanians/Vlachs, Hungarians are not Slavs, and the custom described in this article is a shared Balkan tradition. – [[User:Βατο|Βατο]] ([[User talk:Βατο|talk]]) 22:25, 23 July 2022 (UTC) ::::::Please stop! You don't have basic understanding of the topic neither read the sources neither even bother to read what's written in the article. That's majority viewpoint, it was sourced and totally not original research. You are making a total mess of it ([https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Dodola&amp;type=revision&amp;diff=1100043308&amp;oldid=1100032521]) as Dodola isn't alternatively known as Perperuna because these are separate customs (they even had separate articles until 2015 when were merged but due to same wrong reasoning). They are not synonyms. Neither the customs were confirmed to be found among Bosnians, and Montenegrins in general (Bay of Kotor was inhabited by a mixture of ethnic groups and it was found there only sporadically). I had enough of this. --[[User:Miki Filigranski|Miki Filigranski]] ([[User talk:Miki Filigranski|talk]]) 00:10, 24 July 2022 (UTC) ::::::: In my opinion, two points of view collide here. It is wise to strike a balance between them, although this is not easy. Regarding the title, the proposed new combined title reflects both views and is more neutral. I agree here with [[User:Miki Filigranski|Miki Filigranski]]. [[User:Jingiby|Jingiby]] ([[User talk:Jingiby|talk]]) 05:13, 24 July 2022 (UTC) ::::::::Miki Filigranski, so what's your proposal? Saying in the lead section that it is exclusively a Slavic practice is non neutral. I added, according to the sources, the population groups that are attested to have practiced the custom of rainmaking, whether it was called Dodola or Perperuna. If you have enough reliable sources that claim a clear distinction between the practices referred to as Dodola and Perperuna, then you can create two separate articles. I read that some communities refer to the same practice with the name Dodola (and variants), and other communities with the name Perperuna (and variants). I can agree to include both variants of the names in the article title, but &quot;Perperuna and Dodola&quot; appears to indicate that the custom is called as such, which is not the case. – [[User:Βατο|Βατο]] ([[User talk:Βατο|talk]]) 08:35, 24 July 2022 (UTC) :::::::::It is a practice of Slavic origin, related to Slavic deity Perun. That is the majority viewpoint in the RS. Removing that from the LEAD is non neutral. You even added ethnic groups among whom wasn't attested citing a bad source. The sources making clear distinction are already cited and there's no point in making separate article when these two customs are scholarly related. &quot;Perperuna and Dodola&quot; don't indicate anyhow that the custom is called with a single name &quot;Perperuna and Dodola&quot;. --[[User:Miki Filigranski|Miki Filigranski]] ([[User talk:Miki Filigranski|talk]]) 10:33, 24 July 2022 (UTC) ::::Okay, I found the book. [[Stanisław Urbańczyk|Urbańczyk]] debunked Jakobson's etymology. ''perperuda'', ''pepeluga'' etc. are related to Proto-Slavic ''*perpera'', ''*perperъka'' &quot;[[Common quail]]&quot; and these are related to ''*pъrpati'' (onomatopoeic), cf. Polish dial. ''perpotać'', ''perpac'', Old East Slavic ''poropriti''. So mystery has been solved. Meanwhile author himself reacts with aggression because someone tells him that the article is extremely one-sided. Having information about alleged relation between Perun and Perperuna is ok, since it actually is popular view, but it is not only view and it was criticised by other linguists. Btw Grimm is bad source. [[User:Sławobóg|Sławobóg]] ([[User talk:Sławobóg|talk]]) 10:45, 24 July 2022 (UTC) :::::Thanks @Sławobóg, the etymology you provided is interesting. @Miki Filigranski your statement {{tquote|It is a practice of Slavic origi}} is not supported by many scholars: there is not certainty about the origins of the practice. but there seems to be agreement among scholars that the name for the Balkan rainmaden ''Perperuna'' (and variants) is most likely of Slavic origin. The rainmaking custom is a Pan-Balkan practice, attested in the region at least since Classical Antiquity. I've just found a recent source: {{cite journal|last=Burns|first=Richard|title=Rain and Dust|journal=[[Studia Mythologica Slavica]]|volume=XI|issn=1581-128X|doi=10.3986/sms.v11i0.1696|year=2008|pp=217-236}} which provides further information about the usage of the names, and analysis on some scholars' views, also: {{tquote|&quot;The paper opens conjectures that relate the Balkan practice to two ancient Mediterranean mythological motifs: first, to Minoan and Mycenaean rainmaking invocations, and, secondly, to the goddess Persephone, via the theories of V. V. Ivanov and V. I. Toporov.&quot;}} – [[User:Βατο|Βατο]] ([[User talk:Βατο|talk]]) 10:53, 24 July 2022 (UTC) ::::::@Sławobóg, thanks, that's just an opinion though (please provide details of the source), but indeed doesn't change the fact it is of Slavic origin (and related to Perun per majority viewpoint). @Βατο, in the article are already cited more than 12 reliable sources by many different scholars. I mostly agree with other things you said, but didn't mention anything not already cited in the article. To be noted, Burns source is reliable to cite on scholars' views, but unreliable source for Burns viewpoint. He is a poet, not a scientist. --[[User:Miki Filigranski|Miki Filigranski]] ([[User talk:Miki Filigranski|talk]]) 11:25, 24 July 2022 (UTC) :::::::Jakobson's idea that Perperuna comes from Perun is also &quot;just an opinion&quot;, what is wrong with you? Additionally, Urbańczyk's etymology is more scientifically correct, because it explains the doubling of the root ''per-'', because there is no evidence for duplication of the root for feminine names and I have other book about that (which also supports Urbańczyk's idea). He says that ritual is known to Greeks and Albanians and it should be established actual origin first. He later say Perperuna might be related to words I mentioned before (also Polish ''przepierzyca''), not only because of etymology, also because quail (in Polish folklore) '''is associated with the harvest rites and is the name of the bride in the wedding dance'''. So I guess Slavic origin is very possible (from the bird). {{Cite book|last=Urbańczyk|first=Stanisław|title=Dawni Słowianie. Wiara i kult|date=1991|place=Wrocław|language=pl|author-link=Stanisław Urbańczyk|publisher=Ossolineum}} | [[User:Sławobóg|Sławobóg]] ([[User talk:Sławobóg|talk]]) 11:48, 24 July 2022 (UTC) ::::::::I found the text and it can be hardly called a debunking as you described it in your comment. Urbańczyk only said that Jakobson's opinion needs caution, he didn't refute it. We also have reliable sources which support Jakobson (and Slavic origin, relation to Mokosh etc.), including lately [[Patrice Lajoye]] (2015, pg. 107–115 etc.). Do you have other sources which mention or support Urbańczyk's derivation from the bird?--[[User:Miki Filigranski|Miki Filigranski]] ([[User talk:Miki Filigranski|talk]]) 12:07, 24 July 2022 (UTC) :::::::::Yes, Łuczyński (2020) ''Bogowie dawnych Słowian. Studium onomastyczne''. Additionally, the article does not mention at all that ''peperuda'' means &quot;butterfly&quot; in Bulgarian (mentioned in Russian and Bulgarian wiki)'''!!!''' [https://ibl.bas.bg/lib/ber_5/#page/82/mode/1up Български етимологичен речник] (vol 5, p. 162) has 2 pages of etymology of this word, also mentioning ''*perperica'' and other ideas, but image quality makes it too hard to read for me. There [https://starlingdb.org/cgi-bin/etymology.cgi?single=1&amp;basename=%2Fdata%2Fsemham%2Flecet&amp;text_number=+652&amp;root=config is] also Proto-Kartvelian root ''*ṗerṗer-'' / ''*perpel-'' &quot;butterfly&quot; connected with PS ''*perperъka''. It is clear from the Bulgarian dictionary that the subject is complicated and the etymologies are many, and that the article is not neutral and tries by force to push through Jakobson's etymology repeated uncritically by later authors. In the case of Slavic mythology/folklore, Western scholars often mindlessly (I'm not exaggerating) repeat various stupidities and rarely have a clue what they are writing about, cf. [https://web.archive.org/web/20170804140911/http://www.mathieu-colas.fr/michel/Classes/Dieux_slaves_et_baltes.pdf Mathieu-Colas]. I'm not comparing Lajoye or Evans to that, but we should be sceptic about Western optimism. [[Natko Nodilo]] is also pretty bad source (see [[Svetovit#In_Serbia]]). [[User:Sławobóg|Sławobóg]] ([[User talk:Sławobóg|talk]]) 14:00, 24 July 2022 (UTC) ::::::::::Thanks. The part about butterfly is quoted in 4th reference, forgot to expand more on it citing other sources. The association is mythological, doesn't make sense such a widespread pagan custom derives from a Bulgarian word for butterfly and shows that the Bulgarian word for butterfly derives instead from the mythological background to which is related the custom. If not, as in the case of cited Proto-Karvelian, occurred secondary associations of unrelated words. Will expand more regarding the etymology in general. Sorry, but you're using hard words and claims here. The article is properly and reliably edited according to WEIGHT, and tried to be careful with using them.--[[User:Miki Filigranski|Miki Filigranski]] ([[User talk:Miki Filigranski|talk]]) 14:14, 24 July 2022 (UTC) :::::@Sławobóg I have not a preference about the article title, could you suggest something about this issue? It seems that Dodola is the most common name, and in some communities both names (and variants) are found, even in the same song. – [[User:Βατο|Βατο]] ([[User talk:Βατο|talk]]) 11:07, 24 July 2022 (UTC) ::::::Is Dodola really more popular than Perperuna? I think modern, scientific or popular, usage also counts? I think &quot;Dodola and Perperuna&quot; would be good, but I'm not 100% sure. [[User:Sławobóg|Sławobóg]] ([[User talk:Sławobóg|talk]]) 11:35, 24 July 2022 (UTC) :::::::I've seen it by a first check on Google search and Google books, and in general Dodola seems to be more common. But I am not sure which is more common in recent sources and popular usage. Perhaps Burns' (2008) information could be useful: {{tquote|&quot;The various names have been el-egantly mapped by Plotnikova (1999) to reveal regional variations. Names of the ''dodola'' type, which I designate as the 'central' group, are more common in Serbia, Bosnia, and names of the ''peperuga'' or ''perperuda'' type, designated as the 'eastern and southern group', tend to be more frequent in Bulgaria, Rumania, Moldovia, Albania, Thessaly and Epirus (Burns 2006a: 35, 37-38 &amp; 42). In the border-area of dialect-continua between Bulgaria and Serbia, as in Macedonia, both verbal variants appear in the same song.&quot;}} – [[User:Βατο|Βατο]] ([[User talk:Βατο|talk]]) 12:11, 24 July 2022 (UTC) ::::::::Well, &quot;Dodola and Perperuna&quot; is ok then. If the name depends on the region, then we should not discriminate against any of them. It may be clunky, but it will be fair. [[User:Sławobóg|Sławobóg]] ([[User talk:Sławobóg|talk]]) 13:01, 24 July 2022 (UTC) ::::::::The name depends on the custom, songs and name of central character. These are two separate types. There can be made correlations based on regions, but not causations on which depends the name. Regarding the distribution, it strangely omits Croatia and mentions Bosnia, check the [https://ibb.co/rMgMqqL map] from Čulinović-Konstantinović &quot;Dodole and prporuše: folk customs for invoking the rain&quot; (note how's titled the source). I am okay with the title &quot;Dodola and Perperuna&quot;.--[[User:Miki Filigranski|Miki Filigranski]] ([[User talk:Miki Filigranski|talk]]) 13:27, 24 July 2022 (UTC) :::::::::Agreed, @Miki Filigranski feel free to make the page move. – [[User:Βατο|Βατο]] ([[User talk:Βατο|talk]]) 13:31, 24 July 2022 (UTC) ===Other sources=== {{ping|Sławobóg}} Czesław Białczyński in his ''Mitologia słowiańska'' (1999), not a reliable and scientific source, mentions: &lt;small&gt;PERPERUNA (Peperuna, Perperuda, Prperousza, Pe-runica). Jej istyjskim odpowiednikiem jest Perkunija. Runa - od rdzenia run ma takie same znaczenia jak wyżej, ale także w obocznej postaci zachowanej u Bułgarów - Perperuda - kędzierzawa, bo ruda kosa - kędzierzawe włosy, kędziory, rudica - zbita wełna, rudina - niwa, rudy - czerwony, błotny, bagnisty (co wskazuje, podobnie jak u Peruna, na jej związek z wodą), pokryty rudą - czyli naleciałością żelazistą, barwy rdzawej. Z powyższego zestawienia wynika, że Perperuna musiała mieć kręcone, gęste, kędzierzawe włosy rudej barwy. Były cztery boginie o rudych włosach: Perperuna, Ruda-Ródź, Swara (o włosach płomiennych) i Krasatina (o włosach krasnych i krasnym licu).&lt;/small&gt; &lt;small&gt;O świętości rośliny paproci, której nazwa przechowała imię bogini Ródzi-Pap-rudy, świadczy jej związek nazewniczy z boskim rdzeniem per (Perun, Perperuna, Perepłut, Pripegala, Prowe, Porenut, Puruvit, Porewit, Spór). Przechowane przez Bułgarów i Macedończyków miano Perperuda nie jest powtórzeniem serbskiego i chorwackiego imienia żony Peruna - Perperuna, lecz imieniem bogini Rodzi, córki Roda, kochanki Perunica. Związek Perperudy z Peruni-cem znajduje także odbicie w nazwie świętego zioła pe-runiki.&lt;/small&gt; I have a hard time reading the source, but does it cite any reference? Do you know of any Polish source which makes the same claim?--[[User:Miki Filigranski|Miki Filigranski]] ([[User talk:Miki Filigranski|talk]]) 14:25, 24 July 2022 (UTC) :Białczyński is turboslavic, he promotes Great Lechia and believes that Proto-Indo-European = Proto-Slavic. In his books he forges new gods. Nothing to talk about tbh. See [[List of Slavic pseudo-deities]]. [[User:Sławobóg|Sławobóg]] ([[User talk:Sławobóg|talk]]) 14:53, 24 July 2022 (UTC) ::Had the same impression.--[[User:Miki Filigranski|Miki Filigranski]] ([[User talk:Miki Filigranski|talk]]) 16:52, 24 July 2022 (UTC) {{ping|Sławobóg}} Łuczyński, ''Bogowie dawnych Słowian. Studium onomastyczne'' (2020), can you please make a full quote and provide page?--[[User:Miki Filigranski|Miki Filigranski]] ([[User talk:Miki Filigranski|talk]]) 14:31, 24 July 2022 (UTC) :Page 141: Autor ten [Jakobson] wychodzi z założenia, że nazwa ta [Pereplut] stanowi jeden z wielu wariantów fonetycznych i morfologicznych teonimu Perun [...] powołując się przy tym na brzmieniowe podobieństwo z terminem obrzędowym serb. ''prporusa'', bułg. ''pe(r)peruna'', ''pe(r)peruda'' i in. [...] Wywód Jakobsona podważył jednak S. Urbańczyk, wzkazując na związek nazw typu ''peperuda'', ''pepeluga'' i in. z psł. ''*perpere'', ''*perperъka'' &quot;przepiórka&quot;. Leksemy wskazane przez R. Jakobsona wywodzą się z psł. ''*pr̥pati'' vb. pochodzenia dźwiękonaśladowczego, por. np. (polish and OES words here) [...] Bałkański termin obrzędowy nie jest więc spokrewniony etymologicznie ze srus. teonimem, w jego wypadku można mówić o reduplikacji rdzenia onomatopeicznego i szeregu przekształceń fonetycznych (np. regularny rozwój ''-er-'' &lt; ''r̥''; wtórny konsonantym d &lt; n), przez co hipoteza Jakobsona traci rację bytu. Pozwala to na odrzucenie interpretacji tego badaczu z powodu trudności formalnych. :Page 279: I wreszcie, nic nie przemawia za tym, by w słowiańskiej teonimii istniały pary nazewnicze: model na tworzeniu form feminatywnych od męskich imion osobowych nie był, w świetle wiarygodnych danych, w tej kategorii produktywny, w związku z czym można przyjąć, że brak był (często postulowanych) par typu ''*Perunъ'' - ''*Perynь'' (lub ''Perperuna''), ''*Velesъ'' - ''*Vela'', na wróz np. sind. Indra - Indrani, Agni - Agnani... [[User:Sławobóg|Sławobóg]] ([[User talk:Sławobóg|talk]]) 15:08, 24 July 2022 (UTC) ::Great, thanks! --[[User:Miki Filigranski|Miki Filigranski]] ([[User talk:Miki Filigranski|talk]]) 16:52, 24 July 2022 (UTC) @Miki Filigranski, since you highlighted inaccuracies regarding the spread of the custom, could you propose a compromise wording between the information provided by Muraj (1987) and that provided by Ḱulavkova (2020)? – [[User:Βατο|Βατο]] ([[User talk:Βατο|talk]]) 08:23, 26 July 2022 (UTC) :In the article are cited several reliable sources, not only Muraj (1987), describing the spread of the custom. In the new sources the mistake is regarding the distribution on the territory of former Yugoslavia. I would say that the best source for the former Yugoslavian territory is still Čulinović-Konstantinović (1963). It was more prevalent among Croats than Serbs in Croatia, and don't know what's the reason for mentioning Bosnians. Natko Nodilo (1884) mentioned that West of river Vrbas, which would be Western part of Bosnia and Herzegovina, Dodola and Prporuša were known as ''Čaro(j)ice'', but couldn't verify and confirm the association in other sources. ''Čaroice'' was a different custom mainly around December and rarely Poklade (May) in which boys were dressed as girls or animals - not greenery, it was found among both Orthodox, Catholic and Muslim people and each group visited houses of other religion, and the song lyrics were also different. I would stick to countries and regions rather than ethnic groups (for now would remove Bosnia and Herzegovina). Anyway, currently am preparing a new edit which will include and expand the POV from new sources provided by you and Sławobóg. --[[User:Miki Filigranski|Miki Filigranski]] ([[User talk:Miki Filigranski|talk]]) 12:33, 26 July 2022 (UTC) ::Ok, feel free to make any wording reasonably in agreement with RS and with evidence from field research. – [[User:Βατο|Βατο]] ([[User talk:Βατο|talk]]) 22:24, 26 July 2022 (UTC) [https://archive.org/details/KlimovEtymological/page/n165/mode/2up Proto-Kartvelian *p̣erp̣er- &quot;butterfly&quot;] - most likely ultimate source. That explains Balkan-only range of the word, custom and pseudogoddess. [[User:Sławobóg|Sławobóg]] ([[User talk:Sławobóg|talk]]) 12:16, 24 September 2022 (UTC) :Do we have a RS which connects it to Perperuna/Dodola customs? How a Proto-Kartvelian language of Caucasus is the most likely ultimate source? How it explains Balkan-only range of the word, custom etc.?--[[User:Miki Filigranski|Miki Filigranski]] ([[User talk:Miki Filigranski|talk]]) 22:41, 27 September 2022 (UTC) ::I haven't done a good research yet, I found this partly by accident and am putting it here so as not to forget, and maybe someone else will find something more about it. It is possible that we are dealing here with a Wanderword. Borrowing is possible, compare [[wikt:κῶας|κῶας]]. See also [[wikt:πεταλούδα|πεταλούδα]] (especially the suffix -da). [[User:Sławobóg|Sławobóg]] ([[User talk:Sławobóg|talk]]) 09:42, 28 September 2022 (UTC) ==Article's scope and name== The article is about the rainmaking tradition of different peoples in Southeast Europe. The article gives [[WP:UNDUE WEIGHT]] to the etymological speculations concerning this rainmaking tradition, only based on the hypothetical link with the Slavic god Perun. In some regions it is not even known with names that could be linked to Perun. The rainmaking practice is attested among Balkan peoles since antiquity, the speculations according to which peoples who already practiced it adopted it from incoming Slavs in the early Middle Ages is not reasonable, and should have its due weight into the article. Since there is no [[WP:COMMONNAME]] for the rainmaking practice, clearly because different peoples refer to it in different terms, I propose a move to the title ''Rainmaking (Balkans)'' or ''Rainmaking (Southeast Europe)''. The article should also be reworded giving due weight to all the South Eastern/Balkan traditions. – [[User:Βατο|Βατο]] ([[User talk:Βατο|talk]]) 10:19, 22 August 2024 (UTC) *I don't think three sentences about Perun in such a large article is undue weight (and it may be trimmed further, because I see repetitions). --[[user:Altenmann|Altenmann]] [[user talk:Altenmann|&gt;talk]] 19:04, 22 August 2024 (UTC) **Your suggested title is bad because (a) &quot;[[Balkans]]&quot; is a vague term and (b) Romania is in Southeast Europe, but we have [[Caloian]] for Romanian rainmaking. --[[user:Altenmann|Altenmann]] [[user talk:Altenmann|&gt;talk]] 19:04, 22 August 2024 (UTC) :::I see that [[Caloian]] consists also of a similar rainmaking practice. But that's not relevant for this discussion, a title ''Rainmaking (Southeast Europe)'' is necessary in this case, because this article is about similar rainmaking practices of several peoples in Southeast Europe. The title ''Dodola and Perperuna'' is restrictive and POV, bacause it selects only two terms that are given to the girl that performs the ritual, despite the fact that there are many of those names, and there are even traditions based on a male figure, and it is misleading because the rainmaking ritual is not called &quot;Dodola and Perperuna&quot;. If this title will be kept, then a split into ''Rainmaking (Southeast Europe)'' should be made, and this article should focus only on the rainmaking girl figure, but I think a standalone article for such a subject would not be appropriate. – [[User:Βατο|Βατο]] ([[User talk:Βατο|talk]]) 19:48, 22 August 2024 (UTC) ::::I see. Then [[Rainmaking (Southeast Europe)]] will me good and a summary section about [[Calojan]] may be incorporated per [[WP:Summary style]]. --[[user:Altenmann|Altenmann]] [[user talk:Altenmann|&gt;talk]] :::In the scientific literature, the rainmaking custom(s) Dodola and Perperuna are usually related. The article is only about these two customs, and they are usually separated from the Caloian custom. The link with the Slavic god Perun and the Slavs is mainstream and majority viewpoint in the literature - claiming that it is &quot;not reasonable&quot; is a very bold non-mainstream statement and pushing a fringe autochthonistic POV. We already had a discussion before. In the article was already cited everything or almost everything about the topic. There's nothing else much which could be done and to be reworded. You first need to provide new citations and reach a consensus before trying to change both the scope and the title of the article.--[[User:Miki Filigranski|Miki Filigranski]] ([[User talk:Miki Filigranski|talk]]) 17:55, 23 August 2024 (UTC) :::[[User:Βατο|Βατο]], we already had this discussion, and after 2 years you made a series of edits changing the NPOV of the article, but without providing new citations and evidence, and then pushing the change of the scope and title of the article. I must boldly revert all your edits per BRD. First discuss and reach a consensus.--[[User:Miki Filigranski|Miki Filigranski]] ([[User talk:Miki Filigranski|talk]]) 18:09, 23 August 2024 (UTC) ::::Before bold reverting my sourced additions, state your concerns here, please. The article is far from neutral and clear about the different traditions. And the pushing in the lede of one of the several hypothetical origins is not the proper way to address NOPOV issues. You even restored this erroneous description in the lede: {{tquote|are ancient Slavic rainmaking pagan customs practiced until the 20th century. The tradition is found in South Slavic countries (Bulgaria, Croatia, North Macedonia, Montenegro, and Serbia), as well as in near Albania, Greece, Hungary, Moldova and Romania.}} The traditions are not &quot;ancient Slavic rainmaking pagan customs&quot; found in South Slavic countries and &quot;in near&quot; non Slavic countries, but a tradition found among different peoples of Southeast Europe. – [[User:Βατο|Βατο]] ([[User talk:Βατο|talk]]) 18:37, 23 August 2024 (UTC) :::::You almost didn't make any sourced additions to change the NPOV and BALANCE of the article, and you were doing it by removing reliably sourced information ([https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Dodola_and_Perperuna&amp;diff=next&amp;oldid=1241641872#External_links]) erroenously claiming it is an &quot;erroenous statement&quot;, a statement which is critical of the fringe autochthonistic POV you're pushing. The article was NEUTRAL and according to the RS. This what you're doing is PUSHING a non-mainstream, non-Slavic, fringe autochthonistic POV not supported by the majority of the RS. --[[User:Miki Filigranski|Miki Filigranski]] ([[User talk:Miki Filigranski|talk]]) 18:53, 23 August 2024 (UTC) ::::::Yes, I removed it because it falsely claims that rainmaking rituals are not found in southern Greece. Add the full context and arguments, then we can see whether that information can stay. And many scholars' views already included in the article cannot be considered [[WP:FRINGE]]. – [[User:Βατο|Βατο]] ([[User talk:Βατο|talk]]) 19:02, 23 August 2024 (UTC) :::::::You're ignoring the amount of RS for a specific viewpoint. You broke the NPOV, ignore WEIGHT.--[[User:Miki Filigranski|Miki Filigranski]] ([[User talk:Miki Filigranski|talk]]) 19:21, 23 August 2024 (UTC) :::::: Also, the names of the male figures of different rituals found in some South Slavic traditions should be added as well, because as it is now, the article reports only the names of the female figures. – [[User:Βατο|Βατο]] ([[User talk:Βατο|talk]]) 19:06, 23 August 2024 (UTC) :::::::It doesn't.--[[User:Miki Filigranski|Miki Filigranski]] ([[User talk:Miki Filigranski|talk]]) 19:21, 23 August 2024 (UTC) ::::::::Reading the section &quot;Ritual&quot;, I understood, although not clearly, that ''Prpac/Prpats'' are names of the male figure. Is that correct? Do those names appear in songs alongside the name of the female figure? I think they should be added in the section &quot;Names&quot; as well. – [[User:Βατο|Βατο]] ([[User talk:Βατο|talk]]) 19:56, 23 August 2024 (UTC) :::::::::First and foremost, please do not boldly edit the article doing substantial changes to the NPOV, scope and else of the article when you are not informed about the topic and making one after another misunderstandings upon which you make false claims about the topic and article. It is complex ritual and there's no &quot;yes and no&quot; answer. You need to differentiate a bit the name of the custom/folk song, from name of the female/male figure. Perperuna was mostly performed by a chosen boy (the one who is acting), and the chosen boy/leader could have been named, in Croatia for example where Perperuna custom is called Prporuša, as a Prporuša/Prporuš/Prpac etc. but also his singing companions as Prporuše. The name ''Prpac/Prpats'', which are local variants, do not appear in the song, they were names given by local people/audience to the chosen boy/leader/actor. There's only one figure in songs, or Perperuna or Dodola, but there do exist exceptions in Macedonia where both Perperuna and Dodola are mentioned in the same song.--[[User:Miki Filigranski|Miki Filigranski]] ([[User talk:Miki Filigranski|talk]]) 11:23, 31 August 2024 (UTC) :::::::::Βατο, please, do NOT make any edits these days as I have to review every and each edit you've made. I will re-incorporate reliably sourced information into the stable NPOV revision. The new revision you made is a complete mess, pushing Albanian case to the forefront of the customs, from the LEAD to the main body of the article. Making a complete disbalance of the content. --[[User:Miki Filigranski|Miki Filigranski]] ([[User talk:Miki Filigranski|talk]]) 11:50, 31 August 2024 (UTC) :::::::::Not only you changed wording without care about NPOV and WEIGHT, removed several reliably sourced content or emphasized different content (especially about Albania), placed new text in wrong sections, asking for citation needed where's none needed, removed images, etc., what's worse for new citations you used different citation style. Do you understand how much checking and clean-up your edits need? --[[User:Miki Filigranski|Miki Filigranski]] ([[User talk:Miki Filigranski|talk]]) 12:48, 31 August 2024 (UTC) ::::::::::{{reply|Miki Filigranski}} I reverted your bold removal of 7,971 bytes of well surced content. You are free to edit the article, but don't remove sourced material. My edits don't need &quot;checking and clean-up&quot;, they are added precisely according to Wikipedia policies and guidelines. The citation style has nothing wrong. – [[User:Βατο|Βατο]] ([[User talk:Βατο|talk]]) 13:01, 31 August 2024 (UTC) :::::::::::{{reply|Βατο}} No. This what you are doing is gaming the system. You don't respect [[WP:BRD]], you don't care another editor is reverting and constantly warning you. This wasn't bold removal of sourced content, it is about stable revision, NPOV - about which you don't care - as you are making major edits and pushing for the scope and title change in the same time - without any prior discussion, resolution and consensus. Article needs to have a common citation style. --[[User:Miki Filigranski|Miki Filigranski]] ([[User talk:Miki Filigranski|talk]]) 13:10, 31 August 2024 (UTC) ::::::::::::There is no &quot;gaming the system&quot; in adding sourced information about this tradition. Discuss here the content that you consider problematic, don't remove 7,971 bytes of well surced content appealing to NPOV and BRD, while not even discussing a single sentence of my additions. – [[User:Βατο|Βατο]] ([[User talk:Βατο|talk]]) 13:18, 31 August 2024 (UTC) ::::::::::::::No, there's no issue itself with adding sourced information, but how are you adding it, where are you adding it, in the process removing NPOV wording, removing previous content, and in the same time pushing for scope and title change because the old, stable revision wasn't according to the your vision of the article. In the meantime you don't care that another editors reverted your edits. You don't care about their comments. You are the one who needs to start discussions - and in the meantime - not edit warring pushing your edits and new revision. I will just re-incorporate your edits - as much as possible - to the old, stable revision, and from there and then we can discuss what's Your problem with the article and content.--[[User:Miki Filigranski|Miki Filigranski]] ([[User talk:Miki Filigranski|talk]]) 13:26, 31 August 2024 (UTC) :::::::::::::::Again, I see only general statements, please, address one by one the issues you have with the well sourced content about this tradition that I added. – [[User:Βατο|Βατο]] ([[User talk:Βατο|talk]]) 13:29, 31 August 2024 (UTC) ::::::::::::::::No, I won't. As said, will make a third revision which will incorporate your additions. Then we can have a discussion - and You are the one whose going to address one by one the issues you have with the article. It's up to You to step up, not me. You are the one whose trying to change the NPOV, scope and title of the article.--[[User:Miki Filigranski|Miki Filigranski]] ([[User talk:Miki Filigranski|talk]]) 14:11, 31 August 2024 (UTC) :::::::::::::::::Then you should not remove 7,971 bytes of well surced content. – [[User:Βατο|Βατο]] ([[User talk:Βατο|talk]]) 14:26, 31 August 2024 (UTC) {{ping|Sławobóg|Jingiby}} you participated in the old discussion &quot;[[Talk:Dodola and Perperuna#New revision]]&quot; two years ago, please give your verdict to the proposed changes and bold editing ([https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Dodola_and_Perperuna&amp;diff=1241890819&amp;oldid=1241888598]) by user Βατο with whom we discussed two years ago, thanks.--[[User:Miki Filigranski|Miki Filigranski]] ([[User talk:Miki Filigranski|talk]]) 19:18, 23 August 2024 (UTC) == Requested move 22 August 2024 == &lt;div class=&quot;boilerplate mw-archivedtalk&quot; style=&quot;background-color: var(--background-color-success-subtle, #efe); color: var(--color-base, #000); margin: 0; padding: 0 10px 0 10px; border: 1px dotted var(--border-color-subtle, #AAAAAA);&quot;&gt;&lt;!-- Template:RM top --&gt; :''The following is a closed discussion of a [[Wikipedia:Requested moves|requested move]]. &lt;span style=&quot;color: var(--color-error, red);&quot;&gt;'''Please do not modify it.'''&lt;/span&gt; Subsequent comments should be made in a new section on the talk page. Editors desiring to contest the closing decision should consider a [[Wikipedia:move review|move review]] after discussing it on the closer's talk page. No further edits should be made to this discussion.'' The result of the move request was: '''no consensus.''' Given that after a relist 1 month ago there's been no further participation, one support was conditional under a merge, and there was concern expressed about the new title not being formatted as [[WP:NDESC]], I don't see any consensus at this point. &lt;small&gt;([[Wikipedia:Requested moves/Closing instructions#Closure by a page mover|closed by non-admin page mover]])&lt;/small&gt; [[User:Zippybonzo|Zippybonzo]] &amp;#124; [[User talk:Zippybonzo|&lt;small&gt;talk&lt;/small&gt;]] &amp;#124; [[Special:Contributions/Zippybonzo|&lt;small&gt;contribs&lt;/small&gt;]] (they/them) 18:59, 9 October 2024 (UTC) ---- [[:Dodola and Perperuna]] → {{no redirect|Rainmaking (Southeast Europe)}} – see the discussion above. We also have the generic [[Rainmaking (ritual)]] page (techical nomination; '''no vote''') --[[user:Altenmann|Altenmann]] [[user talk:Altenmann|&gt;talk]] 20:15, 22 August 2024 (UTC) &lt;small&gt;—&amp;nbsp;'''''Relisting.'''''&amp;nbsp;[[User_talk:Asukite|&lt;span style=&quot;color:Purple;font-size:medium;font-family:Bradley Hand ITC&quot;&gt; ASUKITE&lt;/span&gt;]] 21:16, 30 August 2024 (UTC)&lt;/small&gt; *'''Support''', repeating my explanation in the discussion above: the title ''Rainmaking (Southeast Europe)'' is necessary in this case, because this article is about similar rainmaking practices of several peoples in Southeast Europe. The title ''Dodola and Perperuna'' is restrictive and POV, bacause it selects only two terms that are given to the girl that performs the ritual, despite the fact that there are many of those names, and there are even traditions based on a male figure, and it is misleading because the rainmaking ritual is not called &quot;Dodola and Perperuna&quot;. If this title will be kept, then a split into ''Rainmaking (Southeast Europe)'' should be made, and this article should focus only on the rainmaking girl figure, but I think a standalone article for such a subject would not be appropriate. Concerning the generic article [[Rainmaking (ritual)]], the Southeast European practices have enough coverage in reliable sources to deserve a standalone article. – [[User:Βατο|Βατο]] ([[User talk:Βατο|talk]]) 21:07, 22 August 2024 (UTC) * That is a bad title, it should be formatted as [[WP:NDESC]] and not as disambiguation, because it's not like &quot;rainmaking&quot; is ''called'' like this in southeastern Europe, you just want to be describing the history of these specific pagan rainmaking customs in those locations. --[[User:Joy|Joy]] ([[User talk:Joy|talk]]) 09:20, 23 August 2024 (UTC) ::A simple solution to that issue could be the title ''Rainmaking in Southeast Europe''. – [[User:Βατο|Βατο]] ([[User talk:Βατο|talk]]) 11:25, 23 August 2024 (UTC) * '''Oppose''', as already stated, in the scientific literature, the rainmaking custom(s) Dodola and Perperuna are usually related. The article is only about these two customs, and they are usually separated from the Caloian custom. The link with the Slavic god Perun and the Slavs is mainstream and majority viewpoint in the literature. In the article was already cited everything or almost everything about the topic. The change of the scope and the title first need long discussion with new citations/evidence and reach a consensus. Otherwise the new version of the article will be a FRINGE and UNDUE WEIGHT autochthonistic POV connection of Dodola and Perperuna custom(s) with Caloian custom etc., which isn't the case in the reliable sources.--[[User:Miki Filigranski|Miki Filigranski]] ([[User talk:Miki Filigranski|talk]]) 18:06, 23 August 2024 (UTC) ::Caloian custom argument is completely irrelevant for the request move. The concerns I listed above still remain with the title &quot;Dodola and Perperuna&quot;, but they would be solved with the title &quot;Rainmaking in Southeast Europe&quot;. As for the Perun link, there are songs in southwestern Albania expressly addressing the Sun (Albanian: [[Dielli (Albanian paganism)|Dielli]]) as the divine figure during the ritual songs, not Perun. – [[User:Βατο|Βατο]] ([[User talk:Βατο|talk]]) 20:01, 23 August 2024 (UTC) :::It isn't, that's the end goal, that's the intention, that's the reasoning this request move and forced editing is based on. Otherwise there wouldn't be such a forced pushing against Slavic mainstream POV. What some folk songs in southwestern Albania have to do with Dodola and Perperuna? Even if they do - but only according to RS - they do not change the fact about the mainstream POV and NPOV in general.--[[User:Miki Filigranski|Miki Filigranski]] ([[User talk:Miki Filigranski|talk]]) 10:43, 31 August 2024 (UTC) ::::&quot;{{tquote|What some folk songs in southwestern Albania have to do with Dodola and Perperuna?}}&quot; they have to do with the subject of this article because they are rainmaking pagan customs performed by a boy dressed in leaves and singing ritual songs, like other tradtions of this article. &quot;{{tquote|such a forced pushing against Slavic mainstream POV}}, actually, the POV-pushing is claiming a Slavic exclusivity for a tradition that is shared between several Balkan peoples, not only Slavic ones. – [[User:Βατο|Βατο]] ([[User talk:Βατο|talk]]) 13:12, 31 August 2024 (UTC) :::::No, that's not the reasoning - the folk songs, the names of Dodola and Perperuna are. No, the mainstream WEIGHT is about the Slavic origin, not exclusivity. There isn't pushed any Slavic exclusivity, and as mainstream sources consider, it's a tradition which was most probably spread by Slavic people which migrated in and influenced all Balkan countries and peoples.--[[User:Miki Filigranski|Miki Filigranski]] ([[User talk:Miki Filigranski|talk]]) 13:19, 31 August 2024 (UTC) ::::::The article clarifies in a sourced statement: {{tquote|The rainmaking practice is a shared tradition among Balkan peoples, and it is not clear who borrowed it from whom.}} And bibliography confirms this. Other claims are POV. – [[User:Βατο|Βατο]] ([[User talk:Βατο|talk]]) 13:33, 31 August 2024 (UTC) :::::::No, it doesn't. It was there for NPOV sake, but immediately below it was paragraph which stated that {{tquote|&quot;It is usually considered they have a mythological and etymological Slavic origin related to Slavic thunder-god Perun&quot;}} citing alone, and together more than a dozen reliable sources with quotes, which you changed into {{tquote|Some consider the perperuna figure to have a mythological and etymological Slavic origin related to Slavic thunder-god Perun}}. You completely messed up [[WP:WEIGHT]] and made [[WP:FALSEBALANCE]] with your editing.--[[User:Miki Filigranski|Miki Filigranski]] ([[User talk:Miki Filigranski|talk]]) 13:47, 31 August 2024 (UTC) * '''Support''', only if we are merging [[Caloian|this]] article as well considering Romania is in Southeast Europe. '''[[User:Боки|&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;Боки&lt;/span&gt;]]''' [[User talk:Боки|&lt;span style=&quot;color:blue&quot;&gt;☎&lt;/span&gt;]] [[Special:Contribs/Боки|&lt;span style=&quot;color:#808080&quot;&gt;✎&lt;/span&gt;]] 23:39, 23 August 2024 (UTC) ::[[Caloian]] is not to be merged, because it has different practices, not only rainmaking. What is appropriate to do has been proposed in the duscussion above by User:Altenmann: &quot;{{tquote|a summary section about [[Calojan]] may be incorporated per [[WP:Summary style]]}}&quot;. – [[User:Βατο|Βατο]] ([[User talk:Βατο|talk]]) 22:55, 30 August 2024 (UTC) :::No, if it is a different practice, then what's the point of incorporating it anyhow in the article about Dodola and Perperuna? --[[User:Miki Filigranski|Miki Filigranski]] ([[User talk:Miki Filigranski|talk]]) 10:47, 31 August 2024 (UTC) * '''Comment''', I'm not sure that changing the title will improve the situation. [[User:Jingiby|Jingiby]] ([[User talk:Jingiby|talk]]) 04:57, 24 August 2024 (UTC) ::It will surely improve the situation. The rainmaking practice is not known as &quot;Dodola and Perperuna&quot; among Albanians. It is not known as such even among Slavic speakers, Eastern Romance speakers, or Greek speakers. That's an [[WP:OR]], [[WP:POV]], as well as a misleading title, by selecting only two terms that are given to the girl that performs the ritual in some traditions. I would like to know what criteria could justify such a choise? So far there has been provided no reasonable argument to keep that title. – [[User:Βατο|Βατο]] ([[User talk:Βατο|talk]]) 09:00, 24 August 2024 (UTC) :::It won't and you already made a mess, and are forcing the changes against the usual process for such essential change. You are greatly misunderstanding the topic, making false claims. The article is reliably sourced - that's the name of the customs, Dodola, and Perperuna (and its variations). You are pushing a disbalanced amount of weight for some poorly sourced, and overall irrelevant Albanian POV. Please stop doing that and [[WP:LISTEN]] to what other editors have to say.--[[User:Miki Filigranski|Miki Filigranski]] ([[User talk:Miki Filigranski|talk]]) 10:34, 31 August 2024 (UTC) ::::{{tquote|You are greatly misunderstanding the topic, making false claims}}, nope, the topic is about rainmaking pagan customs in Southeast Europe practiced with the main boy or girl dressed with fresh branches, leaves and herbs, etc. while singing a ritual song. {{tquote|some poorly sourced, and overall irrelevant Albanian POV}} is your own opinion. The content is sourced with academic sources focusing on this specific subject. And it is not up to us to consider Albanian practices as &quot;irrelevant&quot;, relevance is dictaded by reliable sources. – [[User:Βατο|Βατο]] ([[User talk:Βατο|talk]]) 13:42, 31 August 2024 (UTC) :::::Indeed, relevance is dictated by reliable sources - and then you come after two years of stable NPOV, make major edits ignoring the fact most of the reliable sources arguing and claiming Slavic origin of the customs, etymology and else, and now claim relevance of the Albanian case and else. Genius.--[[User:Miki Filigranski|Miki Filigranski]] ([[User talk:Miki Filigranski|talk]]) 14:06, 31 August 2024 (UTC) ::::::The stable NPOV was not claiming the practice as exclusively Slavic (&quot;{{tquote|ancient Slavic rainmaking pagan customs practiced until the 20th century. The tradition is found in South Slavic countries (Bulgaria, Croatia, North Macedonia, Montenegro, and Serbia), as well as in near Albania, Greece, Hungary, Moldova and Romania.}}) I did not notice that such an erroneous and POV wording has been kept in the lede for so long. – [[User:Βατο|Βατο]] ([[User talk:Βατο|talk]]) 14:25, 31 August 2024 (UTC) :::::::FFS, you were here 2 years ago when the old, stable revision was created and now after 2 years you claim that didn't notice.--[[User:Miki Filigranski|Miki Filigranski]] ([[User talk:Miki Filigranski|talk]]) 16:02, 31 August 2024 (UTC) ::::::::The last time I participated in this talk page I stated that the article should not describe the practice as exclusively Slavic. If I remember correctly, I left you time to change it as you stated that you would reword the article according to the sources provided. Then I even forgot about it, only recently realized that you kept the erroneous POV version, which obviously can't stay. I suggest to avoid replying in this discussion, which is about the RM. – [[User:Βατο|Βατο]] ([[User talk:Βατο|talk]]) 16:16, 31 August 2024 (UTC) :::::::::See discussion below, I didn't keep the erroneous POV version as I've done an edit on 9 August 2022 per talk, over a year later somebody changed the wording and nobody noticed to fix it. Alright, my last comment for this.--[[User:Miki Filigranski|Miki Filigranski]] ([[User talk:Miki Filigranski|talk]]) 16:35, 31 August 2024 (UTC) * '''Comment''', I dont think it will make it better. I think it would best to have separate article about {{Q|Q2622164}} and {{Q|Q2368103}} and other rites with different names in Balkans, even if the descriptions partially overlapped. That would make these articles easier to read, and reader would have precise informations about specific rite. My problem with the article is that it pushes too much non-scientific idea about Perperuna being related to Perun. [[User:Sławobóg|Sławobóg]] ([[User talk:Sławobóg|talk]]) 09:11, 1 September 2024 (UTC) ::{{reply|Sławobóg}} I agree with your last sentence, that's why I edited the article and ridimensioned a little bit that POV, which is basically [[Roman Jakobson]]'s POV. But [[User:Miki Filigranski]] seems to oppose the ridimensioning of that POV. Nevertheless, it can't stay in the lede as it was before my edits, because the etymology and mythology of Peperuda/Perperuna/etc. are far from certain, and there are songs that expressly invoke other deities/divine figures and not Perun. Concerning the split of the article into Dodola, Peperuda, and others, I don't think it is a good idea because in some traditions, in the same ritual performance of rainmaking songs both Dodola-like and Peperuda-like names are mentioned, it would be difficult to separate them. Also, they are about the same rainmaking custom, performed by a procession of young people with a main girl or boy who is dressed with fresh branches and leaves, sings the ritual song, and is sprinkled with water. To avoid the arbitrary selection of two names, such as in this case ''Dodola and Perperuna'', which are hardly the [[WP:COMMONAME]], and which are misleading because nobody actually called the custom ''Dodola and Perperuna'', I proposed the descriptive title ''Rainmaking in Southeast Europe''. – [[User:Βατο|Βατο]] ([[User talk:Βατο|talk]]) 10:04, 1 September 2024 (UTC) :&lt;small&gt;Note: [[Wikipedia talk:WikiProject Romania|WikiProject Romania]], [[Wikipedia talk:WikiProject Bulgaria|WikiProject Bulgaria]], [[Wikipedia talk:WikiProject Serbia|WikiProject Serbia]], [[Wikipedia talk:WikiProject Croatia|WikiProject Croatia]], [[Wikipedia talk:WikiProject North Macedonia|WikiProject North Macedonia]], [[Wikipedia talk:WikiProject Mythology|WikiProject Mythology]], and [[Wikipedia talk:WikiProject Albania|WikiProject Albania]] have been notified of this discussion. [[User_talk:Asukite|&lt;span style=&quot;color:Purple;font-size:medium;font-family:Bradley Hand ITC&quot;&gt; ASUKITE&lt;/span&gt;]] 21:14, 30 August 2024 (UTC)&lt;/small&gt; :&lt;small&gt;'''Relisting comment''': Relist to give time for participation. Note that one of the support comments is conditional upon a merge, which is worth discussion, and there is one reply that may be read as oppose but isn't labeled as such. [[User_talk:Asukite|&lt;span style=&quot;color:Purple;font-size:medium;font-family:Bradley Hand ITC&quot;&gt; ASUKITE&lt;/span&gt;]] 21:16, 30 August 2024 (UTC)&lt;/small&gt; &lt;div style=&quot;padding-left: 1.6em; font-style: italic; border-top: 1px solid #a2a9b1; margin: 0.5em 0; padding-top: 0.5em&quot;&gt;The discussion above is closed. &lt;b style=&quot;color: var(--color-error, red);&quot;&gt;Please do not modify it.&lt;/b&gt; Subsequent comments should be made on the appropriate discussion page. No further edits should be made to this discussion.&lt;/div&gt;&lt;!-- from [[Template:Archive bottom]] --&gt; &lt;/div&gt;&lt;div style=&quot;clear:both;&quot; class=&gt;&lt;/div&gt; ==&quot;Oj Ljule&quot; songs== &quot;Oj Ljule&quot; songs are inlcuded in the &quot;Dodole songs&quot;, despite the fact that the songs seem to not mention Dodole or related forms. This aspect should be clarified in the article. Btw, I don't know whether ''ljule'' is a Slavic term, but it can be found in Albanian, and means &quot;flower&quot;, and &quot;Oj Ljule&quot; is found as a phrase in Arbereshe songs as well, although unrelated to rainmaking rituals. The origin and meaning of the term ''ljule'' used in Slavic songs should be explained as well. – [[User:Βατο|Βατο]] ([[User talk:Βατο|talk]]) 18:44, 23 August 2024 (UTC) :This appears to be the borrowing from Slavic [[lullaby]] refrain Ay lyuli {{langx|ru|Ай люли}}, see eg in ''[[Kalinka (1860 song)|Kalinka]]'' or [[:ru:Во поле берёза стояла]]. Associated with the Russian word люлька, &quot;[[cradle]]&quot;. --[[user:Altenmann|Altenmann]] [[user talk:Altenmann|&gt;talk]] 19:10, 23 August 2024 (UTC) ::{{reply|Altenmann}} thanks for the clarification, in that case it would not be a borrowing, but a Slavic term in Eastern South Slavic. The Albanian term would not be related. A source would be nice to clarify it in the article. – [[User:Βατο|Βατο]] ([[User talk:Βατο|talk]]) 19:14, 23 August 2024 (UTC) :::I will try to find a source, but it will be difficult for such minor things. Provably in some obscure folkloric book. [https://www.google.com/search?sca_esv=59944d6273687f66&amp;sca_upv=1&amp;rlz=1C1SJWC_enUS1086US1087&amp;q=%22%D0%90%D0%B9+%D0%BB%D1%8E%D0%BB%D0%B8%22+-%D0%BA%D0%B0%D0%BB%D0%B8%D0%BD%D0%BA%D0%B0&amp;tbm=bks&amp;source=lnms&amp;fbs=AEQNm0AVbySjNxIXoj6bNaq7uSpwmIS0gJlXN_LWYh5RkW9UG_J2iT2scTJ59gCgVXw95w_tbwv0XGMg5VNVmdZJUUbegAUXjP-3Az7ul0FDlU2m0yNrv6Vuz1OORdWimsJYhP0WMXW2ofgIshBxHL7F_exMsA00U1w8-fAhNJVI81QdesxeLn7PSN5Jf4tv1ZtHKAbXs9j2p9qipOTKbxDb8N2kMYbC5g&amp;sa=X&amp;ved=2ahUKEwjH7Nmw6YuIAxV4DTQIHRgHNgo4MhDSlAl6BAg0EAE&amp;biw=1059&amp;bih=682&amp;dpr=1.25 google books] shows plenty of songs, but no etymology. --[[user:Altenmann|Altenmann]] [[user talk:Altenmann|&gt;talk]] 19:19, 23 August 2024 (UTC) :::: [https://gramota.ru/meta/lyuli here a short blurb: ''Large Explanatory Dictionary of the Russian Language'':(folk-poetic) Is used in refrains of Russian folk songs. --[[user:Altenmann|Altenmann]] [[user talk:Altenmann|&gt;talk]] 19:21, 23 August 2024 (UTC) ::::[https://slovnyk.ua/index.php?swrd=%D0%BB%D1%8E%D0%BB%D1%8F%D1%82%D0%B8 люляти] - to rock the cradle in Ukrainian and Belarusian ([[wikt:ru:люляць]]) and Lithuanian [https://www.zodynas.lt/terminu-zodynas/L/liuliuoti liūliuoti] &quot;to rock/be rocked by waves&quot;, Serbian ljuljati &quot;to rock&quot;. - [https://www.alphadictionary.com/goodword/word/lullaby and it seems] it is related to Englies [https://www.alphadictionary.com/goodword/word/lull &quot;lull&quot;], &quot;[[lullaby]]&quot;--[[user:Altenmann|Altenmann]] [[user talk:Altenmann|&gt;talk]] 19:31, 23 August 2024 (UTC) :::::{{edit conflict}} Thanks. I think a source expressly about these rainmaking songs would be appropriate for inclusion into the article, if they cannot be found then we can leave it without explanation. Sources about Russian folksongs not directly related to the subject would be [[WP:SYNTH|synth]] or [[WP:OR|or]] into the article, although interesting for clarifying the matter here in talk page. – [[User:Βατο|Βατο]] ([[User talk:Βατο|talk]]) 19:32, 23 August 2024 (UTC) ::::::These Russian folksongs are mentioned here as an anwer to the question about &quot;Oj Ljule&quot; and of course are irrelevant to this article. (Sorry for off-topic, I am just collecting for future possible use elsewhere.) --[[user:Altenmann|Altenmann]] [[user talk:Altenmann|&gt;talk]] 19:36, 23 August 2024 (UTC) Basically, you are pushing an Albanian-old Balkan POV connection in the LEAD and main body of the article. It is so obvious it is painful not to notice it. Please refrain from doing it forcibly, engage in BRD discussion without editing a stable NPOV, seek a consensus, and only then discuss about the change of scope and title of the article. Not the other way around.--[[User:Miki Filigranski|Miki Filigranski]] ([[User talk:Miki Filigranski|talk]]) 10:30, 31 August 2024 (UTC) :Which one is the POV version? The one that describes the subject as &quot;{{tquote|rainmaking pagan customs widespread among different peoples in Southeast Europe until the 20th century, found in Albania, Bulgaria, Croatia, Greece, Hungary, Kosovo, Moldova, Montenegro, Romania, and Serbia.}}&quot; or the version that describes it as &quot;{{tquote|ancient Slavic rainmaking pagan customs practiced until the 20th century. The tradition is found in South Slavic countries (Bulgaria, Croatia, North Macedonia, Montenegro, and Serbia), as well as in near Albania, Greece, Hungary, Moldova and Romania.}}&quot; It's clearly the second one, which obviously can't stay. – [[User:Βατο|Βατο]] ([[User talk:Βατο|talk]]) 13:25, 31 August 2024 (UTC) ::You obviously don't get the point and refuse to get the point, why that text and wording was in the lead.--[[User:Miki Filigranski|Miki Filigranski]] ([[User talk:Miki Filigranski|talk]]) 13:48, 31 August 2024 (UTC) :::There is no point to get, that text and wording is an erroneous and POV description of the custom. – [[User:Βατο|Βατο]] ([[User talk:Βατο|talk]]) 13:54, 31 August 2024 (UTC) ::::Please stick with the Albanian-Illyrian paganism, and leave alone Slavic paganism when have such a low understanding and respect about the topic.--[[User:Miki Filigranski|Miki Filigranski]] ([[User talk:Miki Filigranski|talk]]) 14:00, 31 August 2024 (UTC) :::::This practice is Albanian, as well as Greek, Romanian, etc., other than South Slavic. You should understand that to avoid POV in the article. – [[User:Βατο|Βατο]] ([[User talk:Βατο|talk]]) 14:21, 31 August 2024 (UTC) ::::::This practice is first and foremost South Slavic, while Albanian is the least (and even among them is most probably due to South Slavic influence). --[[User:Miki Filigranski|Miki Filigranski]] ([[User talk:Miki Filigranski|talk]]) 15:15, 31 August 2024 (UTC) :::::::This practice is widespread among all Albanians. It is Albanian as much as it is South Slavic. Your opinion &quot;{{tquote|This practice is first and foremost South Slavic, while Albanian is the least (and even among them is most probably due to South Slavic influence)}}&quot; shows that you want to push only one POV. – [[User:Βατο|Βατο]] ([[User talk:Βατο|talk]]) 15:52, 31 August 2024 (UTC) :::::::::Where and what's the evidence it is widespread among all Albanians? How common was the practice in Albania? There's no &quot;my opinion&quot;, in the article was cited what was in the scientific literature - it wasn't common and widespread neither can be considered Albanian as much as it is South Slavic. I don't care about what kind of POV is in the literature, only about [[WP:WEIGHT]], and the majority viewpoint is clear about that. You are the one whose changing NPOV by pushing your pro-Albanian POV.--[[User:Miki Filigranski|Miki Filigranski]] ([[User talk:Miki Filigranski|talk]]) 15:59, 31 August 2024 (UTC) ::::::::::It is widespread among all Albanians, it has been practiced by Albanians in southern Albania, in northern Albania, Kosovo and Macedonia. This is not my opinion, this is what academic sources say. And adding sourced content about the Albanian traditions direclty related to the subject of this article is not &quot;pro-Albanian POV&quot;. I suggest to avoid such labellings. – [[User:Βατο|Βατο]] ([[User talk:Βατο|talk]]) 16:08, 31 August 2024 (UTC) :::::::::::I am asking you once again where and what is said in the literature - give the quotes. I don't care and believe what you say. Again, you are NOT merely adding sourced content because you have completely changed the NPOV. You know what you're doing, I know what you're doing. Stop doing it, show some good faith, respect and start behaving according to [[WP:BRD]].--[[User:Miki Filigranski|Miki Filigranski]] ([[User talk:Miki Filigranski|talk]]) 16:19, 31 August 2024 (UTC)- ::::::::::::In the article you can check the sources, which have been carefully cited with relevant pages, and you can add quote needed templates in parts that you fail to verify. Regardless of what you believe or not, the practice has been documented in southwest Albania (such as in the Ionian Coast), southeast Albania (such as in Permet and Klonje), central and northern Albania (such as in Mat, Mirdite, and Has) Macedonia (such as in Tetove), Kosovo (such as in Gjakove, Opoje and Sharr Mountains). It was widespread until the 2nd half of the 20th century, and continues to be performed in rare occasions by Albanians in remote areas such as around [[Opojë]] in the Sharr Mountains. You can find this information in this article's Bibliography, (such as in {{harvnb|Tirta|2004|pp=310–312}}, {{harvnb|Gjoni|2012|pp=85–86}}, and {{harvnb|Qafleshi|2009|pp=51–52}}). – [[User:Βατο|Βατο]] ([[User talk:Βατο|talk]]) 16:58, 31 August 2024 (UTC) – [[User:Βατο|Βατο]] ([[User talk:Βατο|talk]]) 16:58, 31 August 2024 (UTC) :::::::::::::Thank you.--[[User:Miki Filigranski|Miki Filigranski]] ([[User talk:Miki Filigranski|talk]]) 00:56, 4 October 2024 (UTC) Βατο, why is now the same text/songs at [[Dielli (Albanian paganism)#Rainmaking and soil fertility rituals]] and this article (although some songs do not mention neither Dodola or Perperuna)?--[[User:Miki Filigranski|Miki Filigranski]] ([[User talk:Miki Filigranski|talk]]) 15:47, 31 August 2024 (UTC) :They are added because they are rainmaking rituals that are subject of this article, with the same figures and performances. The other songs are added because they follow the rainmaking practice, and are discussed in the same context by the cited source. However, if you consider those following songs to have undue weight, I will remove them and keep only their description. – [[User:Βατο|Βατο]] ([[User talk:Βατο|talk]]) 16:22, 31 August 2024 (UTC) ::I removed them. – [[User:Βατο|Βατο]] ([[User talk:Βατο|talk]]) 16:32, 31 August 2024 (UTC) ==Clarification== The article should clarify whether a goddess/female deity called Perperuna (or similar) or Dodole (or similar), associated with Perun (also as his consort/wife) has been actually attested in Slavic traditions, or it is just a hypothesis by modern scholars. In that regard, the article states: {{tquote|Recent research criticize invention of a Slavic female goddess}}, referenced with {{harvnb|Łuczyński|2020|p=141}}, but I have not access to the source to verify whether it is referring to the link between Perun and Perperuna as a goddess. A a proper context should be provided. – [[User:Βατο|Βατο]] ([[User talk:Βατο|talk]]) 12:26, 24 August 2024 (UTC) :It is already stated. Deities or ritual figures are often reconstructed out of folk tradition. It is an ''interpretation''. You have full quote in this talk page [[Talk:Dodola and Perperuna #Other sources]].--[[User:Miki Filigranski|Miki Filigranski]] ([[User talk:Miki Filigranski|talk]]) 10:57, 31 August 2024 (UTC) ::The article's text should clarify whether something belongs to actual folklore or it is an interpretation. – [[User:Βατο|Βατο]] ([[User talk:Βατο|talk]]) 13:21, 31 August 2024 (UTC) :::Oh really, don't you say? Imagine the shock, who would have thought that the old, stabile revision said: :::{{tquote|According to another '''interpretation''' the name Perperuna can be identified as the reduplicated feminine derivative of the name of the male god Perun (per-perun-a), being his female consort, wife and goddess of rain Perperuna Dodola, which parallels the Old Norse couple Fjörgyn–Fjörgynn and the Lithuanian Perkūnas–Perkūnija.[41][38][42][43][44] Perun's battle against Veles because of Perperuna/Dodola's kidnapping has parallels in Zeus saving of Persephone after Hades carried her underground causing big drought on Earth, also seen in the similarity of the names Perperuna and Persephone.[43][45][16] Recent research criticize invention of a Slavic female goddess.[19]}} :::and now it doesn't after you butchered the paragraphs and sections. Incredible, you must be a genius! --[[User:Miki Filigranski|Miki Filigranski]] ([[User talk:Miki Filigranski|talk]]) 13:53, 31 August 2024 (UTC) ::::Despite me being a 'genius', which is unrelated to this discussion, the information above still needs clarification, because the interpretation is about the name, and as the information is provided in the text, it takes for granted that the female figure was Perun's &quot;female consort, wife and goddess of rain Perperuna Dodola, which parallels the Old Norse couple Fjörgyn–Fjörgynn and the Lithuanian Perkūnas–Perkūnija.&quot; and that &quot;Perun's battle against Veles because of Perperuna/Dodola's kidnapping has parallels in Zeus saving of Persephone after Hades carried her underground causing big drought on Earth&quot;. The wording is important for such things, the text should clarify whether those are reconstrucitons or are actual folklore to not mislead the reader. I already made a slight rewording adding &quot;{{tquote|''allegedly'' being his female consort, wife and goddess of rain Perperuna Dodola, which ''would'' parallel the Old Norse couple Fjörgyn–Fjörgynn and the Lithuanian Perkūnas–Perkūnija.}}&quot;, but I am not sure if it is alleged or in folklore. That's why I asked. I moved some parts because they were about etymology, I left the parts about mythology into the relevant section. – [[User:Βατο|Βατο]] ([[User talk:Βατο|talk]]) 14:16, 31 August 2024 (UTC) :::::You clearly don't differentiate parts which are strictly about etymology from those which are about mythology. You moved parts, everything now looks out of context, and then claim there's confusion - when you made it. This is going to be like in the stable revision, the end of discussion.--[[User:Miki Filigranski|Miki Filigranski]] ([[User talk:Miki Filigranski|talk]]) 15:17, 31 August 2024 (UTC) ::::::Nope, the stable revision you created is erroneous and POV, and can't stay. Nevertheless, you are not addressing my concerns, but making general, useless, statements. Are they attested traditions or modern reconstructions? – [[User:Βατο|Βατο]] ([[User talk:Βατο|talk]]) 15:42, 31 August 2024 (UTC) :::::::You were here 2 years ago when the old, stable revision was created. Now you come again after 2 years, falsely claim that didn't notice what was written in the LEAD and else, decide to make it more erroneous and POV, and don't bother with any concerns other editor is making because of your major, general editing by which violated WEIGHT and NPOV, and calling them &quot;useless&quot; concerns. This is unbelievable. --[[User:Miki Filigranski|Miki Filigranski]] ([[User talk:Miki Filigranski|talk]]) 15:55, 31 August 2024 (UTC) ::::::::The last time I participated in this talk page I stated that the article should not describe the practice as exclusively Slavic. If I remember correctly, I left you time to change it as you stated that you would reword the article according to the sources provided. Then I even forgot about it, only recently realized that you kept the erroneous POV version, which obviously can't stay. – [[User:Βατο|Βατο]] ([[User talk:Βατο|talk]]) 16:14, 31 August 2024 (UTC) :::::::::Sorry, but I see now we are both misunderstanding each other and what happened. I've done that, [https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Dodola_and_Perperuna&amp;oldid=1103234952 this] was my &quot;NPOV up-date per talk&quot; on 9 August 2022 i.e. original stable revision, but until my next [https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Dodola_and_Perperuna&amp;oldid=1192112560 edit] on 27 December 2023 somebody changed the wording in the lead from &quot;are Balkan rainmaking pagan customs practiced until the 20th century&quot; to &quot;are ancient Slavic rainmaking pagan customs practiced until the 20th century&quot;. --[[User:Miki Filigranski|Miki Filigranski]] ([[User talk:Miki Filigranski|talk]]) 16:28, 31 August 2024 (UTC) :::::::::IP changed the lead wording on [https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Dodola_and_Perperuna&amp;diff=1182582238&amp;oldid=1181970621 30 October 2023].--[[User:Miki Filigranski|Miki Filigranski]] ([[User talk:Miki Filigranski|talk]]) 16:32, 31 August 2024 (UTC) ==Undue speculative interpretations in lede== [[User:Vanillacake34]] reverted ([https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Dodola_and_Perperuna&amp;diff=prev&amp;oldid=1257581130]) without explanation an addition in the lede about some scholarly interpretations that were made only for some traditions. There is absolutely no evidence that rainmaking rituals in the Balkans &quot;{{tquote|were related to the Slavic supreme deity Perun (god of thunder, weather, fertility and oak trees in the Slavic pantheon).}}&quot; and that &quot;{{tquote|Perperuna could have been a Slavic goddess of rain, the consort of Perun, or that the name Perperuna is the reduplicated feminine form derived from the name of Perun.}}&quot; And above all, what makes such addition undue in the lede is the fact that Albanian rainmaking ritual songs expressly address the Sun (Albanian: [[Dielli (Albanian paganism)|Dielli]]) and the Sky ([[Perëndi]]) as divine entities during the ritual songs, not [[Perun]], who does not appear in Slavic songs either. – [[User:Βατο|Βατο]] ([[User talk:Βατο|talk]]) 18:00, 15 November 2024 (UTC) [[User:Βατο]] has been consistently reverting my contributions to the article without providing clear explanations or engaging with the sources I have referenced. Their edit history shows a pattern of rejecting changes that do not align with their personal perspective, rather than evaluating the scholarly validity of the information. My contributions are supported by multiple sources, including academic references and materials taught in universities, which highlight that many scholars acknowledge the ritual's connection to Perun. I have clearly presented this as a selective scholarly interpretation, not an absolute fact, to reflect the diversity of perspectives on the topic. However, this user appears to remove any information they personally disagree with, rather than fostering a balanced discussion or improving the page with additional context. Additionally, their edits disproportionately emphasize Albania as the central origin or practice location of this ritual, despite a lack of absolute historical evidence supporting such a claim. It has never been proven anywhere that this ritual is mainly practiced or originates from Albania. The user's edits on this page appear to disproportionately emphasize Albania while removing significant information related to other countries, origins, and associated folklore. There is no historical evidence to suggest that Albania is the primary origin or central location for this ritual. This creates a biased narrative by omitting significant information about the ritual's broader Slavic origins and connections to Perun. My recent edits aim to restore balance by reintroducing well-supported details previously removed. It’s important to ensure the article reflects a comprehensive and neutral perspective that includes all relevant viewpoints, especially those widely accepted in scholarly circles, predominantly within Slavic studies. Their selective editing approach undermines collaborative efforts to improve the page and disregards other contributors' valid, sourced additions. – [[User:Vanillacake34|Vanillacake34]] ([[User talk:Vanillacake34|talk]]) 18:27, 15 November 2024 (UTC) ::I did not add any information about considering the practice as originating in Albania, that's your own erroneous interpretation of the article's text. On the other hand, you did add speculative information to misleadingly portray the tradition as of Slavic origin. Since you insist adding in lede sepeculative interpretations that concern only some Slavic rainmaking traditions, which btw do never mention Perun, I'll add factual figures addressed in songs in Albanian traditions as well. The etymological discussions in lede about one of the figures addressed in the songs - peperuda/perperuna - will be appropriately re-proportioned. – [[User:Βατο|Βατο]] ([[User talk:Βατο|talk]]) 18:41, 15 November 2024 (UTC)</div></summary> <author><name>Βατο</name></author> </entry> <entry> <id>https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Talk:Dodola_and_Perperuna&diff=1257587738</id> <title>Talk:Dodola and Perperuna</title> <link rel="alternate" type="text/html" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Talk:Dodola_and_Perperuna&diff=1257587738"/> <updated>2024-11-15T18:22:07Z</updated> <summary type="html">Βατο: <hr /> <div>{{WikiProject banner shell|class=Start|1= {{WikiProject Mythology | importance=Low}} {{WikiProject Albania|importance=low}} {{WikiProject Bulgaria|importance=low}} {{WikiProject Croatia|importance=low}} {{WikiProject Romania|importance=low}} {{WikiProject Serbia| importance=Low}} {{WikiProject North Macedonia| importance=Low}} {{WikiProject Neopaganism | importance=Low}} }} {{old move|date=22 August 2024|destination=Rainmaking (Southeast Europe)|result=no consensus|link=Special:Permalink/1249265199#Requested move 22 August 2024}} ==2004== I deleted almost the entire original article. It was just too incomprehensible. I replaced it with a scrap of info found on the web. --[[User:LeeHunter|LeeHunter]] 00:49, 24 Aug 2004 (UTC) : Wikipedians who understand [[Slavic languages]] and are knowledgeable in [[Slavic mythology]] are invited to sort out the following text (that was replaced by a nice little stub by [[User:LeeHunter]]): :: '''Perperuna''' - originally probably divine partner (wife) of [[Perun]]; probably the name formed by reduplication core &amp;#8220;per-&amp;#8220;, however it could be also personalization (result) of activity of Perun - &amp;#8222;flinging rock&quot; (per-perun-a?) = rain - analog. Ind. Parjanya &amp;#8222;(secondarily) cloud, rain&quot; - surname of Indra. Perperuna is the name behaved as designation of participant of ceremony (noted in SouthSlav. folklore) of summoning of rain, called also [[dodola]], dudula (compare to: Lith. [[Perkunas]] - Dundúlis, Latt. Dundusélis and Gr. [[Dodona]]); if we identify perperuna-dodola with [[beregynja]](*perkynja), we deal with team of names - teonyms embracing with significative range occurrence of worship of fecundity: [[Moko&amp;#353;]] (Mather Earth) - Perkynia / Pergynja(&amp;#8222;Holy Forest - Oak wood&quot; / &amp;#8222;Mountain&quot; - on the ground of analogy Ind. also: &amp;#8222;Cloud, Rain&quot;) - Perperuna (Perun's partner, on the ground of analogy Hett. also: &amp;#8222;Rock&quot;) compactly related with &amp;#8222;masculine&quot; worship Thunderlord - Perun. Hipostasy of goddess was probably a viper (snake) guardian of house - &amp;#382;mija cuvakuca, &amp;#382;mija kucarica (SouthSlav.). : Have fun with it. :-) : -- [[User:PFHLai|PFHLai]] 01:28, 2004 Aug 24 (UTC) : P.S. I think &quot;Moko&amp;#353;&quot; is [[Mokosh]]. ==Old talk== Text from [http://free.bol.bg/slavpagan/deities.html webpage] owned by the contributor How do we KNOW that the contributor owns the webpage? And where has he/she released the material to GFDL? [[User:RickK|Rick]][[User talk:RickK|K]] 05:57, Oct 14, 2004 (UTC) :He/she released it by copying. How do we KNOW anything? He/she told us so. Must he go to notary public first? What is the policy about contributing owned materials? Has he (acting as wikipedian) to send a letter to himself (acting as a webmaster) with request for confirmation? [[User:Mikkalai|Mikkalai]] 06:22, 14 Oct 2004 (UTC) ::BTW, I've already met this situation (related to the bio of some Rumanian professor), asked at pump, and got no answer (and safely forgot about the issue until now). IMO here is a hole in wikipolicies. [[User:Mikkalai|Mikkalai]] 06:25, 14 Oct 2004 (UTC) :::This was done in past. Email of site owner, as given on [http://free.bol.bg/slavpagan/home.html] is ogneslav@abv.bg and anyone interested can contact him and ask is he really Wikipedia user Ogneslav and then copy/paste the email here (I'd do it but it seems that he dislikes me). Perhaps he'd even permit others to use material from his site. [[User:Nikola Smolenski|Nikola]] 09:04, 14 Oct 2004 (UTC) :::: You also didn't understand my question: wikipedia's policies don't say how he '''himself''', from thr very beginning could confirm that he is the author, without '''me''' or '''you'''. [[User:Mikkalai|Mikkalai]] 14:58, 14 Oct 2004 (UTC) :::::Well, he '''himself''' '''''could not''''' from the very beginning confirm that he is the author. Period. ::::::'''That's''' what I am saying: wikipedia's policy has a hole. And there are ways to fix it.[[User:Mikkalai|Mikkalai]] 14:56, 15 Oct 2004 (UTC) :::::I have in past created a few pages where I'd just copy/paste text from a web site with nothing more than saying &quot;Text from http://website used with permission. &lt;nowiki&gt;~~~~&lt;/nowiki&gt;&quot; at the talk page. I was able to do this because, before that, I have contributed to Wikipedia for a long time, and none of my contributions are found to be copyright violations, and so everyone who reviewed the article knew that I understand and respect Wikipedia's copyright policy, and it is very unlikely that I would begin breaking it all of a sudden. On the other hand, this is a new user, who started to contribute copyrighted material, and there is possibility that he could be, as likely website owner, as someone who simply wants to use copyrighted material from the website and make false claims to get away with it. :::::This is all empty talk, however; wouldn't it be far easier and faster to simply e-mail the guy than to talk about what could have happened if something had happened? [[User:Nikola Smolenski|Nikola]] 07:37, 15 Oct 2004 (UTC) ::::::I don't care much about this topic and about the author. Do you think I cannot use e-mail? I am talking about the policy. I am going to summarize the talk at the corresponding pages. This disussion greatly helped me to understand what exactly I have to say. Thanks, guys. [[User:Mikkalai|Mikkalai]] 14:56, 15 Oct 2004 (UTC) :::::Read the copyvio boilerplate language. It says &quot;To the poster: If there was permission to use this material under terms of our license or if you are the copyright holder of the externally linked text, then please indicate so on this page's talk page.&quot;. [[User:RickK|Rick]][[User talk:RickK|K]] 19:26, Oct 14, 2004 (UTC) ::::::This was what was actually said in a frustrated way in the [[Talk:Slavic mythology#So guys]], according to which I entered the above note: ''&quot;Text from [http://free.bol.bg/slavpagan/deities.html webpage] owned by the contributor&quot;''. Your reaction was: &quot;how do we KNOW...&quot;. Please notice that your reaction would be equally valid, if the notice were: ''&quot;Text from [http://free.bol.bg/slavpagan/deities.html webpage] owned by '''me'''.&lt;signature&gt;&quot;''. You seem to miss the legal difference between an e-mail confirmation from an account associated with the webpage in question and a simple notice on the wikipedia talk page. [[User:Mikkalai|Mikkalai]] 19:51, 14 Oct 2004 (UTC) ::::::::I'm still waiting for you to point to the page where the original author of the page said it was his/her copyright and he/she has released it to GFDL in accordance with the line I quoted above. [[User:RickK|Rick]][[User talk:RickK|K]] 23:07, Oct 14, 2004 (UTC) ::::::::* You seem to '''again''' miss the legal difference between an e-mail confirmation from an account associated with the webpage in question and a simple notice on the wikipedia talk page. The advice in the copyvio notice is laughable from legal POV: ''if you are the copyright holder... please indicate so on this page's talk page''. How one may verify that the page editor is the owner? I may &quot;indicate&quot; I own [[Madonna (entertainer)|Madonna]]'s bare ass. And you're supposed to believe me until Madonna sues wikipedia? In this particular case I don't care about this nervous guy. I am pointing at a hole in the policy. The issue is credentials. In the case of an explicit request by another wikieditor, the credentials are the e-mail address of the respondent that matches the webpage info (weak, but triable). The advice you (and I) cited doesn't explain how to provide credentials. [[User:Mikkalai|Mikkalai]] 01:21, 15 Oct 2004 (UTC) ::::::::* Sorry, I forgot to answer your question. I've already pointed the page: [[Talk:Slavic mythology#So guys]]. It has: ''The last drop was that somebody, called &quot;administrator&quot;, deleted a number of my pages 'cause they were COPYRIGHT. He even adviced me in private to write in &quot;my own words&quot; - BUT THESE WERE MY OWN WORDS. He didn't even make the effort to look at the bottom of the source-site to see I am the copyright holder.'' This remark is just as good as any other. Notice also, contrary to your request, he has no duty to explicitely release to GFDL: in wikipedia GFDL is an opt-out; mere editing means release. [[User:Mikkalai|Mikkalai]] 01:29, 15 Oct 2004 (UTC) Great. That's what I was looking for. Now, was that so hard? [[User:RickK|Rick]][[User talk:RickK|K]] 19:26, Oct 15, 2004 (UTC) :No. But an easy way is no fun. [[User:Mikkalai|Mikkalai]] 19:53, 15 Oct 2004 (UTC) ==Perperuna== See [[Talk:Perperuna]]. `'[[user:mikkalai|mikka]] [[user talk:mikkalai|(t)]] 01:53, 25 July 2006 (UTC) == Section on ritual == The &quot;Ritual&quot; section makes four or five claims but has no sources for any of them. I'm not going to try to dig up sources on this subject, since I'm 100% unfamiliar with it, but it would improve the article if sources could be provided. [[User:Poihths|Poihths]] ([[User talk:Poihths|talk]]) 14:38, 14 May 2013 (UTC) == External links modified == Hello fellow Wikipedians, I have just modified {{plural:1|one external link|1 external links}} on [[Dodola]]. Please take a moment to review [https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?diff=prev&amp;oldid=754799110 my edit]. If you have any questions, or need the bot to ignore the links, or the page altogether, please visit [[User:Cyberpower678/FaQs#InternetArchiveBot|this simple FaQ]] for additional information. I made the following changes: *Added archive https://web.archive.org/web/20131228002745/http://egg.mnir.ro:80/pdf/Paliga_InflRomane.pdf to http://egg.mnir.ro/pdf/Paliga_InflRomane.pdf When you have finished reviewing my changes, please set the ''checked'' parameter below to '''true''' or '''failed''' to let others know (documentation at {{tlx|Sourcecheck}}). {{sourcecheck|checked=false}} Cheers.—[[User:InternetArchiveBot|'''&lt;span style=&quot;color:darkgrey;font-family:monospace&quot;&gt;InternetArchiveBot&lt;/span&gt;''']] &lt;span style=&quot;color:green;font-family:Rockwell&quot;&gt;([[User talk:InternetArchiveBot|Report bug]])&lt;/span&gt; 15:55, 14 December 2016 (UTC) == External links modified == Hello fellow Wikipedians, I have just modified one external link on [[Dodola]]. Please take a moment to review [[special:diff/816350836|my edit]]. If you have any questions, or need the bot to ignore the links, or the page altogether, please visit [[User:Cyberpower678/FaQs#InternetArchiveBot|this simple FaQ]] for additional information. I made the following changes: *Added archive https://web.archive.org/web/20120216225647/http://www.gbiblsk.edu.mk/images/stories/eknigi/zbornik.pdf to http://www.gbiblsk.edu.mk/images/stories/eknigi/zbornik.pdf When you have finished reviewing my changes, you may follow the instructions on the template below to fix any issues with the URLs. {{sourcecheck|checked=false|needhelp=}} Cheers.—[[User:InternetArchiveBot|'''&lt;span style=&quot;color:darkgrey;font-family:monospace&quot;&gt;InternetArchiveBot&lt;/span&gt;''']] &lt;span style=&quot;color:green;font-family:Rockwell&quot;&gt;([[User talk:InternetArchiveBot|Report bug]])&lt;/span&gt; 20:24, 20 December 2017 (UTC) == New revision == The article was in dire need of new revision because the old revision had many serious issues for many years. For e.g. most of the text was directly copied from sources but without proper attribution and sometimes from sources which weren't even cited; gave false weight to a dubious fringe theory by non-folklorists/mythologists about Thracian origin which is ignored in all other sources; some explanations, connections were erroneous and couldn't be confirmed in literature; the primary mythological and etymological focus is on Perperuna while Dodola as substitution not other way around; Dodola isn't known as Perperuna nor Perperuna is known as Dodola, these are two separate but very similar pagan customs with common origin; hence the article title will be changed to &quot;Perperuna and Dodola&quot;. [[User:Miki Filigranski|Miki Filigranski]] ([[User talk:Miki Filigranski|talk]]) 10:51, 23 July 2022 (UTC) :Before moving the article, discuss it here, please. I restored it to the name &quot;Dodola&quot; as it seems the most common one. The article title &quot;Perperuna and Dodola&quot; also appears to refer to a tradition that consists of both those figures, which is not the case. – [[User:Βατο|Βατο]] ([[User talk:Βατο|talk]]) 21:12, 23 July 2022 (UTC) ::1) As was already explained and as it is explained in the scientific literature, these are two separate but similar pagan customs which are often related by folklorists. We cannot have in the article title only one custom because they are not synonyms and SCOPE of the article much more focused, as shown by literature, to Perperuna and it's Slavic origin as well as connection to Slavic deity Perun. ::2) In your first [https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Dodola&amp;type=revision&amp;diff=1100019388&amp;oldid=1099979834 edit] you ignorantly and disruptively, as shown in the talk page discussion at [[Talk:Perëndi#Slavic loan]], made an anti-Slavic edit against the consensus in scientific literature about the connection with Slavic deity Perun, all of which was cited in the article, and replaced it in the LEAD with two irrelevant sources promoting or fringe theories making [[WP:FALSEBALANCE]] (Ḱulavkova's about Thracian origin which is ignored in almost all other cited literature besides three which were by linguists and historians i.e. also non-experts on the field violating [[WP:WEIGHT]]) or non-expert minor viewpoint by [[Andrew Wachtel]] instead of many other reliable sources which claim exactly the opposite. ::3) In anoted [https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Dodola&amp;diff=next&amp;oldid=1100019761 edit] removed the part that the fringe theory argues Thracian origin of Perun, claiming to be &quot;original research&quot; on my part although noted the pages in which is clearly stated by Kulavkova at pg. 20 (&quot;'''According to other beliefs, Perun, Perin, or Pirin was the supreme deity of the Thracians.'''&quot;) and by Dragnea at pg. 19, citing Paliga's fringe theory. ::4) [https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Dodola&amp;type=revision&amp;diff=1100025353&amp;oldid=1100021497 ignoring and removing] sourced viewpoint from reliable and reputable scholars, bringing false balance with a controversial source. ::5) [https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Dodola&amp;diff=next&amp;oldid=1100025353 removing] sourced information.--[[User:Miki Filigranski|Miki Filigranski]] ([[User talk:Miki Filigranski|talk]]) 21:51, 23 July 2022 (UTC) :Hey, thanks for improving the article, I would not have been able to collect these songs and history myself. I can't support &quot;origin&quot; part tho. There is literally 0 evidence for Perperuna being goddess and there is 0 evidence for direct connection to Perun. Pereplut is also unrelated name. Perun, Perkunas and Fjoryn are [[false cognate]]s and PIE [[perkwunos]] didn't exist (this article is not best place for this topic tho). Connecting Dodola with [[Dzidzilela]] (forged goddess) is folk etymology, the latter word comes from PS ''*did-'' &quot;big, great&quot; and it can't be different. [[Lada (mythology)|Lada]] is also forged goddess. Connecting Perperuna with [[Pripegala]] is also folk etymology. &quot;Perun's battle against Veles becuase of Perperuna/Dodola's kidnapping&quot; - where is this story attested? &quot;sometimes even hosts would drink wine in Perun's honor.&quot; - are you telling me that people still worshipped Perun in 19/20th century? This is not only nonneutral, but also just false. Etymology is more like speculation now, we should add modern, scientific views (Snoj maybe?) on this name (might be of onomatopeic orign and I don't think there is evidence that the Slavs created names by reduplication of the root). [[User:Sławobóg|Sławobóg]] ([[User talk:Sławobóg|talk]]) 21:29, 23 July 2022 (UTC) ::Don't get me wrong, but nobody cares about your personal opinion. I became tired months ago of reading these paragraphs of opinion. The vast majority of sources by relevant scholars claim there's a connection. Everything what you wrote is written in reliable and modern sources. Editing or removing that would be &quot;nonneutral&quot;. If there are any other modern, reliable sources by experts please list them here to check on them.--[[User:Miki Filigranski|Miki Filigranski]] ([[User talk:Miki Filigranski|talk]]) 21:51, 23 July 2022 (UTC) :::@Miki Filigranski there is no consensus, the rainmaking custom is a shared tradition among Balkan peoples, your preferred origin theory is just one of the proposed hypotheses. As for the name Perperuna, I think it is likely from Perun, but [[User:Sławobóg|Sławobóg]] maybe has a point here, and more recent academic sources should be analysed. The name Dodola is of uncertain origin. – [[User:Βατο|Βατο]] ([[User talk:Βατο|talk]]) 22:05, 23 July 2022 (UTC) ::::You don't have a basic clue of what you're saying, don't know anything about the topic, neither read all the sources, neither understand [[WP:WEIGHT]] policy as showed before. No, as showed and claimed on other article talk page, you're the one who has a preffered theory (and fringe one at best!), wants to [[WP:OWN]] the article by making false balance! --[[User:Miki Filigranski|Miki Filigranski]] ([[User talk:Miki Filigranski|talk]]) 22:18, 23 July 2022 (UTC) :::::No, the false balance is the [[WP:POV]] and [[WP:OR]] wording of the lead section: {{tquote|are Slavic rainmaking pagan customs which were mainly preserved among South Slavs and neighboring people until 20th century.}} Albanians, Greeks, Romanians, Aromanians/Vlachs, Hungarians are not Slavs, and the custom described in this article is a shared Balkan tradition. – [[User:Βατο|Βατο]] ([[User talk:Βατο|talk]]) 22:25, 23 July 2022 (UTC) ::::::Please stop! You don't have basic understanding of the topic neither read the sources neither even bother to read what's written in the article. That's majority viewpoint, it was sourced and totally not original research. You are making a total mess of it ([https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Dodola&amp;type=revision&amp;diff=1100043308&amp;oldid=1100032521]) as Dodola isn't alternatively known as Perperuna because these are separate customs (they even had separate articles until 2015 when were merged but due to same wrong reasoning). They are not synonyms. Neither the customs were confirmed to be found among Bosnians, and Montenegrins in general (Bay of Kotor was inhabited by a mixture of ethnic groups and it was found there only sporadically). I had enough of this. --[[User:Miki Filigranski|Miki Filigranski]] ([[User talk:Miki Filigranski|talk]]) 00:10, 24 July 2022 (UTC) ::::::: In my opinion, two points of view collide here. It is wise to strike a balance between them, although this is not easy. Regarding the title, the proposed new combined title reflects both views and is more neutral. I agree here with [[User:Miki Filigranski|Miki Filigranski]]. [[User:Jingiby|Jingiby]] ([[User talk:Jingiby|talk]]) 05:13, 24 July 2022 (UTC) ::::::::Miki Filigranski, so what's your proposal? Saying in the lead section that it is exclusively a Slavic practice is non neutral. I added, according to the sources, the population groups that are attested to have practiced the custom of rainmaking, whether it was called Dodola or Perperuna. If you have enough reliable sources that claim a clear distinction between the practices referred to as Dodola and Perperuna, then you can create two separate articles. I read that some communities refer to the same practice with the name Dodola (and variants), and other communities with the name Perperuna (and variants). I can agree to include both variants of the names in the article title, but &quot;Perperuna and Dodola&quot; appears to indicate that the custom is called as such, which is not the case. – [[User:Βατο|Βατο]] ([[User talk:Βατο|talk]]) 08:35, 24 July 2022 (UTC) :::::::::It is a practice of Slavic origin, related to Slavic deity Perun. That is the majority viewpoint in the RS. Removing that from the LEAD is non neutral. You even added ethnic groups among whom wasn't attested citing a bad source. The sources making clear distinction are already cited and there's no point in making separate article when these two customs are scholarly related. &quot;Perperuna and Dodola&quot; don't indicate anyhow that the custom is called with a single name &quot;Perperuna and Dodola&quot;. --[[User:Miki Filigranski|Miki Filigranski]] ([[User talk:Miki Filigranski|talk]]) 10:33, 24 July 2022 (UTC) ::::Okay, I found the book. [[Stanisław Urbańczyk|Urbańczyk]] debunked Jakobson's etymology. ''perperuda'', ''pepeluga'' etc. are related to Proto-Slavic ''*perpera'', ''*perperъka'' &quot;[[Common quail]]&quot; and these are related to ''*pъrpati'' (onomatopoeic), cf. Polish dial. ''perpotać'', ''perpac'', Old East Slavic ''poropriti''. So mystery has been solved. Meanwhile author himself reacts with aggression because someone tells him that the article is extremely one-sided. Having information about alleged relation between Perun and Perperuna is ok, since it actually is popular view, but it is not only view and it was criticised by other linguists. Btw Grimm is bad source. [[User:Sławobóg|Sławobóg]] ([[User talk:Sławobóg|talk]]) 10:45, 24 July 2022 (UTC) :::::Thanks @Sławobóg, the etymology you provided is interesting. @Miki Filigranski your statement {{tquote|It is a practice of Slavic origi}} is not supported by many scholars: there is not certainty about the origins of the practice. but there seems to be agreement among scholars that the name for the Balkan rainmaden ''Perperuna'' (and variants) is most likely of Slavic origin. The rainmaking custom is a Pan-Balkan practice, attested in the region at least since Classical Antiquity. I've just found a recent source: {{cite journal|last=Burns|first=Richard|title=Rain and Dust|journal=[[Studia Mythologica Slavica]]|volume=XI|issn=1581-128X|doi=10.3986/sms.v11i0.1696|year=2008|pp=217-236}} which provides further information about the usage of the names, and analysis on some scholars' views, also: {{tquote|&quot;The paper opens conjectures that relate the Balkan practice to two ancient Mediterranean mythological motifs: first, to Minoan and Mycenaean rainmaking invocations, and, secondly, to the goddess Persephone, via the theories of V. V. Ivanov and V. I. Toporov.&quot;}} – [[User:Βατο|Βατο]] ([[User talk:Βατο|talk]]) 10:53, 24 July 2022 (UTC) ::::::@Sławobóg, thanks, that's just an opinion though (please provide details of the source), but indeed doesn't change the fact it is of Slavic origin (and related to Perun per majority viewpoint). @Βατο, in the article are already cited more than 12 reliable sources by many different scholars. I mostly agree with other things you said, but didn't mention anything not already cited in the article. To be noted, Burns source is reliable to cite on scholars' views, but unreliable source for Burns viewpoint. He is a poet, not a scientist. --[[User:Miki Filigranski|Miki Filigranski]] ([[User talk:Miki Filigranski|talk]]) 11:25, 24 July 2022 (UTC) :::::::Jakobson's idea that Perperuna comes from Perun is also &quot;just an opinion&quot;, what is wrong with you? Additionally, Urbańczyk's etymology is more scientifically correct, because it explains the doubling of the root ''per-'', because there is no evidence for duplication of the root for feminine names and I have other book about that (which also supports Urbańczyk's idea). He says that ritual is known to Greeks and Albanians and it should be established actual origin first. He later say Perperuna might be related to words I mentioned before (also Polish ''przepierzyca''), not only because of etymology, also because quail (in Polish folklore) '''is associated with the harvest rites and is the name of the bride in the wedding dance'''. So I guess Slavic origin is very possible (from the bird). {{Cite book|last=Urbańczyk|first=Stanisław|title=Dawni Słowianie. Wiara i kult|date=1991|place=Wrocław|language=pl|author-link=Stanisław Urbańczyk|publisher=Ossolineum}} | [[User:Sławobóg|Sławobóg]] ([[User talk:Sławobóg|talk]]) 11:48, 24 July 2022 (UTC) ::::::::I found the text and it can be hardly called a debunking as you described it in your comment. Urbańczyk only said that Jakobson's opinion needs caution, he didn't refute it. We also have reliable sources which support Jakobson (and Slavic origin, relation to Mokosh etc.), including lately [[Patrice Lajoye]] (2015, pg. 107–115 etc.). Do you have other sources which mention or support Urbańczyk's derivation from the bird?--[[User:Miki Filigranski|Miki Filigranski]] ([[User talk:Miki Filigranski|talk]]) 12:07, 24 July 2022 (UTC) :::::::::Yes, Łuczyński (2020) ''Bogowie dawnych Słowian. Studium onomastyczne''. Additionally, the article does not mention at all that ''peperuda'' means &quot;butterfly&quot; in Bulgarian (mentioned in Russian and Bulgarian wiki)'''!!!''' [https://ibl.bas.bg/lib/ber_5/#page/82/mode/1up Български етимологичен речник] (vol 5, p. 162) has 2 pages of etymology of this word, also mentioning ''*perperica'' and other ideas, but image quality makes it too hard to read for me. There [https://starlingdb.org/cgi-bin/etymology.cgi?single=1&amp;basename=%2Fdata%2Fsemham%2Flecet&amp;text_number=+652&amp;root=config is] also Proto-Kartvelian root ''*ṗerṗer-'' / ''*perpel-'' &quot;butterfly&quot; connected with PS ''*perperъka''. It is clear from the Bulgarian dictionary that the subject is complicated and the etymologies are many, and that the article is not neutral and tries by force to push through Jakobson's etymology repeated uncritically by later authors. In the case of Slavic mythology/folklore, Western scholars often mindlessly (I'm not exaggerating) repeat various stupidities and rarely have a clue what they are writing about, cf. [https://web.archive.org/web/20170804140911/http://www.mathieu-colas.fr/michel/Classes/Dieux_slaves_et_baltes.pdf Mathieu-Colas]. I'm not comparing Lajoye or Evans to that, but we should be sceptic about Western optimism. [[Natko Nodilo]] is also pretty bad source (see [[Svetovit#In_Serbia]]). [[User:Sławobóg|Sławobóg]] ([[User talk:Sławobóg|talk]]) 14:00, 24 July 2022 (UTC) ::::::::::Thanks. The part about butterfly is quoted in 4th reference, forgot to expand more on it citing other sources. The association is mythological, doesn't make sense such a widespread pagan custom derives from a Bulgarian word for butterfly and shows that the Bulgarian word for butterfly derives instead from the mythological background to which is related the custom. If not, as in the case of cited Proto-Karvelian, occurred secondary associations of unrelated words. Will expand more regarding the etymology in general. Sorry, but you're using hard words and claims here. The article is properly and reliably edited according to WEIGHT, and tried to be careful with using them.--[[User:Miki Filigranski|Miki Filigranski]] ([[User talk:Miki Filigranski|talk]]) 14:14, 24 July 2022 (UTC) :::::@Sławobóg I have not a preference about the article title, could you suggest something about this issue? It seems that Dodola is the most common name, and in some communities both names (and variants) are found, even in the same song. – [[User:Βατο|Βατο]] ([[User talk:Βατο|talk]]) 11:07, 24 July 2022 (UTC) ::::::Is Dodola really more popular than Perperuna? I think modern, scientific or popular, usage also counts? I think &quot;Dodola and Perperuna&quot; would be good, but I'm not 100% sure. [[User:Sławobóg|Sławobóg]] ([[User talk:Sławobóg|talk]]) 11:35, 24 July 2022 (UTC) :::::::I've seen it by a first check on Google search and Google books, and in general Dodola seems to be more common. But I am not sure which is more common in recent sources and popular usage. Perhaps Burns' (2008) information could be useful: {{tquote|&quot;The various names have been el-egantly mapped by Plotnikova (1999) to reveal regional variations. Names of the ''dodola'' type, which I designate as the 'central' group, are more common in Serbia, Bosnia, and names of the ''peperuga'' or ''perperuda'' type, designated as the 'eastern and southern group', tend to be more frequent in Bulgaria, Rumania, Moldovia, Albania, Thessaly and Epirus (Burns 2006a: 35, 37-38 &amp; 42). In the border-area of dialect-continua between Bulgaria and Serbia, as in Macedonia, both verbal variants appear in the same song.&quot;}} – [[User:Βατο|Βατο]] ([[User talk:Βατο|talk]]) 12:11, 24 July 2022 (UTC) ::::::::Well, &quot;Dodola and Perperuna&quot; is ok then. If the name depends on the region, then we should not discriminate against any of them. It may be clunky, but it will be fair. [[User:Sławobóg|Sławobóg]] ([[User talk:Sławobóg|talk]]) 13:01, 24 July 2022 (UTC) ::::::::The name depends on the custom, songs and name of central character. These are two separate types. There can be made correlations based on regions, but not causations on which depends the name. Regarding the distribution, it strangely omits Croatia and mentions Bosnia, check the [https://ibb.co/rMgMqqL map] from Čulinović-Konstantinović &quot;Dodole and prporuše: folk customs for invoking the rain&quot; (note how's titled the source). I am okay with the title &quot;Dodola and Perperuna&quot;.--[[User:Miki Filigranski|Miki Filigranski]] ([[User talk:Miki Filigranski|talk]]) 13:27, 24 July 2022 (UTC) :::::::::Agreed, @Miki Filigranski feel free to make the page move. – [[User:Βατο|Βατο]] ([[User talk:Βατο|talk]]) 13:31, 24 July 2022 (UTC) ===Other sources=== {{ping|Sławobóg}} Czesław Białczyński in his ''Mitologia słowiańska'' (1999), not a reliable and scientific source, mentions: &lt;small&gt;PERPERUNA (Peperuna, Perperuda, Prperousza, Pe-runica). Jej istyjskim odpowiednikiem jest Perkunija. Runa - od rdzenia run ma takie same znaczenia jak wyżej, ale także w obocznej postaci zachowanej u Bułgarów - Perperuda - kędzierzawa, bo ruda kosa - kędzierzawe włosy, kędziory, rudica - zbita wełna, rudina - niwa, rudy - czerwony, błotny, bagnisty (co wskazuje, podobnie jak u Peruna, na jej związek z wodą), pokryty rudą - czyli naleciałością żelazistą, barwy rdzawej. Z powyższego zestawienia wynika, że Perperuna musiała mieć kręcone, gęste, kędzierzawe włosy rudej barwy. Były cztery boginie o rudych włosach: Perperuna, Ruda-Ródź, Swara (o włosach płomiennych) i Krasatina (o włosach krasnych i krasnym licu).&lt;/small&gt; &lt;small&gt;O świętości rośliny paproci, której nazwa przechowała imię bogini Ródzi-Pap-rudy, świadczy jej związek nazewniczy z boskim rdzeniem per (Perun, Perperuna, Perepłut, Pripegala, Prowe, Porenut, Puruvit, Porewit, Spór). Przechowane przez Bułgarów i Macedończyków miano Perperuda nie jest powtórzeniem serbskiego i chorwackiego imienia żony Peruna - Perperuna, lecz imieniem bogini Rodzi, córki Roda, kochanki Perunica. Związek Perperudy z Peruni-cem znajduje także odbicie w nazwie świętego zioła pe-runiki.&lt;/small&gt; I have a hard time reading the source, but does it cite any reference? Do you know of any Polish source which makes the same claim?--[[User:Miki Filigranski|Miki Filigranski]] ([[User talk:Miki Filigranski|talk]]) 14:25, 24 July 2022 (UTC) :Białczyński is turboslavic, he promotes Great Lechia and believes that Proto-Indo-European = Proto-Slavic. In his books he forges new gods. Nothing to talk about tbh. See [[List of Slavic pseudo-deities]]. [[User:Sławobóg|Sławobóg]] ([[User talk:Sławobóg|talk]]) 14:53, 24 July 2022 (UTC) ::Had the same impression.--[[User:Miki Filigranski|Miki Filigranski]] ([[User talk:Miki Filigranski|talk]]) 16:52, 24 July 2022 (UTC) {{ping|Sławobóg}} Łuczyński, ''Bogowie dawnych Słowian. Studium onomastyczne'' (2020), can you please make a full quote and provide page?--[[User:Miki Filigranski|Miki Filigranski]] ([[User talk:Miki Filigranski|talk]]) 14:31, 24 July 2022 (UTC) :Page 141: Autor ten [Jakobson] wychodzi z założenia, że nazwa ta [Pereplut] stanowi jeden z wielu wariantów fonetycznych i morfologicznych teonimu Perun [...] powołując się przy tym na brzmieniowe podobieństwo z terminem obrzędowym serb. ''prporusa'', bułg. ''pe(r)peruna'', ''pe(r)peruda'' i in. [...] Wywód Jakobsona podważył jednak S. Urbańczyk, wzkazując na związek nazw typu ''peperuda'', ''pepeluga'' i in. z psł. ''*perpere'', ''*perperъka'' &quot;przepiórka&quot;. Leksemy wskazane przez R. Jakobsona wywodzą się z psł. ''*pr̥pati'' vb. pochodzenia dźwiękonaśladowczego, por. np. (polish and OES words here) [...] Bałkański termin obrzędowy nie jest więc spokrewniony etymologicznie ze srus. teonimem, w jego wypadku można mówić o reduplikacji rdzenia onomatopeicznego i szeregu przekształceń fonetycznych (np. regularny rozwój ''-er-'' &lt; ''r̥''; wtórny konsonantym d &lt; n), przez co hipoteza Jakobsona traci rację bytu. Pozwala to na odrzucenie interpretacji tego badaczu z powodu trudności formalnych. :Page 279: I wreszcie, nic nie przemawia za tym, by w słowiańskiej teonimii istniały pary nazewnicze: model na tworzeniu form feminatywnych od męskich imion osobowych nie był, w świetle wiarygodnych danych, w tej kategorii produktywny, w związku z czym można przyjąć, że brak był (często postulowanych) par typu ''*Perunъ'' - ''*Perynь'' (lub ''Perperuna''), ''*Velesъ'' - ''*Vela'', na wróz np. sind. Indra - Indrani, Agni - Agnani... [[User:Sławobóg|Sławobóg]] ([[User talk:Sławobóg|talk]]) 15:08, 24 July 2022 (UTC) ::Great, thanks! --[[User:Miki Filigranski|Miki Filigranski]] ([[User talk:Miki Filigranski|talk]]) 16:52, 24 July 2022 (UTC) @Miki Filigranski, since you highlighted inaccuracies regarding the spread of the custom, could you propose a compromise wording between the information provided by Muraj (1987) and that provided by Ḱulavkova (2020)? – [[User:Βατο|Βατο]] ([[User talk:Βατο|talk]]) 08:23, 26 July 2022 (UTC) :In the article are cited several reliable sources, not only Muraj (1987), describing the spread of the custom. In the new sources the mistake is regarding the distribution on the territory of former Yugoslavia. I would say that the best source for the former Yugoslavian territory is still Čulinović-Konstantinović (1963). It was more prevalent among Croats than Serbs in Croatia, and don't know what's the reason for mentioning Bosnians. Natko Nodilo (1884) mentioned that West of river Vrbas, which would be Western part of Bosnia and Herzegovina, Dodola and Prporuša were known as ''Čaro(j)ice'', but couldn't verify and confirm the association in other sources. ''Čaroice'' was a different custom mainly around December and rarely Poklade (May) in which boys were dressed as girls or animals - not greenery, it was found among both Orthodox, Catholic and Muslim people and each group visited houses of other religion, and the song lyrics were also different. I would stick to countries and regions rather than ethnic groups (for now would remove Bosnia and Herzegovina). Anyway, currently am preparing a new edit which will include and expand the POV from new sources provided by you and Sławobóg. --[[User:Miki Filigranski|Miki Filigranski]] ([[User talk:Miki Filigranski|talk]]) 12:33, 26 July 2022 (UTC) ::Ok, feel free to make any wording reasonably in agreement with RS and with evidence from field research. – [[User:Βατο|Βατο]] ([[User talk:Βατο|talk]]) 22:24, 26 July 2022 (UTC) [https://archive.org/details/KlimovEtymological/page/n165/mode/2up Proto-Kartvelian *p̣erp̣er- &quot;butterfly&quot;] - most likely ultimate source. That explains Balkan-only range of the word, custom and pseudogoddess. [[User:Sławobóg|Sławobóg]] ([[User talk:Sławobóg|talk]]) 12:16, 24 September 2022 (UTC) :Do we have a RS which connects it to Perperuna/Dodola customs? How a Proto-Kartvelian language of Caucasus is the most likely ultimate source? How it explains Balkan-only range of the word, custom etc.?--[[User:Miki Filigranski|Miki Filigranski]] ([[User talk:Miki Filigranski|talk]]) 22:41, 27 September 2022 (UTC) ::I haven't done a good research yet, I found this partly by accident and am putting it here so as not to forget, and maybe someone else will find something more about it. It is possible that we are dealing here with a Wanderword. Borrowing is possible, compare [[wikt:κῶας|κῶας]]. See also [[wikt:πεταλούδα|πεταλούδα]] (especially the suffix -da). [[User:Sławobóg|Sławobóg]] ([[User talk:Sławobóg|talk]]) 09:42, 28 September 2022 (UTC) ==Article's scope and name== The article is about the rainmaking tradition of different peoples in Southeast Europe. The article gives [[WP:UNDUE WEIGHT]] to the etymological speculations concerning this rainmaking tradition, only based on the hypothetical link with the Slavic god Perun. In some regions it is not even known with names that could be linked to Perun. The rainmaking practice is attested among Balkan peoles since antiquity, the speculations according to which peoples who already practiced it adopted it from incoming Slavs in the early Middle Ages is not reasonable, and should have its due weight into the article. Since there is no [[WP:COMMONNAME]] for the rainmaking practice, clearly because different peoples refer to it in different terms, I propose a move to the title ''Rainmaking (Balkans)'' or ''Rainmaking (Southeast Europe)''. The article should also be reworded giving due weight to all the South Eastern/Balkan traditions. – [[User:Βατο|Βατο]] ([[User talk:Βατο|talk]]) 10:19, 22 August 2024 (UTC) *I don't think three sentences about Perun in such a large article is undue weight (and it may be trimmed further, because I see repetitions). --[[user:Altenmann|Altenmann]] [[user talk:Altenmann|&gt;talk]] 19:04, 22 August 2024 (UTC) **Your suggested title is bad because (a) &quot;[[Balkans]]&quot; is a vague term and (b) Romania is in Southeast Europe, but we have [[Caloian]] for Romanian rainmaking. --[[user:Altenmann|Altenmann]] [[user talk:Altenmann|&gt;talk]] 19:04, 22 August 2024 (UTC) :::I see that [[Caloian]] consists also of a similar rainmaking practice. But that's not relevant for this discussion, a title ''Rainmaking (Southeast Europe)'' is necessary in this case, because this article is about similar rainmaking practices of several peoples in Southeast Europe. The title ''Dodola and Perperuna'' is restrictive and POV, bacause it selects only two terms that are given to the girl that performs the ritual, despite the fact that there are many of those names, and there are even traditions based on a male figure, and it is misleading because the rainmaking ritual is not called &quot;Dodola and Perperuna&quot;. If this title will be kept, then a split into ''Rainmaking (Southeast Europe)'' should be made, and this article should focus only on the rainmaking girl figure, but I think a standalone article for such a subject would not be appropriate. – [[User:Βατο|Βατο]] ([[User talk:Βατο|talk]]) 19:48, 22 August 2024 (UTC) ::::I see. Then [[Rainmaking (Southeast Europe)]] will me good and a summary section about [[Calojan]] may be incorporated per [[WP:Summary style]]. --[[user:Altenmann|Altenmann]] [[user talk:Altenmann|&gt;talk]] :::In the scientific literature, the rainmaking custom(s) Dodola and Perperuna are usually related. The article is only about these two customs, and they are usually separated from the Caloian custom. The link with the Slavic god Perun and the Slavs is mainstream and majority viewpoint in the literature - claiming that it is &quot;not reasonable&quot; is a very bold non-mainstream statement and pushing a fringe autochthonistic POV. We already had a discussion before. In the article was already cited everything or almost everything about the topic. There's nothing else much which could be done and to be reworded. You first need to provide new citations and reach a consensus before trying to change both the scope and the title of the article.--[[User:Miki Filigranski|Miki Filigranski]] ([[User talk:Miki Filigranski|talk]]) 17:55, 23 August 2024 (UTC) :::[[User:Βατο|Βατο]], we already had this discussion, and after 2 years you made a series of edits changing the NPOV of the article, but without providing new citations and evidence, and then pushing the change of the scope and title of the article. I must boldly revert all your edits per BRD. First discuss and reach a consensus.--[[User:Miki Filigranski|Miki Filigranski]] ([[User talk:Miki Filigranski|talk]]) 18:09, 23 August 2024 (UTC) ::::Before bold reverting my sourced additions, state your concerns here, please. The article is far from neutral and clear about the different traditions. And the pushing in the lede of one of the several hypothetical origins is not the proper way to address NOPOV issues. You even restored this erroneous description in the lede: {{tquote|are ancient Slavic rainmaking pagan customs practiced until the 20th century. The tradition is found in South Slavic countries (Bulgaria, Croatia, North Macedonia, Montenegro, and Serbia), as well as in near Albania, Greece, Hungary, Moldova and Romania.}} The traditions are not &quot;ancient Slavic rainmaking pagan customs&quot; found in South Slavic countries and &quot;in near&quot; non Slavic countries, but a tradition found among different peoples of Southeast Europe. – [[User:Βατο|Βατο]] ([[User talk:Βατο|talk]]) 18:37, 23 August 2024 (UTC) :::::You almost didn't make any sourced additions to change the NPOV and BALANCE of the article, and you were doing it by removing reliably sourced information ([https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Dodola_and_Perperuna&amp;diff=next&amp;oldid=1241641872#External_links]) erroenously claiming it is an &quot;erroenous statement&quot;, a statement which is critical of the fringe autochthonistic POV you're pushing. The article was NEUTRAL and according to the RS. This what you're doing is PUSHING a non-mainstream, non-Slavic, fringe autochthonistic POV not supported by the majority of the RS. --[[User:Miki Filigranski|Miki Filigranski]] ([[User talk:Miki Filigranski|talk]]) 18:53, 23 August 2024 (UTC) ::::::Yes, I removed it because it falsely claims that rainmaking rituals are not found in southern Greece. Add the full context and arguments, then we can see whether that information can stay. And many scholars' views already included in the article cannot be considered [[WP:FRINGE]]. – [[User:Βατο|Βατο]] ([[User talk:Βατο|talk]]) 19:02, 23 August 2024 (UTC) :::::::You're ignoring the amount of RS for a specific viewpoint. You broke the NPOV, ignore WEIGHT.--[[User:Miki Filigranski|Miki Filigranski]] ([[User talk:Miki Filigranski|talk]]) 19:21, 23 August 2024 (UTC) :::::: Also, the names of the male figures of different rituals found in some South Slavic traditions should be added as well, because as it is now, the article reports only the names of the female figures. – [[User:Βατο|Βατο]] ([[User talk:Βατο|talk]]) 19:06, 23 August 2024 (UTC) :::::::It doesn't.--[[User:Miki Filigranski|Miki Filigranski]] ([[User talk:Miki Filigranski|talk]]) 19:21, 23 August 2024 (UTC) ::::::::Reading the section &quot;Ritual&quot;, I understood, although not clearly, that ''Prpac/Prpats'' are names of the male figure. Is that correct? Do those names appear in songs alongside the name of the female figure? I think they should be added in the section &quot;Names&quot; as well. – [[User:Βατο|Βατο]] ([[User talk:Βατο|talk]]) 19:56, 23 August 2024 (UTC) :::::::::First and foremost, please do not boldly edit the article doing substantial changes to the NPOV, scope and else of the article when you are not informed about the topic and making one after another misunderstandings upon which you make false claims about the topic and article. It is complex ritual and there's no &quot;yes and no&quot; answer. You need to differentiate a bit the name of the custom/folk song, from name of the female/male figure. Perperuna was mostly performed by a chosen boy (the one who is acting), and the chosen boy/leader could have been named, in Croatia for example where Perperuna custom is called Prporuša, as a Prporuša/Prporuš/Prpac etc. but also his singing companions as Prporuše. The name ''Prpac/Prpats'', which are local variants, do not appear in the song, they were names given by local people/audience to the chosen boy/leader/actor. There's only one figure in songs, or Perperuna or Dodola, but there do exist exceptions in Macedonia where both Perperuna and Dodola are mentioned in the same song.--[[User:Miki Filigranski|Miki Filigranski]] ([[User talk:Miki Filigranski|talk]]) 11:23, 31 August 2024 (UTC) :::::::::Βατο, please, do NOT make any edits these days as I have to review every and each edit you've made. I will re-incorporate reliably sourced information into the stable NPOV revision. The new revision you made is a complete mess, pushing Albanian case to the forefront of the customs, from the LEAD to the main body of the article. Making a complete disbalance of the content. --[[User:Miki Filigranski|Miki Filigranski]] ([[User talk:Miki Filigranski|talk]]) 11:50, 31 August 2024 (UTC) :::::::::Not only you changed wording without care about NPOV and WEIGHT, removed several reliably sourced content or emphasized different content (especially about Albania), placed new text in wrong sections, asking for citation needed where's none needed, removed images, etc., what's worse for new citations you used different citation style. Do you understand how much checking and clean-up your edits need? --[[User:Miki Filigranski|Miki Filigranski]] ([[User talk:Miki Filigranski|talk]]) 12:48, 31 August 2024 (UTC) ::::::::::{{reply|Miki Filigranski}} I reverted your bold removal of 7,971 bytes of well surced content. You are free to edit the article, but don't remove sourced material. My edits don't need &quot;checking and clean-up&quot;, they are added precisely according to Wikipedia policies and guidelines. The citation style has nothing wrong. – [[User:Βατο|Βατο]] ([[User talk:Βατο|talk]]) 13:01, 31 August 2024 (UTC) :::::::::::{{reply|Βατο}} No. This what you are doing is gaming the system. You don't respect [[WP:BRD]], you don't care another editor is reverting and constantly warning you. This wasn't bold removal of sourced content, it is about stable revision, NPOV - about which you don't care - as you are making major edits and pushing for the scope and title change in the same time - without any prior discussion, resolution and consensus. Article needs to have a common citation style. --[[User:Miki Filigranski|Miki Filigranski]] ([[User talk:Miki Filigranski|talk]]) 13:10, 31 August 2024 (UTC) ::::::::::::There is no &quot;gaming the system&quot; in adding sourced information about this tradition. Discuss here the content that you consider problematic, don't remove 7,971 bytes of well surced content appealing to NPOV and BRD, while not even discussing a single sentence of my additions. – [[User:Βατο|Βατο]] ([[User talk:Βατο|talk]]) 13:18, 31 August 2024 (UTC) ::::::::::::::No, there's no issue itself with adding sourced information, but how are you adding it, where are you adding it, in the process removing NPOV wording, removing previous content, and in the same time pushing for scope and title change because the old, stable revision wasn't according to the your vision of the article. In the meantime you don't care that another editors reverted your edits. You don't care about their comments. You are the one who needs to start discussions - and in the meantime - not edit warring pushing your edits and new revision. I will just re-incorporate your edits - as much as possible - to the old, stable revision, and from there and then we can discuss what's Your problem with the article and content.--[[User:Miki Filigranski|Miki Filigranski]] ([[User talk:Miki Filigranski|talk]]) 13:26, 31 August 2024 (UTC) :::::::::::::::Again, I see only general statements, please, address one by one the issues you have with the well sourced content about this tradition that I added. – [[User:Βατο|Βατο]] ([[User talk:Βατο|talk]]) 13:29, 31 August 2024 (UTC) ::::::::::::::::No, I won't. As said, will make a third revision which will incorporate your additions. Then we can have a discussion - and You are the one whose going to address one by one the issues you have with the article. It's up to You to step up, not me. You are the one whose trying to change the NPOV, scope and title of the article.--[[User:Miki Filigranski|Miki Filigranski]] ([[User talk:Miki Filigranski|talk]]) 14:11, 31 August 2024 (UTC) :::::::::::::::::Then you should not remove 7,971 bytes of well surced content. – [[User:Βατο|Βατο]] ([[User talk:Βατο|talk]]) 14:26, 31 August 2024 (UTC) {{ping|Sławobóg|Jingiby}} you participated in the old discussion &quot;[[Talk:Dodola and Perperuna#New revision]]&quot; two years ago, please give your verdict to the proposed changes and bold editing ([https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Dodola_and_Perperuna&amp;diff=1241890819&amp;oldid=1241888598]) by user Βατο with whom we discussed two years ago, thanks.--[[User:Miki Filigranski|Miki Filigranski]] ([[User talk:Miki Filigranski|talk]]) 19:18, 23 August 2024 (UTC) == Requested move 22 August 2024 == &lt;div class=&quot;boilerplate mw-archivedtalk&quot; style=&quot;background-color: var(--background-color-success-subtle, #efe); color: var(--color-base, #000); margin: 0; padding: 0 10px 0 10px; border: 1px dotted var(--border-color-subtle, #AAAAAA);&quot;&gt;&lt;!-- Template:RM top --&gt; :''The following is a closed discussion of a [[Wikipedia:Requested moves|requested move]]. &lt;span style=&quot;color: var(--color-error, red);&quot;&gt;'''Please do not modify it.'''&lt;/span&gt; Subsequent comments should be made in a new section on the talk page. Editors desiring to contest the closing decision should consider a [[Wikipedia:move review|move review]] after discussing it on the closer's talk page. No further edits should be made to this discussion.'' The result of the move request was: '''no consensus.''' Given that after a relist 1 month ago there's been no further participation, one support was conditional under a merge, and there was concern expressed about the new title not being formatted as [[WP:NDESC]], I don't see any consensus at this point. &lt;small&gt;([[Wikipedia:Requested moves/Closing instructions#Closure by a page mover|closed by non-admin page mover]])&lt;/small&gt; [[User:Zippybonzo|Zippybonzo]] &amp;#124; [[User talk:Zippybonzo|&lt;small&gt;talk&lt;/small&gt;]] &amp;#124; [[Special:Contributions/Zippybonzo|&lt;small&gt;contribs&lt;/small&gt;]] (they/them) 18:59, 9 October 2024 (UTC) ---- [[:Dodola and Perperuna]] → {{no redirect|Rainmaking (Southeast Europe)}} – see the discussion above. We also have the generic [[Rainmaking (ritual)]] page (techical nomination; '''no vote''') --[[user:Altenmann|Altenmann]] [[user talk:Altenmann|&gt;talk]] 20:15, 22 August 2024 (UTC) &lt;small&gt;—&amp;nbsp;'''''Relisting.'''''&amp;nbsp;[[User_talk:Asukite|&lt;span style=&quot;color:Purple;font-size:medium;font-family:Bradley Hand ITC&quot;&gt; ASUKITE&lt;/span&gt;]] 21:16, 30 August 2024 (UTC)&lt;/small&gt; *'''Support''', repeating my explanation in the discussion above: the title ''Rainmaking (Southeast Europe)'' is necessary in this case, because this article is about similar rainmaking practices of several peoples in Southeast Europe. The title ''Dodola and Perperuna'' is restrictive and POV, bacause it selects only two terms that are given to the girl that performs the ritual, despite the fact that there are many of those names, and there are even traditions based on a male figure, and it is misleading because the rainmaking ritual is not called &quot;Dodola and Perperuna&quot;. If this title will be kept, then a split into ''Rainmaking (Southeast Europe)'' should be made, and this article should focus only on the rainmaking girl figure, but I think a standalone article for such a subject would not be appropriate. Concerning the generic article [[Rainmaking (ritual)]], the Southeast European practices have enough coverage in reliable sources to deserve a standalone article. – [[User:Βατο|Βατο]] ([[User talk:Βατο|talk]]) 21:07, 22 August 2024 (UTC) * That is a bad title, it should be formatted as [[WP:NDESC]] and not as disambiguation, because it's not like &quot;rainmaking&quot; is ''called'' like this in southeastern Europe, you just want to be describing the history of these specific pagan rainmaking customs in those locations. --[[User:Joy|Joy]] ([[User talk:Joy|talk]]) 09:20, 23 August 2024 (UTC) ::A simple solution to that issue could be the title ''Rainmaking in Southeast Europe''. – [[User:Βατο|Βατο]] ([[User talk:Βατο|talk]]) 11:25, 23 August 2024 (UTC) * '''Oppose''', as already stated, in the scientific literature, the rainmaking custom(s) Dodola and Perperuna are usually related. The article is only about these two customs, and they are usually separated from the Caloian custom. The link with the Slavic god Perun and the Slavs is mainstream and majority viewpoint in the literature. In the article was already cited everything or almost everything about the topic. The change of the scope and the title first need long discussion with new citations/evidence and reach a consensus. Otherwise the new version of the article will be a FRINGE and UNDUE WEIGHT autochthonistic POV connection of Dodola and Perperuna custom(s) with Caloian custom etc., which isn't the case in the reliable sources.--[[User:Miki Filigranski|Miki Filigranski]] ([[User talk:Miki Filigranski|talk]]) 18:06, 23 August 2024 (UTC) ::Caloian custom argument is completely irrelevant for the request move. The concerns I listed above still remain with the title &quot;Dodola and Perperuna&quot;, but they would be solved with the title &quot;Rainmaking in Southeast Europe&quot;. As for the Perun link, there are songs in southwestern Albania expressly addressing the Sun (Albanian: [[Dielli (Albanian paganism)|Dielli]]) as the divine figure during the ritual songs, not Perun. – [[User:Βατο|Βατο]] ([[User talk:Βατο|talk]]) 20:01, 23 August 2024 (UTC) :::It isn't, that's the end goal, that's the intention, that's the reasoning this request move and forced editing is based on. Otherwise there wouldn't be such a forced pushing against Slavic mainstream POV. What some folk songs in southwestern Albania have to do with Dodola and Perperuna? Even if they do - but only according to RS - they do not change the fact about the mainstream POV and NPOV in general.--[[User:Miki Filigranski|Miki Filigranski]] ([[User talk:Miki Filigranski|talk]]) 10:43, 31 August 2024 (UTC) ::::&quot;{{tquote|What some folk songs in southwestern Albania have to do with Dodola and Perperuna?}}&quot; they have to do with the subject of this article because they are rainmaking pagan customs performed by a boy dressed in leaves and singing ritual songs, like other tradtions of this article. &quot;{{tquote|such a forced pushing against Slavic mainstream POV}}, actually, the POV-pushing is claiming a Slavic exclusivity for a tradition that is shared between several Balkan peoples, not only Slavic ones. – [[User:Βατο|Βατο]] ([[User talk:Βατο|talk]]) 13:12, 31 August 2024 (UTC) :::::No, that's not the reasoning - the folk songs, the names of Dodola and Perperuna are. No, the mainstream WEIGHT is about the Slavic origin, not exclusivity. There isn't pushed any Slavic exclusivity, and as mainstream sources consider, it's a tradition which was most probably spread by Slavic people which migrated in and influenced all Balkan countries and peoples.--[[User:Miki Filigranski|Miki Filigranski]] ([[User talk:Miki Filigranski|talk]]) 13:19, 31 August 2024 (UTC) ::::::The article clarifies in a sourced statement: {{tquote|The rainmaking practice is a shared tradition among Balkan peoples, and it is not clear who borrowed it from whom.}} And bibliography confirms this. Other claims are POV. – [[User:Βατο|Βατο]] ([[User talk:Βατο|talk]]) 13:33, 31 August 2024 (UTC) :::::::No, it doesn't. It was there for NPOV sake, but immediately below it was paragraph which stated that {{tquote|&quot;It is usually considered they have a mythological and etymological Slavic origin related to Slavic thunder-god Perun&quot;}} citing alone, and together more than a dozen reliable sources with quotes, which you changed into {{tquote|Some consider the perperuna figure to have a mythological and etymological Slavic origin related to Slavic thunder-god Perun}}. You completely messed up [[WP:WEIGHT]] and made [[WP:FALSEBALANCE]] with your editing.--[[User:Miki Filigranski|Miki Filigranski]] ([[User talk:Miki Filigranski|talk]]) 13:47, 31 August 2024 (UTC) * '''Support''', only if we are merging [[Caloian|this]] article as well considering Romania is in Southeast Europe. '''[[User:Боки|&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;Боки&lt;/span&gt;]]''' [[User talk:Боки|&lt;span style=&quot;color:blue&quot;&gt;☎&lt;/span&gt;]] [[Special:Contribs/Боки|&lt;span style=&quot;color:#808080&quot;&gt;✎&lt;/span&gt;]] 23:39, 23 August 2024 (UTC) ::[[Caloian]] is not to be merged, because it has different practices, not only rainmaking. What is appropriate to do has been proposed in the duscussion above by User:Altenmann: &quot;{{tquote|a summary section about [[Calojan]] may be incorporated per [[WP:Summary style]]}}&quot;. – [[User:Βατο|Βατο]] ([[User talk:Βατο|talk]]) 22:55, 30 August 2024 (UTC) :::No, if it is a different practice, then what's the point of incorporating it anyhow in the article about Dodola and Perperuna? --[[User:Miki Filigranski|Miki Filigranski]] ([[User talk:Miki Filigranski|talk]]) 10:47, 31 August 2024 (UTC) * '''Comment''', I'm not sure that changing the title will improve the situation. [[User:Jingiby|Jingiby]] ([[User talk:Jingiby|talk]]) 04:57, 24 August 2024 (UTC) ::It will surely improve the situation. The rainmaking practice is not known as &quot;Dodola and Perperuna&quot; among Albanians. It is not known as such even among Slavic speakers, Eastern Romance speakers, or Greek speakers. That's an [[WP:OR]], [[WP:POV]], as well as a misleading title, by selecting only two terms that are given to the girl that performs the ritual in some traditions. I would like to know what criteria could justify such a choise? So far there has been provided no reasonable argument to keep that title. – [[User:Βατο|Βατο]] ([[User talk:Βατο|talk]]) 09:00, 24 August 2024 (UTC) :::It won't and you already made a mess, and are forcing the changes against the usual process for such essential change. You are greatly misunderstanding the topic, making false claims. The article is reliably sourced - that's the name of the customs, Dodola, and Perperuna (and its variations). You are pushing a disbalanced amount of weight for some poorly sourced, and overall irrelevant Albanian POV. Please stop doing that and [[WP:LISTEN]] to what other editors have to say.--[[User:Miki Filigranski|Miki Filigranski]] ([[User talk:Miki Filigranski|talk]]) 10:34, 31 August 2024 (UTC) ::::{{tquote|You are greatly misunderstanding the topic, making false claims}}, nope, the topic is about rainmaking pagan customs in Southeast Europe practiced with the main boy or girl dressed with fresh branches, leaves and herbs, etc. while singing a ritual song. {{tquote|some poorly sourced, and overall irrelevant Albanian POV}} is your own opinion. The content is sourced with academic sources focusing on this specific subject. And it is not up to us to consider Albanian practices as &quot;irrelevant&quot;, relevance is dictaded by reliable sources. – [[User:Βατο|Βατο]] ([[User talk:Βατο|talk]]) 13:42, 31 August 2024 (UTC) :::::Indeed, relevance is dictated by reliable sources - and then you come after two years of stable NPOV, make major edits ignoring the fact most of the reliable sources arguing and claiming Slavic origin of the customs, etymology and else, and now claim relevance of the Albanian case and else. Genius.--[[User:Miki Filigranski|Miki Filigranski]] ([[User talk:Miki Filigranski|talk]]) 14:06, 31 August 2024 (UTC) ::::::The stable NPOV was not claiming the practice as exclusively Slavic (&quot;{{tquote|ancient Slavic rainmaking pagan customs practiced until the 20th century. The tradition is found in South Slavic countries (Bulgaria, Croatia, North Macedonia, Montenegro, and Serbia), as well as in near Albania, Greece, Hungary, Moldova and Romania.}}) I did not notice that such an erroneous and POV wording has been kept in the lede for so long. – [[User:Βατο|Βατο]] ([[User talk:Βατο|talk]]) 14:25, 31 August 2024 (UTC) :::::::FFS, you were here 2 years ago when the old, stable revision was created and now after 2 years you claim that didn't notice.--[[User:Miki Filigranski|Miki Filigranski]] ([[User talk:Miki Filigranski|talk]]) 16:02, 31 August 2024 (UTC) ::::::::The last time I participated in this talk page I stated that the article should not describe the practice as exclusively Slavic. If I remember correctly, I left you time to change it as you stated that you would reword the article according to the sources provided. Then I even forgot about it, only recently realized that you kept the erroneous POV version, which obviously can't stay. I suggest to avoid replying in this discussion, which is about the RM. – [[User:Βατο|Βατο]] ([[User talk:Βατο|talk]]) 16:16, 31 August 2024 (UTC) :::::::::See discussion below, I didn't keep the erroneous POV version as I've done an edit on 9 August 2022 per talk, over a year later somebody changed the wording and nobody noticed to fix it. Alright, my last comment for this.--[[User:Miki Filigranski|Miki Filigranski]] ([[User talk:Miki Filigranski|talk]]) 16:35, 31 August 2024 (UTC) * '''Comment''', I dont think it will make it better. I think it would best to have separate article about {{Q|Q2622164}} and {{Q|Q2368103}} and other rites with different names in Balkans, even if the descriptions partially overlapped. That would make these articles easier to read, and reader would have precise informations about specific rite. My problem with the article is that it pushes too much non-scientific idea about Perperuna being related to Perun. [[User:Sławobóg|Sławobóg]] ([[User talk:Sławobóg|talk]]) 09:11, 1 September 2024 (UTC) ::{{reply|Sławobóg}} I agree with your last sentence, that's why I edited the article and ridimensioned a little bit that POV, which is basically [[Roman Jakobson]]'s POV. But [[User:Miki Filigranski]] seems to oppose the ridimensioning of that POV. Nevertheless, it can't stay in the lede as it was before my edits, because the etymology and mythology of Peperuda/Perperuna/etc. are far from certain, and there are songs that expressly invoke other deities/divine figures and not Perun. Concerning the split of the article into Dodola, Peperuda, and others, I don't think it is a good idea because in some traditions, in the same ritual performance of rainmaking songs both Dodola-like and Peperuda-like names are mentioned, it would be difficult to separate them. Also, they are about the same rainmaking custom, performed by a procession of young people with a main girl or boy who is dressed with fresh branches and leaves, sings the ritual song, and is sprinkled with water. To avoid the arbitrary selection of two names, such as in this case ''Dodola and Perperuna'', which are hardly the [[WP:COMMONAME]], and which are misleading because nobody actually called the custom ''Dodola and Perperuna'', I proposed the descriptive title ''Rainmaking in Southeast Europe''. – [[User:Βατο|Βατο]] ([[User talk:Βατο|talk]]) 10:04, 1 September 2024 (UTC) :&lt;small&gt;Note: [[Wikipedia talk:WikiProject Romania|WikiProject Romania]], [[Wikipedia talk:WikiProject Bulgaria|WikiProject Bulgaria]], [[Wikipedia talk:WikiProject Serbia|WikiProject Serbia]], [[Wikipedia talk:WikiProject Croatia|WikiProject Croatia]], [[Wikipedia talk:WikiProject North Macedonia|WikiProject North Macedonia]], [[Wikipedia talk:WikiProject Mythology|WikiProject Mythology]], and [[Wikipedia talk:WikiProject Albania|WikiProject Albania]] have been notified of this discussion. [[User_talk:Asukite|&lt;span style=&quot;color:Purple;font-size:medium;font-family:Bradley Hand ITC&quot;&gt; ASUKITE&lt;/span&gt;]] 21:14, 30 August 2024 (UTC)&lt;/small&gt; :&lt;small&gt;'''Relisting comment''': Relist to give time for participation. Note that one of the support comments is conditional upon a merge, which is worth discussion, and there is one reply that may be read as oppose but isn't labeled as such. [[User_talk:Asukite|&lt;span style=&quot;color:Purple;font-size:medium;font-family:Bradley Hand ITC&quot;&gt; ASUKITE&lt;/span&gt;]] 21:16, 30 August 2024 (UTC)&lt;/small&gt; &lt;div style=&quot;padding-left: 1.6em; font-style: italic; border-top: 1px solid #a2a9b1; margin: 0.5em 0; padding-top: 0.5em&quot;&gt;The discussion above is closed. &lt;b style=&quot;color: var(--color-error, red);&quot;&gt;Please do not modify it.&lt;/b&gt; Subsequent comments should be made on the appropriate discussion page. No further edits should be made to this discussion.&lt;/div&gt;&lt;!-- from [[Template:Archive bottom]] --&gt; &lt;/div&gt;&lt;div style=&quot;clear:both;&quot; class=&gt;&lt;/div&gt; ==&quot;Oj Ljule&quot; songs== &quot;Oj Ljule&quot; songs are inlcuded in the &quot;Dodole songs&quot;, despite the fact that the songs seem to not mention Dodole or related forms. This aspect should be clarified in the article. Btw, I don't know whether ''ljule'' is a Slavic term, but it can be found in Albanian, and means &quot;flower&quot;, and &quot;Oj Ljule&quot; is found as a phrase in Arbereshe songs as well, although unrelated to rainmaking rituals. The origin and meaning of the term ''ljule'' used in Slavic songs should be explained as well. – [[User:Βατο|Βατο]] ([[User talk:Βατο|talk]]) 18:44, 23 August 2024 (UTC) :This appears to be the borrowing from Slavic [[lullaby]] refrain Ay lyuli {{langx|ru|Ай люли}}, see eg in ''[[Kalinka (1860 song)|Kalinka]]'' or [[:ru:Во поле берёза стояла]]. Associated with the Russian word люлька, &quot;[[cradle]]&quot;. --[[user:Altenmann|Altenmann]] [[user talk:Altenmann|&gt;talk]] 19:10, 23 August 2024 (UTC) ::{{reply|Altenmann}} thanks for the clarification, in that case it would not be a borrowing, but a Slavic term in Eastern South Slavic. The Albanian term would not be related. A source would be nice to clarify it in the article. – [[User:Βατο|Βατο]] ([[User talk:Βατο|talk]]) 19:14, 23 August 2024 (UTC) :::I will try to find a source, but it will be difficult for such minor things. Provably in some obscure folkloric book. [https://www.google.com/search?sca_esv=59944d6273687f66&amp;sca_upv=1&amp;rlz=1C1SJWC_enUS1086US1087&amp;q=%22%D0%90%D0%B9+%D0%BB%D1%8E%D0%BB%D0%B8%22+-%D0%BA%D0%B0%D0%BB%D0%B8%D0%BD%D0%BA%D0%B0&amp;tbm=bks&amp;source=lnms&amp;fbs=AEQNm0AVbySjNxIXoj6bNaq7uSpwmIS0gJlXN_LWYh5RkW9UG_J2iT2scTJ59gCgVXw95w_tbwv0XGMg5VNVmdZJUUbegAUXjP-3Az7ul0FDlU2m0yNrv6Vuz1OORdWimsJYhP0WMXW2ofgIshBxHL7F_exMsA00U1w8-fAhNJVI81QdesxeLn7PSN5Jf4tv1ZtHKAbXs9j2p9qipOTKbxDb8N2kMYbC5g&amp;sa=X&amp;ved=2ahUKEwjH7Nmw6YuIAxV4DTQIHRgHNgo4MhDSlAl6BAg0EAE&amp;biw=1059&amp;bih=682&amp;dpr=1.25 google books] shows plenty of songs, but no etymology. --[[user:Altenmann|Altenmann]] [[user talk:Altenmann|&gt;talk]] 19:19, 23 August 2024 (UTC) :::: [https://gramota.ru/meta/lyuli here a short blurb: ''Large Explanatory Dictionary of the Russian Language'':(folk-poetic) Is used in refrains of Russian folk songs. --[[user:Altenmann|Altenmann]] [[user talk:Altenmann|&gt;talk]] 19:21, 23 August 2024 (UTC) ::::[https://slovnyk.ua/index.php?swrd=%D0%BB%D1%8E%D0%BB%D1%8F%D1%82%D0%B8 люляти] - to rock the cradle in Ukrainian and Belarusian ([[wikt:ru:люляць]]) and Lithuanian [https://www.zodynas.lt/terminu-zodynas/L/liuliuoti liūliuoti] &quot;to rock/be rocked by waves&quot;, Serbian ljuljati &quot;to rock&quot;. - [https://www.alphadictionary.com/goodword/word/lullaby and it seems] it is related to Englies [https://www.alphadictionary.com/goodword/word/lull &quot;lull&quot;], &quot;[[lullaby]]&quot;--[[user:Altenmann|Altenmann]] [[user talk:Altenmann|&gt;talk]] 19:31, 23 August 2024 (UTC) :::::{{edit conflict}} Thanks. I think a source expressly about these rainmaking songs would be appropriate for inclusion into the article, if they cannot be found then we can leave it without explanation. Sources about Russian folksongs not directly related to the subject would be [[WP:SYNTH|synth]] or [[WP:OR|or]] into the article, although interesting for clarifying the matter here in talk page. – [[User:Βατο|Βατο]] ([[User talk:Βατο|talk]]) 19:32, 23 August 2024 (UTC) ::::::These Russian folksongs are mentioned here as an anwer to the question about &quot;Oj Ljule&quot; and of course are irrelevant to this article. (Sorry for off-topic, I am just collecting for future possible use elsewhere.) --[[user:Altenmann|Altenmann]] [[user talk:Altenmann|&gt;talk]] 19:36, 23 August 2024 (UTC) Basically, you are pushing an Albanian-old Balkan POV connection in the LEAD and main body of the article. It is so obvious it is painful not to notice it. Please refrain from doing it forcibly, engage in BRD discussion without editing a stable NPOV, seek a consensus, and only then discuss about the change of scope and title of the article. Not the other way around.--[[User:Miki Filigranski|Miki Filigranski]] ([[User talk:Miki Filigranski|talk]]) 10:30, 31 August 2024 (UTC) :Which one is the POV version? The one that describes the subject as &quot;{{tquote|rainmaking pagan customs widespread among different peoples in Southeast Europe until the 20th century, found in Albania, Bulgaria, Croatia, Greece, Hungary, Kosovo, Moldova, Montenegro, Romania, and Serbia.}}&quot; or the version that describes it as &quot;{{tquote|ancient Slavic rainmaking pagan customs practiced until the 20th century. The tradition is found in South Slavic countries (Bulgaria, Croatia, North Macedonia, Montenegro, and Serbia), as well as in near Albania, Greece, Hungary, Moldova and Romania.}}&quot; It's clearly the second one, which obviously can't stay. – [[User:Βατο|Βατο]] ([[User talk:Βατο|talk]]) 13:25, 31 August 2024 (UTC) ::You obviously don't get the point and refuse to get the point, why that text and wording was in the lead.--[[User:Miki Filigranski|Miki Filigranski]] ([[User talk:Miki Filigranski|talk]]) 13:48, 31 August 2024 (UTC) :::There is no point to get, that text and wording is an erroneous and POV description of the custom. – [[User:Βατο|Βατο]] ([[User talk:Βατο|talk]]) 13:54, 31 August 2024 (UTC) ::::Please stick with the Albanian-Illyrian paganism, and leave alone Slavic paganism when have such a low understanding and respect about the topic.--[[User:Miki Filigranski|Miki Filigranski]] ([[User talk:Miki Filigranski|talk]]) 14:00, 31 August 2024 (UTC) :::::This practice is Albanian, as well as Greek, Romanian, etc., other than South Slavic. You should understand that to avoid POV in the article. – [[User:Βατο|Βατο]] ([[User talk:Βατο|talk]]) 14:21, 31 August 2024 (UTC) ::::::This practice is first and foremost South Slavic, while Albanian is the least (and even among them is most probably due to South Slavic influence). --[[User:Miki Filigranski|Miki Filigranski]] ([[User talk:Miki Filigranski|talk]]) 15:15, 31 August 2024 (UTC) :::::::This practice is widespread among all Albanians. It is Albanian as much as it is South Slavic. Your opinion &quot;{{tquote|This practice is first and foremost South Slavic, while Albanian is the least (and even among them is most probably due to South Slavic influence)}}&quot; shows that you want to push only one POV. – [[User:Βατο|Βατο]] ([[User talk:Βατο|talk]]) 15:52, 31 August 2024 (UTC) :::::::::Where and what's the evidence it is widespread among all Albanians? How common was the practice in Albania? There's no &quot;my opinion&quot;, in the article was cited what was in the scientific literature - it wasn't common and widespread neither can be considered Albanian as much as it is South Slavic. I don't care about what kind of POV is in the literature, only about [[WP:WEIGHT]], and the majority viewpoint is clear about that. You are the one whose changing NPOV by pushing your pro-Albanian POV.--[[User:Miki Filigranski|Miki Filigranski]] ([[User talk:Miki Filigranski|talk]]) 15:59, 31 August 2024 (UTC) ::::::::::It is widespread among all Albanians, it has been practiced by Albanians in southern Albania, in northern Albania, Kosovo and Macedonia. This is not my opinion, this is what academic sources say. And adding sourced content about the Albanian traditions direclty related to the subject of this article is not &quot;pro-Albanian POV&quot;. I suggest to avoid such labellings. – [[User:Βατο|Βατο]] ([[User talk:Βατο|talk]]) 16:08, 31 August 2024 (UTC) :::::::::::I am asking you once again where and what is said in the literature - give the quotes. I don't care and believe what you say. Again, you are NOT merely adding sourced content because you have completely changed the NPOV. You know what you're doing, I know what you're doing. Stop doing it, show some good faith, respect and start behaving according to [[WP:BRD]].--[[User:Miki Filigranski|Miki Filigranski]] ([[User talk:Miki Filigranski|talk]]) 16:19, 31 August 2024 (UTC)- ::::::::::::In the article you can check the sources, which have been carefully cited with relevant pages, and you can add quote needed templates in parts that you fail to verify. Regardless of what you believe or not, the practice has been documented in southwest Albania (such as in the Ionian Coast), southeast Albania (such as in Permet and Klonje), central and northern Albania (such as in Mat, Mirdite, and Has) Macedonia (such as in Tetove), Kosovo (such as in Gjakove, Opoje and Sharr Mountains). It was widespread until the 2nd half of the 20th century, and continues to be performed in rare occasions by Albanians in remote areas such as around [[Opojë]] in the Sharr Mountains. You can find this information in this article's Bibliography, (such as in {{harvnb|Tirta|2004|pp=310–312}}, {{harvnb|Gjoni|2012|pp=85–86}}, and {{harvnb|Qafleshi|2009|pp=51–52}}). – [[User:Βατο|Βατο]] ([[User talk:Βατο|talk]]) 16:58, 31 August 2024 (UTC) – [[User:Βατο|Βατο]] ([[User talk:Βατο|talk]]) 16:58, 31 August 2024 (UTC) :::::::::::::Thank you.--[[User:Miki Filigranski|Miki Filigranski]] ([[User talk:Miki Filigranski|talk]]) 00:56, 4 October 2024 (UTC) Βατο, why is now the same text/songs at [[Dielli (Albanian paganism)#Rainmaking and soil fertility rituals]] and this article (although some songs do not mention neither Dodola or Perperuna)?--[[User:Miki Filigranski|Miki Filigranski]] ([[User talk:Miki Filigranski|talk]]) 15:47, 31 August 2024 (UTC) :They are added because they are rainmaking rituals that are subject of this article, with the same figures and performances. The other songs are added because they follow the rainmaking practice, and are discussed in the same context by the cited source. However, if you consider those following songs to have undue weight, I will remove them and keep only their description. – [[User:Βατο|Βατο]] ([[User talk:Βατο|talk]]) 16:22, 31 August 2024 (UTC) ::I removed them. – [[User:Βατο|Βατο]] ([[User talk:Βατο|talk]]) 16:32, 31 August 2024 (UTC) ==Clarification== The article should clarify whether a goddess/female deity called Perperuna (or similar) or Dodole (or similar), associated with Perun (also as his consort/wife) has been actually attested in Slavic traditions, or it is just a hypothesis by modern scholars. In that regard, the article states: {{tquote|Recent research criticize invention of a Slavic female goddess}}, referenced with {{harvnb|Łuczyński|2020|p=141}}, but I have not access to the source to verify whether it is referring to the link between Perun and Perperuna as a goddess. A a proper context should be provided. – [[User:Βατο|Βατο]] ([[User talk:Βατο|talk]]) 12:26, 24 August 2024 (UTC) :It is already stated. Deities or ritual figures are often reconstructed out of folk tradition. It is an ''interpretation''. You have full quote in this talk page [[Talk:Dodola and Perperuna #Other sources]].--[[User:Miki Filigranski|Miki Filigranski]] ([[User talk:Miki Filigranski|talk]]) 10:57, 31 August 2024 (UTC) ::The article's text should clarify whether something belongs to actual folklore or it is an interpretation. – [[User:Βατο|Βατο]] ([[User talk:Βατο|talk]]) 13:21, 31 August 2024 (UTC) :::Oh really, don't you say? Imagine the shock, who would have thought that the old, stabile revision said: :::{{tquote|According to another '''interpretation''' the name Perperuna can be identified as the reduplicated feminine derivative of the name of the male god Perun (per-perun-a), being his female consort, wife and goddess of rain Perperuna Dodola, which parallels the Old Norse couple Fjörgyn–Fjörgynn and the Lithuanian Perkūnas–Perkūnija.[41][38][42][43][44] Perun's battle against Veles because of Perperuna/Dodola's kidnapping has parallels in Zeus saving of Persephone after Hades carried her underground causing big drought on Earth, also seen in the similarity of the names Perperuna and Persephone.[43][45][16] Recent research criticize invention of a Slavic female goddess.[19]}} :::and now it doesn't after you butchered the paragraphs and sections. Incredible, you must be a genius! --[[User:Miki Filigranski|Miki Filigranski]] ([[User talk:Miki Filigranski|talk]]) 13:53, 31 August 2024 (UTC) ::::Despite me being a 'genius', which is unrelated to this discussion, the information above still needs clarification, because the interpretation is about the name, and as the information is provided in the text, it takes for granted that the female figure was Perun's &quot;female consort, wife and goddess of rain Perperuna Dodola, which parallels the Old Norse couple Fjörgyn–Fjörgynn and the Lithuanian Perkūnas–Perkūnija.&quot; and that &quot;Perun's battle against Veles because of Perperuna/Dodola's kidnapping has parallels in Zeus saving of Persephone after Hades carried her underground causing big drought on Earth&quot;. The wording is important for such things, the text should clarify whether those are reconstrucitons or are actual folklore to not mislead the reader. I already made a slight rewording adding &quot;{{tquote|''allegedly'' being his female consort, wife and goddess of rain Perperuna Dodola, which ''would'' parallel the Old Norse couple Fjörgyn–Fjörgynn and the Lithuanian Perkūnas–Perkūnija.}}&quot;, but I am not sure if it is alleged or in folklore. That's why I asked. I moved some parts because they were about etymology, I left the parts about mythology into the relevant section. – [[User:Βατο|Βατο]] ([[User talk:Βατο|talk]]) 14:16, 31 August 2024 (UTC) :::::You clearly don't differentiate parts which are strictly about etymology from those which are about mythology. You moved parts, everything now looks out of context, and then claim there's confusion - when you made it. This is going to be like in the stable revision, the end of discussion.--[[User:Miki Filigranski|Miki Filigranski]] ([[User talk:Miki Filigranski|talk]]) 15:17, 31 August 2024 (UTC) ::::::Nope, the stable revision you created is erroneous and POV, and can't stay. Nevertheless, you are not addressing my concerns, but making general, useless, statements. Are they attested traditions or modern reconstructions? – [[User:Βατο|Βατο]] ([[User talk:Βατο|talk]]) 15:42, 31 August 2024 (UTC) :::::::You were here 2 years ago when the old, stable revision was created. Now you come again after 2 years, falsely claim that didn't notice what was written in the LEAD and else, decide to make it more erroneous and POV, and don't bother with any concerns other editor is making because of your major, general editing by which violated WEIGHT and NPOV, and calling them &quot;useless&quot; concerns. This is unbelievable. --[[User:Miki Filigranski|Miki Filigranski]] ([[User talk:Miki Filigranski|talk]]) 15:55, 31 August 2024 (UTC) ::::::::The last time I participated in this talk page I stated that the article should not describe the practice as exclusively Slavic. If I remember correctly, I left you time to change it as you stated that you would reword the article according to the sources provided. Then I even forgot about it, only recently realized that you kept the erroneous POV version, which obviously can't stay. – [[User:Βατο|Βατο]] ([[User talk:Βατο|talk]]) 16:14, 31 August 2024 (UTC) :::::::::Sorry, but I see now we are both misunderstanding each other and what happened. I've done that, [https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Dodola_and_Perperuna&amp;oldid=1103234952 this] was my &quot;NPOV up-date per talk&quot; on 9 August 2022 i.e. original stable revision, but until my next [https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Dodola_and_Perperuna&amp;oldid=1192112560 edit] on 27 December 2023 somebody changed the wording in the lead from &quot;are Balkan rainmaking pagan customs practiced until the 20th century&quot; to &quot;are ancient Slavic rainmaking pagan customs practiced until the 20th century&quot;. --[[User:Miki Filigranski|Miki Filigranski]] ([[User talk:Miki Filigranski|talk]]) 16:28, 31 August 2024 (UTC) :::::::::IP changed the lead wording on [https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Dodola_and_Perperuna&amp;diff=1182582238&amp;oldid=1181970621 30 October 2023].--[[User:Miki Filigranski|Miki Filigranski]] ([[User talk:Miki Filigranski|talk]]) 16:32, 31 August 2024 (UTC) ==Undue speculative interpretations in lede== [[User:Vanillacake34]] reverted ([https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Dodola_and_Perperuna&amp;diff=prev&amp;oldid=1257581130]) without explanation an addition in the lede about some scholarly interpretations that were made only for some traditions. There is absolutely no evidence that rainmaking rituals in the Balkans &quot;{{tquote|were related to the Slavic supreme deity Perun (god of thunder, weather, fertility and oak trees in the Slavic pantheon).}}&quot; and that &quot;{{tquote|Perperuna could have been a Slavic goddess of rain, the consort of Perun, or that the name Perperuna is the reduplicated feminine form derived from the name of Perun.}}&quot; And above all, what makes such addition undue in the lede is the fact that Albanian rainmaking ritual songs expressly address the Sun (Albanian: [[Dielli (Albanian paganism)|Dielli]]) and the Sky ([[Perëndi]]) as divine entities during the ritual songs, not [[Perun]], who does not appear in Slavic songs either. – [[User:Βατο|Βατο]] ([[User talk:Βατο|talk]]) 18:00, 15 November 2024 (UTC) {{u|Vanillacake34|}} instead of adding and reverting the same speculative undue info in the lede, provide your reasons and seek consensus here in talk page. – [[User:Βατο|Βατο]] ([[User talk:Βατο|talk]]) 18:22, 15 November 2024 (UTC)</div></summary> <author><name>Βατο</name></author> </entry> <entry> <id>https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=User_talk:Vanillacake34&diff=1257587505</id> <title>User talk:Vanillacake34</title> <link rel="alternate" type="text/html" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=User_talk:Vanillacake34&diff=1257587505"/> <updated>2024-11-15T18:20:30Z</updated> <summary type="html">Βατο: <hr /> <div> == Welcome! == {| style=&quot;background-color:#F5FFFA; padding:0;&quot; |class=&quot;MainPageBG&quot; style=&quot;border:1px solid lightgrey; background-color:lightgrey; vertical-align:top; color:#000000; font-size:85%&quot;| {| style=&quot;width: 100%; padding: 0px; vertical-align:top; background-color:lavender; padding:0;&quot; ! &lt;div style=&quot;margin:0; background-color:white; font-family:sans-serif; font-size:120%; font-weight:normal; border:1px solid lightgrey; text-align:left; padding-left:0.4em; padding-top:0.2em; padding-bottom:0.2em;&quot;&gt;Hello, Vanillacake34! 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It was just too incomprehensible. I replaced it with a scrap of info found on the web. --[[User:LeeHunter|LeeHunter]] 00:49, 24 Aug 2004 (UTC) : Wikipedians who understand [[Slavic languages]] and are knowledgeable in [[Slavic mythology]] are invited to sort out the following text (that was replaced by a nice little stub by [[User:LeeHunter]]): :: '''Perperuna''' - originally probably divine partner (wife) of [[Perun]]; probably the name formed by reduplication core &amp;#8220;per-&amp;#8220;, however it could be also personalization (result) of activity of Perun - &amp;#8222;flinging rock&quot; (per-perun-a?) = rain - analog. Ind. Parjanya &amp;#8222;(secondarily) cloud, rain&quot; - surname of Indra. Perperuna is the name behaved as designation of participant of ceremony (noted in SouthSlav. folklore) of summoning of rain, called also [[dodola]], dudula (compare to: Lith. [[Perkunas]] - Dundúlis, Latt. Dundusélis and Gr. [[Dodona]]); if we identify perperuna-dodola with [[beregynja]](*perkynja), we deal with team of names - teonyms embracing with significative range occurrence of worship of fecundity: [[Moko&amp;#353;]] (Mather Earth) - Perkynia / Pergynja(&amp;#8222;Holy Forest - Oak wood&quot; / &amp;#8222;Mountain&quot; - on the ground of analogy Ind. also: &amp;#8222;Cloud, Rain&quot;) - Perperuna (Perun's partner, on the ground of analogy Hett. also: &amp;#8222;Rock&quot;) compactly related with &amp;#8222;masculine&quot; worship Thunderlord - Perun. Hipostasy of goddess was probably a viper (snake) guardian of house - &amp;#382;mija cuvakuca, &amp;#382;mija kucarica (SouthSlav.). : Have fun with it. :-) : -- [[User:PFHLai|PFHLai]] 01:28, 2004 Aug 24 (UTC) : P.S. I think &quot;Moko&amp;#353;&quot; is [[Mokosh]]. ==Old talk== Text from [http://free.bol.bg/slavpagan/deities.html webpage] owned by the contributor How do we KNOW that the contributor owns the webpage? And where has he/she released the material to GFDL? [[User:RickK|Rick]][[User talk:RickK|K]] 05:57, Oct 14, 2004 (UTC) :He/she released it by copying. How do we KNOW anything? He/she told us so. Must he go to notary public first? What is the policy about contributing owned materials? Has he (acting as wikipedian) to send a letter to himself (acting as a webmaster) with request for confirmation? [[User:Mikkalai|Mikkalai]] 06:22, 14 Oct 2004 (UTC) ::BTW, I've already met this situation (related to the bio of some Rumanian professor), asked at pump, and got no answer (and safely forgot about the issue until now). IMO here is a hole in wikipolicies. [[User:Mikkalai|Mikkalai]] 06:25, 14 Oct 2004 (UTC) :::This was done in past. Email of site owner, as given on [http://free.bol.bg/slavpagan/home.html] is ogneslav@abv.bg and anyone interested can contact him and ask is he really Wikipedia user Ogneslav and then copy/paste the email here (I'd do it but it seems that he dislikes me). Perhaps he'd even permit others to use material from his site. [[User:Nikola Smolenski|Nikola]] 09:04, 14 Oct 2004 (UTC) :::: You also didn't understand my question: wikipedia's policies don't say how he '''himself''', from thr very beginning could confirm that he is the author, without '''me''' or '''you'''. [[User:Mikkalai|Mikkalai]] 14:58, 14 Oct 2004 (UTC) :::::Well, he '''himself''' '''''could not''''' from the very beginning confirm that he is the author. Period. ::::::'''That's''' what I am saying: wikipedia's policy has a hole. And there are ways to fix it.[[User:Mikkalai|Mikkalai]] 14:56, 15 Oct 2004 (UTC) :::::I have in past created a few pages where I'd just copy/paste text from a web site with nothing more than saying &quot;Text from http://website used with permission. &lt;nowiki&gt;~~~~&lt;/nowiki&gt;&quot; at the talk page. I was able to do this because, before that, I have contributed to Wikipedia for a long time, and none of my contributions are found to be copyright violations, and so everyone who reviewed the article knew that I understand and respect Wikipedia's copyright policy, and it is very unlikely that I would begin breaking it all of a sudden. On the other hand, this is a new user, who started to contribute copyrighted material, and there is possibility that he could be, as likely website owner, as someone who simply wants to use copyrighted material from the website and make false claims to get away with it. :::::This is all empty talk, however; wouldn't it be far easier and faster to simply e-mail the guy than to talk about what could have happened if something had happened? [[User:Nikola Smolenski|Nikola]] 07:37, 15 Oct 2004 (UTC) ::::::I don't care much about this topic and about the author. Do you think I cannot use e-mail? I am talking about the policy. I am going to summarize the talk at the corresponding pages. This disussion greatly helped me to understand what exactly I have to say. Thanks, guys. [[User:Mikkalai|Mikkalai]] 14:56, 15 Oct 2004 (UTC) :::::Read the copyvio boilerplate language. It says &quot;To the poster: If there was permission to use this material under terms of our license or if you are the copyright holder of the externally linked text, then please indicate so on this page's talk page.&quot;. [[User:RickK|Rick]][[User talk:RickK|K]] 19:26, Oct 14, 2004 (UTC) ::::::This was what was actually said in a frustrated way in the [[Talk:Slavic mythology#So guys]], according to which I entered the above note: ''&quot;Text from [http://free.bol.bg/slavpagan/deities.html webpage] owned by the contributor&quot;''. Your reaction was: &quot;how do we KNOW...&quot;. Please notice that your reaction would be equally valid, if the notice were: ''&quot;Text from [http://free.bol.bg/slavpagan/deities.html webpage] owned by '''me'''.&lt;signature&gt;&quot;''. You seem to miss the legal difference between an e-mail confirmation from an account associated with the webpage in question and a simple notice on the wikipedia talk page. [[User:Mikkalai|Mikkalai]] 19:51, 14 Oct 2004 (UTC) ::::::::I'm still waiting for you to point to the page where the original author of the page said it was his/her copyright and he/she has released it to GFDL in accordance with the line I quoted above. [[User:RickK|Rick]][[User talk:RickK|K]] 23:07, Oct 14, 2004 (UTC) ::::::::* You seem to '''again''' miss the legal difference between an e-mail confirmation from an account associated with the webpage in question and a simple notice on the wikipedia talk page. The advice in the copyvio notice is laughable from legal POV: ''if you are the copyright holder... please indicate so on this page's talk page''. How one may verify that the page editor is the owner? I may &quot;indicate&quot; I own [[Madonna (entertainer)|Madonna]]'s bare ass. And you're supposed to believe me until Madonna sues wikipedia? In this particular case I don't care about this nervous guy. I am pointing at a hole in the policy. The issue is credentials. In the case of an explicit request by another wikieditor, the credentials are the e-mail address of the respondent that matches the webpage info (weak, but triable). The advice you (and I) cited doesn't explain how to provide credentials. [[User:Mikkalai|Mikkalai]] 01:21, 15 Oct 2004 (UTC) ::::::::* Sorry, I forgot to answer your question. I've already pointed the page: [[Talk:Slavic mythology#So guys]]. It has: ''The last drop was that somebody, called &quot;administrator&quot;, deleted a number of my pages 'cause they were COPYRIGHT. He even adviced me in private to write in &quot;my own words&quot; - BUT THESE WERE MY OWN WORDS. He didn't even make the effort to look at the bottom of the source-site to see I am the copyright holder.'' This remark is just as good as any other. Notice also, contrary to your request, he has no duty to explicitely release to GFDL: in wikipedia GFDL is an opt-out; mere editing means release. [[User:Mikkalai|Mikkalai]] 01:29, 15 Oct 2004 (UTC) Great. That's what I was looking for. Now, was that so hard? [[User:RickK|Rick]][[User talk:RickK|K]] 19:26, Oct 15, 2004 (UTC) :No. But an easy way is no fun. [[User:Mikkalai|Mikkalai]] 19:53, 15 Oct 2004 (UTC) ==Perperuna== See [[Talk:Perperuna]]. `'[[user:mikkalai|mikka]] [[user talk:mikkalai|(t)]] 01:53, 25 July 2006 (UTC) == Section on ritual == The &quot;Ritual&quot; section makes four or five claims but has no sources for any of them. I'm not going to try to dig up sources on this subject, since I'm 100% unfamiliar with it, but it would improve the article if sources could be provided. [[User:Poihths|Poihths]] ([[User talk:Poihths|talk]]) 14:38, 14 May 2013 (UTC) == External links modified == Hello fellow Wikipedians, I have just modified {{plural:1|one external link|1 external links}} on [[Dodola]]. Please take a moment to review [https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?diff=prev&amp;oldid=754799110 my edit]. If you have any questions, or need the bot to ignore the links, or the page altogether, please visit [[User:Cyberpower678/FaQs#InternetArchiveBot|this simple FaQ]] for additional information. I made the following changes: *Added archive https://web.archive.org/web/20131228002745/http://egg.mnir.ro:80/pdf/Paliga_InflRomane.pdf to http://egg.mnir.ro/pdf/Paliga_InflRomane.pdf When you have finished reviewing my changes, please set the ''checked'' parameter below to '''true''' or '''failed''' to let others know (documentation at {{tlx|Sourcecheck}}). {{sourcecheck|checked=false}} Cheers.—[[User:InternetArchiveBot|'''&lt;span style=&quot;color:darkgrey;font-family:monospace&quot;&gt;InternetArchiveBot&lt;/span&gt;''']] &lt;span style=&quot;color:green;font-family:Rockwell&quot;&gt;([[User talk:InternetArchiveBot|Report bug]])&lt;/span&gt; 15:55, 14 December 2016 (UTC) == External links modified == Hello fellow Wikipedians, I have just modified one external link on [[Dodola]]. Please take a moment to review [[special:diff/816350836|my edit]]. If you have any questions, or need the bot to ignore the links, or the page altogether, please visit [[User:Cyberpower678/FaQs#InternetArchiveBot|this simple FaQ]] for additional information. I made the following changes: *Added archive https://web.archive.org/web/20120216225647/http://www.gbiblsk.edu.mk/images/stories/eknigi/zbornik.pdf to http://www.gbiblsk.edu.mk/images/stories/eknigi/zbornik.pdf When you have finished reviewing my changes, you may follow the instructions on the template below to fix any issues with the URLs. {{sourcecheck|checked=false|needhelp=}} Cheers.—[[User:InternetArchiveBot|'''&lt;span style=&quot;color:darkgrey;font-family:monospace&quot;&gt;InternetArchiveBot&lt;/span&gt;''']] &lt;span style=&quot;color:green;font-family:Rockwell&quot;&gt;([[User talk:InternetArchiveBot|Report bug]])&lt;/span&gt; 20:24, 20 December 2017 (UTC) == New revision == The article was in dire need of new revision because the old revision had many serious issues for many years. For e.g. most of the text was directly copied from sources but without proper attribution and sometimes from sources which weren't even cited; gave false weight to a dubious fringe theory by non-folklorists/mythologists about Thracian origin which is ignored in all other sources; some explanations, connections were erroneous and couldn't be confirmed in literature; the primary mythological and etymological focus is on Perperuna while Dodola as substitution not other way around; Dodola isn't known as Perperuna nor Perperuna is known as Dodola, these are two separate but very similar pagan customs with common origin; hence the article title will be changed to &quot;Perperuna and Dodola&quot;. [[User:Miki Filigranski|Miki Filigranski]] ([[User talk:Miki Filigranski|talk]]) 10:51, 23 July 2022 (UTC) :Before moving the article, discuss it here, please. I restored it to the name &quot;Dodola&quot; as it seems the most common one. The article title &quot;Perperuna and Dodola&quot; also appears to refer to a tradition that consists of both those figures, which is not the case. – [[User:Βατο|Βατο]] ([[User talk:Βατο|talk]]) 21:12, 23 July 2022 (UTC) ::1) As was already explained and as it is explained in the scientific literature, these are two separate but similar pagan customs which are often related by folklorists. We cannot have in the article title only one custom because they are not synonyms and SCOPE of the article much more focused, as shown by literature, to Perperuna and it's Slavic origin as well as connection to Slavic deity Perun. ::2) In your first [https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Dodola&amp;type=revision&amp;diff=1100019388&amp;oldid=1099979834 edit] you ignorantly and disruptively, as shown in the talk page discussion at [[Talk:Perëndi#Slavic loan]], made an anti-Slavic edit against the consensus in scientific literature about the connection with Slavic deity Perun, all of which was cited in the article, and replaced it in the LEAD with two irrelevant sources promoting or fringe theories making [[WP:FALSEBALANCE]] (Ḱulavkova's about Thracian origin which is ignored in almost all other cited literature besides three which were by linguists and historians i.e. also non-experts on the field violating [[WP:WEIGHT]]) or non-expert minor viewpoint by [[Andrew Wachtel]] instead of many other reliable sources which claim exactly the opposite. ::3) In anoted [https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Dodola&amp;diff=next&amp;oldid=1100019761 edit] removed the part that the fringe theory argues Thracian origin of Perun, claiming to be &quot;original research&quot; on my part although noted the pages in which is clearly stated by Kulavkova at pg. 20 (&quot;'''According to other beliefs, Perun, Perin, or Pirin was the supreme deity of the Thracians.'''&quot;) and by Dragnea at pg. 19, citing Paliga's fringe theory. ::4) [https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Dodola&amp;type=revision&amp;diff=1100025353&amp;oldid=1100021497 ignoring and removing] sourced viewpoint from reliable and reputable scholars, bringing false balance with a controversial source. ::5) [https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Dodola&amp;diff=next&amp;oldid=1100025353 removing] sourced information.--[[User:Miki Filigranski|Miki Filigranski]] ([[User talk:Miki Filigranski|talk]]) 21:51, 23 July 2022 (UTC) :Hey, thanks for improving the article, I would not have been able to collect these songs and history myself. I can't support &quot;origin&quot; part tho. There is literally 0 evidence for Perperuna being goddess and there is 0 evidence for direct connection to Perun. Pereplut is also unrelated name. Perun, Perkunas and Fjoryn are [[false cognate]]s and PIE [[perkwunos]] didn't exist (this article is not best place for this topic tho). Connecting Dodola with [[Dzidzilela]] (forged goddess) is folk etymology, the latter word comes from PS ''*did-'' &quot;big, great&quot; and it can't be different. [[Lada (mythology)|Lada]] is also forged goddess. Connecting Perperuna with [[Pripegala]] is also folk etymology. &quot;Perun's battle against Veles becuase of Perperuna/Dodola's kidnapping&quot; - where is this story attested? &quot;sometimes even hosts would drink wine in Perun's honor.&quot; - are you telling me that people still worshipped Perun in 19/20th century? This is not only nonneutral, but also just false. Etymology is more like speculation now, we should add modern, scientific views (Snoj maybe?) on this name (might be of onomatopeic orign and I don't think there is evidence that the Slavs created names by reduplication of the root). [[User:Sławobóg|Sławobóg]] ([[User talk:Sławobóg|talk]]) 21:29, 23 July 2022 (UTC) ::Don't get me wrong, but nobody cares about your personal opinion. I became tired months ago of reading these paragraphs of opinion. The vast majority of sources by relevant scholars claim there's a connection. Everything what you wrote is written in reliable and modern sources. Editing or removing that would be &quot;nonneutral&quot;. If there are any other modern, reliable sources by experts please list them here to check on them.--[[User:Miki Filigranski|Miki Filigranski]] ([[User talk:Miki Filigranski|talk]]) 21:51, 23 July 2022 (UTC) :::@Miki Filigranski there is no consensus, the rainmaking custom is a shared tradition among Balkan peoples, your preferred origin theory is just one of the proposed hypotheses. As for the name Perperuna, I think it is likely from Perun, but [[User:Sławobóg|Sławobóg]] maybe has a point here, and more recent academic sources should be analysed. The name Dodola is of uncertain origin. – [[User:Βατο|Βατο]] ([[User talk:Βατο|talk]]) 22:05, 23 July 2022 (UTC) ::::You don't have a basic clue of what you're saying, don't know anything about the topic, neither read all the sources, neither understand [[WP:WEIGHT]] policy as showed before. No, as showed and claimed on other article talk page, you're the one who has a preffered theory (and fringe one at best!), wants to [[WP:OWN]] the article by making false balance! --[[User:Miki Filigranski|Miki Filigranski]] ([[User talk:Miki Filigranski|talk]]) 22:18, 23 July 2022 (UTC) :::::No, the false balance is the [[WP:POV]] and [[WP:OR]] wording of the lead section: {{tquote|are Slavic rainmaking pagan customs which were mainly preserved among South Slavs and neighboring people until 20th century.}} Albanians, Greeks, Romanians, Aromanians/Vlachs, Hungarians are not Slavs, and the custom described in this article is a shared Balkan tradition. – [[User:Βατο|Βατο]] ([[User talk:Βατο|talk]]) 22:25, 23 July 2022 (UTC) ::::::Please stop! You don't have basic understanding of the topic neither read the sources neither even bother to read what's written in the article. That's majority viewpoint, it was sourced and totally not original research. You are making a total mess of it ([https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Dodola&amp;type=revision&amp;diff=1100043308&amp;oldid=1100032521]) as Dodola isn't alternatively known as Perperuna because these are separate customs (they even had separate articles until 2015 when were merged but due to same wrong reasoning). They are not synonyms. Neither the customs were confirmed to be found among Bosnians, and Montenegrins in general (Bay of Kotor was inhabited by a mixture of ethnic groups and it was found there only sporadically). I had enough of this. --[[User:Miki Filigranski|Miki Filigranski]] ([[User talk:Miki Filigranski|talk]]) 00:10, 24 July 2022 (UTC) ::::::: In my opinion, two points of view collide here. It is wise to strike a balance between them, although this is not easy. Regarding the title, the proposed new combined title reflects both views and is more neutral. I agree here with [[User:Miki Filigranski|Miki Filigranski]]. [[User:Jingiby|Jingiby]] ([[User talk:Jingiby|talk]]) 05:13, 24 July 2022 (UTC) ::::::::Miki Filigranski, so what's your proposal? Saying in the lead section that it is exclusively a Slavic practice is non neutral. I added, according to the sources, the population groups that are attested to have practiced the custom of rainmaking, whether it was called Dodola or Perperuna. If you have enough reliable sources that claim a clear distinction between the practices referred to as Dodola and Perperuna, then you can create two separate articles. I read that some communities refer to the same practice with the name Dodola (and variants), and other communities with the name Perperuna (and variants). I can agree to include both variants of the names in the article title, but &quot;Perperuna and Dodola&quot; appears to indicate that the custom is called as such, which is not the case. – [[User:Βατο|Βατο]] ([[User talk:Βατο|talk]]) 08:35, 24 July 2022 (UTC) :::::::::It is a practice of Slavic origin, related to Slavic deity Perun. That is the majority viewpoint in the RS. Removing that from the LEAD is non neutral. You even added ethnic groups among whom wasn't attested citing a bad source. The sources making clear distinction are already cited and there's no point in making separate article when these two customs are scholarly related. &quot;Perperuna and Dodola&quot; don't indicate anyhow that the custom is called with a single name &quot;Perperuna and Dodola&quot;. --[[User:Miki Filigranski|Miki Filigranski]] ([[User talk:Miki Filigranski|talk]]) 10:33, 24 July 2022 (UTC) ::::Okay, I found the book. [[Stanisław Urbańczyk|Urbańczyk]] debunked Jakobson's etymology. ''perperuda'', ''pepeluga'' etc. are related to Proto-Slavic ''*perpera'', ''*perperъka'' &quot;[[Common quail]]&quot; and these are related to ''*pъrpati'' (onomatopoeic), cf. Polish dial. ''perpotać'', ''perpac'', Old East Slavic ''poropriti''. So mystery has been solved. Meanwhile author himself reacts with aggression because someone tells him that the article is extremely one-sided. Having information about alleged relation between Perun and Perperuna is ok, since it actually is popular view, but it is not only view and it was criticised by other linguists. Btw Grimm is bad source. [[User:Sławobóg|Sławobóg]] ([[User talk:Sławobóg|talk]]) 10:45, 24 July 2022 (UTC) :::::Thanks @Sławobóg, the etymology you provided is interesting. @Miki Filigranski your statement {{tquote|It is a practice of Slavic origi}} is not supported by many scholars: there is not certainty about the origins of the practice. but there seems to be agreement among scholars that the name for the Balkan rainmaden ''Perperuna'' (and variants) is most likely of Slavic origin. The rainmaking custom is a Pan-Balkan practice, attested in the region at least since Classical Antiquity. I've just found a recent source: {{cite journal|last=Burns|first=Richard|title=Rain and Dust|journal=[[Studia Mythologica Slavica]]|volume=XI|issn=1581-128X|doi=10.3986/sms.v11i0.1696|year=2008|pp=217-236}} which provides further information about the usage of the names, and analysis on some scholars' views, also: {{tquote|&quot;The paper opens conjectures that relate the Balkan practice to two ancient Mediterranean mythological motifs: first, to Minoan and Mycenaean rainmaking invocations, and, secondly, to the goddess Persephone, via the theories of V. V. Ivanov and V. I. Toporov.&quot;}} – [[User:Βατο|Βατο]] ([[User talk:Βατο|talk]]) 10:53, 24 July 2022 (UTC) ::::::@Sławobóg, thanks, that's just an opinion though (please provide details of the source), but indeed doesn't change the fact it is of Slavic origin (and related to Perun per majority viewpoint). @Βατο, in the article are already cited more than 12 reliable sources by many different scholars. I mostly agree with other things you said, but didn't mention anything not already cited in the article. To be noted, Burns source is reliable to cite on scholars' views, but unreliable source for Burns viewpoint. He is a poet, not a scientist. --[[User:Miki Filigranski|Miki Filigranski]] ([[User talk:Miki Filigranski|talk]]) 11:25, 24 July 2022 (UTC) :::::::Jakobson's idea that Perperuna comes from Perun is also &quot;just an opinion&quot;, what is wrong with you? Additionally, Urbańczyk's etymology is more scientifically correct, because it explains the doubling of the root ''per-'', because there is no evidence for duplication of the root for feminine names and I have other book about that (which also supports Urbańczyk's idea). He says that ritual is known to Greeks and Albanians and it should be established actual origin first. He later say Perperuna might be related to words I mentioned before (also Polish ''przepierzyca''), not only because of etymology, also because quail (in Polish folklore) '''is associated with the harvest rites and is the name of the bride in the wedding dance'''. So I guess Slavic origin is very possible (from the bird). {{Cite book|last=Urbańczyk|first=Stanisław|title=Dawni Słowianie. Wiara i kult|date=1991|place=Wrocław|language=pl|author-link=Stanisław Urbańczyk|publisher=Ossolineum}} | [[User:Sławobóg|Sławobóg]] ([[User talk:Sławobóg|talk]]) 11:48, 24 July 2022 (UTC) ::::::::I found the text and it can be hardly called a debunking as you described it in your comment. Urbańczyk only said that Jakobson's opinion needs caution, he didn't refute it. We also have reliable sources which support Jakobson (and Slavic origin, relation to Mokosh etc.), including lately [[Patrice Lajoye]] (2015, pg. 107–115 etc.). Do you have other sources which mention or support Urbańczyk's derivation from the bird?--[[User:Miki Filigranski|Miki Filigranski]] ([[User talk:Miki Filigranski|talk]]) 12:07, 24 July 2022 (UTC) :::::::::Yes, Łuczyński (2020) ''Bogowie dawnych Słowian. Studium onomastyczne''. Additionally, the article does not mention at all that ''peperuda'' means &quot;butterfly&quot; in Bulgarian (mentioned in Russian and Bulgarian wiki)'''!!!''' [https://ibl.bas.bg/lib/ber_5/#page/82/mode/1up Български етимологичен речник] (vol 5, p. 162) has 2 pages of etymology of this word, also mentioning ''*perperica'' and other ideas, but image quality makes it too hard to read for me. There [https://starlingdb.org/cgi-bin/etymology.cgi?single=1&amp;basename=%2Fdata%2Fsemham%2Flecet&amp;text_number=+652&amp;root=config is] also Proto-Kartvelian root ''*ṗerṗer-'' / ''*perpel-'' &quot;butterfly&quot; connected with PS ''*perperъka''. It is clear from the Bulgarian dictionary that the subject is complicated and the etymologies are many, and that the article is not neutral and tries by force to push through Jakobson's etymology repeated uncritically by later authors. In the case of Slavic mythology/folklore, Western scholars often mindlessly (I'm not exaggerating) repeat various stupidities and rarely have a clue what they are writing about, cf. [https://web.archive.org/web/20170804140911/http://www.mathieu-colas.fr/michel/Classes/Dieux_slaves_et_baltes.pdf Mathieu-Colas]. I'm not comparing Lajoye or Evans to that, but we should be sceptic about Western optimism. [[Natko Nodilo]] is also pretty bad source (see [[Svetovit#In_Serbia]]). [[User:Sławobóg|Sławobóg]] ([[User talk:Sławobóg|talk]]) 14:00, 24 July 2022 (UTC) ::::::::::Thanks. The part about butterfly is quoted in 4th reference, forgot to expand more on it citing other sources. The association is mythological, doesn't make sense such a widespread pagan custom derives from a Bulgarian word for butterfly and shows that the Bulgarian word for butterfly derives instead from the mythological background to which is related the custom. If not, as in the case of cited Proto-Karvelian, occurred secondary associations of unrelated words. Will expand more regarding the etymology in general. Sorry, but you're using hard words and claims here. The article is properly and reliably edited according to WEIGHT, and tried to be careful with using them.--[[User:Miki Filigranski|Miki Filigranski]] ([[User talk:Miki Filigranski|talk]]) 14:14, 24 July 2022 (UTC) :::::@Sławobóg I have not a preference about the article title, could you suggest something about this issue? It seems that Dodola is the most common name, and in some communities both names (and variants) are found, even in the same song. – [[User:Βατο|Βατο]] ([[User talk:Βατο|talk]]) 11:07, 24 July 2022 (UTC) ::::::Is Dodola really more popular than Perperuna? I think modern, scientific or popular, usage also counts? I think &quot;Dodola and Perperuna&quot; would be good, but I'm not 100% sure. [[User:Sławobóg|Sławobóg]] ([[User talk:Sławobóg|talk]]) 11:35, 24 July 2022 (UTC) :::::::I've seen it by a first check on Google search and Google books, and in general Dodola seems to be more common. But I am not sure which is more common in recent sources and popular usage. Perhaps Burns' (2008) information could be useful: {{tquote|&quot;The various names have been el-egantly mapped by Plotnikova (1999) to reveal regional variations. Names of the ''dodola'' type, which I designate as the 'central' group, are more common in Serbia, Bosnia, and names of the ''peperuga'' or ''perperuda'' type, designated as the 'eastern and southern group', tend to be more frequent in Bulgaria, Rumania, Moldovia, Albania, Thessaly and Epirus (Burns 2006a: 35, 37-38 &amp; 42). In the border-area of dialect-continua between Bulgaria and Serbia, as in Macedonia, both verbal variants appear in the same song.&quot;}} – [[User:Βατο|Βατο]] ([[User talk:Βατο|talk]]) 12:11, 24 July 2022 (UTC) ::::::::Well, &quot;Dodola and Perperuna&quot; is ok then. If the name depends on the region, then we should not discriminate against any of them. It may be clunky, but it will be fair. [[User:Sławobóg|Sławobóg]] ([[User talk:Sławobóg|talk]]) 13:01, 24 July 2022 (UTC) ::::::::The name depends on the custom, songs and name of central character. These are two separate types. There can be made correlations based on regions, but not causations on which depends the name. Regarding the distribution, it strangely omits Croatia and mentions Bosnia, check the [https://ibb.co/rMgMqqL map] from Čulinović-Konstantinović &quot;Dodole and prporuše: folk customs for invoking the rain&quot; (note how's titled the source). I am okay with the title &quot;Dodola and Perperuna&quot;.--[[User:Miki Filigranski|Miki Filigranski]] ([[User talk:Miki Filigranski|talk]]) 13:27, 24 July 2022 (UTC) :::::::::Agreed, @Miki Filigranski feel free to make the page move. – [[User:Βατο|Βατο]] ([[User talk:Βατο|talk]]) 13:31, 24 July 2022 (UTC) ===Other sources=== {{ping|Sławobóg}} Czesław Białczyński in his ''Mitologia słowiańska'' (1999), not a reliable and scientific source, mentions: &lt;small&gt;PERPERUNA (Peperuna, Perperuda, Prperousza, Pe-runica). Jej istyjskim odpowiednikiem jest Perkunija. Runa - od rdzenia run ma takie same znaczenia jak wyżej, ale także w obocznej postaci zachowanej u Bułgarów - Perperuda - kędzierzawa, bo ruda kosa - kędzierzawe włosy, kędziory, rudica - zbita wełna, rudina - niwa, rudy - czerwony, błotny, bagnisty (co wskazuje, podobnie jak u Peruna, na jej związek z wodą), pokryty rudą - czyli naleciałością żelazistą, barwy rdzawej. Z powyższego zestawienia wynika, że Perperuna musiała mieć kręcone, gęste, kędzierzawe włosy rudej barwy. Były cztery boginie o rudych włosach: Perperuna, Ruda-Ródź, Swara (o włosach płomiennych) i Krasatina (o włosach krasnych i krasnym licu).&lt;/small&gt; &lt;small&gt;O świętości rośliny paproci, której nazwa przechowała imię bogini Ródzi-Pap-rudy, świadczy jej związek nazewniczy z boskim rdzeniem per (Perun, Perperuna, Perepłut, Pripegala, Prowe, Porenut, Puruvit, Porewit, Spór). Przechowane przez Bułgarów i Macedończyków miano Perperuda nie jest powtórzeniem serbskiego i chorwackiego imienia żony Peruna - Perperuna, lecz imieniem bogini Rodzi, córki Roda, kochanki Perunica. Związek Perperudy z Peruni-cem znajduje także odbicie w nazwie świętego zioła pe-runiki.&lt;/small&gt; I have a hard time reading the source, but does it cite any reference? Do you know of any Polish source which makes the same claim?--[[User:Miki Filigranski|Miki Filigranski]] ([[User talk:Miki Filigranski|talk]]) 14:25, 24 July 2022 (UTC) :Białczyński is turboslavic, he promotes Great Lechia and believes that Proto-Indo-European = Proto-Slavic. In his books he forges new gods. Nothing to talk about tbh. See [[List of Slavic pseudo-deities]]. [[User:Sławobóg|Sławobóg]] ([[User talk:Sławobóg|talk]]) 14:53, 24 July 2022 (UTC) ::Had the same impression.--[[User:Miki Filigranski|Miki Filigranski]] ([[User talk:Miki Filigranski|talk]]) 16:52, 24 July 2022 (UTC) {{ping|Sławobóg}} Łuczyński, ''Bogowie dawnych Słowian. Studium onomastyczne'' (2020), can you please make a full quote and provide page?--[[User:Miki Filigranski|Miki Filigranski]] ([[User talk:Miki Filigranski|talk]]) 14:31, 24 July 2022 (UTC) :Page 141: Autor ten [Jakobson] wychodzi z założenia, że nazwa ta [Pereplut] stanowi jeden z wielu wariantów fonetycznych i morfologicznych teonimu Perun [...] powołując się przy tym na brzmieniowe podobieństwo z terminem obrzędowym serb. ''prporusa'', bułg. ''pe(r)peruna'', ''pe(r)peruda'' i in. [...] Wywód Jakobsona podważył jednak S. Urbańczyk, wzkazując na związek nazw typu ''peperuda'', ''pepeluga'' i in. z psł. ''*perpere'', ''*perperъka'' &quot;przepiórka&quot;. Leksemy wskazane przez R. Jakobsona wywodzą się z psł. ''*pr̥pati'' vb. pochodzenia dźwiękonaśladowczego, por. np. (polish and OES words here) [...] Bałkański termin obrzędowy nie jest więc spokrewniony etymologicznie ze srus. teonimem, w jego wypadku można mówić o reduplikacji rdzenia onomatopeicznego i szeregu przekształceń fonetycznych (np. regularny rozwój ''-er-'' &lt; ''r̥''; wtórny konsonantym d &lt; n), przez co hipoteza Jakobsona traci rację bytu. Pozwala to na odrzucenie interpretacji tego badaczu z powodu trudności formalnych. :Page 279: I wreszcie, nic nie przemawia za tym, by w słowiańskiej teonimii istniały pary nazewnicze: model na tworzeniu form feminatywnych od męskich imion osobowych nie był, w świetle wiarygodnych danych, w tej kategorii produktywny, w związku z czym można przyjąć, że brak był (często postulowanych) par typu ''*Perunъ'' - ''*Perynь'' (lub ''Perperuna''), ''*Velesъ'' - ''*Vela'', na wróz np. sind. Indra - Indrani, Agni - Agnani... [[User:Sławobóg|Sławobóg]] ([[User talk:Sławobóg|talk]]) 15:08, 24 July 2022 (UTC) ::Great, thanks! --[[User:Miki Filigranski|Miki Filigranski]] ([[User talk:Miki Filigranski|talk]]) 16:52, 24 July 2022 (UTC) @Miki Filigranski, since you highlighted inaccuracies regarding the spread of the custom, could you propose a compromise wording between the information provided by Muraj (1987) and that provided by Ḱulavkova (2020)? – [[User:Βατο|Βατο]] ([[User talk:Βατο|talk]]) 08:23, 26 July 2022 (UTC) :In the article are cited several reliable sources, not only Muraj (1987), describing the spread of the custom. In the new sources the mistake is regarding the distribution on the territory of former Yugoslavia. I would say that the best source for the former Yugoslavian territory is still Čulinović-Konstantinović (1963). It was more prevalent among Croats than Serbs in Croatia, and don't know what's the reason for mentioning Bosnians. Natko Nodilo (1884) mentioned that West of river Vrbas, which would be Western part of Bosnia and Herzegovina, Dodola and Prporuša were known as ''Čaro(j)ice'', but couldn't verify and confirm the association in other sources. ''Čaroice'' was a different custom mainly around December and rarely Poklade (May) in which boys were dressed as girls or animals - not greenery, it was found among both Orthodox, Catholic and Muslim people and each group visited houses of other religion, and the song lyrics were also different. I would stick to countries and regions rather than ethnic groups (for now would remove Bosnia and Herzegovina). Anyway, currently am preparing a new edit which will include and expand the POV from new sources provided by you and Sławobóg. --[[User:Miki Filigranski|Miki Filigranski]] ([[User talk:Miki Filigranski|talk]]) 12:33, 26 July 2022 (UTC) ::Ok, feel free to make any wording reasonably in agreement with RS and with evidence from field research. – [[User:Βατο|Βατο]] ([[User talk:Βατο|talk]]) 22:24, 26 July 2022 (UTC) [https://archive.org/details/KlimovEtymological/page/n165/mode/2up Proto-Kartvelian *p̣erp̣er- &quot;butterfly&quot;] - most likely ultimate source. That explains Balkan-only range of the word, custom and pseudogoddess. [[User:Sławobóg|Sławobóg]] ([[User talk:Sławobóg|talk]]) 12:16, 24 September 2022 (UTC) :Do we have a RS which connects it to Perperuna/Dodola customs? How a Proto-Kartvelian language of Caucasus is the most likely ultimate source? How it explains Balkan-only range of the word, custom etc.?--[[User:Miki Filigranski|Miki Filigranski]] ([[User talk:Miki Filigranski|talk]]) 22:41, 27 September 2022 (UTC) ::I haven't done a good research yet, I found this partly by accident and am putting it here so as not to forget, and maybe someone else will find something more about it. It is possible that we are dealing here with a Wanderword. Borrowing is possible, compare [[wikt:κῶας|κῶας]]. See also [[wikt:πεταλούδα|πεταλούδα]] (especially the suffix -da). [[User:Sławobóg|Sławobóg]] ([[User talk:Sławobóg|talk]]) 09:42, 28 September 2022 (UTC) ==Article's scope and name== The article is about the rainmaking tradition of different peoples in Southeast Europe. The article gives [[WP:UNDUE WEIGHT]] to the etymological speculations concerning this rainmaking tradition, only based on the hypothetical link with the Slavic god Perun. In some regions it is not even known with names that could be linked to Perun. The rainmaking practice is attested among Balkan peoles since antiquity, the speculations according to which peoples who already practiced it adopted it from incoming Slavs in the early Middle Ages is not reasonable, and should have its due weight into the article. Since there is no [[WP:COMMONNAME]] for the rainmaking practice, clearly because different peoples refer to it in different terms, I propose a move to the title ''Rainmaking (Balkans)'' or ''Rainmaking (Southeast Europe)''. The article should also be reworded giving due weight to all the South Eastern/Balkan traditions. – [[User:Βατο|Βατο]] ([[User talk:Βατο|talk]]) 10:19, 22 August 2024 (UTC) *I don't think three sentences about Perun in such a large article is undue weight (and it may be trimmed further, because I see repetitions). --[[user:Altenmann|Altenmann]] [[user talk:Altenmann|&gt;talk]] 19:04, 22 August 2024 (UTC) **Your suggested title is bad because (a) &quot;[[Balkans]]&quot; is a vague term and (b) Romania is in Southeast Europe, but we have [[Caloian]] for Romanian rainmaking. --[[user:Altenmann|Altenmann]] [[user talk:Altenmann|&gt;talk]] 19:04, 22 August 2024 (UTC) :::I see that [[Caloian]] consists also of a similar rainmaking practice. But that's not relevant for this discussion, a title ''Rainmaking (Southeast Europe)'' is necessary in this case, because this article is about similar rainmaking practices of several peoples in Southeast Europe. The title ''Dodola and Perperuna'' is restrictive and POV, bacause it selects only two terms that are given to the girl that performs the ritual, despite the fact that there are many of those names, and there are even traditions based on a male figure, and it is misleading because the rainmaking ritual is not called &quot;Dodola and Perperuna&quot;. If this title will be kept, then a split into ''Rainmaking (Southeast Europe)'' should be made, and this article should focus only on the rainmaking girl figure, but I think a standalone article for such a subject would not be appropriate. – [[User:Βατο|Βατο]] ([[User talk:Βατο|talk]]) 19:48, 22 August 2024 (UTC) ::::I see. Then [[Rainmaking (Southeast Europe)]] will me good and a summary section about [[Calojan]] may be incorporated per [[WP:Summary style]]. --[[user:Altenmann|Altenmann]] [[user talk:Altenmann|&gt;talk]] :::In the scientific literature, the rainmaking custom(s) Dodola and Perperuna are usually related. The article is only about these two customs, and they are usually separated from the Caloian custom. The link with the Slavic god Perun and the Slavs is mainstream and majority viewpoint in the literature - claiming that it is &quot;not reasonable&quot; is a very bold non-mainstream statement and pushing a fringe autochthonistic POV. We already had a discussion before. In the article was already cited everything or almost everything about the topic. There's nothing else much which could be done and to be reworded. You first need to provide new citations and reach a consensus before trying to change both the scope and the title of the article.--[[User:Miki Filigranski|Miki Filigranski]] ([[User talk:Miki Filigranski|talk]]) 17:55, 23 August 2024 (UTC) :::[[User:Βατο|Βατο]], we already had this discussion, and after 2 years you made a series of edits changing the NPOV of the article, but without providing new citations and evidence, and then pushing the change of the scope and title of the article. I must boldly revert all your edits per BRD. First discuss and reach a consensus.--[[User:Miki Filigranski|Miki Filigranski]] ([[User talk:Miki Filigranski|talk]]) 18:09, 23 August 2024 (UTC) ::::Before bold reverting my sourced additions, state your concerns here, please. The article is far from neutral and clear about the different traditions. And the pushing in the lede of one of the several hypothetical origins is not the proper way to address NOPOV issues. You even restored this erroneous description in the lede: {{tquote|are ancient Slavic rainmaking pagan customs practiced until the 20th century. The tradition is found in South Slavic countries (Bulgaria, Croatia, North Macedonia, Montenegro, and Serbia), as well as in near Albania, Greece, Hungary, Moldova and Romania.}} The traditions are not &quot;ancient Slavic rainmaking pagan customs&quot; found in South Slavic countries and &quot;in near&quot; non Slavic countries, but a tradition found among different peoples of Southeast Europe. – [[User:Βατο|Βατο]] ([[User talk:Βατο|talk]]) 18:37, 23 August 2024 (UTC) :::::You almost didn't make any sourced additions to change the NPOV and BALANCE of the article, and you were doing it by removing reliably sourced information ([https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Dodola_and_Perperuna&amp;diff=next&amp;oldid=1241641872#External_links]) erroenously claiming it is an &quot;erroenous statement&quot;, a statement which is critical of the fringe autochthonistic POV you're pushing. The article was NEUTRAL and according to the RS. This what you're doing is PUSHING a non-mainstream, non-Slavic, fringe autochthonistic POV not supported by the majority of the RS. --[[User:Miki Filigranski|Miki Filigranski]] ([[User talk:Miki Filigranski|talk]]) 18:53, 23 August 2024 (UTC) ::::::Yes, I removed it because it falsely claims that rainmaking rituals are not found in southern Greece. Add the full context and arguments, then we can see whether that information can stay. And many scholars' views already included in the article cannot be considered [[WP:FRINGE]]. – [[User:Βατο|Βατο]] ([[User talk:Βατο|talk]]) 19:02, 23 August 2024 (UTC) :::::::You're ignoring the amount of RS for a specific viewpoint. You broke the NPOV, ignore WEIGHT.--[[User:Miki Filigranski|Miki Filigranski]] ([[User talk:Miki Filigranski|talk]]) 19:21, 23 August 2024 (UTC) :::::: Also, the names of the male figures of different rituals found in some South Slavic traditions should be added as well, because as it is now, the article reports only the names of the female figures. – [[User:Βατο|Βατο]] ([[User talk:Βατο|talk]]) 19:06, 23 August 2024 (UTC) :::::::It doesn't.--[[User:Miki Filigranski|Miki Filigranski]] ([[User talk:Miki Filigranski|talk]]) 19:21, 23 August 2024 (UTC) ::::::::Reading the section &quot;Ritual&quot;, I understood, although not clearly, that ''Prpac/Prpats'' are names of the male figure. Is that correct? Do those names appear in songs alongside the name of the female figure? I think they should be added in the section &quot;Names&quot; as well. – [[User:Βατο|Βατο]] ([[User talk:Βατο|talk]]) 19:56, 23 August 2024 (UTC) :::::::::First and foremost, please do not boldly edit the article doing substantial changes to the NPOV, scope and else of the article when you are not informed about the topic and making one after another misunderstandings upon which you make false claims about the topic and article. It is complex ritual and there's no &quot;yes and no&quot; answer. You need to differentiate a bit the name of the custom/folk song, from name of the female/male figure. Perperuna was mostly performed by a chosen boy (the one who is acting), and the chosen boy/leader could have been named, in Croatia for example where Perperuna custom is called Prporuša, as a Prporuša/Prporuš/Prpac etc. but also his singing companions as Prporuše. The name ''Prpac/Prpats'', which are local variants, do not appear in the song, they were names given by local people/audience to the chosen boy/leader/actor. There's only one figure in songs, or Perperuna or Dodola, but there do exist exceptions in Macedonia where both Perperuna and Dodola are mentioned in the same song.--[[User:Miki Filigranski|Miki Filigranski]] ([[User talk:Miki Filigranski|talk]]) 11:23, 31 August 2024 (UTC) :::::::::Βατο, please, do NOT make any edits these days as I have to review every and each edit you've made. I will re-incorporate reliably sourced information into the stable NPOV revision. The new revision you made is a complete mess, pushing Albanian case to the forefront of the customs, from the LEAD to the main body of the article. Making a complete disbalance of the content. --[[User:Miki Filigranski|Miki Filigranski]] ([[User talk:Miki Filigranski|talk]]) 11:50, 31 August 2024 (UTC) :::::::::Not only you changed wording without care about NPOV and WEIGHT, removed several reliably sourced content or emphasized different content (especially about Albania), placed new text in wrong sections, asking for citation needed where's none needed, removed images, etc., what's worse for new citations you used different citation style. Do you understand how much checking and clean-up your edits need? --[[User:Miki Filigranski|Miki Filigranski]] ([[User talk:Miki Filigranski|talk]]) 12:48, 31 August 2024 (UTC) ::::::::::{{reply|Miki Filigranski}} I reverted your bold removal of 7,971 bytes of well surced content. You are free to edit the article, but don't remove sourced material. My edits don't need &quot;checking and clean-up&quot;, they are added precisely according to Wikipedia policies and guidelines. The citation style has nothing wrong. – [[User:Βατο|Βατο]] ([[User talk:Βατο|talk]]) 13:01, 31 August 2024 (UTC) :::::::::::{{reply|Βατο}} No. This what you are doing is gaming the system. You don't respect [[WP:BRD]], you don't care another editor is reverting and constantly warning you. This wasn't bold removal of sourced content, it is about stable revision, NPOV - about which you don't care - as you are making major edits and pushing for the scope and title change in the same time - without any prior discussion, resolution and consensus. Article needs to have a common citation style. --[[User:Miki Filigranski|Miki Filigranski]] ([[User talk:Miki Filigranski|talk]]) 13:10, 31 August 2024 (UTC) ::::::::::::There is no &quot;gaming the system&quot; in adding sourced information about this tradition. Discuss here the content that you consider problematic, don't remove 7,971 bytes of well surced content appealing to NPOV and BRD, while not even discussing a single sentence of my additions. – [[User:Βατο|Βατο]] ([[User talk:Βατο|talk]]) 13:18, 31 August 2024 (UTC) ::::::::::::::No, there's no issue itself with adding sourced information, but how are you adding it, where are you adding it, in the process removing NPOV wording, removing previous content, and in the same time pushing for scope and title change because the old, stable revision wasn't according to the your vision of the article. In the meantime you don't care that another editors reverted your edits. You don't care about their comments. You are the one who needs to start discussions - and in the meantime - not edit warring pushing your edits and new revision. I will just re-incorporate your edits - as much as possible - to the old, stable revision, and from there and then we can discuss what's Your problem with the article and content.--[[User:Miki Filigranski|Miki Filigranski]] ([[User talk:Miki Filigranski|talk]]) 13:26, 31 August 2024 (UTC) :::::::::::::::Again, I see only general statements, please, address one by one the issues you have with the well sourced content about this tradition that I added. – [[User:Βατο|Βατο]] ([[User talk:Βατο|talk]]) 13:29, 31 August 2024 (UTC) ::::::::::::::::No, I won't. As said, will make a third revision which will incorporate your additions. Then we can have a discussion - and You are the one whose going to address one by one the issues you have with the article. It's up to You to step up, not me. You are the one whose trying to change the NPOV, scope and title of the article.--[[User:Miki Filigranski|Miki Filigranski]] ([[User talk:Miki Filigranski|talk]]) 14:11, 31 August 2024 (UTC) :::::::::::::::::Then you should not remove 7,971 bytes of well surced content. – [[User:Βατο|Βατο]] ([[User talk:Βατο|talk]]) 14:26, 31 August 2024 (UTC) {{ping|Sławobóg|Jingiby}} you participated in the old discussion &quot;[[Talk:Dodola and Perperuna#New revision]]&quot; two years ago, please give your verdict to the proposed changes and bold editing ([https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Dodola_and_Perperuna&amp;diff=1241890819&amp;oldid=1241888598]) by user Βατο with whom we discussed two years ago, thanks.--[[User:Miki Filigranski|Miki Filigranski]] ([[User talk:Miki Filigranski|talk]]) 19:18, 23 August 2024 (UTC) == Requested move 22 August 2024 == &lt;div class=&quot;boilerplate mw-archivedtalk&quot; style=&quot;background-color: var(--background-color-success-subtle, #efe); color: var(--color-base, #000); margin: 0; padding: 0 10px 0 10px; border: 1px dotted var(--border-color-subtle, #AAAAAA);&quot;&gt;&lt;!-- Template:RM top --&gt; :''The following is a closed discussion of a [[Wikipedia:Requested moves|requested move]]. &lt;span style=&quot;color: var(--color-error, red);&quot;&gt;'''Please do not modify it.'''&lt;/span&gt; Subsequent comments should be made in a new section on the talk page. Editors desiring to contest the closing decision should consider a [[Wikipedia:move review|move review]] after discussing it on the closer's talk page. No further edits should be made to this discussion.'' The result of the move request was: '''no consensus.''' Given that after a relist 1 month ago there's been no further participation, one support was conditional under a merge, and there was concern expressed about the new title not being formatted as [[WP:NDESC]], I don't see any consensus at this point. &lt;small&gt;([[Wikipedia:Requested moves/Closing instructions#Closure by a page mover|closed by non-admin page mover]])&lt;/small&gt; [[User:Zippybonzo|Zippybonzo]] &amp;#124; [[User talk:Zippybonzo|&lt;small&gt;talk&lt;/small&gt;]] &amp;#124; [[Special:Contributions/Zippybonzo|&lt;small&gt;contribs&lt;/small&gt;]] (they/them) 18:59, 9 October 2024 (UTC) ---- [[:Dodola and Perperuna]] → {{no redirect|Rainmaking (Southeast Europe)}} – see the discussion above. We also have the generic [[Rainmaking (ritual)]] page (techical nomination; '''no vote''') --[[user:Altenmann|Altenmann]] [[user talk:Altenmann|&gt;talk]] 20:15, 22 August 2024 (UTC) &lt;small&gt;—&amp;nbsp;'''''Relisting.'''''&amp;nbsp;[[User_talk:Asukite|&lt;span style=&quot;color:Purple;font-size:medium;font-family:Bradley Hand ITC&quot;&gt; ASUKITE&lt;/span&gt;]] 21:16, 30 August 2024 (UTC)&lt;/small&gt; *'''Support''', repeating my explanation in the discussion above: the title ''Rainmaking (Southeast Europe)'' is necessary in this case, because this article is about similar rainmaking practices of several peoples in Southeast Europe. The title ''Dodola and Perperuna'' is restrictive and POV, bacause it selects only two terms that are given to the girl that performs the ritual, despite the fact that there are many of those names, and there are even traditions based on a male figure, and it is misleading because the rainmaking ritual is not called &quot;Dodola and Perperuna&quot;. If this title will be kept, then a split into ''Rainmaking (Southeast Europe)'' should be made, and this article should focus only on the rainmaking girl figure, but I think a standalone article for such a subject would not be appropriate. Concerning the generic article [[Rainmaking (ritual)]], the Southeast European practices have enough coverage in reliable sources to deserve a standalone article. – [[User:Βατο|Βατο]] ([[User talk:Βατο|talk]]) 21:07, 22 August 2024 (UTC) * That is a bad title, it should be formatted as [[WP:NDESC]] and not as disambiguation, because it's not like &quot;rainmaking&quot; is ''called'' like this in southeastern Europe, you just want to be describing the history of these specific pagan rainmaking customs in those locations. --[[User:Joy|Joy]] ([[User talk:Joy|talk]]) 09:20, 23 August 2024 (UTC) ::A simple solution to that issue could be the title ''Rainmaking in Southeast Europe''. – [[User:Βατο|Βατο]] ([[User talk:Βατο|talk]]) 11:25, 23 August 2024 (UTC) * '''Oppose''', as already stated, in the scientific literature, the rainmaking custom(s) Dodola and Perperuna are usually related. The article is only about these two customs, and they are usually separated from the Caloian custom. The link with the Slavic god Perun and the Slavs is mainstream and majority viewpoint in the literature. In the article was already cited everything or almost everything about the topic. The change of the scope and the title first need long discussion with new citations/evidence and reach a consensus. Otherwise the new version of the article will be a FRINGE and UNDUE WEIGHT autochthonistic POV connection of Dodola and Perperuna custom(s) with Caloian custom etc., which isn't the case in the reliable sources.--[[User:Miki Filigranski|Miki Filigranski]] ([[User talk:Miki Filigranski|talk]]) 18:06, 23 August 2024 (UTC) ::Caloian custom argument is completely irrelevant for the request move. The concerns I listed above still remain with the title &quot;Dodola and Perperuna&quot;, but they would be solved with the title &quot;Rainmaking in Southeast Europe&quot;. As for the Perun link, there are songs in southwestern Albania expressly addressing the Sun (Albanian: [[Dielli (Albanian paganism)|Dielli]]) as the divine figure during the ritual songs, not Perun. – [[User:Βατο|Βατο]] ([[User talk:Βατο|talk]]) 20:01, 23 August 2024 (UTC) :::It isn't, that's the end goal, that's the intention, that's the reasoning this request move and forced editing is based on. Otherwise there wouldn't be such a forced pushing against Slavic mainstream POV. What some folk songs in southwestern Albania have to do with Dodola and Perperuna? Even if they do - but only according to RS - they do not change the fact about the mainstream POV and NPOV in general.--[[User:Miki Filigranski|Miki Filigranski]] ([[User talk:Miki Filigranski|talk]]) 10:43, 31 August 2024 (UTC) ::::&quot;{{tquote|What some folk songs in southwestern Albania have to do with Dodola and Perperuna?}}&quot; they have to do with the subject of this article because they are rainmaking pagan customs performed by a boy dressed in leaves and singing ritual songs, like other tradtions of this article. &quot;{{tquote|such a forced pushing against Slavic mainstream POV}}, actually, the POV-pushing is claiming a Slavic exclusivity for a tradition that is shared between several Balkan peoples, not only Slavic ones. – [[User:Βατο|Βατο]] ([[User talk:Βατο|talk]]) 13:12, 31 August 2024 (UTC) :::::No, that's not the reasoning - the folk songs, the names of Dodola and Perperuna are. No, the mainstream WEIGHT is about the Slavic origin, not exclusivity. There isn't pushed any Slavic exclusivity, and as mainstream sources consider, it's a tradition which was most probably spread by Slavic people which migrated in and influenced all Balkan countries and peoples.--[[User:Miki Filigranski|Miki Filigranski]] ([[User talk:Miki Filigranski|talk]]) 13:19, 31 August 2024 (UTC) ::::::The article clarifies in a sourced statement: {{tquote|The rainmaking practice is a shared tradition among Balkan peoples, and it is not clear who borrowed it from whom.}} And bibliography confirms this. Other claims are POV. – [[User:Βατο|Βατο]] ([[User talk:Βατο|talk]]) 13:33, 31 August 2024 (UTC) :::::::No, it doesn't. It was there for NPOV sake, but immediately below it was paragraph which stated that {{tquote|&quot;It is usually considered they have a mythological and etymological Slavic origin related to Slavic thunder-god Perun&quot;}} citing alone, and together more than a dozen reliable sources with quotes, which you changed into {{tquote|Some consider the perperuna figure to have a mythological and etymological Slavic origin related to Slavic thunder-god Perun}}. You completely messed up [[WP:WEIGHT]] and made [[WP:FALSEBALANCE]] with your editing.--[[User:Miki Filigranski|Miki Filigranski]] ([[User talk:Miki Filigranski|talk]]) 13:47, 31 August 2024 (UTC) * '''Support''', only if we are merging [[Caloian|this]] article as well considering Romania is in Southeast Europe. '''[[User:Боки|&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;Боки&lt;/span&gt;]]''' [[User talk:Боки|&lt;span style=&quot;color:blue&quot;&gt;☎&lt;/span&gt;]] [[Special:Contribs/Боки|&lt;span style=&quot;color:#808080&quot;&gt;✎&lt;/span&gt;]] 23:39, 23 August 2024 (UTC) ::[[Caloian]] is not to be merged, because it has different practices, not only rainmaking. What is appropriate to do has been proposed in the duscussion above by User:Altenmann: &quot;{{tquote|a summary section about [[Calojan]] may be incorporated per [[WP:Summary style]]}}&quot;. – [[User:Βατο|Βατο]] ([[User talk:Βατο|talk]]) 22:55, 30 August 2024 (UTC) :::No, if it is a different practice, then what's the point of incorporating it anyhow in the article about Dodola and Perperuna? --[[User:Miki Filigranski|Miki Filigranski]] ([[User talk:Miki Filigranski|talk]]) 10:47, 31 August 2024 (UTC) * '''Comment''', I'm not sure that changing the title will improve the situation. [[User:Jingiby|Jingiby]] ([[User talk:Jingiby|talk]]) 04:57, 24 August 2024 (UTC) ::It will surely improve the situation. The rainmaking practice is not known as &quot;Dodola and Perperuna&quot; among Albanians. It is not known as such even among Slavic speakers, Eastern Romance speakers, or Greek speakers. That's an [[WP:OR]], [[WP:POV]], as well as a misleading title, by selecting only two terms that are given to the girl that performs the ritual in some traditions. I would like to know what criteria could justify such a choise? So far there has been provided no reasonable argument to keep that title. – [[User:Βατο|Βατο]] ([[User talk:Βατο|talk]]) 09:00, 24 August 2024 (UTC) :::It won't and you already made a mess, and are forcing the changes against the usual process for such essential change. You are greatly misunderstanding the topic, making false claims. The article is reliably sourced - that's the name of the customs, Dodola, and Perperuna (and its variations). You are pushing a disbalanced amount of weight for some poorly sourced, and overall irrelevant Albanian POV. Please stop doing that and [[WP:LISTEN]] to what other editors have to say.--[[User:Miki Filigranski|Miki Filigranski]] ([[User talk:Miki Filigranski|talk]]) 10:34, 31 August 2024 (UTC) ::::{{tquote|You are greatly misunderstanding the topic, making false claims}}, nope, the topic is about rainmaking pagan customs in Southeast Europe practiced with the main boy or girl dressed with fresh branches, leaves and herbs, etc. while singing a ritual song. {{tquote|some poorly sourced, and overall irrelevant Albanian POV}} is your own opinion. The content is sourced with academic sources focusing on this specific subject. And it is not up to us to consider Albanian practices as &quot;irrelevant&quot;, relevance is dictaded by reliable sources. – [[User:Βατο|Βατο]] ([[User talk:Βατο|talk]]) 13:42, 31 August 2024 (UTC) :::::Indeed, relevance is dictated by reliable sources - and then you come after two years of stable NPOV, make major edits ignoring the fact most of the reliable sources arguing and claiming Slavic origin of the customs, etymology and else, and now claim relevance of the Albanian case and else. Genius.--[[User:Miki Filigranski|Miki Filigranski]] ([[User talk:Miki Filigranski|talk]]) 14:06, 31 August 2024 (UTC) ::::::The stable NPOV was not claiming the practice as exclusively Slavic (&quot;{{tquote|ancient Slavic rainmaking pagan customs practiced until the 20th century. The tradition is found in South Slavic countries (Bulgaria, Croatia, North Macedonia, Montenegro, and Serbia), as well as in near Albania, Greece, Hungary, Moldova and Romania.}}) I did not notice that such an erroneous and POV wording has been kept in the lede for so long. – [[User:Βατο|Βατο]] ([[User talk:Βατο|talk]]) 14:25, 31 August 2024 (UTC) :::::::FFS, you were here 2 years ago when the old, stable revision was created and now after 2 years you claim that didn't notice.--[[User:Miki Filigranski|Miki Filigranski]] ([[User talk:Miki Filigranski|talk]]) 16:02, 31 August 2024 (UTC) ::::::::The last time I participated in this talk page I stated that the article should not describe the practice as exclusively Slavic. If I remember correctly, I left you time to change it as you stated that you would reword the article according to the sources provided. Then I even forgot about it, only recently realized that you kept the erroneous POV version, which obviously can't stay. I suggest to avoid replying in this discussion, which is about the RM. – [[User:Βατο|Βατο]] ([[User talk:Βατο|talk]]) 16:16, 31 August 2024 (UTC) :::::::::See discussion below, I didn't keep the erroneous POV version as I've done an edit on 9 August 2022 per talk, over a year later somebody changed the wording and nobody noticed to fix it. Alright, my last comment for this.--[[User:Miki Filigranski|Miki Filigranski]] ([[User talk:Miki Filigranski|talk]]) 16:35, 31 August 2024 (UTC) * '''Comment''', I dont think it will make it better. I think it would best to have separate article about {{Q|Q2622164}} and {{Q|Q2368103}} and other rites with different names in Balkans, even if the descriptions partially overlapped. That would make these articles easier to read, and reader would have precise informations about specific rite. My problem with the article is that it pushes too much non-scientific idea about Perperuna being related to Perun. [[User:Sławobóg|Sławobóg]] ([[User talk:Sławobóg|talk]]) 09:11, 1 September 2024 (UTC) ::{{reply|Sławobóg}} I agree with your last sentence, that's why I edited the article and ridimensioned a little bit that POV, which is basically [[Roman Jakobson]]'s POV. But [[User:Miki Filigranski]] seems to oppose the ridimensioning of that POV. Nevertheless, it can't stay in the lede as it was before my edits, because the etymology and mythology of Peperuda/Perperuna/etc. are far from certain, and there are songs that expressly invoke other deities/divine figures and not Perun. Concerning the split of the article into Dodola, Peperuda, and others, I don't think it is a good idea because in some traditions, in the same ritual performance of rainmaking songs both Dodola-like and Peperuda-like names are mentioned, it would be difficult to separate them. Also, they are about the same rainmaking custom, performed by a procession of young people with a main girl or boy who is dressed with fresh branches and leaves, sings the ritual song, and is sprinkled with water. To avoid the arbitrary selection of two names, such as in this case ''Dodola and Perperuna'', which are hardly the [[WP:COMMONAME]], and which are misleading because nobody actually called the custom ''Dodola and Perperuna'', I proposed the descriptive title ''Rainmaking in Southeast Europe''. – [[User:Βατο|Βατο]] ([[User talk:Βατο|talk]]) 10:04, 1 September 2024 (UTC) :&lt;small&gt;Note: [[Wikipedia talk:WikiProject Romania|WikiProject Romania]], [[Wikipedia talk:WikiProject Bulgaria|WikiProject Bulgaria]], [[Wikipedia talk:WikiProject Serbia|WikiProject Serbia]], [[Wikipedia talk:WikiProject Croatia|WikiProject Croatia]], [[Wikipedia talk:WikiProject North Macedonia|WikiProject North Macedonia]], [[Wikipedia talk:WikiProject Mythology|WikiProject Mythology]], and [[Wikipedia talk:WikiProject Albania|WikiProject Albania]] have been notified of this discussion. [[User_talk:Asukite|&lt;span style=&quot;color:Purple;font-size:medium;font-family:Bradley Hand ITC&quot;&gt; ASUKITE&lt;/span&gt;]] 21:14, 30 August 2024 (UTC)&lt;/small&gt; :&lt;small&gt;'''Relisting comment''': Relist to give time for participation. Note that one of the support comments is conditional upon a merge, which is worth discussion, and there is one reply that may be read as oppose but isn't labeled as such. [[User_talk:Asukite|&lt;span style=&quot;color:Purple;font-size:medium;font-family:Bradley Hand ITC&quot;&gt; ASUKITE&lt;/span&gt;]] 21:16, 30 August 2024 (UTC)&lt;/small&gt; &lt;div style=&quot;padding-left: 1.6em; font-style: italic; border-top: 1px solid #a2a9b1; margin: 0.5em 0; padding-top: 0.5em&quot;&gt;The discussion above is closed. &lt;b style=&quot;color: var(--color-error, red);&quot;&gt;Please do not modify it.&lt;/b&gt; Subsequent comments should be made on the appropriate discussion page. No further edits should be made to this discussion.&lt;/div&gt;&lt;!-- from [[Template:Archive bottom]] --&gt; &lt;/div&gt;&lt;div style=&quot;clear:both;&quot; class=&gt;&lt;/div&gt; ==&quot;Oj Ljule&quot; songs== &quot;Oj Ljule&quot; songs are inlcuded in the &quot;Dodole songs&quot;, despite the fact that the songs seem to not mention Dodole or related forms. This aspect should be clarified in the article. Btw, I don't know whether ''ljule'' is a Slavic term, but it can be found in Albanian, and means &quot;flower&quot;, and &quot;Oj Ljule&quot; is found as a phrase in Arbereshe songs as well, although unrelated to rainmaking rituals. The origin and meaning of the term ''ljule'' used in Slavic songs should be explained as well. – [[User:Βατο|Βατο]] ([[User talk:Βατο|talk]]) 18:44, 23 August 2024 (UTC) :This appears to be the borrowing from Slavic [[lullaby]] refrain Ay lyuli {{langx|ru|Ай люли}}, see eg in ''[[Kalinka (1860 song)|Kalinka]]'' or [[:ru:Во поле берёза стояла]]. Associated with the Russian word люлька, &quot;[[cradle]]&quot;. --[[user:Altenmann|Altenmann]] [[user talk:Altenmann|&gt;talk]] 19:10, 23 August 2024 (UTC) ::{{reply|Altenmann}} thanks for the clarification, in that case it would not be a borrowing, but a Slavic term in Eastern South Slavic. The Albanian term would not be related. A source would be nice to clarify it in the article. – [[User:Βατο|Βατο]] ([[User talk:Βατο|talk]]) 19:14, 23 August 2024 (UTC) :::I will try to find a source, but it will be difficult for such minor things. Provably in some obscure folkloric book. [https://www.google.com/search?sca_esv=59944d6273687f66&amp;sca_upv=1&amp;rlz=1C1SJWC_enUS1086US1087&amp;q=%22%D0%90%D0%B9+%D0%BB%D1%8E%D0%BB%D0%B8%22+-%D0%BA%D0%B0%D0%BB%D0%B8%D0%BD%D0%BA%D0%B0&amp;tbm=bks&amp;source=lnms&amp;fbs=AEQNm0AVbySjNxIXoj6bNaq7uSpwmIS0gJlXN_LWYh5RkW9UG_J2iT2scTJ59gCgVXw95w_tbwv0XGMg5VNVmdZJUUbegAUXjP-3Az7ul0FDlU2m0yNrv6Vuz1OORdWimsJYhP0WMXW2ofgIshBxHL7F_exMsA00U1w8-fAhNJVI81QdesxeLn7PSN5Jf4tv1ZtHKAbXs9j2p9qipOTKbxDb8N2kMYbC5g&amp;sa=X&amp;ved=2ahUKEwjH7Nmw6YuIAxV4DTQIHRgHNgo4MhDSlAl6BAg0EAE&amp;biw=1059&amp;bih=682&amp;dpr=1.25 google books] shows plenty of songs, but no etymology. --[[user:Altenmann|Altenmann]] [[user talk:Altenmann|&gt;talk]] 19:19, 23 August 2024 (UTC) :::: [https://gramota.ru/meta/lyuli here a short blurb: ''Large Explanatory Dictionary of the Russian Language'':(folk-poetic) Is used in refrains of Russian folk songs. --[[user:Altenmann|Altenmann]] [[user talk:Altenmann|&gt;talk]] 19:21, 23 August 2024 (UTC) ::::[https://slovnyk.ua/index.php?swrd=%D0%BB%D1%8E%D0%BB%D1%8F%D1%82%D0%B8 люляти] - to rock the cradle in Ukrainian and Belarusian ([[wikt:ru:люляць]]) and Lithuanian [https://www.zodynas.lt/terminu-zodynas/L/liuliuoti liūliuoti] &quot;to rock/be rocked by waves&quot;, Serbian ljuljati &quot;to rock&quot;. - [https://www.alphadictionary.com/goodword/word/lullaby and it seems] it is related to Englies [https://www.alphadictionary.com/goodword/word/lull &quot;lull&quot;], &quot;[[lullaby]]&quot;--[[user:Altenmann|Altenmann]] [[user talk:Altenmann|&gt;talk]] 19:31, 23 August 2024 (UTC) :::::{{edit conflict}} Thanks. I think a source expressly about these rainmaking songs would be appropriate for inclusion into the article, if they cannot be found then we can leave it without explanation. Sources about Russian folksongs not directly related to the subject would be [[WP:SYNTH|synth]] or [[WP:OR|or]] into the article, although interesting for clarifying the matter here in talk page. – [[User:Βατο|Βατο]] ([[User talk:Βατο|talk]]) 19:32, 23 August 2024 (UTC) ::::::These Russian folksongs are mentioned here as an anwer to the question about &quot;Oj Ljule&quot; and of course are irrelevant to this article. (Sorry for off-topic, I am just collecting for future possible use elsewhere.) --[[user:Altenmann|Altenmann]] [[user talk:Altenmann|&gt;talk]] 19:36, 23 August 2024 (UTC) Basically, you are pushing an Albanian-old Balkan POV connection in the LEAD and main body of the article. It is so obvious it is painful not to notice it. Please refrain from doing it forcibly, engage in BRD discussion without editing a stable NPOV, seek a consensus, and only then discuss about the change of scope and title of the article. Not the other way around.--[[User:Miki Filigranski|Miki Filigranski]] ([[User talk:Miki Filigranski|talk]]) 10:30, 31 August 2024 (UTC) :Which one is the POV version? The one that describes the subject as &quot;{{tquote|rainmaking pagan customs widespread among different peoples in Southeast Europe until the 20th century, found in Albania, Bulgaria, Croatia, Greece, Hungary, Kosovo, Moldova, Montenegro, Romania, and Serbia.}}&quot; or the version that describes it as &quot;{{tquote|ancient Slavic rainmaking pagan customs practiced until the 20th century. The tradition is found in South Slavic countries (Bulgaria, Croatia, North Macedonia, Montenegro, and Serbia), as well as in near Albania, Greece, Hungary, Moldova and Romania.}}&quot; It's clearly the second one, which obviously can't stay. – [[User:Βατο|Βατο]] ([[User talk:Βατο|talk]]) 13:25, 31 August 2024 (UTC) ::You obviously don't get the point and refuse to get the point, why that text and wording was in the lead.--[[User:Miki Filigranski|Miki Filigranski]] ([[User talk:Miki Filigranski|talk]]) 13:48, 31 August 2024 (UTC) :::There is no point to get, that text and wording is an erroneous and POV description of the custom. – [[User:Βατο|Βατο]] ([[User talk:Βατο|talk]]) 13:54, 31 August 2024 (UTC) ::::Please stick with the Albanian-Illyrian paganism, and leave alone Slavic paganism when have such a low understanding and respect about the topic.--[[User:Miki Filigranski|Miki Filigranski]] ([[User talk:Miki Filigranski|talk]]) 14:00, 31 August 2024 (UTC) :::::This practice is Albanian, as well as Greek, Romanian, etc., other than South Slavic. You should understand that to avoid POV in the article. – [[User:Βατο|Βατο]] ([[User talk:Βατο|talk]]) 14:21, 31 August 2024 (UTC) ::::::This practice is first and foremost South Slavic, while Albanian is the least (and even among them is most probably due to South Slavic influence). --[[User:Miki Filigranski|Miki Filigranski]] ([[User talk:Miki Filigranski|talk]]) 15:15, 31 August 2024 (UTC) :::::::This practice is widespread among all Albanians. It is Albanian as much as it is South Slavic. Your opinion &quot;{{tquote|This practice is first and foremost South Slavic, while Albanian is the least (and even among them is most probably due to South Slavic influence)}}&quot; shows that you want to push only one POV. – [[User:Βατο|Βατο]] ([[User talk:Βατο|talk]]) 15:52, 31 August 2024 (UTC) :::::::::Where and what's the evidence it is widespread among all Albanians? How common was the practice in Albania? There's no &quot;my opinion&quot;, in the article was cited what was in the scientific literature - it wasn't common and widespread neither can be considered Albanian as much as it is South Slavic. I don't care about what kind of POV is in the literature, only about [[WP:WEIGHT]], and the majority viewpoint is clear about that. You are the one whose changing NPOV by pushing your pro-Albanian POV.--[[User:Miki Filigranski|Miki Filigranski]] ([[User talk:Miki Filigranski|talk]]) 15:59, 31 August 2024 (UTC) ::::::::::It is widespread among all Albanians, it has been practiced by Albanians in southern Albania, in northern Albania, Kosovo and Macedonia. This is not my opinion, this is what academic sources say. And adding sourced content about the Albanian traditions direclty related to the subject of this article is not &quot;pro-Albanian POV&quot;. I suggest to avoid such labellings. – [[User:Βατο|Βατο]] ([[User talk:Βατο|talk]]) 16:08, 31 August 2024 (UTC) :::::::::::I am asking you once again where and what is said in the literature - give the quotes. I don't care and believe what you say. Again, you are NOT merely adding sourced content because you have completely changed the NPOV. You know what you're doing, I know what you're doing. Stop doing it, show some good faith, respect and start behaving according to [[WP:BRD]].--[[User:Miki Filigranski|Miki Filigranski]] ([[User talk:Miki Filigranski|talk]]) 16:19, 31 August 2024 (UTC)- ::::::::::::In the article you can check the sources, which have been carefully cited with relevant pages, and you can add quote needed templates in parts that you fail to verify. Regardless of what you believe or not, the practice has been documented in southwest Albania (such as in the Ionian Coast), southeast Albania (such as in Permet and Klonje), central and northern Albania (such as in Mat, Mirdite, and Has) Macedonia (such as in Tetove), Kosovo (such as in Gjakove, Opoje and Sharr Mountains). It was widespread until the 2nd half of the 20th century, and continues to be performed in rare occasions by Albanians in remote areas such as around [[Opojë]] in the Sharr Mountains. You can find this information in this article's Bibliography, (such as in {{harvnb|Tirta|2004|pp=310–312}}, {{harvnb|Gjoni|2012|pp=85–86}}, and {{harvnb|Qafleshi|2009|pp=51–52}}). – [[User:Βατο|Βατο]] ([[User talk:Βατο|talk]]) 16:58, 31 August 2024 (UTC) – [[User:Βατο|Βατο]] ([[User talk:Βατο|talk]]) 16:58, 31 August 2024 (UTC) :::::::::::::Thank you.--[[User:Miki Filigranski|Miki Filigranski]] ([[User talk:Miki Filigranski|talk]]) 00:56, 4 October 2024 (UTC) Βατο, why is now the same text/songs at [[Dielli (Albanian paganism)#Rainmaking and soil fertility rituals]] and this article (although some songs do not mention neither Dodola or Perperuna)?--[[User:Miki Filigranski|Miki Filigranski]] ([[User talk:Miki Filigranski|talk]]) 15:47, 31 August 2024 (UTC) :They are added because they are rainmaking rituals that are subject of this article, with the same figures and performances. The other songs are added because they follow the rainmaking practice, and are discussed in the same context by the cited source. However, if you consider those following songs to have undue weight, I will remove them and keep only their description. – [[User:Βατο|Βατο]] ([[User talk:Βατο|talk]]) 16:22, 31 August 2024 (UTC) ::I removed them. – [[User:Βατο|Βατο]] ([[User talk:Βατο|talk]]) 16:32, 31 August 2024 (UTC) ==Clarification== The article should clarify whether a goddess/female deity called Perperuna (or similar) or Dodole (or similar), associated with Perun (also as his consort/wife) has been actually attested in Slavic traditions, or it is just a hypothesis by modern scholars. In that regard, the article states: {{tquote|Recent research criticize invention of a Slavic female goddess}}, referenced with {{harvnb|Łuczyński|2020|p=141}}, but I have not access to the source to verify whether it is referring to the link between Perun and Perperuna as a goddess. A a proper context should be provided. – [[User:Βατο|Βατο]] ([[User talk:Βατο|talk]]) 12:26, 24 August 2024 (UTC) :It is already stated. Deities or ritual figures are often reconstructed out of folk tradition. It is an ''interpretation''. You have full quote in this talk page [[Talk:Dodola and Perperuna #Other sources]].--[[User:Miki Filigranski|Miki Filigranski]] ([[User talk:Miki Filigranski|talk]]) 10:57, 31 August 2024 (UTC) ::The article's text should clarify whether something belongs to actual folklore or it is an interpretation. – [[User:Βατο|Βατο]] ([[User talk:Βατο|talk]]) 13:21, 31 August 2024 (UTC) :::Oh really, don't you say? Imagine the shock, who would have thought that the old, stabile revision said: :::{{tquote|According to another '''interpretation''' the name Perperuna can be identified as the reduplicated feminine derivative of the name of the male god Perun (per-perun-a), being his female consort, wife and goddess of rain Perperuna Dodola, which parallels the Old Norse couple Fjörgyn–Fjörgynn and the Lithuanian Perkūnas–Perkūnija.[41][38][42][43][44] Perun's battle against Veles because of Perperuna/Dodola's kidnapping has parallels in Zeus saving of Persephone after Hades carried her underground causing big drought on Earth, also seen in the similarity of the names Perperuna and Persephone.[43][45][16] Recent research criticize invention of a Slavic female goddess.[19]}} :::and now it doesn't after you butchered the paragraphs and sections. Incredible, you must be a genius! --[[User:Miki Filigranski|Miki Filigranski]] ([[User talk:Miki Filigranski|talk]]) 13:53, 31 August 2024 (UTC) ::::Despite me being a 'genius', which is unrelated to this discussion, the information above still needs clarification, because the interpretation is about the name, and as the information is provided in the text, it takes for granted that the female figure was Perun's &quot;female consort, wife and goddess of rain Perperuna Dodola, which parallels the Old Norse couple Fjörgyn–Fjörgynn and the Lithuanian Perkūnas–Perkūnija.&quot; and that &quot;Perun's battle against Veles because of Perperuna/Dodola's kidnapping has parallels in Zeus saving of Persephone after Hades carried her underground causing big drought on Earth&quot;. The wording is important for such things, the text should clarify whether those are reconstrucitons or are actual folklore to not mislead the reader. I already made a slight rewording adding &quot;{{tquote|''allegedly'' being his female consort, wife and goddess of rain Perperuna Dodola, which ''would'' parallel the Old Norse couple Fjörgyn–Fjörgynn and the Lithuanian Perkūnas–Perkūnija.}}&quot;, but I am not sure if it is alleged or in folklore. That's why I asked. I moved some parts because they were about etymology, I left the parts about mythology into the relevant section. – [[User:Βατο|Βατο]] ([[User talk:Βατο|talk]]) 14:16, 31 August 2024 (UTC) :::::You clearly don't differentiate parts which are strictly about etymology from those which are about mythology. You moved parts, everything now looks out of context, and then claim there's confusion - when you made it. This is going to be like in the stable revision, the end of discussion.--[[User:Miki Filigranski|Miki Filigranski]] ([[User talk:Miki Filigranski|talk]]) 15:17, 31 August 2024 (UTC) ::::::Nope, the stable revision you created is erroneous and POV, and can't stay. Nevertheless, you are not addressing my concerns, but making general, useless, statements. Are they attested traditions or modern reconstructions? – [[User:Βατο|Βατο]] ([[User talk:Βατο|talk]]) 15:42, 31 August 2024 (UTC) :::::::You were here 2 years ago when the old, stable revision was created. Now you come again after 2 years, falsely claim that didn't notice what was written in the LEAD and else, decide to make it more erroneous and POV, and don't bother with any concerns other editor is making because of your major, general editing by which violated WEIGHT and NPOV, and calling them &quot;useless&quot; concerns. This is unbelievable. --[[User:Miki Filigranski|Miki Filigranski]] ([[User talk:Miki Filigranski|talk]]) 15:55, 31 August 2024 (UTC) ::::::::The last time I participated in this talk page I stated that the article should not describe the practice as exclusively Slavic. If I remember correctly, I left you time to change it as you stated that you would reword the article according to the sources provided. Then I even forgot about it, only recently realized that you kept the erroneous POV version, which obviously can't stay. – [[User:Βατο|Βατο]] ([[User talk:Βατο|talk]]) 16:14, 31 August 2024 (UTC) :::::::::Sorry, but I see now we are both misunderstanding each other and what happened. I've done that, [https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Dodola_and_Perperuna&amp;oldid=1103234952 this] was my &quot;NPOV up-date per talk&quot; on 9 August 2022 i.e. original stable revision, but until my next [https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Dodola_and_Perperuna&amp;oldid=1192112560 edit] on 27 December 2023 somebody changed the wording in the lead from &quot;are Balkan rainmaking pagan customs practiced until the 20th century&quot; to &quot;are ancient Slavic rainmaking pagan customs practiced until the 20th century&quot;. --[[User:Miki Filigranski|Miki Filigranski]] ([[User talk:Miki Filigranski|talk]]) 16:28, 31 August 2024 (UTC) :::::::::IP changed the lead wording on [https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Dodola_and_Perperuna&amp;diff=1182582238&amp;oldid=1181970621 30 October 2023].--[[User:Miki Filigranski|Miki Filigranski]] ([[User talk:Miki Filigranski|talk]]) 16:32, 31 August 2024 (UTC) ==Undue speculative interpretations in lede== [[User:Vanillacake34]] reverted ([https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Dodola_and_Perperuna&amp;diff=prev&amp;oldid=1257581130]) without explanation an addition in the lede about some scholarly interpretations that were made only for some traditions. There is absolutely no evidence that rainmaking rituals in the Balkans &quot;{{tquote|were related to the Slavic supreme deity Perun (god of thunder, weather, fertility and oak trees in the Slavic pantheon).}}&quot; and that &quot;{{tquote|Perperuna could have been a Slavic goddess of rain, the consort of Perun, or that the name Perperuna is the reduplicated feminine form derived from the name of Perun.}}&quot; And above all, what makes such addition undue in the lede is the fact that Albanian rainmaking ritual songs expressly address the Sun (Albanian: [[Dielli (Albanian paganism)|Dielli]]) and the Sky ([[Perëndi]]) as divine entities during the ritual songs, not [[Perun]], who does not appear in Slavic songs either. – [[User:Βατο|Βατο]] ([[User talk:Βατο|talk]]) 18:00, 15 November 2024 (UTC)</div></summary> <author><name>Βατο</name></author> </entry> <entry> <id>https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Talk:Dodola_and_Perperuna&diff=1257586060</id> <title>Talk:Dodola and Perperuna</title> <link rel="alternate" type="text/html" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Talk:Dodola_and_Perperuna&diff=1257586060"/> <updated>2024-11-15T18:11:27Z</updated> <summary type="html">Βατο: <hr /> <div>{{WikiProject banner shell|class=Start|1= {{WikiProject Mythology | importance=Low}} {{WikiProject Albania|importance=low}} {{WikiProject Bulgaria|importance=low}} {{WikiProject Croatia|importance=low}} {{WikiProject Romania|importance=low}} {{WikiProject Serbia| importance=Low}} {{WikiProject North Macedonia| importance=Low}} {{WikiProject Neopaganism | importance=Low}} }} {{old move|date=22 August 2024|destination=Rainmaking (Southeast Europe)|result=no consensus|link=Special:Permalink/1249265199#Requested move 22 August 2024}} ==2004== I deleted almost the entire original article. It was just too incomprehensible. I replaced it with a scrap of info found on the web. --[[User:LeeHunter|LeeHunter]] 00:49, 24 Aug 2004 (UTC) : Wikipedians who understand [[Slavic languages]] and are knowledgeable in [[Slavic mythology]] are invited to sort out the following text (that was replaced by a nice little stub by [[User:LeeHunter]]): :: '''Perperuna''' - originally probably divine partner (wife) of [[Perun]]; probably the name formed by reduplication core &amp;#8220;per-&amp;#8220;, however it could be also personalization (result) of activity of Perun - &amp;#8222;flinging rock&quot; (per-perun-a?) = rain - analog. Ind. Parjanya &amp;#8222;(secondarily) cloud, rain&quot; - surname of Indra. Perperuna is the name behaved as designation of participant of ceremony (noted in SouthSlav. folklore) of summoning of rain, called also [[dodola]], dudula (compare to: Lith. [[Perkunas]] - Dundúlis, Latt. Dundusélis and Gr. [[Dodona]]); if we identify perperuna-dodola with [[beregynja]](*perkynja), we deal with team of names - teonyms embracing with significative range occurrence of worship of fecundity: [[Moko&amp;#353;]] (Mather Earth) - Perkynia / Pergynja(&amp;#8222;Holy Forest - Oak wood&quot; / &amp;#8222;Mountain&quot; - on the ground of analogy Ind. also: &amp;#8222;Cloud, Rain&quot;) - Perperuna (Perun's partner, on the ground of analogy Hett. also: &amp;#8222;Rock&quot;) compactly related with &amp;#8222;masculine&quot; worship Thunderlord - Perun. Hipostasy of goddess was probably a viper (snake) guardian of house - &amp;#382;mija cuvakuca, &amp;#382;mija kucarica (SouthSlav.). : Have fun with it. :-) : -- [[User:PFHLai|PFHLai]] 01:28, 2004 Aug 24 (UTC) : P.S. I think &quot;Moko&amp;#353;&quot; is [[Mokosh]]. ==Old talk== Text from [http://free.bol.bg/slavpagan/deities.html webpage] owned by the contributor How do we KNOW that the contributor owns the webpage? And where has he/she released the material to GFDL? [[User:RickK|Rick]][[User talk:RickK|K]] 05:57, Oct 14, 2004 (UTC) :He/she released it by copying. How do we KNOW anything? He/she told us so. Must he go to notary public first? What is the policy about contributing owned materials? Has he (acting as wikipedian) to send a letter to himself (acting as a webmaster) with request for confirmation? [[User:Mikkalai|Mikkalai]] 06:22, 14 Oct 2004 (UTC) ::BTW, I've already met this situation (related to the bio of some Rumanian professor), asked at pump, and got no answer (and safely forgot about the issue until now). IMO here is a hole in wikipolicies. [[User:Mikkalai|Mikkalai]] 06:25, 14 Oct 2004 (UTC) :::This was done in past. Email of site owner, as given on [http://free.bol.bg/slavpagan/home.html] is ogneslav@abv.bg and anyone interested can contact him and ask is he really Wikipedia user Ogneslav and then copy/paste the email here (I'd do it but it seems that he dislikes me). Perhaps he'd even permit others to use material from his site. [[User:Nikola Smolenski|Nikola]] 09:04, 14 Oct 2004 (UTC) :::: You also didn't understand my question: wikipedia's policies don't say how he '''himself''', from thr very beginning could confirm that he is the author, without '''me''' or '''you'''. [[User:Mikkalai|Mikkalai]] 14:58, 14 Oct 2004 (UTC) :::::Well, he '''himself''' '''''could not''''' from the very beginning confirm that he is the author. Period. ::::::'''That's''' what I am saying: wikipedia's policy has a hole. And there are ways to fix it.[[User:Mikkalai|Mikkalai]] 14:56, 15 Oct 2004 (UTC) :::::I have in past created a few pages where I'd just copy/paste text from a web site with nothing more than saying &quot;Text from http://website used with permission. &lt;nowiki&gt;~~~~&lt;/nowiki&gt;&quot; at the talk page. I was able to do this because, before that, I have contributed to Wikipedia for a long time, and none of my contributions are found to be copyright violations, and so everyone who reviewed the article knew that I understand and respect Wikipedia's copyright policy, and it is very unlikely that I would begin breaking it all of a sudden. On the other hand, this is a new user, who started to contribute copyrighted material, and there is possibility that he could be, as likely website owner, as someone who simply wants to use copyrighted material from the website and make false claims to get away with it. :::::This is all empty talk, however; wouldn't it be far easier and faster to simply e-mail the guy than to talk about what could have happened if something had happened? [[User:Nikola Smolenski|Nikola]] 07:37, 15 Oct 2004 (UTC) ::::::I don't care much about this topic and about the author. Do you think I cannot use e-mail? I am talking about the policy. I am going to summarize the talk at the corresponding pages. This disussion greatly helped me to understand what exactly I have to say. Thanks, guys. [[User:Mikkalai|Mikkalai]] 14:56, 15 Oct 2004 (UTC) :::::Read the copyvio boilerplate language. It says &quot;To the poster: If there was permission to use this material under terms of our license or if you are the copyright holder of the externally linked text, then please indicate so on this page's talk page.&quot;. [[User:RickK|Rick]][[User talk:RickK|K]] 19:26, Oct 14, 2004 (UTC) ::::::This was what was actually said in a frustrated way in the [[Talk:Slavic mythology#So guys]], according to which I entered the above note: ''&quot;Text from [http://free.bol.bg/slavpagan/deities.html webpage] owned by the contributor&quot;''. Your reaction was: &quot;how do we KNOW...&quot;. Please notice that your reaction would be equally valid, if the notice were: ''&quot;Text from [http://free.bol.bg/slavpagan/deities.html webpage] owned by '''me'''.&lt;signature&gt;&quot;''. You seem to miss the legal difference between an e-mail confirmation from an account associated with the webpage in question and a simple notice on the wikipedia talk page. [[User:Mikkalai|Mikkalai]] 19:51, 14 Oct 2004 (UTC) ::::::::I'm still waiting for you to point to the page where the original author of the page said it was his/her copyright and he/she has released it to GFDL in accordance with the line I quoted above. [[User:RickK|Rick]][[User talk:RickK|K]] 23:07, Oct 14, 2004 (UTC) ::::::::* You seem to '''again''' miss the legal difference between an e-mail confirmation from an account associated with the webpage in question and a simple notice on the wikipedia talk page. The advice in the copyvio notice is laughable from legal POV: ''if you are the copyright holder... please indicate so on this page's talk page''. How one may verify that the page editor is the owner? I may &quot;indicate&quot; I own [[Madonna (entertainer)|Madonna]]'s bare ass. And you're supposed to believe me until Madonna sues wikipedia? In this particular case I don't care about this nervous guy. I am pointing at a hole in the policy. The issue is credentials. In the case of an explicit request by another wikieditor, the credentials are the e-mail address of the respondent that matches the webpage info (weak, but triable). The advice you (and I) cited doesn't explain how to provide credentials. [[User:Mikkalai|Mikkalai]] 01:21, 15 Oct 2004 (UTC) ::::::::* Sorry, I forgot to answer your question. I've already pointed the page: [[Talk:Slavic mythology#So guys]]. It has: ''The last drop was that somebody, called &quot;administrator&quot;, deleted a number of my pages 'cause they were COPYRIGHT. He even adviced me in private to write in &quot;my own words&quot; - BUT THESE WERE MY OWN WORDS. He didn't even make the effort to look at the bottom of the source-site to see I am the copyright holder.'' This remark is just as good as any other. Notice also, contrary to your request, he has no duty to explicitely release to GFDL: in wikipedia GFDL is an opt-out; mere editing means release. [[User:Mikkalai|Mikkalai]] 01:29, 15 Oct 2004 (UTC) Great. That's what I was looking for. Now, was that so hard? [[User:RickK|Rick]][[User talk:RickK|K]] 19:26, Oct 15, 2004 (UTC) :No. But an easy way is no fun. [[User:Mikkalai|Mikkalai]] 19:53, 15 Oct 2004 (UTC) ==Perperuna== See [[Talk:Perperuna]]. `'[[user:mikkalai|mikka]] [[user talk:mikkalai|(t)]] 01:53, 25 July 2006 (UTC) == Section on ritual == The &quot;Ritual&quot; section makes four or five claims but has no sources for any of them. I'm not going to try to dig up sources on this subject, since I'm 100% unfamiliar with it, but it would improve the article if sources could be provided. [[User:Poihths|Poihths]] ([[User talk:Poihths|talk]]) 14:38, 14 May 2013 (UTC) == External links modified == Hello fellow Wikipedians, I have just modified {{plural:1|one external link|1 external links}} on [[Dodola]]. Please take a moment to review [https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?diff=prev&amp;oldid=754799110 my edit]. If you have any questions, or need the bot to ignore the links, or the page altogether, please visit [[User:Cyberpower678/FaQs#InternetArchiveBot|this simple FaQ]] for additional information. I made the following changes: *Added archive https://web.archive.org/web/20131228002745/http://egg.mnir.ro:80/pdf/Paliga_InflRomane.pdf to http://egg.mnir.ro/pdf/Paliga_InflRomane.pdf When you have finished reviewing my changes, please set the ''checked'' parameter below to '''true''' or '''failed''' to let others know (documentation at {{tlx|Sourcecheck}}). {{sourcecheck|checked=false}} Cheers.—[[User:InternetArchiveBot|'''&lt;span style=&quot;color:darkgrey;font-family:monospace&quot;&gt;InternetArchiveBot&lt;/span&gt;''']] &lt;span style=&quot;color:green;font-family:Rockwell&quot;&gt;([[User talk:InternetArchiveBot|Report bug]])&lt;/span&gt; 15:55, 14 December 2016 (UTC) == External links modified == Hello fellow Wikipedians, I have just modified one external link on [[Dodola]]. Please take a moment to review [[special:diff/816350836|my edit]]. If you have any questions, or need the bot to ignore the links, or the page altogether, please visit [[User:Cyberpower678/FaQs#InternetArchiveBot|this simple FaQ]] for additional information. I made the following changes: *Added archive https://web.archive.org/web/20120216225647/http://www.gbiblsk.edu.mk/images/stories/eknigi/zbornik.pdf to http://www.gbiblsk.edu.mk/images/stories/eknigi/zbornik.pdf When you have finished reviewing my changes, you may follow the instructions on the template below to fix any issues with the URLs. {{sourcecheck|checked=false|needhelp=}} Cheers.—[[User:InternetArchiveBot|'''&lt;span style=&quot;color:darkgrey;font-family:monospace&quot;&gt;InternetArchiveBot&lt;/span&gt;''']] &lt;span style=&quot;color:green;font-family:Rockwell&quot;&gt;([[User talk:InternetArchiveBot|Report bug]])&lt;/span&gt; 20:24, 20 December 2017 (UTC) == New revision == The article was in dire need of new revision because the old revision had many serious issues for many years. For e.g. most of the text was directly copied from sources but without proper attribution and sometimes from sources which weren't even cited; gave false weight to a dubious fringe theory by non-folklorists/mythologists about Thracian origin which is ignored in all other sources; some explanations, connections were erroneous and couldn't be confirmed in literature; the primary mythological and etymological focus is on Perperuna while Dodola as substitution not other way around; Dodola isn't known as Perperuna nor Perperuna is known as Dodola, these are two separate but very similar pagan customs with common origin; hence the article title will be changed to &quot;Perperuna and Dodola&quot;. [[User:Miki Filigranski|Miki Filigranski]] ([[User talk:Miki Filigranski|talk]]) 10:51, 23 July 2022 (UTC) :Before moving the article, discuss it here, please. I restored it to the name &quot;Dodola&quot; as it seems the most common one. The article title &quot;Perperuna and Dodola&quot; also appears to refer to a tradition that consists of both those figures, which is not the case. – [[User:Βατο|Βατο]] ([[User talk:Βατο|talk]]) 21:12, 23 July 2022 (UTC) ::1) As was already explained and as it is explained in the scientific literature, these are two separate but similar pagan customs which are often related by folklorists. We cannot have in the article title only one custom because they are not synonyms and SCOPE of the article much more focused, as shown by literature, to Perperuna and it's Slavic origin as well as connection to Slavic deity Perun. ::2) In your first [https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Dodola&amp;type=revision&amp;diff=1100019388&amp;oldid=1099979834 edit] you ignorantly and disruptively, as shown in the talk page discussion at [[Talk:Perëndi#Slavic loan]], made an anti-Slavic edit against the consensus in scientific literature about the connection with Slavic deity Perun, all of which was cited in the article, and replaced it in the LEAD with two irrelevant sources promoting or fringe theories making [[WP:FALSEBALANCE]] (Ḱulavkova's about Thracian origin which is ignored in almost all other cited literature besides three which were by linguists and historians i.e. also non-experts on the field violating [[WP:WEIGHT]]) or non-expert minor viewpoint by [[Andrew Wachtel]] instead of many other reliable sources which claim exactly the opposite. ::3) In anoted [https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Dodola&amp;diff=next&amp;oldid=1100019761 edit] removed the part that the fringe theory argues Thracian origin of Perun, claiming to be &quot;original research&quot; on my part although noted the pages in which is clearly stated by Kulavkova at pg. 20 (&quot;'''According to other beliefs, Perun, Perin, or Pirin was the supreme deity of the Thracians.'''&quot;) and by Dragnea at pg. 19, citing Paliga's fringe theory. ::4) [https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Dodola&amp;type=revision&amp;diff=1100025353&amp;oldid=1100021497 ignoring and removing] sourced viewpoint from reliable and reputable scholars, bringing false balance with a controversial source. ::5) [https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Dodola&amp;diff=next&amp;oldid=1100025353 removing] sourced information.--[[User:Miki Filigranski|Miki Filigranski]] ([[User talk:Miki Filigranski|talk]]) 21:51, 23 July 2022 (UTC) :Hey, thanks for improving the article, I would not have been able to collect these songs and history myself. I can't support &quot;origin&quot; part tho. There is literally 0 evidence for Perperuna being goddess and there is 0 evidence for direct connection to Perun. Pereplut is also unrelated name. Perun, Perkunas and Fjoryn are [[false cognate]]s and PIE [[perkwunos]] didn't exist (this article is not best place for this topic tho). Connecting Dodola with [[Dzidzilela]] (forged goddess) is folk etymology, the latter word comes from PS ''*did-'' &quot;big, great&quot; and it can't be different. [[Lada (mythology)|Lada]] is also forged goddess. Connecting Perperuna with [[Pripegala]] is also folk etymology. &quot;Perun's battle against Veles becuase of Perperuna/Dodola's kidnapping&quot; - where is this story attested? &quot;sometimes even hosts would drink wine in Perun's honor.&quot; - are you telling me that people still worshipped Perun in 19/20th century? This is not only nonneutral, but also just false. Etymology is more like speculation now, we should add modern, scientific views (Snoj maybe?) on this name (might be of onomatopeic orign and I don't think there is evidence that the Slavs created names by reduplication of the root). [[User:Sławobóg|Sławobóg]] ([[User talk:Sławobóg|talk]]) 21:29, 23 July 2022 (UTC) ::Don't get me wrong, but nobody cares about your personal opinion. I became tired months ago of reading these paragraphs of opinion. The vast majority of sources by relevant scholars claim there's a connection. Everything what you wrote is written in reliable and modern sources. Editing or removing that would be &quot;nonneutral&quot;. If there are any other modern, reliable sources by experts please list them here to check on them.--[[User:Miki Filigranski|Miki Filigranski]] ([[User talk:Miki Filigranski|talk]]) 21:51, 23 July 2022 (UTC) :::@Miki Filigranski there is no consensus, the rainmaking custom is a shared tradition among Balkan peoples, your preferred origin theory is just one of the proposed hypotheses. As for the name Perperuna, I think it is likely from Perun, but [[User:Sławobóg|Sławobóg]] maybe has a point here, and more recent academic sources should be analysed. The name Dodola is of uncertain origin. – [[User:Βατο|Βατο]] ([[User talk:Βατο|talk]]) 22:05, 23 July 2022 (UTC) ::::You don't have a basic clue of what you're saying, don't know anything about the topic, neither read all the sources, neither understand [[WP:WEIGHT]] policy as showed before. No, as showed and claimed on other article talk page, you're the one who has a preffered theory (and fringe one at best!), wants to [[WP:OWN]] the article by making false balance! --[[User:Miki Filigranski|Miki Filigranski]] ([[User talk:Miki Filigranski|talk]]) 22:18, 23 July 2022 (UTC) :::::No, the false balance is the [[WP:POV]] and [[WP:OR]] wording of the lead section: {{tquote|are Slavic rainmaking pagan customs which were mainly preserved among South Slavs and neighboring people until 20th century.}} Albanians, Greeks, Romanians, Aromanians/Vlachs, Hungarians are not Slavs, and the custom described in this article is a shared Balkan tradition. – [[User:Βατο|Βατο]] ([[User talk:Βατο|talk]]) 22:25, 23 July 2022 (UTC) ::::::Please stop! You don't have basic understanding of the topic neither read the sources neither even bother to read what's written in the article. That's majority viewpoint, it was sourced and totally not original research. You are making a total mess of it ([https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Dodola&amp;type=revision&amp;diff=1100043308&amp;oldid=1100032521]) as Dodola isn't alternatively known as Perperuna because these are separate customs (they even had separate articles until 2015 when were merged but due to same wrong reasoning). They are not synonyms. Neither the customs were confirmed to be found among Bosnians, and Montenegrins in general (Bay of Kotor was inhabited by a mixture of ethnic groups and it was found there only sporadically). I had enough of this. --[[User:Miki Filigranski|Miki Filigranski]] ([[User talk:Miki Filigranski|talk]]) 00:10, 24 July 2022 (UTC) ::::::: In my opinion, two points of view collide here. It is wise to strike a balance between them, although this is not easy. Regarding the title, the proposed new combined title reflects both views and is more neutral. I agree here with [[User:Miki Filigranski|Miki Filigranski]]. [[User:Jingiby|Jingiby]] ([[User talk:Jingiby|talk]]) 05:13, 24 July 2022 (UTC) ::::::::Miki Filigranski, so what's your proposal? Saying in the lead section that it is exclusively a Slavic practice is non neutral. I added, according to the sources, the population groups that are attested to have practiced the custom of rainmaking, whether it was called Dodola or Perperuna. If you have enough reliable sources that claim a clear distinction between the practices referred to as Dodola and Perperuna, then you can create two separate articles. I read that some communities refer to the same practice with the name Dodola (and variants), and other communities with the name Perperuna (and variants). I can agree to include both variants of the names in the article title, but &quot;Perperuna and Dodola&quot; appears to indicate that the custom is called as such, which is not the case. – [[User:Βατο|Βατο]] ([[User talk:Βατο|talk]]) 08:35, 24 July 2022 (UTC) :::::::::It is a practice of Slavic origin, related to Slavic deity Perun. That is the majority viewpoint in the RS. Removing that from the LEAD is non neutral. You even added ethnic groups among whom wasn't attested citing a bad source. The sources making clear distinction are already cited and there's no point in making separate article when these two customs are scholarly related. &quot;Perperuna and Dodola&quot; don't indicate anyhow that the custom is called with a single name &quot;Perperuna and Dodola&quot;. --[[User:Miki Filigranski|Miki Filigranski]] ([[User talk:Miki Filigranski|talk]]) 10:33, 24 July 2022 (UTC) ::::Okay, I found the book. [[Stanisław Urbańczyk|Urbańczyk]] debunked Jakobson's etymology. ''perperuda'', ''pepeluga'' etc. are related to Proto-Slavic ''*perpera'', ''*perperъka'' &quot;[[Common quail]]&quot; and these are related to ''*pъrpati'' (onomatopoeic), cf. Polish dial. ''perpotać'', ''perpac'', Old East Slavic ''poropriti''. So mystery has been solved. Meanwhile author himself reacts with aggression because someone tells him that the article is extremely one-sided. Having information about alleged relation between Perun and Perperuna is ok, since it actually is popular view, but it is not only view and it was criticised by other linguists. Btw Grimm is bad source. [[User:Sławobóg|Sławobóg]] ([[User talk:Sławobóg|talk]]) 10:45, 24 July 2022 (UTC) :::::Thanks @Sławobóg, the etymology you provided is interesting. @Miki Filigranski your statement {{tquote|It is a practice of Slavic origi}} is not supported by many scholars: there is not certainty about the origins of the practice. but there seems to be agreement among scholars that the name for the Balkan rainmaden ''Perperuna'' (and variants) is most likely of Slavic origin. The rainmaking custom is a Pan-Balkan practice, attested in the region at least since Classical Antiquity. I've just found a recent source: {{cite journal|last=Burns|first=Richard|title=Rain and Dust|journal=[[Studia Mythologica Slavica]]|volume=XI|issn=1581-128X|doi=10.3986/sms.v11i0.1696|year=2008|pp=217-236}} which provides further information about the usage of the names, and analysis on some scholars' views, also: {{tquote|&quot;The paper opens conjectures that relate the Balkan practice to two ancient Mediterranean mythological motifs: first, to Minoan and Mycenaean rainmaking invocations, and, secondly, to the goddess Persephone, via the theories of V. V. Ivanov and V. I. Toporov.&quot;}} – [[User:Βατο|Βατο]] ([[User talk:Βατο|talk]]) 10:53, 24 July 2022 (UTC) ::::::@Sławobóg, thanks, that's just an opinion though (please provide details of the source), but indeed doesn't change the fact it is of Slavic origin (and related to Perun per majority viewpoint). @Βατο, in the article are already cited more than 12 reliable sources by many different scholars. I mostly agree with other things you said, but didn't mention anything not already cited in the article. To be noted, Burns source is reliable to cite on scholars' views, but unreliable source for Burns viewpoint. He is a poet, not a scientist. --[[User:Miki Filigranski|Miki Filigranski]] ([[User talk:Miki Filigranski|talk]]) 11:25, 24 July 2022 (UTC) :::::::Jakobson's idea that Perperuna comes from Perun is also &quot;just an opinion&quot;, what is wrong with you? Additionally, Urbańczyk's etymology is more scientifically correct, because it explains the doubling of the root ''per-'', because there is no evidence for duplication of the root for feminine names and I have other book about that (which also supports Urbańczyk's idea). He says that ritual is known to Greeks and Albanians and it should be established actual origin first. He later say Perperuna might be related to words I mentioned before (also Polish ''przepierzyca''), not only because of etymology, also because quail (in Polish folklore) '''is associated with the harvest rites and is the name of the bride in the wedding dance'''. So I guess Slavic origin is very possible (from the bird). {{Cite book|last=Urbańczyk|first=Stanisław|title=Dawni Słowianie. Wiara i kult|date=1991|place=Wrocław|language=pl|author-link=Stanisław Urbańczyk|publisher=Ossolineum}} | [[User:Sławobóg|Sławobóg]] ([[User talk:Sławobóg|talk]]) 11:48, 24 July 2022 (UTC) ::::::::I found the text and it can be hardly called a debunking as you described it in your comment. Urbańczyk only said that Jakobson's opinion needs caution, he didn't refute it. We also have reliable sources which support Jakobson (and Slavic origin, relation to Mokosh etc.), including lately [[Patrice Lajoye]] (2015, pg. 107–115 etc.). Do you have other sources which mention or support Urbańczyk's derivation from the bird?--[[User:Miki Filigranski|Miki Filigranski]] ([[User talk:Miki Filigranski|talk]]) 12:07, 24 July 2022 (UTC) :::::::::Yes, Łuczyński (2020) ''Bogowie dawnych Słowian. Studium onomastyczne''. Additionally, the article does not mention at all that ''peperuda'' means &quot;butterfly&quot; in Bulgarian (mentioned in Russian and Bulgarian wiki)'''!!!''' [https://ibl.bas.bg/lib/ber_5/#page/82/mode/1up Български етимологичен речник] (vol 5, p. 162) has 2 pages of etymology of this word, also mentioning ''*perperica'' and other ideas, but image quality makes it too hard to read for me. There [https://starlingdb.org/cgi-bin/etymology.cgi?single=1&amp;basename=%2Fdata%2Fsemham%2Flecet&amp;text_number=+652&amp;root=config is] also Proto-Kartvelian root ''*ṗerṗer-'' / ''*perpel-'' &quot;butterfly&quot; connected with PS ''*perperъka''. It is clear from the Bulgarian dictionary that the subject is complicated and the etymologies are many, and that the article is not neutral and tries by force to push through Jakobson's etymology repeated uncritically by later authors. In the case of Slavic mythology/folklore, Western scholars often mindlessly (I'm not exaggerating) repeat various stupidities and rarely have a clue what they are writing about, cf. [https://web.archive.org/web/20170804140911/http://www.mathieu-colas.fr/michel/Classes/Dieux_slaves_et_baltes.pdf Mathieu-Colas]. I'm not comparing Lajoye or Evans to that, but we should be sceptic about Western optimism. [[Natko Nodilo]] is also pretty bad source (see [[Svetovit#In_Serbia]]). [[User:Sławobóg|Sławobóg]] ([[User talk:Sławobóg|talk]]) 14:00, 24 July 2022 (UTC) ::::::::::Thanks. The part about butterfly is quoted in 4th reference, forgot to expand more on it citing other sources. The association is mythological, doesn't make sense such a widespread pagan custom derives from a Bulgarian word for butterfly and shows that the Bulgarian word for butterfly derives instead from the mythological background to which is related the custom. If not, as in the case of cited Proto-Karvelian, occurred secondary associations of unrelated words. Will expand more regarding the etymology in general. Sorry, but you're using hard words and claims here. The article is properly and reliably edited according to WEIGHT, and tried to be careful with using them.--[[User:Miki Filigranski|Miki Filigranski]] ([[User talk:Miki Filigranski|talk]]) 14:14, 24 July 2022 (UTC) :::::@Sławobóg I have not a preference about the article title, could you suggest something about this issue? It seems that Dodola is the most common name, and in some communities both names (and variants) are found, even in the same song. – [[User:Βατο|Βατο]] ([[User talk:Βατο|talk]]) 11:07, 24 July 2022 (UTC) ::::::Is Dodola really more popular than Perperuna? I think modern, scientific or popular, usage also counts? I think &quot;Dodola and Perperuna&quot; would be good, but I'm not 100% sure. [[User:Sławobóg|Sławobóg]] ([[User talk:Sławobóg|talk]]) 11:35, 24 July 2022 (UTC) :::::::I've seen it by a first check on Google search and Google books, and in general Dodola seems to be more common. But I am not sure which is more common in recent sources and popular usage. Perhaps Burns' (2008) information could be useful: {{tquote|&quot;The various names have been el-egantly mapped by Plotnikova (1999) to reveal regional variations. Names of the ''dodola'' type, which I designate as the 'central' group, are more common in Serbia, Bosnia, and names of the ''peperuga'' or ''perperuda'' type, designated as the 'eastern and southern group', tend to be more frequent in Bulgaria, Rumania, Moldovia, Albania, Thessaly and Epirus (Burns 2006a: 35, 37-38 &amp; 42). In the border-area of dialect-continua between Bulgaria and Serbia, as in Macedonia, both verbal variants appear in the same song.&quot;}} – [[User:Βατο|Βατο]] ([[User talk:Βατο|talk]]) 12:11, 24 July 2022 (UTC) ::::::::Well, &quot;Dodola and Perperuna&quot; is ok then. If the name depends on the region, then we should not discriminate against any of them. It may be clunky, but it will be fair. [[User:Sławobóg|Sławobóg]] ([[User talk:Sławobóg|talk]]) 13:01, 24 July 2022 (UTC) ::::::::The name depends on the custom, songs and name of central character. These are two separate types. There can be made correlations based on regions, but not causations on which depends the name. Regarding the distribution, it strangely omits Croatia and mentions Bosnia, check the [https://ibb.co/rMgMqqL map] from Čulinović-Konstantinović &quot;Dodole and prporuše: folk customs for invoking the rain&quot; (note how's titled the source). I am okay with the title &quot;Dodola and Perperuna&quot;.--[[User:Miki Filigranski|Miki Filigranski]] ([[User talk:Miki Filigranski|talk]]) 13:27, 24 July 2022 (UTC) :::::::::Agreed, @Miki Filigranski feel free to make the page move. – [[User:Βατο|Βατο]] ([[User talk:Βατο|talk]]) 13:31, 24 July 2022 (UTC) ===Other sources=== {{ping|Sławobóg}} Czesław Białczyński in his ''Mitologia słowiańska'' (1999), not a reliable and scientific source, mentions: &lt;small&gt;PERPERUNA (Peperuna, Perperuda, Prperousza, Pe-runica). Jej istyjskim odpowiednikiem jest Perkunija. Runa - od rdzenia run ma takie same znaczenia jak wyżej, ale także w obocznej postaci zachowanej u Bułgarów - Perperuda - kędzierzawa, bo ruda kosa - kędzierzawe włosy, kędziory, rudica - zbita wełna, rudina - niwa, rudy - czerwony, błotny, bagnisty (co wskazuje, podobnie jak u Peruna, na jej związek z wodą), pokryty rudą - czyli naleciałością żelazistą, barwy rdzawej. Z powyższego zestawienia wynika, że Perperuna musiała mieć kręcone, gęste, kędzierzawe włosy rudej barwy. Były cztery boginie o rudych włosach: Perperuna, Ruda-Ródź, Swara (o włosach płomiennych) i Krasatina (o włosach krasnych i krasnym licu).&lt;/small&gt; &lt;small&gt;O świętości rośliny paproci, której nazwa przechowała imię bogini Ródzi-Pap-rudy, świadczy jej związek nazewniczy z boskim rdzeniem per (Perun, Perperuna, Perepłut, Pripegala, Prowe, Porenut, Puruvit, Porewit, Spór). Przechowane przez Bułgarów i Macedończyków miano Perperuda nie jest powtórzeniem serbskiego i chorwackiego imienia żony Peruna - Perperuna, lecz imieniem bogini Rodzi, córki Roda, kochanki Perunica. Związek Perperudy z Peruni-cem znajduje także odbicie w nazwie świętego zioła pe-runiki.&lt;/small&gt; I have a hard time reading the source, but does it cite any reference? Do you know of any Polish source which makes the same claim?--[[User:Miki Filigranski|Miki Filigranski]] ([[User talk:Miki Filigranski|talk]]) 14:25, 24 July 2022 (UTC) :Białczyński is turboslavic, he promotes Great Lechia and believes that Proto-Indo-European = Proto-Slavic. In his books he forges new gods. Nothing to talk about tbh. See [[List of Slavic pseudo-deities]]. [[User:Sławobóg|Sławobóg]] ([[User talk:Sławobóg|talk]]) 14:53, 24 July 2022 (UTC) ::Had the same impression.--[[User:Miki Filigranski|Miki Filigranski]] ([[User talk:Miki Filigranski|talk]]) 16:52, 24 July 2022 (UTC) {{ping|Sławobóg}} Łuczyński, ''Bogowie dawnych Słowian. Studium onomastyczne'' (2020), can you please make a full quote and provide page?--[[User:Miki Filigranski|Miki Filigranski]] ([[User talk:Miki Filigranski|talk]]) 14:31, 24 July 2022 (UTC) :Page 141: Autor ten [Jakobson] wychodzi z założenia, że nazwa ta [Pereplut] stanowi jeden z wielu wariantów fonetycznych i morfologicznych teonimu Perun [...] powołując się przy tym na brzmieniowe podobieństwo z terminem obrzędowym serb. ''prporusa'', bułg. ''pe(r)peruna'', ''pe(r)peruda'' i in. [...] Wywód Jakobsona podważył jednak S. Urbańczyk, wzkazując na związek nazw typu ''peperuda'', ''pepeluga'' i in. z psł. ''*perpere'', ''*perperъka'' &quot;przepiórka&quot;. Leksemy wskazane przez R. Jakobsona wywodzą się z psł. ''*pr̥pati'' vb. pochodzenia dźwiękonaśladowczego, por. np. (polish and OES words here) [...] Bałkański termin obrzędowy nie jest więc spokrewniony etymologicznie ze srus. teonimem, w jego wypadku można mówić o reduplikacji rdzenia onomatopeicznego i szeregu przekształceń fonetycznych (np. regularny rozwój ''-er-'' &lt; ''r̥''; wtórny konsonantym d &lt; n), przez co hipoteza Jakobsona traci rację bytu. Pozwala to na odrzucenie interpretacji tego badaczu z powodu trudności formalnych. :Page 279: I wreszcie, nic nie przemawia za tym, by w słowiańskiej teonimii istniały pary nazewnicze: model na tworzeniu form feminatywnych od męskich imion osobowych nie był, w świetle wiarygodnych danych, w tej kategorii produktywny, w związku z czym można przyjąć, że brak był (często postulowanych) par typu ''*Perunъ'' - ''*Perynь'' (lub ''Perperuna''), ''*Velesъ'' - ''*Vela'', na wróz np. sind. Indra - Indrani, Agni - Agnani... [[User:Sławobóg|Sławobóg]] ([[User talk:Sławobóg|talk]]) 15:08, 24 July 2022 (UTC) ::Great, thanks! --[[User:Miki Filigranski|Miki Filigranski]] ([[User talk:Miki Filigranski|talk]]) 16:52, 24 July 2022 (UTC) @Miki Filigranski, since you highlighted inaccuracies regarding the spread of the custom, could you propose a compromise wording between the information provided by Muraj (1987) and that provided by Ḱulavkova (2020)? – [[User:Βατο|Βατο]] ([[User talk:Βατο|talk]]) 08:23, 26 July 2022 (UTC) :In the article are cited several reliable sources, not only Muraj (1987), describing the spread of the custom. In the new sources the mistake is regarding the distribution on the territory of former Yugoslavia. I would say that the best source for the former Yugoslavian territory is still Čulinović-Konstantinović (1963). It was more prevalent among Croats than Serbs in Croatia, and don't know what's the reason for mentioning Bosnians. Natko Nodilo (1884) mentioned that West of river Vrbas, which would be Western part of Bosnia and Herzegovina, Dodola and Prporuša were known as ''Čaro(j)ice'', but couldn't verify and confirm the association in other sources. ''Čaroice'' was a different custom mainly around December and rarely Poklade (May) in which boys were dressed as girls or animals - not greenery, it was found among both Orthodox, Catholic and Muslim people and each group visited houses of other religion, and the song lyrics were also different. I would stick to countries and regions rather than ethnic groups (for now would remove Bosnia and Herzegovina). Anyway, currently am preparing a new edit which will include and expand the POV from new sources provided by you and Sławobóg. --[[User:Miki Filigranski|Miki Filigranski]] ([[User talk:Miki Filigranski|talk]]) 12:33, 26 July 2022 (UTC) ::Ok, feel free to make any wording reasonably in agreement with RS and with evidence from field research. – [[User:Βατο|Βατο]] ([[User talk:Βατο|talk]]) 22:24, 26 July 2022 (UTC) [https://archive.org/details/KlimovEtymological/page/n165/mode/2up Proto-Kartvelian *p̣erp̣er- &quot;butterfly&quot;] - most likely ultimate source. That explains Balkan-only range of the word, custom and pseudogoddess. [[User:Sławobóg|Sławobóg]] ([[User talk:Sławobóg|talk]]) 12:16, 24 September 2022 (UTC) :Do we have a RS which connects it to Perperuna/Dodola customs? How a Proto-Kartvelian language of Caucasus is the most likely ultimate source? How it explains Balkan-only range of the word, custom etc.?--[[User:Miki Filigranski|Miki Filigranski]] ([[User talk:Miki Filigranski|talk]]) 22:41, 27 September 2022 (UTC) ::I haven't done a good research yet, I found this partly by accident and am putting it here so as not to forget, and maybe someone else will find something more about it. It is possible that we are dealing here with a Wanderword. Borrowing is possible, compare [[wikt:κῶας|κῶας]]. See also [[wikt:πεταλούδα|πεταλούδα]] (especially the suffix -da). [[User:Sławobóg|Sławobóg]] ([[User talk:Sławobóg|talk]]) 09:42, 28 September 2022 (UTC) ==Article's scope and name== The article is about the rainmaking tradition of different peoples in Southeast Europe. The article gives [[WP:UNDUE WEIGHT]] to the etymological speculations concerning this rainmaking tradition, only based on the hypothetical link with the Slavic god Perun. In some regions it is not even known with names that could be linked to Perun. The rainmaking practice is attested among Balkan peoles since antiquity, the speculations according to which peoples who already practiced it adopted it from incoming Slavs in the early Middle Ages is not reasonable, and should have its due weight into the article. Since there is no [[WP:COMMONNAME]] for the rainmaking practice, clearly because different peoples refer to it in different terms, I propose a move to the title ''Rainmaking (Balkans)'' or ''Rainmaking (Southeast Europe)''. The article should also be reworded giving due weight to all the South Eastern/Balkan traditions. – [[User:Βατο|Βατο]] ([[User talk:Βατο|talk]]) 10:19, 22 August 2024 (UTC) *I don't think three sentences about Perun in such a large article is undue weight (and it may be trimmed further, because I see repetitions). --[[user:Altenmann|Altenmann]] [[user talk:Altenmann|&gt;talk]] 19:04, 22 August 2024 (UTC) **Your suggested title is bad because (a) &quot;[[Balkans]]&quot; is a vague term and (b) Romania is in Southeast Europe, but we have [[Caloian]] for Romanian rainmaking. --[[user:Altenmann|Altenmann]] [[user talk:Altenmann|&gt;talk]] 19:04, 22 August 2024 (UTC) :::I see that [[Caloian]] consists also of a similar rainmaking practice. But that's not relevant for this discussion, a title ''Rainmaking (Southeast Europe)'' is necessary in this case, because this article is about similar rainmaking practices of several peoples in Southeast Europe. The title ''Dodola and Perperuna'' is restrictive and POV, bacause it selects only two terms that are given to the girl that performs the ritual, despite the fact that there are many of those names, and there are even traditions based on a male figure, and it is misleading because the rainmaking ritual is not called &quot;Dodola and Perperuna&quot;. If this title will be kept, then a split into ''Rainmaking (Southeast Europe)'' should be made, and this article should focus only on the rainmaking girl figure, but I think a standalone article for such a subject would not be appropriate. – [[User:Βατο|Βατο]] ([[User talk:Βατο|talk]]) 19:48, 22 August 2024 (UTC) ::::I see. Then [[Rainmaking (Southeast Europe)]] will me good and a summary section about [[Calojan]] may be incorporated per [[WP:Summary style]]. --[[user:Altenmann|Altenmann]] [[user talk:Altenmann|&gt;talk]] :::In the scientific literature, the rainmaking custom(s) Dodola and Perperuna are usually related. The article is only about these two customs, and they are usually separated from the Caloian custom. The link with the Slavic god Perun and the Slavs is mainstream and majority viewpoint in the literature - claiming that it is &quot;not reasonable&quot; is a very bold non-mainstream statement and pushing a fringe autochthonistic POV. We already had a discussion before. In the article was already cited everything or almost everything about the topic. There's nothing else much which could be done and to be reworded. You first need to provide new citations and reach a consensus before trying to change both the scope and the title of the article.--[[User:Miki Filigranski|Miki Filigranski]] ([[User talk:Miki Filigranski|talk]]) 17:55, 23 August 2024 (UTC) :::[[User:Βατο|Βατο]], we already had this discussion, and after 2 years you made a series of edits changing the NPOV of the article, but without providing new citations and evidence, and then pushing the change of the scope and title of the article. I must boldly revert all your edits per BRD. First discuss and reach a consensus.--[[User:Miki Filigranski|Miki Filigranski]] ([[User talk:Miki Filigranski|talk]]) 18:09, 23 August 2024 (UTC) ::::Before bold reverting my sourced additions, state your concerns here, please. The article is far from neutral and clear about the different traditions. And the pushing in the lede of one of the several hypothetical origins is not the proper way to address NOPOV issues. You even restored this erroneous description in the lede: {{tquote|are ancient Slavic rainmaking pagan customs practiced until the 20th century. The tradition is found in South Slavic countries (Bulgaria, Croatia, North Macedonia, Montenegro, and Serbia), as well as in near Albania, Greece, Hungary, Moldova and Romania.}} The traditions are not &quot;ancient Slavic rainmaking pagan customs&quot; found in South Slavic countries and &quot;in near&quot; non Slavic countries, but a tradition found among different peoples of Southeast Europe. – [[User:Βατο|Βατο]] ([[User talk:Βατο|talk]]) 18:37, 23 August 2024 (UTC) :::::You almost didn't make any sourced additions to change the NPOV and BALANCE of the article, and you were doing it by removing reliably sourced information ([https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Dodola_and_Perperuna&amp;diff=next&amp;oldid=1241641872#External_links]) erroenously claiming it is an &quot;erroenous statement&quot;, a statement which is critical of the fringe autochthonistic POV you're pushing. The article was NEUTRAL and according to the RS. This what you're doing is PUSHING a non-mainstream, non-Slavic, fringe autochthonistic POV not supported by the majority of the RS. --[[User:Miki Filigranski|Miki Filigranski]] ([[User talk:Miki Filigranski|talk]]) 18:53, 23 August 2024 (UTC) ::::::Yes, I removed it because it falsely claims that rainmaking rituals are not found in southern Greece. Add the full context and arguments, then we can see whether that information can stay. And many scholars' views already included in the article cannot be considered [[WP:FRINGE]]. – [[User:Βατο|Βατο]] ([[User talk:Βατο|talk]]) 19:02, 23 August 2024 (UTC) :::::::You're ignoring the amount of RS for a specific viewpoint. You broke the NPOV, ignore WEIGHT.--[[User:Miki Filigranski|Miki Filigranski]] ([[User talk:Miki Filigranski|talk]]) 19:21, 23 August 2024 (UTC) :::::: Also, the names of the male figures of different rituals found in some South Slavic traditions should be added as well, because as it is now, the article reports only the names of the female figures. – [[User:Βατο|Βατο]] ([[User talk:Βατο|talk]]) 19:06, 23 August 2024 (UTC) :::::::It doesn't.--[[User:Miki Filigranski|Miki Filigranski]] ([[User talk:Miki Filigranski|talk]]) 19:21, 23 August 2024 (UTC) ::::::::Reading the section &quot;Ritual&quot;, I understood, although not clearly, that ''Prpac/Prpats'' are names of the male figure. Is that correct? Do those names appear in songs alongside the name of the female figure? I think they should be added in the section &quot;Names&quot; as well. – [[User:Βατο|Βατο]] ([[User talk:Βατο|talk]]) 19:56, 23 August 2024 (UTC) :::::::::First and foremost, please do not boldly edit the article doing substantial changes to the NPOV, scope and else of the article when you are not informed about the topic and making one after another misunderstandings upon which you make false claims about the topic and article. It is complex ritual and there's no &quot;yes and no&quot; answer. You need to differentiate a bit the name of the custom/folk song, from name of the female/male figure. Perperuna was mostly performed by a chosen boy (the one who is acting), and the chosen boy/leader could have been named, in Croatia for example where Perperuna custom is called Prporuša, as a Prporuša/Prporuš/Prpac etc. but also his singing companions as Prporuše. The name ''Prpac/Prpats'', which are local variants, do not appear in the song, they were names given by local people/audience to the chosen boy/leader/actor. There's only one figure in songs, or Perperuna or Dodola, but there do exist exceptions in Macedonia where both Perperuna and Dodola are mentioned in the same song.--[[User:Miki Filigranski|Miki Filigranski]] ([[User talk:Miki Filigranski|talk]]) 11:23, 31 August 2024 (UTC) :::::::::Βατο, please, do NOT make any edits these days as I have to review every and each edit you've made. I will re-incorporate reliably sourced information into the stable NPOV revision. The new revision you made is a complete mess, pushing Albanian case to the forefront of the customs, from the LEAD to the main body of the article. Making a complete disbalance of the content. --[[User:Miki Filigranski|Miki Filigranski]] ([[User talk:Miki Filigranski|talk]]) 11:50, 31 August 2024 (UTC) :::::::::Not only you changed wording without care about NPOV and WEIGHT, removed several reliably sourced content or emphasized different content (especially about Albania), placed new text in wrong sections, asking for citation needed where's none needed, removed images, etc., what's worse for new citations you used different citation style. Do you understand how much checking and clean-up your edits need? --[[User:Miki Filigranski|Miki Filigranski]] ([[User talk:Miki Filigranski|talk]]) 12:48, 31 August 2024 (UTC) ::::::::::{{reply|Miki Filigranski}} I reverted your bold removal of 7,971 bytes of well surced content. You are free to edit the article, but don't remove sourced material. My edits don't need &quot;checking and clean-up&quot;, they are added precisely according to Wikipedia policies and guidelines. The citation style has nothing wrong. – [[User:Βατο|Βατο]] ([[User talk:Βατο|talk]]) 13:01, 31 August 2024 (UTC) :::::::::::{{reply|Βατο}} No. This what you are doing is gaming the system. You don't respect [[WP:BRD]], you don't care another editor is reverting and constantly warning you. This wasn't bold removal of sourced content, it is about stable revision, NPOV - about which you don't care - as you are making major edits and pushing for the scope and title change in the same time - without any prior discussion, resolution and consensus. Article needs to have a common citation style. --[[User:Miki Filigranski|Miki Filigranski]] ([[User talk:Miki Filigranski|talk]]) 13:10, 31 August 2024 (UTC) ::::::::::::There is no &quot;gaming the system&quot; in adding sourced information about this tradition. Discuss here the content that you consider problematic, don't remove 7,971 bytes of well surced content appealing to NPOV and BRD, while not even discussing a single sentence of my additions. – [[User:Βατο|Βατο]] ([[User talk:Βατο|talk]]) 13:18, 31 August 2024 (UTC) ::::::::::::::No, there's no issue itself with adding sourced information, but how are you adding it, where are you adding it, in the process removing NPOV wording, removing previous content, and in the same time pushing for scope and title change because the old, stable revision wasn't according to the your vision of the article. In the meantime you don't care that another editors reverted your edits. You don't care about their comments. You are the one who needs to start discussions - and in the meantime - not edit warring pushing your edits and new revision. I will just re-incorporate your edits - as much as possible - to the old, stable revision, and from there and then we can discuss what's Your problem with the article and content.--[[User:Miki Filigranski|Miki Filigranski]] ([[User talk:Miki Filigranski|talk]]) 13:26, 31 August 2024 (UTC) :::::::::::::::Again, I see only general statements, please, address one by one the issues you have with the well sourced content about this tradition that I added. – [[User:Βατο|Βατο]] ([[User talk:Βατο|talk]]) 13:29, 31 August 2024 (UTC) ::::::::::::::::No, I won't. As said, will make a third revision which will incorporate your additions. Then we can have a discussion - and You are the one whose going to address one by one the issues you have with the article. It's up to You to step up, not me. You are the one whose trying to change the NPOV, scope and title of the article.--[[User:Miki Filigranski|Miki Filigranski]] ([[User talk:Miki Filigranski|talk]]) 14:11, 31 August 2024 (UTC) :::::::::::::::::Then you should not remove 7,971 bytes of well surced content. – [[User:Βατο|Βατο]] ([[User talk:Βατο|talk]]) 14:26, 31 August 2024 (UTC) {{ping|Sławobóg|Jingiby}} you participated in the old discussion &quot;[[Talk:Dodola and Perperuna#New revision]]&quot; two years ago, please give your verdict to the proposed changes and bold editing ([https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Dodola_and_Perperuna&amp;diff=1241890819&amp;oldid=1241888598]) by user Βατο with whom we discussed two years ago, thanks.--[[User:Miki Filigranski|Miki Filigranski]] ([[User talk:Miki Filigranski|talk]]) 19:18, 23 August 2024 (UTC) == Requested move 22 August 2024 == &lt;div class=&quot;boilerplate mw-archivedtalk&quot; style=&quot;background-color: var(--background-color-success-subtle, #efe); color: var(--color-base, #000); margin: 0; padding: 0 10px 0 10px; border: 1px dotted var(--border-color-subtle, #AAAAAA);&quot;&gt;&lt;!-- Template:RM top --&gt; :''The following is a closed discussion of a [[Wikipedia:Requested moves|requested move]]. &lt;span style=&quot;color: var(--color-error, red);&quot;&gt;'''Please do not modify it.'''&lt;/span&gt; Subsequent comments should be made in a new section on the talk page. Editors desiring to contest the closing decision should consider a [[Wikipedia:move review|move review]] after discussing it on the closer's talk page. No further edits should be made to this discussion.'' The result of the move request was: '''no consensus.''' Given that after a relist 1 month ago there's been no further participation, one support was conditional under a merge, and there was concern expressed about the new title not being formatted as [[WP:NDESC]], I don't see any consensus at this point. &lt;small&gt;([[Wikipedia:Requested moves/Closing instructions#Closure by a page mover|closed by non-admin page mover]])&lt;/small&gt; [[User:Zippybonzo|Zippybonzo]] &amp;#124; [[User talk:Zippybonzo|&lt;small&gt;talk&lt;/small&gt;]] &amp;#124; [[Special:Contributions/Zippybonzo|&lt;small&gt;contribs&lt;/small&gt;]] (they/them) 18:59, 9 October 2024 (UTC) ---- [[:Dodola and Perperuna]] → {{no redirect|Rainmaking (Southeast Europe)}} – see the discussion above. We also have the generic [[Rainmaking (ritual)]] page (techical nomination; '''no vote''') --[[user:Altenmann|Altenmann]] [[user talk:Altenmann|&gt;talk]] 20:15, 22 August 2024 (UTC) &lt;small&gt;—&amp;nbsp;'''''Relisting.'''''&amp;nbsp;[[User_talk:Asukite|&lt;span style=&quot;color:Purple;font-size:medium;font-family:Bradley Hand ITC&quot;&gt; ASUKITE&lt;/span&gt;]] 21:16, 30 August 2024 (UTC)&lt;/small&gt; *'''Support''', repeating my explanation in the discussion above: the title ''Rainmaking (Southeast Europe)'' is necessary in this case, because this article is about similar rainmaking practices of several peoples in Southeast Europe. The title ''Dodola and Perperuna'' is restrictive and POV, bacause it selects only two terms that are given to the girl that performs the ritual, despite the fact that there are many of those names, and there are even traditions based on a male figure, and it is misleading because the rainmaking ritual is not called &quot;Dodola and Perperuna&quot;. If this title will be kept, then a split into ''Rainmaking (Southeast Europe)'' should be made, and this article should focus only on the rainmaking girl figure, but I think a standalone article for such a subject would not be appropriate. Concerning the generic article [[Rainmaking (ritual)]], the Southeast European practices have enough coverage in reliable sources to deserve a standalone article. – [[User:Βατο|Βατο]] ([[User talk:Βατο|talk]]) 21:07, 22 August 2024 (UTC) * That is a bad title, it should be formatted as [[WP:NDESC]] and not as disambiguation, because it's not like &quot;rainmaking&quot; is ''called'' like this in southeastern Europe, you just want to be describing the history of these specific pagan rainmaking customs in those locations. --[[User:Joy|Joy]] ([[User talk:Joy|talk]]) 09:20, 23 August 2024 (UTC) ::A simple solution to that issue could be the title ''Rainmaking in Southeast Europe''. – [[User:Βατο|Βατο]] ([[User talk:Βατο|talk]]) 11:25, 23 August 2024 (UTC) * '''Oppose''', as already stated, in the scientific literature, the rainmaking custom(s) Dodola and Perperuna are usually related. The article is only about these two customs, and they are usually separated from the Caloian custom. The link with the Slavic god Perun and the Slavs is mainstream and majority viewpoint in the literature. In the article was already cited everything or almost everything about the topic. The change of the scope and the title first need long discussion with new citations/evidence and reach a consensus. Otherwise the new version of the article will be a FRINGE and UNDUE WEIGHT autochthonistic POV connection of Dodola and Perperuna custom(s) with Caloian custom etc., which isn't the case in the reliable sources.--[[User:Miki Filigranski|Miki Filigranski]] ([[User talk:Miki Filigranski|talk]]) 18:06, 23 August 2024 (UTC) ::Caloian custom argument is completely irrelevant for the request move. The concerns I listed above still remain with the title &quot;Dodola and Perperuna&quot;, but they would be solved with the title &quot;Rainmaking in Southeast Europe&quot;. As for the Perun link, there are songs in southwestern Albania expressly addressing the Sun (Albanian: [[Dielli (Albanian paganism)|Dielli]]) as the divine figure during the ritual songs, not Perun. – [[User:Βατο|Βατο]] ([[User talk:Βατο|talk]]) 20:01, 23 August 2024 (UTC) :::It isn't, that's the end goal, that's the intention, that's the reasoning this request move and forced editing is based on. Otherwise there wouldn't be such a forced pushing against Slavic mainstream POV. What some folk songs in southwestern Albania have to do with Dodola and Perperuna? Even if they do - but only according to RS - they do not change the fact about the mainstream POV and NPOV in general.--[[User:Miki Filigranski|Miki Filigranski]] ([[User talk:Miki Filigranski|talk]]) 10:43, 31 August 2024 (UTC) ::::&quot;{{tquote|What some folk songs in southwestern Albania have to do with Dodola and Perperuna?}}&quot; they have to do with the subject of this article because they are rainmaking pagan customs performed by a boy dressed in leaves and singing ritual songs, like other tradtions of this article. &quot;{{tquote|such a forced pushing against Slavic mainstream POV}}, actually, the POV-pushing is claiming a Slavic exclusivity for a tradition that is shared between several Balkan peoples, not only Slavic ones. – [[User:Βατο|Βατο]] ([[User talk:Βατο|talk]]) 13:12, 31 August 2024 (UTC) :::::No, that's not the reasoning - the folk songs, the names of Dodola and Perperuna are. No, the mainstream WEIGHT is about the Slavic origin, not exclusivity. There isn't pushed any Slavic exclusivity, and as mainstream sources consider, it's a tradition which was most probably spread by Slavic people which migrated in and influenced all Balkan countries and peoples.--[[User:Miki Filigranski|Miki Filigranski]] ([[User talk:Miki Filigranski|talk]]) 13:19, 31 August 2024 (UTC) ::::::The article clarifies in a sourced statement: {{tquote|The rainmaking practice is a shared tradition among Balkan peoples, and it is not clear who borrowed it from whom.}} And bibliography confirms this. Other claims are POV. – [[User:Βατο|Βατο]] ([[User talk:Βατο|talk]]) 13:33, 31 August 2024 (UTC) :::::::No, it doesn't. It was there for NPOV sake, but immediately below it was paragraph which stated that {{tquote|&quot;It is usually considered they have a mythological and etymological Slavic origin related to Slavic thunder-god Perun&quot;}} citing alone, and together more than a dozen reliable sources with quotes, which you changed into {{tquote|Some consider the perperuna figure to have a mythological and etymological Slavic origin related to Slavic thunder-god Perun}}. You completely messed up [[WP:WEIGHT]] and made [[WP:FALSEBALANCE]] with your editing.--[[User:Miki Filigranski|Miki Filigranski]] ([[User talk:Miki Filigranski|talk]]) 13:47, 31 August 2024 (UTC) * '''Support''', only if we are merging [[Caloian|this]] article as well considering Romania is in Southeast Europe. '''[[User:Боки|&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;Боки&lt;/span&gt;]]''' [[User talk:Боки|&lt;span style=&quot;color:blue&quot;&gt;☎&lt;/span&gt;]] [[Special:Contribs/Боки|&lt;span style=&quot;color:#808080&quot;&gt;✎&lt;/span&gt;]] 23:39, 23 August 2024 (UTC) ::[[Caloian]] is not to be merged, because it has different practices, not only rainmaking. What is appropriate to do has been proposed in the duscussion above by User:Altenmann: &quot;{{tquote|a summary section about [[Calojan]] may be incorporated per [[WP:Summary style]]}}&quot;. – [[User:Βατο|Βατο]] ([[User talk:Βατο|talk]]) 22:55, 30 August 2024 (UTC) :::No, if it is a different practice, then what's the point of incorporating it anyhow in the article about Dodola and Perperuna? --[[User:Miki Filigranski|Miki Filigranski]] ([[User talk:Miki Filigranski|talk]]) 10:47, 31 August 2024 (UTC) * '''Comment''', I'm not sure that changing the title will improve the situation. [[User:Jingiby|Jingiby]] ([[User talk:Jingiby|talk]]) 04:57, 24 August 2024 (UTC) ::It will surely improve the situation. The rainmaking practice is not known as &quot;Dodola and Perperuna&quot; among Albanians. It is not known as such even among Slavic speakers, Eastern Romance speakers, or Greek speakers. That's an [[WP:OR]], [[WP:POV]], as well as a misleading title, by selecting only two terms that are given to the girl that performs the ritual in some traditions. I would like to know what criteria could justify such a choise? So far there has been provided no reasonable argument to keep that title. – [[User:Βατο|Βατο]] ([[User talk:Βατο|talk]]) 09:00, 24 August 2024 (UTC) :::It won't and you already made a mess, and are forcing the changes against the usual process for such essential change. You are greatly misunderstanding the topic, making false claims. The article is reliably sourced - that's the name of the customs, Dodola, and Perperuna (and its variations). You are pushing a disbalanced amount of weight for some poorly sourced, and overall irrelevant Albanian POV. Please stop doing that and [[WP:LISTEN]] to what other editors have to say.--[[User:Miki Filigranski|Miki Filigranski]] ([[User talk:Miki Filigranski|talk]]) 10:34, 31 August 2024 (UTC) ::::{{tquote|You are greatly misunderstanding the topic, making false claims}}, nope, the topic is about rainmaking pagan customs in Southeast Europe practiced with the main boy or girl dressed with fresh branches, leaves and herbs, etc. while singing a ritual song. {{tquote|some poorly sourced, and overall irrelevant Albanian POV}} is your own opinion. The content is sourced with academic sources focusing on this specific subject. And it is not up to us to consider Albanian practices as &quot;irrelevant&quot;, relevance is dictaded by reliable sources. – [[User:Βατο|Βατο]] ([[User talk:Βατο|talk]]) 13:42, 31 August 2024 (UTC) :::::Indeed, relevance is dictated by reliable sources - and then you come after two years of stable NPOV, make major edits ignoring the fact most of the reliable sources arguing and claiming Slavic origin of the customs, etymology and else, and now claim relevance of the Albanian case and else. Genius.--[[User:Miki Filigranski|Miki Filigranski]] ([[User talk:Miki Filigranski|talk]]) 14:06, 31 August 2024 (UTC) ::::::The stable NPOV was not claiming the practice as exclusively Slavic (&quot;{{tquote|ancient Slavic rainmaking pagan customs practiced until the 20th century. The tradition is found in South Slavic countries (Bulgaria, Croatia, North Macedonia, Montenegro, and Serbia), as well as in near Albania, Greece, Hungary, Moldova and Romania.}}) I did not notice that such an erroneous and POV wording has been kept in the lede for so long. – [[User:Βατο|Βατο]] ([[User talk:Βατο|talk]]) 14:25, 31 August 2024 (UTC) :::::::FFS, you were here 2 years ago when the old, stable revision was created and now after 2 years you claim that didn't notice.--[[User:Miki Filigranski|Miki Filigranski]] ([[User talk:Miki Filigranski|talk]]) 16:02, 31 August 2024 (UTC) ::::::::The last time I participated in this talk page I stated that the article should not describe the practice as exclusively Slavic. If I remember correctly, I left you time to change it as you stated that you would reword the article according to the sources provided. Then I even forgot about it, only recently realized that you kept the erroneous POV version, which obviously can't stay. I suggest to avoid replying in this discussion, which is about the RM. – [[User:Βατο|Βατο]] ([[User talk:Βατο|talk]]) 16:16, 31 August 2024 (UTC) :::::::::See discussion below, I didn't keep the erroneous POV version as I've done an edit on 9 August 2022 per talk, over a year later somebody changed the wording and nobody noticed to fix it. Alright, my last comment for this.--[[User:Miki Filigranski|Miki Filigranski]] ([[User talk:Miki Filigranski|talk]]) 16:35, 31 August 2024 (UTC) * '''Comment''', I dont think it will make it better. I think it would best to have separate article about {{Q|Q2622164}} and {{Q|Q2368103}} and other rites with different names in Balkans, even if the descriptions partially overlapped. That would make these articles easier to read, and reader would have precise informations about specific rite. My problem with the article is that it pushes too much non-scientific idea about Perperuna being related to Perun. [[User:Sławobóg|Sławobóg]] ([[User talk:Sławobóg|talk]]) 09:11, 1 September 2024 (UTC) ::{{reply|Sławobóg}} I agree with your last sentence, that's why I edited the article and ridimensioned a little bit that POV, which is basically [[Roman Jakobson]]'s POV. But [[User:Miki Filigranski]] seems to oppose the ridimensioning of that POV. Nevertheless, it can't stay in the lede as it was before my edits, because the etymology and mythology of Peperuda/Perperuna/etc. are far from certain, and there are songs that expressly invoke other deities/divine figures and not Perun. Concerning the split of the article into Dodola, Peperuda, and others, I don't think it is a good idea because in some traditions, in the same ritual performance of rainmaking songs both Dodola-like and Peperuda-like names are mentioned, it would be difficult to separate them. Also, they are about the same rainmaking custom, performed by a procession of young people with a main girl or boy who is dressed with fresh branches and leaves, sings the ritual song, and is sprinkled with water. To avoid the arbitrary selection of two names, such as in this case ''Dodola and Perperuna'', which are hardly the [[WP:COMMONAME]], and which are misleading because nobody actually called the custom ''Dodola and Perperuna'', I proposed the descriptive title ''Rainmaking in Southeast Europe''. – [[User:Βατο|Βατο]] ([[User talk:Βατο|talk]]) 10:04, 1 September 2024 (UTC) :&lt;small&gt;Note: [[Wikipedia talk:WikiProject Romania|WikiProject Romania]], [[Wikipedia talk:WikiProject Bulgaria|WikiProject Bulgaria]], [[Wikipedia talk:WikiProject Serbia|WikiProject Serbia]], [[Wikipedia talk:WikiProject Croatia|WikiProject Croatia]], [[Wikipedia talk:WikiProject North Macedonia|WikiProject North Macedonia]], [[Wikipedia talk:WikiProject Mythology|WikiProject Mythology]], and [[Wikipedia talk:WikiProject Albania|WikiProject Albania]] have been notified of this discussion. [[User_talk:Asukite|&lt;span style=&quot;color:Purple;font-size:medium;font-family:Bradley Hand ITC&quot;&gt; ASUKITE&lt;/span&gt;]] 21:14, 30 August 2024 (UTC)&lt;/small&gt; :&lt;small&gt;'''Relisting comment''': Relist to give time for participation. Note that one of the support comments is conditional upon a merge, which is worth discussion, and there is one reply that may be read as oppose but isn't labeled as such. [[User_talk:Asukite|&lt;span style=&quot;color:Purple;font-size:medium;font-family:Bradley Hand ITC&quot;&gt; ASUKITE&lt;/span&gt;]] 21:16, 30 August 2024 (UTC)&lt;/small&gt; &lt;div style=&quot;padding-left: 1.6em; font-style: italic; border-top: 1px solid #a2a9b1; margin: 0.5em 0; padding-top: 0.5em&quot;&gt;The discussion above is closed. &lt;b style=&quot;color: var(--color-error, red);&quot;&gt;Please do not modify it.&lt;/b&gt; Subsequent comments should be made on the appropriate discussion page. No further edits should be made to this discussion.&lt;/div&gt;&lt;!-- from [[Template:Archive bottom]] --&gt; &lt;/div&gt;&lt;div style=&quot;clear:both;&quot; class=&gt;&lt;/div&gt; ==&quot;Oj Ljule&quot; songs== &quot;Oj Ljule&quot; songs are inlcuded in the &quot;Dodole songs&quot;, despite the fact that the songs seem to not mention Dodole or related forms. This aspect should be clarified in the article. Btw, I don't know whether ''ljule'' is a Slavic term, but it can be found in Albanian, and means &quot;flower&quot;, and &quot;Oj Ljule&quot; is found as a phrase in Arbereshe songs as well, although unrelated to rainmaking rituals. The origin and meaning of the term ''ljule'' used in Slavic songs should be explained as well. – [[User:Βατο|Βατο]] ([[User talk:Βατο|talk]]) 18:44, 23 August 2024 (UTC) :This appears to be the borrowing from Slavic [[lullaby]] refrain Ay lyuli {{langx|ru|Ай люли}}, see eg in ''[[Kalinka (1860 song)|Kalinka]]'' or [[:ru:Во поле берёза стояла]]. Associated with the Russian word люлька, &quot;[[cradle]]&quot;. --[[user:Altenmann|Altenmann]] [[user talk:Altenmann|&gt;talk]] 19:10, 23 August 2024 (UTC) ::{{reply|Altenmann}} thanks for the clarification, in that case it would not be a borrowing, but a Slavic term in Eastern South Slavic. The Albanian term would not be related. A source would be nice to clarify it in the article. – [[User:Βατο|Βατο]] ([[User talk:Βατο|talk]]) 19:14, 23 August 2024 (UTC) :::I will try to find a source, but it will be difficult for such minor things. Provably in some obscure folkloric book. [https://www.google.com/search?sca_esv=59944d6273687f66&amp;sca_upv=1&amp;rlz=1C1SJWC_enUS1086US1087&amp;q=%22%D0%90%D0%B9+%D0%BB%D1%8E%D0%BB%D0%B8%22+-%D0%BA%D0%B0%D0%BB%D0%B8%D0%BD%D0%BA%D0%B0&amp;tbm=bks&amp;source=lnms&amp;fbs=AEQNm0AVbySjNxIXoj6bNaq7uSpwmIS0gJlXN_LWYh5RkW9UG_J2iT2scTJ59gCgVXw95w_tbwv0XGMg5VNVmdZJUUbegAUXjP-3Az7ul0FDlU2m0yNrv6Vuz1OORdWimsJYhP0WMXW2ofgIshBxHL7F_exMsA00U1w8-fAhNJVI81QdesxeLn7PSN5Jf4tv1ZtHKAbXs9j2p9qipOTKbxDb8N2kMYbC5g&amp;sa=X&amp;ved=2ahUKEwjH7Nmw6YuIAxV4DTQIHRgHNgo4MhDSlAl6BAg0EAE&amp;biw=1059&amp;bih=682&amp;dpr=1.25 google books] shows plenty of songs, but no etymology. --[[user:Altenmann|Altenmann]] [[user talk:Altenmann|&gt;talk]] 19:19, 23 August 2024 (UTC) :::: [https://gramota.ru/meta/lyuli here a short blurb: ''Large Explanatory Dictionary of the Russian Language'':(folk-poetic) Is used in refrains of Russian folk songs. --[[user:Altenmann|Altenmann]] [[user talk:Altenmann|&gt;talk]] 19:21, 23 August 2024 (UTC) ::::[https://slovnyk.ua/index.php?swrd=%D0%BB%D1%8E%D0%BB%D1%8F%D1%82%D0%B8 люляти] - to rock the cradle in Ukrainian and Belarusian ([[wikt:ru:люляць]]) and Lithuanian [https://www.zodynas.lt/terminu-zodynas/L/liuliuoti liūliuoti] &quot;to rock/be rocked by waves&quot;, Serbian ljuljati &quot;to rock&quot;. - [https://www.alphadictionary.com/goodword/word/lullaby and it seems] it is related to Englies [https://www.alphadictionary.com/goodword/word/lull &quot;lull&quot;], &quot;[[lullaby]]&quot;--[[user:Altenmann|Altenmann]] [[user talk:Altenmann|&gt;talk]] 19:31, 23 August 2024 (UTC) :::::{{edit conflict}} Thanks. I think a source expressly about these rainmaking songs would be appropriate for inclusion into the article, if they cannot be found then we can leave it without explanation. Sources about Russian folksongs not directly related to the subject would be [[WP:SYNTH|synth]] or [[WP:OR|or]] into the article, although interesting for clarifying the matter here in talk page. – [[User:Βατο|Βατο]] ([[User talk:Βατο|talk]]) 19:32, 23 August 2024 (UTC) ::::::These Russian folksongs are mentioned here as an anwer to the question about &quot;Oj Ljule&quot; and of course are irrelevant to this article. (Sorry for off-topic, I am just collecting for future possible use elsewhere.) --[[user:Altenmann|Altenmann]] [[user talk:Altenmann|&gt;talk]] 19:36, 23 August 2024 (UTC) Basically, you are pushing an Albanian-old Balkan POV connection in the LEAD and main body of the article. It is so obvious it is painful not to notice it. Please refrain from doing it forcibly, engage in BRD discussion without editing a stable NPOV, seek a consensus, and only then discuss about the change of scope and title of the article. Not the other way around.--[[User:Miki Filigranski|Miki Filigranski]] ([[User talk:Miki Filigranski|talk]]) 10:30, 31 August 2024 (UTC) :Which one is the POV version? The one that describes the subject as &quot;{{tquote|rainmaking pagan customs widespread among different peoples in Southeast Europe until the 20th century, found in Albania, Bulgaria, Croatia, Greece, Hungary, Kosovo, Moldova, Montenegro, Romania, and Serbia.}}&quot; or the version that describes it as &quot;{{tquote|ancient Slavic rainmaking pagan customs practiced until the 20th century. The tradition is found in South Slavic countries (Bulgaria, Croatia, North Macedonia, Montenegro, and Serbia), as well as in near Albania, Greece, Hungary, Moldova and Romania.}}&quot; It's clearly the second one, which obviously can't stay. – [[User:Βατο|Βατο]] ([[User talk:Βατο|talk]]) 13:25, 31 August 2024 (UTC) ::You obviously don't get the point and refuse to get the point, why that text and wording was in the lead.--[[User:Miki Filigranski|Miki Filigranski]] ([[User talk:Miki Filigranski|talk]]) 13:48, 31 August 2024 (UTC) :::There is no point to get, that text and wording is an erroneous and POV description of the custom. – [[User:Βατο|Βατο]] ([[User talk:Βατο|talk]]) 13:54, 31 August 2024 (UTC) ::::Please stick with the Albanian-Illyrian paganism, and leave alone Slavic paganism when have such a low understanding and respect about the topic.--[[User:Miki Filigranski|Miki Filigranski]] ([[User talk:Miki Filigranski|talk]]) 14:00, 31 August 2024 (UTC) :::::This practice is Albanian, as well as Greek, Romanian, etc., other than South Slavic. You should understand that to avoid POV in the article. – [[User:Βατο|Βατο]] ([[User talk:Βατο|talk]]) 14:21, 31 August 2024 (UTC) ::::::This practice is first and foremost South Slavic, while Albanian is the least (and even among them is most probably due to South Slavic influence). --[[User:Miki Filigranski|Miki Filigranski]] ([[User talk:Miki Filigranski|talk]]) 15:15, 31 August 2024 (UTC) :::::::This practice is widespread among all Albanians. It is Albanian as much as it is South Slavic. Your opinion &quot;{{tquote|This practice is first and foremost South Slavic, while Albanian is the least (and even among them is most probably due to South Slavic influence)}}&quot; shows that you want to push only one POV. – [[User:Βατο|Βατο]] ([[User talk:Βατο|talk]]) 15:52, 31 August 2024 (UTC) :::::::::Where and what's the evidence it is widespread among all Albanians? How common was the practice in Albania? There's no &quot;my opinion&quot;, in the article was cited what was in the scientific literature - it wasn't common and widespread neither can be considered Albanian as much as it is South Slavic. I don't care about what kind of POV is in the literature, only about [[WP:WEIGHT]], and the majority viewpoint is clear about that. You are the one whose changing NPOV by pushing your pro-Albanian POV.--[[User:Miki Filigranski|Miki Filigranski]] ([[User talk:Miki Filigranski|talk]]) 15:59, 31 August 2024 (UTC) ::::::::::It is widespread among all Albanians, it has been practiced by Albanians in southern Albania, in northern Albania, Kosovo and Macedonia. This is not my opinion, this is what academic sources say. And adding sourced content about the Albanian traditions direclty related to the subject of this article is not &quot;pro-Albanian POV&quot;. I suggest to avoid such labellings. – [[User:Βατο|Βατο]] ([[User talk:Βατο|talk]]) 16:08, 31 August 2024 (UTC) :::::::::::I am asking you once again where and what is said in the literature - give the quotes. I don't care and believe what you say. Again, you are NOT merely adding sourced content because you have completely changed the NPOV. You know what you're doing, I know what you're doing. Stop doing it, show some good faith, respect and start behaving according to [[WP:BRD]].--[[User:Miki Filigranski|Miki Filigranski]] ([[User talk:Miki Filigranski|talk]]) 16:19, 31 August 2024 (UTC)- ::::::::::::In the article you can check the sources, which have been carefully cited with relevant pages, and you can add quote needed templates in parts that you fail to verify. Regardless of what you believe or not, the practice has been documented in southwest Albania (such as in the Ionian Coast), southeast Albania (such as in Permet and Klonje), central and northern Albania (such as in Mat, Mirdite, and Has) Macedonia (such as in Tetove), Kosovo (such as in Gjakove, Opoje and Sharr Mountains). It was widespread until the 2nd half of the 20th century, and continues to be performed in rare occasions by Albanians in remote areas such as around [[Opojë]] in the Sharr Mountains. You can find this information in this article's Bibliography, (such as in {{harvnb|Tirta|2004|pp=310–312}}, {{harvnb|Gjoni|2012|pp=85–86}}, and {{harvnb|Qafleshi|2009|pp=51–52}}). – [[User:Βατο|Βατο]] ([[User talk:Βατο|talk]]) 16:58, 31 August 2024 (UTC) – [[User:Βατο|Βατο]] ([[User talk:Βατο|talk]]) 16:58, 31 August 2024 (UTC) :::::::::::::Thank you.--[[User:Miki Filigranski|Miki Filigranski]] ([[User talk:Miki Filigranski|talk]]) 00:56, 4 October 2024 (UTC) Βατο, why is now the same text/songs at [[Dielli (Albanian paganism)#Rainmaking and soil fertility rituals]] and this article (although some songs do not mention neither Dodola or Perperuna)?--[[User:Miki Filigranski|Miki Filigranski]] ([[User talk:Miki Filigranski|talk]]) 15:47, 31 August 2024 (UTC) :They are added because they are rainmaking rituals that are subject of this article, with the same figures and performances. The other songs are added because they follow the rainmaking practice, and are discussed in the same context by the cited source. However, if you consider those following songs to have undue weight, I will remove them and keep only their description. – [[User:Βατο|Βατο]] ([[User talk:Βατο|talk]]) 16:22, 31 August 2024 (UTC) ::I removed them. – [[User:Βατο|Βατο]] ([[User talk:Βατο|talk]]) 16:32, 31 August 2024 (UTC) ==Clarification== The article should clarify whether a goddess/female deity called Perperuna (or similar) or Dodole (or similar), associated with Perun (also as his consort/wife) has been actually attested in Slavic traditions, or it is just a hypothesis by modern scholars. In that regard, the article states: {{tquote|Recent research criticize invention of a Slavic female goddess}}, referenced with {{harvnb|Łuczyński|2020|p=141}}, but I have not access to the source to verify whether it is referring to the link between Perun and Perperuna as a goddess. A a proper context should be provided. – [[User:Βατο|Βατο]] ([[User talk:Βατο|talk]]) 12:26, 24 August 2024 (UTC) :It is already stated. Deities or ritual figures are often reconstructed out of folk tradition. It is an ''interpretation''. You have full quote in this talk page [[Talk:Dodola and Perperuna #Other sources]].--[[User:Miki Filigranski|Miki Filigranski]] ([[User talk:Miki Filigranski|talk]]) 10:57, 31 August 2024 (UTC) ::The article's text should clarify whether something belongs to actual folklore or it is an interpretation. – [[User:Βατο|Βατο]] ([[User talk:Βατο|talk]]) 13:21, 31 August 2024 (UTC) :::Oh really, don't you say? Imagine the shock, who would have thought that the old, stabile revision said: :::{{tquote|According to another '''interpretation''' the name Perperuna can be identified as the reduplicated feminine derivative of the name of the male god Perun (per-perun-a), being his female consort, wife and goddess of rain Perperuna Dodola, which parallels the Old Norse couple Fjörgyn–Fjörgynn and the Lithuanian Perkūnas–Perkūnija.[41][38][42][43][44] Perun's battle against Veles because of Perperuna/Dodola's kidnapping has parallels in Zeus saving of Persephone after Hades carried her underground causing big drought on Earth, also seen in the similarity of the names Perperuna and Persephone.[43][45][16] Recent research criticize invention of a Slavic female goddess.[19]}} :::and now it doesn't after you butchered the paragraphs and sections. Incredible, you must be a genius! --[[User:Miki Filigranski|Miki Filigranski]] ([[User talk:Miki Filigranski|talk]]) 13:53, 31 August 2024 (UTC) ::::Despite me being a 'genius', which is unrelated to this discussion, the information above still needs clarification, because the interpretation is about the name, and as the information is provided in the text, it takes for granted that the female figure was Perun's &quot;female consort, wife and goddess of rain Perperuna Dodola, which parallels the Old Norse couple Fjörgyn–Fjörgynn and the Lithuanian Perkūnas–Perkūnija.&quot; and that &quot;Perun's battle against Veles because of Perperuna/Dodola's kidnapping has parallels in Zeus saving of Persephone after Hades carried her underground causing big drought on Earth&quot;. The wording is important for such things, the text should clarify whether those are reconstrucitons or are actual folklore to not mislead the reader. I already made a slight rewording adding &quot;{{tquote|''allegedly'' being his female consort, wife and goddess of rain Perperuna Dodola, which ''would'' parallel the Old Norse couple Fjörgyn–Fjörgynn and the Lithuanian Perkūnas–Perkūnija.}}&quot;, but I am not sure if it is alleged or in folklore. That's why I asked. I moved some parts because they were about etymology, I left the parts about mythology into the relevant section. – [[User:Βατο|Βατο]] ([[User talk:Βατο|talk]]) 14:16, 31 August 2024 (UTC) :::::You clearly don't differentiate parts which are strictly about etymology from those which are about mythology. You moved parts, everything now looks out of context, and then claim there's confusion - when you made it. This is going to be like in the stable revision, the end of discussion.--[[User:Miki Filigranski|Miki Filigranski]] ([[User talk:Miki Filigranski|talk]]) 15:17, 31 August 2024 (UTC) ::::::Nope, the stable revision you created is erroneous and POV, and can't stay. Nevertheless, you are not addressing my concerns, but making general, useless, statements. Are they attested traditions or modern reconstructions? – [[User:Βατο|Βατο]] ([[User talk:Βατο|talk]]) 15:42, 31 August 2024 (UTC) :::::::You were here 2 years ago when the old, stable revision was created. Now you come again after 2 years, falsely claim that didn't notice what was written in the LEAD and else, decide to make it more erroneous and POV, and don't bother with any concerns other editor is making because of your major, general editing by which violated WEIGHT and NPOV, and calling them &quot;useless&quot; concerns. This is unbelievable. --[[User:Miki Filigranski|Miki Filigranski]] ([[User talk:Miki Filigranski|talk]]) 15:55, 31 August 2024 (UTC) ::::::::The last time I participated in this talk page I stated that the article should not describe the practice as exclusively Slavic. If I remember correctly, I left you time to change it as you stated that you would reword the article according to the sources provided. Then I even forgot about it, only recently realized that you kept the erroneous POV version, which obviously can't stay. – [[User:Βατο|Βατο]] ([[User talk:Βατο|talk]]) 16:14, 31 August 2024 (UTC) :::::::::Sorry, but I see now we are both misunderstanding each other and what happened. I've done that, [https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Dodola_and_Perperuna&amp;oldid=1103234952 this] was my &quot;NPOV up-date per talk&quot; on 9 August 2022 i.e. original stable revision, but until my next [https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Dodola_and_Perperuna&amp;oldid=1192112560 edit] on 27 December 2023 somebody changed the wording in the lead from &quot;are Balkan rainmaking pagan customs practiced until the 20th century&quot; to &quot;are ancient Slavic rainmaking pagan customs practiced until the 20th century&quot;. --[[User:Miki Filigranski|Miki Filigranski]] ([[User talk:Miki Filigranski|talk]]) 16:28, 31 August 2024 (UTC) :::::::::IP changed the lead wording on [https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Dodola_and_Perperuna&amp;diff=1182582238&amp;oldid=1181970621 30 October 2023].--[[User:Miki Filigranski|Miki Filigranski]] ([[User talk:Miki Filigranski|talk]]) 16:32, 31 August 2024 (UTC) ==Undue speculative interpretations in lede== [[User:Vanillacake34]] reverted ([https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Dodola_and_Perperuna&amp;diff=prev&amp;oldid=1257581130]) without explanation an addition in the lede about some scholarly interpretations that were made only for some traditions. There is absolutely no evidence that rainmaking rituals in the Balkans &quot;{{tquote|were related to the Slavic supreme deity Perun (god of thunder, weather, fertility and oak trees in the Slavic pantheon).}}&quot; and that &quot;{{tquote|Perperuna could have been a Slavic goddess of rain, the consort of Perun, or that the name Perperuna is the reduplicated feminine form derived from the name of Perun.}}&quot; And above all, what makes such addition undue in the lede is the fact that Albanian rainmaking ritual songs expressly address the Sun (Albanian: [[Dielli (Albanian paganism)|Dielli]]) and the Sky ([[Perëndi]]) as divine entities during the ritual songs, not [[Perun]], who does not even appear in Slavic songs. – [[User:Βατο|Βατο]] ([[User talk:Βατο|talk]]) 18:00, 15 November 2024 (UTC)</div></summary> <author><name>Βατο</name></author> </entry> <entry> <id>https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Talk:Dodola_and_Perperuna&diff=1257585695</id> <title>Talk:Dodola and Perperuna</title> <link rel="alternate" type="text/html" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Talk:Dodola_and_Perperuna&diff=1257585695"/> <updated>2024-11-15T18:09:05Z</updated> <summary type="html">Βατο: Undid revision 1257585363 by Vanillacake34 (talk): don't remove other editors comments, but provide your reasons and seek consensus <hr /> <div>{{WikiProject banner shell|class=Start|1= {{WikiProject Mythology | importance=Low}} {{WikiProject Albania|importance=low}} {{WikiProject Bulgaria|importance=low}} {{WikiProject Croatia|importance=low}} {{WikiProject Romania|importance=low}} {{WikiProject Serbia| importance=Low}} {{WikiProject North Macedonia| importance=Low}} {{WikiProject Neopaganism | importance=Low}} }} {{old move|date=22 August 2024|destination=Rainmaking (Southeast Europe)|result=no consensus|link=Special:Permalink/1249265199#Requested move 22 August 2024}} ==2004== I deleted almost the entire original article. It was just too incomprehensible. I replaced it with a scrap of info found on the web. --[[User:LeeHunter|LeeHunter]] 00:49, 24 Aug 2004 (UTC) : Wikipedians who understand [[Slavic languages]] and are knowledgeable in [[Slavic mythology]] are invited to sort out the following text (that was replaced by a nice little stub by [[User:LeeHunter]]): :: '''Perperuna''' - originally probably divine partner (wife) of [[Perun]]; probably the name formed by reduplication core &amp;#8220;per-&amp;#8220;, however it could be also personalization (result) of activity of Perun - &amp;#8222;flinging rock&quot; (per-perun-a?) = rain - analog. Ind. Parjanya &amp;#8222;(secondarily) cloud, rain&quot; - surname of Indra. Perperuna is the name behaved as designation of participant of ceremony (noted in SouthSlav. folklore) of summoning of rain, called also [[dodola]], dudula (compare to: Lith. [[Perkunas]] - Dundúlis, Latt. Dundusélis and Gr. [[Dodona]]); if we identify perperuna-dodola with [[beregynja]](*perkynja), we deal with team of names - teonyms embracing with significative range occurrence of worship of fecundity: [[Moko&amp;#353;]] (Mather Earth) - Perkynia / Pergynja(&amp;#8222;Holy Forest - Oak wood&quot; / &amp;#8222;Mountain&quot; - on the ground of analogy Ind. also: &amp;#8222;Cloud, Rain&quot;) - Perperuna (Perun's partner, on the ground of analogy Hett. also: &amp;#8222;Rock&quot;) compactly related with &amp;#8222;masculine&quot; worship Thunderlord - Perun. Hipostasy of goddess was probably a viper (snake) guardian of house - &amp;#382;mija cuvakuca, &amp;#382;mija kucarica (SouthSlav.). : Have fun with it. :-) : -- [[User:PFHLai|PFHLai]] 01:28, 2004 Aug 24 (UTC) : P.S. I think &quot;Moko&amp;#353;&quot; is [[Mokosh]]. ==Old talk== Text from [http://free.bol.bg/slavpagan/deities.html webpage] owned by the contributor How do we KNOW that the contributor owns the webpage? And where has he/she released the material to GFDL? [[User:RickK|Rick]][[User talk:RickK|K]] 05:57, Oct 14, 2004 (UTC) :He/she released it by copying. How do we KNOW anything? He/she told us so. Must he go to notary public first? What is the policy about contributing owned materials? Has he (acting as wikipedian) to send a letter to himself (acting as a webmaster) with request for confirmation? [[User:Mikkalai|Mikkalai]] 06:22, 14 Oct 2004 (UTC) ::BTW, I've already met this situation (related to the bio of some Rumanian professor), asked at pump, and got no answer (and safely forgot about the issue until now). IMO here is a hole in wikipolicies. [[User:Mikkalai|Mikkalai]] 06:25, 14 Oct 2004 (UTC) :::This was done in past. Email of site owner, as given on [http://free.bol.bg/slavpagan/home.html] is ogneslav@abv.bg and anyone interested can contact him and ask is he really Wikipedia user Ogneslav and then copy/paste the email here (I'd do it but it seems that he dislikes me). Perhaps he'd even permit others to use material from his site. [[User:Nikola Smolenski|Nikola]] 09:04, 14 Oct 2004 (UTC) :::: You also didn't understand my question: wikipedia's policies don't say how he '''himself''', from thr very beginning could confirm that he is the author, without '''me''' or '''you'''. [[User:Mikkalai|Mikkalai]] 14:58, 14 Oct 2004 (UTC) :::::Well, he '''himself''' '''''could not''''' from the very beginning confirm that he is the author. Period. ::::::'''That's''' what I am saying: wikipedia's policy has a hole. And there are ways to fix it.[[User:Mikkalai|Mikkalai]] 14:56, 15 Oct 2004 (UTC) :::::I have in past created a few pages where I'd just copy/paste text from a web site with nothing more than saying &quot;Text from http://website used with permission. &lt;nowiki&gt;~~~~&lt;/nowiki&gt;&quot; at the talk page. I was able to do this because, before that, I have contributed to Wikipedia for a long time, and none of my contributions are found to be copyright violations, and so everyone who reviewed the article knew that I understand and respect Wikipedia's copyright policy, and it is very unlikely that I would begin breaking it all of a sudden. On the other hand, this is a new user, who started to contribute copyrighted material, and there is possibility that he could be, as likely website owner, as someone who simply wants to use copyrighted material from the website and make false claims to get away with it. :::::This is all empty talk, however; wouldn't it be far easier and faster to simply e-mail the guy than to talk about what could have happened if something had happened? [[User:Nikola Smolenski|Nikola]] 07:37, 15 Oct 2004 (UTC) ::::::I don't care much about this topic and about the author. Do you think I cannot use e-mail? I am talking about the policy. I am going to summarize the talk at the corresponding pages. This disussion greatly helped me to understand what exactly I have to say. Thanks, guys. [[User:Mikkalai|Mikkalai]] 14:56, 15 Oct 2004 (UTC) :::::Read the copyvio boilerplate language. It says &quot;To the poster: If there was permission to use this material under terms of our license or if you are the copyright holder of the externally linked text, then please indicate so on this page's talk page.&quot;. [[User:RickK|Rick]][[User talk:RickK|K]] 19:26, Oct 14, 2004 (UTC) ::::::This was what was actually said in a frustrated way in the [[Talk:Slavic mythology#So guys]], according to which I entered the above note: ''&quot;Text from [http://free.bol.bg/slavpagan/deities.html webpage] owned by the contributor&quot;''. Your reaction was: &quot;how do we KNOW...&quot;. Please notice that your reaction would be equally valid, if the notice were: ''&quot;Text from [http://free.bol.bg/slavpagan/deities.html webpage] owned by '''me'''.&lt;signature&gt;&quot;''. You seem to miss the legal difference between an e-mail confirmation from an account associated with the webpage in question and a simple notice on the wikipedia talk page. [[User:Mikkalai|Mikkalai]] 19:51, 14 Oct 2004 (UTC) ::::::::I'm still waiting for you to point to the page where the original author of the page said it was his/her copyright and he/she has released it to GFDL in accordance with the line I quoted above. [[User:RickK|Rick]][[User talk:RickK|K]] 23:07, Oct 14, 2004 (UTC) ::::::::* You seem to '''again''' miss the legal difference between an e-mail confirmation from an account associated with the webpage in question and a simple notice on the wikipedia talk page. The advice in the copyvio notice is laughable from legal POV: ''if you are the copyright holder... please indicate so on this page's talk page''. How one may verify that the page editor is the owner? I may &quot;indicate&quot; I own [[Madonna (entertainer)|Madonna]]'s bare ass. And you're supposed to believe me until Madonna sues wikipedia? In this particular case I don't care about this nervous guy. I am pointing at a hole in the policy. The issue is credentials. In the case of an explicit request by another wikieditor, the credentials are the e-mail address of the respondent that matches the webpage info (weak, but triable). The advice you (and I) cited doesn't explain how to provide credentials. [[User:Mikkalai|Mikkalai]] 01:21, 15 Oct 2004 (UTC) ::::::::* Sorry, I forgot to answer your question. I've already pointed the page: [[Talk:Slavic mythology#So guys]]. It has: ''The last drop was that somebody, called &quot;administrator&quot;, deleted a number of my pages 'cause they were COPYRIGHT. He even adviced me in private to write in &quot;my own words&quot; - BUT THESE WERE MY OWN WORDS. He didn't even make the effort to look at the bottom of the source-site to see I am the copyright holder.'' This remark is just as good as any other. Notice also, contrary to your request, he has no duty to explicitely release to GFDL: in wikipedia GFDL is an opt-out; mere editing means release. [[User:Mikkalai|Mikkalai]] 01:29, 15 Oct 2004 (UTC) Great. That's what I was looking for. Now, was that so hard? [[User:RickK|Rick]][[User talk:RickK|K]] 19:26, Oct 15, 2004 (UTC) :No. But an easy way is no fun. [[User:Mikkalai|Mikkalai]] 19:53, 15 Oct 2004 (UTC) ==Perperuna== See [[Talk:Perperuna]]. `'[[user:mikkalai|mikka]] [[user talk:mikkalai|(t)]] 01:53, 25 July 2006 (UTC) == Section on ritual == The &quot;Ritual&quot; section makes four or five claims but has no sources for any of them. I'm not going to try to dig up sources on this subject, since I'm 100% unfamiliar with it, but it would improve the article if sources could be provided. [[User:Poihths|Poihths]] ([[User talk:Poihths|talk]]) 14:38, 14 May 2013 (UTC) == External links modified == Hello fellow Wikipedians, I have just modified {{plural:1|one external link|1 external links}} on [[Dodola]]. Please take a moment to review [https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?diff=prev&amp;oldid=754799110 my edit]. If you have any questions, or need the bot to ignore the links, or the page altogether, please visit [[User:Cyberpower678/FaQs#InternetArchiveBot|this simple FaQ]] for additional information. I made the following changes: *Added archive https://web.archive.org/web/20131228002745/http://egg.mnir.ro:80/pdf/Paliga_InflRomane.pdf to http://egg.mnir.ro/pdf/Paliga_InflRomane.pdf When you have finished reviewing my changes, please set the ''checked'' parameter below to '''true''' or '''failed''' to let others know (documentation at {{tlx|Sourcecheck}}). {{sourcecheck|checked=false}} Cheers.—[[User:InternetArchiveBot|'''&lt;span style=&quot;color:darkgrey;font-family:monospace&quot;&gt;InternetArchiveBot&lt;/span&gt;''']] &lt;span style=&quot;color:green;font-family:Rockwell&quot;&gt;([[User talk:InternetArchiveBot|Report bug]])&lt;/span&gt; 15:55, 14 December 2016 (UTC) == External links modified == Hello fellow Wikipedians, I have just modified one external link on [[Dodola]]. Please take a moment to review [[special:diff/816350836|my edit]]. If you have any questions, or need the bot to ignore the links, or the page altogether, please visit [[User:Cyberpower678/FaQs#InternetArchiveBot|this simple FaQ]] for additional information. I made the following changes: *Added archive https://web.archive.org/web/20120216225647/http://www.gbiblsk.edu.mk/images/stories/eknigi/zbornik.pdf to http://www.gbiblsk.edu.mk/images/stories/eknigi/zbornik.pdf When you have finished reviewing my changes, you may follow the instructions on the template below to fix any issues with the URLs. {{sourcecheck|checked=false|needhelp=}} Cheers.—[[User:InternetArchiveBot|'''&lt;span style=&quot;color:darkgrey;font-family:monospace&quot;&gt;InternetArchiveBot&lt;/span&gt;''']] &lt;span style=&quot;color:green;font-family:Rockwell&quot;&gt;([[User talk:InternetArchiveBot|Report bug]])&lt;/span&gt; 20:24, 20 December 2017 (UTC) == New revision == The article was in dire need of new revision because the old revision had many serious issues for many years. For e.g. most of the text was directly copied from sources but without proper attribution and sometimes from sources which weren't even cited; gave false weight to a dubious fringe theory by non-folklorists/mythologists about Thracian origin which is ignored in all other sources; some explanations, connections were erroneous and couldn't be confirmed in literature; the primary mythological and etymological focus is on Perperuna while Dodola as substitution not other way around; Dodola isn't known as Perperuna nor Perperuna is known as Dodola, these are two separate but very similar pagan customs with common origin; hence the article title will be changed to &quot;Perperuna and Dodola&quot;. [[User:Miki Filigranski|Miki Filigranski]] ([[User talk:Miki Filigranski|talk]]) 10:51, 23 July 2022 (UTC) :Before moving the article, discuss it here, please. I restored it to the name &quot;Dodola&quot; as it seems the most common one. The article title &quot;Perperuna and Dodola&quot; also appears to refer to a tradition that consists of both those figures, which is not the case. – [[User:Βατο|Βατο]] ([[User talk:Βατο|talk]]) 21:12, 23 July 2022 (UTC) ::1) As was already explained and as it is explained in the scientific literature, these are two separate but similar pagan customs which are often related by folklorists. We cannot have in the article title only one custom because they are not synonyms and SCOPE of the article much more focused, as shown by literature, to Perperuna and it's Slavic origin as well as connection to Slavic deity Perun. ::2) In your first [https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Dodola&amp;type=revision&amp;diff=1100019388&amp;oldid=1099979834 edit] you ignorantly and disruptively, as shown in the talk page discussion at [[Talk:Perëndi#Slavic loan]], made an anti-Slavic edit against the consensus in scientific literature about the connection with Slavic deity Perun, all of which was cited in the article, and replaced it in the LEAD with two irrelevant sources promoting or fringe theories making [[WP:FALSEBALANCE]] (Ḱulavkova's about Thracian origin which is ignored in almost all other cited literature besides three which were by linguists and historians i.e. also non-experts on the field violating [[WP:WEIGHT]]) or non-expert minor viewpoint by [[Andrew Wachtel]] instead of many other reliable sources which claim exactly the opposite. ::3) In anoted [https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Dodola&amp;diff=next&amp;oldid=1100019761 edit] removed the part that the fringe theory argues Thracian origin of Perun, claiming to be &quot;original research&quot; on my part although noted the pages in which is clearly stated by Kulavkova at pg. 20 (&quot;'''According to other beliefs, Perun, Perin, or Pirin was the supreme deity of the Thracians.'''&quot;) and by Dragnea at pg. 19, citing Paliga's fringe theory. ::4) [https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Dodola&amp;type=revision&amp;diff=1100025353&amp;oldid=1100021497 ignoring and removing] sourced viewpoint from reliable and reputable scholars, bringing false balance with a controversial source. ::5) [https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Dodola&amp;diff=next&amp;oldid=1100025353 removing] sourced information.--[[User:Miki Filigranski|Miki Filigranski]] ([[User talk:Miki Filigranski|talk]]) 21:51, 23 July 2022 (UTC) :Hey, thanks for improving the article, I would not have been able to collect these songs and history myself. I can't support &quot;origin&quot; part tho. There is literally 0 evidence for Perperuna being goddess and there is 0 evidence for direct connection to Perun. Pereplut is also unrelated name. Perun, Perkunas and Fjoryn are [[false cognate]]s and PIE [[perkwunos]] didn't exist (this article is not best place for this topic tho). Connecting Dodola with [[Dzidzilela]] (forged goddess) is folk etymology, the latter word comes from PS ''*did-'' &quot;big, great&quot; and it can't be different. [[Lada (mythology)|Lada]] is also forged goddess. Connecting Perperuna with [[Pripegala]] is also folk etymology. &quot;Perun's battle against Veles becuase of Perperuna/Dodola's kidnapping&quot; - where is this story attested? &quot;sometimes even hosts would drink wine in Perun's honor.&quot; - are you telling me that people still worshipped Perun in 19/20th century? This is not only nonneutral, but also just false. Etymology is more like speculation now, we should add modern, scientific views (Snoj maybe?) on this name (might be of onomatopeic orign and I don't think there is evidence that the Slavs created names by reduplication of the root). [[User:Sławobóg|Sławobóg]] ([[User talk:Sławobóg|talk]]) 21:29, 23 July 2022 (UTC) ::Don't get me wrong, but nobody cares about your personal opinion. I became tired months ago of reading these paragraphs of opinion. The vast majority of sources by relevant scholars claim there's a connection. Everything what you wrote is written in reliable and modern sources. Editing or removing that would be &quot;nonneutral&quot;. If there are any other modern, reliable sources by experts please list them here to check on them.--[[User:Miki Filigranski|Miki Filigranski]] ([[User talk:Miki Filigranski|talk]]) 21:51, 23 July 2022 (UTC) :::@Miki Filigranski there is no consensus, the rainmaking custom is a shared tradition among Balkan peoples, your preferred origin theory is just one of the proposed hypotheses. As for the name Perperuna, I think it is likely from Perun, but [[User:Sławobóg|Sławobóg]] maybe has a point here, and more recent academic sources should be analysed. The name Dodola is of uncertain origin. – [[User:Βατο|Βατο]] ([[User talk:Βατο|talk]]) 22:05, 23 July 2022 (UTC) ::::You don't have a basic clue of what you're saying, don't know anything about the topic, neither read all the sources, neither understand [[WP:WEIGHT]] policy as showed before. No, as showed and claimed on other article talk page, you're the one who has a preffered theory (and fringe one at best!), wants to [[WP:OWN]] the article by making false balance! --[[User:Miki Filigranski|Miki Filigranski]] ([[User talk:Miki Filigranski|talk]]) 22:18, 23 July 2022 (UTC) :::::No, the false balance is the [[WP:POV]] and [[WP:OR]] wording of the lead section: {{tquote|are Slavic rainmaking pagan customs which were mainly preserved among South Slavs and neighboring people until 20th century.}} Albanians, Greeks, Romanians, Aromanians/Vlachs, Hungarians are not Slavs, and the custom described in this article is a shared Balkan tradition. – [[User:Βατο|Βατο]] ([[User talk:Βατο|talk]]) 22:25, 23 July 2022 (UTC) ::::::Please stop! You don't have basic understanding of the topic neither read the sources neither even bother to read what's written in the article. That's majority viewpoint, it was sourced and totally not original research. You are making a total mess of it ([https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Dodola&amp;type=revision&amp;diff=1100043308&amp;oldid=1100032521]) as Dodola isn't alternatively known as Perperuna because these are separate customs (they even had separate articles until 2015 when were merged but due to same wrong reasoning). They are not synonyms. Neither the customs were confirmed to be found among Bosnians, and Montenegrins in general (Bay of Kotor was inhabited by a mixture of ethnic groups and it was found there only sporadically). I had enough of this. --[[User:Miki Filigranski|Miki Filigranski]] ([[User talk:Miki Filigranski|talk]]) 00:10, 24 July 2022 (UTC) ::::::: In my opinion, two points of view collide here. It is wise to strike a balance between them, although this is not easy. Regarding the title, the proposed new combined title reflects both views and is more neutral. I agree here with [[User:Miki Filigranski|Miki Filigranski]]. [[User:Jingiby|Jingiby]] ([[User talk:Jingiby|talk]]) 05:13, 24 July 2022 (UTC) ::::::::Miki Filigranski, so what's your proposal? Saying in the lead section that it is exclusively a Slavic practice is non neutral. I added, according to the sources, the population groups that are attested to have practiced the custom of rainmaking, whether it was called Dodola or Perperuna. If you have enough reliable sources that claim a clear distinction between the practices referred to as Dodola and Perperuna, then you can create two separate articles. I read that some communities refer to the same practice with the name Dodola (and variants), and other communities with the name Perperuna (and variants). I can agree to include both variants of the names in the article title, but &quot;Perperuna and Dodola&quot; appears to indicate that the custom is called as such, which is not the case. – [[User:Βατο|Βατο]] ([[User talk:Βατο|talk]]) 08:35, 24 July 2022 (UTC) :::::::::It is a practice of Slavic origin, related to Slavic deity Perun. That is the majority viewpoint in the RS. Removing that from the LEAD is non neutral. You even added ethnic groups among whom wasn't attested citing a bad source. The sources making clear distinction are already cited and there's no point in making separate article when these two customs are scholarly related. &quot;Perperuna and Dodola&quot; don't indicate anyhow that the custom is called with a single name &quot;Perperuna and Dodola&quot;. --[[User:Miki Filigranski|Miki Filigranski]] ([[User talk:Miki Filigranski|talk]]) 10:33, 24 July 2022 (UTC) ::::Okay, I found the book. [[Stanisław Urbańczyk|Urbańczyk]] debunked Jakobson's etymology. ''perperuda'', ''pepeluga'' etc. are related to Proto-Slavic ''*perpera'', ''*perperъka'' &quot;[[Common quail]]&quot; and these are related to ''*pъrpati'' (onomatopoeic), cf. Polish dial. ''perpotać'', ''perpac'', Old East Slavic ''poropriti''. So mystery has been solved. Meanwhile author himself reacts with aggression because someone tells him that the article is extremely one-sided. Having information about alleged relation between Perun and Perperuna is ok, since it actually is popular view, but it is not only view and it was criticised by other linguists. Btw Grimm is bad source. [[User:Sławobóg|Sławobóg]] ([[User talk:Sławobóg|talk]]) 10:45, 24 July 2022 (UTC) :::::Thanks @Sławobóg, the etymology you provided is interesting. @Miki Filigranski your statement {{tquote|It is a practice of Slavic origi}} is not supported by many scholars: there is not certainty about the origins of the practice. but there seems to be agreement among scholars that the name for the Balkan rainmaden ''Perperuna'' (and variants) is most likely of Slavic origin. The rainmaking custom is a Pan-Balkan practice, attested in the region at least since Classical Antiquity. I've just found a recent source: {{cite journal|last=Burns|first=Richard|title=Rain and Dust|journal=[[Studia Mythologica Slavica]]|volume=XI|issn=1581-128X|doi=10.3986/sms.v11i0.1696|year=2008|pp=217-236}} which provides further information about the usage of the names, and analysis on some scholars' views, also: {{tquote|&quot;The paper opens conjectures that relate the Balkan practice to two ancient Mediterranean mythological motifs: first, to Minoan and Mycenaean rainmaking invocations, and, secondly, to the goddess Persephone, via the theories of V. V. Ivanov and V. I. Toporov.&quot;}} – [[User:Βατο|Βατο]] ([[User talk:Βατο|talk]]) 10:53, 24 July 2022 (UTC) ::::::@Sławobóg, thanks, that's just an opinion though (please provide details of the source), but indeed doesn't change the fact it is of Slavic origin (and related to Perun per majority viewpoint). @Βατο, in the article are already cited more than 12 reliable sources by many different scholars. I mostly agree with other things you said, but didn't mention anything not already cited in the article. To be noted, Burns source is reliable to cite on scholars' views, but unreliable source for Burns viewpoint. He is a poet, not a scientist. --[[User:Miki Filigranski|Miki Filigranski]] ([[User talk:Miki Filigranski|talk]]) 11:25, 24 July 2022 (UTC) :::::::Jakobson's idea that Perperuna comes from Perun is also &quot;just an opinion&quot;, what is wrong with you? Additionally, Urbańczyk's etymology is more scientifically correct, because it explains the doubling of the root ''per-'', because there is no evidence for duplication of the root for feminine names and I have other book about that (which also supports Urbańczyk's idea). He says that ritual is known to Greeks and Albanians and it should be established actual origin first. He later say Perperuna might be related to words I mentioned before (also Polish ''przepierzyca''), not only because of etymology, also because quail (in Polish folklore) '''is associated with the harvest rites and is the name of the bride in the wedding dance'''. So I guess Slavic origin is very possible (from the bird). {{Cite book|last=Urbańczyk|first=Stanisław|title=Dawni Słowianie. Wiara i kult|date=1991|place=Wrocław|language=pl|author-link=Stanisław Urbańczyk|publisher=Ossolineum}} | [[User:Sławobóg|Sławobóg]] ([[User talk:Sławobóg|talk]]) 11:48, 24 July 2022 (UTC) ::::::::I found the text and it can be hardly called a debunking as you described it in your comment. Urbańczyk only said that Jakobson's opinion needs caution, he didn't refute it. We also have reliable sources which support Jakobson (and Slavic origin, relation to Mokosh etc.), including lately [[Patrice Lajoye]] (2015, pg. 107–115 etc.). Do you have other sources which mention or support Urbańczyk's derivation from the bird?--[[User:Miki Filigranski|Miki Filigranski]] ([[User talk:Miki Filigranski|talk]]) 12:07, 24 July 2022 (UTC) :::::::::Yes, Łuczyński (2020) ''Bogowie dawnych Słowian. Studium onomastyczne''. Additionally, the article does not mention at all that ''peperuda'' means &quot;butterfly&quot; in Bulgarian (mentioned in Russian and Bulgarian wiki)'''!!!''' [https://ibl.bas.bg/lib/ber_5/#page/82/mode/1up Български етимологичен речник] (vol 5, p. 162) has 2 pages of etymology of this word, also mentioning ''*perperica'' and other ideas, but image quality makes it too hard to read for me. There [https://starlingdb.org/cgi-bin/etymology.cgi?single=1&amp;basename=%2Fdata%2Fsemham%2Flecet&amp;text_number=+652&amp;root=config is] also Proto-Kartvelian root ''*ṗerṗer-'' / ''*perpel-'' &quot;butterfly&quot; connected with PS ''*perperъka''. It is clear from the Bulgarian dictionary that the subject is complicated and the etymologies are many, and that the article is not neutral and tries by force to push through Jakobson's etymology repeated uncritically by later authors. In the case of Slavic mythology/folklore, Western scholars often mindlessly (I'm not exaggerating) repeat various stupidities and rarely have a clue what they are writing about, cf. [https://web.archive.org/web/20170804140911/http://www.mathieu-colas.fr/michel/Classes/Dieux_slaves_et_baltes.pdf Mathieu-Colas]. I'm not comparing Lajoye or Evans to that, but we should be sceptic about Western optimism. [[Natko Nodilo]] is also pretty bad source (see [[Svetovit#In_Serbia]]). [[User:Sławobóg|Sławobóg]] ([[User talk:Sławobóg|talk]]) 14:00, 24 July 2022 (UTC) ::::::::::Thanks. The part about butterfly is quoted in 4th reference, forgot to expand more on it citing other sources. The association is mythological, doesn't make sense such a widespread pagan custom derives from a Bulgarian word for butterfly and shows that the Bulgarian word for butterfly derives instead from the mythological background to which is related the custom. If not, as in the case of cited Proto-Karvelian, occurred secondary associations of unrelated words. Will expand more regarding the etymology in general. Sorry, but you're using hard words and claims here. The article is properly and reliably edited according to WEIGHT, and tried to be careful with using them.--[[User:Miki Filigranski|Miki Filigranski]] ([[User talk:Miki Filigranski|talk]]) 14:14, 24 July 2022 (UTC) :::::@Sławobóg I have not a preference about the article title, could you suggest something about this issue? It seems that Dodola is the most common name, and in some communities both names (and variants) are found, even in the same song. – [[User:Βατο|Βατο]] ([[User talk:Βατο|talk]]) 11:07, 24 July 2022 (UTC) ::::::Is Dodola really more popular than Perperuna? I think modern, scientific or popular, usage also counts? I think &quot;Dodola and Perperuna&quot; would be good, but I'm not 100% sure. [[User:Sławobóg|Sławobóg]] ([[User talk:Sławobóg|talk]]) 11:35, 24 July 2022 (UTC) :::::::I've seen it by a first check on Google search and Google books, and in general Dodola seems to be more common. But I am not sure which is more common in recent sources and popular usage. Perhaps Burns' (2008) information could be useful: {{tquote|&quot;The various names have been el-egantly mapped by Plotnikova (1999) to reveal regional variations. Names of the ''dodola'' type, which I designate as the 'central' group, are more common in Serbia, Bosnia, and names of the ''peperuga'' or ''perperuda'' type, designated as the 'eastern and southern group', tend to be more frequent in Bulgaria, Rumania, Moldovia, Albania, Thessaly and Epirus (Burns 2006a: 35, 37-38 &amp; 42). In the border-area of dialect-continua between Bulgaria and Serbia, as in Macedonia, both verbal variants appear in the same song.&quot;}} – [[User:Βατο|Βατο]] ([[User talk:Βατο|talk]]) 12:11, 24 July 2022 (UTC) ::::::::Well, &quot;Dodola and Perperuna&quot; is ok then. If the name depends on the region, then we should not discriminate against any of them. It may be clunky, but it will be fair. [[User:Sławobóg|Sławobóg]] ([[User talk:Sławobóg|talk]]) 13:01, 24 July 2022 (UTC) ::::::::The name depends on the custom, songs and name of central character. These are two separate types. There can be made correlations based on regions, but not causations on which depends the name. Regarding the distribution, it strangely omits Croatia and mentions Bosnia, check the [https://ibb.co/rMgMqqL map] from Čulinović-Konstantinović &quot;Dodole and prporuše: folk customs for invoking the rain&quot; (note how's titled the source). I am okay with the title &quot;Dodola and Perperuna&quot;.--[[User:Miki Filigranski|Miki Filigranski]] ([[User talk:Miki Filigranski|talk]]) 13:27, 24 July 2022 (UTC) :::::::::Agreed, @Miki Filigranski feel free to make the page move. – [[User:Βατο|Βατο]] ([[User talk:Βατο|talk]]) 13:31, 24 July 2022 (UTC) ===Other sources=== {{ping|Sławobóg}} Czesław Białczyński in his ''Mitologia słowiańska'' (1999), not a reliable and scientific source, mentions: &lt;small&gt;PERPERUNA (Peperuna, Perperuda, Prperousza, Pe-runica). Jej istyjskim odpowiednikiem jest Perkunija. Runa - od rdzenia run ma takie same znaczenia jak wyżej, ale także w obocznej postaci zachowanej u Bułgarów - Perperuda - kędzierzawa, bo ruda kosa - kędzierzawe włosy, kędziory, rudica - zbita wełna, rudina - niwa, rudy - czerwony, błotny, bagnisty (co wskazuje, podobnie jak u Peruna, na jej związek z wodą), pokryty rudą - czyli naleciałością żelazistą, barwy rdzawej. Z powyższego zestawienia wynika, że Perperuna musiała mieć kręcone, gęste, kędzierzawe włosy rudej barwy. Były cztery boginie o rudych włosach: Perperuna, Ruda-Ródź, Swara (o włosach płomiennych) i Krasatina (o włosach krasnych i krasnym licu).&lt;/small&gt; &lt;small&gt;O świętości rośliny paproci, której nazwa przechowała imię bogini Ródzi-Pap-rudy, świadczy jej związek nazewniczy z boskim rdzeniem per (Perun, Perperuna, Perepłut, Pripegala, Prowe, Porenut, Puruvit, Porewit, Spór). Przechowane przez Bułgarów i Macedończyków miano Perperuda nie jest powtórzeniem serbskiego i chorwackiego imienia żony Peruna - Perperuna, lecz imieniem bogini Rodzi, córki Roda, kochanki Perunica. Związek Perperudy z Peruni-cem znajduje także odbicie w nazwie świętego zioła pe-runiki.&lt;/small&gt; I have a hard time reading the source, but does it cite any reference? Do you know of any Polish source which makes the same claim?--[[User:Miki Filigranski|Miki Filigranski]] ([[User talk:Miki Filigranski|talk]]) 14:25, 24 July 2022 (UTC) :Białczyński is turboslavic, he promotes Great Lechia and believes that Proto-Indo-European = Proto-Slavic. In his books he forges new gods. Nothing to talk about tbh. See [[List of Slavic pseudo-deities]]. [[User:Sławobóg|Sławobóg]] ([[User talk:Sławobóg|talk]]) 14:53, 24 July 2022 (UTC) ::Had the same impression.--[[User:Miki Filigranski|Miki Filigranski]] ([[User talk:Miki Filigranski|talk]]) 16:52, 24 July 2022 (UTC) {{ping|Sławobóg}} Łuczyński, ''Bogowie dawnych Słowian. Studium onomastyczne'' (2020), can you please make a full quote and provide page?--[[User:Miki Filigranski|Miki Filigranski]] ([[User talk:Miki Filigranski|talk]]) 14:31, 24 July 2022 (UTC) :Page 141: Autor ten [Jakobson] wychodzi z założenia, że nazwa ta [Pereplut] stanowi jeden z wielu wariantów fonetycznych i morfologicznych teonimu Perun [...] powołując się przy tym na brzmieniowe podobieństwo z terminem obrzędowym serb. ''prporusa'', bułg. ''pe(r)peruna'', ''pe(r)peruda'' i in. [...] Wywód Jakobsona podważył jednak S. Urbańczyk, wzkazując na związek nazw typu ''peperuda'', ''pepeluga'' i in. z psł. ''*perpere'', ''*perperъka'' &quot;przepiórka&quot;. Leksemy wskazane przez R. Jakobsona wywodzą się z psł. ''*pr̥pati'' vb. pochodzenia dźwiękonaśladowczego, por. np. (polish and OES words here) [...] Bałkański termin obrzędowy nie jest więc spokrewniony etymologicznie ze srus. teonimem, w jego wypadku można mówić o reduplikacji rdzenia onomatopeicznego i szeregu przekształceń fonetycznych (np. regularny rozwój ''-er-'' &lt; ''r̥''; wtórny konsonantym d &lt; n), przez co hipoteza Jakobsona traci rację bytu. Pozwala to na odrzucenie interpretacji tego badaczu z powodu trudności formalnych. :Page 279: I wreszcie, nic nie przemawia za tym, by w słowiańskiej teonimii istniały pary nazewnicze: model na tworzeniu form feminatywnych od męskich imion osobowych nie był, w świetle wiarygodnych danych, w tej kategorii produktywny, w związku z czym można przyjąć, że brak był (często postulowanych) par typu ''*Perunъ'' - ''*Perynь'' (lub ''Perperuna''), ''*Velesъ'' - ''*Vela'', na wróz np. sind. Indra - Indrani, Agni - Agnani... [[User:Sławobóg|Sławobóg]] ([[User talk:Sławobóg|talk]]) 15:08, 24 July 2022 (UTC) ::Great, thanks! --[[User:Miki Filigranski|Miki Filigranski]] ([[User talk:Miki Filigranski|talk]]) 16:52, 24 July 2022 (UTC) @Miki Filigranski, since you highlighted inaccuracies regarding the spread of the custom, could you propose a compromise wording between the information provided by Muraj (1987) and that provided by Ḱulavkova (2020)? – [[User:Βατο|Βατο]] ([[User talk:Βατο|talk]]) 08:23, 26 July 2022 (UTC) :In the article are cited several reliable sources, not only Muraj (1987), describing the spread of the custom. In the new sources the mistake is regarding the distribution on the territory of former Yugoslavia. I would say that the best source for the former Yugoslavian territory is still Čulinović-Konstantinović (1963). It was more prevalent among Croats than Serbs in Croatia, and don't know what's the reason for mentioning Bosnians. Natko Nodilo (1884) mentioned that West of river Vrbas, which would be Western part of Bosnia and Herzegovina, Dodola and Prporuša were known as ''Čaro(j)ice'', but couldn't verify and confirm the association in other sources. ''Čaroice'' was a different custom mainly around December and rarely Poklade (May) in which boys were dressed as girls or animals - not greenery, it was found among both Orthodox, Catholic and Muslim people and each group visited houses of other religion, and the song lyrics were also different. I would stick to countries and regions rather than ethnic groups (for now would remove Bosnia and Herzegovina). Anyway, currently am preparing a new edit which will include and expand the POV from new sources provided by you and Sławobóg. --[[User:Miki Filigranski|Miki Filigranski]] ([[User talk:Miki Filigranski|talk]]) 12:33, 26 July 2022 (UTC) ::Ok, feel free to make any wording reasonably in agreement with RS and with evidence from field research. – [[User:Βατο|Βατο]] ([[User talk:Βατο|talk]]) 22:24, 26 July 2022 (UTC) [https://archive.org/details/KlimovEtymological/page/n165/mode/2up Proto-Kartvelian *p̣erp̣er- &quot;butterfly&quot;] - most likely ultimate source. That explains Balkan-only range of the word, custom and pseudogoddess. [[User:Sławobóg|Sławobóg]] ([[User talk:Sławobóg|talk]]) 12:16, 24 September 2022 (UTC) :Do we have a RS which connects it to Perperuna/Dodola customs? How a Proto-Kartvelian language of Caucasus is the most likely ultimate source? How it explains Balkan-only range of the word, custom etc.?--[[User:Miki Filigranski|Miki Filigranski]] ([[User talk:Miki Filigranski|talk]]) 22:41, 27 September 2022 (UTC) ::I haven't done a good research yet, I found this partly by accident and am putting it here so as not to forget, and maybe someone else will find something more about it. It is possible that we are dealing here with a Wanderword. Borrowing is possible, compare [[wikt:κῶας|κῶας]]. See also [[wikt:πεταλούδα|πεταλούδα]] (especially the suffix -da). [[User:Sławobóg|Sławobóg]] ([[User talk:Sławobóg|talk]]) 09:42, 28 September 2022 (UTC) ==Article's scope and name== The article is about the rainmaking tradition of different peoples in Southeast Europe. The article gives [[WP:UNDUE WEIGHT]] to the etymological speculations concerning this rainmaking tradition, only based on the hypothetical link with the Slavic god Perun. In some regions it is not even known with names that could be linked to Perun. The rainmaking practice is attested among Balkan peoles since antiquity, the speculations according to which peoples who already practiced it adopted it from incoming Slavs in the early Middle Ages is not reasonable, and should have its due weight into the article. Since there is no [[WP:COMMONNAME]] for the rainmaking practice, clearly because different peoples refer to it in different terms, I propose a move to the title ''Rainmaking (Balkans)'' or ''Rainmaking (Southeast Europe)''. The article should also be reworded giving due weight to all the South Eastern/Balkan traditions. – [[User:Βατο|Βατο]] ([[User talk:Βατο|talk]]) 10:19, 22 August 2024 (UTC) *I don't think three sentences about Perun in such a large article is undue weight (and it may be trimmed further, because I see repetitions). --[[user:Altenmann|Altenmann]] [[user talk:Altenmann|&gt;talk]] 19:04, 22 August 2024 (UTC) **Your suggested title is bad because (a) &quot;[[Balkans]]&quot; is a vague term and (b) Romania is in Southeast Europe, but we have [[Caloian]] for Romanian rainmaking. --[[user:Altenmann|Altenmann]] [[user talk:Altenmann|&gt;talk]] 19:04, 22 August 2024 (UTC) :::I see that [[Caloian]] consists also of a similar rainmaking practice. But that's not relevant for this discussion, a title ''Rainmaking (Southeast Europe)'' is necessary in this case, because this article is about similar rainmaking practices of several peoples in Southeast Europe. The title ''Dodola and Perperuna'' is restrictive and POV, bacause it selects only two terms that are given to the girl that performs the ritual, despite the fact that there are many of those names, and there are even traditions based on a male figure, and it is misleading because the rainmaking ritual is not called &quot;Dodola and Perperuna&quot;. If this title will be kept, then a split into ''Rainmaking (Southeast Europe)'' should be made, and this article should focus only on the rainmaking girl figure, but I think a standalone article for such a subject would not be appropriate. – [[User:Βατο|Βατο]] ([[User talk:Βατο|talk]]) 19:48, 22 August 2024 (UTC) ::::I see. Then [[Rainmaking (Southeast Europe)]] will me good and a summary section about [[Calojan]] may be incorporated per [[WP:Summary style]]. --[[user:Altenmann|Altenmann]] [[user talk:Altenmann|&gt;talk]] :::In the scientific literature, the rainmaking custom(s) Dodola and Perperuna are usually related. The article is only about these two customs, and they are usually separated from the Caloian custom. The link with the Slavic god Perun and the Slavs is mainstream and majority viewpoint in the literature - claiming that it is &quot;not reasonable&quot; is a very bold non-mainstream statement and pushing a fringe autochthonistic POV. We already had a discussion before. In the article was already cited everything or almost everything about the topic. There's nothing else much which could be done and to be reworded. You first need to provide new citations and reach a consensus before trying to change both the scope and the title of the article.--[[User:Miki Filigranski|Miki Filigranski]] ([[User talk:Miki Filigranski|talk]]) 17:55, 23 August 2024 (UTC) :::[[User:Βατο|Βατο]], we already had this discussion, and after 2 years you made a series of edits changing the NPOV of the article, but without providing new citations and evidence, and then pushing the change of the scope and title of the article. I must boldly revert all your edits per BRD. First discuss and reach a consensus.--[[User:Miki Filigranski|Miki Filigranski]] ([[User talk:Miki Filigranski|talk]]) 18:09, 23 August 2024 (UTC) ::::Before bold reverting my sourced additions, state your concerns here, please. The article is far from neutral and clear about the different traditions. And the pushing in the lede of one of the several hypothetical origins is not the proper way to address NOPOV issues. You even restored this erroneous description in the lede: {{tquote|are ancient Slavic rainmaking pagan customs practiced until the 20th century. The tradition is found in South Slavic countries (Bulgaria, Croatia, North Macedonia, Montenegro, and Serbia), as well as in near Albania, Greece, Hungary, Moldova and Romania.}} The traditions are not &quot;ancient Slavic rainmaking pagan customs&quot; found in South Slavic countries and &quot;in near&quot; non Slavic countries, but a tradition found among different peoples of Southeast Europe. – [[User:Βατο|Βατο]] ([[User talk:Βατο|talk]]) 18:37, 23 August 2024 (UTC) :::::You almost didn't make any sourced additions to change the NPOV and BALANCE of the article, and you were doing it by removing reliably sourced information ([https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Dodola_and_Perperuna&amp;diff=next&amp;oldid=1241641872#External_links]) erroenously claiming it is an &quot;erroenous statement&quot;, a statement which is critical of the fringe autochthonistic POV you're pushing. The article was NEUTRAL and according to the RS. This what you're doing is PUSHING a non-mainstream, non-Slavic, fringe autochthonistic POV not supported by the majority of the RS. --[[User:Miki Filigranski|Miki Filigranski]] ([[User talk:Miki Filigranski|talk]]) 18:53, 23 August 2024 (UTC) ::::::Yes, I removed it because it falsely claims that rainmaking rituals are not found in southern Greece. Add the full context and arguments, then we can see whether that information can stay. And many scholars' views already included in the article cannot be considered [[WP:FRINGE]]. – [[User:Βατο|Βατο]] ([[User talk:Βατο|talk]]) 19:02, 23 August 2024 (UTC) :::::::You're ignoring the amount of RS for a specific viewpoint. You broke the NPOV, ignore WEIGHT.--[[User:Miki Filigranski|Miki Filigranski]] ([[User talk:Miki Filigranski|talk]]) 19:21, 23 August 2024 (UTC) :::::: Also, the names of the male figures of different rituals found in some South Slavic traditions should be added as well, because as it is now, the article reports only the names of the female figures. – [[User:Βατο|Βατο]] ([[User talk:Βατο|talk]]) 19:06, 23 August 2024 (UTC) :::::::It doesn't.--[[User:Miki Filigranski|Miki Filigranski]] ([[User talk:Miki Filigranski|talk]]) 19:21, 23 August 2024 (UTC) ::::::::Reading the section &quot;Ritual&quot;, I understood, although not clearly, that ''Prpac/Prpats'' are names of the male figure. Is that correct? Do those names appear in songs alongside the name of the female figure? I think they should be added in the section &quot;Names&quot; as well. – [[User:Βατο|Βατο]] ([[User talk:Βατο|talk]]) 19:56, 23 August 2024 (UTC) :::::::::First and foremost, please do not boldly edit the article doing substantial changes to the NPOV, scope and else of the article when you are not informed about the topic and making one after another misunderstandings upon which you make false claims about the topic and article. It is complex ritual and there's no &quot;yes and no&quot; answer. You need to differentiate a bit the name of the custom/folk song, from name of the female/male figure. Perperuna was mostly performed by a chosen boy (the one who is acting), and the chosen boy/leader could have been named, in Croatia for example where Perperuna custom is called Prporuša, as a Prporuša/Prporuš/Prpac etc. but also his singing companions as Prporuše. The name ''Prpac/Prpats'', which are local variants, do not appear in the song, they were names given by local people/audience to the chosen boy/leader/actor. There's only one figure in songs, or Perperuna or Dodola, but there do exist exceptions in Macedonia where both Perperuna and Dodola are mentioned in the same song.--[[User:Miki Filigranski|Miki Filigranski]] ([[User talk:Miki Filigranski|talk]]) 11:23, 31 August 2024 (UTC) :::::::::Βατο, please, do NOT make any edits these days as I have to review every and each edit you've made. I will re-incorporate reliably sourced information into the stable NPOV revision. The new revision you made is a complete mess, pushing Albanian case to the forefront of the customs, from the LEAD to the main body of the article. Making a complete disbalance of the content. --[[User:Miki Filigranski|Miki Filigranski]] ([[User talk:Miki Filigranski|talk]]) 11:50, 31 August 2024 (UTC) :::::::::Not only you changed wording without care about NPOV and WEIGHT, removed several reliably sourced content or emphasized different content (especially about Albania), placed new text in wrong sections, asking for citation needed where's none needed, removed images, etc., what's worse for new citations you used different citation style. Do you understand how much checking and clean-up your edits need? --[[User:Miki Filigranski|Miki Filigranski]] ([[User talk:Miki Filigranski|talk]]) 12:48, 31 August 2024 (UTC) ::::::::::{{reply|Miki Filigranski}} I reverted your bold removal of 7,971 bytes of well surced content. You are free to edit the article, but don't remove sourced material. My edits don't need &quot;checking and clean-up&quot;, they are added precisely according to Wikipedia policies and guidelines. The citation style has nothing wrong. – [[User:Βατο|Βατο]] ([[User talk:Βατο|talk]]) 13:01, 31 August 2024 (UTC) :::::::::::{{reply|Βατο}} No. This what you are doing is gaming the system. You don't respect [[WP:BRD]], you don't care another editor is reverting and constantly warning you. This wasn't bold removal of sourced content, it is about stable revision, NPOV - about which you don't care - as you are making major edits and pushing for the scope and title change in the same time - without any prior discussion, resolution and consensus. Article needs to have a common citation style. --[[User:Miki Filigranski|Miki Filigranski]] ([[User talk:Miki Filigranski|talk]]) 13:10, 31 August 2024 (UTC) ::::::::::::There is no &quot;gaming the system&quot; in adding sourced information about this tradition. Discuss here the content that you consider problematic, don't remove 7,971 bytes of well surced content appealing to NPOV and BRD, while not even discussing a single sentence of my additions. – [[User:Βατο|Βατο]] ([[User talk:Βατο|talk]]) 13:18, 31 August 2024 (UTC) ::::::::::::::No, there's no issue itself with adding sourced information, but how are you adding it, where are you adding it, in the process removing NPOV wording, removing previous content, and in the same time pushing for scope and title change because the old, stable revision wasn't according to the your vision of the article. In the meantime you don't care that another editors reverted your edits. You don't care about their comments. You are the one who needs to start discussions - and in the meantime - not edit warring pushing your edits and new revision. I will just re-incorporate your edits - as much as possible - to the old, stable revision, and from there and then we can discuss what's Your problem with the article and content.--[[User:Miki Filigranski|Miki Filigranski]] ([[User talk:Miki Filigranski|talk]]) 13:26, 31 August 2024 (UTC) :::::::::::::::Again, I see only general statements, please, address one by one the issues you have with the well sourced content about this tradition that I added. – [[User:Βατο|Βατο]] ([[User talk:Βατο|talk]]) 13:29, 31 August 2024 (UTC) ::::::::::::::::No, I won't. As said, will make a third revision which will incorporate your additions. Then we can have a discussion - and You are the one whose going to address one by one the issues you have with the article. It's up to You to step up, not me. You are the one whose trying to change the NPOV, scope and title of the article.--[[User:Miki Filigranski|Miki Filigranski]] ([[User talk:Miki Filigranski|talk]]) 14:11, 31 August 2024 (UTC) :::::::::::::::::Then you should not remove 7,971 bytes of well surced content. – [[User:Βατο|Βατο]] ([[User talk:Βατο|talk]]) 14:26, 31 August 2024 (UTC) {{ping|Sławobóg|Jingiby}} you participated in the old discussion &quot;[[Talk:Dodola and Perperuna#New revision]]&quot; two years ago, please give your verdict to the proposed changes and bold editing ([https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Dodola_and_Perperuna&amp;diff=1241890819&amp;oldid=1241888598]) by user Βατο with whom we discussed two years ago, thanks.--[[User:Miki Filigranski|Miki Filigranski]] ([[User talk:Miki Filigranski|talk]]) 19:18, 23 August 2024 (UTC) == Requested move 22 August 2024 == &lt;div class=&quot;boilerplate mw-archivedtalk&quot; style=&quot;background-color: var(--background-color-success-subtle, #efe); color: var(--color-base, #000); margin: 0; padding: 0 10px 0 10px; border: 1px dotted var(--border-color-subtle, #AAAAAA);&quot;&gt;&lt;!-- Template:RM top --&gt; :''The following is a closed discussion of a [[Wikipedia:Requested moves|requested move]]. &lt;span style=&quot;color: var(--color-error, red);&quot;&gt;'''Please do not modify it.'''&lt;/span&gt; Subsequent comments should be made in a new section on the talk page. Editors desiring to contest the closing decision should consider a [[Wikipedia:move review|move review]] after discussing it on the closer's talk page. No further edits should be made to this discussion.'' The result of the move request was: '''no consensus.''' Given that after a relist 1 month ago there's been no further participation, one support was conditional under a merge, and there was concern expressed about the new title not being formatted as [[WP:NDESC]], I don't see any consensus at this point. &lt;small&gt;([[Wikipedia:Requested moves/Closing instructions#Closure by a page mover|closed by non-admin page mover]])&lt;/small&gt; [[User:Zippybonzo|Zippybonzo]] &amp;#124; [[User talk:Zippybonzo|&lt;small&gt;talk&lt;/small&gt;]] &amp;#124; [[Special:Contributions/Zippybonzo|&lt;small&gt;contribs&lt;/small&gt;]] (they/them) 18:59, 9 October 2024 (UTC) ---- [[:Dodola and Perperuna]] → {{no redirect|Rainmaking (Southeast Europe)}} – see the discussion above. We also have the generic [[Rainmaking (ritual)]] page (techical nomination; '''no vote''') --[[user:Altenmann|Altenmann]] [[user talk:Altenmann|&gt;talk]] 20:15, 22 August 2024 (UTC) &lt;small&gt;—&amp;nbsp;'''''Relisting.'''''&amp;nbsp;[[User_talk:Asukite|&lt;span style=&quot;color:Purple;font-size:medium;font-family:Bradley Hand ITC&quot;&gt; ASUKITE&lt;/span&gt;]] 21:16, 30 August 2024 (UTC)&lt;/small&gt; *'''Support''', repeating my explanation in the discussion above: the title ''Rainmaking (Southeast Europe)'' is necessary in this case, because this article is about similar rainmaking practices of several peoples in Southeast Europe. The title ''Dodola and Perperuna'' is restrictive and POV, bacause it selects only two terms that are given to the girl that performs the ritual, despite the fact that there are many of those names, and there are even traditions based on a male figure, and it is misleading because the rainmaking ritual is not called &quot;Dodola and Perperuna&quot;. If this title will be kept, then a split into ''Rainmaking (Southeast Europe)'' should be made, and this article should focus only on the rainmaking girl figure, but I think a standalone article for such a subject would not be appropriate. Concerning the generic article [[Rainmaking (ritual)]], the Southeast European practices have enough coverage in reliable sources to deserve a standalone article. – [[User:Βατο|Βατο]] ([[User talk:Βατο|talk]]) 21:07, 22 August 2024 (UTC) * That is a bad title, it should be formatted as [[WP:NDESC]] and not as disambiguation, because it's not like &quot;rainmaking&quot; is ''called'' like this in southeastern Europe, you just want to be describing the history of these specific pagan rainmaking customs in those locations. --[[User:Joy|Joy]] ([[User talk:Joy|talk]]) 09:20, 23 August 2024 (UTC) ::A simple solution to that issue could be the title ''Rainmaking in Southeast Europe''. – [[User:Βατο|Βατο]] ([[User talk:Βατο|talk]]) 11:25, 23 August 2024 (UTC) * '''Oppose''', as already stated, in the scientific literature, the rainmaking custom(s) Dodola and Perperuna are usually related. The article is only about these two customs, and they are usually separated from the Caloian custom. The link with the Slavic god Perun and the Slavs is mainstream and majority viewpoint in the literature. In the article was already cited everything or almost everything about the topic. The change of the scope and the title first need long discussion with new citations/evidence and reach a consensus. Otherwise the new version of the article will be a FRINGE and UNDUE WEIGHT autochthonistic POV connection of Dodola and Perperuna custom(s) with Caloian custom etc., which isn't the case in the reliable sources.--[[User:Miki Filigranski|Miki Filigranski]] ([[User talk:Miki Filigranski|talk]]) 18:06, 23 August 2024 (UTC) ::Caloian custom argument is completely irrelevant for the request move. The concerns I listed above still remain with the title &quot;Dodola and Perperuna&quot;, but they would be solved with the title &quot;Rainmaking in Southeast Europe&quot;. As for the Perun link, there are songs in southwestern Albania expressly addressing the Sun (Albanian: [[Dielli (Albanian paganism)|Dielli]]) as the divine figure during the ritual songs, not Perun. – [[User:Βατο|Βατο]] ([[User talk:Βατο|talk]]) 20:01, 23 August 2024 (UTC) :::It isn't, that's the end goal, that's the intention, that's the reasoning this request move and forced editing is based on. Otherwise there wouldn't be such a forced pushing against Slavic mainstream POV. What some folk songs in southwestern Albania have to do with Dodola and Perperuna? Even if they do - but only according to RS - they do not change the fact about the mainstream POV and NPOV in general.--[[User:Miki Filigranski|Miki Filigranski]] ([[User talk:Miki Filigranski|talk]]) 10:43, 31 August 2024 (UTC) ::::&quot;{{tquote|What some folk songs in southwestern Albania have to do with Dodola and Perperuna?}}&quot; they have to do with the subject of this article because they are rainmaking pagan customs performed by a boy dressed in leaves and singing ritual songs, like other tradtions of this article. &quot;{{tquote|such a forced pushing against Slavic mainstream POV}}, actually, the POV-pushing is claiming a Slavic exclusivity for a tradition that is shared between several Balkan peoples, not only Slavic ones. – [[User:Βατο|Βατο]] ([[User talk:Βατο|talk]]) 13:12, 31 August 2024 (UTC) :::::No, that's not the reasoning - the folk songs, the names of Dodola and Perperuna are. No, the mainstream WEIGHT is about the Slavic origin, not exclusivity. There isn't pushed any Slavic exclusivity, and as mainstream sources consider, it's a tradition which was most probably spread by Slavic people which migrated in and influenced all Balkan countries and peoples.--[[User:Miki Filigranski|Miki Filigranski]] ([[User talk:Miki Filigranski|talk]]) 13:19, 31 August 2024 (UTC) ::::::The article clarifies in a sourced statement: {{tquote|The rainmaking practice is a shared tradition among Balkan peoples, and it is not clear who borrowed it from whom.}} And bibliography confirms this. Other claims are POV. – [[User:Βατο|Βατο]] ([[User talk:Βατο|talk]]) 13:33, 31 August 2024 (UTC) :::::::No, it doesn't. It was there for NPOV sake, but immediately below it was paragraph which stated that {{tquote|&quot;It is usually considered they have a mythological and etymological Slavic origin related to Slavic thunder-god Perun&quot;}} citing alone, and together more than a dozen reliable sources with quotes, which you changed into {{tquote|Some consider the perperuna figure to have a mythological and etymological Slavic origin related to Slavic thunder-god Perun}}. You completely messed up [[WP:WEIGHT]] and made [[WP:FALSEBALANCE]] with your editing.--[[User:Miki Filigranski|Miki Filigranski]] ([[User talk:Miki Filigranski|talk]]) 13:47, 31 August 2024 (UTC) * '''Support''', only if we are merging [[Caloian|this]] article as well considering Romania is in Southeast Europe. '''[[User:Боки|&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;Боки&lt;/span&gt;]]''' [[User talk:Боки|&lt;span style=&quot;color:blue&quot;&gt;☎&lt;/span&gt;]] [[Special:Contribs/Боки|&lt;span style=&quot;color:#808080&quot;&gt;✎&lt;/span&gt;]] 23:39, 23 August 2024 (UTC) ::[[Caloian]] is not to be merged, because it has different practices, not only rainmaking. What is appropriate to do has been proposed in the duscussion above by User:Altenmann: &quot;{{tquote|a summary section about [[Calojan]] may be incorporated per [[WP:Summary style]]}}&quot;. – [[User:Βατο|Βατο]] ([[User talk:Βατο|talk]]) 22:55, 30 August 2024 (UTC) :::No, if it is a different practice, then what's the point of incorporating it anyhow in the article about Dodola and Perperuna? --[[User:Miki Filigranski|Miki Filigranski]] ([[User talk:Miki Filigranski|talk]]) 10:47, 31 August 2024 (UTC) * '''Comment''', I'm not sure that changing the title will improve the situation. [[User:Jingiby|Jingiby]] ([[User talk:Jingiby|talk]]) 04:57, 24 August 2024 (UTC) ::It will surely improve the situation. The rainmaking practice is not known as &quot;Dodola and Perperuna&quot; among Albanians. It is not known as such even among Slavic speakers, Eastern Romance speakers, or Greek speakers. That's an [[WP:OR]], [[WP:POV]], as well as a misleading title, by selecting only two terms that are given to the girl that performs the ritual in some traditions. I would like to know what criteria could justify such a choise? So far there has been provided no reasonable argument to keep that title. – [[User:Βατο|Βατο]] ([[User talk:Βατο|talk]]) 09:00, 24 August 2024 (UTC) :::It won't and you already made a mess, and are forcing the changes against the usual process for such essential change. You are greatly misunderstanding the topic, making false claims. The article is reliably sourced - that's the name of the customs, Dodola, and Perperuna (and its variations). You are pushing a disbalanced amount of weight for some poorly sourced, and overall irrelevant Albanian POV. Please stop doing that and [[WP:LISTEN]] to what other editors have to say.--[[User:Miki Filigranski|Miki Filigranski]] ([[User talk:Miki Filigranski|talk]]) 10:34, 31 August 2024 (UTC) ::::{{tquote|You are greatly misunderstanding the topic, making false claims}}, nope, the topic is about rainmaking pagan customs in Southeast Europe practiced with the main boy or girl dressed with fresh branches, leaves and herbs, etc. while singing a ritual song. {{tquote|some poorly sourced, and overall irrelevant Albanian POV}} is your own opinion. The content is sourced with academic sources focusing on this specific subject. And it is not up to us to consider Albanian practices as &quot;irrelevant&quot;, relevance is dictaded by reliable sources. – [[User:Βατο|Βατο]] ([[User talk:Βατο|talk]]) 13:42, 31 August 2024 (UTC) :::::Indeed, relevance is dictated by reliable sources - and then you come after two years of stable NPOV, make major edits ignoring the fact most of the reliable sources arguing and claiming Slavic origin of the customs, etymology and else, and now claim relevance of the Albanian case and else. Genius.--[[User:Miki Filigranski|Miki Filigranski]] ([[User talk:Miki Filigranski|talk]]) 14:06, 31 August 2024 (UTC) ::::::The stable NPOV was not claiming the practice as exclusively Slavic (&quot;{{tquote|ancient Slavic rainmaking pagan customs practiced until the 20th century. The tradition is found in South Slavic countries (Bulgaria, Croatia, North Macedonia, Montenegro, and Serbia), as well as in near Albania, Greece, Hungary, Moldova and Romania.}}) I did not notice that such an erroneous and POV wording has been kept in the lede for so long. – [[User:Βατο|Βατο]] ([[User talk:Βατο|talk]]) 14:25, 31 August 2024 (UTC) :::::::FFS, you were here 2 years ago when the old, stable revision was created and now after 2 years you claim that didn't notice.--[[User:Miki Filigranski|Miki Filigranski]] ([[User talk:Miki Filigranski|talk]]) 16:02, 31 August 2024 (UTC) ::::::::The last time I participated in this talk page I stated that the article should not describe the practice as exclusively Slavic. If I remember correctly, I left you time to change it as you stated that you would reword the article according to the sources provided. Then I even forgot about it, only recently realized that you kept the erroneous POV version, which obviously can't stay. I suggest to avoid replying in this discussion, which is about the RM. – [[User:Βατο|Βατο]] ([[User talk:Βατο|talk]]) 16:16, 31 August 2024 (UTC) :::::::::See discussion below, I didn't keep the erroneous POV version as I've done an edit on 9 August 2022 per talk, over a year later somebody changed the wording and nobody noticed to fix it. Alright, my last comment for this.--[[User:Miki Filigranski|Miki Filigranski]] ([[User talk:Miki Filigranski|talk]]) 16:35, 31 August 2024 (UTC) * '''Comment''', I dont think it will make it better. I think it would best to have separate article about {{Q|Q2622164}} and {{Q|Q2368103}} and other rites with different names in Balkans, even if the descriptions partially overlapped. That would make these articles easier to read, and reader would have precise informations about specific rite. My problem with the article is that it pushes too much non-scientific idea about Perperuna being related to Perun. [[User:Sławobóg|Sławobóg]] ([[User talk:Sławobóg|talk]]) 09:11, 1 September 2024 (UTC) ::{{reply|Sławobóg}} I agree with your last sentence, that's why I edited the article and ridimensioned a little bit that POV, which is basically [[Roman Jakobson]]'s POV. But [[User:Miki Filigranski]] seems to oppose the ridimensioning of that POV. Nevertheless, it can't stay in the lede as it was before my edits, because the etymology and mythology of Peperuda/Perperuna/etc. are far from certain, and there are songs that expressly invoke other deities/divine figures and not Perun. Concerning the split of the article into Dodola, Peperuda, and others, I don't think it is a good idea because in some traditions, in the same ritual performance of rainmaking songs both Dodola-like and Peperuda-like names are mentioned, it would be difficult to separate them. Also, they are about the same rainmaking custom, performed by a procession of young people with a main girl or boy who is dressed with fresh branches and leaves, sings the ritual song, and is sprinkled with water. To avoid the arbitrary selection of two names, such as in this case ''Dodola and Perperuna'', which are hardly the [[WP:COMMONAME]], and which are misleading because nobody actually called the custom ''Dodola and Perperuna'', I proposed the descriptive title ''Rainmaking in Southeast Europe''. – [[User:Βατο|Βατο]] ([[User talk:Βατο|talk]]) 10:04, 1 September 2024 (UTC) :&lt;small&gt;Note: [[Wikipedia talk:WikiProject Romania|WikiProject Romania]], [[Wikipedia talk:WikiProject Bulgaria|WikiProject Bulgaria]], [[Wikipedia talk:WikiProject Serbia|WikiProject Serbia]], [[Wikipedia talk:WikiProject Croatia|WikiProject Croatia]], [[Wikipedia talk:WikiProject North Macedonia|WikiProject North Macedonia]], [[Wikipedia talk:WikiProject Mythology|WikiProject Mythology]], and [[Wikipedia talk:WikiProject Albania|WikiProject Albania]] have been notified of this discussion. [[User_talk:Asukite|&lt;span style=&quot;color:Purple;font-size:medium;font-family:Bradley Hand ITC&quot;&gt; ASUKITE&lt;/span&gt;]] 21:14, 30 August 2024 (UTC)&lt;/small&gt; :&lt;small&gt;'''Relisting comment''': Relist to give time for participation. Note that one of the support comments is conditional upon a merge, which is worth discussion, and there is one reply that may be read as oppose but isn't labeled as such. [[User_talk:Asukite|&lt;span style=&quot;color:Purple;font-size:medium;font-family:Bradley Hand ITC&quot;&gt; ASUKITE&lt;/span&gt;]] 21:16, 30 August 2024 (UTC)&lt;/small&gt; &lt;div style=&quot;padding-left: 1.6em; font-style: italic; border-top: 1px solid #a2a9b1; margin: 0.5em 0; padding-top: 0.5em&quot;&gt;The discussion above is closed. &lt;b style=&quot;color: var(--color-error, red);&quot;&gt;Please do not modify it.&lt;/b&gt; Subsequent comments should be made on the appropriate discussion page. No further edits should be made to this discussion.&lt;/div&gt;&lt;!-- from [[Template:Archive bottom]] --&gt; &lt;/div&gt;&lt;div style=&quot;clear:both;&quot; class=&gt;&lt;/div&gt; ==&quot;Oj Ljule&quot; songs== &quot;Oj Ljule&quot; songs are inlcuded in the &quot;Dodole songs&quot;, despite the fact that the songs seem to not mention Dodole or related forms. This aspect should be clarified in the article. Btw, I don't know whether ''ljule'' is a Slavic term, but it can be found in Albanian, and means &quot;flower&quot;, and &quot;Oj Ljule&quot; is found as a phrase in Arbereshe songs as well, although unrelated to rainmaking rituals. The origin and meaning of the term ''ljule'' used in Slavic songs should be explained as well. – [[User:Βατο|Βατο]] ([[User talk:Βατο|talk]]) 18:44, 23 August 2024 (UTC) :This appears to be the borrowing from Slavic [[lullaby]] refrain Ay lyuli {{langx|ru|Ай люли}}, see eg in ''[[Kalinka (1860 song)|Kalinka]]'' or [[:ru:Во поле берёза стояла]]. Associated with the Russian word люлька, &quot;[[cradle]]&quot;. --[[user:Altenmann|Altenmann]] [[user talk:Altenmann|&gt;talk]] 19:10, 23 August 2024 (UTC) ::{{reply|Altenmann}} thanks for the clarification, in that case it would not be a borrowing, but a Slavic term in Eastern South Slavic. The Albanian term would not be related. A source would be nice to clarify it in the article. – [[User:Βατο|Βατο]] ([[User talk:Βατο|talk]]) 19:14, 23 August 2024 (UTC) :::I will try to find a source, but it will be difficult for such minor things. Provably in some obscure folkloric book. [https://www.google.com/search?sca_esv=59944d6273687f66&amp;sca_upv=1&amp;rlz=1C1SJWC_enUS1086US1087&amp;q=%22%D0%90%D0%B9+%D0%BB%D1%8E%D0%BB%D0%B8%22+-%D0%BA%D0%B0%D0%BB%D0%B8%D0%BD%D0%BA%D0%B0&amp;tbm=bks&amp;source=lnms&amp;fbs=AEQNm0AVbySjNxIXoj6bNaq7uSpwmIS0gJlXN_LWYh5RkW9UG_J2iT2scTJ59gCgVXw95w_tbwv0XGMg5VNVmdZJUUbegAUXjP-3Az7ul0FDlU2m0yNrv6Vuz1OORdWimsJYhP0WMXW2ofgIshBxHL7F_exMsA00U1w8-fAhNJVI81QdesxeLn7PSN5Jf4tv1ZtHKAbXs9j2p9qipOTKbxDb8N2kMYbC5g&amp;sa=X&amp;ved=2ahUKEwjH7Nmw6YuIAxV4DTQIHRgHNgo4MhDSlAl6BAg0EAE&amp;biw=1059&amp;bih=682&amp;dpr=1.25 google books] shows plenty of songs, but no etymology. --[[user:Altenmann|Altenmann]] [[user talk:Altenmann|&gt;talk]] 19:19, 23 August 2024 (UTC) :::: [https://gramota.ru/meta/lyuli here a short blurb: ''Large Explanatory Dictionary of the Russian Language'':(folk-poetic) Is used in refrains of Russian folk songs. --[[user:Altenmann|Altenmann]] [[user talk:Altenmann|&gt;talk]] 19:21, 23 August 2024 (UTC) ::::[https://slovnyk.ua/index.php?swrd=%D0%BB%D1%8E%D0%BB%D1%8F%D1%82%D0%B8 люляти] - to rock the cradle in Ukrainian and Belarusian ([[wikt:ru:люляць]]) and Lithuanian [https://www.zodynas.lt/terminu-zodynas/L/liuliuoti liūliuoti] &quot;to rock/be rocked by waves&quot;, Serbian ljuljati &quot;to rock&quot;. - [https://www.alphadictionary.com/goodword/word/lullaby and it seems] it is related to Englies [https://www.alphadictionary.com/goodword/word/lull &quot;lull&quot;], &quot;[[lullaby]]&quot;--[[user:Altenmann|Altenmann]] [[user talk:Altenmann|&gt;talk]] 19:31, 23 August 2024 (UTC) :::::{{edit conflict}} Thanks. I think a source expressly about these rainmaking songs would be appropriate for inclusion into the article, if they cannot be found then we can leave it without explanation. Sources about Russian folksongs not directly related to the subject would be [[WP:SYNTH|synth]] or [[WP:OR|or]] into the article, although interesting for clarifying the matter here in talk page. – [[User:Βατο|Βατο]] ([[User talk:Βατο|talk]]) 19:32, 23 August 2024 (UTC) ::::::These Russian folksongs are mentioned here as an anwer to the question about &quot;Oj Ljule&quot; and of course are irrelevant to this article. (Sorry for off-topic, I am just collecting for future possible use elsewhere.) --[[user:Altenmann|Altenmann]] [[user talk:Altenmann|&gt;talk]] 19:36, 23 August 2024 (UTC) Basically, you are pushing an Albanian-old Balkan POV connection in the LEAD and main body of the article. It is so obvious it is painful not to notice it. Please refrain from doing it forcibly, engage in BRD discussion without editing a stable NPOV, seek a consensus, and only then discuss about the change of scope and title of the article. Not the other way around.--[[User:Miki Filigranski|Miki Filigranski]] ([[User talk:Miki Filigranski|talk]]) 10:30, 31 August 2024 (UTC) :Which one is the POV version? The one that describes the subject as &quot;{{tquote|rainmaking pagan customs widespread among different peoples in Southeast Europe until the 20th century, found in Albania, Bulgaria, Croatia, Greece, Hungary, Kosovo, Moldova, Montenegro, Romania, and Serbia.}}&quot; or the version that describes it as &quot;{{tquote|ancient Slavic rainmaking pagan customs practiced until the 20th century. The tradition is found in South Slavic countries (Bulgaria, Croatia, North Macedonia, Montenegro, and Serbia), as well as in near Albania, Greece, Hungary, Moldova and Romania.}}&quot; It's clearly the second one, which obviously can't stay. – [[User:Βατο|Βατο]] ([[User talk:Βατο|talk]]) 13:25, 31 August 2024 (UTC) ::You obviously don't get the point and refuse to get the point, why that text and wording was in the lead.--[[User:Miki Filigranski|Miki Filigranski]] ([[User talk:Miki Filigranski|talk]]) 13:48, 31 August 2024 (UTC) :::There is no point to get, that text and wording is an erroneous and POV description of the custom. – [[User:Βατο|Βατο]] ([[User talk:Βατο|talk]]) 13:54, 31 August 2024 (UTC) ::::Please stick with the Albanian-Illyrian paganism, and leave alone Slavic paganism when have such a low understanding and respect about the topic.--[[User:Miki Filigranski|Miki Filigranski]] ([[User talk:Miki Filigranski|talk]]) 14:00, 31 August 2024 (UTC) :::::This practice is Albanian, as well as Greek, Romanian, etc., other than South Slavic. You should understand that to avoid POV in the article. – [[User:Βατο|Βατο]] ([[User talk:Βατο|talk]]) 14:21, 31 August 2024 (UTC) ::::::This practice is first and foremost South Slavic, while Albanian is the least (and even among them is most probably due to South Slavic influence). --[[User:Miki Filigranski|Miki Filigranski]] ([[User talk:Miki Filigranski|talk]]) 15:15, 31 August 2024 (UTC) :::::::This practice is widespread among all Albanians. It is Albanian as much as it is South Slavic. Your opinion &quot;{{tquote|This practice is first and foremost South Slavic, while Albanian is the least (and even among them is most probably due to South Slavic influence)}}&quot; shows that you want to push only one POV. – [[User:Βατο|Βατο]] ([[User talk:Βατο|talk]]) 15:52, 31 August 2024 (UTC) :::::::::Where and what's the evidence it is widespread among all Albanians? How common was the practice in Albania? There's no &quot;my opinion&quot;, in the article was cited what was in the scientific literature - it wasn't common and widespread neither can be considered Albanian as much as it is South Slavic. I don't care about what kind of POV is in the literature, only about [[WP:WEIGHT]], and the majority viewpoint is clear about that. You are the one whose changing NPOV by pushing your pro-Albanian POV.--[[User:Miki Filigranski|Miki Filigranski]] ([[User talk:Miki Filigranski|talk]]) 15:59, 31 August 2024 (UTC) ::::::::::It is widespread among all Albanians, it has been practiced by Albanians in southern Albania, in northern Albania, Kosovo and Macedonia. This is not my opinion, this is what academic sources say. And adding sourced content about the Albanian traditions direclty related to the subject of this article is not &quot;pro-Albanian POV&quot;. I suggest to avoid such labellings. – [[User:Βατο|Βατο]] ([[User talk:Βατο|talk]]) 16:08, 31 August 2024 (UTC) :::::::::::I am asking you once again where and what is said in the literature - give the quotes. I don't care and believe what you say. Again, you are NOT merely adding sourced content because you have completely changed the NPOV. You know what you're doing, I know what you're doing. Stop doing it, show some good faith, respect and start behaving according to [[WP:BRD]].--[[User:Miki Filigranski|Miki Filigranski]] ([[User talk:Miki Filigranski|talk]]) 16:19, 31 August 2024 (UTC)- ::::::::::::In the article you can check the sources, which have been carefully cited with relevant pages, and you can add quote needed templates in parts that you fail to verify. Regardless of what you believe or not, the practice has been documented in southwest Albania (such as in the Ionian Coast), southeast Albania (such as in Permet and Klonje), central and northern Albania (such as in Mat, Mirdite, and Has) Macedonia (such as in Tetove), Kosovo (such as in Gjakove, Opoje and Sharr Mountains). It was widespread until the 2nd half of the 20th century, and continues to be performed in rare occasions by Albanians in remote areas such as around [[Opojë]] in the Sharr Mountains. You can find this information in this article's Bibliography, (such as in {{harvnb|Tirta|2004|pp=310–312}}, {{harvnb|Gjoni|2012|pp=85–86}}, and {{harvnb|Qafleshi|2009|pp=51–52}}). – [[User:Βατο|Βατο]] ([[User talk:Βατο|talk]]) 16:58, 31 August 2024 (UTC) – [[User:Βατο|Βατο]] ([[User talk:Βατο|talk]]) 16:58, 31 August 2024 (UTC) :::::::::::::Thank you.--[[User:Miki Filigranski|Miki Filigranski]] ([[User talk:Miki Filigranski|talk]]) 00:56, 4 October 2024 (UTC) Βατο, why is now the same text/songs at [[Dielli (Albanian paganism)#Rainmaking and soil fertility rituals]] and this article (although some songs do not mention neither Dodola or Perperuna)?--[[User:Miki Filigranski|Miki Filigranski]] ([[User talk:Miki Filigranski|talk]]) 15:47, 31 August 2024 (UTC) :They are added because they are rainmaking rituals that are subject of this article, with the same figures and performances. The other songs are added because they follow the rainmaking practice, and are discussed in the same context by the cited source. However, if you consider those following songs to have undue weight, I will remove them and keep only their description. – [[User:Βατο|Βατο]] ([[User talk:Βατο|talk]]) 16:22, 31 August 2024 (UTC) ::I removed them. – [[User:Βατο|Βατο]] ([[User talk:Βατο|talk]]) 16:32, 31 August 2024 (UTC) ==Clarification== The article should clarify whether a goddess/female deity called Perperuna (or similar) or Dodole (or similar), associated with Perun (also as his consort/wife) has been actually attested in Slavic traditions, or it is just a hypothesis by modern scholars. In that regard, the article states: {{tquote|Recent research criticize invention of a Slavic female goddess}}, referenced with {{harvnb|Łuczyński|2020|p=141}}, but I have not access to the source to verify whether it is referring to the link between Perun and Perperuna as a goddess. A a proper context should be provided. – [[User:Βατο|Βατο]] ([[User talk:Βατο|talk]]) 12:26, 24 August 2024 (UTC) :It is already stated. Deities or ritual figures are often reconstructed out of folk tradition. It is an ''interpretation''. You have full quote in this talk page [[Talk:Dodola and Perperuna #Other sources]].--[[User:Miki Filigranski|Miki Filigranski]] ([[User talk:Miki Filigranski|talk]]) 10:57, 31 August 2024 (UTC) ::The article's text should clarify whether something belongs to actual folklore or it is an interpretation. – [[User:Βατο|Βατο]] ([[User talk:Βατο|talk]]) 13:21, 31 August 2024 (UTC) :::Oh really, don't you say? Imagine the shock, who would have thought that the old, stabile revision said: :::{{tquote|According to another '''interpretation''' the name Perperuna can be identified as the reduplicated feminine derivative of the name of the male god Perun (per-perun-a), being his female consort, wife and goddess of rain Perperuna Dodola, which parallels the Old Norse couple Fjörgyn–Fjörgynn and the Lithuanian Perkūnas–Perkūnija.[41][38][42][43][44] Perun's battle against Veles because of Perperuna/Dodola's kidnapping has parallels in Zeus saving of Persephone after Hades carried her underground causing big drought on Earth, also seen in the similarity of the names Perperuna and Persephone.[43][45][16] Recent research criticize invention of a Slavic female goddess.[19]}} :::and now it doesn't after you butchered the paragraphs and sections. Incredible, you must be a genius! --[[User:Miki Filigranski|Miki Filigranski]] ([[User talk:Miki Filigranski|talk]]) 13:53, 31 August 2024 (UTC) ::::Despite me being a 'genius', which is unrelated to this discussion, the information above still needs clarification, because the interpretation is about the name, and as the information is provided in the text, it takes for granted that the female figure was Perun's &quot;female consort, wife and goddess of rain Perperuna Dodola, which parallels the Old Norse couple Fjörgyn–Fjörgynn and the Lithuanian Perkūnas–Perkūnija.&quot; and that &quot;Perun's battle against Veles because of Perperuna/Dodola's kidnapping has parallels in Zeus saving of Persephone after Hades carried her underground causing big drought on Earth&quot;. The wording is important for such things, the text should clarify whether those are reconstrucitons or are actual folklore to not mislead the reader. I already made a slight rewording adding &quot;{{tquote|''allegedly'' being his female consort, wife and goddess of rain Perperuna Dodola, which ''would'' parallel the Old Norse couple Fjörgyn–Fjörgynn and the Lithuanian Perkūnas–Perkūnija.}}&quot;, but I am not sure if it is alleged or in folklore. That's why I asked. I moved some parts because they were about etymology, I left the parts about mythology into the relevant section. – [[User:Βατο|Βατο]] ([[User talk:Βατο|talk]]) 14:16, 31 August 2024 (UTC) :::::You clearly don't differentiate parts which are strictly about etymology from those which are about mythology. You moved parts, everything now looks out of context, and then claim there's confusion - when you made it. This is going to be like in the stable revision, the end of discussion.--[[User:Miki Filigranski|Miki Filigranski]] ([[User talk:Miki Filigranski|talk]]) 15:17, 31 August 2024 (UTC) ::::::Nope, the stable revision you created is erroneous and POV, and can't stay. Nevertheless, you are not addressing my concerns, but making general, useless, statements. Are they attested traditions or modern reconstructions? – [[User:Βατο|Βατο]] ([[User talk:Βατο|talk]]) 15:42, 31 August 2024 (UTC) :::::::You were here 2 years ago when the old, stable revision was created. Now you come again after 2 years, falsely claim that didn't notice what was written in the LEAD and else, decide to make it more erroneous and POV, and don't bother with any concerns other editor is making because of your major, general editing by which violated WEIGHT and NPOV, and calling them &quot;useless&quot; concerns. This is unbelievable. --[[User:Miki Filigranski|Miki Filigranski]] ([[User talk:Miki Filigranski|talk]]) 15:55, 31 August 2024 (UTC) ::::::::The last time I participated in this talk page I stated that the article should not describe the practice as exclusively Slavic. If I remember correctly, I left you time to change it as you stated that you would reword the article according to the sources provided. Then I even forgot about it, only recently realized that you kept the erroneous POV version, which obviously can't stay. – [[User:Βατο|Βατο]] ([[User talk:Βατο|talk]]) 16:14, 31 August 2024 (UTC) :::::::::Sorry, but I see now we are both misunderstanding each other and what happened. I've done that, [https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Dodola_and_Perperuna&amp;oldid=1103234952 this] was my &quot;NPOV up-date per talk&quot; on 9 August 2022 i.e. original stable revision, but until my next [https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Dodola_and_Perperuna&amp;oldid=1192112560 edit] on 27 December 2023 somebody changed the wording in the lead from &quot;are Balkan rainmaking pagan customs practiced until the 20th century&quot; to &quot;are ancient Slavic rainmaking pagan customs practiced until the 20th century&quot;. --[[User:Miki Filigranski|Miki Filigranski]] ([[User talk:Miki Filigranski|talk]]) 16:28, 31 August 2024 (UTC) :::::::::IP changed the lead wording on [https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Dodola_and_Perperuna&amp;diff=1182582238&amp;oldid=1181970621 30 October 2023].--[[User:Miki Filigranski|Miki Filigranski]] ([[User talk:Miki Filigranski|talk]]) 16:32, 31 August 2024 (UTC) ==Undue speculative interpretations in lede== [[User:Vanillacake34]] reverted ([https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Dodola_and_Perperuna&amp;diff=prev&amp;oldid=1257581130]) without explanation an addition in the lede about some scholarly interpretations that were made only for some traditions. There is absolutely no evidence that rainmaking rituals in the Balkans &quot;{{tquote|were related to the Slavic supreme deity Perun (god of thunder, weather, fertility and oak trees in the Slavic pantheon).}}&quot; and that &quot;{{tquote|Perperuna could have been a Slavic goddess of rain, the consort of Perun, or that the name Perperuna is the reduplicated feminine form derived from the name of Perun.}}&quot; And above all, what makes such addition undue in the lede is the fact that Albanian rainmaking ritual songs expressly address the Sun (Albanian: [[Dielli (Albanian paganism)|Dielli]]) and the Sky ([[Perëndi]]) as divine entities during the ritual songs, not [[Perun]]. – [[User:Βατο|Βατο]] ([[User talk:Βατο|talk]]) 18:00, 15 November 2024 (UTC)</div></summary> <author><name>Βατο</name></author> </entry> <entry> <id>https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Dodola_and_Perperuna&diff=1257585444</id> <title>Dodola and Perperuna</title> <link rel="alternate" type="text/html" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Dodola_and_Perperuna&diff=1257585444"/> <updated>2024-11-15T18:07:33Z</updated> <summary type="html">Βατο: rv undue addition, take it to the talk page <hr /> <div>{{Short description|Rainmaking rituals in Southeast Europe}} [[File:&quot;Watering of Dodola&quot; by Uroš Predić, published in magazine &quot;Orao&quot; in 1892.jpg|300px|thumb|The sprinkling of ''Dodola'' with water by [[Uroš Predić]] (1892)]] '''Dodola''' (also spelled ''Dodole'', ''Dudola'', ''Dudula'', ''Diva-Dodola'' etc.), '''Perperuna''' (also spelled ''Peperuda'', ''Preperuda'', ''Preperuša'', ''Prporuša'', ''Papaluga'', ''Peperuna'' etc.), '''riti i ndjelljes/thirrjes së shiut''' (&quot;Rain-Invoking/Calling Ritual&quot; or &quot;Rite of Invoking/Calling the Rain&quot;) or simply '''thirrja e shiut''' (&quot;Call of the Rain&quot;), '''riti me dordolecin''' (&quot;Dordoleci Ritual&quot;), '''riti i dodolisë''' (&quot;Dodoli Ritual&quot;) are [[Rainmaking (ritual)|rainmaking]] [[Paganism|pagan]] customs widespread among different peoples in [[Southeast Europe]] until the 20th century, found in [[Albania]], [[Bulgaria]], [[Croatia]], [[Greece]], [[Hungary]], [[Kosovo]], [[Moldova]], [[Montenegro]], [[North Macedonia]], [[Romania]], and [[Serbia]]. It is still practiced in remote [[Albanians|Albanian]] ethnographic regions, but only in rare events, when the summer is dry and without atmospheric precipitation.&lt;ref&gt;{{harvnb|Qafleshi|2011|pp=51–52|}}; {{harvnb|Ministria|2014|p=66}}.&lt;/ref&gt; The ceremonial ritual is an analogical-imitative [[incantation|magic rite]] that consists of singing and dancing done by young boys and girls in processions following a main performer who is dressed with fresh branches, leaves and herbs, with the purpose of invoking rain, usually practiced in times of [[drought]]s, especially in the summer season, when drought endangers crops and pastures, even human life itself.&lt;ref&gt;{{harvnb|Qafleshi|2011|pp=51–52|}}; {{harvnb|Halimi|Halimi-Statovci|Xhemaj|2011|pp=2–6, 32–43}}&lt;/ref&gt; == Names == {{quote box|align=right|quote=&lt;poem&gt;&lt;small&gt;Περπερούνα περπατεί / Perperouna perambulates Κή τόν θεό περικαλεί / And to God prays Θέ μου, βρέξε μια βροχή / My God, send a rain Μιἁ βροχή βασιλική / A right royal rain Οσ ἀστἀχυα ς τἀ χωράΦια / That as many (as are there) ears of corn in the fields Τόσα κούτσουρα ς τ ἁμπέλια / So many stems (may spring) on the vines&lt;/small&gt; &lt;/poem&gt;|source=&lt;br /&gt;&lt;small&gt;Shatista near [[Siatista]], [[Western Macedonia]], Ottoman Empire, 1903&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book |last=Abbott |first=George Frederick |author-link=George Frederick Abbott |date=1903 |title=Macedonian Folklore |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=M7o8AAAAIAAJ |location=Cambridge |publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]] |page=119}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;/small&gt;}} Rainmaking rites are generally called after the divine figure invoked in the ritual songs, as well as the boy or girl who perform the rite, who are called with different names among different peoples (South Slavs, Albanians, Greeks, Hungarians, Moldovans, Romanians, Vlachs or Aromanians (including regions of [[Bukovina]] and [[Bessarabia]])).:&lt;ref&gt;{{harvnb|Ḱulavkova|2020|p=19}}&lt;/ref&gt; *''Preperuna'', ''Peperuna'', ''Preperuda/Peperuda'', ''Pepereda'', ''Preperuga/Peperuga'', ''Peperunga'', ''Pemperuga'' in [[Bulgaria]] and [[North Macedonia]]: ''Prporuša'', ''Parparuša'', ''Preporuša/Preporuča'', ''Preperuša'', ''Barburuša/Barbaruša'' in [[Croatia]]; ''Peperuda'', ''Papaluga'', ''Papaluda/Paparudă'', ''Babaruta'', ''Mamaruta'' in [[Romania]] and [[Moldova]]; ''Perperouna'', ''Perperinon'', ''Perperouga'', ''Parparouna'' in [[Greece]]; ''Perperona/Perperone'' in [[Albania]]; ''Pirpirunã'' among [[Aromanians]]; *''Dodola'' among previous countries as well as [[Serbia]], with variants ''Dodole'', ''Dudola'', ''Dudula'', ''Dudule'', ''Dudulica'', ''Doda'', ''Dodočka'', ''Dudulejka'', ''Didjulja'', etc.{{sfn|Gimbutas|1967|p=743}}{{sfn|Evans|1974|p=100}}{{sfn|Jakobson|1985|p=22–24|ps=:Mythological associations linked with the butterfly (cf. her Serbian name ''Vještica'') also explain the Bulgarian entomological names ''peperuda'', ''peperuga''}}{{sfn|Čulinović-Konstantinović|1963|p=80, 93}}{{Sfn|Puchner|2009|p=346}} *''Rona'', used by Albanians alternatively to ''Perperona/Perperone'';{{sfn|Norris|1993|p=34}}{{sfn|Tirta|2004|pp=310–312}} *''Dordoleci'' (''durduleci''), used by Albanians for this custom in association with a male figure.{{sfn|Tirta|2004|pp=310–312}} In [[Albanian language|Albanian]] the rainmaking ritual is called ''riti i ndjelljes së shiut'' (&quot;Rain-Invoking Ritual&quot;), ''riti i thirrjes së shiut'' (&quot;Rain-Calling Ritual&quot; or &quot;Rite of Calling the Rain&quot;) or simply ''thirrja e shiut'' (&quot;Call of the Rain&quot;), ''riti i thatësisë'' (&quot;Drought Ritual&quot;), as well as ''riti me dordolecin'' or ''riti i dordolecit'' (&quot;Dordoleci Ritual&quot;), ''riti i dodolisë'' (&quot;Dodoli Ritual&quot;), etc.&lt;ref&gt;{{harvnb|Tirta|2004|pp=310–312}}; {{harvnb|Qafleshi|2011|pp=51–52|}}; {{harvnb|Ministria|2014|p=66}}; {{harvnb|Halimi|Halimi-Statovci|Xhemaj|2011|pp=2–6, 32–43}}&lt;/ref&gt; In Albanian rainmaking ritual songs, besides the divine figure that is invoked and also personified by boys or girls during the procession, other Albanian divine figures are invoked: [[Dielli (Albanian paganism)|Dielli]] (the Sun), [[Perëndi]], and Ilia.{{sfn|Gjoni|2012|pp=85–86}}{{sfn|Gamkrelidze|1995|p=528}}{{sfn|Sela|2017|pp=69–70}} Perëndi is a name that is used for &quot;god&quot;, &quot;deity&quot;, &quot;sky&quot; in Albanian, but considered by some scholars to be an Albanian thunder-god, cognate to Indo-European ''[[*Perkʷūnos]]'';{{sfn|Gamkrelidze|1995|p=528}} Ilia is [[Elijah]], who in Christianized Albanian folklore has replaced the Sun god and the thunder or weather god (also [[Drangue]]).{{sfn|Gjoni|2012|pp=85–86}}{{sfn|Elsie|2001a|pp=46–47}}{{sfn|Elsie|2000|pp=43–45}} In Slavic rainmaking ritual songs also the sky or Elijah are invoked. In Slavic Christianized folklore Elijah has replaced [[Perun]], the Slavic thunder-god, cognate to IE ''*Perkʷūnos''.{{sfn|Jakobson|1985|p=6}} ===Etymologies=== Some scholars consider all the Balkan names of the type ''per-'', ''perper-'', ''peper-'', ''papar-'', etc. to be taboo-alternations to &quot;avoid profaning the holy name&quot; of the pagan [[Proto-Indo-European mythology|Indo-European]] god ''[[*Perkʷūnos]]''.{{sfn|Evans|1974|p=116}}{{sfn|Gimbutas|1967|p=743}} According to [[Roman Jakobson]] and others ''perperuna'' is formed by reduplication of the Indo-European root &quot;per-&quot; (to strike/beat).{{sfn|Gimbutas|1967|p=743}}{{sfn|Jakobson|1985|p=23}}&lt;ref name=&quot;Katicic&quot;/&gt; Those with root &quot;peper-&quot;, &quot;papar-&quot; and &quot;pirpir-&quot; were changed accordingly modern words for [[Schinus molle|pepper-tree]] and [[poppy]] plant,{{sfn|Gimbutas|1967|p=743}}{{Sfn|Puchner|2009|p=348}} possibly also [[Hyperpyron|perper]] and else.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal |last=Puchner |first=Walter |author-link=Walter Puchner |date=1983 |title=Бележки към ономатологията и етимологиятана българските и гръцките названия на обреда за дъжд додола/перперуна |trans-title=Notes on the Onomatology and the Etymology of Bulgarian and Greek Names for the Dodola / Perperuna Rite |url=https://www.ceeol.com/search/article-detail?id=17959 |journal=Bulgarian Folklore |volume=IX |issue=1 |pages=59–65 |language=bg}}&lt;/ref&gt;{{Sfn|Puchner|2009|p=347–349}} Some scholars consider in particular that the name ''Perperuna'' can be identified as the reduplicated feminine [[Morphological derivation|derivative]] of the name of the Slavic thunder god ''[[Perun]]'' (''per-perun-a''), allegedly being his female consort, wife and goddess of rain ''Perperuna Dodola'', which would parallel the Old Norse couple [[Fjörgyn and Fjörgynn|Fjörgyn–Fjörgynn]] and the Lithuanian Perkūnas–Perkūnija.{{sfn|Jakobson|1985|p=22–23}}{{Sfn|Puhvel|1987|p=235}}{{Sfn|Jackson|2002|p=70}}&lt;ref name=&quot;York&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |last=York |first=Michael |author-link=Michael York (religious studies scholar) |date=1993 |title=Toward a Proto-Indo-European vocabulary of the sacred |journal=[[Word (journal)|Word]] |volume=44 |issue=2 |pages=240, 251 |doi=10.1080/00437956.1993.11435902|doi-access=free }}&lt;/ref&gt;{{sfn|Ḱulavkova|2020|p=19–20a|ps=:The Balkan rainmaking customs themselves go by different names. They are usually referred to as the Dodola or Peperuga(Peperuda) rituals, after the name of the goddess of rain, wife or consort of the Slavic sky-god Perun ... According to others, these rain-rituals derive specifically from Slavic languages, and the names Peperuda, Peperuga, Peperuna, and Perperuna are cognate with that of the storm-god Perun.}} According to another theory the Balkan names with the root ''per-'' are connected to the Greek [[Persephone]], a fertility goddess, daughter of the sky god [[Zeus]], and of the earth goddess [[Demeter]].{{sfn|Burns|2008|pp=231–232}} Dimitar Marinov derived it from Bulgarian word for butterfly where in folk beliefs has supernatural powers related to rain,{{sfn|Čulinović-Konstantinović|1963|p=94}} but according to Jakobson the mythological context of the customs and links explains the Bulgarian entomological names.&lt;ref&gt;{{harvnb|Jakobson|1985|p=22|ps=:Mythological associations linked with the butterfly (cf. her Serbian name ''Vještica'') also explain the Bulgarian entomological names ''peperuda'', ''peperuga''}}&lt;/ref&gt; [[Michail Arnaudov]] derived it from Slavic verb &quot;pršiti&quot; (spray).{{sfn|Čulinović-Konstantinović|1963|p=94}} [[Petar Skok]] considered ''prporuša'' a metaphorical derivation from Slavic ''prpor/pŕpa'' (hot ash), ''pórusa'' (&quot;when water is poured on burning ash&quot;{{sfn|Burns|2008|p=232}}).&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book |last=Skok |first=Petar |author-link=Petar Skok |title=Etimologijski rječnik hrvatskoga ili srpskoga jezika: poni-Ž |url=https://archive.org/details/EtimologijskiRjecnikHrvatskogaIliSrpskogaJezika |language=sh |year=1973 |location=Zagreb |publisher=[[JAZU]] |volume=3 |page=55}}&lt;/ref&gt; [[Stanisław Urbańczyk]] and Michal Łuczyński put into question Jakobson's theonymic derivation, deriving instead from Proto-Slavic ''*perpera'', ''*perperъka'' (in Polish ''przepiórka''), name for [[Common quail]], which has a role in Polish harvest rituals and the name of the bride in the wedding dance.{{sfn|Urbańczyk|1991|p=150}}{{sfn|Łuczyński|2020|p=141}} These are also related to ''*pъrpati'' (onomatopoeic), cf. Polish dial. ''perpotać'', ''perpac'', Old East Slavic ''poropriti''.{{sfn|Łuczyński|2020|p=141}} The name ''Dodola'' has been suggested to be a cognate to the Lithuanian ''Dundulis'', a word for &quot;thunder&quot; and another name of the Baltic thunder-god Perkūnas.{{sfn|Jakobson|1985|p=23}}{{Sfn|Puhvel|1987|p=235}} It is also hypothesised to be distantly related to Greek [[Dodona]] and [[Daedala]].{{sfn|Evans|1974|p=127–128}}&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book |last=Dauksta |first=Dainis |date=2011 |chapter=From Post to Pillar – The Development and Persistence of an Arboreal Metaphor |title=New Perspectives on People and Forests |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=XxB-HZlbTe0C |publisher=Springer |page=112 |isbn=978-94-007-1150-1}}&lt;/ref&gt; Bulgarian variant ''Didjulja'' is similar to alleged Polish goddess [[Dzidzilela]], and Polish language also has verb ''dudnić'' (&quot;to thunder&quot;).{{sfn|Jakobson|1985|p=22–23}} The uncertainty of the etymologies provided by scholars leads to a call for a &quot;detailed and in-depth comparative analysis of formulas, set phrases and patterns of imagery in rainmaking songs from ''all'' the Balkan languages&quot;.{{sfn|Burns|2008|pp=232–233}} == Origin == The rainmaking practice is a shared tradition among Balkan peoples, and it is not clear who borrowed it from whom.&lt;ref name=Wachtel&gt;{{harvnb|Wachtel|2008|ps=:Anthropologists have noted shared traditions as well, such as a rainmaking ritual in which a young woman covered in a costume of leaves would sing and dance through the village: this ritual was practiced among Greek, Albanian, Romanian, and Slavic speakers throughout the region, and it is not clear who borrowed it from whom.}}&lt;/ref&gt; The fact so similar customs in the Balkans are known by two different names the differences are considered not to be from the same time period and ethnic groups.{{sfn|Čulinović-Konstantinović|1963|p=93}} Similar customs outside the Balkans have been observed in the Caucasus, Middle East, and North Africa.{{sfn|Čulinović-Konstantinović|1963|p=84, 93}}{{sfn|Kulišić|1979|p=108}}&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal |last1=Başgöz |first1=İlhan |date=2007 |title=Rain Making Ceremonies in Iran |journal=[[Iranian Studies (journal)|Iranian Studies]] |volume=40 |issue=3 |pages=385–403 |doi=10.1080/00210860701390588 |jstor=4311905 |s2cid=162315052 |quote=Type II in the classification (that is, the procession with a doll, or ''chomcha gelin'', and its sub-group, which consists in a real child's proceeding through the neighborhood) ... Although the same ceremony is performed in other parts of Turkey, the ladle bride is given different names: ''Bodi Bodi'' among the Karalar Turkmen tribe in Adana province, ''Dodo'' or ''Dodu'' in Kars ... As the type spreads toward the west, sub-type (a) becomes dominant and (b) disappears. In Bulgaria, the girl who visits the houses during the ceremony is called ''doldol'' or ''Perperuga''.46 In Greece, the ceremony is sometimes incorporated into the Epiphany, the ritual throwing of the cross into a river, or sometimes is performed as an independent rain ritual.47 In Yugoslavia, the Turks, Serbians, and the Albanians practice the ritual, naming it ''dodola'' or ''dodoliče'' (little ''dodola'').48 The ritual is known in Hungary and is performed there under the name of ''doldola'', being especially common in villages inhabited by Gypsies and Serbians.49 The custom has spread to Rumania, but there the ''chomcha gelin'' is replaced by a coffin with a clay figure in it. This is reminiscent of Type II in Iran.50 The ''chomcha gelin'' is also observed in Iraq among the Kerkuk Turkmens, who call it &quot;the bride with ladle&quot; (''Chomchalı Gelin'').51 In Syria, the Arabs call the doll ''Umm al-Guys'' (&quot;mother of rain&quot;).52 The Christians in Syria practice the ceremony and call the doll &quot;the bride of God&quot;.53 In North Africa, the doll is called &quot;the mother of Bangau&quot;,54 and a similar symbol carried during the ritual is called Al Gonja.55 In Uzbekistan, Turks and Tajiks perform the ritual, calling the doll ''suskhatun'' (probably meaning &quot;water woman&quot;).56}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book |last=Chirikba |first=Viacheslav |author-link=Viacheslav Chirikba |date=2015 |chapter=Between Christianity and Islam: Heathen Heritage in the Caucasus |title=Studies on Iran and The Caucasus: In Honour of Garnik Asatrian |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=iLS9CwAAQBAJ |location=Leiden |publisher=Brill |pages=169–171 |isbn=978-90-04-30206-8 |quote=Thus, during the festival welcoming the spring, the Avars made ... In the ritual of summoning rains there figured a specially made doll called Dodola ... The Dagestan doll Dodola and the ritual strikingly resemble the Balkan rituals for summoning rain, whereby girls called Dodola would undressed and put on leaves, flowers and herbs to perform the rainmaking ceremony. The Balkan Dodola is regarded as being connected with the Slavic cult of the thunder-god Perun (cf. Tokarev 1991: 391).}}&lt;/ref&gt; [[William Ralston Shedden-Ralston|William Shedden-Ralston]] noted that [[Jacob Grimm]] thought Perperuna/Dodola were &quot;originally identical with the Bavarian ''Wasservogel'' and the Austrian ''Pfingstkönig''&quot; rituals.&lt;ref name=&quot;Ralston&quot;&gt;{{cite book |last=Shedden-Ralston |first=William Ralston |author-link=William Ralston Shedden-Ralston |date=1872 |title=The Songs of the Russian People: As Illustrative of Slavonic Mythology and Russian Social Life |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=429UAAAAcAAJ |location=London |publisher=Ellis &amp; Green |pages=227–229}}&lt;/ref&gt; Ancient rainmaking practices have been widespread [[Mediterranean]] traditions, already documented in the Balkans since [[Minoan]] and [[Mycenaean Greece|Mycenaean]] times.{{sfn|Burns|2008|pp=228–231}}{{sfn|Håland|2001|pp=197–201}} There is a lack of any strong historical evidence for a link between the figures and practices of the ancient times and those that survided to the end of the 20th century, however, according to [[Richard Berengarten]], if seen as &quot;typologically parallel&quot; practices in the ancient world, they may be interpretable at least as forerunners, even if not as direct progenitors of the modern Balkan rainmaking customs.{{sfn|Burns|2008|pp=228–231}} Some consider the ''perperuna'' figure to have a mythological and etymological Slavic origin related to Slavic thunder-god [[Perun]],{{#tag:ref|&lt;ref&gt;{{harvnb|Čulinović-Konstantinović|1963|pp=93–94|ps=:Ovakav obred za kišu poznat je i u Madžarskoj. Analizirao ga je Z. Ujvary te je u svojoj studiji citirao mnoge madžarske autore koji su o tome pisali. Prema njegovu mišljenju, običaj se tamo proširio pod utjecajem Slavena i Rumunja ... M. S. Thompson, međutim, misli da riječ &quot;perperuna&quot; potječe od imena slavenskog boga Peruna, boga gromovnika ... Teoriju o slavenskom porijeklu ovog običaja prihvatili su osim M. S. Thompsona još i G. F. Abbott i E. Fischer.}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;Katicic&quot;&gt;{{cite book |last=Katičić |first=Radoslav |author-link=Radoslav Katičić |title=Naša stara vjera: Tragovima svetih pjesama naše pretkršćanske starine |trans-title=Our Old Faith: Tracing the Sacred Poems of Our Pre-Christian Antiquity |year=2017 |publisher=Ibis Grafika, [[Matica hrvatska]] |location=Zagreb |language=hr |isbn=978-953-6927-98-2 |page=105}}&lt;/ref&gt;{{sfn|Gieysztor|2006|p=89, 104–106}}&lt;ref name=&quot;Zecevic&quot;&gt;{{cite book |last=Zečević |first=Slobodan |date=1974 |title=Elementi naše mitologije u narodnim obredima uz igru |language=sr |location=Zenica |publisher=Muzej grada Zenice |pages=125–128, 132–133}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book |author=Institut za književnost i umetnost (Hatidža Krnjević) |title=Rečnik književnih termina |trans-title=Dictionary of literary terms |year=1985 |publisher=Nolit |location=Beograd |language=sr |isbn=978-86-19-00635-4 |pages=130, 618}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book |last=Sikimić |first=Biljana |date=1996 |title=Etimologija i male folklorne forme |language=sr |location=Beograd |publisher=SANU |pages=85–86 |quote=О vezi Peruna i prporuša up. Ivanov i Toporov 1974: 113: можно думать об одновременной связи имени nеnеруна - nрnоруша как с обозначением nорошения дождя, его распыления (ср. с.-хорв. ирпошuмu (се), nрnошка и Т.Д.; чешск. pršeti, prch, prš), так и с именем Громовержца. Связъ с порошением дождя представляется тем более вероятной, что соответствующий глагол в ряде индоевропейских язЪП&lt;ов выступает с архаическим удвоением&quot;. Za etimologiju sh. ргроrušа up. i Gavazzi 1985: 164.}}&lt;/ref&gt;{{sfn|Belaj|2007|p=80, 112}}{{Sfn|Dragić|2007|p=80, 112}}{{Sfn|Lajoye|2015|p=114}}}} and became widespread in the Southeastern Europe with the [[Slavic migrations to Southeastern Europe|Slavic migration]] (6th–10th century).&lt;ref&gt;{{harvnb|Gimbutas|1967|p=743|ps=:The names applied to the Balkan rain-ceremonies and to those who perform them suggest, by the modest, degree of variation from one another, by the large number of different variants, and their distribution (not only throughout Romania but in Albania and Greek Epirus and Macedonia), the diffusion of a Slavic ritual linked with the name of Perun in any one of its numerous minor variants.}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{harvnb|Jakobson|1985|pp=22, 24|ps=:The ritual call for rain was transmitted long ago from the Balkan Slavs to neighboring peoples, who evidently preserved the original form of the mythological name ... But even if one leaves aside the late, conjectural echoes of Perun's name, one is still forced to conclude that his cult had wide dissemination and deep roots in Slavic paganism, a fact that is clearly reflected not only in the texts, but also in onomastics, as well as in the folklore of the Slavs and their neighbors.}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal |last=Zaroff |first=Roman |date=1999 |title=Organized pagan cult in Kievan Rus': The invention of foreign elite or evolution of local tradition? |url=https://ojs.zrc-sazu.si/sms/article/view/1844 |journal=[[Studia mythologica Slavica]] |volume=2 |page=57 |doi=10.3986/sms.v2i0.1844 |quote=As a consequence of the relatively early Christianisation of the Southern Slavs, there are no more direct accounts in relation to Perun from the Balkans. Nevertheless, as late as the first half of the 12th century, in Bulgaria and Macedonia, peasants performed a certain ceremony meant to induce rain. A central figure in the rite was a young girl called Perperuna, a name clearly related to Perun. At the same time, the association of Perperuna with rain shows conceptual similarities with the Indian god Parjanya. There was a strong Slavic penetration of Albania, Greece and Romania, between the 6th and 10th centuries. Not surprisingly the folklore of northern Greece also knows Perperuna, Albanians know Pirpirúnă, and also the Romanians have their Perperona. Also, in a certain Bulgarian folk riddle the word ''perušan'' is a substitute for the Bulgarian word ''гърмомеҽица'' (grmotevitsa) for thunder. Moreover, the name of Perun is also commonly found in Southern Slavic toponymy. There are places called: Perun, Perunac, Perunovac, Perunika, Perunićka Glava, Peruni Vrh, Perunja Ves, Peruna Dubrava, Perunuša, Perušice, Perudina and Perutovac.|doi-access=free }}&lt;/ref&gt; According to the Slavic theory, it is a (Balto-)Slavic heritage of Proto-Indo-European origin related to Slavic thunder-god Perun. It has parallels in ritual prayers for bringing rain in times of drought dedicated to rain-thunder deity [[Parjanya]] recorded in the ''[[Vedas]]'' and Baltic thunder-god [[Perkūnas]], [[cognates]] alongside Perun of Proto-Indo-European weather-god [[Perkwunos]].{{sfn|Jakobson|1985|p=6–7, 21, 23}} An early medieval Ruthenian manuscript mentions the East Slavic deity [[Pereplut]], who was worshiped with whirling and libations.{{sfn|Jakobson|1955|p=616}}{{sfn|Gimbutas|1967|p=743}}{{sfn|Jakobson|1985|p=23–24}} According to Jakobson, ''[[Novgorod Chronicle]]'' (&quot;dožd prapruden&quot;) and ''Pskov Chronicle'' (&quot;dožd praprudoju neiskazaemo silen&quot;) could have &quot;East Slavic trace of Peperuda calling forth the rain&quot;, and West Slavic god [[Pripegala]] reminds of ''Preperuga/Prepeluga'' variation and connection with Perun.{{sfn|Gimbutas|1967|p=743}}{{sfn|Jakobson|1985|p=24}} Serbo-Croatian archaic variant ''Prporuša'' and verb ''prporiti se'' (&quot;to fight&quot;) also have parallels in Old Russian (&quot;porъprjutъsja&quot;).{{sfn|Jakobson|1985|p=23}} Perun's battle against [[Veles (god)|Veles]] because of Perperuna/Dodola's kidnapping{{clarify|date=August 2024}} has parallels in [[Zeus]] saving of [[Persephone]] after [[Hades]] carried her underground causing big drought on Earth, also seen in the similarity of the names Perperuna and Persephone.&lt;ref name=&quot;York&quot;/&gt;{{sfn|Evans|1974|p=116–117}}{{sfn|Burns|2008|p=232}} Recent research criticize invention of a Slavic female goddess.{{sfn|Łuczyński|2020|p=141}} Some scholars relate ''Dodole'' with pagan custom and songs of ''Lade'' (Ladarice) in [[Hrvatsko Zagorje]] (so-called &quot;Ladarice Dodolske&quot;),&lt;ref name=&quot;Cubelic&quot;&gt;{{cite book |last=Čubelić |first=Tvrtko |date=1990 |title=Povijest i historija usmene narodne književnosti: historijske i literaturno-teorijske osnove te genološki aspekti: analitičko-sintetički pogledi |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=hb1iAAAAMAAJ |language=hr |location=Zagreb |publisher=Ante Pelivan i Danica Pelivan |pages=75–76 |isbn=978-86-81703-01-4}}&lt;/ref&gt;{{Sfn|Dragić|2007|p=279, 283}}&lt;ref name=&quot;Dragic2012&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |last=Dragić |first=Marko |date=2012 |title=Lada i Ljeljo u folkloristici Hrvata i slavenskom kontekstu |trans-title=Lada and Ljeljo in the folklore of Croats and Slavic context |url=https://hrcak.srce.hr/136243 |language=hr |journal=Zbornik radova Filozofskog fakulteta u Splitu |volume=5 |pages=45, 53–55}}&lt;/ref&gt; and in [[Žumberak]]-[[Križevci]] for the ''Preperuša'' custom was also used term ''Ladekarice''.{{sfn|Čulinović-Konstantinović|1963|p=80–81}}{{sfn|Muraj|1987|p=160–161}} Other scholars, due to the geographical distribution, consider that the rainmaking ritual is of [[Paleo-Balkan mythology|Paleo-Balkan]] origin.{{sfn|Kulišić|1979|p=205}}{{sfn|Belaj|2007|p=80}} Some of them consider such origin even relating the ritual to Perun's cult. One theory, in particular, argues that Slavic deity Perun and Perperuna/Dodola customs are of [[Thracians|Thracian]] origin,&lt;ref&gt;Dimitǔr Dechev, ''[https://books.google.com/books/about/Die_thrakischen_Sprachreste.html?id=CrA_AAAAIAAJ Die thrakischen Sprachreste]'', Wien: R.M. Rohrer, 1957, pp. 144, 151&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;Sorin&quot;&gt;{{cite web|author=[[Sorin Paliga]]|title=Influenţe romane și preromane în limbile slave de sud|date=2003|url=http://egg.mnir.ro/pdf/Paliga_InflRomane.pdf|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131228002745/http://egg.mnir.ro/pdf/Paliga_InflRomane.pdf |archive-date=December 28, 2013}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal |first=Mihai |last=Dragnea |url=https://www.academia.edu/9334808 |title=The Thraco-Dacian Origin of the Paparuda/Dodola Rain-Making Ritual |journal=Brukenthalia Acta Musei |issue=4 |date=2014 |pages=18–27}}&lt;/ref&gt;{{sfn|Ḱulavkova|2020|p=19–20b|ps=:According to some researchers ... these pagan rites of worship are thought to be of Thracian origin ... According to other beliefs, Perun, Perin, or Pirin was the supreme deity of the Thracians.}} however, the name of the Slavic thunder-god [[Perun]] is commonly accepted to be formed from the [[Proto-Slavic]] root ''*per'' &quot;to strike&quot; attached to the common agent suffix ''-unŭ'', explained as &quot;the Striker&quot;.{{sfn|West|2007|p=242}} == Ritual == Rainmaking rituals were performed in times of summer drought to make it rain, usually in June and July, but sometimes also in the spring months when there was severe drought. The ritual was a village kinship or community type performance, and an imitative type of [[Incantation|magic practice]] that reproduced rainfall and soil irrigation, accompanied with ritual songs that addressed prayers to the pagan deity associated with rain as well as agriculture and vegetation. The ritual practice traces back to times when the social structure was based on the common property of the land and of the products, which belonged to the whole tribe/clan.{{sfn|Tirta|2004|pp=310–312}} They essentially belong to rituals related to [[Fertility rite|fertility]], but over time differentiated to a specific form connected with water and vegetation.{{sfn|Čulinović-Konstantinović|1963|p=73, 75–76, 91}}{{clarification needed|date=August 2024}} Perperuna and Dodola are considered very similar pagan customs with common origin,{{sfn|Čulinović-Konstantinović|1963|p=75, 78, 93, 95}}&lt;ref name=&quot;Revija&quot;&gt;{{cite magazine |last=Vukelić |first=Deniver |date=2010 |title=Pretkršćanski prežici u hrvatskim narodnim tradicijam |trans-title=Pre-Christian belief traces in Croatian folk traditions |url=https://www.matica.hr/hr/360/PRETKR%C5%A0%C4%86ANSKI%20PRE%C5%BDICI%20U%20HRVATSKIM%20NARODNIM%20TRADICIJAMA%20/ |language=hr |magazine=[[Hrvatska revija]] |issue=4 |publisher=[[Matica hrvatska]] |access-date=20 July 2022}}&lt;/ref&gt; with main difference being in the most common gender of the central character (possibly related to social hierarchy of the specific ethnic or regional group{{sfn|Čulinović-Konstantinović|1963|p=85, 95}}), lyric verses, sometimes religious content, and presence or absence of a chorus.{{sfn|Čulinović-Konstantinović|1963|p=84–85, 90}} They represent a group of rituals with a human collective going on a procession around houses and fields of a village, but with a central live character which differentiates them from other similar collective rituals in the same region and period (''[[Kermesse (festival)|Krstonoše]]'', ''[[Carnival|Poklade]]'', ''[[Koledari|Kolade]]'', ''[[German (mythology)|German]]'', ''Ladarice'', those during ''[[Jurjevo]]'' and ''[[Saint John's Eve|Ivandan]]'' and so on).{{sfn|Čulinović-Konstantinović|1963|p=74–75, 80}}{{Sfn|Dragić|2007|p=276}}{{Sfn|Puchner|2009|p=289, 345}} In the valley of [[Skopje]] in [[North Macedonia]] the Dodola were held on Thursday which was Perun's day.{{Sfn|Dragić|2007|p=291}} In [[Hungary]] the ritual was usually held on [[Saint George's Day|St. George's Day]].&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |last=T. |first=Dömötör |date=1967 |title=Dodola |url=https://gepeskonyv.btk.elte.hu/adatok/Neprajz/82Vereb%E9lyi/folklorisztika_es_rokonteruleteinek_fogalmi_rendszere/dodola.html}}&lt;/ref&gt; The core of the song always mentions a type of rain and list of regional crops.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book |last=Puchner |first=Walter |author-link=Walter Puchner |date=2016 |title=Die Folklore Südosteuropas: Eine komparative Übersicht |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=hZpVDAAAQBAJ |language=de |publisher=Böhlau Verlag Wien |page=65 |isbn=978-3-205-20312-4}}&lt;/ref&gt; The first written mentions and descriptions of the pagan custom are from the 18th century by [[Dimitrie Cantemir]] in ''[[Descriptio Moldaviae]]'' (1714/1771, ''Papaluga''),{{Sfn|Puchner|2009|p=346}}&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book |last=Cantemir |first=Dimitrie |author-link=Dimitrie Cantemir |date=1771 |title=Descriptio antiqui et hodierni status Moldaviae |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=2rZfAAAAcAAJ |location=Frankfurt, Leipzig |language=de |pages=315–316 |quote=Im Sommer, wenn dem Getreide wegen der Dürre Gefabr bevorzustehen fcheinet, ziehen die Landleute einem kleinen Ragdchen, welches noch nicht über zehen Jahr alt ist, ein Hemde an, welches aus Blattern von Baumen und Srantern gemacht wird. Alle andere Ragdchen und stnaben vol gleiechem Alter folgen ihr, und siehen mit Tanzen und Singen durch die ganze Racharfchaft; wo sie aber hin komuien, da pflegen ihnen die alten Weiber kalt Wasser auf den Stopf zu gieffen. Das Lied, welches fie fingen, ist ohngefähr von folegendem Innbalte: &quot;Papaluga! steige nech dem Himmel, öffne feine Thüren, fend von oben Regen ber, daß der Roggen, Weizen, Hirfe u. f. w. gut wachsen.&quot;}}&lt;/ref&gt; then in a Greek law book from [[Bucharest]] (1765, it invoked 62nd Cannon to stop the custom of ''Paparuda''),{{Sfn|Puchner|2009|p=346}}&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book |last=Puchner |first=Walter |author-link=Walter Puchner |date=2017 |chapter=2 - Byzantium High Culture without Theatre or Dramatic Literature? |title=Greek Theatre between Antiquity and Independence: A History of Reinvention from the Third Century BC to 1830 |chapter-url=https://www.cambridge.org/core/books/abs/greek-theatre-between-antiquity-and-independence/byzantium/AD8A310DFF20316E196BA81890C36797 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |page=73 |isbn=978-1-107-44502-4 |doi=10.1017/9781107445024.004 |quote=...in 1765, a Greek law book from Bucharest quotes the 62nd Canon of the Trullanum in order to forbid public dancing by girls in a custom well known throughout the Balkans as 'paparuda', 'perperuna' or 'dodole', a ritual processional rain dance.}}&lt;/ref&gt; and by the Bulgarian [[hieromonk]] [[Spiridon Gabrovski]] who also noted to be related to Perun (1792, ''Peperud'').{{sfn|Belaj|2007|p=80}}&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite book|url=https://archive.org/details/istoriiavokratt00spirgoog|title=История во кратце о болгарском народе славенском. Сочинися и исписа в лето 1792|last=Габровски|first=Спиридон Иеросхимонах|publisher=изд. Св. Синод на Българската Църква|year=1900|location=София|pages=[https://archive.org/details/istoriiavokratt00spirgoog/page/n156 14]}}&lt;/ref&gt; Peoples generally used to organise the Perperuna/Dodola ritual in times of spring and especially summer [[drought]]s, where they worshipped the god/goddess and prayed to him/her for rain (and fertility, later also asked for other field and house blessings). The central character of the ceremony of Perperuna was usually a young boy, while of Dodola usually a young girl, both aged between 10 and 15 years. Purity was important, and sometimes to be orphans. They would be naked, but were not anymore in latest forms of 19-20th century, wearing a skirt and dress densely made of fresh green knitted vines, leaves and flowers of ''[[Sambucus nigra]]'', ''[[Sambucus ebulus]]'', ''[[Clematis flammula]]'', ''[[Clematis vitalba]]'', [[fern]] and other deciduous shrubs and vines, small branches of ''[[Tilia]]'', [[Oak]] and other. The green cover initially covered all body so that the central person figure was almost unrecognizable, but like the necessity of direct skin contact with greenery it also greatly decreased and was very simple in modern period. They whirled and were followed by a small procession of children who walked and danced with them around the same village and fields, sometimes carrying oak or [[Fagus sylvatica|beech]] branches, singing the ritual prayer, stopping together at every house yard, where the hosts would sprinkle water on chosen boy/girl who would shake and thus sprinkle everyone and everything around it (example of &quot;analogical magic&quot;{{Sfn|Puchner|2009|p=346}}), hosts also gifted treats (bread, eggs, cheese, sausages etc., in a later period also money) to children who shared and consumed them among them and sometimes even hosts would drink wine, seemingly as a sacrifice in Perun's honor.&lt;ref name=&quot;Ribaric&quot;&gt;{{Cite book|last=Ribarić|first=Josip|title=O istarskim dijalektima: razmještaj južnoslavenskih dijalekata na poluotoku Istri s opisom vodičkog govora|publisher=Josip Turčinović|date=2002|location=Pazin|orig-date=1916|language=hr|isbn=953-6262-43-6|pages=84–85, 206}}&lt;/ref&gt;{{sfn|Gimbutas|1967|p=743–744}}{{sfn|Evans|1974|p=100, 119}}{{sfn|Jakobson|1985|p=21, 23}}{{sfn|Čulinović-Konstantinović|1963|p=74–77, 83–93}}{{sfn|Muraj|1987|p=158–163}}{{Sfn|Dragić|2007|p=290–293}} The chosen boy/girl was called by one of the name variants of the ritual itself, however in [[Istria]] was also known as ''Prporuš'' and in [[Dalmatia]]-[[Boka Kotorska]] as ''Prpac/Prpats'' and both regions his companions as ''Prporuše'',&lt;ref name=&quot;Ralston&quot;/&gt;{{Sfn|Dragić|2007|p=291}}&lt;ref name=&quot;Ribaric&quot;/&gt;{{sfn|Čulinović-Konstantinović|1963|p=76, 80}} while at [[Pirot]] and [[Nišava District]] in [[Southern Serbia (geographical region)|Southern Serbia]] near Bulgarian border were called as ''dodolće'' and ''preperuđe'', and as in Macedonia both names appear in the same song.{{sfn|Čulinović-Konstantinović|1963|p=79, 95}}{{sfn|Burns|2008|p=220, 222|ps=:The finely documented account by Đorđević of a version of the Balkan rainmaking custom, performed near the River Morava in south-eastern Serbia near the Bulgarian border ... Fly, fly, peperuga/Oh, dodolas, Dear Lord!}} [[File:Пеперуда в Добруджа 1950.jpg|thumb|right|250px|''Peperuda'' performed by Romani in [[Dobruja]], Bulgaria, 1950s.]] By the 20th century once common rituals almost vanished in the Balkans, although rare examples of practice can be traced until 1950-1980s and remained in folk memory. The main reason is the development of agriculture and consequently lack of practical need for existence of mystical connection and customs with nature and weather. Christian church also tried to diminish pagan beliefs and customs, resulting in &quot;dual belief&quot; (''dvoeverie'') in rural populations, a conscious preservation of pre-Christian beliefs and practices alongside Christianity. Into customs and songs were mixed elements from other rituals including Christianity, but they also influenced the creation of Christian songs and prayers invoking the rain which were used as a close Christian alternative (decline was reportedly faster among Catholics{{sfn|Muraj|1987|p=161}}).{{sfn|Čulinović-Konstantinović|1963|p=77, 91–93}}{{sfn|Predojević|2019|p=581, 583, 589–591}} According to [[:hr:Velimir Deželić mlađi|Velimir Deželić Jr.]] in 1937, it was an old custom that &quot;Christians approved it, took it over and further refined it. In the old days, ''Prporuša'' were very much like a [[Piety|pious]] ritual, only later the leaders - ''Prpac'' - began to boast too much, and ''Prporuše'' seemed to be more interested in gifts than beautiful singing and prayer&quot;.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book |last=Deželić Jr. |first=Velimir |date=1937 |title=Kolede: Obrađeni hrvatski godišnji običaji |trans-title=Kolede: Examined Croatian annual customs |url=https://archive.org/details/kolede_obradjeni_hrvatski_godisnji_obicaji-velimir_dezelic_sin/ |language=hr |publisher=Hrvatsko književno društvo svetog Jeronima |page=70 |quote=Ljeti, kad zategnu suše, pošle bi našim selima Prporuše moliti od Boga kišu. Posvuda su Hrvatskom išle Prporuše, a običaj je to prastar — iz pretkršćanskih vremena — ali lijep, pa ga kršćani odobrili, preuzeli i još dotjerali. U stara vremena Prporuše su bile veoma nalik nekom pobožnom obredu, tek poslije su predvodnici — Prpci— počeli suviše lakrdijati, a Prporušama ko da je više do darova, nego do lijepa pjevanja i molitve.}}&lt;/ref&gt; Depending on region, instead of village boys and girls the pagan ritual by then was mostly done by migrating [[Romani people]] from other villages and for whom it became a professional performance motivated by gifts, sometimes followed by financially poor members from other ethnic groups.{{sfn|Čulinović-Konstantinović|1963|p=77, 91–93}}{{sfn|Predojević|2019|p=581, 583, 589–591}}&lt;ref name=&quot;Horvat&quot;&gt;{{cite book |last=Horvat |first=Josip |date=1939 |title=Kultura Hrvata kroz 1000 godina |trans-title=Culture of Croats through 1000 years |url=https://archive.org/details/kultura_hrvata_kroz_1000_godina_ii.izdanje_1939-josip_horvat |language=hr |location=Zagreb |publisher=A. Velzek |pages=23–24}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book |last=Kovačević |first=Ivan |date=1985 |title=Semiologija rituala |trans-title=Semiology of ritual |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=qPMXAAAAIAAJ |language=sr |location=Beograd |publisher=Prosveta |page=79}}&lt;/ref&gt;{{Sfn|Dragić|2007|p=278, 290}} Due to [[Anti-Romani sentiment]], the association with Romani also caused repulsion, shame and ignorance among last generations of members of ethnic groups who originally performed it.{{sfn|Predojević|2019|p=583–584, 589}} Eventually it led to a dichotomy of identification with own traditional heritage, Christianity and stereotypes about Romani witchcraft.{{sfn|Predojević|2019|p=581–582, 584}} In the present days, older generations of Albanians demonstrate the common practice of rainmaking rituals in their life, but newer generations generally see them as something applied in the past, a tradition that their parents have gone through. Nevertheless, elders still accompany [[processions]] of boys and girls, who perform the rainmaking rite dressed with their best [[Albanian traditional clothing|traditional clothing]] except for the main boy or girl, who is dressed entirely in fresh branches, leaves and herbs.&lt;ref&gt;{{harvnb|Qafleshi|2011|pp=51–52|}}; {{harvnb|Ministria|2014|p=66}}; {{harvnb|Halimi|Halimi-Statovci|Xhemaj|2011|pp=2–6, 32–43}}&lt;/ref&gt; Public exhibitions of the ritual are usually performed during Albanian festivals, often for the local audience, but also in the [[Gjirokastër National Folk Festival]], one of the most important events of Albanian culture.{{sfn|Sela|2017|pp=69–70}} ===Perperuna songs=== [[Ioan Slavici]] reported in 1881 that the custom of ''Paparuga'' was already &quot;very disbanded&quot; in Romania.{{sfn|Nodilo|1981|p=51}} Stjepan Žiža in 1889/95 reported that the once common ritual almost vanished in Southwestern and Central-Eastern Istria, Croatia.{{sfn|Čulinović-Konstantinović|1963|p=78}} [[:hr:Ivan Milčetić|Ivan Milčetić]] recorded in 1896 that the custom of ''Prporuša'' also almost vanished from the North Adriatic island of [[Krk]], although almost recently it was well known in all Western parts of Croatia, while in other parts as ''Dodola''.&lt;ref name=&quot;Milcetic&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |last=Milčetić |first=Ivan |date=1896 |title=Prporuša |journal=Zbornik za narodni život i običaje južnih Slavena |location=Belgrade |publisher=[[JAZU]] |volume=1 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=8TwSAAAAYAAJ |pages=217–218 |quote=Čini mi se da je već nestalo prporuše i na otoku Krku, a bijaše još nedavno poznata svuda po zapadnim stranama hrvatskog naroda, dok je po drugim krajevima živjela dodola. Nego i za dodolu već malo gdje znadu. Tako mi piše iz Vir‐Pazara g. L. Jovović, koga sam pitao, da li još Crnogorci poznaju koledu...}}&lt;/ref&gt; Croatian linguist Josip Ribarić recorded in 1916 that it was still alive in Southwestern Istria and [[Ćićarija]] (and related it to the 16th century migration from Dalmatia of speakers of [[Southwestern Istrian]] dialect).&lt;ref name=&quot;Ribaric&quot;/&gt; On island of Krk was also known as ''Barburuša/Barbaruša/Bambaruša'' (occurrence there is possibly related to the 15th century migration which included besides Croats also [[Vlachs of Croatia|Vlach]]-[[Istro-Romanians|Istro-Romanian]] shepherds{{sfn|Zebec|2005|p=68–71, 248}}).{{sfn|Čulinović-Konstantinović|1963|p=80}}{{sfn|Zebec|2005|p=71}} It was also widespread in [[Dalmatia]] (especially [[Zadar]] hinterland, coast and islands), [[Žumberak]] (also known as ''Pepeluše'', ''Prepelice''{{sfn|Muraj|1987|p=161}}) and Western [[Slavonia]] (Križevci).&lt;ref name=&quot;Ralston&quot;/&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;Revija&quot;/&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;Horvat&quot;/&gt;{{sfn|Zebec|2005|p=71}}{{sfn|Čulinović-Konstantinović|1963|p=78, 80–81}}{{Sfn|Dragić|2007|p=291–293}} It was held in Istria at least until the 1950s,{{sfn|Čulinović-Konstantinović|1963|p=82}} in Žumberak until the 1960s,{{sfn|Muraj|1987|p=165}} while according to one account in [[Jezera, Tisno|Jezera]] on island [[Murter]] the last were in the late 20th century.{{Sfn|Dragić|2007|p=292}} In Serbia, Perperuna was only found in [[Kosovo]], Southern and Eastern Serbia near Bulgarian border.{{sfn|Čulinović-Konstantinović|1963|p=79}} According to [[Natko Nodilo]] the discrepancy in distribution between these two countries makes an idea that originally Perperuna was Croatian while Dodola was Serbian custom.{{sfn|Nodilo|1981|p=50a|ps=:Po tome, pa i po različitome imenu za stvar istu, mogao bi ko pomisliti, da su dodole, prvim postankom, čisto srpske, a prporuše hrvatske. U Bosni, zapadno od Vrbasa, zovu se čaroice. Kad bi ovo bilo hrvatski naziv za njih, onda bi prporuše bila riječ, koja k nama pregje od starih Slovenaca.}} Seemingly it was not present in Slovenia, Northern Croatia, almost all of Bosnia and Herzegovina and Montenegro (only sporadically in [[Boka Kotorska]]).{{sfn|Muraj|1987|p=159}} Luka Jovović from [[Virpazar]], Montenegro reported in 1896 that in Montenegro existed some ''koleda'' custom for summer droughts, but was rare and since 1870s not practiced anymore.&lt;ref name=&quot;Milcetic&quot;/&gt; {|class=&quot;wikitable&quot; ||Bulgaria&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book |last=Антонова |first=Илонка Цанова |date=2015 |title=Календарни празници и обичаи на българите |trans-title=Calendar holidays and customs of the Bulgarians |language=bg |location=Sofia |publisher=Издателство на Българската академия на науките &quot;Проф. Марин Дринов&quot; |pages=66–68 |isbn=978-954-322-764-8}}&lt;/ref&gt;||Albania&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book|last=Pipa|first=Arshi|title=Albanian Folk Verse: Structure and Genre|publisher=O. Harrassowitz|year=1978|isbn=3-87828-119-6|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=WCIHAQAAIAAJ|page=58}}&lt;/ref&gt;||Croatia-Krk&lt;br /&gt;&lt;small&gt;([[Dubašnica]], 1896&lt;ref name=&quot;Milcetic&quot;/&gt;)&lt;/small&gt;||Croatia-Istria&lt;br /&gt;&lt;small&gt;([[Lanišće|Vodice]], 1916&lt;ref name=&quot;Ribaric&quot;/&gt;)&lt;/small&gt;||Croatia-Istria&lt;br /&gt;&lt;small&gt;([[Polje Čepić|Čepić]], 1896&lt;ref name=&quot;Milcetic&quot;/&gt;/Štifanići near [[Baderna]], 1906/08&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book |last=Ribarić |first=Josip |editor=Tanja Perić-Polonijo |date=1992 |title=Narodne pjesme Ćićarije |language=hr |location=Pazin |publisher=Istarsko književno društvo &quot;Juraj Dobrila&quot; |pages=11, 208}}&lt;/ref&gt;)&lt;/small&gt;||Croatia-Dalmatia&lt;br /&gt;&lt;small&gt;([[Ražanac]], 1905{{sfn|Čulinović-Konstantinović|1963|p=81}})&lt;/small&gt;||Croatia-Dalmatia&lt;br /&gt;&lt;small&gt;([[Ravni Kotari]], 1867&lt;ref name=&quot;Vuk&quot;&gt;{{cite book |last=Karadžić |first=Vuk Stefanović |author-link=Vuk Stefanović Karadžić |date=1867 |title=Život i običaji naroda srpskoga |trans-title=Life and customs of Serbian nation |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=fX0RAAAAYAAJ |language=sr |location=Vienna |publisher=A. Karacić |pages=61–66}}&lt;/ref&gt;)&lt;/small&gt;||Croatia-Žumberak&lt;br /&gt;&lt;small&gt;(Pavlanci, 1890{{sfn|Muraj|1987|p=164}})&lt;/small&gt;||Macedonia&lt;br /&gt;&lt;small&gt;([[Struga]], 1861&lt;ref name=&quot;Miladinovci&quot;/&gt;)&lt;/small&gt; |- | &lt;poem&gt; &lt;small&gt;Letela e peperuda Daĭ, Bozhe, dŭzhd Daĭ, Bozhe, dŭzhd Ot orache na kopache Da se rodi zhito, proso Zhito, proso i pshenitsa Da se ranyat siracheta Siracheta, siromasi&lt;/small&gt; &lt;/poem&gt; || &lt;poem&gt; &lt;small&gt;Rona-rona, Peperona Bjerë shi ndë arat tona! Të bëhetë thekëri I gjatë gjer në çati Gruri gjer në perëndi Ashtu edhe misëri!&lt;/small&gt; &lt;/poem&gt; || &lt;poem&gt; &lt;small&gt;Prporuša hodila Službu boga molila Dajte sira, dajte jaj Da nam bog da mladi daž Od šenice višnji klas! A ti, bože vični Smiluj se na nas!&lt;/small&gt; &lt;/poem&gt; || &lt;poem&gt; &lt;small&gt;Prporuše hodile Slavu Boga molile I šenice bilice Svake dobre sričice Bog nan ga daj Jedan tihi daž!&lt;/small&gt; &lt;/poem&gt; || &lt;poem&gt; &lt;small&gt;Preporuči hodili / Prporuše hodile Iz Prepora grada / 's Prpora grada Kuda hodili / Da nam bog da dažda Tuda Boga molili / Crljenoga mažda Da nam Bog da dažda / I šenice bilice I crljenoga masta / Svake dobre sričice I šenice bilice / Šenica nan rodila I svake dobre srećice / Dičica prohodila Šenica narodila / Šenicu pojili Dica nam prohodila / Dicu poženili I šenicu pojili / Skupi, bože, oblake! I dicu poženili / Struni bojžu rosicu Skupi, Bože, oblake / Na tu svetu zemljicu! Hiti božju kapljicu / Amen, amen, amen Na ovu svetu zemljicu! Amen&lt;/small&gt; &lt;/poem&gt; || &lt;poem&gt; &lt;small&gt;Prporuše hodile Putom Boga molile Da ni pane kišica Da ni rodi šenica bilica I vinova lozica&lt;/small&gt; &lt;/poem&gt; || &lt;poem&gt; &lt;small&gt;Prporuše hodile Terem Boga molile Da nam dade kišicu Da nam rodi godina I šenica bjelica I vinova lozica I nevjesta đetića Do prvoga božića Daruj nama, striko naša Oku brašna, striko naša Bublu masla, striko naša Runce vune, striko naša Jedan sirčić, striko naša Šaku soli, striko naša Dva, tri jajca, striko naša Ostaj s Bogom, striko naša Koja si nas darovala&lt;/small&gt; &lt;/poem&gt; || &lt;poem&gt; &lt;small&gt;Preperuša odila Za nas Boga molila Daj nam Bože kišice Na ovu našu ljetinu Da pokvasi mladinu Pucaj, pucaj ledeno Škrapaj, škrapaj godino Mi smo tebi veseli Kano Isus Mariji Kaj Marija Isusu Kano mati djetetu&lt;/small&gt; &lt;/poem&gt; || &lt;poem&gt; &lt;small&gt;Otletala preperuga, oj ljule, oj! Ot oracha na oracha, oj ljule, oj! Ot kopacha na kopacha, oj ljule, oj! Ot rezhacha na rezhacha; oj ljule, oj! Da zarosit sitna rosa, oj ljule, oj! Sitna rosa beriketna, oj ljule, oj! I po pole i po more; oj ljule, oj! Da se rodit s' beriket, oj ljule, oj! S' beriket vino-zhito; oj ljule, oj! Cheincite do gredite, oj ljule, oj! Jachmenite do streite, oj ljule, oj! Lenoite do pojasi, oj ljule, oj! Uroite do kolena; oj ljule, oj! Da se ranet siromasi, oj ljule, oj! Drvete ne so osito, oj ljule, oj! Da je sita godina; oj ljule, oj! Drvete ne so oshnica, oj ljule, oj! Da ja polna koshnica; oj ljule, oj! Drvete ne so jamache, oj ljule, oj! Da je tuchna godina, oj ljule, oj!&lt;/small&gt; &lt;/poem&gt; |} ===Dodola songs=== The oldest record for Dodole rituals in Macedonia is the song &quot;Oj Ljule&quot; from [[Struga]] region, recorded in 1861.&lt;ref name=&quot;Miladinovci&quot;&gt;{{cite book|last = Miladinovci|title = Зборник|publisher = Kočo Racin|year = 1962|location = Skopje|url = http://www.gbiblsk.edu.mk/images/stories/eknigi/zbornik.pdf|page = 462|archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20120216225647/http://www.gbiblsk.edu.mk/images/stories/eknigi/zbornik.pdf |archive-date = 2012-02-16}}&lt;/ref&gt; The Dodola rituals in Macedonia were actively held until the 1960s.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book|last=Veličkovska|first=Rodna|title=Музичките дијалекти во македонското традиционално народно пеење: обредно пеење|trans-title=Musical dialects in the Macedonian traditional folk singing: ritual singing| publisher=Institute of folklore &quot;Marko Cepenkov&quot;|year=2009|location=Skopje|language=mk|page=45}}&lt;/ref&gt; In Bulgaria the chorus was also &quot;Oj Ljule&quot;.{{sfn|Nodilo|1981|p=50b}} The oldest record in Serbia was by [[Vuk Karadžić]] (1841),{{sfn|Čulinović-Konstantinović|1963|p=79}} where was widespread all over the country and held at least until 1950/70s.&lt;ref name=&quot;Zecevic&quot;/&gt;{{sfn|Čulinović-Konstantinović|1963|p=77–78, 86, 88}} In Croatia was found in Eastern Slavonia, Southern [[Baranya (region)|Baranja]] and Southeastern [[Srijem]].&lt;ref name=&quot;Horvat&quot;/&gt;{{sfn|Čulinović-Konstantinović|1963|p=77–78, 90}}{{sfn|Muraj|1987|p=159}}{{sfn|Dragić|2012|p=54}}&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book |last=Janković |first=Slavko |date=1956 |title=Kuhačeva zbirka narodnih popijevaka (analizirana): od br. 1801 do br. 2000 |url=https://repozitorij.dief.eu/a/?pr=i&amp;id=69581 |quote=Naša doda moli Boga ([[Otok, Vukovar-Syrmia County|Otok]], Slavonia, 1881, sken ID: IEF_RKP_N0096_0_155; IEF_RKP_N0096_0_156A) - Ide doda preko sela ([[Erdevik]], Srijem, 1885, sken ID: IEF_RKP_N0096_0_163; IEF_RKP_N0096_0_164A) - Filip i Jakob, Koleda na kišu ([[Gibarac]], Srijem, 1886, sken ID: IEF_RKP_N0096_0_165; IEF_RKP_N0096_0_166A)}}&lt;/ref&gt; [[August Šenoa]] in his writing about the travel to Okić-grad near [[Samobor]], Croatia mentioned that saw two dodole.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |url=https://www.knjizevnost.hr/zagrebulje-1866-august-senoa/ |title=Zagrebulje I (1866.) |last=Šenoa |first=August |author-link=August Šenoa |date=1866 |website=Književnost.hr |publisher=informativka d.o.o. |access-date=23 July 2022 |quote=...već se miču niz Okić put naše šljive dvije u zeleno zavite dodole. S ovoga dodolskoga dualizma sjetih se odmah kakvi zecevi u tom grmu idu, i moja me nada ne prevari. Eto ti pred nas dva naša junaka, ne kao dodole, kao bradurina i trbušina, već kao pravi pravcati bogovi – kao Bako i Gambrinus... Naša dva boga, u zeleno zavita, podijeliše društvu svoj blagoslov, te bjehu sa živim usklikom primljeni. No i ova mitologička šala i mrcvarenje božanske poezije po našem generalkvartirmeštru pobudi bogove na osvetu; nad našim glavama zgrnuše se oblaci, i naskoro udari kiša.}}&lt;/ref&gt; To them is related the custom of Lade/Ladarice from other parts of Croatia, having chorus &quot;''Oj Lado, oj!''&quot; and similar verses &quot;''Molimo se višnjem Bogu/Da popuhne tihi vjetar, Da udari rodna kiša/Da porosi naša polja, I travicu mekušicu/Da nam stada Lado, Ugoje se naša stada''&quot;.&lt;ref name=&quot;Cubelic&quot;/&gt;{{Sfn|Dragić|2007|p=279, 283}}&lt;ref name=&quot;Dragic2012&quot;/&gt; {|class=&quot;wikitable&quot; ||Serbia&lt;br /&gt;&lt;small&gt;(1841&lt;ref name=&quot;Vuk&quot;/&gt;{{sfn|Čulinović-Konstantinović|1963|p=88}})&lt;/small&gt;||Serbia&lt;br /&gt;&lt;small&gt;(1867&lt;ref name=&quot;Vuk&quot;/&gt;)&lt;/small&gt;||Serbia&lt;br /&gt;&lt;small&gt;(1867&lt;ref name=&quot;Vuk&quot;/&gt;)&lt;/small&gt;||Croatia-Slavonia&lt;br /&gt;&lt;small&gt;([[Đakovo]]&lt;ref name=&quot;Dragic2012&quot;/&gt;)&lt;/small&gt;||Croatia-Slavonia&lt;br /&gt;&lt;small&gt;(Đakovo, 1957{{sfn|Čulinović-Konstantinović|1963|p=77, 90}})&lt;/small&gt;||Croatia-Srijem&lt;br /&gt;&lt;small&gt;([[Tovarnik]], 1979&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal |last=Černelić |first=Milana |date=1998 |title=Kroz godinu dana srijemskih običaja vukovarskog kraja |trans-title=Annual customs of Srijem in the Vukovar region |url=https://hrcak.srce.hr/80816 |language=hr |journal=Etnološka tribina |volume=28 |issue=21 |page=135}}&lt;/ref&gt;)&lt;/small&gt; |- | &lt;poem&gt; &lt;small&gt;Mi idemo preko sela, Oj dodo, oj dodo le! A oblaci preko neba, Oj dodo, oj dodo le! A mi brže, oblak brže, Oj dodo, oj dodo le! Oblaci nas pretekoše, Oj dodo, oj dodo le! Žito, vino porosiše, Oj dodo, oj dodo le!&lt;/small&gt; &lt;/poem&gt; || &lt;poem&gt; &lt;small&gt;Molimo se višnjem Bogu, Oj dodo, oj dodo le! Da udari rosna kiša, Oj dodo, oj dodo le! Da porosi naša polja, Oj dodo, oj dodo le! I šenicu ozimicu, Oj dodo, oj dodo le! I dva pera kukuruza, Oj dodo, oj dodo le!&lt;/small&gt; &lt;/poem&gt; || &lt;poem&gt; &lt;small&gt;Naša doda Boga moli, Oj dodo, oj dodo le! Da udari rosna kiša, Oj dodo, oj dodo le! Da pokisnu svi orači, Oj dodo, oj dodo le! Svi orači i kopači, Oj dodo, oj dodo le! I po kući poslovači, Oj dodo, oj dodo le!&lt;/small&gt; &lt;/poem&gt; || &lt;poem&gt; &lt;small&gt;Naša doda moli Boga Oj dodole, moj božole! Da porosi rosna kiša Oj dodole, moj božole! Da pokvasi naša polja Oj dodole, moj božole! Da urode, da prerode Oj dodole, moj božole!&lt;/small&gt; &lt;/poem&gt; || &lt;poem&gt; &lt;small&gt;Naša dojda moli boga da kiša pada Da pokisne suvo polje, oj, dojdole! Da pokisnu svi orači Svi orači i kopači, oj, dojdole! I po kući poslovači Oj, dojdole, oj, dojdole! I dva pera kukuruza I lanovi za darove, oj, dojdole! Da urodi, da prerodi, da ne polegne Oj, dojdole, oj, dojdole!&lt;/small&gt; &lt;/poem&gt; || &lt;poem&gt; &lt;small&gt;Naša doda moli Boga Da nam Bog da rosne kiše Rosne kiše malo više Na orače i kopače I na naše suve bašće Oj dodo, oj dodole! Da trava raste Da paun pase Da sunce sija Da žito zrija Oj dodo, oj dodole!&lt;/small&gt; &lt;/poem&gt; |} ==Other== According to [[Albanian folk beliefs]], the Sun ([[Dielli (Albanian paganism)|Dielli]]) makes the sky cloudy or clears it up.&lt;ref&gt;{{harvnb|Tirta|2004|pp=71–72}}; {{harvnb|Gjoni|2012|pp=85–86}}&lt;/ref&gt; Albanians used to invoke the Sun with rainmaking and soil fertility rituals. In rainmaking rituals from the [[Albanian Ionian Sea Coast]], Albanians used to pray to the Sun, in particular facing Mount [[Shëndelli]] (Mount &quot;Holy Sun&quot;), by invoking the names ''Dielli'', ''Shën Dëlliu'', ''Ilia'' or ''[[Perëndi]]a''. Children used to dress a boy with fresh branches, calling him ''dordolec''. A typical invocation song repeated three times during the ritual was:{{sfn|Gjoni|2012|pp=85–86}} {{blockquote|&quot;O Ilia, Ilia,&lt;br /&gt;Peperuga rrugëzaj&lt;br /&gt;Bjerë shi o Perëndi,&lt;br /&gt;Se qajnë ca varfëri,&lt;br /&gt;Me lot e logori&lt;br /&gt;Thekëri gjer mbë çati,&lt;br /&gt;Gruri gjer në Perëndi.&quot;}} Afterwards, people used to say: ''Do kemi shi se u nxi Shëndëlliu'' (&quot;We will have rain because ''Shëndëlliu'' went dark&quot;).{{sfn|Gjoni|2012|pp=85–86}} The Sun used to be also invoked when reappearing after the rain, prayed for increased production in agriculture.{{sfn|Gjoni|2012|pp=85–86}} == See also == {{commons category|Dodola}} * [[Albanian paganism]] * [[Folklore of Romania]] * [[Slavic paganism]] * [[Caloian]] * [[Perëndi]] * [[Porenut]] * [[Porevit]] == References == {{reflist}} === Bibliography === {{Refbegin|30em|indent=yes}} &lt;!-- B --&gt; *{{cite book |last=Belaj |first=Vitomir |author-link=Vitomir Belaj |date=2007 |orig-date=1998 |title=Hod kroz godinu: Mitska pozadina hrvatskih narodnih običaja i vjerovanja |trans-title=The walk within a year: the mythic background of the Croatian folk customs and beliefs |language=hr |location=Zagreb |publisher=Golden marketing-Tehnička knjiga |isbn=978-953-212-334-0}} *{{cite journal|last=Burns|first=Richard|title=Rain and Dust|journal=[[Studia Mythologica Slavica]]|volume=XI|issn=1581-128X|doi=10.3986/sms.v11i0.1696|year=2008|pages=217–236|doi-access=free}} &lt;!-- C --&gt; *{{cite journal |last=Čulinović-Konstantinović |first=Vesna |date=1963 |title=Dodole i prporuše: narodni običaji za prizivanje kiše |trans-title=Dodole and prporuše: folk customs for invoking the rain |url=https://hrcak.srce.hr/34409 |language=hr |journal=Narodna Umjetnost |volume=2 |issue=1 |pages=73–95}} &lt;!-- D --&gt; *{{cite journal |last=Dragić |first=Marko |date=2007 |title=Ladarice, kraljice i dodole u hrvatskoj tradicijskoj kulturi i slavenskom kontekstu |trans-title=Ladarice, Queens and Dodole in Croatian Traditionary Culture and Slavic Context |url=https://www.bib.irb.hr/299913 |language=hr |journal=Hercegovina, godišnjak za kulturno i povijesno naslijeđe |volume=21 |pages=275–296}} &lt;!-- G --&gt; *{{cite book|last=Gamkrelidze|first=Ivanov|title=Indo-European and the Indoeuropeans|publisher=Mouton de Gruyter|year=1995}} *{{cite book |last=Gieysztor |first=Aleksander |author-link=Aleksander Gieysztor |date=2006 |orig-date=1982 |edition=II |title=Mitologia Slowian |publisher=Wydawn. Uniwersytetu Warszawskiego |location=Warszawa |language=pl |isbn=978-83-235-0234-0}} *{{cite book |last=Gimbutas |first=Marija |author-link=Marija Gimbutas |date=1967 |chapter=Ancient Slavic Religion: A Synopsis |title=To honor Roman Jakobson: essays on the occasion of his seventieth birthday, 11 October 1966 (Vol. I) |pages=738–759 |publisher=Mouton |doi=10.1515/9783111604763-064 |isbn=978-3-11-122958-4}} *{{cite thesis|type=PhD|last=Gjoni|first=Irena|title=Marrëdhënie të miteve dhe kulteve të bregdetit të Jonit me areale të tjera mitike|publisher=University of Tirana, Faculty of History and Philology|language=sq|year=2012|place=Tirana}} &lt;!-- E --&gt; * {{cite book|last=Elsie|first=Robert|year=2000|title=The Christian Saints of Albania|publisher=Balkanistica|url=http://home.olemiss.edu/~mldyer/balk/article2.html|volume=13}} * {{cite book|last=Elsie|first=Robert|author-link=Robert Elsie|title=A Dictionary of Albanian Religion, Mythology and Folk Culture|place=London|publisher=Hurst &amp; Company|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=N_IXHrXIsYkC|isbn=1-85065-570-7|year=2001a}} *{{cite book|last=Elsie|first=Robert|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ve4SAQAAIAAJ|title=Albanian Folktales and Legends|year=2001b|publisher=Dukagjini Publishing House}} *{{cite book |last=Evans |first=David |date=1974 |chapter=Dodona, Dodola, and Daedala |title=Myth in Indo-European Antiquity |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=QNzuDwAAQBAJ |pages=99–130 |publisher=University of California Press |isbn=978-0-520-02378-9}} &lt;!-- H --&gt; *{{cite journal|last=Håland|first=Evy Johanne|title=Rituals of Magical Rain-Making in Modern and Ancient Greece: A Comparative Approach|journal=Cosmos|volume=17|year=2001|pages=197–251}} *{{cite book|last1=Halimi|first1=Zanita|last2=Halimi-Statovci|first2=Drita|last3=Xhemaj|first3=Ukë|translator=Lumnije Kadriu|title=Rite dhe Aktualiteti|trans-title=Rites and Contemporariness/Present Time|publisher=[[University of Prishtina]]|year=2011|url=https://chwbkosova.org/wp-content/uploads/2014/09/Publication_2011_7-min.pdf}} &lt;!-- J --&gt; *{{cite journal|last=Jackson|first=Peter|date=2002|title=Light from Distant Asterisks. Towards a Description of the Indo-European Religious Heritage|journal=Numen|volume=49|issue=1|pages=61–102|issn=0029-5973|jstor=3270472|doi=10.1163/15685270252772777}} *{{cite journal |last1=Jakobson |first1=Roman |author-link=Roman Jakobson |date=1955 |title=While Reading Vasmer's Dictionary |url=https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/pdf/10.1080/00437956.1955.11659581 |journal=[[Word (journal)|Word]] |volume=11 |issue=4 |pages=611–617 |doi=10.1080/00437956.1955.11659581}} *{{cite book |last=Jakobson |first=Roman |author-link=Roman Jakobson |date=1985 |title=Selected Writings VII: Contributions to Comparative Mythology |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=db7iuvTX1bkC |publisher=[[Walter de Gruyter]] |isbn=978-3-11-010617-6}} &lt;!-- K --&gt; *{{cite journal |last=Ḱulavkova |first=Katica |date=2020 |title=A Poetic Ritual Invoking Rain and Well-Being: Richard Berengarten's In a Time of Drought |url=https://scholarworks.iu.edu/journals/index.php/aeer/article/view/28956 |journal=Anthropology of East Europe Review |volume=37 |issue=1 |pages=17–26}} *{{cite book |last=Kulišić |first=Špiro |author-link=Špiro Kulišić |editor=[[Alojz Benac]] |date=1979 |title=Stara slovenska religija u svjetlu novijih istraživanja – posebno balkanoloških |language=sh |volume=Djela LVI, CBI knjiga 3 |location=Sarajevo |publisher=Centre for Balkan Studies, [[ANUBIH]]}} &lt;!-- L --&gt; *{{cite book |last=Lajoye |first=Patrice |author-link=Patrice Lajoye |date=2015 |title=Perun, dieu slave de l'orage: Archéologie, histoire, folklore |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=o5LdCgAAQBAJ |language=fr |publisher=Lingva |isbn=979-10-94441-25-1}} *{{cite book|last=Łuczyński|first=Michal|year=2020|title=Bogowie dawnych Słowian: Studium onomastyczne|publisher=Kieleckie Towarzystwo Naukowe|location=Kielce|isbn=978-83-60777-83-1|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=rv-izQEACAAJ|language=pl}} &lt;!-- M --&gt; *{{cite book|author=Ministria e Mjedisit dhe Planifikimit Hapësinor|title=Parku Kombëtar &quot;Sharri&quot; – Plani Hapësinor|publisher=Kosovo Environmental Protection Agency, Institute for Spatial Planning|year=2014|ref={{harvid|Ministria|2014}}}} *{{cite journal |last=Muraj |first=Aleksandra |date=1987 |title=Iz istraživanja Žumberka (preperuše, preslice, tara) |trans-title=From Research on Žumberak (preperuše, spindles, tara) |url=https://hrcak.srce.hr/clanak/76272 |language=hr |journal=Narodna Umjetnost |volume=24 |issue=1 |pages=157–175}} &lt;!-- N --&gt; *{{cite book |last=Nodilo |first=Natko |author-link=Natko Nodilo |date=1981 |orig-date=1884 |title=Stara Vjera Srba i Hrvata |trans-title=Old Faith of Serbs and Croats |url=https://archive.org/details/StaraVjeraSrbaIHrvata/ |language=hr |location=Split |publisher=Logos}} *{{cite book|last=Norris|first=Harry Thirlwall|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=RGmzir-ITtUC&amp;pg=PA34|title=Islam in the Balkans: Religion and Society Between Europe and the Arab World|publisher=University of South Carolina Press|year=1993|isbn=9780872499775|location=Columbia, S.C|pages=211|language=en|oclc=28067651}} &lt;!-- P --&gt; *{{cite book |last=Predojević |first=Željko |date=2019 |chapter=O pučkim postupcima i vjerovanjima za prizivanje kiše iz južne Baranje u kontekstu dvovjerja |trans-chapter=On folk practices and beliefs for invoking rain from southern Baranja in the context of dual belif |chapter-url=https://www.bib.irb.hr/1100049 |title=XIV. međunarodni kroatistički znanstveni skup |editor=István Blazsetin |editor-link=István Blazsetin (born 1963) |location=Pečuh |publisher=Znanstveni zavod Hrvata u Mađarskoj |language=hr |pages=581–593 |isbn=978-963-89731-5-3}} *{{cite book |last=Puchner |first=Walter |author-link=Walter Puchner |date=2009 |title=Studien zur Volkskunde Südosteuropas und des mediterranen Raums |url=https://library.oapen.org/handle/20.500.12657/34402 |location=Wien, Köln, Weimar |publisher=Böhlau Verlag |hdl=20.500.12657/34402 |language=de |isbn=978-3-205-78369-5}} *{{cite book|last1=Puhvel|first1=Jaan|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=OMPagyYOe8gC|title=Comparative Mythology|date=1987|publisher=Johns Hopkins University Press|isbn=978-0-8018-3938-2|author-link=Jaan Puhvel}} &lt;!-- Q --&gt; *{{cite book|last=Qafleshi|first=Muharrem|title=Opoja dhe Gora ndër shekuj|trans-title=Opoja and Gora During Centuries|publisher=[[Albanological Institute of Pristina]]|year=2011|isbn=978-9951-596-51-0}} &lt;!-- S --&gt; *{{cite book|last=Sela|first=Jonida|title=International Conference &quot;Education and Cultural Heritage&quot;|chapter=Values and Traditions in Ritual Dances of All-Year Celebrations in Korça Region, Albania|volume=1|publisher=Association of Heritage and Education|year=2017|pages=62–71}} &lt;!-- T --&gt; *{{cite book|last=Tirta|first=Mark|title=Mitologjia ndër shqiptarë|language=sq|editor=Petrit Bezhani|publisher=Mësonjëtorja|year=2004|place=Tirana|isbn=99927-938-9-9}} &lt;!-- U --&gt; *{{cite book|last=Urbańczyk|first=Stanisław|author-link=Stanisław Urbańczyk|year=1991|title=Dawni Słowianie: wiara i kult|trans-title=Old Slavs: faith and cult|publisher=Ossolineum, Polska Akademia Nauk, Komitet Słowianoznawstwa|location=Kraków|isbn=978-83-04-03825-7|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=4iUtAAAAMAAJ|language=pl}} &lt;!-- W --&gt; *{{cite book|last=Wachtel|first=Andrew Baruch|year=2008|title=The Balkans in World History|publisher=Oxford University Press|location=Oxford, England|isbn=978-0-19-988273-1|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=t6CeBgAAQBAJ}} *{{cite book|last=West|first=M. L.|title=Indo-European Poetry and Myth|publisher=Oxford University Press|year=2007|isbn=978-0-19-928075-9}} &lt;!-- Z --&gt; *{{cite book |last=Zebec |first=Tvrtko |date=2005 |title=Krčki tanci: plesno-etnološka studija |trans-title=Tanac dances on the island of Krk: dance ethnology study |url=https://www.academia.edu/35914079 |location=Zagreb, Rijeka |publisher=Institut za etnologiju i folkloristiku, Adamić |language=hr |isbn=953-219-223-9}} {{refend}} === Further reading === {{refbegin}} * {{ill|Bellosics, Bálint|hu|Bellosics Bálint}}. &quot;[http://real-j.mtak.hu/17297/ Dodola (Adatok az esőcsináláshoz)]&quot; [Dodola, Beiträge zum Regenmachen]. In: ''Ethnographia'' 6 (1895): 418–422. (In Hungarian) *{{cite book |last=Beza |first=Marcu |author-link=Marcu Beza |date=1928 |chapter=The Paparude and Kalojan |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=m2jTDwAAQBAJ |title=Paganism in Roumanian Folklore |location=London |publisher=J.M.Dent &amp; Sons LTD. |pages=27–36|isbn=978-3-8460-4695-1 }} * Boghici, Constantina. &quot;Archaic Elements in the Romanian Spring-Summer Traditions. Landmarks for Dâmboviţa County&quot;. In: ''Bulletin of the Transilvania University of Braşov'', Series VIII: Performing Arts 2 (2013): 17–18. https://ceeol.azurewebsites.net/search/article-detail?id=258246 * {{cite book |last=Cook |first=Arthur Bernard |author-link=Arthur Bernard Cook |date=1940 |chapter=Zeus and the Rain: Rain-magic in modern Greece |title=Zeus: A Study in Ancient Religion: God of the Dark Sky (earthquakes, clouds, wind, dew, rain, meteorites) |volume=3 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=2Yk8AAAAIAAJ |publisher=Cambridge University Press |pages=284–290 |isbn=978-0-511-69664-0 |doi=10.1017/CBO9780511696640}} * {{ill|Dömötör, Tekla|hu|Dömötor Tekla}}; {{ill|Eperjessy, Ernő|hu|Eperjessy Ernő}}. &quot;[http://real-j.mtak.hu/2925/ Dodola and Other Slavonic Folk-Customs in County Baranya (Hungary)]&quot;. In: ''Acta Ethnographica'', 16 (1967): 399–408. * {{cite journal |title=Paparuda |trans-title=Paparuda |first=Mihai |last=Dragnea |publisher=MUZEUL ETNOGRAFIC AL TRANSILVANIEI |journal=Anuarul Muzeului Etnografic al Transilvaniei |date=2012 |issue=6 |pages=73–81 |lang=Romanian}} * {{Cite journal |title=Песента в обреда Пеперуда |trans-title=The Song in the Peperuda Ritual |first=Bozhanka |last=Ganeva |publisher=Институт за етнология и фолклористика с Етнографски музей при БАН |journal=Български фолклор |volume=XXIX |date=2003 |issue=1 |pages=40–49 |lang=BG}} * Janković, Danica S., and Ljubica S. Janković. &quot;Serbian Folk Dance Tradition in Prizren&quot;. In: ''Ethnomusicology'' 6, no. 2 (1962): 117. https://doi.org/10.2307/924671. * {{cite journal |title=Вариантн на обредите Пеперуда и Герман |trans-title=Variants of the Rites Peperuda and German |first=Rusko |last=Kalev |publisher=Институт за етнология и фолклористика с Етнографски музей при БАН |journal=Български фолклор |volume=XII |date=1986 |issue=3 |pages=47–58 |lang=BG}} * {{cite journal |title=Słownictwo związane z wywoływaniem deszczu w dialektach sztokawskich |trans-title=Vocabulary related to rain calling in Shtokavian dialects |first=Agata |last=Kruszec |publisher=Instytut Slawistyki Polskiej Akademii Nauk |journal=Studia z Filologii Polskiej i Słowiańskiej |date=2008 |issue=43 |pages=141–148 |lang=PL}} * Мандич, Мария. &quot;[https://dais.sanu.ac.rs/123456789/7850 &quot;Жизнь&quot; ритуала после &quot;угасания&quot;: Пример додолы из села Сигетчеп в Венгрии]&quot; [The 'life' of an extinguished ritual: The case of the rain ritual dodola from Szigetcsép in Hungary]. In: &quot;Славяноведение&quot; 6 (2019): 15–29. DOI: 10.31857/S0869544X0006755-3 (In Russian) * {{cite book |last1=Marushiakova |first1=E. |last2=Popov |first2=V. |date=2016 |chapter=Roma Culture: Problems and Challenges |editor1-first=E. |editor1-last=Marushiakova |editor2-first=V. |editor2-last=Popov |title=Roma Culture: Myths and Realities |page=48 |location=München |publisher=Lincom Academic Publishers |url=https://www.academia.edu/26969260}} * {{cite journal |title=Женска антропоморфна пластика в два обреда за дъжд от Ямболски окръг |trans-title=Female Anthropomorphic Figures in Two Rain-Making Ceremonies from the District of Yambol |first=Lyubomir |last=Mikov |publisher=Институт за етнология и фолклористика с Етнографски музей при БАН |journal=Български фолклор |volume=XI |date=1985 |issue=4 |pages=19–27 |lang=BG}} * Puchner, Walter. &quot;Liedtextstudien Zur Balkanischen Regenlitanei: Mit Spezieller Berücksichtigung Der Bulgarischen Und Griechischen Varianten&quot;. In: ''Jahrbuch Für Volksliedforschung'' 29 (1984): 100–111. https://doi.org/10.2307/849291. *{{cite book |last=Schneeweis |first=Edmund |date=2019 |orig-date=1961 |title=Serbokroatische Volkskunde: Volksglaube und Volksbrauch |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=bR6bDwAAQBAJ |publisher=Walter de Gruyter GmbH &amp; Co KG |pages=161–163 |language=de |isbn=978-3-11-133764-7}} *{{cite book |last=MacDermott |first=Mercia |author-link=Mercia MacDermott |date=2003 |title=Explore Green Men |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=vT1NAAAAYAAJ |publisher=Heart of Albion Press |pages=17–19 |isbn=978-1-872883-66-3}} *{{citation |title=Dodole |url=https://www.enciklopedija.hr/natuknica.aspx?ID=15709 |author=Croatian Encyclopaedia |author-link=Croatian Encyclopaedia |year=2021}} {{refend}} ===External links=== *{{YouTube|id=X0BgBEtnK4s|title=Dodole ritual on TV in Macedonia}} *{{YouTube|id=aeCQgFUsIKA|title=Reconstruction of Dodole ritual in Bulgaria}} at [[Etar Architectural-Ethnographic Complex]] *{{YouTube|id=n2Vhk_eiwkg|title=&quot;Dodole&quot; song by Croatian ethno-folk rock band Kries}} *[https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=G8O5-a4rCk4 Pirpirouna/Pirpiruna/Perperouna – Rainmaking ritual song], and its [https://www.oeaw.ac.at/fileadmin/kommissionen/vanishinglanguages/Collections/Greek_varieties/Macedonian_Greek/Transcription_pdfs/mace1251TRV0001a_transcription.pdf lyrics], recorded 2016 by Thede Kahl and Andreea Pascaru in Turkey *[https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=evOGzUGT8kc Dodola/Pirpiruna – Rainmaking ritual song, description of the custom] and [https://www.oeaw.ac.at/fileadmin/kommissionen/vanishinglanguages/Collections/Greek_varieties/Macedonian_Greek/Transcription_pdfs/mace1251TRV0001a_transcription.pdf its lyrics], recorded 2020 in Northeast Greece by Sotirios Rousiakis {{Slavic mythology}} [[Category:Albanian folklore]] [[Category:Aromanian culture]] [[Category:Bulgarian folklore]] [[Category:Bulgarian traditions]] [[Category:Croatian folklore]] [[Category:Greek folklore]] [[Category:Macedonian traditions]] [[Category:Moldovan traditions]] [[Category:Rainmaking (ritual)]] [[Category:Romanian folklore]] [[Category:Romanian traditions]] [[Category:Serbian folklore]] [[Category:Serbian traditions]] [[Category:Slavic pseudo-deities]] [[Category:South Slavic culture]]</div></summary> <author><name>Βατο</name></author> </entry> <entry> <id>https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Talk:Dodola_and_Perperuna&diff=1257584354</id> <title>Talk:Dodola and Perperuna</title> <link rel="alternate" type="text/html" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Talk:Dodola_and_Perperuna&diff=1257584354"/> <updated>2024-11-15T18:01:24Z</updated> <summary type="html">Βατο: <hr /> <div>{{WikiProject banner shell|class=Start|1= {{WikiProject Mythology | importance=Low}} {{WikiProject Albania|importance=low}} {{WikiProject Bulgaria|importance=low}} {{WikiProject Croatia|importance=low}} {{WikiProject Romania|importance=low}} {{WikiProject Serbia| importance=Low}} {{WikiProject North Macedonia| importance=Low}} {{WikiProject Neopaganism | importance=Low}} }} {{old move|date=22 August 2024|destination=Rainmaking (Southeast Europe)|result=no consensus|link=Special:Permalink/1249265199#Requested move 22 August 2024}} ==2004== I deleted almost the entire original article. It was just too incomprehensible. I replaced it with a scrap of info found on the web. --[[User:LeeHunter|LeeHunter]] 00:49, 24 Aug 2004 (UTC) : Wikipedians who understand [[Slavic languages]] and are knowledgeable in [[Slavic mythology]] are invited to sort out the following text (that was replaced by a nice little stub by [[User:LeeHunter]]): :: '''Perperuna''' - originally probably divine partner (wife) of [[Perun]]; probably the name formed by reduplication core &amp;#8220;per-&amp;#8220;, however it could be also personalization (result) of activity of Perun - &amp;#8222;flinging rock&quot; (per-perun-a?) = rain - analog. Ind. Parjanya &amp;#8222;(secondarily) cloud, rain&quot; - surname of Indra. Perperuna is the name behaved as designation of participant of ceremony (noted in SouthSlav. folklore) of summoning of rain, called also [[dodola]], dudula (compare to: Lith. [[Perkunas]] - Dundúlis, Latt. Dundusélis and Gr. [[Dodona]]); if we identify perperuna-dodola with [[beregynja]](*perkynja), we deal with team of names - teonyms embracing with significative range occurrence of worship of fecundity: [[Moko&amp;#353;]] (Mather Earth) - Perkynia / Pergynja(&amp;#8222;Holy Forest - Oak wood&quot; / &amp;#8222;Mountain&quot; - on the ground of analogy Ind. also: &amp;#8222;Cloud, Rain&quot;) - Perperuna (Perun's partner, on the ground of analogy Hett. also: &amp;#8222;Rock&quot;) compactly related with &amp;#8222;masculine&quot; worship Thunderlord - Perun. Hipostasy of goddess was probably a viper (snake) guardian of house - &amp;#382;mija cuvakuca, &amp;#382;mija kucarica (SouthSlav.). : Have fun with it. :-) : -- [[User:PFHLai|PFHLai]] 01:28, 2004 Aug 24 (UTC) : P.S. I think &quot;Moko&amp;#353;&quot; is [[Mokosh]]. ==Old talk== Text from [http://free.bol.bg/slavpagan/deities.html webpage] owned by the contributor How do we KNOW that the contributor owns the webpage? And where has he/she released the material to GFDL? [[User:RickK|Rick]][[User talk:RickK|K]] 05:57, Oct 14, 2004 (UTC) :He/she released it by copying. How do we KNOW anything? He/she told us so. Must he go to notary public first? What is the policy about contributing owned materials? Has he (acting as wikipedian) to send a letter to himself (acting as a webmaster) with request for confirmation? [[User:Mikkalai|Mikkalai]] 06:22, 14 Oct 2004 (UTC) ::BTW, I've already met this situation (related to the bio of some Rumanian professor), asked at pump, and got no answer (and safely forgot about the issue until now). IMO here is a hole in wikipolicies. [[User:Mikkalai|Mikkalai]] 06:25, 14 Oct 2004 (UTC) :::This was done in past. Email of site owner, as given on [http://free.bol.bg/slavpagan/home.html] is ogneslav@abv.bg and anyone interested can contact him and ask is he really Wikipedia user Ogneslav and then copy/paste the email here (I'd do it but it seems that he dislikes me). Perhaps he'd even permit others to use material from his site. [[User:Nikola Smolenski|Nikola]] 09:04, 14 Oct 2004 (UTC) :::: You also didn't understand my question: wikipedia's policies don't say how he '''himself''', from thr very beginning could confirm that he is the author, without '''me''' or '''you'''. [[User:Mikkalai|Mikkalai]] 14:58, 14 Oct 2004 (UTC) :::::Well, he '''himself''' '''''could not''''' from the very beginning confirm that he is the author. Period. ::::::'''That's''' what I am saying: wikipedia's policy has a hole. And there are ways to fix it.[[User:Mikkalai|Mikkalai]] 14:56, 15 Oct 2004 (UTC) :::::I have in past created a few pages where I'd just copy/paste text from a web site with nothing more than saying &quot;Text from http://website used with permission. &lt;nowiki&gt;~~~~&lt;/nowiki&gt;&quot; at the talk page. I was able to do this because, before that, I have contributed to Wikipedia for a long time, and none of my contributions are found to be copyright violations, and so everyone who reviewed the article knew that I understand and respect Wikipedia's copyright policy, and it is very unlikely that I would begin breaking it all of a sudden. On the other hand, this is a new user, who started to contribute copyrighted material, and there is possibility that he could be, as likely website owner, as someone who simply wants to use copyrighted material from the website and make false claims to get away with it. :::::This is all empty talk, however; wouldn't it be far easier and faster to simply e-mail the guy than to talk about what could have happened if something had happened? [[User:Nikola Smolenski|Nikola]] 07:37, 15 Oct 2004 (UTC) ::::::I don't care much about this topic and about the author. Do you think I cannot use e-mail? I am talking about the policy. I am going to summarize the talk at the corresponding pages. This disussion greatly helped me to understand what exactly I have to say. Thanks, guys. [[User:Mikkalai|Mikkalai]] 14:56, 15 Oct 2004 (UTC) :::::Read the copyvio boilerplate language. It says &quot;To the poster: If there was permission to use this material under terms of our license or if you are the copyright holder of the externally linked text, then please indicate so on this page's talk page.&quot;. [[User:RickK|Rick]][[User talk:RickK|K]] 19:26, Oct 14, 2004 (UTC) ::::::This was what was actually said in a frustrated way in the [[Talk:Slavic mythology#So guys]], according to which I entered the above note: ''&quot;Text from [http://free.bol.bg/slavpagan/deities.html webpage] owned by the contributor&quot;''. Your reaction was: &quot;how do we KNOW...&quot;. Please notice that your reaction would be equally valid, if the notice were: ''&quot;Text from [http://free.bol.bg/slavpagan/deities.html webpage] owned by '''me'''.&lt;signature&gt;&quot;''. You seem to miss the legal difference between an e-mail confirmation from an account associated with the webpage in question and a simple notice on the wikipedia talk page. [[User:Mikkalai|Mikkalai]] 19:51, 14 Oct 2004 (UTC) ::::::::I'm still waiting for you to point to the page where the original author of the page said it was his/her copyright and he/she has released it to GFDL in accordance with the line I quoted above. [[User:RickK|Rick]][[User talk:RickK|K]] 23:07, Oct 14, 2004 (UTC) ::::::::* You seem to '''again''' miss the legal difference between an e-mail confirmation from an account associated with the webpage in question and a simple notice on the wikipedia talk page. The advice in the copyvio notice is laughable from legal POV: ''if you are the copyright holder... please indicate so on this page's talk page''. How one may verify that the page editor is the owner? I may &quot;indicate&quot; I own [[Madonna (entertainer)|Madonna]]'s bare ass. And you're supposed to believe me until Madonna sues wikipedia? In this particular case I don't care about this nervous guy. I am pointing at a hole in the policy. The issue is credentials. In the case of an explicit request by another wikieditor, the credentials are the e-mail address of the respondent that matches the webpage info (weak, but triable). The advice you (and I) cited doesn't explain how to provide credentials. [[User:Mikkalai|Mikkalai]] 01:21, 15 Oct 2004 (UTC) ::::::::* Sorry, I forgot to answer your question. I've already pointed the page: [[Talk:Slavic mythology#So guys]]. It has: ''The last drop was that somebody, called &quot;administrator&quot;, deleted a number of my pages 'cause they were COPYRIGHT. He even adviced me in private to write in &quot;my own words&quot; - BUT THESE WERE MY OWN WORDS. He didn't even make the effort to look at the bottom of the source-site to see I am the copyright holder.'' This remark is just as good as any other. Notice also, contrary to your request, he has no duty to explicitely release to GFDL: in wikipedia GFDL is an opt-out; mere editing means release. [[User:Mikkalai|Mikkalai]] 01:29, 15 Oct 2004 (UTC) Great. That's what I was looking for. Now, was that so hard? [[User:RickK|Rick]][[User talk:RickK|K]] 19:26, Oct 15, 2004 (UTC) :No. But an easy way is no fun. [[User:Mikkalai|Mikkalai]] 19:53, 15 Oct 2004 (UTC) ==Perperuna== See [[Talk:Perperuna]]. `'[[user:mikkalai|mikka]] [[user talk:mikkalai|(t)]] 01:53, 25 July 2006 (UTC) == Section on ritual == The &quot;Ritual&quot; section makes four or five claims but has no sources for any of them. I'm not going to try to dig up sources on this subject, since I'm 100% unfamiliar with it, but it would improve the article if sources could be provided. [[User:Poihths|Poihths]] ([[User talk:Poihths|talk]]) 14:38, 14 May 2013 (UTC) == External links modified == Hello fellow Wikipedians, I have just modified {{plural:1|one external link|1 external links}} on [[Dodola]]. Please take a moment to review [https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?diff=prev&amp;oldid=754799110 my edit]. If you have any questions, or need the bot to ignore the links, or the page altogether, please visit [[User:Cyberpower678/FaQs#InternetArchiveBot|this simple FaQ]] for additional information. I made the following changes: *Added archive https://web.archive.org/web/20131228002745/http://egg.mnir.ro:80/pdf/Paliga_InflRomane.pdf to http://egg.mnir.ro/pdf/Paliga_InflRomane.pdf When you have finished reviewing my changes, please set the ''checked'' parameter below to '''true''' or '''failed''' to let others know (documentation at {{tlx|Sourcecheck}}). {{sourcecheck|checked=false}} Cheers.—[[User:InternetArchiveBot|'''&lt;span style=&quot;color:darkgrey;font-family:monospace&quot;&gt;InternetArchiveBot&lt;/span&gt;''']] &lt;span style=&quot;color:green;font-family:Rockwell&quot;&gt;([[User talk:InternetArchiveBot|Report bug]])&lt;/span&gt; 15:55, 14 December 2016 (UTC) == External links modified == Hello fellow Wikipedians, I have just modified one external link on [[Dodola]]. Please take a moment to review [[special:diff/816350836|my edit]]. If you have any questions, or need the bot to ignore the links, or the page altogether, please visit [[User:Cyberpower678/FaQs#InternetArchiveBot|this simple FaQ]] for additional information. I made the following changes: *Added archive https://web.archive.org/web/20120216225647/http://www.gbiblsk.edu.mk/images/stories/eknigi/zbornik.pdf to http://www.gbiblsk.edu.mk/images/stories/eknigi/zbornik.pdf When you have finished reviewing my changes, you may follow the instructions on the template below to fix any issues with the URLs. {{sourcecheck|checked=false|needhelp=}} Cheers.—[[User:InternetArchiveBot|'''&lt;span style=&quot;color:darkgrey;font-family:monospace&quot;&gt;InternetArchiveBot&lt;/span&gt;''']] &lt;span style=&quot;color:green;font-family:Rockwell&quot;&gt;([[User talk:InternetArchiveBot|Report bug]])&lt;/span&gt; 20:24, 20 December 2017 (UTC) == New revision == The article was in dire need of new revision because the old revision had many serious issues for many years. For e.g. most of the text was directly copied from sources but without proper attribution and sometimes from sources which weren't even cited; gave false weight to a dubious fringe theory by non-folklorists/mythologists about Thracian origin which is ignored in all other sources; some explanations, connections were erroneous and couldn't be confirmed in literature; the primary mythological and etymological focus is on Perperuna while Dodola as substitution not other way around; Dodola isn't known as Perperuna nor Perperuna is known as Dodola, these are two separate but very similar pagan customs with common origin; hence the article title will be changed to &quot;Perperuna and Dodola&quot;. [[User:Miki Filigranski|Miki Filigranski]] ([[User talk:Miki Filigranski|talk]]) 10:51, 23 July 2022 (UTC) :Before moving the article, discuss it here, please. I restored it to the name &quot;Dodola&quot; as it seems the most common one. The article title &quot;Perperuna and Dodola&quot; also appears to refer to a tradition that consists of both those figures, which is not the case. – [[User:Βατο|Βατο]] ([[User talk:Βατο|talk]]) 21:12, 23 July 2022 (UTC) ::1) As was already explained and as it is explained in the scientific literature, these are two separate but similar pagan customs which are often related by folklorists. We cannot have in the article title only one custom because they are not synonyms and SCOPE of the article much more focused, as shown by literature, to Perperuna and it's Slavic origin as well as connection to Slavic deity Perun. ::2) In your first [https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Dodola&amp;type=revision&amp;diff=1100019388&amp;oldid=1099979834 edit] you ignorantly and disruptively, as shown in the talk page discussion at [[Talk:Perëndi#Slavic loan]], made an anti-Slavic edit against the consensus in scientific literature about the connection with Slavic deity Perun, all of which was cited in the article, and replaced it in the LEAD with two irrelevant sources promoting or fringe theories making [[WP:FALSEBALANCE]] (Ḱulavkova's about Thracian origin which is ignored in almost all other cited literature besides three which were by linguists and historians i.e. also non-experts on the field violating [[WP:WEIGHT]]) or non-expert minor viewpoint by [[Andrew Wachtel]] instead of many other reliable sources which claim exactly the opposite. ::3) In anoted [https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Dodola&amp;diff=next&amp;oldid=1100019761 edit] removed the part that the fringe theory argues Thracian origin of Perun, claiming to be &quot;original research&quot; on my part although noted the pages in which is clearly stated by Kulavkova at pg. 20 (&quot;'''According to other beliefs, Perun, Perin, or Pirin was the supreme deity of the Thracians.'''&quot;) and by Dragnea at pg. 19, citing Paliga's fringe theory. ::4) [https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Dodola&amp;type=revision&amp;diff=1100025353&amp;oldid=1100021497 ignoring and removing] sourced viewpoint from reliable and reputable scholars, bringing false balance with a controversial source. ::5) [https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Dodola&amp;diff=next&amp;oldid=1100025353 removing] sourced information.--[[User:Miki Filigranski|Miki Filigranski]] ([[User talk:Miki Filigranski|talk]]) 21:51, 23 July 2022 (UTC) :Hey, thanks for improving the article, I would not have been able to collect these songs and history myself. I can't support &quot;origin&quot; part tho. There is literally 0 evidence for Perperuna being goddess and there is 0 evidence for direct connection to Perun. Pereplut is also unrelated name. Perun, Perkunas and Fjoryn are [[false cognate]]s and PIE [[perkwunos]] didn't exist (this article is not best place for this topic tho). Connecting Dodola with [[Dzidzilela]] (forged goddess) is folk etymology, the latter word comes from PS ''*did-'' &quot;big, great&quot; and it can't be different. [[Lada (mythology)|Lada]] is also forged goddess. Connecting Perperuna with [[Pripegala]] is also folk etymology. &quot;Perun's battle against Veles becuase of Perperuna/Dodola's kidnapping&quot; - where is this story attested? &quot;sometimes even hosts would drink wine in Perun's honor.&quot; - are you telling me that people still worshipped Perun in 19/20th century? This is not only nonneutral, but also just false. Etymology is more like speculation now, we should add modern, scientific views (Snoj maybe?) on this name (might be of onomatopeic orign and I don't think there is evidence that the Slavs created names by reduplication of the root). [[User:Sławobóg|Sławobóg]] ([[User talk:Sławobóg|talk]]) 21:29, 23 July 2022 (UTC) ::Don't get me wrong, but nobody cares about your personal opinion. I became tired months ago of reading these paragraphs of opinion. The vast majority of sources by relevant scholars claim there's a connection. Everything what you wrote is written in reliable and modern sources. Editing or removing that would be &quot;nonneutral&quot;. If there are any other modern, reliable sources by experts please list them here to check on them.--[[User:Miki Filigranski|Miki Filigranski]] ([[User talk:Miki Filigranski|talk]]) 21:51, 23 July 2022 (UTC) :::@Miki Filigranski there is no consensus, the rainmaking custom is a shared tradition among Balkan peoples, your preferred origin theory is just one of the proposed hypotheses. As for the name Perperuna, I think it is likely from Perun, but [[User:Sławobóg|Sławobóg]] maybe has a point here, and more recent academic sources should be analysed. The name Dodola is of uncertain origin. – [[User:Βατο|Βατο]] ([[User talk:Βατο|talk]]) 22:05, 23 July 2022 (UTC) ::::You don't have a basic clue of what you're saying, don't know anything about the topic, neither read all the sources, neither understand [[WP:WEIGHT]] policy as showed before. No, as showed and claimed on other article talk page, you're the one who has a preffered theory (and fringe one at best!), wants to [[WP:OWN]] the article by making false balance! --[[User:Miki Filigranski|Miki Filigranski]] ([[User talk:Miki Filigranski|talk]]) 22:18, 23 July 2022 (UTC) :::::No, the false balance is the [[WP:POV]] and [[WP:OR]] wording of the lead section: {{tquote|are Slavic rainmaking pagan customs which were mainly preserved among South Slavs and neighboring people until 20th century.}} Albanians, Greeks, Romanians, Aromanians/Vlachs, Hungarians are not Slavs, and the custom described in this article is a shared Balkan tradition. – [[User:Βατο|Βατο]] ([[User talk:Βατο|talk]]) 22:25, 23 July 2022 (UTC) ::::::Please stop! You don't have basic understanding of the topic neither read the sources neither even bother to read what's written in the article. That's majority viewpoint, it was sourced and totally not original research. You are making a total mess of it ([https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Dodola&amp;type=revision&amp;diff=1100043308&amp;oldid=1100032521]) as Dodola isn't alternatively known as Perperuna because these are separate customs (they even had separate articles until 2015 when were merged but due to same wrong reasoning). They are not synonyms. Neither the customs were confirmed to be found among Bosnians, and Montenegrins in general (Bay of Kotor was inhabited by a mixture of ethnic groups and it was found there only sporadically). I had enough of this. --[[User:Miki Filigranski|Miki Filigranski]] ([[User talk:Miki Filigranski|talk]]) 00:10, 24 July 2022 (UTC) ::::::: In my opinion, two points of view collide here. It is wise to strike a balance between them, although this is not easy. Regarding the title, the proposed new combined title reflects both views and is more neutral. I agree here with [[User:Miki Filigranski|Miki Filigranski]]. [[User:Jingiby|Jingiby]] ([[User talk:Jingiby|talk]]) 05:13, 24 July 2022 (UTC) ::::::::Miki Filigranski, so what's your proposal? Saying in the lead section that it is exclusively a Slavic practice is non neutral. I added, according to the sources, the population groups that are attested to have practiced the custom of rainmaking, whether it was called Dodola or Perperuna. If you have enough reliable sources that claim a clear distinction between the practices referred to as Dodola and Perperuna, then you can create two separate articles. I read that some communities refer to the same practice with the name Dodola (and variants), and other communities with the name Perperuna (and variants). I can agree to include both variants of the names in the article title, but &quot;Perperuna and Dodola&quot; appears to indicate that the custom is called as such, which is not the case. – [[User:Βατο|Βατο]] ([[User talk:Βατο|talk]]) 08:35, 24 July 2022 (UTC) :::::::::It is a practice of Slavic origin, related to Slavic deity Perun. That is the majority viewpoint in the RS. Removing that from the LEAD is non neutral. You even added ethnic groups among whom wasn't attested citing a bad source. The sources making clear distinction are already cited and there's no point in making separate article when these two customs are scholarly related. &quot;Perperuna and Dodola&quot; don't indicate anyhow that the custom is called with a single name &quot;Perperuna and Dodola&quot;. --[[User:Miki Filigranski|Miki Filigranski]] ([[User talk:Miki Filigranski|talk]]) 10:33, 24 July 2022 (UTC) ::::Okay, I found the book. [[Stanisław Urbańczyk|Urbańczyk]] debunked Jakobson's etymology. ''perperuda'', ''pepeluga'' etc. are related to Proto-Slavic ''*perpera'', ''*perperъka'' &quot;[[Common quail]]&quot; and these are related to ''*pъrpati'' (onomatopoeic), cf. Polish dial. ''perpotać'', ''perpac'', Old East Slavic ''poropriti''. So mystery has been solved. Meanwhile author himself reacts with aggression because someone tells him that the article is extremely one-sided. Having information about alleged relation between Perun and Perperuna is ok, since it actually is popular view, but it is not only view and it was criticised by other linguists. Btw Grimm is bad source. [[User:Sławobóg|Sławobóg]] ([[User talk:Sławobóg|talk]]) 10:45, 24 July 2022 (UTC) :::::Thanks @Sławobóg, the etymology you provided is interesting. @Miki Filigranski your statement {{tquote|It is a practice of Slavic origi}} is not supported by many scholars: there is not certainty about the origins of the practice. but there seems to be agreement among scholars that the name for the Balkan rainmaden ''Perperuna'' (and variants) is most likely of Slavic origin. The rainmaking custom is a Pan-Balkan practice, attested in the region at least since Classical Antiquity. I've just found a recent source: {{cite journal|last=Burns|first=Richard|title=Rain and Dust|journal=[[Studia Mythologica Slavica]]|volume=XI|issn=1581-128X|doi=10.3986/sms.v11i0.1696|year=2008|pp=217-236}} which provides further information about the usage of the names, and analysis on some scholars' views, also: {{tquote|&quot;The paper opens conjectures that relate the Balkan practice to two ancient Mediterranean mythological motifs: first, to Minoan and Mycenaean rainmaking invocations, and, secondly, to the goddess Persephone, via the theories of V. V. Ivanov and V. I. Toporov.&quot;}} – [[User:Βατο|Βατο]] ([[User talk:Βατο|talk]]) 10:53, 24 July 2022 (UTC) ::::::@Sławobóg, thanks, that's just an opinion though (please provide details of the source), but indeed doesn't change the fact it is of Slavic origin (and related to Perun per majority viewpoint). @Βατο, in the article are already cited more than 12 reliable sources by many different scholars. I mostly agree with other things you said, but didn't mention anything not already cited in the article. To be noted, Burns source is reliable to cite on scholars' views, but unreliable source for Burns viewpoint. He is a poet, not a scientist. --[[User:Miki Filigranski|Miki Filigranski]] ([[User talk:Miki Filigranski|talk]]) 11:25, 24 July 2022 (UTC) :::::::Jakobson's idea that Perperuna comes from Perun is also &quot;just an opinion&quot;, what is wrong with you? Additionally, Urbańczyk's etymology is more scientifically correct, because it explains the doubling of the root ''per-'', because there is no evidence for duplication of the root for feminine names and I have other book about that (which also supports Urbańczyk's idea). He says that ritual is known to Greeks and Albanians and it should be established actual origin first. He later say Perperuna might be related to words I mentioned before (also Polish ''przepierzyca''), not only because of etymology, also because quail (in Polish folklore) '''is associated with the harvest rites and is the name of the bride in the wedding dance'''. So I guess Slavic origin is very possible (from the bird). {{Cite book|last=Urbańczyk|first=Stanisław|title=Dawni Słowianie. Wiara i kult|date=1991|place=Wrocław|language=pl|author-link=Stanisław Urbańczyk|publisher=Ossolineum}} | [[User:Sławobóg|Sławobóg]] ([[User talk:Sławobóg|talk]]) 11:48, 24 July 2022 (UTC) ::::::::I found the text and it can be hardly called a debunking as you described it in your comment. Urbańczyk only said that Jakobson's opinion needs caution, he didn't refute it. We also have reliable sources which support Jakobson (and Slavic origin, relation to Mokosh etc.), including lately [[Patrice Lajoye]] (2015, pg. 107–115 etc.). Do you have other sources which mention or support Urbańczyk's derivation from the bird?--[[User:Miki Filigranski|Miki Filigranski]] ([[User talk:Miki Filigranski|talk]]) 12:07, 24 July 2022 (UTC) :::::::::Yes, Łuczyński (2020) ''Bogowie dawnych Słowian. Studium onomastyczne''. Additionally, the article does not mention at all that ''peperuda'' means &quot;butterfly&quot; in Bulgarian (mentioned in Russian and Bulgarian wiki)'''!!!''' [https://ibl.bas.bg/lib/ber_5/#page/82/mode/1up Български етимологичен речник] (vol 5, p. 162) has 2 pages of etymology of this word, also mentioning ''*perperica'' and other ideas, but image quality makes it too hard to read for me. There [https://starlingdb.org/cgi-bin/etymology.cgi?single=1&amp;basename=%2Fdata%2Fsemham%2Flecet&amp;text_number=+652&amp;root=config is] also Proto-Kartvelian root ''*ṗerṗer-'' / ''*perpel-'' &quot;butterfly&quot; connected with PS ''*perperъka''. It is clear from the Bulgarian dictionary that the subject is complicated and the etymologies are many, and that the article is not neutral and tries by force to push through Jakobson's etymology repeated uncritically by later authors. In the case of Slavic mythology/folklore, Western scholars often mindlessly (I'm not exaggerating) repeat various stupidities and rarely have a clue what they are writing about, cf. [https://web.archive.org/web/20170804140911/http://www.mathieu-colas.fr/michel/Classes/Dieux_slaves_et_baltes.pdf Mathieu-Colas]. I'm not comparing Lajoye or Evans to that, but we should be sceptic about Western optimism. [[Natko Nodilo]] is also pretty bad source (see [[Svetovit#In_Serbia]]). [[User:Sławobóg|Sławobóg]] ([[User talk:Sławobóg|talk]]) 14:00, 24 July 2022 (UTC) ::::::::::Thanks. The part about butterfly is quoted in 4th reference, forgot to expand more on it citing other sources. The association is mythological, doesn't make sense such a widespread pagan custom derives from a Bulgarian word for butterfly and shows that the Bulgarian word for butterfly derives instead from the mythological background to which is related the custom. If not, as in the case of cited Proto-Karvelian, occurred secondary associations of unrelated words. Will expand more regarding the etymology in general. Sorry, but you're using hard words and claims here. The article is properly and reliably edited according to WEIGHT, and tried to be careful with using them.--[[User:Miki Filigranski|Miki Filigranski]] ([[User talk:Miki Filigranski|talk]]) 14:14, 24 July 2022 (UTC) :::::@Sławobóg I have not a preference about the article title, could you suggest something about this issue? It seems that Dodola is the most common name, and in some communities both names (and variants) are found, even in the same song. – [[User:Βατο|Βατο]] ([[User talk:Βατο|talk]]) 11:07, 24 July 2022 (UTC) ::::::Is Dodola really more popular than Perperuna? I think modern, scientific or popular, usage also counts? I think &quot;Dodola and Perperuna&quot; would be good, but I'm not 100% sure. [[User:Sławobóg|Sławobóg]] ([[User talk:Sławobóg|talk]]) 11:35, 24 July 2022 (UTC) :::::::I've seen it by a first check on Google search and Google books, and in general Dodola seems to be more common. But I am not sure which is more common in recent sources and popular usage. Perhaps Burns' (2008) information could be useful: {{tquote|&quot;The various names have been el-egantly mapped by Plotnikova (1999) to reveal regional variations. Names of the ''dodola'' type, which I designate as the 'central' group, are more common in Serbia, Bosnia, and names of the ''peperuga'' or ''perperuda'' type, designated as the 'eastern and southern group', tend to be more frequent in Bulgaria, Rumania, Moldovia, Albania, Thessaly and Epirus (Burns 2006a: 35, 37-38 &amp; 42). In the border-area of dialect-continua between Bulgaria and Serbia, as in Macedonia, both verbal variants appear in the same song.&quot;}} – [[User:Βατο|Βατο]] ([[User talk:Βατο|talk]]) 12:11, 24 July 2022 (UTC) ::::::::Well, &quot;Dodola and Perperuna&quot; is ok then. If the name depends on the region, then we should not discriminate against any of them. It may be clunky, but it will be fair. [[User:Sławobóg|Sławobóg]] ([[User talk:Sławobóg|talk]]) 13:01, 24 July 2022 (UTC) ::::::::The name depends on the custom, songs and name of central character. These are two separate types. There can be made correlations based on regions, but not causations on which depends the name. Regarding the distribution, it strangely omits Croatia and mentions Bosnia, check the [https://ibb.co/rMgMqqL map] from Čulinović-Konstantinović &quot;Dodole and prporuše: folk customs for invoking the rain&quot; (note how's titled the source). I am okay with the title &quot;Dodola and Perperuna&quot;.--[[User:Miki Filigranski|Miki Filigranski]] ([[User talk:Miki Filigranski|talk]]) 13:27, 24 July 2022 (UTC) :::::::::Agreed, @Miki Filigranski feel free to make the page move. – [[User:Βατο|Βατο]] ([[User talk:Βατο|talk]]) 13:31, 24 July 2022 (UTC) ===Other sources=== {{ping|Sławobóg}} Czesław Białczyński in his ''Mitologia słowiańska'' (1999), not a reliable and scientific source, mentions: &lt;small&gt;PERPERUNA (Peperuna, Perperuda, Prperousza, Pe-runica). Jej istyjskim odpowiednikiem jest Perkunija. Runa - od rdzenia run ma takie same znaczenia jak wyżej, ale także w obocznej postaci zachowanej u Bułgarów - Perperuda - kędzierzawa, bo ruda kosa - kędzierzawe włosy, kędziory, rudica - zbita wełna, rudina - niwa, rudy - czerwony, błotny, bagnisty (co wskazuje, podobnie jak u Peruna, na jej związek z wodą), pokryty rudą - czyli naleciałością żelazistą, barwy rdzawej. Z powyższego zestawienia wynika, że Perperuna musiała mieć kręcone, gęste, kędzierzawe włosy rudej barwy. Były cztery boginie o rudych włosach: Perperuna, Ruda-Ródź, Swara (o włosach płomiennych) i Krasatina (o włosach krasnych i krasnym licu).&lt;/small&gt; &lt;small&gt;O świętości rośliny paproci, której nazwa przechowała imię bogini Ródzi-Pap-rudy, świadczy jej związek nazewniczy z boskim rdzeniem per (Perun, Perperuna, Perepłut, Pripegala, Prowe, Porenut, Puruvit, Porewit, Spór). Przechowane przez Bułgarów i Macedończyków miano Perperuda nie jest powtórzeniem serbskiego i chorwackiego imienia żony Peruna - Perperuna, lecz imieniem bogini Rodzi, córki Roda, kochanki Perunica. Związek Perperudy z Peruni-cem znajduje także odbicie w nazwie świętego zioła pe-runiki.&lt;/small&gt; I have a hard time reading the source, but does it cite any reference? Do you know of any Polish source which makes the same claim?--[[User:Miki Filigranski|Miki Filigranski]] ([[User talk:Miki Filigranski|talk]]) 14:25, 24 July 2022 (UTC) :Białczyński is turboslavic, he promotes Great Lechia and believes that Proto-Indo-European = Proto-Slavic. In his books he forges new gods. Nothing to talk about tbh. See [[List of Slavic pseudo-deities]]. [[User:Sławobóg|Sławobóg]] ([[User talk:Sławobóg|talk]]) 14:53, 24 July 2022 (UTC) ::Had the same impression.--[[User:Miki Filigranski|Miki Filigranski]] ([[User talk:Miki Filigranski|talk]]) 16:52, 24 July 2022 (UTC) {{ping|Sławobóg}} Łuczyński, ''Bogowie dawnych Słowian. Studium onomastyczne'' (2020), can you please make a full quote and provide page?--[[User:Miki Filigranski|Miki Filigranski]] ([[User talk:Miki Filigranski|talk]]) 14:31, 24 July 2022 (UTC) :Page 141: Autor ten [Jakobson] wychodzi z założenia, że nazwa ta [Pereplut] stanowi jeden z wielu wariantów fonetycznych i morfologicznych teonimu Perun [...] powołując się przy tym na brzmieniowe podobieństwo z terminem obrzędowym serb. ''prporusa'', bułg. ''pe(r)peruna'', ''pe(r)peruda'' i in. [...] Wywód Jakobsona podważył jednak S. Urbańczyk, wzkazując na związek nazw typu ''peperuda'', ''pepeluga'' i in. z psł. ''*perpere'', ''*perperъka'' &quot;przepiórka&quot;. Leksemy wskazane przez R. Jakobsona wywodzą się z psł. ''*pr̥pati'' vb. pochodzenia dźwiękonaśladowczego, por. np. (polish and OES words here) [...] Bałkański termin obrzędowy nie jest więc spokrewniony etymologicznie ze srus. teonimem, w jego wypadku można mówić o reduplikacji rdzenia onomatopeicznego i szeregu przekształceń fonetycznych (np. regularny rozwój ''-er-'' &lt; ''r̥''; wtórny konsonantym d &lt; n), przez co hipoteza Jakobsona traci rację bytu. Pozwala to na odrzucenie interpretacji tego badaczu z powodu trudności formalnych. :Page 279: I wreszcie, nic nie przemawia za tym, by w słowiańskiej teonimii istniały pary nazewnicze: model na tworzeniu form feminatywnych od męskich imion osobowych nie był, w świetle wiarygodnych danych, w tej kategorii produktywny, w związku z czym można przyjąć, że brak był (często postulowanych) par typu ''*Perunъ'' - ''*Perynь'' (lub ''Perperuna''), ''*Velesъ'' - ''*Vela'', na wróz np. sind. Indra - Indrani, Agni - Agnani... [[User:Sławobóg|Sławobóg]] ([[User talk:Sławobóg|talk]]) 15:08, 24 July 2022 (UTC) ::Great, thanks! --[[User:Miki Filigranski|Miki Filigranski]] ([[User talk:Miki Filigranski|talk]]) 16:52, 24 July 2022 (UTC) @Miki Filigranski, since you highlighted inaccuracies regarding the spread of the custom, could you propose a compromise wording between the information provided by Muraj (1987) and that provided by Ḱulavkova (2020)? – [[User:Βατο|Βατο]] ([[User talk:Βατο|talk]]) 08:23, 26 July 2022 (UTC) :In the article are cited several reliable sources, not only Muraj (1987), describing the spread of the custom. In the new sources the mistake is regarding the distribution on the territory of former Yugoslavia. I would say that the best source for the former Yugoslavian territory is still Čulinović-Konstantinović (1963). It was more prevalent among Croats than Serbs in Croatia, and don't know what's the reason for mentioning Bosnians. Natko Nodilo (1884) mentioned that West of river Vrbas, which would be Western part of Bosnia and Herzegovina, Dodola and Prporuša were known as ''Čaro(j)ice'', but couldn't verify and confirm the association in other sources. ''Čaroice'' was a different custom mainly around December and rarely Poklade (May) in which boys were dressed as girls or animals - not greenery, it was found among both Orthodox, Catholic and Muslim people and each group visited houses of other religion, and the song lyrics were also different. I would stick to countries and regions rather than ethnic groups (for now would remove Bosnia and Herzegovina). Anyway, currently am preparing a new edit which will include and expand the POV from new sources provided by you and Sławobóg. --[[User:Miki Filigranski|Miki Filigranski]] ([[User talk:Miki Filigranski|talk]]) 12:33, 26 July 2022 (UTC) ::Ok, feel free to make any wording reasonably in agreement with RS and with evidence from field research. – [[User:Βατο|Βατο]] ([[User talk:Βατο|talk]]) 22:24, 26 July 2022 (UTC) [https://archive.org/details/KlimovEtymological/page/n165/mode/2up Proto-Kartvelian *p̣erp̣er- &quot;butterfly&quot;] - most likely ultimate source. That explains Balkan-only range of the word, custom and pseudogoddess. [[User:Sławobóg|Sławobóg]] ([[User talk:Sławobóg|talk]]) 12:16, 24 September 2022 (UTC) :Do we have a RS which connects it to Perperuna/Dodola customs? How a Proto-Kartvelian language of Caucasus is the most likely ultimate source? How it explains Balkan-only range of the word, custom etc.?--[[User:Miki Filigranski|Miki Filigranski]] ([[User talk:Miki Filigranski|talk]]) 22:41, 27 September 2022 (UTC) ::I haven't done a good research yet, I found this partly by accident and am putting it here so as not to forget, and maybe someone else will find something more about it. It is possible that we are dealing here with a Wanderword. Borrowing is possible, compare [[wikt:κῶας|κῶας]]. See also [[wikt:πεταλούδα|πεταλούδα]] (especially the suffix -da). [[User:Sławobóg|Sławobóg]] ([[User talk:Sławobóg|talk]]) 09:42, 28 September 2022 (UTC) ==Article's scope and name== The article is about the rainmaking tradition of different peoples in Southeast Europe. The article gives [[WP:UNDUE WEIGHT]] to the etymological speculations concerning this rainmaking tradition, only based on the hypothetical link with the Slavic god Perun. In some regions it is not even known with names that could be linked to Perun. The rainmaking practice is attested among Balkan peoles since antiquity, the speculations according to which peoples who already practiced it adopted it from incoming Slavs in the early Middle Ages is not reasonable, and should have its due weight into the article. Since there is no [[WP:COMMONNAME]] for the rainmaking practice, clearly because different peoples refer to it in different terms, I propose a move to the title ''Rainmaking (Balkans)'' or ''Rainmaking (Southeast Europe)''. The article should also be reworded giving due weight to all the South Eastern/Balkan traditions. – [[User:Βατο|Βατο]] ([[User talk:Βατο|talk]]) 10:19, 22 August 2024 (UTC) *I don't think three sentences about Perun in such a large article is undue weight (and it may be trimmed further, because I see repetitions). --[[user:Altenmann|Altenmann]] [[user talk:Altenmann|&gt;talk]] 19:04, 22 August 2024 (UTC) **Your suggested title is bad because (a) &quot;[[Balkans]]&quot; is a vague term and (b) Romania is in Southeast Europe, but we have [[Caloian]] for Romanian rainmaking. --[[user:Altenmann|Altenmann]] [[user talk:Altenmann|&gt;talk]] 19:04, 22 August 2024 (UTC) :::I see that [[Caloian]] consists also of a similar rainmaking practice. But that's not relevant for this discussion, a title ''Rainmaking (Southeast Europe)'' is necessary in this case, because this article is about similar rainmaking practices of several peoples in Southeast Europe. The title ''Dodola and Perperuna'' is restrictive and POV, bacause it selects only two terms that are given to the girl that performs the ritual, despite the fact that there are many of those names, and there are even traditions based on a male figure, and it is misleading because the rainmaking ritual is not called &quot;Dodola and Perperuna&quot;. If this title will be kept, then a split into ''Rainmaking (Southeast Europe)'' should be made, and this article should focus only on the rainmaking girl figure, but I think a standalone article for such a subject would not be appropriate. – [[User:Βατο|Βατο]] ([[User talk:Βατο|talk]]) 19:48, 22 August 2024 (UTC) ::::I see. Then [[Rainmaking (Southeast Europe)]] will me good and a summary section about [[Calojan]] may be incorporated per [[WP:Summary style]]. --[[user:Altenmann|Altenmann]] [[user talk:Altenmann|&gt;talk]] :::In the scientific literature, the rainmaking custom(s) Dodola and Perperuna are usually related. The article is only about these two customs, and they are usually separated from the Caloian custom. The link with the Slavic god Perun and the Slavs is mainstream and majority viewpoint in the literature - claiming that it is &quot;not reasonable&quot; is a very bold non-mainstream statement and pushing a fringe autochthonistic POV. We already had a discussion before. In the article was already cited everything or almost everything about the topic. There's nothing else much which could be done and to be reworded. You first need to provide new citations and reach a consensus before trying to change both the scope and the title of the article.--[[User:Miki Filigranski|Miki Filigranski]] ([[User talk:Miki Filigranski|talk]]) 17:55, 23 August 2024 (UTC) :::[[User:Βατο|Βατο]], we already had this discussion, and after 2 years you made a series of edits changing the NPOV of the article, but without providing new citations and evidence, and then pushing the change of the scope and title of the article. I must boldly revert all your edits per BRD. First discuss and reach a consensus.--[[User:Miki Filigranski|Miki Filigranski]] ([[User talk:Miki Filigranski|talk]]) 18:09, 23 August 2024 (UTC) ::::Before bold reverting my sourced additions, state your concerns here, please. The article is far from neutral and clear about the different traditions. And the pushing in the lede of one of the several hypothetical origins is not the proper way to address NOPOV issues. You even restored this erroneous description in the lede: {{tquote|are ancient Slavic rainmaking pagan customs practiced until the 20th century. The tradition is found in South Slavic countries (Bulgaria, Croatia, North Macedonia, Montenegro, and Serbia), as well as in near Albania, Greece, Hungary, Moldova and Romania.}} The traditions are not &quot;ancient Slavic rainmaking pagan customs&quot; found in South Slavic countries and &quot;in near&quot; non Slavic countries, but a tradition found among different peoples of Southeast Europe. – [[User:Βατο|Βατο]] ([[User talk:Βατο|talk]]) 18:37, 23 August 2024 (UTC) :::::You almost didn't make any sourced additions to change the NPOV and BALANCE of the article, and you were doing it by removing reliably sourced information ([https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Dodola_and_Perperuna&amp;diff=next&amp;oldid=1241641872#External_links]) erroenously claiming it is an &quot;erroenous statement&quot;, a statement which is critical of the fringe autochthonistic POV you're pushing. The article was NEUTRAL and according to the RS. This what you're doing is PUSHING a non-mainstream, non-Slavic, fringe autochthonistic POV not supported by the majority of the RS. --[[User:Miki Filigranski|Miki Filigranski]] ([[User talk:Miki Filigranski|talk]]) 18:53, 23 August 2024 (UTC) ::::::Yes, I removed it because it falsely claims that rainmaking rituals are not found in southern Greece. Add the full context and arguments, then we can see whether that information can stay. And many scholars' views already included in the article cannot be considered [[WP:FRINGE]]. – [[User:Βατο|Βατο]] ([[User talk:Βατο|talk]]) 19:02, 23 August 2024 (UTC) :::::::You're ignoring the amount of RS for a specific viewpoint. You broke the NPOV, ignore WEIGHT.--[[User:Miki Filigranski|Miki Filigranski]] ([[User talk:Miki Filigranski|talk]]) 19:21, 23 August 2024 (UTC) :::::: Also, the names of the male figures of different rituals found in some South Slavic traditions should be added as well, because as it is now, the article reports only the names of the female figures. – [[User:Βατο|Βατο]] ([[User talk:Βατο|talk]]) 19:06, 23 August 2024 (UTC) :::::::It doesn't.--[[User:Miki Filigranski|Miki Filigranski]] ([[User talk:Miki Filigranski|talk]]) 19:21, 23 August 2024 (UTC) ::::::::Reading the section &quot;Ritual&quot;, I understood, although not clearly, that ''Prpac/Prpats'' are names of the male figure. Is that correct? Do those names appear in songs alongside the name of the female figure? I think they should be added in the section &quot;Names&quot; as well. – [[User:Βατο|Βατο]] ([[User talk:Βατο|talk]]) 19:56, 23 August 2024 (UTC) :::::::::First and foremost, please do not boldly edit the article doing substantial changes to the NPOV, scope and else of the article when you are not informed about the topic and making one after another misunderstandings upon which you make false claims about the topic and article. It is complex ritual and there's no &quot;yes and no&quot; answer. You need to differentiate a bit the name of the custom/folk song, from name of the female/male figure. Perperuna was mostly performed by a chosen boy (the one who is acting), and the chosen boy/leader could have been named, in Croatia for example where Perperuna custom is called Prporuša, as a Prporuša/Prporuš/Prpac etc. but also his singing companions as Prporuše. The name ''Prpac/Prpats'', which are local variants, do not appear in the song, they were names given by local people/audience to the chosen boy/leader/actor. There's only one figure in songs, or Perperuna or Dodola, but there do exist exceptions in Macedonia where both Perperuna and Dodola are mentioned in the same song.--[[User:Miki Filigranski|Miki Filigranski]] ([[User talk:Miki Filigranski|talk]]) 11:23, 31 August 2024 (UTC) :::::::::Βατο, please, do NOT make any edits these days as I have to review every and each edit you've made. I will re-incorporate reliably sourced information into the stable NPOV revision. The new revision you made is a complete mess, pushing Albanian case to the forefront of the customs, from the LEAD to the main body of the article. Making a complete disbalance of the content. --[[User:Miki Filigranski|Miki Filigranski]] ([[User talk:Miki Filigranski|talk]]) 11:50, 31 August 2024 (UTC) :::::::::Not only you changed wording without care about NPOV and WEIGHT, removed several reliably sourced content or emphasized different content (especially about Albania), placed new text in wrong sections, asking for citation needed where's none needed, removed images, etc., what's worse for new citations you used different citation style. Do you understand how much checking and clean-up your edits need? --[[User:Miki Filigranski|Miki Filigranski]] ([[User talk:Miki Filigranski|talk]]) 12:48, 31 August 2024 (UTC) ::::::::::{{reply|Miki Filigranski}} I reverted your bold removal of 7,971 bytes of well surced content. You are free to edit the article, but don't remove sourced material. My edits don't need &quot;checking and clean-up&quot;, they are added precisely according to Wikipedia policies and guidelines. The citation style has nothing wrong. – [[User:Βατο|Βατο]] ([[User talk:Βατο|talk]]) 13:01, 31 August 2024 (UTC) :::::::::::{{reply|Βατο}} No. This what you are doing is gaming the system. You don't respect [[WP:BRD]], you don't care another editor is reverting and constantly warning you. This wasn't bold removal of sourced content, it is about stable revision, NPOV - about which you don't care - as you are making major edits and pushing for the scope and title change in the same time - without any prior discussion, resolution and consensus. Article needs to have a common citation style. --[[User:Miki Filigranski|Miki Filigranski]] ([[User talk:Miki Filigranski|talk]]) 13:10, 31 August 2024 (UTC) ::::::::::::There is no &quot;gaming the system&quot; in adding sourced information about this tradition. Discuss here the content that you consider problematic, don't remove 7,971 bytes of well surced content appealing to NPOV and BRD, while not even discussing a single sentence of my additions. – [[User:Βατο|Βατο]] ([[User talk:Βατο|talk]]) 13:18, 31 August 2024 (UTC) ::::::::::::::No, there's no issue itself with adding sourced information, but how are you adding it, where are you adding it, in the process removing NPOV wording, removing previous content, and in the same time pushing for scope and title change because the old, stable revision wasn't according to the your vision of the article. In the meantime you don't care that another editors reverted your edits. You don't care about their comments. You are the one who needs to start discussions - and in the meantime - not edit warring pushing your edits and new revision. I will just re-incorporate your edits - as much as possible - to the old, stable revision, and from there and then we can discuss what's Your problem with the article and content.--[[User:Miki Filigranski|Miki Filigranski]] ([[User talk:Miki Filigranski|talk]]) 13:26, 31 August 2024 (UTC) :::::::::::::::Again, I see only general statements, please, address one by one the issues you have with the well sourced content about this tradition that I added. – [[User:Βατο|Βατο]] ([[User talk:Βατο|talk]]) 13:29, 31 August 2024 (UTC) ::::::::::::::::No, I won't. As said, will make a third revision which will incorporate your additions. Then we can have a discussion - and You are the one whose going to address one by one the issues you have with the article. It's up to You to step up, not me. You are the one whose trying to change the NPOV, scope and title of the article.--[[User:Miki Filigranski|Miki Filigranski]] ([[User talk:Miki Filigranski|talk]]) 14:11, 31 August 2024 (UTC) :::::::::::::::::Then you should not remove 7,971 bytes of well surced content. – [[User:Βατο|Βατο]] ([[User talk:Βατο|talk]]) 14:26, 31 August 2024 (UTC) {{ping|Sławobóg|Jingiby}} you participated in the old discussion &quot;[[Talk:Dodola and Perperuna#New revision]]&quot; two years ago, please give your verdict to the proposed changes and bold editing ([https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Dodola_and_Perperuna&amp;diff=1241890819&amp;oldid=1241888598]) by user Βατο with whom we discussed two years ago, thanks.--[[User:Miki Filigranski|Miki Filigranski]] ([[User talk:Miki Filigranski|talk]]) 19:18, 23 August 2024 (UTC) == Requested move 22 August 2024 == &lt;div class=&quot;boilerplate mw-archivedtalk&quot; style=&quot;background-color: var(--background-color-success-subtle, #efe); color: var(--color-base, #000); margin: 0; padding: 0 10px 0 10px; border: 1px dotted var(--border-color-subtle, #AAAAAA);&quot;&gt;&lt;!-- Template:RM top --&gt; :''The following is a closed discussion of a [[Wikipedia:Requested moves|requested move]]. &lt;span style=&quot;color: var(--color-error, red);&quot;&gt;'''Please do not modify it.'''&lt;/span&gt; Subsequent comments should be made in a new section on the talk page. Editors desiring to contest the closing decision should consider a [[Wikipedia:move review|move review]] after discussing it on the closer's talk page. No further edits should be made to this discussion.'' The result of the move request was: '''no consensus.''' Given that after a relist 1 month ago there's been no further participation, one support was conditional under a merge, and there was concern expressed about the new title not being formatted as [[WP:NDESC]], I don't see any consensus at this point. &lt;small&gt;([[Wikipedia:Requested moves/Closing instructions#Closure by a page mover|closed by non-admin page mover]])&lt;/small&gt; [[User:Zippybonzo|Zippybonzo]] &amp;#124; [[User talk:Zippybonzo|&lt;small&gt;talk&lt;/small&gt;]] &amp;#124; [[Special:Contributions/Zippybonzo|&lt;small&gt;contribs&lt;/small&gt;]] (they/them) 18:59, 9 October 2024 (UTC) ---- [[:Dodola and Perperuna]] → {{no redirect|Rainmaking (Southeast Europe)}} – see the discussion above. We also have the generic [[Rainmaking (ritual)]] page (techical nomination; '''no vote''') --[[user:Altenmann|Altenmann]] [[user talk:Altenmann|&gt;talk]] 20:15, 22 August 2024 (UTC) &lt;small&gt;—&amp;nbsp;'''''Relisting.'''''&amp;nbsp;[[User_talk:Asukite|&lt;span style=&quot;color:Purple;font-size:medium;font-family:Bradley Hand ITC&quot;&gt; ASUKITE&lt;/span&gt;]] 21:16, 30 August 2024 (UTC)&lt;/small&gt; *'''Support''', repeating my explanation in the discussion above: the title ''Rainmaking (Southeast Europe)'' is necessary in this case, because this article is about similar rainmaking practices of several peoples in Southeast Europe. The title ''Dodola and Perperuna'' is restrictive and POV, bacause it selects only two terms that are given to the girl that performs the ritual, despite the fact that there are many of those names, and there are even traditions based on a male figure, and it is misleading because the rainmaking ritual is not called &quot;Dodola and Perperuna&quot;. If this title will be kept, then a split into ''Rainmaking (Southeast Europe)'' should be made, and this article should focus only on the rainmaking girl figure, but I think a standalone article for such a subject would not be appropriate. Concerning the generic article [[Rainmaking (ritual)]], the Southeast European practices have enough coverage in reliable sources to deserve a standalone article. – [[User:Βατο|Βατο]] ([[User talk:Βατο|talk]]) 21:07, 22 August 2024 (UTC) * That is a bad title, it should be formatted as [[WP:NDESC]] and not as disambiguation, because it's not like &quot;rainmaking&quot; is ''called'' like this in southeastern Europe, you just want to be describing the history of these specific pagan rainmaking customs in those locations. --[[User:Joy|Joy]] ([[User talk:Joy|talk]]) 09:20, 23 August 2024 (UTC) ::A simple solution to that issue could be the title ''Rainmaking in Southeast Europe''. – [[User:Βατο|Βατο]] ([[User talk:Βατο|talk]]) 11:25, 23 August 2024 (UTC) * '''Oppose''', as already stated, in the scientific literature, the rainmaking custom(s) Dodola and Perperuna are usually related. The article is only about these two customs, and they are usually separated from the Caloian custom. The link with the Slavic god Perun and the Slavs is mainstream and majority viewpoint in the literature. In the article was already cited everything or almost everything about the topic. The change of the scope and the title first need long discussion with new citations/evidence and reach a consensus. Otherwise the new version of the article will be a FRINGE and UNDUE WEIGHT autochthonistic POV connection of Dodola and Perperuna custom(s) with Caloian custom etc., which isn't the case in the reliable sources.--[[User:Miki Filigranski|Miki Filigranski]] ([[User talk:Miki Filigranski|talk]]) 18:06, 23 August 2024 (UTC) ::Caloian custom argument is completely irrelevant for the request move. The concerns I listed above still remain with the title &quot;Dodola and Perperuna&quot;, but they would be solved with the title &quot;Rainmaking in Southeast Europe&quot;. As for the Perun link, there are songs in southwestern Albania expressly addressing the Sun (Albanian: [[Dielli (Albanian paganism)|Dielli]]) as the divine figure during the ritual songs, not Perun. – [[User:Βατο|Βατο]] ([[User talk:Βατο|talk]]) 20:01, 23 August 2024 (UTC) :::It isn't, that's the end goal, that's the intention, that's the reasoning this request move and forced editing is based on. Otherwise there wouldn't be such a forced pushing against Slavic mainstream POV. What some folk songs in southwestern Albania have to do with Dodola and Perperuna? Even if they do - but only according to RS - they do not change the fact about the mainstream POV and NPOV in general.--[[User:Miki Filigranski|Miki Filigranski]] ([[User talk:Miki Filigranski|talk]]) 10:43, 31 August 2024 (UTC) ::::&quot;{{tquote|What some folk songs in southwestern Albania have to do with Dodola and Perperuna?}}&quot; they have to do with the subject of this article because they are rainmaking pagan customs performed by a boy dressed in leaves and singing ritual songs, like other tradtions of this article. &quot;{{tquote|such a forced pushing against Slavic mainstream POV}}, actually, the POV-pushing is claiming a Slavic exclusivity for a tradition that is shared between several Balkan peoples, not only Slavic ones. – [[User:Βατο|Βατο]] ([[User talk:Βατο|talk]]) 13:12, 31 August 2024 (UTC) :::::No, that's not the reasoning - the folk songs, the names of Dodola and Perperuna are. No, the mainstream WEIGHT is about the Slavic origin, not exclusivity. There isn't pushed any Slavic exclusivity, and as mainstream sources consider, it's a tradition which was most probably spread by Slavic people which migrated in and influenced all Balkan countries and peoples.--[[User:Miki Filigranski|Miki Filigranski]] ([[User talk:Miki Filigranski|talk]]) 13:19, 31 August 2024 (UTC) ::::::The article clarifies in a sourced statement: {{tquote|The rainmaking practice is a shared tradition among Balkan peoples, and it is not clear who borrowed it from whom.}} And bibliography confirms this. Other claims are POV. – [[User:Βατο|Βατο]] ([[User talk:Βατο|talk]]) 13:33, 31 August 2024 (UTC) :::::::No, it doesn't. It was there for NPOV sake, but immediately below it was paragraph which stated that {{tquote|&quot;It is usually considered they have a mythological and etymological Slavic origin related to Slavic thunder-god Perun&quot;}} citing alone, and together more than a dozen reliable sources with quotes, which you changed into {{tquote|Some consider the perperuna figure to have a mythological and etymological Slavic origin related to Slavic thunder-god Perun}}. You completely messed up [[WP:WEIGHT]] and made [[WP:FALSEBALANCE]] with your editing.--[[User:Miki Filigranski|Miki Filigranski]] ([[User talk:Miki Filigranski|talk]]) 13:47, 31 August 2024 (UTC) * '''Support''', only if we are merging [[Caloian|this]] article as well considering Romania is in Southeast Europe. '''[[User:Боки|&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;Боки&lt;/span&gt;]]''' [[User talk:Боки|&lt;span style=&quot;color:blue&quot;&gt;☎&lt;/span&gt;]] [[Special:Contribs/Боки|&lt;span style=&quot;color:#808080&quot;&gt;✎&lt;/span&gt;]] 23:39, 23 August 2024 (UTC) ::[[Caloian]] is not to be merged, because it has different practices, not only rainmaking. What is appropriate to do has been proposed in the duscussion above by User:Altenmann: &quot;{{tquote|a summary section about [[Calojan]] may be incorporated per [[WP:Summary style]]}}&quot;. – [[User:Βατο|Βατο]] ([[User talk:Βατο|talk]]) 22:55, 30 August 2024 (UTC) :::No, if it is a different practice, then what's the point of incorporating it anyhow in the article about Dodola and Perperuna? --[[User:Miki Filigranski|Miki Filigranski]] ([[User talk:Miki Filigranski|talk]]) 10:47, 31 August 2024 (UTC) * '''Comment''', I'm not sure that changing the title will improve the situation. [[User:Jingiby|Jingiby]] ([[User talk:Jingiby|talk]]) 04:57, 24 August 2024 (UTC) ::It will surely improve the situation. The rainmaking practice is not known as &quot;Dodola and Perperuna&quot; among Albanians. It is not known as such even among Slavic speakers, Eastern Romance speakers, or Greek speakers. That's an [[WP:OR]], [[WP:POV]], as well as a misleading title, by selecting only two terms that are given to the girl that performs the ritual in some traditions. I would like to know what criteria could justify such a choise? So far there has been provided no reasonable argument to keep that title. – [[User:Βατο|Βατο]] ([[User talk:Βατο|talk]]) 09:00, 24 August 2024 (UTC) :::It won't and you already made a mess, and are forcing the changes against the usual process for such essential change. You are greatly misunderstanding the topic, making false claims. The article is reliably sourced - that's the name of the customs, Dodola, and Perperuna (and its variations). You are pushing a disbalanced amount of weight for some poorly sourced, and overall irrelevant Albanian POV. Please stop doing that and [[WP:LISTEN]] to what other editors have to say.--[[User:Miki Filigranski|Miki Filigranski]] ([[User talk:Miki Filigranski|talk]]) 10:34, 31 August 2024 (UTC) ::::{{tquote|You are greatly misunderstanding the topic, making false claims}}, nope, the topic is about rainmaking pagan customs in Southeast Europe practiced with the main boy or girl dressed with fresh branches, leaves and herbs, etc. while singing a ritual song. {{tquote|some poorly sourced, and overall irrelevant Albanian POV}} is your own opinion. The content is sourced with academic sources focusing on this specific subject. And it is not up to us to consider Albanian practices as &quot;irrelevant&quot;, relevance is dictaded by reliable sources. – [[User:Βατο|Βατο]] ([[User talk:Βατο|talk]]) 13:42, 31 August 2024 (UTC) :::::Indeed, relevance is dictated by reliable sources - and then you come after two years of stable NPOV, make major edits ignoring the fact most of the reliable sources arguing and claiming Slavic origin of the customs, etymology and else, and now claim relevance of the Albanian case and else. Genius.--[[User:Miki Filigranski|Miki Filigranski]] ([[User talk:Miki Filigranski|talk]]) 14:06, 31 August 2024 (UTC) ::::::The stable NPOV was not claiming the practice as exclusively Slavic (&quot;{{tquote|ancient Slavic rainmaking pagan customs practiced until the 20th century. The tradition is found in South Slavic countries (Bulgaria, Croatia, North Macedonia, Montenegro, and Serbia), as well as in near Albania, Greece, Hungary, Moldova and Romania.}}) I did not notice that such an erroneous and POV wording has been kept in the lede for so long. – [[User:Βατο|Βατο]] ([[User talk:Βατο|talk]]) 14:25, 31 August 2024 (UTC) :::::::FFS, you were here 2 years ago when the old, stable revision was created and now after 2 years you claim that didn't notice.--[[User:Miki Filigranski|Miki Filigranski]] ([[User talk:Miki Filigranski|talk]]) 16:02, 31 August 2024 (UTC) ::::::::The last time I participated in this talk page I stated that the article should not describe the practice as exclusively Slavic. If I remember correctly, I left you time to change it as you stated that you would reword the article according to the sources provided. Then I even forgot about it, only recently realized that you kept the erroneous POV version, which obviously can't stay. I suggest to avoid replying in this discussion, which is about the RM. – [[User:Βατο|Βατο]] ([[User talk:Βατο|talk]]) 16:16, 31 August 2024 (UTC) :::::::::See discussion below, I didn't keep the erroneous POV version as I've done an edit on 9 August 2022 per talk, over a year later somebody changed the wording and nobody noticed to fix it. Alright, my last comment for this.--[[User:Miki Filigranski|Miki Filigranski]] ([[User talk:Miki Filigranski|talk]]) 16:35, 31 August 2024 (UTC) * '''Comment''', I dont think it will make it better. I think it would best to have separate article about {{Q|Q2622164}} and {{Q|Q2368103}} and other rites with different names in Balkans, even if the descriptions partially overlapped. That would make these articles easier to read, and reader would have precise informations about specific rite. My problem with the article is that it pushes too much non-scientific idea about Perperuna being related to Perun. [[User:Sławobóg|Sławobóg]] ([[User talk:Sławobóg|talk]]) 09:11, 1 September 2024 (UTC) ::{{reply|Sławobóg}} I agree with your last sentence, that's why I edited the article and ridimensioned a little bit that POV, which is basically [[Roman Jakobson]]'s POV. But [[User:Miki Filigranski]] seems to oppose the ridimensioning of that POV. Nevertheless, it can't stay in the lede as it was before my edits, because the etymology and mythology of Peperuda/Perperuna/etc. are far from certain, and there are songs that expressly invoke other deities/divine figures and not Perun. Concerning the split of the article into Dodola, Peperuda, and others, I don't think it is a good idea because in some traditions, in the same ritual performance of rainmaking songs both Dodola-like and Peperuda-like names are mentioned, it would be difficult to separate them. Also, they are about the same rainmaking custom, performed by a procession of young people with a main girl or boy who is dressed with fresh branches and leaves, sings the ritual song, and is sprinkled with water. To avoid the arbitrary selection of two names, such as in this case ''Dodola and Perperuna'', which are hardly the [[WP:COMMONAME]], and which are misleading because nobody actually called the custom ''Dodola and Perperuna'', I proposed the descriptive title ''Rainmaking in Southeast Europe''. – [[User:Βατο|Βατο]] ([[User talk:Βατο|talk]]) 10:04, 1 September 2024 (UTC) :&lt;small&gt;Note: [[Wikipedia talk:WikiProject Romania|WikiProject Romania]], [[Wikipedia talk:WikiProject Bulgaria|WikiProject Bulgaria]], [[Wikipedia talk:WikiProject Serbia|WikiProject Serbia]], [[Wikipedia talk:WikiProject Croatia|WikiProject Croatia]], [[Wikipedia talk:WikiProject North Macedonia|WikiProject North Macedonia]], [[Wikipedia talk:WikiProject Mythology|WikiProject Mythology]], and [[Wikipedia talk:WikiProject Albania|WikiProject Albania]] have been notified of this discussion. [[User_talk:Asukite|&lt;span style=&quot;color:Purple;font-size:medium;font-family:Bradley Hand ITC&quot;&gt; ASUKITE&lt;/span&gt;]] 21:14, 30 August 2024 (UTC)&lt;/small&gt; :&lt;small&gt;'''Relisting comment''': Relist to give time for participation. Note that one of the support comments is conditional upon a merge, which is worth discussion, and there is one reply that may be read as oppose but isn't labeled as such. [[User_talk:Asukite|&lt;span style=&quot;color:Purple;font-size:medium;font-family:Bradley Hand ITC&quot;&gt; ASUKITE&lt;/span&gt;]] 21:16, 30 August 2024 (UTC)&lt;/small&gt; &lt;div style=&quot;padding-left: 1.6em; font-style: italic; border-top: 1px solid #a2a9b1; margin: 0.5em 0; padding-top: 0.5em&quot;&gt;The discussion above is closed. &lt;b style=&quot;color: var(--color-error, red);&quot;&gt;Please do not modify it.&lt;/b&gt; Subsequent comments should be made on the appropriate discussion page. No further edits should be made to this discussion.&lt;/div&gt;&lt;!-- from [[Template:Archive bottom]] --&gt; &lt;/div&gt;&lt;div style=&quot;clear:both;&quot; class=&gt;&lt;/div&gt; ==&quot;Oj Ljule&quot; songs== &quot;Oj Ljule&quot; songs are inlcuded in the &quot;Dodole songs&quot;, despite the fact that the songs seem to not mention Dodole or related forms. This aspect should be clarified in the article. Btw, I don't know whether ''ljule'' is a Slavic term, but it can be found in Albanian, and means &quot;flower&quot;, and &quot;Oj Ljule&quot; is found as a phrase in Arbereshe songs as well, although unrelated to rainmaking rituals. The origin and meaning of the term ''ljule'' used in Slavic songs should be explained as well. – [[User:Βατο|Βατο]] ([[User talk:Βατο|talk]]) 18:44, 23 August 2024 (UTC) :This appears to be the borrowing from Slavic [[lullaby]] refrain Ay lyuli {{langx|ru|Ай люли}}, see eg in ''[[Kalinka (1860 song)|Kalinka]]'' or [[:ru:Во поле берёза стояла]]. Associated with the Russian word люлька, &quot;[[cradle]]&quot;. --[[user:Altenmann|Altenmann]] [[user talk:Altenmann|&gt;talk]] 19:10, 23 August 2024 (UTC) ::{{reply|Altenmann}} thanks for the clarification, in that case it would not be a borrowing, but a Slavic term in Eastern South Slavic. The Albanian term would not be related. A source would be nice to clarify it in the article. – [[User:Βατο|Βατο]] ([[User talk:Βατο|talk]]) 19:14, 23 August 2024 (UTC) :::I will try to find a source, but it will be difficult for such minor things. Provably in some obscure folkloric book. [https://www.google.com/search?sca_esv=59944d6273687f66&amp;sca_upv=1&amp;rlz=1C1SJWC_enUS1086US1087&amp;q=%22%D0%90%D0%B9+%D0%BB%D1%8E%D0%BB%D0%B8%22+-%D0%BA%D0%B0%D0%BB%D0%B8%D0%BD%D0%BA%D0%B0&amp;tbm=bks&amp;source=lnms&amp;fbs=AEQNm0AVbySjNxIXoj6bNaq7uSpwmIS0gJlXN_LWYh5RkW9UG_J2iT2scTJ59gCgVXw95w_tbwv0XGMg5VNVmdZJUUbegAUXjP-3Az7ul0FDlU2m0yNrv6Vuz1OORdWimsJYhP0WMXW2ofgIshBxHL7F_exMsA00U1w8-fAhNJVI81QdesxeLn7PSN5Jf4tv1ZtHKAbXs9j2p9qipOTKbxDb8N2kMYbC5g&amp;sa=X&amp;ved=2ahUKEwjH7Nmw6YuIAxV4DTQIHRgHNgo4MhDSlAl6BAg0EAE&amp;biw=1059&amp;bih=682&amp;dpr=1.25 google books] shows plenty of songs, but no etymology. --[[user:Altenmann|Altenmann]] [[user talk:Altenmann|&gt;talk]] 19:19, 23 August 2024 (UTC) :::: [https://gramota.ru/meta/lyuli here a short blurb: ''Large Explanatory Dictionary of the Russian Language'':(folk-poetic) Is used in refrains of Russian folk songs. --[[user:Altenmann|Altenmann]] [[user talk:Altenmann|&gt;talk]] 19:21, 23 August 2024 (UTC) ::::[https://slovnyk.ua/index.php?swrd=%D0%BB%D1%8E%D0%BB%D1%8F%D1%82%D0%B8 люляти] - to rock the cradle in Ukrainian and Belarusian ([[wikt:ru:люляць]]) and Lithuanian [https://www.zodynas.lt/terminu-zodynas/L/liuliuoti liūliuoti] &quot;to rock/be rocked by waves&quot;, Serbian ljuljati &quot;to rock&quot;. - [https://www.alphadictionary.com/goodword/word/lullaby and it seems] it is related to Englies [https://www.alphadictionary.com/goodword/word/lull &quot;lull&quot;], &quot;[[lullaby]]&quot;--[[user:Altenmann|Altenmann]] [[user talk:Altenmann|&gt;talk]] 19:31, 23 August 2024 (UTC) :::::{{edit conflict}} Thanks. I think a source expressly about these rainmaking songs would be appropriate for inclusion into the article, if they cannot be found then we can leave it without explanation. Sources about Russian folksongs not directly related to the subject would be [[WP:SYNTH|synth]] or [[WP:OR|or]] into the article, although interesting for clarifying the matter here in talk page. – [[User:Βατο|Βατο]] ([[User talk:Βατο|talk]]) 19:32, 23 August 2024 (UTC) ::::::These Russian folksongs are mentioned here as an anwer to the question about &quot;Oj Ljule&quot; and of course are irrelevant to this article. (Sorry for off-topic, I am just collecting for future possible use elsewhere.) --[[user:Altenmann|Altenmann]] [[user talk:Altenmann|&gt;talk]] 19:36, 23 August 2024 (UTC) Basically, you are pushing an Albanian-old Balkan POV connection in the LEAD and main body of the article. It is so obvious it is painful not to notice it. Please refrain from doing it forcibly, engage in BRD discussion without editing a stable NPOV, seek a consensus, and only then discuss about the change of scope and title of the article. Not the other way around.--[[User:Miki Filigranski|Miki Filigranski]] ([[User talk:Miki Filigranski|talk]]) 10:30, 31 August 2024 (UTC) :Which one is the POV version? The one that describes the subject as &quot;{{tquote|rainmaking pagan customs widespread among different peoples in Southeast Europe until the 20th century, found in Albania, Bulgaria, Croatia, Greece, Hungary, Kosovo, Moldova, Montenegro, Romania, and Serbia.}}&quot; or the version that describes it as &quot;{{tquote|ancient Slavic rainmaking pagan customs practiced until the 20th century. The tradition is found in South Slavic countries (Bulgaria, Croatia, North Macedonia, Montenegro, and Serbia), as well as in near Albania, Greece, Hungary, Moldova and Romania.}}&quot; It's clearly the second one, which obviously can't stay. – [[User:Βατο|Βατο]] ([[User talk:Βατο|talk]]) 13:25, 31 August 2024 (UTC) ::You obviously don't get the point and refuse to get the point, why that text and wording was in the lead.--[[User:Miki Filigranski|Miki Filigranski]] ([[User talk:Miki Filigranski|talk]]) 13:48, 31 August 2024 (UTC) :::There is no point to get, that text and wording is an erroneous and POV description of the custom. – [[User:Βατο|Βατο]] ([[User talk:Βατο|talk]]) 13:54, 31 August 2024 (UTC) ::::Please stick with the Albanian-Illyrian paganism, and leave alone Slavic paganism when have such a low understanding and respect about the topic.--[[User:Miki Filigranski|Miki Filigranski]] ([[User talk:Miki Filigranski|talk]]) 14:00, 31 August 2024 (UTC) :::::This practice is Albanian, as well as Greek, Romanian, etc., other than South Slavic. You should understand that to avoid POV in the article. – [[User:Βατο|Βατο]] ([[User talk:Βατο|talk]]) 14:21, 31 August 2024 (UTC) ::::::This practice is first and foremost South Slavic, while Albanian is the least (and even among them is most probably due to South Slavic influence). --[[User:Miki Filigranski|Miki Filigranski]] ([[User talk:Miki Filigranski|talk]]) 15:15, 31 August 2024 (UTC) :::::::This practice is widespread among all Albanians. It is Albanian as much as it is South Slavic. Your opinion &quot;{{tquote|This practice is first and foremost South Slavic, while Albanian is the least (and even among them is most probably due to South Slavic influence)}}&quot; shows that you want to push only one POV. – [[User:Βατο|Βατο]] ([[User talk:Βατο|talk]]) 15:52, 31 August 2024 (UTC) :::::::::Where and what's the evidence it is widespread among all Albanians? How common was the practice in Albania? There's no &quot;my opinion&quot;, in the article was cited what was in the scientific literature - it wasn't common and widespread neither can be considered Albanian as much as it is South Slavic. I don't care about what kind of POV is in the literature, only about [[WP:WEIGHT]], and the majority viewpoint is clear about that. You are the one whose changing NPOV by pushing your pro-Albanian POV.--[[User:Miki Filigranski|Miki Filigranski]] ([[User talk:Miki Filigranski|talk]]) 15:59, 31 August 2024 (UTC) ::::::::::It is widespread among all Albanians, it has been practiced by Albanians in southern Albania, in northern Albania, Kosovo and Macedonia. This is not my opinion, this is what academic sources say. And adding sourced content about the Albanian traditions direclty related to the subject of this article is not &quot;pro-Albanian POV&quot;. I suggest to avoid such labellings. – [[User:Βατο|Βατο]] ([[User talk:Βατο|talk]]) 16:08, 31 August 2024 (UTC) :::::::::::I am asking you once again where and what is said in the literature - give the quotes. I don't care and believe what you say. Again, you are NOT merely adding sourced content because you have completely changed the NPOV. You know what you're doing, I know what you're doing. Stop doing it, show some good faith, respect and start behaving according to [[WP:BRD]].--[[User:Miki Filigranski|Miki Filigranski]] ([[User talk:Miki Filigranski|talk]]) 16:19, 31 August 2024 (UTC)- ::::::::::::In the article you can check the sources, which have been carefully cited with relevant pages, and you can add quote needed templates in parts that you fail to verify. Regardless of what you believe or not, the practice has been documented in southwest Albania (such as in the Ionian Coast), southeast Albania (such as in Permet and Klonje), central and northern Albania (such as in Mat, Mirdite, and Has) Macedonia (such as in Tetove), Kosovo (such as in Gjakove, Opoje and Sharr Mountains). It was widespread until the 2nd half of the 20th century, and continues to be performed in rare occasions by Albanians in remote areas such as around [[Opojë]] in the Sharr Mountains. You can find this information in this article's Bibliography, (such as in {{harvnb|Tirta|2004|pp=310–312}}, {{harvnb|Gjoni|2012|pp=85–86}}, and {{harvnb|Qafleshi|2009|pp=51–52}}). – [[User:Βατο|Βατο]] ([[User talk:Βατο|talk]]) 16:58, 31 August 2024 (UTC) – [[User:Βατο|Βατο]] ([[User talk:Βατο|talk]]) 16:58, 31 August 2024 (UTC) :::::::::::::Thank you.--[[User:Miki Filigranski|Miki Filigranski]] ([[User talk:Miki Filigranski|talk]]) 00:56, 4 October 2024 (UTC) Βατο, why is now the same text/songs at [[Dielli (Albanian paganism)#Rainmaking and soil fertility rituals]] and this article (although some songs do not mention neither Dodola or Perperuna)?--[[User:Miki Filigranski|Miki Filigranski]] ([[User talk:Miki Filigranski|talk]]) 15:47, 31 August 2024 (UTC) :They are added because they are rainmaking rituals that are subject of this article, with the same figures and performances. The other songs are added because they follow the rainmaking practice, and are discussed in the same context by the cited source. However, if you consider those following songs to have undue weight, I will remove them and keep only their description. – [[User:Βατο|Βατο]] ([[User talk:Βατο|talk]]) 16:22, 31 August 2024 (UTC) ::I removed them. – [[User:Βατο|Βατο]] ([[User talk:Βατο|talk]]) 16:32, 31 August 2024 (UTC) ==Clarification== The article should clarify whether a goddess/female deity called Perperuna (or similar) or Dodole (or similar), associated with Perun (also as his consort/wife) has been actually attested in Slavic traditions, or it is just a hypothesis by modern scholars. In that regard, the article states: {{tquote|Recent research criticize invention of a Slavic female goddess}}, referenced with {{harvnb|Łuczyński|2020|p=141}}, but I have not access to the source to verify whether it is referring to the link between Perun and Perperuna as a goddess. A a proper context should be provided. – [[User:Βατο|Βατο]] ([[User talk:Βατο|talk]]) 12:26, 24 August 2024 (UTC) :It is already stated. Deities or ritual figures are often reconstructed out of folk tradition. It is an ''interpretation''. You have full quote in this talk page [[Talk:Dodola and Perperuna #Other sources]].--[[User:Miki Filigranski|Miki Filigranski]] ([[User talk:Miki Filigranski|talk]]) 10:57, 31 August 2024 (UTC) ::The article's text should clarify whether something belongs to actual folklore or it is an interpretation. – [[User:Βατο|Βατο]] ([[User talk:Βατο|talk]]) 13:21, 31 August 2024 (UTC) :::Oh really, don't you say? Imagine the shock, who would have thought that the old, stabile revision said: :::{{tquote|According to another '''interpretation''' the name Perperuna can be identified as the reduplicated feminine derivative of the name of the male god Perun (per-perun-a), being his female consort, wife and goddess of rain Perperuna Dodola, which parallels the Old Norse couple Fjörgyn–Fjörgynn and the Lithuanian Perkūnas–Perkūnija.[41][38][42][43][44] Perun's battle against Veles because of Perperuna/Dodola's kidnapping has parallels in Zeus saving of Persephone after Hades carried her underground causing big drought on Earth, also seen in the similarity of the names Perperuna and Persephone.[43][45][16] Recent research criticize invention of a Slavic female goddess.[19]}} :::and now it doesn't after you butchered the paragraphs and sections. Incredible, you must be a genius! --[[User:Miki Filigranski|Miki Filigranski]] ([[User talk:Miki Filigranski|talk]]) 13:53, 31 August 2024 (UTC) ::::Despite me being a 'genius', which is unrelated to this discussion, the information above still needs clarification, because the interpretation is about the name, and as the information is provided in the text, it takes for granted that the female figure was Perun's &quot;female consort, wife and goddess of rain Perperuna Dodola, which parallels the Old Norse couple Fjörgyn–Fjörgynn and the Lithuanian Perkūnas–Perkūnija.&quot; and that &quot;Perun's battle against Veles because of Perperuna/Dodola's kidnapping has parallels in Zeus saving of Persephone after Hades carried her underground causing big drought on Earth&quot;. The wording is important for such things, the text should clarify whether those are reconstrucitons or are actual folklore to not mislead the reader. I already made a slight rewording adding &quot;{{tquote|''allegedly'' being his female consort, wife and goddess of rain Perperuna Dodola, which ''would'' parallel the Old Norse couple Fjörgyn–Fjörgynn and the Lithuanian Perkūnas–Perkūnija.}}&quot;, but I am not sure if it is alleged or in folklore. That's why I asked. I moved some parts because they were about etymology, I left the parts about mythology into the relevant section. – [[User:Βατο|Βατο]] ([[User talk:Βατο|talk]]) 14:16, 31 August 2024 (UTC) :::::You clearly don't differentiate parts which are strictly about etymology from those which are about mythology. You moved parts, everything now looks out of context, and then claim there's confusion - when you made it. This is going to be like in the stable revision, the end of discussion.--[[User:Miki Filigranski|Miki Filigranski]] ([[User talk:Miki Filigranski|talk]]) 15:17, 31 August 2024 (UTC) ::::::Nope, the stable revision you created is erroneous and POV, and can't stay. Nevertheless, you are not addressing my concerns, but making general, useless, statements. Are they attested traditions or modern reconstructions? – [[User:Βατο|Βατο]] ([[User talk:Βατο|talk]]) 15:42, 31 August 2024 (UTC) :::::::You were here 2 years ago when the old, stable revision was created. Now you come again after 2 years, falsely claim that didn't notice what was written in the LEAD and else, decide to make it more erroneous and POV, and don't bother with any concerns other editor is making because of your major, general editing by which violated WEIGHT and NPOV, and calling them &quot;useless&quot; concerns. This is unbelievable. --[[User:Miki Filigranski|Miki Filigranski]] ([[User talk:Miki Filigranski|talk]]) 15:55, 31 August 2024 (UTC) ::::::::The last time I participated in this talk page I stated that the article should not describe the practice as exclusively Slavic. If I remember correctly, I left you time to change it as you stated that you would reword the article according to the sources provided. Then I even forgot about it, only recently realized that you kept the erroneous POV version, which obviously can't stay. – [[User:Βατο|Βατο]] ([[User talk:Βατο|talk]]) 16:14, 31 August 2024 (UTC) :::::::::Sorry, but I see now we are both misunderstanding each other and what happened. I've done that, [https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Dodola_and_Perperuna&amp;oldid=1103234952 this] was my &quot;NPOV up-date per talk&quot; on 9 August 2022 i.e. original stable revision, but until my next [https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Dodola_and_Perperuna&amp;oldid=1192112560 edit] on 27 December 2023 somebody changed the wording in the lead from &quot;are Balkan rainmaking pagan customs practiced until the 20th century&quot; to &quot;are ancient Slavic rainmaking pagan customs practiced until the 20th century&quot;. --[[User:Miki Filigranski|Miki Filigranski]] ([[User talk:Miki Filigranski|talk]]) 16:28, 31 August 2024 (UTC) :::::::::IP changed the lead wording on [https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Dodola_and_Perperuna&amp;diff=1182582238&amp;oldid=1181970621 30 October 2023].--[[User:Miki Filigranski|Miki Filigranski]] ([[User talk:Miki Filigranski|talk]]) 16:32, 31 August 2024 (UTC) ==Undue speculative interpretations in lede== [[User:Vanillacake34]] reverted ([https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Dodola_and_Perperuna&amp;diff=prev&amp;oldid=1257581130]) without explanation an addition in the lede about some scholarly interpretations that were made only for some traditions. There is absolutely no evidence that rainmaking rituals in the Balkans &quot;{{tquote|were related to the Slavic supreme deity Perun (god of thunder, weather, fertility and oak trees in the Slavic pantheon).}}&quot; and that &quot;{{tquote|Perperuna could have been a Slavic goddess of rain, the consort of Perun, or that the name Perperuna is the reduplicated feminine form derived from the name of Perun.}}&quot; And above all, what makes such addition undue in the lede is the fact that Albanian rainmaking ritual songs expressly address the Sun (Albanian: [[Dielli (Albanian paganism)|Dielli]]) and the Sky ([[Perëndi]]) as divine entities during the ritual songs, not [[Perun]]. – [[User:Βατο|Βατο]] ([[User talk:Βατο|talk]]) 18:00, 15 November 2024 (UTC)</div></summary> <author><name>Βατο</name></author> </entry> <entry> <id>https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Talk:Dodola_and_Perperuna&diff=1257584196</id> <title>Talk:Dodola and Perperuna</title> <link rel="alternate" type="text/html" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Talk:Dodola_and_Perperuna&diff=1257584196"/> <updated>2024-11-15T18:00:30Z</updated> <summary type="html">Βατο: <hr /> <div>{{WikiProject banner shell|class=Start|1= {{WikiProject Mythology | importance=Low}} {{WikiProject Albania|importance=low}} {{WikiProject Bulgaria|importance=low}} {{WikiProject Croatia|importance=low}} {{WikiProject Romania|importance=low}} {{WikiProject Serbia| importance=Low}} {{WikiProject North Macedonia| importance=Low}} {{WikiProject Neopaganism | importance=Low}} }} {{old move|date=22 August 2024|destination=Rainmaking (Southeast Europe)|result=no consensus|link=Special:Permalink/1249265199#Requested move 22 August 2024}} ==2004== I deleted almost the entire original article. It was just too incomprehensible. I replaced it with a scrap of info found on the web. --[[User:LeeHunter|LeeHunter]] 00:49, 24 Aug 2004 (UTC) : Wikipedians who understand [[Slavic languages]] and are knowledgeable in [[Slavic mythology]] are invited to sort out the following text (that was replaced by a nice little stub by [[User:LeeHunter]]): :: '''Perperuna''' - originally probably divine partner (wife) of [[Perun]]; probably the name formed by reduplication core &amp;#8220;per-&amp;#8220;, however it could be also personalization (result) of activity of Perun - &amp;#8222;flinging rock&quot; (per-perun-a?) = rain - analog. Ind. Parjanya &amp;#8222;(secondarily) cloud, rain&quot; - surname of Indra. Perperuna is the name behaved as designation of participant of ceremony (noted in SouthSlav. folklore) of summoning of rain, called also [[dodola]], dudula (compare to: Lith. [[Perkunas]] - Dundúlis, Latt. Dundusélis and Gr. [[Dodona]]); if we identify perperuna-dodola with [[beregynja]](*perkynja), we deal with team of names - teonyms embracing with significative range occurrence of worship of fecundity: [[Moko&amp;#353;]] (Mather Earth) - Perkynia / Pergynja(&amp;#8222;Holy Forest - Oak wood&quot; / &amp;#8222;Mountain&quot; - on the ground of analogy Ind. also: &amp;#8222;Cloud, Rain&quot;) - Perperuna (Perun's partner, on the ground of analogy Hett. also: &amp;#8222;Rock&quot;) compactly related with &amp;#8222;masculine&quot; worship Thunderlord - Perun. Hipostasy of goddess was probably a viper (snake) guardian of house - &amp;#382;mija cuvakuca, &amp;#382;mija kucarica (SouthSlav.). : Have fun with it. :-) : -- [[User:PFHLai|PFHLai]] 01:28, 2004 Aug 24 (UTC) : P.S. I think &quot;Moko&amp;#353;&quot; is [[Mokosh]]. ==Old talk== Text from [http://free.bol.bg/slavpagan/deities.html webpage] owned by the contributor How do we KNOW that the contributor owns the webpage? And where has he/she released the material to GFDL? [[User:RickK|Rick]][[User talk:RickK|K]] 05:57, Oct 14, 2004 (UTC) :He/she released it by copying. How do we KNOW anything? He/she told us so. Must he go to notary public first? What is the policy about contributing owned materials? Has he (acting as wikipedian) to send a letter to himself (acting as a webmaster) with request for confirmation? [[User:Mikkalai|Mikkalai]] 06:22, 14 Oct 2004 (UTC) ::BTW, I've already met this situation (related to the bio of some Rumanian professor), asked at pump, and got no answer (and safely forgot about the issue until now). IMO here is a hole in wikipolicies. [[User:Mikkalai|Mikkalai]] 06:25, 14 Oct 2004 (UTC) :::This was done in past. Email of site owner, as given on [http://free.bol.bg/slavpagan/home.html] is ogneslav@abv.bg and anyone interested can contact him and ask is he really Wikipedia user Ogneslav and then copy/paste the email here (I'd do it but it seems that he dislikes me). Perhaps he'd even permit others to use material from his site. [[User:Nikola Smolenski|Nikola]] 09:04, 14 Oct 2004 (UTC) :::: You also didn't understand my question: wikipedia's policies don't say how he '''himself''', from thr very beginning could confirm that he is the author, without '''me''' or '''you'''. [[User:Mikkalai|Mikkalai]] 14:58, 14 Oct 2004 (UTC) :::::Well, he '''himself''' '''''could not''''' from the very beginning confirm that he is the author. Period. ::::::'''That's''' what I am saying: wikipedia's policy has a hole. And there are ways to fix it.[[User:Mikkalai|Mikkalai]] 14:56, 15 Oct 2004 (UTC) :::::I have in past created a few pages where I'd just copy/paste text from a web site with nothing more than saying &quot;Text from http://website used with permission. &lt;nowiki&gt;~~~~&lt;/nowiki&gt;&quot; at the talk page. I was able to do this because, before that, I have contributed to Wikipedia for a long time, and none of my contributions are found to be copyright violations, and so everyone who reviewed the article knew that I understand and respect Wikipedia's copyright policy, and it is very unlikely that I would begin breaking it all of a sudden. On the other hand, this is a new user, who started to contribute copyrighted material, and there is possibility that he could be, as likely website owner, as someone who simply wants to use copyrighted material from the website and make false claims to get away with it. :::::This is all empty talk, however; wouldn't it be far easier and faster to simply e-mail the guy than to talk about what could have happened if something had happened? [[User:Nikola Smolenski|Nikola]] 07:37, 15 Oct 2004 (UTC) ::::::I don't care much about this topic and about the author. Do you think I cannot use e-mail? I am talking about the policy. I am going to summarize the talk at the corresponding pages. This disussion greatly helped me to understand what exactly I have to say. Thanks, guys. [[User:Mikkalai|Mikkalai]] 14:56, 15 Oct 2004 (UTC) :::::Read the copyvio boilerplate language. It says &quot;To the poster: If there was permission to use this material under terms of our license or if you are the copyright holder of the externally linked text, then please indicate so on this page's talk page.&quot;. [[User:RickK|Rick]][[User talk:RickK|K]] 19:26, Oct 14, 2004 (UTC) ::::::This was what was actually said in a frustrated way in the [[Talk:Slavic mythology#So guys]], according to which I entered the above note: ''&quot;Text from [http://free.bol.bg/slavpagan/deities.html webpage] owned by the contributor&quot;''. Your reaction was: &quot;how do we KNOW...&quot;. Please notice that your reaction would be equally valid, if the notice were: ''&quot;Text from [http://free.bol.bg/slavpagan/deities.html webpage] owned by '''me'''.&lt;signature&gt;&quot;''. You seem to miss the legal difference between an e-mail confirmation from an account associated with the webpage in question and a simple notice on the wikipedia talk page. [[User:Mikkalai|Mikkalai]] 19:51, 14 Oct 2004 (UTC) ::::::::I'm still waiting for you to point to the page where the original author of the page said it was his/her copyright and he/she has released it to GFDL in accordance with the line I quoted above. [[User:RickK|Rick]][[User talk:RickK|K]] 23:07, Oct 14, 2004 (UTC) ::::::::* You seem to '''again''' miss the legal difference between an e-mail confirmation from an account associated with the webpage in question and a simple notice on the wikipedia talk page. The advice in the copyvio notice is laughable from legal POV: ''if you are the copyright holder... please indicate so on this page's talk page''. How one may verify that the page editor is the owner? I may &quot;indicate&quot; I own [[Madonna (entertainer)|Madonna]]'s bare ass. And you're supposed to believe me until Madonna sues wikipedia? In this particular case I don't care about this nervous guy. I am pointing at a hole in the policy. The issue is credentials. In the case of an explicit request by another wikieditor, the credentials are the e-mail address of the respondent that matches the webpage info (weak, but triable). The advice you (and I) cited doesn't explain how to provide credentials. [[User:Mikkalai|Mikkalai]] 01:21, 15 Oct 2004 (UTC) ::::::::* Sorry, I forgot to answer your question. I've already pointed the page: [[Talk:Slavic mythology#So guys]]. It has: ''The last drop was that somebody, called &quot;administrator&quot;, deleted a number of my pages 'cause they were COPYRIGHT. He even adviced me in private to write in &quot;my own words&quot; - BUT THESE WERE MY OWN WORDS. He didn't even make the effort to look at the bottom of the source-site to see I am the copyright holder.'' This remark is just as good as any other. Notice also, contrary to your request, he has no duty to explicitely release to GFDL: in wikipedia GFDL is an opt-out; mere editing means release. [[User:Mikkalai|Mikkalai]] 01:29, 15 Oct 2004 (UTC) Great. That's what I was looking for. Now, was that so hard? [[User:RickK|Rick]][[User talk:RickK|K]] 19:26, Oct 15, 2004 (UTC) :No. But an easy way is no fun. [[User:Mikkalai|Mikkalai]] 19:53, 15 Oct 2004 (UTC) ==Perperuna== See [[Talk:Perperuna]]. `'[[user:mikkalai|mikka]] [[user talk:mikkalai|(t)]] 01:53, 25 July 2006 (UTC) == Section on ritual == The &quot;Ritual&quot; section makes four or five claims but has no sources for any of them. I'm not going to try to dig up sources on this subject, since I'm 100% unfamiliar with it, but it would improve the article if sources could be provided. [[User:Poihths|Poihths]] ([[User talk:Poihths|talk]]) 14:38, 14 May 2013 (UTC) == External links modified == Hello fellow Wikipedians, I have just modified {{plural:1|one external link|1 external links}} on [[Dodola]]. Please take a moment to review [https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?diff=prev&amp;oldid=754799110 my edit]. If you have any questions, or need the bot to ignore the links, or the page altogether, please visit [[User:Cyberpower678/FaQs#InternetArchiveBot|this simple FaQ]] for additional information. I made the following changes: *Added archive https://web.archive.org/web/20131228002745/http://egg.mnir.ro:80/pdf/Paliga_InflRomane.pdf to http://egg.mnir.ro/pdf/Paliga_InflRomane.pdf When you have finished reviewing my changes, please set the ''checked'' parameter below to '''true''' or '''failed''' to let others know (documentation at {{tlx|Sourcecheck}}). {{sourcecheck|checked=false}} Cheers.—[[User:InternetArchiveBot|'''&lt;span style=&quot;color:darkgrey;font-family:monospace&quot;&gt;InternetArchiveBot&lt;/span&gt;''']] &lt;span style=&quot;color:green;font-family:Rockwell&quot;&gt;([[User talk:InternetArchiveBot|Report bug]])&lt;/span&gt; 15:55, 14 December 2016 (UTC) == External links modified == Hello fellow Wikipedians, I have just modified one external link on [[Dodola]]. Please take a moment to review [[special:diff/816350836|my edit]]. If you have any questions, or need the bot to ignore the links, or the page altogether, please visit [[User:Cyberpower678/FaQs#InternetArchiveBot|this simple FaQ]] for additional information. I made the following changes: *Added archive https://web.archive.org/web/20120216225647/http://www.gbiblsk.edu.mk/images/stories/eknigi/zbornik.pdf to http://www.gbiblsk.edu.mk/images/stories/eknigi/zbornik.pdf When you have finished reviewing my changes, you may follow the instructions on the template below to fix any issues with the URLs. {{sourcecheck|checked=false|needhelp=}} Cheers.—[[User:InternetArchiveBot|'''&lt;span style=&quot;color:darkgrey;font-family:monospace&quot;&gt;InternetArchiveBot&lt;/span&gt;''']] &lt;span style=&quot;color:green;font-family:Rockwell&quot;&gt;([[User talk:InternetArchiveBot|Report bug]])&lt;/span&gt; 20:24, 20 December 2017 (UTC) == New revision == The article was in dire need of new revision because the old revision had many serious issues for many years. For e.g. most of the text was directly copied from sources but without proper attribution and sometimes from sources which weren't even cited; gave false weight to a dubious fringe theory by non-folklorists/mythologists about Thracian origin which is ignored in all other sources; some explanations, connections were erroneous and couldn't be confirmed in literature; the primary mythological and etymological focus is on Perperuna while Dodola as substitution not other way around; Dodola isn't known as Perperuna nor Perperuna is known as Dodola, these are two separate but very similar pagan customs with common origin; hence the article title will be changed to &quot;Perperuna and Dodola&quot;. [[User:Miki Filigranski|Miki Filigranski]] ([[User talk:Miki Filigranski|talk]]) 10:51, 23 July 2022 (UTC) :Before moving the article, discuss it here, please. I restored it to the name &quot;Dodola&quot; as it seems the most common one. The article title &quot;Perperuna and Dodola&quot; also appears to refer to a tradition that consists of both those figures, which is not the case. – [[User:Βατο|Βατο]] ([[User talk:Βατο|talk]]) 21:12, 23 July 2022 (UTC) ::1) As was already explained and as it is explained in the scientific literature, these are two separate but similar pagan customs which are often related by folklorists. We cannot have in the article title only one custom because they are not synonyms and SCOPE of the article much more focused, as shown by literature, to Perperuna and it's Slavic origin as well as connection to Slavic deity Perun. ::2) In your first [https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Dodola&amp;type=revision&amp;diff=1100019388&amp;oldid=1099979834 edit] you ignorantly and disruptively, as shown in the talk page discussion at [[Talk:Perëndi#Slavic loan]], made an anti-Slavic edit against the consensus in scientific literature about the connection with Slavic deity Perun, all of which was cited in the article, and replaced it in the LEAD with two irrelevant sources promoting or fringe theories making [[WP:FALSEBALANCE]] (Ḱulavkova's about Thracian origin which is ignored in almost all other cited literature besides three which were by linguists and historians i.e. also non-experts on the field violating [[WP:WEIGHT]]) or non-expert minor viewpoint by [[Andrew Wachtel]] instead of many other reliable sources which claim exactly the opposite. ::3) In anoted [https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Dodola&amp;diff=next&amp;oldid=1100019761 edit] removed the part that the fringe theory argues Thracian origin of Perun, claiming to be &quot;original research&quot; on my part although noted the pages in which is clearly stated by Kulavkova at pg. 20 (&quot;'''According to other beliefs, Perun, Perin, or Pirin was the supreme deity of the Thracians.'''&quot;) and by Dragnea at pg. 19, citing Paliga's fringe theory. ::4) [https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Dodola&amp;type=revision&amp;diff=1100025353&amp;oldid=1100021497 ignoring and removing] sourced viewpoint from reliable and reputable scholars, bringing false balance with a controversial source. ::5) [https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Dodola&amp;diff=next&amp;oldid=1100025353 removing] sourced information.--[[User:Miki Filigranski|Miki Filigranski]] ([[User talk:Miki Filigranski|talk]]) 21:51, 23 July 2022 (UTC) :Hey, thanks for improving the article, I would not have been able to collect these songs and history myself. I can't support &quot;origin&quot; part tho. There is literally 0 evidence for Perperuna being goddess and there is 0 evidence for direct connection to Perun. Pereplut is also unrelated name. Perun, Perkunas and Fjoryn are [[false cognate]]s and PIE [[perkwunos]] didn't exist (this article is not best place for this topic tho). Connecting Dodola with [[Dzidzilela]] (forged goddess) is folk etymology, the latter word comes from PS ''*did-'' &quot;big, great&quot; and it can't be different. [[Lada (mythology)|Lada]] is also forged goddess. Connecting Perperuna with [[Pripegala]] is also folk etymology. &quot;Perun's battle against Veles becuase of Perperuna/Dodola's kidnapping&quot; - where is this story attested? &quot;sometimes even hosts would drink wine in Perun's honor.&quot; - are you telling me that people still worshipped Perun in 19/20th century? This is not only nonneutral, but also just false. Etymology is more like speculation now, we should add modern, scientific views (Snoj maybe?) on this name (might be of onomatopeic orign and I don't think there is evidence that the Slavs created names by reduplication of the root). [[User:Sławobóg|Sławobóg]] ([[User talk:Sławobóg|talk]]) 21:29, 23 July 2022 (UTC) ::Don't get me wrong, but nobody cares about your personal opinion. I became tired months ago of reading these paragraphs of opinion. The vast majority of sources by relevant scholars claim there's a connection. Everything what you wrote is written in reliable and modern sources. Editing or removing that would be &quot;nonneutral&quot;. If there are any other modern, reliable sources by experts please list them here to check on them.--[[User:Miki Filigranski|Miki Filigranski]] ([[User talk:Miki Filigranski|talk]]) 21:51, 23 July 2022 (UTC) :::@Miki Filigranski there is no consensus, the rainmaking custom is a shared tradition among Balkan peoples, your preferred origin theory is just one of the proposed hypotheses. As for the name Perperuna, I think it is likely from Perun, but [[User:Sławobóg|Sławobóg]] maybe has a point here, and more recent academic sources should be analysed. The name Dodola is of uncertain origin. – [[User:Βατο|Βατο]] ([[User talk:Βατο|talk]]) 22:05, 23 July 2022 (UTC) ::::You don't have a basic clue of what you're saying, don't know anything about the topic, neither read all the sources, neither understand [[WP:WEIGHT]] policy as showed before. No, as showed and claimed on other article talk page, you're the one who has a preffered theory (and fringe one at best!), wants to [[WP:OWN]] the article by making false balance! --[[User:Miki Filigranski|Miki Filigranski]] ([[User talk:Miki Filigranski|talk]]) 22:18, 23 July 2022 (UTC) :::::No, the false balance is the [[WP:POV]] and [[WP:OR]] wording of the lead section: {{tquote|are Slavic rainmaking pagan customs which were mainly preserved among South Slavs and neighboring people until 20th century.}} Albanians, Greeks, Romanians, Aromanians/Vlachs, Hungarians are not Slavs, and the custom described in this article is a shared Balkan tradition. – [[User:Βατο|Βατο]] ([[User talk:Βατο|talk]]) 22:25, 23 July 2022 (UTC) ::::::Please stop! You don't have basic understanding of the topic neither read the sources neither even bother to read what's written in the article. That's majority viewpoint, it was sourced and totally not original research. You are making a total mess of it ([https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Dodola&amp;type=revision&amp;diff=1100043308&amp;oldid=1100032521]) as Dodola isn't alternatively known as Perperuna because these are separate customs (they even had separate articles until 2015 when were merged but due to same wrong reasoning). They are not synonyms. Neither the customs were confirmed to be found among Bosnians, and Montenegrins in general (Bay of Kotor was inhabited by a mixture of ethnic groups and it was found there only sporadically). I had enough of this. --[[User:Miki Filigranski|Miki Filigranski]] ([[User talk:Miki Filigranski|talk]]) 00:10, 24 July 2022 (UTC) ::::::: In my opinion, two points of view collide here. It is wise to strike a balance between them, although this is not easy. Regarding the title, the proposed new combined title reflects both views and is more neutral. I agree here with [[User:Miki Filigranski|Miki Filigranski]]. [[User:Jingiby|Jingiby]] ([[User talk:Jingiby|talk]]) 05:13, 24 July 2022 (UTC) ::::::::Miki Filigranski, so what's your proposal? Saying in the lead section that it is exclusively a Slavic practice is non neutral. I added, according to the sources, the population groups that are attested to have practiced the custom of rainmaking, whether it was called Dodola or Perperuna. If you have enough reliable sources that claim a clear distinction between the practices referred to as Dodola and Perperuna, then you can create two separate articles. I read that some communities refer to the same practice with the name Dodola (and variants), and other communities with the name Perperuna (and variants). I can agree to include both variants of the names in the article title, but &quot;Perperuna and Dodola&quot; appears to indicate that the custom is called as such, which is not the case. – [[User:Βατο|Βατο]] ([[User talk:Βατο|talk]]) 08:35, 24 July 2022 (UTC) :::::::::It is a practice of Slavic origin, related to Slavic deity Perun. That is the majority viewpoint in the RS. Removing that from the LEAD is non neutral. You even added ethnic groups among whom wasn't attested citing a bad source. The sources making clear distinction are already cited and there's no point in making separate article when these two customs are scholarly related. &quot;Perperuna and Dodola&quot; don't indicate anyhow that the custom is called with a single name &quot;Perperuna and Dodola&quot;. --[[User:Miki Filigranski|Miki Filigranski]] ([[User talk:Miki Filigranski|talk]]) 10:33, 24 July 2022 (UTC) ::::Okay, I found the book. [[Stanisław Urbańczyk|Urbańczyk]] debunked Jakobson's etymology. ''perperuda'', ''pepeluga'' etc. are related to Proto-Slavic ''*perpera'', ''*perperъka'' &quot;[[Common quail]]&quot; and these are related to ''*pъrpati'' (onomatopoeic), cf. Polish dial. ''perpotać'', ''perpac'', Old East Slavic ''poropriti''. So mystery has been solved. Meanwhile author himself reacts with aggression because someone tells him that the article is extremely one-sided. Having information about alleged relation between Perun and Perperuna is ok, since it actually is popular view, but it is not only view and it was criticised by other linguists. Btw Grimm is bad source. [[User:Sławobóg|Sławobóg]] ([[User talk:Sławobóg|talk]]) 10:45, 24 July 2022 (UTC) :::::Thanks @Sławobóg, the etymology you provided is interesting. @Miki Filigranski your statement {{tquote|It is a practice of Slavic origi}} is not supported by many scholars: there is not certainty about the origins of the practice. but there seems to be agreement among scholars that the name for the Balkan rainmaden ''Perperuna'' (and variants) is most likely of Slavic origin. The rainmaking custom is a Pan-Balkan practice, attested in the region at least since Classical Antiquity. I've just found a recent source: {{cite journal|last=Burns|first=Richard|title=Rain and Dust|journal=[[Studia Mythologica Slavica]]|volume=XI|issn=1581-128X|doi=10.3986/sms.v11i0.1696|year=2008|pp=217-236}} which provides further information about the usage of the names, and analysis on some scholars' views, also: {{tquote|&quot;The paper opens conjectures that relate the Balkan practice to two ancient Mediterranean mythological motifs: first, to Minoan and Mycenaean rainmaking invocations, and, secondly, to the goddess Persephone, via the theories of V. V. Ivanov and V. I. Toporov.&quot;}} – [[User:Βατο|Βατο]] ([[User talk:Βατο|talk]]) 10:53, 24 July 2022 (UTC) ::::::@Sławobóg, thanks, that's just an opinion though (please provide details of the source), but indeed doesn't change the fact it is of Slavic origin (and related to Perun per majority viewpoint). @Βατο, in the article are already cited more than 12 reliable sources by many different scholars. I mostly agree with other things you said, but didn't mention anything not already cited in the article. To be noted, Burns source is reliable to cite on scholars' views, but unreliable source for Burns viewpoint. He is a poet, not a scientist. --[[User:Miki Filigranski|Miki Filigranski]] ([[User talk:Miki Filigranski|talk]]) 11:25, 24 July 2022 (UTC) :::::::Jakobson's idea that Perperuna comes from Perun is also &quot;just an opinion&quot;, what is wrong with you? Additionally, Urbańczyk's etymology is more scientifically correct, because it explains the doubling of the root ''per-'', because there is no evidence for duplication of the root for feminine names and I have other book about that (which also supports Urbańczyk's idea). He says that ritual is known to Greeks and Albanians and it should be established actual origin first. He later say Perperuna might be related to words I mentioned before (also Polish ''przepierzyca''), not only because of etymology, also because quail (in Polish folklore) '''is associated with the harvest rites and is the name of the bride in the wedding dance'''. So I guess Slavic origin is very possible (from the bird). {{Cite book|last=Urbańczyk|first=Stanisław|title=Dawni Słowianie. Wiara i kult|date=1991|place=Wrocław|language=pl|author-link=Stanisław Urbańczyk|publisher=Ossolineum}} | [[User:Sławobóg|Sławobóg]] ([[User talk:Sławobóg|talk]]) 11:48, 24 July 2022 (UTC) ::::::::I found the text and it can be hardly called a debunking as you described it in your comment. Urbańczyk only said that Jakobson's opinion needs caution, he didn't refute it. We also have reliable sources which support Jakobson (and Slavic origin, relation to Mokosh etc.), including lately [[Patrice Lajoye]] (2015, pg. 107–115 etc.). Do you have other sources which mention or support Urbańczyk's derivation from the bird?--[[User:Miki Filigranski|Miki Filigranski]] ([[User talk:Miki Filigranski|talk]]) 12:07, 24 July 2022 (UTC) :::::::::Yes, Łuczyński (2020) ''Bogowie dawnych Słowian. Studium onomastyczne''. Additionally, the article does not mention at all that ''peperuda'' means &quot;butterfly&quot; in Bulgarian (mentioned in Russian and Bulgarian wiki)'''!!!''' [https://ibl.bas.bg/lib/ber_5/#page/82/mode/1up Български етимологичен речник] (vol 5, p. 162) has 2 pages of etymology of this word, also mentioning ''*perperica'' and other ideas, but image quality makes it too hard to read for me. There [https://starlingdb.org/cgi-bin/etymology.cgi?single=1&amp;basename=%2Fdata%2Fsemham%2Flecet&amp;text_number=+652&amp;root=config is] also Proto-Kartvelian root ''*ṗerṗer-'' / ''*perpel-'' &quot;butterfly&quot; connected with PS ''*perperъka''. It is clear from the Bulgarian dictionary that the subject is complicated and the etymologies are many, and that the article is not neutral and tries by force to push through Jakobson's etymology repeated uncritically by later authors. In the case of Slavic mythology/folklore, Western scholars often mindlessly (I'm not exaggerating) repeat various stupidities and rarely have a clue what they are writing about, cf. [https://web.archive.org/web/20170804140911/http://www.mathieu-colas.fr/michel/Classes/Dieux_slaves_et_baltes.pdf Mathieu-Colas]. I'm not comparing Lajoye or Evans to that, but we should be sceptic about Western optimism. [[Natko Nodilo]] is also pretty bad source (see [[Svetovit#In_Serbia]]). [[User:Sławobóg|Sławobóg]] ([[User talk:Sławobóg|talk]]) 14:00, 24 July 2022 (UTC) ::::::::::Thanks. The part about butterfly is quoted in 4th reference, forgot to expand more on it citing other sources. The association is mythological, doesn't make sense such a widespread pagan custom derives from a Bulgarian word for butterfly and shows that the Bulgarian word for butterfly derives instead from the mythological background to which is related the custom. If not, as in the case of cited Proto-Karvelian, occurred secondary associations of unrelated words. Will expand more regarding the etymology in general. Sorry, but you're using hard words and claims here. The article is properly and reliably edited according to WEIGHT, and tried to be careful with using them.--[[User:Miki Filigranski|Miki Filigranski]] ([[User talk:Miki Filigranski|talk]]) 14:14, 24 July 2022 (UTC) :::::@Sławobóg I have not a preference about the article title, could you suggest something about this issue? It seems that Dodola is the most common name, and in some communities both names (and variants) are found, even in the same song. – [[User:Βατο|Βατο]] ([[User talk:Βατο|talk]]) 11:07, 24 July 2022 (UTC) ::::::Is Dodola really more popular than Perperuna? I think modern, scientific or popular, usage also counts? I think &quot;Dodola and Perperuna&quot; would be good, but I'm not 100% sure. [[User:Sławobóg|Sławobóg]] ([[User talk:Sławobóg|talk]]) 11:35, 24 July 2022 (UTC) :::::::I've seen it by a first check on Google search and Google books, and in general Dodola seems to be more common. But I am not sure which is more common in recent sources and popular usage. Perhaps Burns' (2008) information could be useful: {{tquote|&quot;The various names have been el-egantly mapped by Plotnikova (1999) to reveal regional variations. Names of the ''dodola'' type, which I designate as the 'central' group, are more common in Serbia, Bosnia, and names of the ''peperuga'' or ''perperuda'' type, designated as the 'eastern and southern group', tend to be more frequent in Bulgaria, Rumania, Moldovia, Albania, Thessaly and Epirus (Burns 2006a: 35, 37-38 &amp; 42). In the border-area of dialect-continua between Bulgaria and Serbia, as in Macedonia, both verbal variants appear in the same song.&quot;}} – [[User:Βατο|Βατο]] ([[User talk:Βατο|talk]]) 12:11, 24 July 2022 (UTC) ::::::::Well, &quot;Dodola and Perperuna&quot; is ok then. If the name depends on the region, then we should not discriminate against any of them. It may be clunky, but it will be fair. [[User:Sławobóg|Sławobóg]] ([[User talk:Sławobóg|talk]]) 13:01, 24 July 2022 (UTC) ::::::::The name depends on the custom, songs and name of central character. These are two separate types. There can be made correlations based on regions, but not causations on which depends the name. Regarding the distribution, it strangely omits Croatia and mentions Bosnia, check the [https://ibb.co/rMgMqqL map] from Čulinović-Konstantinović &quot;Dodole and prporuše: folk customs for invoking the rain&quot; (note how's titled the source). I am okay with the title &quot;Dodola and Perperuna&quot;.--[[User:Miki Filigranski|Miki Filigranski]] ([[User talk:Miki Filigranski|talk]]) 13:27, 24 July 2022 (UTC) :::::::::Agreed, @Miki Filigranski feel free to make the page move. – [[User:Βατο|Βατο]] ([[User talk:Βατο|talk]]) 13:31, 24 July 2022 (UTC) ===Other sources=== {{ping|Sławobóg}} Czesław Białczyński in his ''Mitologia słowiańska'' (1999), not a reliable and scientific source, mentions: &lt;small&gt;PERPERUNA (Peperuna, Perperuda, Prperousza, Pe-runica). Jej istyjskim odpowiednikiem jest Perkunija. Runa - od rdzenia run ma takie same znaczenia jak wyżej, ale także w obocznej postaci zachowanej u Bułgarów - Perperuda - kędzierzawa, bo ruda kosa - kędzierzawe włosy, kędziory, rudica - zbita wełna, rudina - niwa, rudy - czerwony, błotny, bagnisty (co wskazuje, podobnie jak u Peruna, na jej związek z wodą), pokryty rudą - czyli naleciałością żelazistą, barwy rdzawej. Z powyższego zestawienia wynika, że Perperuna musiała mieć kręcone, gęste, kędzierzawe włosy rudej barwy. Były cztery boginie o rudych włosach: Perperuna, Ruda-Ródź, Swara (o włosach płomiennych) i Krasatina (o włosach krasnych i krasnym licu).&lt;/small&gt; &lt;small&gt;O świętości rośliny paproci, której nazwa przechowała imię bogini Ródzi-Pap-rudy, świadczy jej związek nazewniczy z boskim rdzeniem per (Perun, Perperuna, Perepłut, Pripegala, Prowe, Porenut, Puruvit, Porewit, Spór). Przechowane przez Bułgarów i Macedończyków miano Perperuda nie jest powtórzeniem serbskiego i chorwackiego imienia żony Peruna - Perperuna, lecz imieniem bogini Rodzi, córki Roda, kochanki Perunica. Związek Perperudy z Peruni-cem znajduje także odbicie w nazwie świętego zioła pe-runiki.&lt;/small&gt; I have a hard time reading the source, but does it cite any reference? Do you know of any Polish source which makes the same claim?--[[User:Miki Filigranski|Miki Filigranski]] ([[User talk:Miki Filigranski|talk]]) 14:25, 24 July 2022 (UTC) :Białczyński is turboslavic, he promotes Great Lechia and believes that Proto-Indo-European = Proto-Slavic. In his books he forges new gods. Nothing to talk about tbh. See [[List of Slavic pseudo-deities]]. [[User:Sławobóg|Sławobóg]] ([[User talk:Sławobóg|talk]]) 14:53, 24 July 2022 (UTC) ::Had the same impression.--[[User:Miki Filigranski|Miki Filigranski]] ([[User talk:Miki Filigranski|talk]]) 16:52, 24 July 2022 (UTC) {{ping|Sławobóg}} Łuczyński, ''Bogowie dawnych Słowian. Studium onomastyczne'' (2020), can you please make a full quote and provide page?--[[User:Miki Filigranski|Miki Filigranski]] ([[User talk:Miki Filigranski|talk]]) 14:31, 24 July 2022 (UTC) :Page 141: Autor ten [Jakobson] wychodzi z założenia, że nazwa ta [Pereplut] stanowi jeden z wielu wariantów fonetycznych i morfologicznych teonimu Perun [...] powołując się przy tym na brzmieniowe podobieństwo z terminem obrzędowym serb. ''prporusa'', bułg. ''pe(r)peruna'', ''pe(r)peruda'' i in. [...] Wywód Jakobsona podważył jednak S. Urbańczyk, wzkazując na związek nazw typu ''peperuda'', ''pepeluga'' i in. z psł. ''*perpere'', ''*perperъka'' &quot;przepiórka&quot;. Leksemy wskazane przez R. Jakobsona wywodzą się z psł. ''*pr̥pati'' vb. pochodzenia dźwiękonaśladowczego, por. np. (polish and OES words here) [...] Bałkański termin obrzędowy nie jest więc spokrewniony etymologicznie ze srus. teonimem, w jego wypadku można mówić o reduplikacji rdzenia onomatopeicznego i szeregu przekształceń fonetycznych (np. regularny rozwój ''-er-'' &lt; ''r̥''; wtórny konsonantym d &lt; n), przez co hipoteza Jakobsona traci rację bytu. Pozwala to na odrzucenie interpretacji tego badaczu z powodu trudności formalnych. :Page 279: I wreszcie, nic nie przemawia za tym, by w słowiańskiej teonimii istniały pary nazewnicze: model na tworzeniu form feminatywnych od męskich imion osobowych nie był, w świetle wiarygodnych danych, w tej kategorii produktywny, w związku z czym można przyjąć, że brak był (często postulowanych) par typu ''*Perunъ'' - ''*Perynь'' (lub ''Perperuna''), ''*Velesъ'' - ''*Vela'', na wróz np. sind. Indra - Indrani, Agni - Agnani... [[User:Sławobóg|Sławobóg]] ([[User talk:Sławobóg|talk]]) 15:08, 24 July 2022 (UTC) ::Great, thanks! --[[User:Miki Filigranski|Miki Filigranski]] ([[User talk:Miki Filigranski|talk]]) 16:52, 24 July 2022 (UTC) @Miki Filigranski, since you highlighted inaccuracies regarding the spread of the custom, could you propose a compromise wording between the information provided by Muraj (1987) and that provided by Ḱulavkova (2020)? – [[User:Βατο|Βατο]] ([[User talk:Βατο|talk]]) 08:23, 26 July 2022 (UTC) :In the article are cited several reliable sources, not only Muraj (1987), describing the spread of the custom. In the new sources the mistake is regarding the distribution on the territory of former Yugoslavia. I would say that the best source for the former Yugoslavian territory is still Čulinović-Konstantinović (1963). It was more prevalent among Croats than Serbs in Croatia, and don't know what's the reason for mentioning Bosnians. Natko Nodilo (1884) mentioned that West of river Vrbas, which would be Western part of Bosnia and Herzegovina, Dodola and Prporuša were known as ''Čaro(j)ice'', but couldn't verify and confirm the association in other sources. ''Čaroice'' was a different custom mainly around December and rarely Poklade (May) in which boys were dressed as girls or animals - not greenery, it was found among both Orthodox, Catholic and Muslim people and each group visited houses of other religion, and the song lyrics were also different. I would stick to countries and regions rather than ethnic groups (for now would remove Bosnia and Herzegovina). Anyway, currently am preparing a new edit which will include and expand the POV from new sources provided by you and Sławobóg. --[[User:Miki Filigranski|Miki Filigranski]] ([[User talk:Miki Filigranski|talk]]) 12:33, 26 July 2022 (UTC) ::Ok, feel free to make any wording reasonably in agreement with RS and with evidence from field research. – [[User:Βατο|Βατο]] ([[User talk:Βατο|talk]]) 22:24, 26 July 2022 (UTC) [https://archive.org/details/KlimovEtymological/page/n165/mode/2up Proto-Kartvelian *p̣erp̣er- &quot;butterfly&quot;] - most likely ultimate source. That explains Balkan-only range of the word, custom and pseudogoddess. [[User:Sławobóg|Sławobóg]] ([[User talk:Sławobóg|talk]]) 12:16, 24 September 2022 (UTC) :Do we have a RS which connects it to Perperuna/Dodola customs? How a Proto-Kartvelian language of Caucasus is the most likely ultimate source? How it explains Balkan-only range of the word, custom etc.?--[[User:Miki Filigranski|Miki Filigranski]] ([[User talk:Miki Filigranski|talk]]) 22:41, 27 September 2022 (UTC) ::I haven't done a good research yet, I found this partly by accident and am putting it here so as not to forget, and maybe someone else will find something more about it. It is possible that we are dealing here with a Wanderword. Borrowing is possible, compare [[wikt:κῶας|κῶας]]. See also [[wikt:πεταλούδα|πεταλούδα]] (especially the suffix -da). [[User:Sławobóg|Sławobóg]] ([[User talk:Sławobóg|talk]]) 09:42, 28 September 2022 (UTC) ==Article's scope and name== The article is about the rainmaking tradition of different peoples in Southeast Europe. The article gives [[WP:UNDUE WEIGHT]] to the etymological speculations concerning this rainmaking tradition, only based on the hypothetical link with the Slavic god Perun. In some regions it is not even known with names that could be linked to Perun. The rainmaking practice is attested among Balkan peoles since antiquity, the speculations according to which peoples who already practiced it adopted it from incoming Slavs in the early Middle Ages is not reasonable, and should have its due weight into the article. Since there is no [[WP:COMMONNAME]] for the rainmaking practice, clearly because different peoples refer to it in different terms, I propose a move to the title ''Rainmaking (Balkans)'' or ''Rainmaking (Southeast Europe)''. The article should also be reworded giving due weight to all the South Eastern/Balkan traditions. – [[User:Βατο|Βατο]] ([[User talk:Βατο|talk]]) 10:19, 22 August 2024 (UTC) *I don't think three sentences about Perun in such a large article is undue weight (and it may be trimmed further, because I see repetitions). --[[user:Altenmann|Altenmann]] [[user talk:Altenmann|&gt;talk]] 19:04, 22 August 2024 (UTC) **Your suggested title is bad because (a) &quot;[[Balkans]]&quot; is a vague term and (b) Romania is in Southeast Europe, but we have [[Caloian]] for Romanian rainmaking. --[[user:Altenmann|Altenmann]] [[user talk:Altenmann|&gt;talk]] 19:04, 22 August 2024 (UTC) :::I see that [[Caloian]] consists also of a similar rainmaking practice. But that's not relevant for this discussion, a title ''Rainmaking (Southeast Europe)'' is necessary in this case, because this article is about similar rainmaking practices of several peoples in Southeast Europe. The title ''Dodola and Perperuna'' is restrictive and POV, bacause it selects only two terms that are given to the girl that performs the ritual, despite the fact that there are many of those names, and there are even traditions based on a male figure, and it is misleading because the rainmaking ritual is not called &quot;Dodola and Perperuna&quot;. If this title will be kept, then a split into ''Rainmaking (Southeast Europe)'' should be made, and this article should focus only on the rainmaking girl figure, but I think a standalone article for such a subject would not be appropriate. – [[User:Βατο|Βατο]] ([[User talk:Βατο|talk]]) 19:48, 22 August 2024 (UTC) ::::I see. Then [[Rainmaking (Southeast Europe)]] will me good and a summary section about [[Calojan]] may be incorporated per [[WP:Summary style]]. --[[user:Altenmann|Altenmann]] [[user talk:Altenmann|&gt;talk]] :::In the scientific literature, the rainmaking custom(s) Dodola and Perperuna are usually related. The article is only about these two customs, and they are usually separated from the Caloian custom. The link with the Slavic god Perun and the Slavs is mainstream and majority viewpoint in the literature - claiming that it is &quot;not reasonable&quot; is a very bold non-mainstream statement and pushing a fringe autochthonistic POV. We already had a discussion before. In the article was already cited everything or almost everything about the topic. There's nothing else much which could be done and to be reworded. You first need to provide new citations and reach a consensus before trying to change both the scope and the title of the article.--[[User:Miki Filigranski|Miki Filigranski]] ([[User talk:Miki Filigranski|talk]]) 17:55, 23 August 2024 (UTC) :::[[User:Βατο|Βατο]], we already had this discussion, and after 2 years you made a series of edits changing the NPOV of the article, but without providing new citations and evidence, and then pushing the change of the scope and title of the article. I must boldly revert all your edits per BRD. First discuss and reach a consensus.--[[User:Miki Filigranski|Miki Filigranski]] ([[User talk:Miki Filigranski|talk]]) 18:09, 23 August 2024 (UTC) ::::Before bold reverting my sourced additions, state your concerns here, please. The article is far from neutral and clear about the different traditions. And the pushing in the lede of one of the several hypothetical origins is not the proper way to address NOPOV issues. You even restored this erroneous description in the lede: {{tquote|are ancient Slavic rainmaking pagan customs practiced until the 20th century. The tradition is found in South Slavic countries (Bulgaria, Croatia, North Macedonia, Montenegro, and Serbia), as well as in near Albania, Greece, Hungary, Moldova and Romania.}} The traditions are not &quot;ancient Slavic rainmaking pagan customs&quot; found in South Slavic countries and &quot;in near&quot; non Slavic countries, but a tradition found among different peoples of Southeast Europe. – [[User:Βατο|Βατο]] ([[User talk:Βατο|talk]]) 18:37, 23 August 2024 (UTC) :::::You almost didn't make any sourced additions to change the NPOV and BALANCE of the article, and you were doing it by removing reliably sourced information ([https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Dodola_and_Perperuna&amp;diff=next&amp;oldid=1241641872#External_links]) erroenously claiming it is an &quot;erroenous statement&quot;, a statement which is critical of the fringe autochthonistic POV you're pushing. The article was NEUTRAL and according to the RS. This what you're doing is PUSHING a non-mainstream, non-Slavic, fringe autochthonistic POV not supported by the majority of the RS. --[[User:Miki Filigranski|Miki Filigranski]] ([[User talk:Miki Filigranski|talk]]) 18:53, 23 August 2024 (UTC) ::::::Yes, I removed it because it falsely claims that rainmaking rituals are not found in southern Greece. Add the full context and arguments, then we can see whether that information can stay. And many scholars' views already included in the article cannot be considered [[WP:FRINGE]]. – [[User:Βατο|Βατο]] ([[User talk:Βατο|talk]]) 19:02, 23 August 2024 (UTC) :::::::You're ignoring the amount of RS for a specific viewpoint. You broke the NPOV, ignore WEIGHT.--[[User:Miki Filigranski|Miki Filigranski]] ([[User talk:Miki Filigranski|talk]]) 19:21, 23 August 2024 (UTC) :::::: Also, the names of the male figures of different rituals found in some South Slavic traditions should be added as well, because as it is now, the article reports only the names of the female figures. – [[User:Βατο|Βατο]] ([[User talk:Βατο|talk]]) 19:06, 23 August 2024 (UTC) :::::::It doesn't.--[[User:Miki Filigranski|Miki Filigranski]] ([[User talk:Miki Filigranski|talk]]) 19:21, 23 August 2024 (UTC) ::::::::Reading the section &quot;Ritual&quot;, I understood, although not clearly, that ''Prpac/Prpats'' are names of the male figure. Is that correct? Do those names appear in songs alongside the name of the female figure? I think they should be added in the section &quot;Names&quot; as well. – [[User:Βατο|Βατο]] ([[User talk:Βατο|talk]]) 19:56, 23 August 2024 (UTC) :::::::::First and foremost, please do not boldly edit the article doing substantial changes to the NPOV, scope and else of the article when you are not informed about the topic and making one after another misunderstandings upon which you make false claims about the topic and article. It is complex ritual and there's no &quot;yes and no&quot; answer. You need to differentiate a bit the name of the custom/folk song, from name of the female/male figure. Perperuna was mostly performed by a chosen boy (the one who is acting), and the chosen boy/leader could have been named, in Croatia for example where Perperuna custom is called Prporuša, as a Prporuša/Prporuš/Prpac etc. but also his singing companions as Prporuše. The name ''Prpac/Prpats'', which are local variants, do not appear in the song, they were names given by local people/audience to the chosen boy/leader/actor. There's only one figure in songs, or Perperuna or Dodola, but there do exist exceptions in Macedonia where both Perperuna and Dodola are mentioned in the same song.--[[User:Miki Filigranski|Miki Filigranski]] ([[User talk:Miki Filigranski|talk]]) 11:23, 31 August 2024 (UTC) :::::::::Βατο, please, do NOT make any edits these days as I have to review every and each edit you've made. I will re-incorporate reliably sourced information into the stable NPOV revision. The new revision you made is a complete mess, pushing Albanian case to the forefront of the customs, from the LEAD to the main body of the article. Making a complete disbalance of the content. --[[User:Miki Filigranski|Miki Filigranski]] ([[User talk:Miki Filigranski|talk]]) 11:50, 31 August 2024 (UTC) :::::::::Not only you changed wording without care about NPOV and WEIGHT, removed several reliably sourced content or emphasized different content (especially about Albania), placed new text in wrong sections, asking for citation needed where's none needed, removed images, etc., what's worse for new citations you used different citation style. Do you understand how much checking and clean-up your edits need? --[[User:Miki Filigranski|Miki Filigranski]] ([[User talk:Miki Filigranski|talk]]) 12:48, 31 August 2024 (UTC) ::::::::::{{reply|Miki Filigranski}} I reverted your bold removal of 7,971 bytes of well surced content. You are free to edit the article, but don't remove sourced material. My edits don't need &quot;checking and clean-up&quot;, they are added precisely according to Wikipedia policies and guidelines. The citation style has nothing wrong. – [[User:Βατο|Βατο]] ([[User talk:Βατο|talk]]) 13:01, 31 August 2024 (UTC) :::::::::::{{reply|Βατο}} No. This what you are doing is gaming the system. You don't respect [[WP:BRD]], you don't care another editor is reverting and constantly warning you. This wasn't bold removal of sourced content, it is about stable revision, NPOV - about which you don't care - as you are making major edits and pushing for the scope and title change in the same time - without any prior discussion, resolution and consensus. Article needs to have a common citation style. --[[User:Miki Filigranski|Miki Filigranski]] ([[User talk:Miki Filigranski|talk]]) 13:10, 31 August 2024 (UTC) ::::::::::::There is no &quot;gaming the system&quot; in adding sourced information about this tradition. Discuss here the content that you consider problematic, don't remove 7,971 bytes of well surced content appealing to NPOV and BRD, while not even discussing a single sentence of my additions. – [[User:Βατο|Βατο]] ([[User talk:Βατο|talk]]) 13:18, 31 August 2024 (UTC) ::::::::::::::No, there's no issue itself with adding sourced information, but how are you adding it, where are you adding it, in the process removing NPOV wording, removing previous content, and in the same time pushing for scope and title change because the old, stable revision wasn't according to the your vision of the article. In the meantime you don't care that another editors reverted your edits. You don't care about their comments. You are the one who needs to start discussions - and in the meantime - not edit warring pushing your edits and new revision. I will just re-incorporate your edits - as much as possible - to the old, stable revision, and from there and then we can discuss what's Your problem with the article and content.--[[User:Miki Filigranski|Miki Filigranski]] ([[User talk:Miki Filigranski|talk]]) 13:26, 31 August 2024 (UTC) :::::::::::::::Again, I see only general statements, please, address one by one the issues you have with the well sourced content about this tradition that I added. – [[User:Βατο|Βατο]] ([[User talk:Βατο|talk]]) 13:29, 31 August 2024 (UTC) ::::::::::::::::No, I won't. As said, will make a third revision which will incorporate your additions. Then we can have a discussion - and You are the one whose going to address one by one the issues you have with the article. It's up to You to step up, not me. You are the one whose trying to change the NPOV, scope and title of the article.--[[User:Miki Filigranski|Miki Filigranski]] ([[User talk:Miki Filigranski|talk]]) 14:11, 31 August 2024 (UTC) :::::::::::::::::Then you should not remove 7,971 bytes of well surced content. – [[User:Βατο|Βατο]] ([[User talk:Βατο|talk]]) 14:26, 31 August 2024 (UTC) {{ping|Sławobóg|Jingiby}} you participated in the old discussion &quot;[[Talk:Dodola and Perperuna#New revision]]&quot; two years ago, please give your verdict to the proposed changes and bold editing ([https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Dodola_and_Perperuna&amp;diff=1241890819&amp;oldid=1241888598]) by user Βατο with whom we discussed two years ago, thanks.--[[User:Miki Filigranski|Miki Filigranski]] ([[User talk:Miki Filigranski|talk]]) 19:18, 23 August 2024 (UTC) == Requested move 22 August 2024 == &lt;div class=&quot;boilerplate mw-archivedtalk&quot; style=&quot;background-color: var(--background-color-success-subtle, #efe); color: var(--color-base, #000); margin: 0; padding: 0 10px 0 10px; border: 1px dotted var(--border-color-subtle, #AAAAAA);&quot;&gt;&lt;!-- Template:RM top --&gt; :''The following is a closed discussion of a [[Wikipedia:Requested moves|requested move]]. &lt;span style=&quot;color: var(--color-error, red);&quot;&gt;'''Please do not modify it.'''&lt;/span&gt; Subsequent comments should be made in a new section on the talk page. Editors desiring to contest the closing decision should consider a [[Wikipedia:move review|move review]] after discussing it on the closer's talk page. No further edits should be made to this discussion.'' The result of the move request was: '''no consensus.''' Given that after a relist 1 month ago there's been no further participation, one support was conditional under a merge, and there was concern expressed about the new title not being formatted as [[WP:NDESC]], I don't see any consensus at this point. &lt;small&gt;([[Wikipedia:Requested moves/Closing instructions#Closure by a page mover|closed by non-admin page mover]])&lt;/small&gt; [[User:Zippybonzo|Zippybonzo]] &amp;#124; [[User talk:Zippybonzo|&lt;small&gt;talk&lt;/small&gt;]] &amp;#124; [[Special:Contributions/Zippybonzo|&lt;small&gt;contribs&lt;/small&gt;]] (they/them) 18:59, 9 October 2024 (UTC) ---- [[:Dodola and Perperuna]] → {{no redirect|Rainmaking (Southeast Europe)}} – see the discussion above. We also have the generic [[Rainmaking (ritual)]] page (techical nomination; '''no vote''') --[[user:Altenmann|Altenmann]] [[user talk:Altenmann|&gt;talk]] 20:15, 22 August 2024 (UTC) &lt;small&gt;—&amp;nbsp;'''''Relisting.'''''&amp;nbsp;[[User_talk:Asukite|&lt;span style=&quot;color:Purple;font-size:medium;font-family:Bradley Hand ITC&quot;&gt; ASUKITE&lt;/span&gt;]] 21:16, 30 August 2024 (UTC)&lt;/small&gt; *'''Support''', repeating my explanation in the discussion above: the title ''Rainmaking (Southeast Europe)'' is necessary in this case, because this article is about similar rainmaking practices of several peoples in Southeast Europe. The title ''Dodola and Perperuna'' is restrictive and POV, bacause it selects only two terms that are given to the girl that performs the ritual, despite the fact that there are many of those names, and there are even traditions based on a male figure, and it is misleading because the rainmaking ritual is not called &quot;Dodola and Perperuna&quot;. If this title will be kept, then a split into ''Rainmaking (Southeast Europe)'' should be made, and this article should focus only on the rainmaking girl figure, but I think a standalone article for such a subject would not be appropriate. Concerning the generic article [[Rainmaking (ritual)]], the Southeast European practices have enough coverage in reliable sources to deserve a standalone article. – [[User:Βατο|Βατο]] ([[User talk:Βατο|talk]]) 21:07, 22 August 2024 (UTC) * That is a bad title, it should be formatted as [[WP:NDESC]] and not as disambiguation, because it's not like &quot;rainmaking&quot; is ''called'' like this in southeastern Europe, you just want to be describing the history of these specific pagan rainmaking customs in those locations. --[[User:Joy|Joy]] ([[User talk:Joy|talk]]) 09:20, 23 August 2024 (UTC) ::A simple solution to that issue could be the title ''Rainmaking in Southeast Europe''. – [[User:Βατο|Βατο]] ([[User talk:Βατο|talk]]) 11:25, 23 August 2024 (UTC) * '''Oppose''', as already stated, in the scientific literature, the rainmaking custom(s) Dodola and Perperuna are usually related. The article is only about these two customs, and they are usually separated from the Caloian custom. The link with the Slavic god Perun and the Slavs is mainstream and majority viewpoint in the literature. In the article was already cited everything or almost everything about the topic. The change of the scope and the title first need long discussion with new citations/evidence and reach a consensus. Otherwise the new version of the article will be a FRINGE and UNDUE WEIGHT autochthonistic POV connection of Dodola and Perperuna custom(s) with Caloian custom etc., which isn't the case in the reliable sources.--[[User:Miki Filigranski|Miki Filigranski]] ([[User talk:Miki Filigranski|talk]]) 18:06, 23 August 2024 (UTC) ::Caloian custom argument is completely irrelevant for the request move. The concerns I listed above still remain with the title &quot;Dodola and Perperuna&quot;, but they would be solved with the title &quot;Rainmaking in Southeast Europe&quot;. As for the Perun link, there are songs in southwestern Albania expressly addressing the Sun (Albanian: [[Dielli (Albanian paganism)|Dielli]]) as the divine figure during the ritual songs, not Perun. – [[User:Βατο|Βατο]] ([[User talk:Βατο|talk]]) 20:01, 23 August 2024 (UTC) :::It isn't, that's the end goal, that's the intention, that's the reasoning this request move and forced editing is based on. Otherwise there wouldn't be such a forced pushing against Slavic mainstream POV. What some folk songs in southwestern Albania have to do with Dodola and Perperuna? Even if they do - but only according to RS - they do not change the fact about the mainstream POV and NPOV in general.--[[User:Miki Filigranski|Miki Filigranski]] ([[User talk:Miki Filigranski|talk]]) 10:43, 31 August 2024 (UTC) ::::&quot;{{tquote|What some folk songs in southwestern Albania have to do with Dodola and Perperuna?}}&quot; they have to do with the subject of this article because they are rainmaking pagan customs performed by a boy dressed in leaves and singing ritual songs, like other tradtions of this article. &quot;{{tquote|such a forced pushing against Slavic mainstream POV}}, actually, the POV-pushing is claiming a Slavic exclusivity for a tradition that is shared between several Balkan peoples, not only Slavic ones. – [[User:Βατο|Βατο]] ([[User talk:Βατο|talk]]) 13:12, 31 August 2024 (UTC) :::::No, that's not the reasoning - the folk songs, the names of Dodola and Perperuna are. No, the mainstream WEIGHT is about the Slavic origin, not exclusivity. There isn't pushed any Slavic exclusivity, and as mainstream sources consider, it's a tradition which was most probably spread by Slavic people which migrated in and influenced all Balkan countries and peoples.--[[User:Miki Filigranski|Miki Filigranski]] ([[User talk:Miki Filigranski|talk]]) 13:19, 31 August 2024 (UTC) ::::::The article clarifies in a sourced statement: {{tquote|The rainmaking practice is a shared tradition among Balkan peoples, and it is not clear who borrowed it from whom.}} And bibliography confirms this. Other claims are POV. – [[User:Βατο|Βατο]] ([[User talk:Βατο|talk]]) 13:33, 31 August 2024 (UTC) :::::::No, it doesn't. It was there for NPOV sake, but immediately below it was paragraph which stated that {{tquote|&quot;It is usually considered they have a mythological and etymological Slavic origin related to Slavic thunder-god Perun&quot;}} citing alone, and together more than a dozen reliable sources with quotes, which you changed into {{tquote|Some consider the perperuna figure to have a mythological and etymological Slavic origin related to Slavic thunder-god Perun}}. You completely messed up [[WP:WEIGHT]] and made [[WP:FALSEBALANCE]] with your editing.--[[User:Miki Filigranski|Miki Filigranski]] ([[User talk:Miki Filigranski|talk]]) 13:47, 31 August 2024 (UTC) * '''Support''', only if we are merging [[Caloian|this]] article as well considering Romania is in Southeast Europe. '''[[User:Боки|&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;Боки&lt;/span&gt;]]''' [[User talk:Боки|&lt;span style=&quot;color:blue&quot;&gt;☎&lt;/span&gt;]] [[Special:Contribs/Боки|&lt;span style=&quot;color:#808080&quot;&gt;✎&lt;/span&gt;]] 23:39, 23 August 2024 (UTC) ::[[Caloian]] is not to be merged, because it has different practices, not only rainmaking. What is appropriate to do has been proposed in the duscussion above by User:Altenmann: &quot;{{tquote|a summary section about [[Calojan]] may be incorporated per [[WP:Summary style]]}}&quot;. – [[User:Βατο|Βατο]] ([[User talk:Βατο|talk]]) 22:55, 30 August 2024 (UTC) :::No, if it is a different practice, then what's the point of incorporating it anyhow in the article about Dodola and Perperuna? --[[User:Miki Filigranski|Miki Filigranski]] ([[User talk:Miki Filigranski|talk]]) 10:47, 31 August 2024 (UTC) * '''Comment''', I'm not sure that changing the title will improve the situation. [[User:Jingiby|Jingiby]] ([[User talk:Jingiby|talk]]) 04:57, 24 August 2024 (UTC) ::It will surely improve the situation. The rainmaking practice is not known as &quot;Dodola and Perperuna&quot; among Albanians. It is not known as such even among Slavic speakers, Eastern Romance speakers, or Greek speakers. That's an [[WP:OR]], [[WP:POV]], as well as a misleading title, by selecting only two terms that are given to the girl that performs the ritual in some traditions. I would like to know what criteria could justify such a choise? So far there has been provided no reasonable argument to keep that title. – [[User:Βατο|Βατο]] ([[User talk:Βατο|talk]]) 09:00, 24 August 2024 (UTC) :::It won't and you already made a mess, and are forcing the changes against the usual process for such essential change. You are greatly misunderstanding the topic, making false claims. The article is reliably sourced - that's the name of the customs, Dodola, and Perperuna (and its variations). You are pushing a disbalanced amount of weight for some poorly sourced, and overall irrelevant Albanian POV. Please stop doing that and [[WP:LISTEN]] to what other editors have to say.--[[User:Miki Filigranski|Miki Filigranski]] ([[User talk:Miki Filigranski|talk]]) 10:34, 31 August 2024 (UTC) ::::{{tquote|You are greatly misunderstanding the topic, making false claims}}, nope, the topic is about rainmaking pagan customs in Southeast Europe practiced with the main boy or girl dressed with fresh branches, leaves and herbs, etc. while singing a ritual song. {{tquote|some poorly sourced, and overall irrelevant Albanian POV}} is your own opinion. The content is sourced with academic sources focusing on this specific subject. And it is not up to us to consider Albanian practices as &quot;irrelevant&quot;, relevance is dictaded by reliable sources. – [[User:Βατο|Βατο]] ([[User talk:Βατο|talk]]) 13:42, 31 August 2024 (UTC) :::::Indeed, relevance is dictated by reliable sources - and then you come after two years of stable NPOV, make major edits ignoring the fact most of the reliable sources arguing and claiming Slavic origin of the customs, etymology and else, and now claim relevance of the Albanian case and else. Genius.--[[User:Miki Filigranski|Miki Filigranski]] ([[User talk:Miki Filigranski|talk]]) 14:06, 31 August 2024 (UTC) ::::::The stable NPOV was not claiming the practice as exclusively Slavic (&quot;{{tquote|ancient Slavic rainmaking pagan customs practiced until the 20th century. The tradition is found in South Slavic countries (Bulgaria, Croatia, North Macedonia, Montenegro, and Serbia), as well as in near Albania, Greece, Hungary, Moldova and Romania.}}) I did not notice that such an erroneous and POV wording has been kept in the lede for so long. – [[User:Βατο|Βατο]] ([[User talk:Βατο|talk]]) 14:25, 31 August 2024 (UTC) :::::::FFS, you were here 2 years ago when the old, stable revision was created and now after 2 years you claim that didn't notice.--[[User:Miki Filigranski|Miki Filigranski]] ([[User talk:Miki Filigranski|talk]]) 16:02, 31 August 2024 (UTC) ::::::::The last time I participated in this talk page I stated that the article should not describe the practice as exclusively Slavic. If I remember correctly, I left you time to change it as you stated that you would reword the article according to the sources provided. Then I even forgot about it, only recently realized that you kept the erroneous POV version, which obviously can't stay. I suggest to avoid replying in this discussion, which is about the RM. – [[User:Βατο|Βατο]] ([[User talk:Βατο|talk]]) 16:16, 31 August 2024 (UTC) :::::::::See discussion below, I didn't keep the erroneous POV version as I've done an edit on 9 August 2022 per talk, over a year later somebody changed the wording and nobody noticed to fix it. Alright, my last comment for this.--[[User:Miki Filigranski|Miki Filigranski]] ([[User talk:Miki Filigranski|talk]]) 16:35, 31 August 2024 (UTC) * '''Comment''', I dont think it will make it better. I think it would best to have separate article about {{Q|Q2622164}} and {{Q|Q2368103}} and other rites with different names in Balkans, even if the descriptions partially overlapped. That would make these articles easier to read, and reader would have precise informations about specific rite. My problem with the article is that it pushes too much non-scientific idea about Perperuna being related to Perun. [[User:Sławobóg|Sławobóg]] ([[User talk:Sławobóg|talk]]) 09:11, 1 September 2024 (UTC) ::{{reply|Sławobóg}} I agree with your last sentence, that's why I edited the article and ridimensioned a little bit that POV, which is basically [[Roman Jakobson]]'s POV. But [[User:Miki Filigranski]] seems to oppose the ridimensioning of that POV. Nevertheless, it can't stay in the lede as it was before my edits, because the etymology and mythology of Peperuda/Perperuna/etc. are far from certain, and there are songs that expressly invoke other deities/divine figures and not Perun. Concerning the split of the article into Dodola, Peperuda, and others, I don't think it is a good idea because in some traditions, in the same ritual performance of rainmaking songs both Dodola-like and Peperuda-like names are mentioned, it would be difficult to separate them. Also, they are about the same rainmaking custom, performed by a procession of young people with a main girl or boy who is dressed with fresh branches and leaves, sings the ritual song, and is sprinkled with water. To avoid the arbitrary selection of two names, such as in this case ''Dodola and Perperuna'', which are hardly the [[WP:COMMONAME]], and which are misleading because nobody actually called the custom ''Dodola and Perperuna'', I proposed the descriptive title ''Rainmaking in Southeast Europe''. – [[User:Βατο|Βατο]] ([[User talk:Βατο|talk]]) 10:04, 1 September 2024 (UTC) :&lt;small&gt;Note: [[Wikipedia talk:WikiProject Romania|WikiProject Romania]], [[Wikipedia talk:WikiProject Bulgaria|WikiProject Bulgaria]], [[Wikipedia talk:WikiProject Serbia|WikiProject Serbia]], [[Wikipedia talk:WikiProject Croatia|WikiProject Croatia]], [[Wikipedia talk:WikiProject North Macedonia|WikiProject North Macedonia]], [[Wikipedia talk:WikiProject Mythology|WikiProject Mythology]], and [[Wikipedia talk:WikiProject Albania|WikiProject Albania]] have been notified of this discussion. [[User_talk:Asukite|&lt;span style=&quot;color:Purple;font-size:medium;font-family:Bradley Hand ITC&quot;&gt; ASUKITE&lt;/span&gt;]] 21:14, 30 August 2024 (UTC)&lt;/small&gt; :&lt;small&gt;'''Relisting comment''': Relist to give time for participation. Note that one of the support comments is conditional upon a merge, which is worth discussion, and there is one reply that may be read as oppose but isn't labeled as such. [[User_talk:Asukite|&lt;span style=&quot;color:Purple;font-size:medium;font-family:Bradley Hand ITC&quot;&gt; ASUKITE&lt;/span&gt;]] 21:16, 30 August 2024 (UTC)&lt;/small&gt; &lt;div style=&quot;padding-left: 1.6em; font-style: italic; border-top: 1px solid #a2a9b1; margin: 0.5em 0; padding-top: 0.5em&quot;&gt;The discussion above is closed. &lt;b style=&quot;color: var(--color-error, red);&quot;&gt;Please do not modify it.&lt;/b&gt; Subsequent comments should be made on the appropriate discussion page. No further edits should be made to this discussion.&lt;/div&gt;&lt;!-- from [[Template:Archive bottom]] --&gt; &lt;/div&gt;&lt;div style=&quot;clear:both;&quot; class=&gt;&lt;/div&gt; ==&quot;Oj Ljule&quot; songs== &quot;Oj Ljule&quot; songs are inlcuded in the &quot;Dodole songs&quot;, despite the fact that the songs seem to not mention Dodole or related forms. This aspect should be clarified in the article. Btw, I don't know whether ''ljule'' is a Slavic term, but it can be found in Albanian, and means &quot;flower&quot;, and &quot;Oj Ljule&quot; is found as a phrase in Arbereshe songs as well, although unrelated to rainmaking rituals. The origin and meaning of the term ''ljule'' used in Slavic songs should be explained as well. – [[User:Βατο|Βατο]] ([[User talk:Βατο|talk]]) 18:44, 23 August 2024 (UTC) :This appears to be the borrowing from Slavic [[lullaby]] refrain Ay lyuli {{langx|ru|Ай люли}}, see eg in ''[[Kalinka (1860 song)|Kalinka]]'' or [[:ru:Во поле берёза стояла]]. Associated with the Russian word люлька, &quot;[[cradle]]&quot;. --[[user:Altenmann|Altenmann]] [[user talk:Altenmann|&gt;talk]] 19:10, 23 August 2024 (UTC) ::{{reply|Altenmann}} thanks for the clarification, in that case it would not be a borrowing, but a Slavic term in Eastern South Slavic. The Albanian term would not be related. A source would be nice to clarify it in the article. – [[User:Βατο|Βατο]] ([[User talk:Βατο|talk]]) 19:14, 23 August 2024 (UTC) :::I will try to find a source, but it will be difficult for such minor things. Provably in some obscure folkloric book. [https://www.google.com/search?sca_esv=59944d6273687f66&amp;sca_upv=1&amp;rlz=1C1SJWC_enUS1086US1087&amp;q=%22%D0%90%D0%B9+%D0%BB%D1%8E%D0%BB%D0%B8%22+-%D0%BA%D0%B0%D0%BB%D0%B8%D0%BD%D0%BA%D0%B0&amp;tbm=bks&amp;source=lnms&amp;fbs=AEQNm0AVbySjNxIXoj6bNaq7uSpwmIS0gJlXN_LWYh5RkW9UG_J2iT2scTJ59gCgVXw95w_tbwv0XGMg5VNVmdZJUUbegAUXjP-3Az7ul0FDlU2m0yNrv6Vuz1OORdWimsJYhP0WMXW2ofgIshBxHL7F_exMsA00U1w8-fAhNJVI81QdesxeLn7PSN5Jf4tv1ZtHKAbXs9j2p9qipOTKbxDb8N2kMYbC5g&amp;sa=X&amp;ved=2ahUKEwjH7Nmw6YuIAxV4DTQIHRgHNgo4MhDSlAl6BAg0EAE&amp;biw=1059&amp;bih=682&amp;dpr=1.25 google books] shows plenty of songs, but no etymology. --[[user:Altenmann|Altenmann]] [[user talk:Altenmann|&gt;talk]] 19:19, 23 August 2024 (UTC) :::: [https://gramota.ru/meta/lyuli here a short blurb: ''Large Explanatory Dictionary of the Russian Language'':(folk-poetic) Is used in refrains of Russian folk songs. --[[user:Altenmann|Altenmann]] [[user talk:Altenmann|&gt;talk]] 19:21, 23 August 2024 (UTC) ::::[https://slovnyk.ua/index.php?swrd=%D0%BB%D1%8E%D0%BB%D1%8F%D1%82%D0%B8 люляти] - to rock the cradle in Ukrainian and Belarusian ([[wikt:ru:люляць]]) and Lithuanian [https://www.zodynas.lt/terminu-zodynas/L/liuliuoti liūliuoti] &quot;to rock/be rocked by waves&quot;, Serbian ljuljati &quot;to rock&quot;. - [https://www.alphadictionary.com/goodword/word/lullaby and it seems] it is related to Englies [https://www.alphadictionary.com/goodword/word/lull &quot;lull&quot;], &quot;[[lullaby]]&quot;--[[user:Altenmann|Altenmann]] [[user talk:Altenmann|&gt;talk]] 19:31, 23 August 2024 (UTC) :::::{{edit conflict}} Thanks. I think a source expressly about these rainmaking songs would be appropriate for inclusion into the article, if they cannot be found then we can leave it without explanation. Sources about Russian folksongs not directly related to the subject would be [[WP:SYNTH|synth]] or [[WP:OR|or]] into the article, although interesting for clarifying the matter here in talk page. – [[User:Βατο|Βατο]] ([[User talk:Βατο|talk]]) 19:32, 23 August 2024 (UTC) ::::::These Russian folksongs are mentioned here as an anwer to the question about &quot;Oj Ljule&quot; and of course are irrelevant to this article. (Sorry for off-topic, I am just collecting for future possible use elsewhere.) --[[user:Altenmann|Altenmann]] [[user talk:Altenmann|&gt;talk]] 19:36, 23 August 2024 (UTC) Basically, you are pushing an Albanian-old Balkan POV connection in the LEAD and main body of the article. It is so obvious it is painful not to notice it. Please refrain from doing it forcibly, engage in BRD discussion without editing a stable NPOV, seek a consensus, and only then discuss about the change of scope and title of the article. Not the other way around.--[[User:Miki Filigranski|Miki Filigranski]] ([[User talk:Miki Filigranski|talk]]) 10:30, 31 August 2024 (UTC) :Which one is the POV version? The one that describes the subject as &quot;{{tquote|rainmaking pagan customs widespread among different peoples in Southeast Europe until the 20th century, found in Albania, Bulgaria, Croatia, Greece, Hungary, Kosovo, Moldova, Montenegro, Romania, and Serbia.}}&quot; or the version that describes it as &quot;{{tquote|ancient Slavic rainmaking pagan customs practiced until the 20th century. The tradition is found in South Slavic countries (Bulgaria, Croatia, North Macedonia, Montenegro, and Serbia), as well as in near Albania, Greece, Hungary, Moldova and Romania.}}&quot; It's clearly the second one, which obviously can't stay. – [[User:Βατο|Βατο]] ([[User talk:Βατο|talk]]) 13:25, 31 August 2024 (UTC) ::You obviously don't get the point and refuse to get the point, why that text and wording was in the lead.--[[User:Miki Filigranski|Miki Filigranski]] ([[User talk:Miki Filigranski|talk]]) 13:48, 31 August 2024 (UTC) :::There is no point to get, that text and wording is an erroneous and POV description of the custom. – [[User:Βατο|Βατο]] ([[User talk:Βατο|talk]]) 13:54, 31 August 2024 (UTC) ::::Please stick with the Albanian-Illyrian paganism, and leave alone Slavic paganism when have such a low understanding and respect about the topic.--[[User:Miki Filigranski|Miki Filigranski]] ([[User talk:Miki Filigranski|talk]]) 14:00, 31 August 2024 (UTC) :::::This practice is Albanian, as well as Greek, Romanian, etc., other than South Slavic. You should understand that to avoid POV in the article. – [[User:Βατο|Βατο]] ([[User talk:Βατο|talk]]) 14:21, 31 August 2024 (UTC) ::::::This practice is first and foremost South Slavic, while Albanian is the least (and even among them is most probably due to South Slavic influence). --[[User:Miki Filigranski|Miki Filigranski]] ([[User talk:Miki Filigranski|talk]]) 15:15, 31 August 2024 (UTC) :::::::This practice is widespread among all Albanians. It is Albanian as much as it is South Slavic. Your opinion &quot;{{tquote|This practice is first and foremost South Slavic, while Albanian is the least (and even among them is most probably due to South Slavic influence)}}&quot; shows that you want to push only one POV. – [[User:Βατο|Βατο]] ([[User talk:Βατο|talk]]) 15:52, 31 August 2024 (UTC) :::::::::Where and what's the evidence it is widespread among all Albanians? How common was the practice in Albania? There's no &quot;my opinion&quot;, in the article was cited what was in the scientific literature - it wasn't common and widespread neither can be considered Albanian as much as it is South Slavic. I don't care about what kind of POV is in the literature, only about [[WP:WEIGHT]], and the majority viewpoint is clear about that. You are the one whose changing NPOV by pushing your pro-Albanian POV.--[[User:Miki Filigranski|Miki Filigranski]] ([[User talk:Miki Filigranski|talk]]) 15:59, 31 August 2024 (UTC) ::::::::::It is widespread among all Albanians, it has been practiced by Albanians in southern Albania, in northern Albania, Kosovo and Macedonia. This is not my opinion, this is what academic sources say. And adding sourced content about the Albanian traditions direclty related to the subject of this article is not &quot;pro-Albanian POV&quot;. I suggest to avoid such labellings. – [[User:Βατο|Βατο]] ([[User talk:Βατο|talk]]) 16:08, 31 August 2024 (UTC) :::::::::::I am asking you once again where and what is said in the literature - give the quotes. I don't care and believe what you say. Again, you are NOT merely adding sourced content because you have completely changed the NPOV. You know what you're doing, I know what you're doing. Stop doing it, show some good faith, respect and start behaving according to [[WP:BRD]].--[[User:Miki Filigranski|Miki Filigranski]] ([[User talk:Miki Filigranski|talk]]) 16:19, 31 August 2024 (UTC)- ::::::::::::In the article you can check the sources, which have been carefully cited with relevant pages, and you can add quote needed templates in parts that you fail to verify. Regardless of what you believe or not, the practice has been documented in southwest Albania (such as in the Ionian Coast), southeast Albania (such as in Permet and Klonje), central and northern Albania (such as in Mat, Mirdite, and Has) Macedonia (such as in Tetove), Kosovo (such as in Gjakove, Opoje and Sharr Mountains). It was widespread until the 2nd half of the 20th century, and continues to be performed in rare occasions by Albanians in remote areas such as around [[Opojë]] in the Sharr Mountains. You can find this information in this article's Bibliography, (such as in {{harvnb|Tirta|2004|pp=310–312}}, {{harvnb|Gjoni|2012|pp=85–86}}, and {{harvnb|Qafleshi|2009|pp=51–52}}). – [[User:Βατο|Βατο]] ([[User talk:Βατο|talk]]) 16:58, 31 August 2024 (UTC) – [[User:Βατο|Βατο]] ([[User talk:Βατο|talk]]) 16:58, 31 August 2024 (UTC) :::::::::::::Thank you.--[[User:Miki Filigranski|Miki Filigranski]] ([[User talk:Miki Filigranski|talk]]) 00:56, 4 October 2024 (UTC) Βατο, why is now the same text/songs at [[Dielli (Albanian paganism)#Rainmaking and soil fertility rituals]] and this article (although some songs do not mention neither Dodola or Perperuna)?--[[User:Miki Filigranski|Miki Filigranski]] ([[User talk:Miki Filigranski|talk]]) 15:47, 31 August 2024 (UTC) :They are added because they are rainmaking rituals that are subject of this article, with the same figures and performances. The other songs are added because they follow the rainmaking practice, and are discussed in the same context by the cited source. However, if you consider those following songs to have undue weight, I will remove them and keep only their description. – [[User:Βατο|Βατο]] ([[User talk:Βατο|talk]]) 16:22, 31 August 2024 (UTC) ::I removed them. – [[User:Βατο|Βατο]] ([[User talk:Βατο|talk]]) 16:32, 31 August 2024 (UTC) ==Clarification== The article should clarify whether a goddess/female deity called Perperuna (or similar) or Dodole (or similar), associated with Perun (also as his consort/wife) has been actually attested in Slavic traditions, or it is just a hypothesis by modern scholars. In that regard, the article states: {{tquote|Recent research criticize invention of a Slavic female goddess}}, referenced with {{harvnb|Łuczyński|2020|p=141}}, but I have not access to the source to verify whether it is referring to the link between Perun and Perperuna as a goddess. A a proper context should be provided. – [[User:Βατο|Βατο]] ([[User talk:Βατο|talk]]) 12:26, 24 August 2024 (UTC) :It is already stated. Deities or ritual figures are often reconstructed out of folk tradition. It is an ''interpretation''. You have full quote in this talk page [[Talk:Dodola and Perperuna #Other sources]].--[[User:Miki Filigranski|Miki Filigranski]] ([[User talk:Miki Filigranski|talk]]) 10:57, 31 August 2024 (UTC) ::The article's text should clarify whether something belongs to actual folklore or it is an interpretation. – [[User:Βατο|Βατο]] ([[User talk:Βατο|talk]]) 13:21, 31 August 2024 (UTC) :::Oh really, don't you say? Imagine the shock, who would have thought that the old, stabile revision said: :::{{tquote|According to another '''interpretation''' the name Perperuna can be identified as the reduplicated feminine derivative of the name of the male god Perun (per-perun-a), being his female consort, wife and goddess of rain Perperuna Dodola, which parallels the Old Norse couple Fjörgyn–Fjörgynn and the Lithuanian Perkūnas–Perkūnija.[41][38][42][43][44] Perun's battle against Veles because of Perperuna/Dodola's kidnapping has parallels in Zeus saving of Persephone after Hades carried her underground causing big drought on Earth, also seen in the similarity of the names Perperuna and Persephone.[43][45][16] Recent research criticize invention of a Slavic female goddess.[19]}} :::and now it doesn't after you butchered the paragraphs and sections. Incredible, you must be a genius! --[[User:Miki Filigranski|Miki Filigranski]] ([[User talk:Miki Filigranski|talk]]) 13:53, 31 August 2024 (UTC) ::::Despite me being a 'genius', which is unrelated to this discussion, the information above still needs clarification, because the interpretation is about the name, and as the information is provided in the text, it takes for granted that the female figure was Perun's &quot;female consort, wife and goddess of rain Perperuna Dodola, which parallels the Old Norse couple Fjörgyn–Fjörgynn and the Lithuanian Perkūnas–Perkūnija.&quot; and that &quot;Perun's battle against Veles because of Perperuna/Dodola's kidnapping has parallels in Zeus saving of Persephone after Hades carried her underground causing big drought on Earth&quot;. The wording is important for such things, the text should clarify whether those are reconstrucitons or are actual folklore to not mislead the reader. I already made a slight rewording adding &quot;{{tquote|''allegedly'' being his female consort, wife and goddess of rain Perperuna Dodola, which ''would'' parallel the Old Norse couple Fjörgyn–Fjörgynn and the Lithuanian Perkūnas–Perkūnija.}}&quot;, but I am not sure if it is alleged or in folklore. That's why I asked. I moved some parts because they were about etymology, I left the parts about mythology into the relevant section. – [[User:Βατο|Βατο]] ([[User talk:Βατο|talk]]) 14:16, 31 August 2024 (UTC) :::::You clearly don't differentiate parts which are strictly about etymology from those which are about mythology. You moved parts, everything now looks out of context, and then claim there's confusion - when you made it. This is going to be like in the stable revision, the end of discussion.--[[User:Miki Filigranski|Miki Filigranski]] ([[User talk:Miki Filigranski|talk]]) 15:17, 31 August 2024 (UTC) ::::::Nope, the stable revision you created is erroneous and POV, and can't stay. Nevertheless, you are not addressing my concerns, but making general, useless, statements. Are they attested traditions or modern reconstructions? – [[User:Βατο|Βατο]] ([[User talk:Βατο|talk]]) 15:42, 31 August 2024 (UTC) :::::::You were here 2 years ago when the old, stable revision was created. Now you come again after 2 years, falsely claim that didn't notice what was written in the LEAD and else, decide to make it more erroneous and POV, and don't bother with any concerns other editor is making because of your major, general editing by which violated WEIGHT and NPOV, and calling them &quot;useless&quot; concerns. This is unbelievable. --[[User:Miki Filigranski|Miki Filigranski]] ([[User talk:Miki Filigranski|talk]]) 15:55, 31 August 2024 (UTC) ::::::::The last time I participated in this talk page I stated that the article should not describe the practice as exclusively Slavic. If I remember correctly, I left you time to change it as you stated that you would reword the article according to the sources provided. Then I even forgot about it, only recently realized that you kept the erroneous POV version, which obviously can't stay. – [[User:Βατο|Βατο]] ([[User talk:Βατο|talk]]) 16:14, 31 August 2024 (UTC) :::::::::Sorry, but I see now we are both misunderstanding each other and what happened. I've done that, [https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Dodola_and_Perperuna&amp;oldid=1103234952 this] was my &quot;NPOV up-date per talk&quot; on 9 August 2022 i.e. original stable revision, but until my next [https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Dodola_and_Perperuna&amp;oldid=1192112560 edit] on 27 December 2023 somebody changed the wording in the lead from &quot;are Balkan rainmaking pagan customs practiced until the 20th century&quot; to &quot;are ancient Slavic rainmaking pagan customs practiced until the 20th century&quot;. --[[User:Miki Filigranski|Miki Filigranski]] ([[User talk:Miki Filigranski|talk]]) 16:28, 31 August 2024 (UTC) :::::::::IP changed the lead wording on [https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Dodola_and_Perperuna&amp;diff=1182582238&amp;oldid=1181970621 30 October 2023].--[[User:Miki Filigranski|Miki Filigranski]] ([[User talk:Miki Filigranski|talk]]) 16:32, 31 August 2024 (UTC) ==Undue speculative interpretations in lede== [[User:Vanillacake34]] reverted ([https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Dodola_and_Perperuna&amp;diff=prev&amp;oldid=1257581130]) without explanation an addition in the lede about some scholarly interpretations that were made only for some traditions. There is absolutely no evidence that rainmaking rituals in the Balkans &quot;{{tquote|were related to the Slavic supreme deity Perun (god of thunder, weather, fertility and oak trees in the Slavic pantheon).}}&quot; and that &quot;{{tquote|Perperuna could have been a Slavic goddess of rain, the consort of Perun, or that the name Perperuna is the reduplicated feminine form derived from the name of Perun.}}&quot; And above all, what makes such addition undue in the lede is the fact that Albanian folk songs expressly address the Sun (Albanian: [[Dielli (Albanian paganism)|Dielli]]) and the Sky ([[Perëndi]]) as divine entities during the ritual songs, not [[Perun]]. – [[User:Βατο|Βατο]] ([[User talk:Βατο|talk]]) 18:00, 15 November 2024 (UTC)</div></summary> <author><name>Βατο</name></author> </entry> <entry> <id>https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Dodola_and_Perperuna&diff=1257581918</id> <title>Dodola and Perperuna</title> <link rel="alternate" type="text/html" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Dodola_and_Perperuna&diff=1257581918"/> <updated>2024-11-15T17:46:52Z</updated> <summary type="html">Βατο: rv unexplained edit <hr /> <div>{{Short description|Rainmaking rituals in Southeast Europe}} [[File:&quot;Watering of Dodola&quot; by Uroš Predić, published in magazine &quot;Orao&quot; in 1892.jpg|300px|thumb|The sprinkling of ''Dodola'' with water by [[Uroš Predić]] (1892)]] '''Dodola''' (also spelled ''Dodole'', ''Dudola'', ''Dudula'', ''Diva-Dodola'' etc.), '''Perperuna''' (also spelled ''Peperuda'', ''Preperuda'', ''Preperuša'', ''Prporuša'', ''Papaluga'', ''Peperuna'' etc.), '''riti i ndjelljes/thirrjes së shiut''' (&quot;Rain-Invoking/Calling Ritual&quot; or &quot;Rite of Invoking/Calling the Rain&quot;) or simply '''thirrja e shiut''' (&quot;Call of the Rain&quot;), '''riti me dordolecin''' (&quot;Dordoleci Ritual&quot;), '''riti i dodolisë''' (&quot;Dodoli Ritual&quot;) are [[Rainmaking (ritual)|rainmaking]] [[Paganism|pagan]] customs widespread among different peoples in [[Southeast Europe]] until the 20th century, found in [[Albania]], [[Bulgaria]], [[Croatia]], [[Greece]], [[Hungary]], [[Kosovo]], [[Moldova]], [[Montenegro]], [[North Macedonia]], [[Romania]], and [[Serbia]]. It is still practiced in remote [[Albanians|Albanian]] ethnographic regions, but only in rare events, when the summer is dry and without atmospheric precipitation.&lt;ref&gt;{{harvnb|Qafleshi|2011|pp=51–52|}}; {{harvnb|Ministria|2014|p=66}}.&lt;/ref&gt; The ceremonial ritual is an analogical-imitative [[incantation|magic rite]] that consists of singing and dancing done by young boys and girls in processions following a main performer who is dressed with fresh branches, leaves and herbs, with the purpose of invoking rain, usually practiced in times of [[drought]]s, especially in the summer season, when drought endangers crops and pastures, even human life itself.&lt;ref&gt;{{harvnb|Qafleshi|2011|pp=51–52|}}; {{harvnb|Halimi|Halimi-Statovci|Xhemaj|2011|pp=2–6, 32–43}}&lt;/ref&gt; == Names == {{quote box|align=right|quote=&lt;poem&gt;&lt;small&gt;Περπερούνα περπατεί / Perperouna perambulates Κή τόν θεό περικαλεί / And to God prays Θέ μου, βρέξε μια βροχή / My God, send a rain Μιἁ βροχή βασιλική / A right royal rain Οσ ἀστἀχυα ς τἀ χωράΦια / That as many (as are there) ears of corn in the fields Τόσα κούτσουρα ς τ ἁμπέλια / So many stems (may spring) on the vines&lt;/small&gt; &lt;/poem&gt;|source=&lt;br /&gt;&lt;small&gt;Shatista near [[Siatista]], [[Western Macedonia]], Ottoman Empire, 1903&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book |last=Abbott |first=George Frederick |author-link=George Frederick Abbott |date=1903 |title=Macedonian Folklore |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=M7o8AAAAIAAJ |location=Cambridge |publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]] |page=119}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;/small&gt;}} Rainmaking rites are generally called after the divine figure invoked in the ritual songs, as well as the boy or girl who perform the rite, who are called with different names among different peoples (South Slavs, Albanians, Greeks, Hungarians, Moldovans, Romanians, Vlachs or Aromanians (including regions of [[Bukovina]] and [[Bessarabia]])).:&lt;ref&gt;{{harvnb|Ḱulavkova|2020|p=19}}&lt;/ref&gt; *''Preperuna'', ''Peperuna'', ''Preperuda/Peperuda'', ''Pepereda'', ''Preperuga/Peperuga'', ''Peperunga'', ''Pemperuga'' in [[Bulgaria]] and [[North Macedonia]]: ''Prporuša'', ''Parparuša'', ''Preporuša/Preporuča'', ''Preperuša'', ''Barburuša/Barbaruša'' in [[Croatia]]; ''Peperuda'', ''Papaluga'', ''Papaluda/Paparudă'', ''Babaruta'', ''Mamaruta'' in [[Romania]] and [[Moldova]]; ''Perperouna'', ''Perperinon'', ''Perperouga'', ''Parparouna'' in [[Greece]]; ''Perperona/Perperone'' in [[Albania]]; ''Pirpirunã'' among [[Aromanians]]; *''Dodola'' among previous countries as well as [[Serbia]], with variants ''Dodole'', ''Dudola'', ''Dudula'', ''Dudule'', ''Dudulica'', ''Doda'', ''Dodočka'', ''Dudulejka'', ''Didjulja'', etc.{{sfn|Gimbutas|1967|p=743}}{{sfn|Evans|1974|p=100}}{{sfn|Jakobson|1985|p=22–24|ps=:Mythological associations linked with the butterfly (cf. her Serbian name ''Vještica'') also explain the Bulgarian entomological names ''peperuda'', ''peperuga''}}{{sfn|Čulinović-Konstantinović|1963|p=80, 93}}{{Sfn|Puchner|2009|p=346}} *''Rona'', used by Albanians alternatively to ''Perperona/Perperone'';{{sfn|Norris|1993|p=34}}{{sfn|Tirta|2004|pp=310–312}} *''Dordoleci'' (''durduleci''), used by Albanians for this custom in association with a male figure.{{sfn|Tirta|2004|pp=310–312}} In [[Albanian language|Albanian]] the rainmaking ritual is called ''riti i ndjelljes së shiut'' (&quot;Rain-Invoking Ritual&quot;), ''riti i thirrjes së shiut'' (&quot;Rain-Calling Ritual&quot; or &quot;Rite of Calling the Rain&quot;) or simply ''thirrja e shiut'' (&quot;Call of the Rain&quot;), ''riti i thatësisë'' (&quot;Drought Ritual&quot;), as well as ''riti me dordolecin'' or ''riti i dordolecit'' (&quot;Dordoleci Ritual&quot;), ''riti i dodolisë'' (&quot;Dodoli Ritual&quot;), etc.&lt;ref&gt;{{harvnb|Tirta|2004|pp=310–312}}; {{harvnb|Qafleshi|2011|pp=51–52|}}; {{harvnb|Ministria|2014|p=66}}; {{harvnb|Halimi|Halimi-Statovci|Xhemaj|2011|pp=2–6, 32–43}}&lt;/ref&gt; In Albanian rainmaking ritual songs, besides the divine figure that is invoked and also personified by boys or girls during the procession, other Albanian divine figures are invoked: [[Dielli (Albanian paganism)|Dielli]] (the Sun), [[Perëndi]], and Ilia.{{sfn|Gjoni|2012|pp=85–86}}{{sfn|Gamkrelidze|1995|p=528}}{{sfn|Sela|2017|pp=69–70}} Perëndi is a name that is used for &quot;god&quot;, &quot;deity&quot;, &quot;sky&quot; in Albanian, but considered by some scholars to be an Albanian thunder-god, cognate to Indo-European ''[[*Perkʷūnos]]'';{{sfn|Gamkrelidze|1995|p=528}} Ilia is [[Elijah]], who in Christianized Albanian folklore has replaced the Sun god and the thunder or weather god (also [[Drangue]]).{{sfn|Gjoni|2012|pp=85–86}}{{sfn|Elsie|2001a|pp=46–47}}{{sfn|Elsie|2000|pp=43–45}} In Slavic rainmaking ritual songs also the sky or Elijah are invoked. In Slavic Christianized folklore Elijah has replaced [[Perun]], the Slavic thunder-god, cognate to IE ''*Perkʷūnos''.{{sfn|Jakobson|1985|p=6}} ===Etymologies=== Some scholars consider all the Balkan names of the type ''per-'', ''perper-'', ''peper-'', ''papar-'', etc. to be taboo-alternations to &quot;avoid profaning the holy name&quot; of the pagan [[Proto-Indo-European mythology|Indo-European]] god ''[[*Perkʷūnos]]''.{{sfn|Evans|1974|p=116}}{{sfn|Gimbutas|1967|p=743}} According to [[Roman Jakobson]] and others ''perperuna'' is formed by reduplication of the Indo-European root &quot;per-&quot; (to strike/beat).{{sfn|Gimbutas|1967|p=743}}{{sfn|Jakobson|1985|p=23}}&lt;ref name=&quot;Katicic&quot;/&gt; Those with root &quot;peper-&quot;, &quot;papar-&quot; and &quot;pirpir-&quot; were changed accordingly modern words for [[Schinus molle|pepper-tree]] and [[poppy]] plant,{{sfn|Gimbutas|1967|p=743}}{{Sfn|Puchner|2009|p=348}} possibly also [[Hyperpyron|perper]] and else.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal |last=Puchner |first=Walter |author-link=Walter Puchner |date=1983 |title=Бележки към ономатологията и етимологиятана българските и гръцките названия на обреда за дъжд додола/перперуна |trans-title=Notes on the Onomatology and the Etymology of Bulgarian and Greek Names for the Dodola / Perperuna Rite |url=https://www.ceeol.com/search/article-detail?id=17959 |journal=Bulgarian Folklore |volume=IX |issue=1 |pages=59–65 |language=bg}}&lt;/ref&gt;{{Sfn|Puchner|2009|p=347–349}} Some scholars consider in particular that the name ''Perperuna'' can be identified as the reduplicated feminine [[Morphological derivation|derivative]] of the name of the Slavic thunder god ''[[Perun]]'' (''per-perun-a''), allegedly being his female consort, wife and goddess of rain ''Perperuna Dodola'', which would parallel the Old Norse couple [[Fjörgyn and Fjörgynn|Fjörgyn–Fjörgynn]] and the Lithuanian Perkūnas–Perkūnija.{{sfn|Jakobson|1985|p=22–23}}{{Sfn|Puhvel|1987|p=235}}{{Sfn|Jackson|2002|p=70}}&lt;ref name=&quot;York&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |last=York |first=Michael |author-link=Michael York (religious studies scholar) |date=1993 |title=Toward a Proto-Indo-European vocabulary of the sacred |journal=[[Word (journal)|Word]] |volume=44 |issue=2 |pages=240, 251 |doi=10.1080/00437956.1993.11435902|doi-access=free }}&lt;/ref&gt;{{sfn|Ḱulavkova|2020|p=19–20a|ps=:The Balkan rainmaking customs themselves go by different names. They are usually referred to as the Dodola or Peperuga(Peperuda) rituals, after the name of the goddess of rain, wife or consort of the Slavic sky-god Perun ... According to others, these rain-rituals derive specifically from Slavic languages, and the names Peperuda, Peperuga, Peperuna, and Perperuna are cognate with that of the storm-god Perun.}} According to another theory the Balkan names with the root ''per-'' are connected to the Greek [[Persephone]], a fertility goddess, daughter of the sky god [[Zeus]], and of the earth goddess [[Demeter]].{{sfn|Burns|2008|pp=231–232}} Dimitar Marinov derived it from Bulgarian word for butterfly where in folk beliefs has supernatural powers related to rain,{{sfn|Čulinović-Konstantinović|1963|p=94}} but according to Jakobson the mythological context of the customs and links explains the Bulgarian entomological names.&lt;ref&gt;{{harvnb|Jakobson|1985|p=22|ps=:Mythological associations linked with the butterfly (cf. her Serbian name ''Vještica'') also explain the Bulgarian entomological names ''peperuda'', ''peperuga''}}&lt;/ref&gt; [[Michail Arnaudov]] derived it from Slavic verb &quot;pršiti&quot; (spray).{{sfn|Čulinović-Konstantinović|1963|p=94}} [[Petar Skok]] considered ''prporuša'' a metaphorical derivation from Slavic ''prpor/pŕpa'' (hot ash), ''pórusa'' (&quot;when water is poured on burning ash&quot;{{sfn|Burns|2008|p=232}}).&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book |last=Skok |first=Petar |author-link=Petar Skok |title=Etimologijski rječnik hrvatskoga ili srpskoga jezika: poni-Ž |url=https://archive.org/details/EtimologijskiRjecnikHrvatskogaIliSrpskogaJezika |language=sh |year=1973 |location=Zagreb |publisher=[[JAZU]] |volume=3 |page=55}}&lt;/ref&gt; [[Stanisław Urbańczyk]] and Michal Łuczyński put into question Jakobson's theonymic derivation, deriving instead from Proto-Slavic ''*perpera'', ''*perperъka'' (in Polish ''przepiórka''), name for [[Common quail]], which has a role in Polish harvest rituals and the name of the bride in the wedding dance.{{sfn|Urbańczyk|1991|p=150}}{{sfn|Łuczyński|2020|p=141}} These are also related to ''*pъrpati'' (onomatopoeic), cf. Polish dial. ''perpotać'', ''perpac'', Old East Slavic ''poropriti''.{{sfn|Łuczyński|2020|p=141}} The name ''Dodola'' has been suggested to be a cognate to the Lithuanian ''Dundulis'', a word for &quot;thunder&quot; and another name of the Baltic thunder-god Perkūnas.{{sfn|Jakobson|1985|p=23}}{{Sfn|Puhvel|1987|p=235}} It is also hypothesised to be distantly related to Greek [[Dodona]] and [[Daedala]].{{sfn|Evans|1974|p=127–128}}&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book |last=Dauksta |first=Dainis |date=2011 |chapter=From Post to Pillar – The Development and Persistence of an Arboreal Metaphor |title=New Perspectives on People and Forests |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=XxB-HZlbTe0C |publisher=Springer |page=112 |isbn=978-94-007-1150-1}}&lt;/ref&gt; Bulgarian variant ''Didjulja'' is similar to alleged Polish goddess [[Dzidzilela]], and Polish language also has verb ''dudnić'' (&quot;to thunder&quot;).{{sfn|Jakobson|1985|p=22–23}} The uncertainty of the etymologies provided by scholars leads to a call for a &quot;detailed and in-depth comparative analysis of formulas, set phrases and patterns of imagery in rainmaking songs from ''all'' the Balkan languages&quot;.{{sfn|Burns|2008|pp=232–233}} == Origin == The rainmaking practice is a shared tradition among Balkan peoples, and it is not clear who borrowed it from whom.&lt;ref name=Wachtel&gt;{{harvnb|Wachtel|2008|ps=:Anthropologists have noted shared traditions as well, such as a rainmaking ritual in which a young woman covered in a costume of leaves would sing and dance through the village: this ritual was practiced among Greek, Albanian, Romanian, and Slavic speakers throughout the region, and it is not clear who borrowed it from whom.}}&lt;/ref&gt; The fact so similar customs in the Balkans are known by two different names the differences are considered not to be from the same time period and ethnic groups.{{sfn|Čulinović-Konstantinović|1963|p=93}} Similar customs outside the Balkans have been observed in the Caucasus, Middle East, and North Africa.{{sfn|Čulinović-Konstantinović|1963|p=84, 93}}{{sfn|Kulišić|1979|p=108}}&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal |last1=Başgöz |first1=İlhan |date=2007 |title=Rain Making Ceremonies in Iran |journal=[[Iranian Studies (journal)|Iranian Studies]] |volume=40 |issue=3 |pages=385–403 |doi=10.1080/00210860701390588 |jstor=4311905 |s2cid=162315052 |quote=Type II in the classification (that is, the procession with a doll, or ''chomcha gelin'', and its sub-group, which consists in a real child's proceeding through the neighborhood) ... Although the same ceremony is performed in other parts of Turkey, the ladle bride is given different names: ''Bodi Bodi'' among the Karalar Turkmen tribe in Adana province, ''Dodo'' or ''Dodu'' in Kars ... As the type spreads toward the west, sub-type (a) becomes dominant and (b) disappears. In Bulgaria, the girl who visits the houses during the ceremony is called ''doldol'' or ''Perperuga''.46 In Greece, the ceremony is sometimes incorporated into the Epiphany, the ritual throwing of the cross into a river, or sometimes is performed as an independent rain ritual.47 In Yugoslavia, the Turks, Serbians, and the Albanians practice the ritual, naming it ''dodola'' or ''dodoliče'' (little ''dodola'').48 The ritual is known in Hungary and is performed there under the name of ''doldola'', being especially common in villages inhabited by Gypsies and Serbians.49 The custom has spread to Rumania, but there the ''chomcha gelin'' is replaced by a coffin with a clay figure in it. This is reminiscent of Type II in Iran.50 The ''chomcha gelin'' is also observed in Iraq among the Kerkuk Turkmens, who call it &quot;the bride with ladle&quot; (''Chomchalı Gelin'').51 In Syria, the Arabs call the doll ''Umm al-Guys'' (&quot;mother of rain&quot;).52 The Christians in Syria practice the ceremony and call the doll &quot;the bride of God&quot;.53 In North Africa, the doll is called &quot;the mother of Bangau&quot;,54 and a similar symbol carried during the ritual is called Al Gonja.55 In Uzbekistan, Turks and Tajiks perform the ritual, calling the doll ''suskhatun'' (probably meaning &quot;water woman&quot;).56}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book |last=Chirikba |first=Viacheslav |author-link=Viacheslav Chirikba |date=2015 |chapter=Between Christianity and Islam: Heathen Heritage in the Caucasus |title=Studies on Iran and The Caucasus: In Honour of Garnik Asatrian |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=iLS9CwAAQBAJ |location=Leiden |publisher=Brill |pages=169–171 |isbn=978-90-04-30206-8 |quote=Thus, during the festival welcoming the spring, the Avars made ... In the ritual of summoning rains there figured a specially made doll called Dodola ... The Dagestan doll Dodola and the ritual strikingly resemble the Balkan rituals for summoning rain, whereby girls called Dodola would undressed and put on leaves, flowers and herbs to perform the rainmaking ceremony. The Balkan Dodola is regarded as being connected with the Slavic cult of the thunder-god Perun (cf. Tokarev 1991: 391).}}&lt;/ref&gt; [[William Ralston Shedden-Ralston|William Shedden-Ralston]] noted that [[Jacob Grimm]] thought Perperuna/Dodola were &quot;originally identical with the Bavarian ''Wasservogel'' and the Austrian ''Pfingstkönig''&quot; rituals.&lt;ref name=&quot;Ralston&quot;&gt;{{cite book |last=Shedden-Ralston |first=William Ralston |author-link=William Ralston Shedden-Ralston |date=1872 |title=The Songs of the Russian People: As Illustrative of Slavonic Mythology and Russian Social Life |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=429UAAAAcAAJ |location=London |publisher=Ellis &amp; Green |pages=227–229}}&lt;/ref&gt; Ancient rainmaking practices have been widespread [[Mediterranean]] traditions, already documented in the Balkans since [[Minoan]] and [[Mycenaean Greece|Mycenaean]] times.{{sfn|Burns|2008|pp=228–231}}{{sfn|Håland|2001|pp=197–201}} There is a lack of any strong historical evidence for a link between the figures and practices of the ancient times and those that survided to the end of the 20th century, however, according to [[Richard Berengarten]], if seen as &quot;typologically parallel&quot; practices in the ancient world, they may be interpretable at least as forerunners, even if not as direct progenitors of the modern Balkan rainmaking customs.{{sfn|Burns|2008|pp=228–231}} Some consider the ''perperuna'' figure to have a mythological and etymological Slavic origin related to Slavic thunder-god [[Perun]],{{#tag:ref|&lt;ref&gt;{{harvnb|Čulinović-Konstantinović|1963|pp=93–94|ps=:Ovakav obred za kišu poznat je i u Madžarskoj. Analizirao ga je Z. Ujvary te je u svojoj studiji citirao mnoge madžarske autore koji su o tome pisali. Prema njegovu mišljenju, običaj se tamo proširio pod utjecajem Slavena i Rumunja ... M. S. Thompson, međutim, misli da riječ &quot;perperuna&quot; potječe od imena slavenskog boga Peruna, boga gromovnika ... Teoriju o slavenskom porijeklu ovog običaja prihvatili su osim M. S. Thompsona još i G. F. Abbott i E. Fischer.}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;Katicic&quot;&gt;{{cite book |last=Katičić |first=Radoslav |author-link=Radoslav Katičić |title=Naša stara vjera: Tragovima svetih pjesama naše pretkršćanske starine |trans-title=Our Old Faith: Tracing the Sacred Poems of Our Pre-Christian Antiquity |year=2017 |publisher=Ibis Grafika, [[Matica hrvatska]] |location=Zagreb |language=hr |isbn=978-953-6927-98-2 |page=105}}&lt;/ref&gt;{{sfn|Gieysztor|2006|p=89, 104–106}}&lt;ref name=&quot;Zecevic&quot;&gt;{{cite book |last=Zečević |first=Slobodan |date=1974 |title=Elementi naše mitologije u narodnim obredima uz igru |language=sr |location=Zenica |publisher=Muzej grada Zenice |pages=125–128, 132–133}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book |author=Institut za književnost i umetnost (Hatidža Krnjević) |title=Rečnik književnih termina |trans-title=Dictionary of literary terms |year=1985 |publisher=Nolit |location=Beograd |language=sr |isbn=978-86-19-00635-4 |pages=130, 618}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book |last=Sikimić |first=Biljana |date=1996 |title=Etimologija i male folklorne forme |language=sr |location=Beograd |publisher=SANU |pages=85–86 |quote=О vezi Peruna i prporuša up. Ivanov i Toporov 1974: 113: можно думать об одновременной связи имени nеnеруна - nрnоруша как с обозначением nорошения дождя, его распыления (ср. с.-хорв. ирпошuмu (се), nрnошка и Т.Д.; чешск. pršeti, prch, prš), так и с именем Громовержца. Связъ с порошением дождя представляется тем более вероятной, что соответствующий глагол в ряде индоевропейских язЪП&lt;ов выступает с архаическим удвоением&quot;. Za etimologiju sh. ргроrušа up. i Gavazzi 1985: 164.}}&lt;/ref&gt;{{sfn|Belaj|2007|p=80, 112}}{{Sfn|Dragić|2007|p=80, 112}}{{Sfn|Lajoye|2015|p=114}}}} and became widespread in the Southeastern Europe with the [[Slavic migrations to Southeastern Europe|Slavic migration]] (6th–10th century).&lt;ref&gt;{{harvnb|Gimbutas|1967|p=743|ps=:The names applied to the Balkan rain-ceremonies and to those who perform them suggest, by the modest, degree of variation from one another, by the large number of different variants, and their distribution (not only throughout Romania but in Albania and Greek Epirus and Macedonia), the diffusion of a Slavic ritual linked with the name of Perun in any one of its numerous minor variants.}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{harvnb|Jakobson|1985|pp=22, 24|ps=:The ritual call for rain was transmitted long ago from the Balkan Slavs to neighboring peoples, who evidently preserved the original form of the mythological name ... But even if one leaves aside the late, conjectural echoes of Perun's name, one is still forced to conclude that his cult had wide dissemination and deep roots in Slavic paganism, a fact that is clearly reflected not only in the texts, but also in onomastics, as well as in the folklore of the Slavs and their neighbors.}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal |last=Zaroff |first=Roman |date=1999 |title=Organized pagan cult in Kievan Rus': The invention of foreign elite or evolution of local tradition? |url=https://ojs.zrc-sazu.si/sms/article/view/1844 |journal=[[Studia mythologica Slavica]] |volume=2 |page=57 |doi=10.3986/sms.v2i0.1844 |quote=As a consequence of the relatively early Christianisation of the Southern Slavs, there are no more direct accounts in relation to Perun from the Balkans. Nevertheless, as late as the first half of the 12th century, in Bulgaria and Macedonia, peasants performed a certain ceremony meant to induce rain. A central figure in the rite was a young girl called Perperuna, a name clearly related to Perun. At the same time, the association of Perperuna with rain shows conceptual similarities with the Indian god Parjanya. There was a strong Slavic penetration of Albania, Greece and Romania, between the 6th and 10th centuries. Not surprisingly the folklore of northern Greece also knows Perperuna, Albanians know Pirpirúnă, and also the Romanians have their Perperona. Also, in a certain Bulgarian folk riddle the word ''perušan'' is a substitute for the Bulgarian word ''гърмомеҽица'' (grmotevitsa) for thunder. Moreover, the name of Perun is also commonly found in Southern Slavic toponymy. There are places called: Perun, Perunac, Perunovac, Perunika, Perunićka Glava, Peruni Vrh, Perunja Ves, Peruna Dubrava, Perunuša, Perušice, Perudina and Perutovac.|doi-access=free }}&lt;/ref&gt; According to the Slavic theory, it is a (Balto-)Slavic heritage of Proto-Indo-European origin related to Slavic thunder-god Perun. It has parallels in ritual prayers for bringing rain in times of drought dedicated to rain-thunder deity [[Parjanya]] recorded in the ''[[Vedas]]'' and Baltic thunder-god [[Perkūnas]], [[cognates]] alongside Perun of Proto-Indo-European weather-god [[Perkwunos]].{{sfn|Jakobson|1985|p=6–7, 21, 23}} An early medieval Ruthenian manuscript mentions the East Slavic deity [[Pereplut]], who was worshiped with whirling and libations.{{sfn|Jakobson|1955|p=616}}{{sfn|Gimbutas|1967|p=743}}{{sfn|Jakobson|1985|p=23–24}} According to Jakobson, ''[[Novgorod Chronicle]]'' (&quot;dožd prapruden&quot;) and ''Pskov Chronicle'' (&quot;dožd praprudoju neiskazaemo silen&quot;) could have &quot;East Slavic trace of Peperuda calling forth the rain&quot;, and West Slavic god [[Pripegala]] reminds of ''Preperuga/Prepeluga'' variation and connection with Perun.{{sfn|Gimbutas|1967|p=743}}{{sfn|Jakobson|1985|p=24}} Serbo-Croatian archaic variant ''Prporuša'' and verb ''prporiti se'' (&quot;to fight&quot;) also have parallels in Old Russian (&quot;porъprjutъsja&quot;).{{sfn|Jakobson|1985|p=23}} Perun's battle against [[Veles (god)|Veles]] because of Perperuna/Dodola's kidnapping{{clarify|date=August 2024}} has parallels in [[Zeus]] saving of [[Persephone]] after [[Hades]] carried her underground causing big drought on Earth, also seen in the similarity of the names Perperuna and Persephone.&lt;ref name=&quot;York&quot;/&gt;{{sfn|Evans|1974|p=116–117}}{{sfn|Burns|2008|p=232}} Recent research criticize invention of a Slavic female goddess.{{sfn|Łuczyński|2020|p=141}} Some scholars relate ''Dodole'' with pagan custom and songs of ''Lade'' (Ladarice) in [[Hrvatsko Zagorje]] (so-called &quot;Ladarice Dodolske&quot;),&lt;ref name=&quot;Cubelic&quot;&gt;{{cite book |last=Čubelić |first=Tvrtko |date=1990 |title=Povijest i historija usmene narodne književnosti: historijske i literaturno-teorijske osnove te genološki aspekti: analitičko-sintetički pogledi |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=hb1iAAAAMAAJ |language=hr |location=Zagreb |publisher=Ante Pelivan i Danica Pelivan |pages=75–76 |isbn=978-86-81703-01-4}}&lt;/ref&gt;{{Sfn|Dragić|2007|p=279, 283}}&lt;ref name=&quot;Dragic2012&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |last=Dragić |first=Marko |date=2012 |title=Lada i Ljeljo u folkloristici Hrvata i slavenskom kontekstu |trans-title=Lada and Ljeljo in the folklore of Croats and Slavic context |url=https://hrcak.srce.hr/136243 |language=hr |journal=Zbornik radova Filozofskog fakulteta u Splitu |volume=5 |pages=45, 53–55}}&lt;/ref&gt; and in [[Žumberak]]-[[Križevci]] for the ''Preperuša'' custom was also used term ''Ladekarice''.{{sfn|Čulinović-Konstantinović|1963|p=80–81}}{{sfn|Muraj|1987|p=160–161}} Other scholars, due to the geographical distribution, consider that the rainmaking ritual is of [[Paleo-Balkan mythology|Paleo-Balkan]] origin.{{sfn|Kulišić|1979|p=205}}{{sfn|Belaj|2007|p=80}} Some of them consider such origin even relating the ritual to Perun's cult. One theory, in particular, argues that Slavic deity Perun and Perperuna/Dodola customs are of [[Thracians|Thracian]] origin,&lt;ref&gt;Dimitǔr Dechev, ''[https://books.google.com/books/about/Die_thrakischen_Sprachreste.html?id=CrA_AAAAIAAJ Die thrakischen Sprachreste]'', Wien: R.M. Rohrer, 1957, pp. 144, 151&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;Sorin&quot;&gt;{{cite web|author=[[Sorin Paliga]]|title=Influenţe romane și preromane în limbile slave de sud|date=2003|url=http://egg.mnir.ro/pdf/Paliga_InflRomane.pdf|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131228002745/http://egg.mnir.ro/pdf/Paliga_InflRomane.pdf |archive-date=December 28, 2013}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal |first=Mihai |last=Dragnea |url=https://www.academia.edu/9334808 |title=The Thraco-Dacian Origin of the Paparuda/Dodola Rain-Making Ritual |journal=Brukenthalia Acta Musei |issue=4 |date=2014 |pages=18–27}}&lt;/ref&gt;{{sfn|Ḱulavkova|2020|p=19–20b|ps=:According to some researchers ... these pagan rites of worship are thought to be of Thracian origin ... According to other beliefs, Perun, Perin, or Pirin was the supreme deity of the Thracians.}} however, the name of the Slavic thunder-god [[Perun]] is commonly accepted to be formed from the [[Proto-Slavic]] root ''*per'' &quot;to strike&quot; attached to the common agent suffix ''-unŭ'', explained as &quot;the Striker&quot;.{{sfn|West|2007|p=242}} == Ritual == Rainmaking rituals were performed in times of summer drought to make it rain, usually in June and July, but sometimes also in the spring months when there was severe drought. The ritual was a village kinship or community type performance, and an imitative type of [[Incantation|magic practice]] that reproduced rainfall and soil irrigation, accompanied with ritual songs that addressed prayers to the pagan deity associated with rain as well as agriculture and vegetation. The ritual practice traces back to times when the social structure was based on the common property of the land and of the products, which belonged to the whole tribe/clan.{{sfn|Tirta|2004|pp=310–312}} They essentially belong to rituals related to [[Fertility rite|fertility]], but over time differentiated to a specific form connected with water and vegetation.{{sfn|Čulinović-Konstantinović|1963|p=73, 75–76, 91}}{{clarification needed|date=August 2024}} Perperuna and Dodola are considered very similar pagan customs with common origin,{{sfn|Čulinović-Konstantinović|1963|p=75, 78, 93, 95}}&lt;ref name=&quot;Revija&quot;&gt;{{cite magazine |last=Vukelić |first=Deniver |date=2010 |title=Pretkršćanski prežici u hrvatskim narodnim tradicijam |trans-title=Pre-Christian belief traces in Croatian folk traditions |url=https://www.matica.hr/hr/360/PRETKR%C5%A0%C4%86ANSKI%20PRE%C5%BDICI%20U%20HRVATSKIM%20NARODNIM%20TRADICIJAMA%20/ |language=hr |magazine=[[Hrvatska revija]] |issue=4 |publisher=[[Matica hrvatska]] |access-date=20 July 2022}}&lt;/ref&gt; with main difference being in the most common gender of the central character (possibly related to social hierarchy of the specific ethnic or regional group{{sfn|Čulinović-Konstantinović|1963|p=85, 95}}), lyric verses, sometimes religious content, and presence or absence of a chorus.{{sfn|Čulinović-Konstantinović|1963|p=84–85, 90}} They represent a group of rituals with a human collective going on a procession around houses and fields of a village, but with a central live character which differentiates them from other similar collective rituals in the same region and period (''[[Kermesse (festival)|Krstonoše]]'', ''[[Carnival|Poklade]]'', ''[[Koledari|Kolade]]'', ''[[German (mythology)|German]]'', ''Ladarice'', those during ''[[Jurjevo]]'' and ''[[Saint John's Eve|Ivandan]]'' and so on).{{sfn|Čulinović-Konstantinović|1963|p=74–75, 80}}{{Sfn|Dragić|2007|p=276}}{{Sfn|Puchner|2009|p=289, 345}} In the valley of [[Skopje]] in [[North Macedonia]] the Dodola were held on Thursday which was Perun's day.{{Sfn|Dragić|2007|p=291}} In [[Hungary]] the ritual was usually held on [[Saint George's Day|St. George's Day]].&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |last=T. |first=Dömötör |date=1967 |title=Dodola |url=https://gepeskonyv.btk.elte.hu/adatok/Neprajz/82Vereb%E9lyi/folklorisztika_es_rokonteruleteinek_fogalmi_rendszere/dodola.html}}&lt;/ref&gt; The core of the song always mentions a type of rain and list of regional crops.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book |last=Puchner |first=Walter |author-link=Walter Puchner |date=2016 |title=Die Folklore Südosteuropas: Eine komparative Übersicht |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=hZpVDAAAQBAJ |language=de |publisher=Böhlau Verlag Wien |page=65 |isbn=978-3-205-20312-4}}&lt;/ref&gt; The first written mentions and descriptions of the pagan custom are from the 18th century by [[Dimitrie Cantemir]] in ''[[Descriptio Moldaviae]]'' (1714/1771, ''Papaluga''),{{Sfn|Puchner|2009|p=346}}&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book |last=Cantemir |first=Dimitrie |author-link=Dimitrie Cantemir |date=1771 |title=Descriptio antiqui et hodierni status Moldaviae |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=2rZfAAAAcAAJ |location=Frankfurt, Leipzig |language=de |pages=315–316 |quote=Im Sommer, wenn dem Getreide wegen der Dürre Gefabr bevorzustehen fcheinet, ziehen die Landleute einem kleinen Ragdchen, welches noch nicht über zehen Jahr alt ist, ein Hemde an, welches aus Blattern von Baumen und Srantern gemacht wird. Alle andere Ragdchen und stnaben vol gleiechem Alter folgen ihr, und siehen mit Tanzen und Singen durch die ganze Racharfchaft; wo sie aber hin komuien, da pflegen ihnen die alten Weiber kalt Wasser auf den Stopf zu gieffen. Das Lied, welches fie fingen, ist ohngefähr von folegendem Innbalte: &quot;Papaluga! steige nech dem Himmel, öffne feine Thüren, fend von oben Regen ber, daß der Roggen, Weizen, Hirfe u. f. w. gut wachsen.&quot;}}&lt;/ref&gt; then in a Greek law book from [[Bucharest]] (1765, it invoked 62nd Cannon to stop the custom of ''Paparuda''),{{Sfn|Puchner|2009|p=346}}&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book |last=Puchner |first=Walter |author-link=Walter Puchner |date=2017 |chapter=2 - Byzantium High Culture without Theatre or Dramatic Literature? |title=Greek Theatre between Antiquity and Independence: A History of Reinvention from the Third Century BC to 1830 |chapter-url=https://www.cambridge.org/core/books/abs/greek-theatre-between-antiquity-and-independence/byzantium/AD8A310DFF20316E196BA81890C36797 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |page=73 |isbn=978-1-107-44502-4 |doi=10.1017/9781107445024.004 |quote=...in 1765, a Greek law book from Bucharest quotes the 62nd Canon of the Trullanum in order to forbid public dancing by girls in a custom well known throughout the Balkans as 'paparuda', 'perperuna' or 'dodole', a ritual processional rain dance.}}&lt;/ref&gt; and by the Bulgarian [[hieromonk]] [[Spiridon Gabrovski]] who also noted to be related to Perun (1792, ''Peperud'').{{sfn|Belaj|2007|p=80}}&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite book|url=https://archive.org/details/istoriiavokratt00spirgoog|title=История во кратце о болгарском народе славенском. Сочинися и исписа в лето 1792|last=Габровски|first=Спиридон Иеросхимонах|publisher=изд. Св. Синод на Българската Църква|year=1900|location=София|pages=[https://archive.org/details/istoriiavokratt00spirgoog/page/n156 14]}}&lt;/ref&gt; Peoples generally used to organise the Perperuna/Dodola ritual in times of spring and especially summer [[drought]]s, where they worshipped the god/goddess and prayed to him/her for rain (and fertility, later also asked for other field and house blessings). The central character of the ceremony of Perperuna was usually a young boy, while of Dodola usually a young girl, both aged between 10 and 15 years. Purity was important, and sometimes to be orphans. They would be naked, but were not anymore in latest forms of 19-20th century, wearing a skirt and dress densely made of fresh green knitted vines, leaves and flowers of ''[[Sambucus nigra]]'', ''[[Sambucus ebulus]]'', ''[[Clematis flammula]]'', ''[[Clematis vitalba]]'', [[fern]] and other deciduous shrubs and vines, small branches of ''[[Tilia]]'', [[Oak]] and other. The green cover initially covered all body so that the central person figure was almost unrecognizable, but like the necessity of direct skin contact with greenery it also greatly decreased and was very simple in modern period. They whirled and were followed by a small procession of children who walked and danced with them around the same village and fields, sometimes carrying oak or [[Fagus sylvatica|beech]] branches, singing the ritual prayer, stopping together at every house yard, where the hosts would sprinkle water on chosen boy/girl who would shake and thus sprinkle everyone and everything around it (example of &quot;analogical magic&quot;{{Sfn|Puchner|2009|p=346}}), hosts also gifted treats (bread, eggs, cheese, sausages etc., in a later period also money) to children who shared and consumed them among them and sometimes even hosts would drink wine, seemingly as a sacrifice in Perun's honor.&lt;ref name=&quot;Ribaric&quot;&gt;{{Cite book|last=Ribarić|first=Josip|title=O istarskim dijalektima: razmještaj južnoslavenskih dijalekata na poluotoku Istri s opisom vodičkog govora|publisher=Josip Turčinović|date=2002|location=Pazin|orig-date=1916|language=hr|isbn=953-6262-43-6|pages=84–85, 206}}&lt;/ref&gt;{{sfn|Gimbutas|1967|p=743–744}}{{sfn|Evans|1974|p=100, 119}}{{sfn|Jakobson|1985|p=21, 23}}{{sfn|Čulinović-Konstantinović|1963|p=74–77, 83–93}}{{sfn|Muraj|1987|p=158–163}}{{Sfn|Dragić|2007|p=290–293}} The chosen boy/girl was called by one of the name variants of the ritual itself, however in [[Istria]] was also known as ''Prporuš'' and in [[Dalmatia]]-[[Boka Kotorska]] as ''Prpac/Prpats'' and both regions his companions as ''Prporuše'',&lt;ref name=&quot;Ralston&quot;/&gt;{{Sfn|Dragić|2007|p=291}}&lt;ref name=&quot;Ribaric&quot;/&gt;{{sfn|Čulinović-Konstantinović|1963|p=76, 80}} while at [[Pirot]] and [[Nišava District]] in [[Southern Serbia (geographical region)|Southern Serbia]] near Bulgarian border were called as ''dodolće'' and ''preperuđe'', and as in Macedonia both names appear in the same song.{{sfn|Čulinović-Konstantinović|1963|p=79, 95}}{{sfn|Burns|2008|p=220, 222|ps=:The finely documented account by Đorđević of a version of the Balkan rainmaking custom, performed near the River Morava in south-eastern Serbia near the Bulgarian border ... Fly, fly, peperuga/Oh, dodolas, Dear Lord!}} [[File:Пеперуда в Добруджа 1950.jpg|thumb|right|250px|''Peperuda'' performed by Romani in [[Dobruja]], Bulgaria, 1950s.]] By the 20th century once common rituals almost vanished in the Balkans, although rare examples of practice can be traced until 1950-1980s and remained in folk memory. The main reason is the development of agriculture and consequently lack of practical need for existence of mystical connection and customs with nature and weather. Christian church also tried to diminish pagan beliefs and customs, resulting in &quot;dual belief&quot; (''dvoeverie'') in rural populations, a conscious preservation of pre-Christian beliefs and practices alongside Christianity. Into customs and songs were mixed elements from other rituals including Christianity, but they also influenced the creation of Christian songs and prayers invoking the rain which were used as a close Christian alternative (decline was reportedly faster among Catholics{{sfn|Muraj|1987|p=161}}).{{sfn|Čulinović-Konstantinović|1963|p=77, 91–93}}{{sfn|Predojević|2019|p=581, 583, 589–591}} According to [[:hr:Velimir Deželić mlađi|Velimir Deželić Jr.]] in 1937, it was an old custom that &quot;Christians approved it, took it over and further refined it. In the old days, ''Prporuša'' were very much like a [[Piety|pious]] ritual, only later the leaders - ''Prpac'' - began to boast too much, and ''Prporuše'' seemed to be more interested in gifts than beautiful singing and prayer&quot;.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book |last=Deželić Jr. |first=Velimir |date=1937 |title=Kolede: Obrađeni hrvatski godišnji običaji |trans-title=Kolede: Examined Croatian annual customs |url=https://archive.org/details/kolede_obradjeni_hrvatski_godisnji_obicaji-velimir_dezelic_sin/ |language=hr |publisher=Hrvatsko književno društvo svetog Jeronima |page=70 |quote=Ljeti, kad zategnu suše, pošle bi našim selima Prporuše moliti od Boga kišu. Posvuda su Hrvatskom išle Prporuše, a običaj je to prastar — iz pretkršćanskih vremena — ali lijep, pa ga kršćani odobrili, preuzeli i još dotjerali. U stara vremena Prporuše su bile veoma nalik nekom pobožnom obredu, tek poslije su predvodnici — Prpci— počeli suviše lakrdijati, a Prporušama ko da je više do darova, nego do lijepa pjevanja i molitve.}}&lt;/ref&gt; Depending on region, instead of village boys and girls the pagan ritual by then was mostly done by migrating [[Romani people]] from other villages and for whom it became a professional performance motivated by gifts, sometimes followed by financially poor members from other ethnic groups.{{sfn|Čulinović-Konstantinović|1963|p=77, 91–93}}{{sfn|Predojević|2019|p=581, 583, 589–591}}&lt;ref name=&quot;Horvat&quot;&gt;{{cite book |last=Horvat |first=Josip |date=1939 |title=Kultura Hrvata kroz 1000 godina |trans-title=Culture of Croats through 1000 years |url=https://archive.org/details/kultura_hrvata_kroz_1000_godina_ii.izdanje_1939-josip_horvat |language=hr |location=Zagreb |publisher=A. Velzek |pages=23–24}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book |last=Kovačević |first=Ivan |date=1985 |title=Semiologija rituala |trans-title=Semiology of ritual |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=qPMXAAAAIAAJ |language=sr |location=Beograd |publisher=Prosveta |page=79}}&lt;/ref&gt;{{Sfn|Dragić|2007|p=278, 290}} Due to [[Anti-Romani sentiment]], the association with Romani also caused repulsion, shame and ignorance among last generations of members of ethnic groups who originally performed it.{{sfn|Predojević|2019|p=583–584, 589}} Eventually it led to a dichotomy of identification with own traditional heritage, Christianity and stereotypes about Romani witchcraft.{{sfn|Predojević|2019|p=581–582, 584}} In the present days, older generations of Albanians demonstrate the common practice of rainmaking rituals in their life, but newer generations generally see them as something applied in the past, a tradition that their parents have gone through. Nevertheless, elders still accompany [[processions]] of boys and girls, who perform the rainmaking rite dressed with their best [[Albanian traditional clothing|traditional clothing]] except for the main boy or girl, who is dressed entirely in fresh branches, leaves and herbs.&lt;ref&gt;{{harvnb|Qafleshi|2011|pp=51–52|}}; {{harvnb|Ministria|2014|p=66}}; {{harvnb|Halimi|Halimi-Statovci|Xhemaj|2011|pp=2–6, 32–43}}&lt;/ref&gt; Public exhibitions of the ritual are usually performed during Albanian festivals, often for the local audience, but also in the [[Gjirokastër National Folk Festival]], one of the most important events of Albanian culture.{{sfn|Sela|2017|pp=69–70}} ===Perperuna songs=== [[Ioan Slavici]] reported in 1881 that the custom of ''Paparuga'' was already &quot;very disbanded&quot; in Romania.{{sfn|Nodilo|1981|p=51}} Stjepan Žiža in 1889/95 reported that the once common ritual almost vanished in Southwestern and Central-Eastern Istria, Croatia.{{sfn|Čulinović-Konstantinović|1963|p=78}} [[:hr:Ivan Milčetić|Ivan Milčetić]] recorded in 1896 that the custom of ''Prporuša'' also almost vanished from the North Adriatic island of [[Krk]], although almost recently it was well known in all Western parts of Croatia, while in other parts as ''Dodola''.&lt;ref name=&quot;Milcetic&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |last=Milčetić |first=Ivan |date=1896 |title=Prporuša |journal=Zbornik za narodni život i običaje južnih Slavena |location=Belgrade |publisher=[[JAZU]] |volume=1 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=8TwSAAAAYAAJ |pages=217–218 |quote=Čini mi se da je već nestalo prporuše i na otoku Krku, a bijaše još nedavno poznata svuda po zapadnim stranama hrvatskog naroda, dok je po drugim krajevima živjela dodola. Nego i za dodolu već malo gdje znadu. Tako mi piše iz Vir‐Pazara g. L. Jovović, koga sam pitao, da li još Crnogorci poznaju koledu...}}&lt;/ref&gt; Croatian linguist Josip Ribarić recorded in 1916 that it was still alive in Southwestern Istria and [[Ćićarija]] (and related it to the 16th century migration from Dalmatia of speakers of [[Southwestern Istrian]] dialect).&lt;ref name=&quot;Ribaric&quot;/&gt; On island of Krk was also known as ''Barburuša/Barbaruša/Bambaruša'' (occurrence there is possibly related to the 15th century migration which included besides Croats also [[Vlachs of Croatia|Vlach]]-[[Istro-Romanians|Istro-Romanian]] shepherds{{sfn|Zebec|2005|p=68–71, 248}}).{{sfn|Čulinović-Konstantinović|1963|p=80}}{{sfn|Zebec|2005|p=71}} It was also widespread in [[Dalmatia]] (especially [[Zadar]] hinterland, coast and islands), [[Žumberak]] (also known as ''Pepeluše'', ''Prepelice''{{sfn|Muraj|1987|p=161}}) and Western [[Slavonia]] (Križevci).&lt;ref name=&quot;Ralston&quot;/&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;Revija&quot;/&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;Horvat&quot;/&gt;{{sfn|Zebec|2005|p=71}}{{sfn|Čulinović-Konstantinović|1963|p=78, 80–81}}{{Sfn|Dragić|2007|p=291–293}} It was held in Istria at least until the 1950s,{{sfn|Čulinović-Konstantinović|1963|p=82}} in Žumberak until the 1960s,{{sfn|Muraj|1987|p=165}} while according to one account in [[Jezera, Tisno|Jezera]] on island [[Murter]] the last were in the late 20th century.{{Sfn|Dragić|2007|p=292}} In Serbia, Perperuna was only found in [[Kosovo]], Southern and Eastern Serbia near Bulgarian border.{{sfn|Čulinović-Konstantinović|1963|p=79}} According to [[Natko Nodilo]] the discrepancy in distribution between these two countries makes an idea that originally Perperuna was Croatian while Dodola was Serbian custom.{{sfn|Nodilo|1981|p=50a|ps=:Po tome, pa i po različitome imenu za stvar istu, mogao bi ko pomisliti, da su dodole, prvim postankom, čisto srpske, a prporuše hrvatske. U Bosni, zapadno od Vrbasa, zovu se čaroice. Kad bi ovo bilo hrvatski naziv za njih, onda bi prporuše bila riječ, koja k nama pregje od starih Slovenaca.}} Seemingly it was not present in Slovenia, Northern Croatia, almost all of Bosnia and Herzegovina and Montenegro (only sporadically in [[Boka Kotorska]]).{{sfn|Muraj|1987|p=159}} Luka Jovović from [[Virpazar]], Montenegro reported in 1896 that in Montenegro existed some ''koleda'' custom for summer droughts, but was rare and since 1870s not practiced anymore.&lt;ref name=&quot;Milcetic&quot;/&gt; {|class=&quot;wikitable&quot; ||Bulgaria&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book |last=Антонова |first=Илонка Цанова |date=2015 |title=Календарни празници и обичаи на българите |trans-title=Calendar holidays and customs of the Bulgarians |language=bg |location=Sofia |publisher=Издателство на Българската академия на науките &quot;Проф. Марин Дринов&quot; |pages=66–68 |isbn=978-954-322-764-8}}&lt;/ref&gt;||Albania&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book|last=Pipa|first=Arshi|title=Albanian Folk Verse: Structure and Genre|publisher=O. Harrassowitz|year=1978|isbn=3-87828-119-6|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=WCIHAQAAIAAJ|page=58}}&lt;/ref&gt;||Croatia-Krk&lt;br /&gt;&lt;small&gt;([[Dubašnica]], 1896&lt;ref name=&quot;Milcetic&quot;/&gt;)&lt;/small&gt;||Croatia-Istria&lt;br /&gt;&lt;small&gt;([[Lanišće|Vodice]], 1916&lt;ref name=&quot;Ribaric&quot;/&gt;)&lt;/small&gt;||Croatia-Istria&lt;br /&gt;&lt;small&gt;([[Polje Čepić|Čepić]], 1896&lt;ref name=&quot;Milcetic&quot;/&gt;/Štifanići near [[Baderna]], 1906/08&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book |last=Ribarić |first=Josip |editor=Tanja Perić-Polonijo |date=1992 |title=Narodne pjesme Ćićarije |language=hr |location=Pazin |publisher=Istarsko književno društvo &quot;Juraj Dobrila&quot; |pages=11, 208}}&lt;/ref&gt;)&lt;/small&gt;||Croatia-Dalmatia&lt;br /&gt;&lt;small&gt;([[Ražanac]], 1905{{sfn|Čulinović-Konstantinović|1963|p=81}})&lt;/small&gt;||Croatia-Dalmatia&lt;br /&gt;&lt;small&gt;([[Ravni Kotari]], 1867&lt;ref name=&quot;Vuk&quot;&gt;{{cite book |last=Karadžić |first=Vuk Stefanović |author-link=Vuk Stefanović Karadžić |date=1867 |title=Život i običaji naroda srpskoga |trans-title=Life and customs of Serbian nation |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=fX0RAAAAYAAJ |language=sr |location=Vienna |publisher=A. Karacić |pages=61–66}}&lt;/ref&gt;)&lt;/small&gt;||Croatia-Žumberak&lt;br /&gt;&lt;small&gt;(Pavlanci, 1890{{sfn|Muraj|1987|p=164}})&lt;/small&gt;||Macedonia&lt;br /&gt;&lt;small&gt;([[Struga]], 1861&lt;ref name=&quot;Miladinovci&quot;/&gt;)&lt;/small&gt; |- | &lt;poem&gt; &lt;small&gt;Letela e peperuda Daĭ, Bozhe, dŭzhd Daĭ, Bozhe, dŭzhd Ot orache na kopache Da se rodi zhito, proso Zhito, proso i pshenitsa Da se ranyat siracheta Siracheta, siromasi&lt;/small&gt; &lt;/poem&gt; || &lt;poem&gt; &lt;small&gt;Rona-rona, Peperona Bjerë shi ndë arat tona! Të bëhetë thekëri I gjatë gjer në çati Gruri gjer në perëndi Ashtu edhe misëri!&lt;/small&gt; &lt;/poem&gt; || &lt;poem&gt; &lt;small&gt;Prporuša hodila Službu boga molila Dajte sira, dajte jaj Da nam bog da mladi daž Od šenice višnji klas! A ti, bože vični Smiluj se na nas!&lt;/small&gt; &lt;/poem&gt; || &lt;poem&gt; &lt;small&gt;Prporuše hodile Slavu Boga molile I šenice bilice Svake dobre sričice Bog nan ga daj Jedan tihi daž!&lt;/small&gt; &lt;/poem&gt; || &lt;poem&gt; &lt;small&gt;Preporuči hodili / Prporuše hodile Iz Prepora grada / 's Prpora grada Kuda hodili / Da nam bog da dažda Tuda Boga molili / Crljenoga mažda Da nam Bog da dažda / I šenice bilice I crljenoga masta / Svake dobre sričice I šenice bilice / Šenica nan rodila I svake dobre srećice / Dičica prohodila Šenica narodila / Šenicu pojili Dica nam prohodila / Dicu poženili I šenicu pojili / Skupi, bože, oblake! I dicu poženili / Struni bojžu rosicu Skupi, Bože, oblake / Na tu svetu zemljicu! Hiti božju kapljicu / Amen, amen, amen Na ovu svetu zemljicu! Amen&lt;/small&gt; &lt;/poem&gt; || &lt;poem&gt; &lt;small&gt;Prporuše hodile Putom Boga molile Da ni pane kišica Da ni rodi šenica bilica I vinova lozica&lt;/small&gt; &lt;/poem&gt; || &lt;poem&gt; &lt;small&gt;Prporuše hodile Terem Boga molile Da nam dade kišicu Da nam rodi godina I šenica bjelica I vinova lozica I nevjesta đetića Do prvoga božića Daruj nama, striko naša Oku brašna, striko naša Bublu masla, striko naša Runce vune, striko naša Jedan sirčić, striko naša Šaku soli, striko naša Dva, tri jajca, striko naša Ostaj s Bogom, striko naša Koja si nas darovala&lt;/small&gt; &lt;/poem&gt; || &lt;poem&gt; &lt;small&gt;Preperuša odila Za nas Boga molila Daj nam Bože kišice Na ovu našu ljetinu Da pokvasi mladinu Pucaj, pucaj ledeno Škrapaj, škrapaj godino Mi smo tebi veseli Kano Isus Mariji Kaj Marija Isusu Kano mati djetetu&lt;/small&gt; &lt;/poem&gt; || &lt;poem&gt; &lt;small&gt;Otletala preperuga, oj ljule, oj! Ot oracha na oracha, oj ljule, oj! Ot kopacha na kopacha, oj ljule, oj! Ot rezhacha na rezhacha; oj ljule, oj! Da zarosit sitna rosa, oj ljule, oj! Sitna rosa beriketna, oj ljule, oj! I po pole i po more; oj ljule, oj! Da se rodit s' beriket, oj ljule, oj! S' beriket vino-zhito; oj ljule, oj! Cheincite do gredite, oj ljule, oj! Jachmenite do streite, oj ljule, oj! Lenoite do pojasi, oj ljule, oj! Uroite do kolena; oj ljule, oj! Da se ranet siromasi, oj ljule, oj! Drvete ne so osito, oj ljule, oj! Da je sita godina; oj ljule, oj! Drvete ne so oshnica, oj ljule, oj! Da ja polna koshnica; oj ljule, oj! Drvete ne so jamache, oj ljule, oj! Da je tuchna godina, oj ljule, oj!&lt;/small&gt; &lt;/poem&gt; |} ===Dodola songs=== The oldest record for Dodole rituals in Macedonia is the song &quot;Oj Ljule&quot; from [[Struga]] region, recorded in 1861.&lt;ref name=&quot;Miladinovci&quot;&gt;{{cite book|last = Miladinovci|title = Зборник|publisher = Kočo Racin|year = 1962|location = Skopje|url = http://www.gbiblsk.edu.mk/images/stories/eknigi/zbornik.pdf|page = 462|archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20120216225647/http://www.gbiblsk.edu.mk/images/stories/eknigi/zbornik.pdf |archive-date = 2012-02-16}}&lt;/ref&gt; The Dodola rituals in Macedonia were actively held until the 1960s.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book|last=Veličkovska|first=Rodna|title=Музичките дијалекти во македонското традиционално народно пеење: обредно пеење|trans-title=Musical dialects in the Macedonian traditional folk singing: ritual singing| publisher=Institute of folklore &quot;Marko Cepenkov&quot;|year=2009|location=Skopje|language=mk|page=45}}&lt;/ref&gt; In Bulgaria the chorus was also &quot;Oj Ljule&quot;.{{sfn|Nodilo|1981|p=50b}} The oldest record in Serbia was by [[Vuk Karadžić]] (1841),{{sfn|Čulinović-Konstantinović|1963|p=79}} where was widespread all over the country and held at least until 1950/70s.&lt;ref name=&quot;Zecevic&quot;/&gt;{{sfn|Čulinović-Konstantinović|1963|p=77–78, 86, 88}} In Croatia was found in Eastern Slavonia, Southern [[Baranya (region)|Baranja]] and Southeastern [[Srijem]].&lt;ref name=&quot;Horvat&quot;/&gt;{{sfn|Čulinović-Konstantinović|1963|p=77–78, 90}}{{sfn|Muraj|1987|p=159}}{{sfn|Dragić|2012|p=54}}&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book |last=Janković |first=Slavko |date=1956 |title=Kuhačeva zbirka narodnih popijevaka (analizirana): od br. 1801 do br. 2000 |url=https://repozitorij.dief.eu/a/?pr=i&amp;id=69581 |quote=Naša doda moli Boga ([[Otok, Vukovar-Syrmia County|Otok]], Slavonia, 1881, sken ID: IEF_RKP_N0096_0_155; IEF_RKP_N0096_0_156A) - Ide doda preko sela ([[Erdevik]], Srijem, 1885, sken ID: IEF_RKP_N0096_0_163; IEF_RKP_N0096_0_164A) - Filip i Jakob, Koleda na kišu ([[Gibarac]], Srijem, 1886, sken ID: IEF_RKP_N0096_0_165; IEF_RKP_N0096_0_166A)}}&lt;/ref&gt; [[August Šenoa]] in his writing about the travel to Okić-grad near [[Samobor]], Croatia mentioned that saw two dodole.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |url=https://www.knjizevnost.hr/zagrebulje-1866-august-senoa/ |title=Zagrebulje I (1866.) |last=Šenoa |first=August |author-link=August Šenoa |date=1866 |website=Književnost.hr |publisher=informativka d.o.o. |access-date=23 July 2022 |quote=...već se miču niz Okić put naše šljive dvije u zeleno zavite dodole. S ovoga dodolskoga dualizma sjetih se odmah kakvi zecevi u tom grmu idu, i moja me nada ne prevari. Eto ti pred nas dva naša junaka, ne kao dodole, kao bradurina i trbušina, već kao pravi pravcati bogovi – kao Bako i Gambrinus... Naša dva boga, u zeleno zavita, podijeliše društvu svoj blagoslov, te bjehu sa živim usklikom primljeni. No i ova mitologička šala i mrcvarenje božanske poezije po našem generalkvartirmeštru pobudi bogove na osvetu; nad našim glavama zgrnuše se oblaci, i naskoro udari kiša.}}&lt;/ref&gt; To them is related the custom of Lade/Ladarice from other parts of Croatia, having chorus &quot;''Oj Lado, oj!''&quot; and similar verses &quot;''Molimo se višnjem Bogu/Da popuhne tihi vjetar, Da udari rodna kiša/Da porosi naša polja, I travicu mekušicu/Da nam stada Lado, Ugoje se naša stada''&quot;.&lt;ref name=&quot;Cubelic&quot;/&gt;{{Sfn|Dragić|2007|p=279, 283}}&lt;ref name=&quot;Dragic2012&quot;/&gt; {|class=&quot;wikitable&quot; ||Serbia&lt;br /&gt;&lt;small&gt;(1841&lt;ref name=&quot;Vuk&quot;/&gt;{{sfn|Čulinović-Konstantinović|1963|p=88}})&lt;/small&gt;||Serbia&lt;br /&gt;&lt;small&gt;(1867&lt;ref name=&quot;Vuk&quot;/&gt;)&lt;/small&gt;||Serbia&lt;br /&gt;&lt;small&gt;(1867&lt;ref name=&quot;Vuk&quot;/&gt;)&lt;/small&gt;||Croatia-Slavonia&lt;br /&gt;&lt;small&gt;([[Đakovo]]&lt;ref name=&quot;Dragic2012&quot;/&gt;)&lt;/small&gt;||Croatia-Slavonia&lt;br /&gt;&lt;small&gt;(Đakovo, 1957{{sfn|Čulinović-Konstantinović|1963|p=77, 90}})&lt;/small&gt;||Croatia-Srijem&lt;br /&gt;&lt;small&gt;([[Tovarnik]], 1979&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal |last=Černelić |first=Milana |date=1998 |title=Kroz godinu dana srijemskih običaja vukovarskog kraja |trans-title=Annual customs of Srijem in the Vukovar region |url=https://hrcak.srce.hr/80816 |language=hr |journal=Etnološka tribina |volume=28 |issue=21 |page=135}}&lt;/ref&gt;)&lt;/small&gt; |- | &lt;poem&gt; &lt;small&gt;Mi idemo preko sela, Oj dodo, oj dodo le! A oblaci preko neba, Oj dodo, oj dodo le! A mi brže, oblak brže, Oj dodo, oj dodo le! Oblaci nas pretekoše, Oj dodo, oj dodo le! Žito, vino porosiše, Oj dodo, oj dodo le!&lt;/small&gt; &lt;/poem&gt; || &lt;poem&gt; &lt;small&gt;Molimo se višnjem Bogu, Oj dodo, oj dodo le! Da udari rosna kiša, Oj dodo, oj dodo le! Da porosi naša polja, Oj dodo, oj dodo le! I šenicu ozimicu, Oj dodo, oj dodo le! I dva pera kukuruza, Oj dodo, oj dodo le!&lt;/small&gt; &lt;/poem&gt; || &lt;poem&gt; &lt;small&gt;Naša doda Boga moli, Oj dodo, oj dodo le! Da udari rosna kiša, Oj dodo, oj dodo le! Da pokisnu svi orači, Oj dodo, oj dodo le! Svi orači i kopači, Oj dodo, oj dodo le! I po kući poslovači, Oj dodo, oj dodo le!&lt;/small&gt; &lt;/poem&gt; || &lt;poem&gt; &lt;small&gt;Naša doda moli Boga Oj dodole, moj božole! Da porosi rosna kiša Oj dodole, moj božole! Da pokvasi naša polja Oj dodole, moj božole! Da urode, da prerode Oj dodole, moj božole!&lt;/small&gt; &lt;/poem&gt; || &lt;poem&gt; &lt;small&gt;Naša dojda moli boga da kiša pada Da pokisne suvo polje, oj, dojdole! Da pokisnu svi orači Svi orači i kopači, oj, dojdole! I po kući poslovači Oj, dojdole, oj, dojdole! I dva pera kukuruza I lanovi za darove, oj, dojdole! Da urodi, da prerodi, da ne polegne Oj, dojdole, oj, dojdole!&lt;/small&gt; &lt;/poem&gt; || &lt;poem&gt; &lt;small&gt;Naša doda moli Boga Da nam Bog da rosne kiše Rosne kiše malo više Na orače i kopače I na naše suve bašće Oj dodo, oj dodole! Da trava raste Da paun pase Da sunce sija Da žito zrija Oj dodo, oj dodole!&lt;/small&gt; &lt;/poem&gt; |} ==Other== According to [[Albanian folk beliefs]], the Sun ([[Dielli (Albanian paganism)|Dielli]]) makes the sky cloudy or clears it up.&lt;ref&gt;{{harvnb|Tirta|2004|pp=71–72}}; {{harvnb|Gjoni|2012|pp=85–86}}&lt;/ref&gt; Albanians used to invoke the Sun with rainmaking and soil fertility rituals. In rainmaking rituals from the [[Albanian Ionian Sea Coast]], Albanians used to pray to the Sun, in particular facing Mount [[Shëndelli]] (Mount &quot;Holy Sun&quot;), by invoking the names ''Dielli'', ''Shën Dëlliu'', ''Ilia'' or ''[[Perëndi]]a''. Children used to dress a boy with fresh branches, calling him ''dordolec''. A typical invocation song repeated three times during the ritual was:{{sfn|Gjoni|2012|pp=85–86}} {{blockquote|&quot;O Ilia, Ilia,&lt;br /&gt;Peperuga rrugëzaj&lt;br /&gt;Bjerë shi o Perëndi,&lt;br /&gt;Se qajnë ca varfëri,&lt;br /&gt;Me lot e logori&lt;br /&gt;Thekëri gjer mbë çati,&lt;br /&gt;Gruri gjer në Perëndi.&quot;}} Afterwards, people used to say: ''Do kemi shi se u nxi Shëndëlliu'' (&quot;We will have rain because ''Shëndëlliu'' went dark&quot;).{{sfn|Gjoni|2012|pp=85–86}} The Sun used to be also invoked when reappearing after the rain, prayed for increased production in agriculture.{{sfn|Gjoni|2012|pp=85–86}} == See also == {{commons category|Dodola}} * [[Albanian paganism]] * [[Folklore of Romania]] * [[Slavic paganism]] * [[Caloian]] * [[Perëndi]] * [[Porenut]] * [[Porevit]] == References == {{reflist}} === Bibliography === {{Refbegin|30em|indent=yes}} &lt;!-- B --&gt; *{{cite book |last=Belaj |first=Vitomir |author-link=Vitomir Belaj |date=2007 |orig-date=1998 |title=Hod kroz godinu: Mitska pozadina hrvatskih narodnih običaja i vjerovanja |trans-title=The walk within a year: the mythic background of the Croatian folk customs and beliefs |language=hr |location=Zagreb |publisher=Golden marketing-Tehnička knjiga |isbn=978-953-212-334-0}} *{{cite journal|last=Burns|first=Richard|title=Rain and Dust|journal=[[Studia Mythologica Slavica]]|volume=XI|issn=1581-128X|doi=10.3986/sms.v11i0.1696|year=2008|pages=217–236|doi-access=free}} &lt;!-- C --&gt; *{{cite journal |last=Čulinović-Konstantinović |first=Vesna |date=1963 |title=Dodole i prporuše: narodni običaji za prizivanje kiše |trans-title=Dodole and prporuše: folk customs for invoking the rain |url=https://hrcak.srce.hr/34409 |language=hr |journal=Narodna Umjetnost |volume=2 |issue=1 |pages=73–95}} &lt;!-- D --&gt; *{{cite journal |last=Dragić |first=Marko |date=2007 |title=Ladarice, kraljice i dodole u hrvatskoj tradicijskoj kulturi i slavenskom kontekstu |trans-title=Ladarice, Queens and Dodole in Croatian Traditionary Culture and Slavic Context |url=https://www.bib.irb.hr/299913 |language=hr |journal=Hercegovina, godišnjak za kulturno i povijesno naslijeđe |volume=21 |pages=275–296}} &lt;!-- G --&gt; *{{cite book|last=Gamkrelidze|first=Ivanov|title=Indo-European and the Indoeuropeans|publisher=Mouton de Gruyter|year=1995}} *{{cite book |last=Gieysztor |first=Aleksander |author-link=Aleksander Gieysztor |date=2006 |orig-date=1982 |edition=II |title=Mitologia Slowian |publisher=Wydawn. Uniwersytetu Warszawskiego |location=Warszawa |language=pl |isbn=978-83-235-0234-0}} *{{cite book |last=Gimbutas |first=Marija |author-link=Marija Gimbutas |date=1967 |chapter=Ancient Slavic Religion: A Synopsis |title=To honor Roman Jakobson: essays on the occasion of his seventieth birthday, 11 October 1966 (Vol. I) |pages=738–759 |publisher=Mouton |doi=10.1515/9783111604763-064 |isbn=978-3-11-122958-4}} *{{cite thesis|type=PhD|last=Gjoni|first=Irena|title=Marrëdhënie të miteve dhe kulteve të bregdetit të Jonit me areale të tjera mitike|publisher=University of Tirana, Faculty of History and Philology|language=sq|year=2012|place=Tirana}} &lt;!-- E --&gt; * {{cite book|last=Elsie|first=Robert|year=2000|title=The Christian Saints of Albania|publisher=Balkanistica|url=http://home.olemiss.edu/~mldyer/balk/article2.html|volume=13}} * {{cite book|last=Elsie|first=Robert|author-link=Robert Elsie|title=A Dictionary of Albanian Religion, Mythology and Folk Culture|place=London|publisher=Hurst &amp; Company|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=N_IXHrXIsYkC|isbn=1-85065-570-7|year=2001a}} *{{cite book|last=Elsie|first=Robert|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ve4SAQAAIAAJ|title=Albanian Folktales and Legends|year=2001b|publisher=Dukagjini Publishing House}} *{{cite book |last=Evans |first=David |date=1974 |chapter=Dodona, Dodola, and Daedala |title=Myth in Indo-European Antiquity |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=QNzuDwAAQBAJ |pages=99–130 |publisher=University of California Press |isbn=978-0-520-02378-9}} &lt;!-- H --&gt; *{{cite journal|last=Håland|first=Evy Johanne|title=Rituals of Magical Rain-Making in Modern and Ancient Greece: A Comparative Approach|journal=Cosmos|volume=17|year=2001|pages=197–251}} *{{cite book|last1=Halimi|first1=Zanita|last2=Halimi-Statovci|first2=Drita|last3=Xhemaj|first3=Ukë|translator=Lumnije Kadriu|title=Rite dhe Aktualiteti|trans-title=Rites and Contemporariness/Present Time|publisher=[[University of Prishtina]]|year=2011|url=https://chwbkosova.org/wp-content/uploads/2014/09/Publication_2011_7-min.pdf}} &lt;!-- J --&gt; *{{cite journal|last=Jackson|first=Peter|date=2002|title=Light from Distant Asterisks. Towards a Description of the Indo-European Religious Heritage|journal=Numen|volume=49|issue=1|pages=61–102|issn=0029-5973|jstor=3270472|doi=10.1163/15685270252772777}} *{{cite journal |last1=Jakobson |first1=Roman |author-link=Roman Jakobson |date=1955 |title=While Reading Vasmer's Dictionary |url=https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/pdf/10.1080/00437956.1955.11659581 |journal=[[Word (journal)|Word]] |volume=11 |issue=4 |pages=611–617 |doi=10.1080/00437956.1955.11659581}} *{{cite book |last=Jakobson |first=Roman |author-link=Roman Jakobson |date=1985 |title=Selected Writings VII: Contributions to Comparative Mythology |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=db7iuvTX1bkC |publisher=[[Walter de Gruyter]] |isbn=978-3-11-010617-6}} &lt;!-- K --&gt; *{{cite journal |last=Ḱulavkova |first=Katica |date=2020 |title=A Poetic Ritual Invoking Rain and Well-Being: Richard Berengarten's In a Time of Drought |url=https://scholarworks.iu.edu/journals/index.php/aeer/article/view/28956 |journal=Anthropology of East Europe Review |volume=37 |issue=1 |pages=17–26}} *{{cite book |last=Kulišić |first=Špiro |author-link=Špiro Kulišić |editor=[[Alojz Benac]] |date=1979 |title=Stara slovenska religija u svjetlu novijih istraživanja – posebno balkanoloških |language=sh |volume=Djela LVI, CBI knjiga 3 |location=Sarajevo |publisher=Centre for Balkan Studies, [[ANUBIH]]}} &lt;!-- L --&gt; *{{cite book |last=Lajoye |first=Patrice |author-link=Patrice Lajoye |date=2015 |title=Perun, dieu slave de l'orage: Archéologie, histoire, folklore |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=o5LdCgAAQBAJ |language=fr |publisher=Lingva |isbn=979-10-94441-25-1}} *{{cite book|last=Łuczyński|first=Michal|year=2020|title=Bogowie dawnych Słowian: Studium onomastyczne|publisher=Kieleckie Towarzystwo Naukowe|location=Kielce|isbn=978-83-60777-83-1|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=rv-izQEACAAJ|language=pl}} &lt;!-- M --&gt; *{{cite book|author=Ministria e Mjedisit dhe Planifikimit Hapësinor|title=Parku Kombëtar &quot;Sharri&quot; – Plani Hapësinor|publisher=Kosovo Environmental Protection Agency, Institute for Spatial Planning|year=2014|ref={{harvid|Ministria|2014}}}} *{{cite journal |last=Muraj |first=Aleksandra |date=1987 |title=Iz istraživanja Žumberka (preperuše, preslice, tara) |trans-title=From Research on Žumberak (preperuše, spindles, tara) |url=https://hrcak.srce.hr/clanak/76272 |language=hr |journal=Narodna Umjetnost |volume=24 |issue=1 |pages=157–175}} &lt;!-- N --&gt; *{{cite book |last=Nodilo |first=Natko |author-link=Natko Nodilo |date=1981 |orig-date=1884 |title=Stara Vjera Srba i Hrvata |trans-title=Old Faith of Serbs and Croats |url=https://archive.org/details/StaraVjeraSrbaIHrvata/ |language=hr |location=Split |publisher=Logos}} *{{cite book|last=Norris|first=Harry Thirlwall|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=RGmzir-ITtUC&amp;pg=PA34|title=Islam in the Balkans: Religion and Society Between Europe and the Arab World|publisher=University of South Carolina Press|year=1993|isbn=9780872499775|location=Columbia, S.C|pages=211|language=en|oclc=28067651}} &lt;!-- P --&gt; *{{cite book |last=Predojević |first=Željko |date=2019 |chapter=O pučkim postupcima i vjerovanjima za prizivanje kiše iz južne Baranje u kontekstu dvovjerja |trans-chapter=On folk practices and beliefs for invoking rain from southern Baranja in the context of dual belif |chapter-url=https://www.bib.irb.hr/1100049 |title=XIV. međunarodni kroatistički znanstveni skup |editor=István Blazsetin |editor-link=István Blazsetin (born 1963) |location=Pečuh |publisher=Znanstveni zavod Hrvata u Mađarskoj |language=hr |pages=581–593 |isbn=978-963-89731-5-3}} *{{cite book |last=Puchner |first=Walter |author-link=Walter Puchner |date=2009 |title=Studien zur Volkskunde Südosteuropas und des mediterranen Raums |url=https://library.oapen.org/handle/20.500.12657/34402 |location=Wien, Köln, Weimar |publisher=Böhlau Verlag |hdl=20.500.12657/34402 |language=de |isbn=978-3-205-78369-5}} *{{cite book|last1=Puhvel|first1=Jaan|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=OMPagyYOe8gC|title=Comparative Mythology|date=1987|publisher=Johns Hopkins University Press|isbn=978-0-8018-3938-2|author-link=Jaan Puhvel}} &lt;!-- Q --&gt; *{{cite book|last=Qafleshi|first=Muharrem|title=Opoja dhe Gora ndër shekuj|trans-title=Opoja and Gora During Centuries|publisher=[[Albanological Institute of Pristina]]|year=2011|isbn=978-9951-596-51-0}} &lt;!-- S --&gt; *{{cite book|last=Sela|first=Jonida|title=International Conference &quot;Education and Cultural Heritage&quot;|chapter=Values and Traditions in Ritual Dances of All-Year Celebrations in Korça Region, Albania|volume=1|publisher=Association of Heritage and Education|year=2017|pages=62–71}} &lt;!-- T --&gt; *{{cite book|last=Tirta|first=Mark|title=Mitologjia ndër shqiptarë|language=sq|editor=Petrit Bezhani|publisher=Mësonjëtorja|year=2004|place=Tirana|isbn=99927-938-9-9}} &lt;!-- U --&gt; *{{cite book|last=Urbańczyk|first=Stanisław|author-link=Stanisław Urbańczyk|year=1991|title=Dawni Słowianie: wiara i kult|trans-title=Old Slavs: faith and cult|publisher=Ossolineum, Polska Akademia Nauk, Komitet Słowianoznawstwa|location=Kraków|isbn=978-83-04-03825-7|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=4iUtAAAAMAAJ|language=pl}} &lt;!-- W --&gt; *{{cite book|last=Wachtel|first=Andrew Baruch|year=2008|title=The Balkans in World History|publisher=Oxford University Press|location=Oxford, England|isbn=978-0-19-988273-1|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=t6CeBgAAQBAJ}} *{{cite book|last=West|first=M. L.|title=Indo-European Poetry and Myth|publisher=Oxford University Press|year=2007|isbn=978-0-19-928075-9}} &lt;!-- Z --&gt; *{{cite book |last=Zebec |first=Tvrtko |date=2005 |title=Krčki tanci: plesno-etnološka studija |trans-title=Tanac dances on the island of Krk: dance ethnology study |url=https://www.academia.edu/35914079 |location=Zagreb, Rijeka |publisher=Institut za etnologiju i folkloristiku, Adamić |language=hr |isbn=953-219-223-9}} {{refend}} === Further reading === {{refbegin}} * {{ill|Bellosics, Bálint|hu|Bellosics Bálint}}. &quot;[http://real-j.mtak.hu/17297/ Dodola (Adatok az esőcsináláshoz)]&quot; [Dodola, Beiträge zum Regenmachen]. In: ''Ethnographia'' 6 (1895): 418–422. (In Hungarian) *{{cite book |last=Beza |first=Marcu |author-link=Marcu Beza |date=1928 |chapter=The Paparude and Kalojan |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=m2jTDwAAQBAJ |title=Paganism in Roumanian Folklore |location=London |publisher=J.M.Dent &amp; Sons LTD. |pages=27–36|isbn=978-3-8460-4695-1 }} * Boghici, Constantina. &quot;Archaic Elements in the Romanian Spring-Summer Traditions. Landmarks for Dâmboviţa County&quot;. In: ''Bulletin of the Transilvania University of Braşov'', Series VIII: Performing Arts 2 (2013): 17–18. https://ceeol.azurewebsites.net/search/article-detail?id=258246 * {{cite book |last=Cook |first=Arthur Bernard |author-link=Arthur Bernard Cook |date=1940 |chapter=Zeus and the Rain: Rain-magic in modern Greece |title=Zeus: A Study in Ancient Religion: God of the Dark Sky (earthquakes, clouds, wind, dew, rain, meteorites) |volume=3 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=2Yk8AAAAIAAJ |publisher=Cambridge University Press |pages=284–290 |isbn=978-0-511-69664-0 |doi=10.1017/CBO9780511696640}} * {{ill|Dömötör, Tekla|hu|Dömötor Tekla}}; {{ill|Eperjessy, Ernő|hu|Eperjessy Ernő}}. &quot;[http://real-j.mtak.hu/2925/ Dodola and Other Slavonic Folk-Customs in County Baranya (Hungary)]&quot;. In: ''Acta Ethnographica'', 16 (1967): 399–408. * {{cite journal |title=Paparuda |trans-title=Paparuda |first=Mihai |last=Dragnea |publisher=MUZEUL ETNOGRAFIC AL TRANSILVANIEI |journal=Anuarul Muzeului Etnografic al Transilvaniei |date=2012 |issue=6 |pages=73–81 |lang=Romanian}} * {{Cite journal |title=Песента в обреда Пеперуда |trans-title=The Song in the Peperuda Ritual |first=Bozhanka |last=Ganeva |publisher=Институт за етнология и фолклористика с Етнографски музей при БАН |journal=Български фолклор |volume=XXIX |date=2003 |issue=1 |pages=40–49 |lang=BG}} * Janković, Danica S., and Ljubica S. Janković. &quot;Serbian Folk Dance Tradition in Prizren&quot;. In: ''Ethnomusicology'' 6, no. 2 (1962): 117. https://doi.org/10.2307/924671. * {{cite journal |title=Вариантн на обредите Пеперуда и Герман |trans-title=Variants of the Rites Peperuda and German |first=Rusko |last=Kalev |publisher=Институт за етнология и фолклористика с Етнографски музей при БАН |journal=Български фолклор |volume=XII |date=1986 |issue=3 |pages=47–58 |lang=BG}} * {{cite journal |title=Słownictwo związane z wywoływaniem deszczu w dialektach sztokawskich |trans-title=Vocabulary related to rain calling in Shtokavian dialects |first=Agata |last=Kruszec |publisher=Instytut Slawistyki Polskiej Akademii Nauk |journal=Studia z Filologii Polskiej i Słowiańskiej |date=2008 |issue=43 |pages=141–148 |lang=PL}} * Мандич, Мария. &quot;[https://dais.sanu.ac.rs/123456789/7850 &quot;Жизнь&quot; ритуала после &quot;угасания&quot;: Пример додолы из села Сигетчеп в Венгрии]&quot; [The 'life' of an extinguished ritual: The case of the rain ritual dodola from Szigetcsép in Hungary]. In: &quot;Славяноведение&quot; 6 (2019): 15–29. DOI: 10.31857/S0869544X0006755-3 (In Russian) * {{cite book |last1=Marushiakova |first1=E. |last2=Popov |first2=V. |date=2016 |chapter=Roma Culture: Problems and Challenges |editor1-first=E. |editor1-last=Marushiakova |editor2-first=V. |editor2-last=Popov |title=Roma Culture: Myths and Realities |page=48 |location=München |publisher=Lincom Academic Publishers |url=https://www.academia.edu/26969260}} * {{cite journal |title=Женска антропоморфна пластика в два обреда за дъжд от Ямболски окръг |trans-title=Female Anthropomorphic Figures in Two Rain-Making Ceremonies from the District of Yambol |first=Lyubomir |last=Mikov |publisher=Институт за етнология и фолклористика с Етнографски музей при БАН |journal=Български фолклор |volume=XI |date=1985 |issue=4 |pages=19–27 |lang=BG}} * Puchner, Walter. &quot;Liedtextstudien Zur Balkanischen Regenlitanei: Mit Spezieller Berücksichtigung Der Bulgarischen Und Griechischen Varianten&quot;. In: ''Jahrbuch Für Volksliedforschung'' 29 (1984): 100–111. https://doi.org/10.2307/849291. *{{cite book |last=Schneeweis |first=Edmund |date=2019 |orig-date=1961 |title=Serbokroatische Volkskunde: Volksglaube und Volksbrauch |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=bR6bDwAAQBAJ |publisher=Walter de Gruyter GmbH &amp; Co KG |pages=161–163 |language=de |isbn=978-3-11-133764-7}} *{{cite book |last=MacDermott |first=Mercia |author-link=Mercia MacDermott |date=2003 |title=Explore Green Men |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=vT1NAAAAYAAJ |publisher=Heart of Albion Press |pages=17–19 |isbn=978-1-872883-66-3}} *{{citation |title=Dodole |url=https://www.enciklopedija.hr/natuknica.aspx?ID=15709 |author=Croatian Encyclopaedia |author-link=Croatian Encyclopaedia |year=2021}} {{refend}} ===External links=== *{{YouTube|id=X0BgBEtnK4s|title=Dodole ritual on TV in Macedonia}} *{{YouTube|id=aeCQgFUsIKA|title=Reconstruction of Dodole ritual in Bulgaria}} at [[Etar Architectural-Ethnographic Complex]] *{{YouTube|id=n2Vhk_eiwkg|title=&quot;Dodole&quot; song by Croatian ethno-folk rock band Kries}} *[https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=G8O5-a4rCk4 Pirpirouna/Pirpiruna/Perperouna – Rainmaking ritual song], and its [https://www.oeaw.ac.at/fileadmin/kommissionen/vanishinglanguages/Collections/Greek_varieties/Macedonian_Greek/Transcription_pdfs/mace1251TRV0001a_transcription.pdf lyrics], recorded 2016 by Thede Kahl and Andreea Pascaru in Turkey *[https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=evOGzUGT8kc Dodola/Pirpiruna – Rainmaking ritual song, description of the custom] and [https://www.oeaw.ac.at/fileadmin/kommissionen/vanishinglanguages/Collections/Greek_varieties/Macedonian_Greek/Transcription_pdfs/mace1251TRV0001a_transcription.pdf its lyrics], recorded 2020 in Northeast Greece by Sotirios Rousiakis {{Slavic mythology}} [[Category:Albanian folklore]] [[Category:Aromanian culture]] [[Category:Bulgarian folklore]] [[Category:Bulgarian traditions]] [[Category:Croatian folklore]] [[Category:Greek folklore]] [[Category:Macedonian traditions]] [[Category:Moldovan traditions]] [[Category:Rainmaking (ritual)]] [[Category:Romanian folklore]] [[Category:Romanian traditions]] [[Category:Serbian folklore]] [[Category:Serbian traditions]] [[Category:Slavic pseudo-deities]] [[Category:South Slavic culture]]</div></summary> <author><name>Βατο</name></author> </entry> <entry> <id>https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Hora_(dance)&diff=1257575709</id> <title>Hora (dance)</title> <link rel="alternate" type="text/html" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Hora_(dance)&diff=1257575709"/> <updated>2024-11-15T17:06:40Z</updated> <summary type="html">Βατο: clarification <hr /> <div>{{Short description|Form of circle dance originating in Eastern Europe, Asia Minor, Greece and the Balkans}} {{Other uses|Hora (disambiguation){{!}}Hora|Horo (disambiguation){{!}}Horo|Oro (disambiguation){{!}}Oro}} {{More citations needed|date=March 2012}} [[Image:Tanec folk ensemble Macedonia 1.jpg|thumb|right|300px|A traditional oro playing in [[North Macedonia]]]] '''Hora''', also known as '''horo''' and '''oro''', is a type of [[circle dance]] traditionally performed in [[Southeast Europe]]. Circle dances called with similar names are found in [[Bulgaria]], [[Greece]], [[Moldova]], [[North Macedonia]], [[Romania]], and [[Acculturation|culturally adopted]] by [[Minority group|ethnic minorities]] such as the [[Ashkenazi Jews]]&lt;ref name=&quot;:0&quot;&gt;{{cite web |last1=Alpert |first1=Michael |title=Hora (LKT) |url=https://www.jewish-music.huji.ac.il/content/hora-lkt |website=Jewish Music Research Center |publisher=National Library of Israel |access-date=15 April 2021}}&lt;/ref&gt; ([[Yiddish]]: האָרע ''hore''), [[Sephardic Jews]] ([[Judaeo-Spanish|Ladino]]: הורו ''horo'') and the [[Romani people|Roma]]. ==Etymology== The name, spelled differently in various countries, is derived from the [[Greek language|Greek]] {{lang|el|χορός}} (''[[Choros (dance)|khorós]]''): &quot;dance&quot;,&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|title=What a long horo dance!|url=https://bnr.bg/en/post/100150354/what-a-long-horo-dance|access-date=2021-03-08|website=bnr.bg|language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt; which is cognate with the [[Ancient Greek]] art form of {{lang|grc|χορεία}} (''[[Choreia|khoreía]]''). The original meaning of the Greek word {{lang|grc|χορός}} may have been &quot;circle&quot;.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|title=χορός|url=https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%CF%87%CE%BF%CF%81%CF%8C%CF%82|access-date=2021-03-08|website=en.wiktionary.org|language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt; Also, the words ''hora'' and ''oro'' are found in many [[Slavic languages]] and have the meaning of &quot;round (dance)&quot;; the verb ''oriti'' means &quot;to speak, sound, sing&quot; and previously meant &quot;to celebrate&quot;. The [[Greek language|Greek]] {{lang|grc|χορός}} ({{lang|grc-Latn|[[Khoros (dance)|khorós]]}}) is cognate with [[Pontic Greek]] {{lang|pnt|χορόν}} ({{lang|pnt-Latn|[[Horon (dance)|khorón]]}}), and has also given rise to the names of [[Bulgarian language|Bulgarian]] {{lang|bg|хоро}} ({{lang|bg-Latn|horo}}), [[North Slavic Macedonian Language|Macedonian]] {{lang|mk|оро}} ({{lang|mk-Latn|oro}}), [[Romanian language|Romanian]] {{lang|ro|horă}}, {{lang|sh|[[Kolo (dance)|kolo]]}} / {{lang|sh-Cyrl|коло}} in [[Serbo-Croatian|Serbian]], the [[Turkish language|Turkish]] form {{lang|tr|hora}} and in [[Hebrew language|Hebrew]] {{lang|he|הורה|rtl=yes}} ({{lang|he-Latn|horah}}). The {{lang|ka-Latn|[[Khorumi]]}} dance of [[Georgia (country)|Georgia]] also might be connected to the [[Horon (dance)|Horon]] dance in the neighboring Turkish regions, as it rose out of the [[Adjara]] region, where [[Kartvelian languages|Kartvelian]] [[Laz people]] co-existed for centuries with Greek [[Pontians]]. ==Variants== === Romania and Moldova === [[File:Stamp of Moldova md423.jpg|thumb|left]] [[Image:Hora din Dealul Spirei, 1857.jpg|thumb|300px|Dancing the hora on [[Dealul Spirii]] (Spirii Hill), [[Bucharest]] (1857 lithograph)]] '''Horă''' (plural: hore) is a traditional [[Romanians|Romanian]] and [[Moldovans|Moldovan]] folk dance where the dancers hold each other's hands and the circle spins, usually counterclockwise, as each participant follows a sequence of three steps forward and one step back. The dance is usually accompanied by musical instruments such as the [[cymbalom]], [[accordion]], [[violin]], [[viola]], [[double bass]], [[saxophone]], [[trumpet]] or the [[pan pipes]]. The hora is popular during wedding celebrations and festivals, and is an essential part of the social entertainment in rural areas. One of the most famous hore is the &quot;''[[Hora Unirii]]''&quot; (&quot;Hora of the Union&quot;), which became a Romanian patriotic song as a result of being the hymn when [[Wallachia]] and [[Moldavia]] [[Unification of Moldavia and Wallachia|united]] to form the [[Principality of Romania]] in 1859. During the 2006/2007 New Year's Eve celebration, when [[Romania]] and [[Bulgaria]] joined the [[European Union]], people were dancing ''[[Hora Bucuriei]]'' (&quot;Hora of Joy&quot;) over the boulevards of [[Bucharest]] as a tribute to the EU anthem, [[Ode to Joy]] ({{langx|ro|Odă bucuriei}}). Some of the biggest hora circles can be found on early 20th century movies filmed by the [[Yanaki and Milton Manaki|Manaki brothers]] in [[Pindus]], Greece, and performed by local [[Aromanians]]. === Horo in Bulgaria === [[File:Jan Mrkvička-Shopsko horo.jpg|right|thumb|A [[Shopi|Shop]] ''horo'' of Bulgaria]] The traditional [[Bulgarian dances|Bulgarian dance]] '''''[[Kolo (dance)|horo]]''''' ({{langx|bg|хоро}}) comes in many shapes. It is not necessary to be in a circle; a curving line of people is also acceptable. The steps used in a horo dance are extremely diverse. The horo may vary between three and seven or eight steps forward and one to five or six steps back, depending on the specific type. Bulgarians believe that each village has their own type of horo. They differ by the rhythm of the music and the steps taken. There are no two horo dances with similar steps. There are probably over one hundred types of horo dances in the [[Bulgarian folklore]].{{citation needed|date=April 2017}} In the past, the horo dance had a social role in Bulgarian society. It was mainly for fun, as a contest of skills, or for show, leading to the development of the variety of horo dances. There are hora for people with little skill that can be learned in five to ten minutes, but there are also very sophisticated dances that cannot be learned unless one is fluent in many of the simpler dances. === Oro in North Macedonia === [[File:Prilep-fête 1919.jpg|thumb|right|300px|Women in [[Prilep]], playing oro, beginning of the 20th century]] [[North Macedonia]] uses the [[Cyrillic script|Cyrillic]] spelling of '''''oro'''''. The origins of the word oro vary from its use in socializing and celebrating to historical dancing before going into battle. ''Teshkoto'', translated as &quot;The difficult one&quot;, is one of those, danced by men only, the music of which reflects the sorrow and mood of war. The oro is danced in a circle, with men and women holding one another by hand. They are used to celebrating occasions such as weddings, christenings, name-days, national and religious holidays, graduations, and birthdays. === Roma horo === The '''horo''' is also popular among the [[Romani people|Roma]] of [[Southeastern Europe]], and the dancing is practically the same as that of the neighboring ethnicities. Roma Horos, and [[Romani music|Roma music]] in general, are very much appreciated among the non-Roma in the [[Balkans]], as they also have a reputation as skillful performers of other people's folk music. === Jewish horah === {{JewishMusic}} ==== Klezmer horah ==== In [[klezmer]] music, the horah refers to a circle dance. The horah has a slow, limping gait in triple meter, often three/eight time ([[3/8 time|{{music|time|3|8}}]]), and generally leads into a faster and more upbeat duple meter, usually a [[Klezmer#Song types|freylekh]] or a [[Klezmer#Song types|bulgar]]. Among Yiddish-speaking Jews, the triple-meter horah has also been called ''zhok'' (Romanian ''joc'', 'dance') or ''krumer tants'' (Yiddish: 'crooked dance').&lt;ref name=&quot;:0&quot; /&gt; ==== Israeli horah ==== The '''horah''' (הורה), which differs somewhat from that of some of the Eastern European countries, is widespread in the [[Jewish diaspora]] and played a foundational role in modern [[Israeli folk dancing]]. It became the symbol of the reconstruction of the country by the socialistic-agricultural Zionist movement.&lt;ref name=&quot;:1&quot; /&gt; Although considered traditional, some claim it rose to popularity due to Hora Agadati, named after dancer and choreographer [[Baruch Agadati]] and performed for the first time in 1924.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite news |last=Sernovitz |first=Gary |date=2012-06-29 |title=I Do Not Want To Dance the Hora |language=en-US |work=Slate |url=https://slate.com/human-interest/2012/06/hora-and-my-jewish-wedding-forget-tradition-i-will-not-dance.html |access-date= |issn=1091-2339}}&lt;/ref&gt; According to [[Gurit Kadman]], the original melody was a Moldavian folk tune, which in mid-1940s was recognized by composer [[Uriya Boskovitz]] as an anti-Semitic one,{{clarify |Seldom such a thing. Folk songs often got adapted by either political parties or commercial companies and received a new &quot;message&quot;, see tune of Hatikva. But not impossible. Pls clarify. |date= February 2024}} and Gurit asked Boskovitz to write a new one. About the same time [[Ze’ev Havatselet]] wrote a lyrics to the tune&lt;ref&gt;[http://www.israelidances.com/horaagadati.asp &quot;Hora Agadati&quot;], israelidances.com&lt;/ref&gt; (found, e.g., in the [[Library of Congress]]&lt;ref&gt;[https://catalog.loc.gov/vwebv/search?searchCode=LCCN&amp;searchArg=2018571206&amp;searchType=1&amp;permalink=y &quot;Shire Zeʼev Ḥavatselet - The songs of Zeev Havatselet&quot;]&lt;/ref&gt;). Now the dance is usually performed to [[Music of Israel#Musical characteristics of the Israeli style|Israeli folk songs]], and sometimes to Jewish songs, often to the music of &quot;[[Hava Nagila]]&quot;. To start the dance, everybody forms a circle, holding hands or interlocking arms behind their backs or on their shoulders,&lt;ref name=&quot;:1&quot;&gt;{{Cite web | url=https://www.jewishvirtuallibrary.org/jsource/judaica/ejud_0002_0009_0_09187.html |title = Horah}}&lt;/ref&gt; and steps forward toward the left with the right foot, then follows with the left foot. The right foot is then brought back, followed by the left foot. This is done while holding hands and circling together in a fast and cheerful motion to the left. Large groups allow for the creation of several [[concentric]] circles, or a large spiral formation. In the early days, horah was popular mainly in [[kibbutz]]im and small communities, often continuing for hours.&lt;ref&gt;[http://forward.com/articles/12226/hora-history-/ Hora history]&lt;/ref&gt; The horah became popular in group dances throughout [[Israel]], and at weddings and other celebrations by Jews in Israel, the [[United States]], [[United Kingdom]], and [[Canada]]. The dance appeared in North America in the early 20th century, well before modern Israeli independence, brought directly from Eastern Europe by Jewish immigrants. At Jewish weddings during the horah it is customary to raise the bride and groom, each on their own chair and holding a handkerchief between them, following Jewish tradition. This is also done at [[Bar and bat mitzvah|b'nai mitzvah]], where the honoree and sometimes his or her family members are also raised on a chair, copying the wedding tradition. The song &quot;[[Hora (song)|Hora]]&quot;, sung by [[Avi Toledano]], who represented Israel in the [[Eurovision Song Contest 1982]], is based on this dance. ===Other variants=== ==== Horon in Turkey ==== [[Horon (dance)|Horon]] in several variants is danced in [[Black Sea Region]] / [[Pontus (region)|Pontos]] of modern-day [[Turkey]].&lt;!--copied from [[Horon]] lede--&gt;{{cn|date=April 2022}} ==== Oro in Montenegro ==== The '''oro''' ({{lang-sr-Cyrl|оро}}) circle dance should not be confused with the [[Montenegrin Oro]] dance of [[Montenegro]] and [[Herzegovina]], which is a paired courtship dance. Its name comes from the [[Serbian language|Serbian]] ''оrао'', meaning &quot;eagle&quot;. ====Perinița==== {{Main|Perinița}} Perinița is a traditional Romanian wedding folk dance. The dance is typical in the [[Muntenia]] region.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |last1= |date=9 April 2016 |title=&quot;Perinita&quot; – the Romanian traditional love dance |url=https://www.imperialtransilvania.com/read-more/argomenti/traditions/articolo/perinita-the-romanian-traditional-love-dance.html |access-date=10 September 2021 |website=ImperialTransilvania |publisher=}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |last1= |date=3 December 2018 |title=Perinita (L*) – Romanian version of a Pan-European Party/Wedding Dance |url=https://folkdancefootnotes.org/dance/a-real-folk-dance-what-is-it/about/perinita-another-romanian-wedding-dance/ |access-date=10 September 2021 |website=Folkdance Footnotes |publisher= |language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt; == See also == * [[Adana (dance)]], a Macedonian oro * [[An Dro]], a [[Brittany|Breton]] circle dance * [[Attan]], a dance performed by Pashtun people in Afghanistan and Pakistan * [[Circle dance]] * [[Dabke]] * [[Faroese dance]] * [[Horae]] * [[Khigga]], an [[Assyrian people|Assyrian]] circle dance * [[Khorovod]], an Eastern European circle dance * [[Kochari]] * [[Kolo (dance)]], Serbian, Croatian and Bosnian circle dance * {{ill|Kola (dance)|ru|Кола (танец)}}, Belarusian circle dance * [[Syrtos]] * [[Tamzara]] * [[Tresenica]], a Macedonian oro performed by women * [[Yalli]] ==References== {{Reflist}} {{Circle dance}} {{Turkish dances}} {{Balkan music}} [[Category:Circle dances]] [[Category:European folk dances]] [[Category:Romanian folk dances]] [[Category:Moldovan folk dances]] [[Category:Turkish dances]] [[Category:Greek dances]] [[Category:Macedonian dances]] [[Category:Klezmer]] [[Category:Dance in Israel]] [[Category:Slavic carnival]] [[Category:Bulgarian dances]]</div></summary> <author><name>Βατο</name></author> </entry> <entry> <id>https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Hora_(dance)&diff=1257575471</id> <title>Hora (dance)</title> <link rel="alternate" type="text/html" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Hora_(dance)&diff=1257575471"/> <updated>2024-11-15T17:05:09Z</updated> <summary type="html">Βατο: removed obviously inaccurate original research <hr /> <div>{{Short description|Form of circle dance originating in Eastern Europe, Asia Minor, Greece and the Balkans}} {{Other uses|Hora (disambiguation){{!}}Hora|Horo (disambiguation){{!}}Horo|Oro (disambiguation){{!}}Oro}} {{More citations needed|date=March 2012}} [[Image:Tanec folk ensemble Macedonia 1.jpg|thumb|right|300px|A traditional oro playing in [[North Macedonia]]]] '''Hora''', also known as '''horo''' and '''oro''', is a type of [[circle dance]] traditionally performed in [[Southeast Europe]]. It is found with similar names in [[Bulgaria]], [[Greece]], [[Moldova]], [[North Macedonia]], [[Romania]], and [[Acculturation|culturally adopted]] by [[Minority group|ethnic minorities]] such as the [[Ashkenazi Jews]]&lt;ref name=&quot;:0&quot;&gt;{{cite web |last1=Alpert |first1=Michael |title=Hora (LKT) |url=https://www.jewish-music.huji.ac.il/content/hora-lkt |website=Jewish Music Research Center |publisher=National Library of Israel |access-date=15 April 2021}}&lt;/ref&gt; ([[Yiddish]]: האָרע ''hore''), [[Sephardic Jews]] ([[Judaeo-Spanish|Ladino]]: הורו ''horo'') and the [[Romani people|Roma]]. ==Etymology== The name, spelled differently in various countries, is derived from the [[Greek language|Greek]] {{lang|el|χορός}} (''[[Choros (dance)|khorós]]''): &quot;dance&quot;,&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|title=What a long horo dance!|url=https://bnr.bg/en/post/100150354/what-a-long-horo-dance|access-date=2021-03-08|website=bnr.bg|language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt; which is cognate with the [[Ancient Greek]] art form of {{lang|grc|χορεία}} (''[[Choreia|khoreía]]''). The original meaning of the Greek word {{lang|grc|χορός}} may have been &quot;circle&quot;.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|title=χορός|url=https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%CF%87%CE%BF%CF%81%CF%8C%CF%82|access-date=2021-03-08|website=en.wiktionary.org|language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt; Also, the words ''hora'' and ''oro'' are found in many [[Slavic languages]] and have the meaning of &quot;round (dance)&quot;; the verb ''oriti'' means &quot;to speak, sound, sing&quot; and previously meant &quot;to celebrate&quot;. The [[Greek language|Greek]] {{lang|grc|χορός}} ({{lang|grc-Latn|[[Khoros (dance)|khorós]]}}) is cognate with [[Pontic Greek]] {{lang|pnt|χορόν}} ({{lang|pnt-Latn|[[Horon (dance)|khorón]]}}), and has also given rise to the names of [[Bulgarian language|Bulgarian]] {{lang|bg|хоро}} ({{lang|bg-Latn|horo}}), [[North Slavic Macedonian Language|Macedonian]] {{lang|mk|оро}} ({{lang|mk-Latn|oro}}), [[Romanian language|Romanian]] {{lang|ro|horă}}, {{lang|sh|[[Kolo (dance)|kolo]]}} / {{lang|sh-Cyrl|коло}} in [[Serbo-Croatian|Serbian]], the [[Turkish language|Turkish]] form {{lang|tr|hora}} and in [[Hebrew language|Hebrew]] {{lang|he|הורה|rtl=yes}} ({{lang|he-Latn|horah}}). The {{lang|ka-Latn|[[Khorumi]]}} dance of [[Georgia (country)|Georgia]] also might be connected to the [[Horon (dance)|Horon]] dance in the neighboring Turkish regions, as it rose out of the [[Adjara]] region, where [[Kartvelian languages|Kartvelian]] [[Laz people]] co-existed for centuries with Greek [[Pontians]]. ==Variants== === Romania and Moldova === [[File:Stamp of Moldova md423.jpg|thumb|left]] [[Image:Hora din Dealul Spirei, 1857.jpg|thumb|300px|Dancing the hora on [[Dealul Spirii]] (Spirii Hill), [[Bucharest]] (1857 lithograph)]] '''Horă''' (plural: hore) is a traditional [[Romanians|Romanian]] and [[Moldovans|Moldovan]] folk dance where the dancers hold each other's hands and the circle spins, usually counterclockwise, as each participant follows a sequence of three steps forward and one step back. The dance is usually accompanied by musical instruments such as the [[cymbalom]], [[accordion]], [[violin]], [[viola]], [[double bass]], [[saxophone]], [[trumpet]] or the [[pan pipes]]. The hora is popular during wedding celebrations and festivals, and is an essential part of the social entertainment in rural areas. One of the most famous hore is the &quot;''[[Hora Unirii]]''&quot; (&quot;Hora of the Union&quot;), which became a Romanian patriotic song as a result of being the hymn when [[Wallachia]] and [[Moldavia]] [[Unification of Moldavia and Wallachia|united]] to form the [[Principality of Romania]] in 1859. During the 2006/2007 New Year's Eve celebration, when [[Romania]] and [[Bulgaria]] joined the [[European Union]], people were dancing ''[[Hora Bucuriei]]'' (&quot;Hora of Joy&quot;) over the boulevards of [[Bucharest]] as a tribute to the EU anthem, [[Ode to Joy]] ({{langx|ro|Odă bucuriei}}). Some of the biggest hora circles can be found on early 20th century movies filmed by the [[Yanaki and Milton Manaki|Manaki brothers]] in [[Pindus]], Greece, and performed by local [[Aromanians]]. === Horo in Bulgaria === [[File:Jan Mrkvička-Shopsko horo.jpg|right|thumb|A [[Shopi|Shop]] ''horo'' of Bulgaria]] The traditional [[Bulgarian dances|Bulgarian dance]] '''''[[Kolo (dance)|horo]]''''' ({{langx|bg|хоро}}) comes in many shapes. It is not necessary to be in a circle; a curving line of people is also acceptable. The steps used in a horo dance are extremely diverse. The horo may vary between three and seven or eight steps forward and one to five or six steps back, depending on the specific type. Bulgarians believe that each village has their own type of horo. They differ by the rhythm of the music and the steps taken. There are no two horo dances with similar steps. There are probably over one hundred types of horo dances in the [[Bulgarian folklore]].{{citation needed|date=April 2017}} In the past, the horo dance had a social role in Bulgarian society. It was mainly for fun, as a contest of skills, or for show, leading to the development of the variety of horo dances. There are hora for people with little skill that can be learned in five to ten minutes, but there are also very sophisticated dances that cannot be learned unless one is fluent in many of the simpler dances. === Oro in North Macedonia === [[File:Prilep-fête 1919.jpg|thumb|right|300px|Women in [[Prilep]], playing oro, beginning of the 20th century]] [[North Macedonia]] uses the [[Cyrillic script|Cyrillic]] spelling of '''''oro'''''. The origins of the word oro vary from its use in socializing and celebrating to historical dancing before going into battle. ''Teshkoto'', translated as &quot;The difficult one&quot;, is one of those, danced by men only, the music of which reflects the sorrow and mood of war. The oro is danced in a circle, with men and women holding one another by hand. They are used to celebrating occasions such as weddings, christenings, name-days, national and religious holidays, graduations, and birthdays. === Roma horo === The '''horo''' is also popular among the [[Romani people|Roma]] of [[Southeastern Europe]], and the dancing is practically the same as that of the neighboring ethnicities. Roma Horos, and [[Romani music|Roma music]] in general, are very much appreciated among the non-Roma in the [[Balkans]], as they also have a reputation as skillful performers of other people's folk music. === Jewish horah === {{JewishMusic}} ==== Klezmer horah ==== In [[klezmer]] music, the horah refers to a circle dance. The horah has a slow, limping gait in triple meter, often three/eight time ([[3/8 time|{{music|time|3|8}}]]), and generally leads into a faster and more upbeat duple meter, usually a [[Klezmer#Song types|freylekh]] or a [[Klezmer#Song types|bulgar]]. Among Yiddish-speaking Jews, the triple-meter horah has also been called ''zhok'' (Romanian ''joc'', 'dance') or ''krumer tants'' (Yiddish: 'crooked dance').&lt;ref name=&quot;:0&quot; /&gt; ==== Israeli horah ==== The '''horah''' (הורה), which differs somewhat from that of some of the Eastern European countries, is widespread in the [[Jewish diaspora]] and played a foundational role in modern [[Israeli folk dancing]]. It became the symbol of the reconstruction of the country by the socialistic-agricultural Zionist movement.&lt;ref name=&quot;:1&quot; /&gt; Although considered traditional, some claim it rose to popularity due to Hora Agadati, named after dancer and choreographer [[Baruch Agadati]] and performed for the first time in 1924.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite news |last=Sernovitz |first=Gary |date=2012-06-29 |title=I Do Not Want To Dance the Hora |language=en-US |work=Slate |url=https://slate.com/human-interest/2012/06/hora-and-my-jewish-wedding-forget-tradition-i-will-not-dance.html |access-date= |issn=1091-2339}}&lt;/ref&gt; According to [[Gurit Kadman]], the original melody was a Moldavian folk tune, which in mid-1940s was recognized by composer [[Uriya Boskovitz]] as an anti-Semitic one,{{clarify |Seldom such a thing. Folk songs often got adapted by either political parties or commercial companies and received a new &quot;message&quot;, see tune of Hatikva. But not impossible. Pls clarify. |date= February 2024}} and Gurit asked Boskovitz to write a new one. About the same time [[Ze’ev Havatselet]] wrote a lyrics to the tune&lt;ref&gt;[http://www.israelidances.com/horaagadati.asp &quot;Hora Agadati&quot;], israelidances.com&lt;/ref&gt; (found, e.g., in the [[Library of Congress]]&lt;ref&gt;[https://catalog.loc.gov/vwebv/search?searchCode=LCCN&amp;searchArg=2018571206&amp;searchType=1&amp;permalink=y &quot;Shire Zeʼev Ḥavatselet - The songs of Zeev Havatselet&quot;]&lt;/ref&gt;). Now the dance is usually performed to [[Music of Israel#Musical characteristics of the Israeli style|Israeli folk songs]], and sometimes to Jewish songs, often to the music of &quot;[[Hava Nagila]]&quot;. To start the dance, everybody forms a circle, holding hands or interlocking arms behind their backs or on their shoulders,&lt;ref name=&quot;:1&quot;&gt;{{Cite web | url=https://www.jewishvirtuallibrary.org/jsource/judaica/ejud_0002_0009_0_09187.html |title = Horah}}&lt;/ref&gt; and steps forward toward the left with the right foot, then follows with the left foot. The right foot is then brought back, followed by the left foot. This is done while holding hands and circling together in a fast and cheerful motion to the left. Large groups allow for the creation of several [[concentric]] circles, or a large spiral formation. In the early days, horah was popular mainly in [[kibbutz]]im and small communities, often continuing for hours.&lt;ref&gt;[http://forward.com/articles/12226/hora-history-/ Hora history]&lt;/ref&gt; The horah became popular in group dances throughout [[Israel]], and at weddings and other celebrations by Jews in Israel, the [[United States]], [[United Kingdom]], and [[Canada]]. The dance appeared in North America in the early 20th century, well before modern Israeli independence, brought directly from Eastern Europe by Jewish immigrants. At Jewish weddings during the horah it is customary to raise the bride and groom, each on their own chair and holding a handkerchief between them, following Jewish tradition. This is also done at [[Bar and bat mitzvah|b'nai mitzvah]], where the honoree and sometimes his or her family members are also raised on a chair, copying the wedding tradition. The song &quot;[[Hora (song)|Hora]]&quot;, sung by [[Avi Toledano]], who represented Israel in the [[Eurovision Song Contest 1982]], is based on this dance. ===Other variants=== ==== Horon in Turkey ==== [[Horon (dance)|Horon]] in several variants is danced in [[Black Sea Region]] / [[Pontus (region)|Pontos]] of modern-day [[Turkey]].&lt;!--copied from [[Horon]] lede--&gt;{{cn|date=April 2022}} ==== Oro in Montenegro ==== The '''oro''' ({{lang-sr-Cyrl|оро}}) circle dance should not be confused with the [[Montenegrin Oro]] dance of [[Montenegro]] and [[Herzegovina]], which is a paired courtship dance. Its name comes from the [[Serbian language|Serbian]] ''оrао'', meaning &quot;eagle&quot;. ====Perinița==== {{Main|Perinița}} Perinița is a traditional Romanian wedding folk dance. The dance is typical in the [[Muntenia]] region.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |last1= |date=9 April 2016 |title=&quot;Perinita&quot; – the Romanian traditional love dance |url=https://www.imperialtransilvania.com/read-more/argomenti/traditions/articolo/perinita-the-romanian-traditional-love-dance.html |access-date=10 September 2021 |website=ImperialTransilvania |publisher=}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |last1= |date=3 December 2018 |title=Perinita (L*) – Romanian version of a Pan-European Party/Wedding Dance |url=https://folkdancefootnotes.org/dance/a-real-folk-dance-what-is-it/about/perinita-another-romanian-wedding-dance/ |access-date=10 September 2021 |website=Folkdance Footnotes |publisher= |language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt; == See also == * [[Adana (dance)]], a Macedonian oro * [[An Dro]], a [[Brittany|Breton]] circle dance * [[Attan]], a dance performed by Pashtun people in Afghanistan and Pakistan * [[Circle dance]] * [[Dabke]] * [[Faroese dance]] * [[Horae]] * [[Khigga]], an [[Assyrian people|Assyrian]] circle dance * [[Khorovod]], an Eastern European circle dance * [[Kochari]] * [[Kolo (dance)]], Serbian, Croatian and Bosnian circle dance * {{ill|Kola (dance)|ru|Кола (танец)}}, Belarusian circle dance * [[Syrtos]] * [[Tamzara]] * [[Tresenica]], a Macedonian oro performed by women * [[Yalli]] ==References== {{Reflist}} {{Circle dance}} {{Turkish dances}} {{Balkan music}} [[Category:Circle dances]] [[Category:European folk dances]] [[Category:Romanian folk dances]] [[Category:Moldovan folk dances]] [[Category:Turkish dances]] [[Category:Greek dances]] [[Category:Macedonian dances]] [[Category:Klezmer]] [[Category:Dance in Israel]] [[Category:Slavic carnival]] [[Category:Bulgarian dances]]</div></summary> <author><name>Βατο</name></author> </entry> <entry> <id>https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Hora_(dance)&diff=1257575258</id> <title>Hora (dance)</title> <link rel="alternate" type="text/html" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Hora_(dance)&diff=1257575258"/> <updated>2024-11-15T17:03:44Z</updated> <summary type="html">Βατο: slight rephrasing <hr /> <div>{{Short description|Form of circle dance originating in Eastern Europe, Asia Minor, Greece and the Balkans}} {{Other uses|Hora (disambiguation){{!}}Hora|Horo (disambiguation){{!}}Horo|Oro (disambiguation){{!}}Oro}} {{More citations needed|date=March 2012}} [[Image:Tanec folk ensemble Macedonia 1.jpg|thumb|right|300px|A traditional oro playing in [[North Macedonia]]]] '''Hora''', also known as '''horo''' and '''oro''', is a type of [[circle dance]] traditionally performed in [[Southeast Europe]]. It is found with similar names in [[Bulgaria]], [[Greece]], [[Moldova]], [[North Macedonia]], [[Romania]], and [[Acculturation|culturally adopted]] by [[Minority group|ethnic minorities]] such as the [[Ashkenazi Jews]]&lt;ref name=&quot;:0&quot;&gt;{{cite web |last1=Alpert |first1=Michael |title=Hora (LKT) |url=https://www.jewish-music.huji.ac.il/content/hora-lkt |website=Jewish Music Research Center |publisher=National Library of Israel |access-date=15 April 2021}}&lt;/ref&gt; ([[Yiddish]]: האָרע ''hore''), [[Sephardic Jews]] ([[Judaeo-Spanish|Ladino]]: הורו ''horo'') and the [[Romani people|Roma]]. ==Etymology== The name, spelled differently in various countries, is derived from the [[Greek language|Greek]] {{lang|el|χορός}} (''[[Choros (dance)|khorós]]''): &quot;dance&quot;,&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|title=What a long horo dance!|url=https://bnr.bg/en/post/100150354/what-a-long-horo-dance|access-date=2021-03-08|website=bnr.bg|language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt; which is cognate with the [[Ancient Greek]] art form of {{lang|grc|χορεία}} (''[[Choreia|khoreía]]''). The original meaning of the Greek word {{lang|grc|χορός}} may have been &quot;circle&quot;.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|title=χορός|url=https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%CF%87%CE%BF%CF%81%CF%8C%CF%82|access-date=2021-03-08|website=en.wiktionary.org|language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt; Also, the words ''hora'' and ''oro'' are found in many [[Slavic languages]] and have the meaning of &quot;round (dance)&quot;; the verb ''oriti'' means &quot;to speak, sound, sing&quot; and previously meant &quot;to celebrate&quot;. The [[Greek language|Greek]] {{lang|grc|χορός}} ({{lang|grc-Latn|[[Khoros (dance)|khorós]]}}) is cognate with [[Pontic Greek]] {{lang|pnt|χορόν}} ({{lang|pnt-Latn|[[Horon (dance)|khorón]]}}), and has also given rise to the names of [[Bulgarian language|Bulgarian]] {{lang|bg|хоро}} ({{lang|bg-Latn|horo}}), [[North Slavic Macedonian Language|Macedonian]] {{lang|mk|оро}} ({{lang|mk-Latn|oro}}), [[Romanian language|Romanian]] {{lang|ro|horă}}, {{lang|sh|[[Kolo (dance)|kolo]]}} / {{lang|sh-Cyrl|коло}} in [[Serbo-Croatian|Serbian]], the [[Turkish language|Turkish]] form {{lang|tr|hora}} and in [[Hebrew language|Hebrew]] {{lang|he|הורה|rtl=yes}} ({{lang|he-Latn|horah}}). The {{lang|ka-Latn|[[Khorumi]]}} dance of [[Georgia (country)|Georgia]] also might be connected to the [[Horon (dance)|Horon]] dance in the neighboring Turkish regions, as it rose out of the [[Adjara]] region, where [[Kartvelian languages|Kartvelian]] [[Laz people]] co-existed for centuries with Greek [[Pontians]]. Overall, Horos has its origins in ancient Greece and Greek culture and tradition, it has spread to areas heavily influenced by the Greek culture and were part of the [[Byzantine Empire]], these areas include most of the Balkans, Turkey, and [[Middle East]]. ==Variants== === Romania and Moldova === [[File:Stamp of Moldova md423.jpg|thumb|left]] [[Image:Hora din Dealul Spirei, 1857.jpg|thumb|300px|Dancing the hora on [[Dealul Spirii]] (Spirii Hill), [[Bucharest]] (1857 lithograph)]] '''Horă''' (plural: hore) is a traditional [[Romanians|Romanian]] and [[Moldovans|Moldovan]] folk dance where the dancers hold each other's hands and the circle spins, usually counterclockwise, as each participant follows a sequence of three steps forward and one step back. The dance is usually accompanied by musical instruments such as the [[cymbalom]], [[accordion]], [[violin]], [[viola]], [[double bass]], [[saxophone]], [[trumpet]] or the [[pan pipes]]. The hora is popular during wedding celebrations and festivals, and is an essential part of the social entertainment in rural areas. One of the most famous hore is the &quot;''[[Hora Unirii]]''&quot; (&quot;Hora of the Union&quot;), which became a Romanian patriotic song as a result of being the hymn when [[Wallachia]] and [[Moldavia]] [[Unification of Moldavia and Wallachia|united]] to form the [[Principality of Romania]] in 1859. During the 2006/2007 New Year's Eve celebration, when [[Romania]] and [[Bulgaria]] joined the [[European Union]], people were dancing ''[[Hora Bucuriei]]'' (&quot;Hora of Joy&quot;) over the boulevards of [[Bucharest]] as a tribute to the EU anthem, [[Ode to Joy]] ({{langx|ro|Odă bucuriei}}). Some of the biggest hora circles can be found on early 20th century movies filmed by the [[Yanaki and Milton Manaki|Manaki brothers]] in [[Pindus]], Greece, and performed by local [[Aromanians]]. === Horo in Bulgaria === [[File:Jan Mrkvička-Shopsko horo.jpg|right|thumb|A [[Shopi|Shop]] ''horo'' of Bulgaria]] The traditional [[Bulgarian dances|Bulgarian dance]] '''''[[Kolo (dance)|horo]]''''' ({{langx|bg|хоро}}) comes in many shapes. It is not necessary to be in a circle; a curving line of people is also acceptable. The steps used in a horo dance are extremely diverse. The horo may vary between three and seven or eight steps forward and one to five or six steps back, depending on the specific type. Bulgarians believe that each village has their own type of horo. They differ by the rhythm of the music and the steps taken. There are no two horo dances with similar steps. There are probably over one hundred types of horo dances in the [[Bulgarian folklore]].{{citation needed|date=April 2017}} In the past, the horo dance had a social role in Bulgarian society. It was mainly for fun, as a contest of skills, or for show, leading to the development of the variety of horo dances. There are hora for people with little skill that can be learned in five to ten minutes, but there are also very sophisticated dances that cannot be learned unless one is fluent in many of the simpler dances. === Oro in North Macedonia === [[File:Prilep-fête 1919.jpg|thumb|right|300px|Women in [[Prilep]], playing oro, beginning of the 20th century]] [[North Macedonia]] uses the [[Cyrillic script|Cyrillic]] spelling of '''''oro'''''. The origins of the word oro vary from its use in socializing and celebrating to historical dancing before going into battle. ''Teshkoto'', translated as &quot;The difficult one&quot;, is one of those, danced by men only, the music of which reflects the sorrow and mood of war. The oro is danced in a circle, with men and women holding one another by hand. They are used to celebrating occasions such as weddings, christenings, name-days, national and religious holidays, graduations, and birthdays. === Roma horo === The '''horo''' is also popular among the [[Romani people|Roma]] of [[Southeastern Europe]], and the dancing is practically the same as that of the neighboring ethnicities. Roma Horos, and [[Romani music|Roma music]] in general, are very much appreciated among the non-Roma in the [[Balkans]], as they also have a reputation as skillful performers of other people's folk music. === Jewish horah === {{JewishMusic}} ==== Klezmer horah ==== In [[klezmer]] music, the horah refers to a circle dance. The horah has a slow, limping gait in triple meter, often three/eight time ([[3/8 time|{{music|time|3|8}}]]), and generally leads into a faster and more upbeat duple meter, usually a [[Klezmer#Song types|freylekh]] or a [[Klezmer#Song types|bulgar]]. Among Yiddish-speaking Jews, the triple-meter horah has also been called ''zhok'' (Romanian ''joc'', 'dance') or ''krumer tants'' (Yiddish: 'crooked dance').&lt;ref name=&quot;:0&quot; /&gt; ==== Israeli horah ==== The '''horah''' (הורה), which differs somewhat from that of some of the Eastern European countries, is widespread in the [[Jewish diaspora]] and played a foundational role in modern [[Israeli folk dancing]]. It became the symbol of the reconstruction of the country by the socialistic-agricultural Zionist movement.&lt;ref name=&quot;:1&quot; /&gt; Although considered traditional, some claim it rose to popularity due to Hora Agadati, named after dancer and choreographer [[Baruch Agadati]] and performed for the first time in 1924.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite news |last=Sernovitz |first=Gary |date=2012-06-29 |title=I Do Not Want To Dance the Hora |language=en-US |work=Slate |url=https://slate.com/human-interest/2012/06/hora-and-my-jewish-wedding-forget-tradition-i-will-not-dance.html |access-date= |issn=1091-2339}}&lt;/ref&gt; According to [[Gurit Kadman]], the original melody was a Moldavian folk tune, which in mid-1940s was recognized by composer [[Uriya Boskovitz]] as an anti-Semitic one,{{clarify |Seldom such a thing. Folk songs often got adapted by either political parties or commercial companies and received a new &quot;message&quot;, see tune of Hatikva. But not impossible. Pls clarify. |date= February 2024}} and Gurit asked Boskovitz to write a new one. About the same time [[Ze’ev Havatselet]] wrote a lyrics to the tune&lt;ref&gt;[http://www.israelidances.com/horaagadati.asp &quot;Hora Agadati&quot;], israelidances.com&lt;/ref&gt; (found, e.g., in the [[Library of Congress]]&lt;ref&gt;[https://catalog.loc.gov/vwebv/search?searchCode=LCCN&amp;searchArg=2018571206&amp;searchType=1&amp;permalink=y &quot;Shire Zeʼev Ḥavatselet - The songs of Zeev Havatselet&quot;]&lt;/ref&gt;). Now the dance is usually performed to [[Music of Israel#Musical characteristics of the Israeli style|Israeli folk songs]], and sometimes to Jewish songs, often to the music of &quot;[[Hava Nagila]]&quot;. To start the dance, everybody forms a circle, holding hands or interlocking arms behind their backs or on their shoulders,&lt;ref name=&quot;:1&quot;&gt;{{Cite web | url=https://www.jewishvirtuallibrary.org/jsource/judaica/ejud_0002_0009_0_09187.html |title = Horah}}&lt;/ref&gt; and steps forward toward the left with the right foot, then follows with the left foot. The right foot is then brought back, followed by the left foot. This is done while holding hands and circling together in a fast and cheerful motion to the left. Large groups allow for the creation of several [[concentric]] circles, or a large spiral formation. In the early days, horah was popular mainly in [[kibbutz]]im and small communities, often continuing for hours.&lt;ref&gt;[http://forward.com/articles/12226/hora-history-/ Hora history]&lt;/ref&gt; The horah became popular in group dances throughout [[Israel]], and at weddings and other celebrations by Jews in Israel, the [[United States]], [[United Kingdom]], and [[Canada]]. The dance appeared in North America in the early 20th century, well before modern Israeli independence, brought directly from Eastern Europe by Jewish immigrants. At Jewish weddings during the horah it is customary to raise the bride and groom, each on their own chair and holding a handkerchief between them, following Jewish tradition. This is also done at [[Bar and bat mitzvah|b'nai mitzvah]], where the honoree and sometimes his or her family members are also raised on a chair, copying the wedding tradition. The song &quot;[[Hora (song)|Hora]]&quot;, sung by [[Avi Toledano]], who represented Israel in the [[Eurovision Song Contest 1982]], is based on this dance. ===Other variants=== ==== Horon in Turkey ==== [[Horon (dance)|Horon]] in several variants is danced in [[Black Sea Region]] / [[Pontus (region)|Pontos]] of modern-day [[Turkey]].&lt;!--copied from [[Horon]] lede--&gt;{{cn|date=April 2022}} ==== Oro in Montenegro ==== The '''oro''' ({{lang-sr-Cyrl|оро}}) circle dance should not be confused with the [[Montenegrin Oro]] dance of [[Montenegro]] and [[Herzegovina]], which is a paired courtship dance. Its name comes from the [[Serbian language|Serbian]] ''оrао'', meaning &quot;eagle&quot;. ====Perinița==== {{Main|Perinița}} Perinița is a traditional Romanian wedding folk dance. The dance is typical in the [[Muntenia]] region.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |last1= |date=9 April 2016 |title=&quot;Perinita&quot; – the Romanian traditional love dance |url=https://www.imperialtransilvania.com/read-more/argomenti/traditions/articolo/perinita-the-romanian-traditional-love-dance.html |access-date=10 September 2021 |website=ImperialTransilvania |publisher=}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |last1= |date=3 December 2018 |title=Perinita (L*) – Romanian version of a Pan-European Party/Wedding Dance |url=https://folkdancefootnotes.org/dance/a-real-folk-dance-what-is-it/about/perinita-another-romanian-wedding-dance/ |access-date=10 September 2021 |website=Folkdance Footnotes |publisher= |language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt; == See also == * [[Adana (dance)]], a Macedonian oro * [[An Dro]], a [[Brittany|Breton]] circle dance * [[Attan]], a dance performed by Pashtun people in Afghanistan and Pakistan * [[Circle dance]] * [[Dabke]] * [[Faroese dance]] * [[Horae]] * [[Khigga]], an [[Assyrian people|Assyrian]] circle dance * [[Khorovod]], an Eastern European circle dance * [[Kochari]] * [[Kolo (dance)]], Serbian, Croatian and Bosnian circle dance * {{ill|Kola (dance)|ru|Кола (танец)}}, Belarusian circle dance * [[Syrtos]] * [[Tamzara]] * [[Tresenica]], a Macedonian oro performed by women * [[Yalli]] ==References== {{Reflist}} {{Circle dance}} {{Turkish dances}} {{Balkan music}} [[Category:Circle dances]] [[Category:European folk dances]] [[Category:Romanian folk dances]] [[Category:Moldovan folk dances]] [[Category:Turkish dances]] [[Category:Greek dances]] [[Category:Macedonian dances]] [[Category:Klezmer]] [[Category:Dance in Israel]] [[Category:Slavic carnival]] [[Category:Bulgarian dances]]</div></summary> <author><name>Βατο</name></author> </entry> <entry> <id>https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Hora_(dance)&diff=1257574856</id> <title>Hora (dance)</title> <link rel="alternate" type="text/html" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Hora_(dance)&diff=1257574856"/> <updated>2024-11-15T17:01:18Z</updated> <summary type="html">Βατο: reworded appropriately, don't push POV <hr /> <div>{{Short description|Form of circle dance originating in Eastern Europe, Asia Minor, Greece and the Balkans}} {{Other uses|Hora (disambiguation){{!}}Hora|Horo (disambiguation){{!}}Horo|Oro (disambiguation){{!}}Oro}} {{More citations needed|date=March 2012}} [[Image:Tanec folk ensemble Macedonia 1.jpg|thumb|right|300px|A traditional oro playing in [[North Macedonia]]]] '''Hora''', also known as '''horo''' and '''oro''', is a type of [[circle dance]] from [[Southeast Europe]]. It is found with similar names in [[Bulgaria]], [[Greece]], [[Moldova]], [[North Macedonia]], [[Romania]], and [[Acculturation|culturally adopted]] by [[Minority group|ethnic minorities]] such as the [[Ashkenazi Jews]]&lt;ref name=&quot;:0&quot;&gt;{{cite web |last1=Alpert |first1=Michael |title=Hora (LKT) |url=https://www.jewish-music.huji.ac.il/content/hora-lkt |website=Jewish Music Research Center |publisher=National Library of Israel |access-date=15 April 2021}}&lt;/ref&gt; ([[Yiddish]]: האָרע ''hore''), [[Sephardic Jews]] ([[Judaeo-Spanish|Ladino]]: הורו ''horo'') and the [[Romani people|Roma]]. ==Etymology== The name, spelled differently in various countries, is derived from the [[Greek language|Greek]] {{lang|el|χορός}} (''[[Choros (dance)|khorós]]''): &quot;dance&quot;,&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|title=What a long horo dance!|url=https://bnr.bg/en/post/100150354/what-a-long-horo-dance|access-date=2021-03-08|website=bnr.bg|language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt; which is cognate with the [[Ancient Greek]] art form of {{lang|grc|χορεία}} (''[[Choreia|khoreía]]''). The original meaning of the Greek word {{lang|grc|χορός}} may have been &quot;circle&quot;.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|title=χορός|url=https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%CF%87%CE%BF%CF%81%CF%8C%CF%82|access-date=2021-03-08|website=en.wiktionary.org|language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt; Also, the words ''hora'' and ''oro'' are found in many [[Slavic languages]] and have the meaning of &quot;round (dance)&quot;; the verb ''oriti'' means &quot;to speak, sound, sing&quot; and previously meant &quot;to celebrate&quot;. The [[Greek language|Greek]] {{lang|grc|χορός}} ({{lang|grc-Latn|[[Khoros (dance)|khorós]]}}) is cognate with [[Pontic Greek]] {{lang|pnt|χορόν}} ({{lang|pnt-Latn|[[Horon (dance)|khorón]]}}), and has also given rise to the names of [[Bulgarian language|Bulgarian]] {{lang|bg|хоро}} ({{lang|bg-Latn|horo}}), [[North Slavic Macedonian Language|Macedonian]] {{lang|mk|оро}} ({{lang|mk-Latn|oro}}), [[Romanian language|Romanian]] {{lang|ro|horă}}, {{lang|sh|[[Kolo (dance)|kolo]]}} / {{lang|sh-Cyrl|коло}} in [[Serbo-Croatian|Serbian]], the [[Turkish language|Turkish]] form {{lang|tr|hora}} and in [[Hebrew language|Hebrew]] {{lang|he|הורה|rtl=yes}} ({{lang|he-Latn|horah}}). The {{lang|ka-Latn|[[Khorumi]]}} dance of [[Georgia (country)|Georgia]] also might be connected to the [[Horon (dance)|Horon]] dance in the neighboring Turkish regions, as it rose out of the [[Adjara]] region, where [[Kartvelian languages|Kartvelian]] [[Laz people]] co-existed for centuries with Greek [[Pontians]]. Overall, Horos has its origins in ancient Greece and Greek culture and tradition, it has spread to areas heavily influenced by the Greek culture and were part of the [[Byzantine Empire]], these areas include most of the Balkans, Turkey, and [[Middle East]]. ==Variants== === Romania and Moldova === [[File:Stamp of Moldova md423.jpg|thumb|left]] [[Image:Hora din Dealul Spirei, 1857.jpg|thumb|300px|Dancing the hora on [[Dealul Spirii]] (Spirii Hill), [[Bucharest]] (1857 lithograph)]] '''Horă''' (plural: hore) is a traditional [[Romanians|Romanian]] and [[Moldovans|Moldovan]] folk dance where the dancers hold each other's hands and the circle spins, usually counterclockwise, as each participant follows a sequence of three steps forward and one step back. The dance is usually accompanied by musical instruments such as the [[cymbalom]], [[accordion]], [[violin]], [[viola]], [[double bass]], [[saxophone]], [[trumpet]] or the [[pan pipes]]. The hora is popular during wedding celebrations and festivals, and is an essential part of the social entertainment in rural areas. One of the most famous hore is the &quot;''[[Hora Unirii]]''&quot; (&quot;Hora of the Union&quot;), which became a Romanian patriotic song as a result of being the hymn when [[Wallachia]] and [[Moldavia]] [[Unification of Moldavia and Wallachia|united]] to form the [[Principality of Romania]] in 1859. During the 2006/2007 New Year's Eve celebration, when [[Romania]] and [[Bulgaria]] joined the [[European Union]], people were dancing ''[[Hora Bucuriei]]'' (&quot;Hora of Joy&quot;) over the boulevards of [[Bucharest]] as a tribute to the EU anthem, [[Ode to Joy]] ({{langx|ro|Odă bucuriei}}). Some of the biggest hora circles can be found on early 20th century movies filmed by the [[Yanaki and Milton Manaki|Manaki brothers]] in [[Pindus]], Greece, and performed by local [[Aromanians]]. === Horo in Bulgaria === [[File:Jan Mrkvička-Shopsko horo.jpg|right|thumb|A [[Shopi|Shop]] ''horo'' of Bulgaria]] The traditional [[Bulgarian dances|Bulgarian dance]] '''''[[Kolo (dance)|horo]]''''' ({{langx|bg|хоро}}) comes in many shapes. It is not necessary to be in a circle; a curving line of people is also acceptable. The steps used in a horo dance are extremely diverse. The horo may vary between three and seven or eight steps forward and one to five or six steps back, depending on the specific type. Bulgarians believe that each village has their own type of horo. They differ by the rhythm of the music and the steps taken. There are no two horo dances with similar steps. There are probably over one hundred types of horo dances in the [[Bulgarian folklore]].{{citation needed|date=April 2017}} In the past, the horo dance had a social role in Bulgarian society. It was mainly for fun, as a contest of skills, or for show, leading to the development of the variety of horo dances. There are hora for people with little skill that can be learned in five to ten minutes, but there are also very sophisticated dances that cannot be learned unless one is fluent in many of the simpler dances. === Oro in North Macedonia === [[File:Prilep-fête 1919.jpg|thumb|right|300px|Women in [[Prilep]], playing oro, beginning of the 20th century]] [[North Macedonia]] uses the [[Cyrillic script|Cyrillic]] spelling of '''''oro'''''. The origins of the word oro vary from its use in socializing and celebrating to historical dancing before going into battle. ''Teshkoto'', translated as &quot;The difficult one&quot;, is one of those, danced by men only, the music of which reflects the sorrow and mood of war. The oro is danced in a circle, with men and women holding one another by hand. They are used to celebrating occasions such as weddings, christenings, name-days, national and religious holidays, graduations, and birthdays. === Roma horo === The '''horo''' is also popular among the [[Romani people|Roma]] of [[Southeastern Europe]], and the dancing is practically the same as that of the neighboring ethnicities. Roma Horos, and [[Romani music|Roma music]] in general, are very much appreciated among the non-Roma in the [[Balkans]], as they also have a reputation as skillful performers of other people's folk music. === Jewish horah === {{JewishMusic}} ==== Klezmer horah ==== In [[klezmer]] music, the horah refers to a circle dance. The horah has a slow, limping gait in triple meter, often three/eight time ([[3/8 time|{{music|time|3|8}}]]), and generally leads into a faster and more upbeat duple meter, usually a [[Klezmer#Song types|freylekh]] or a [[Klezmer#Song types|bulgar]]. Among Yiddish-speaking Jews, the triple-meter horah has also been called ''zhok'' (Romanian ''joc'', 'dance') or ''krumer tants'' (Yiddish: 'crooked dance').&lt;ref name=&quot;:0&quot; /&gt; ==== Israeli horah ==== The '''horah''' (הורה), which differs somewhat from that of some of the Eastern European countries, is widespread in the [[Jewish diaspora]] and played a foundational role in modern [[Israeli folk dancing]]. It became the symbol of the reconstruction of the country by the socialistic-agricultural Zionist movement.&lt;ref name=&quot;:1&quot; /&gt; Although considered traditional, some claim it rose to popularity due to Hora Agadati, named after dancer and choreographer [[Baruch Agadati]] and performed for the first time in 1924.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite news |last=Sernovitz |first=Gary |date=2012-06-29 |title=I Do Not Want To Dance the Hora |language=en-US |work=Slate |url=https://slate.com/human-interest/2012/06/hora-and-my-jewish-wedding-forget-tradition-i-will-not-dance.html |access-date= |issn=1091-2339}}&lt;/ref&gt; According to [[Gurit Kadman]], the original melody was a Moldavian folk tune, which in mid-1940s was recognized by composer [[Uriya Boskovitz]] as an anti-Semitic one,{{clarify |Seldom such a thing. Folk songs often got adapted by either political parties or commercial companies and received a new &quot;message&quot;, see tune of Hatikva. But not impossible. Pls clarify. |date= February 2024}} and Gurit asked Boskovitz to write a new one. About the same time [[Ze’ev Havatselet]] wrote a lyrics to the tune&lt;ref&gt;[http://www.israelidances.com/horaagadati.asp &quot;Hora Agadati&quot;], israelidances.com&lt;/ref&gt; (found, e.g., in the [[Library of Congress]]&lt;ref&gt;[https://catalog.loc.gov/vwebv/search?searchCode=LCCN&amp;searchArg=2018571206&amp;searchType=1&amp;permalink=y &quot;Shire Zeʼev Ḥavatselet - The songs of Zeev Havatselet&quot;]&lt;/ref&gt;). Now the dance is usually performed to [[Music of Israel#Musical characteristics of the Israeli style|Israeli folk songs]], and sometimes to Jewish songs, often to the music of &quot;[[Hava Nagila]]&quot;. To start the dance, everybody forms a circle, holding hands or interlocking arms behind their backs or on their shoulders,&lt;ref name=&quot;:1&quot;&gt;{{Cite web | url=https://www.jewishvirtuallibrary.org/jsource/judaica/ejud_0002_0009_0_09187.html |title = Horah}}&lt;/ref&gt; and steps forward toward the left with the right foot, then follows with the left foot. The right foot is then brought back, followed by the left foot. This is done while holding hands and circling together in a fast and cheerful motion to the left. Large groups allow for the creation of several [[concentric]] circles, or a large spiral formation. In the early days, horah was popular mainly in [[kibbutz]]im and small communities, often continuing for hours.&lt;ref&gt;[http://forward.com/articles/12226/hora-history-/ Hora history]&lt;/ref&gt; The horah became popular in group dances throughout [[Israel]], and at weddings and other celebrations by Jews in Israel, the [[United States]], [[United Kingdom]], and [[Canada]]. The dance appeared in North America in the early 20th century, well before modern Israeli independence, brought directly from Eastern Europe by Jewish immigrants. At Jewish weddings during the horah it is customary to raise the bride and groom, each on their own chair and holding a handkerchief between them, following Jewish tradition. This is also done at [[Bar and bat mitzvah|b'nai mitzvah]], where the honoree and sometimes his or her family members are also raised on a chair, copying the wedding tradition. The song &quot;[[Hora (song)|Hora]]&quot;, sung by [[Avi Toledano]], who represented Israel in the [[Eurovision Song Contest 1982]], is based on this dance. ===Other variants=== ==== Horon in Turkey ==== [[Horon (dance)|Horon]] in several variants is danced in [[Black Sea Region]] / [[Pontus (region)|Pontos]] of modern-day [[Turkey]].&lt;!--copied from [[Horon]] lede--&gt;{{cn|date=April 2022}} ==== Oro in Montenegro ==== The '''oro''' ({{lang-sr-Cyrl|оро}}) circle dance should not be confused with the [[Montenegrin Oro]] dance of [[Montenegro]] and [[Herzegovina]], which is a paired courtship dance. Its name comes from the [[Serbian language|Serbian]] ''оrао'', meaning &quot;eagle&quot;. ====Perinița==== {{Main|Perinița}} Perinița is a traditional Romanian wedding folk dance. The dance is typical in the [[Muntenia]] region.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |last1= |date=9 April 2016 |title=&quot;Perinita&quot; – the Romanian traditional love dance |url=https://www.imperialtransilvania.com/read-more/argomenti/traditions/articolo/perinita-the-romanian-traditional-love-dance.html |access-date=10 September 2021 |website=ImperialTransilvania |publisher=}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |last1= |date=3 December 2018 |title=Perinita (L*) – Romanian version of a Pan-European Party/Wedding Dance |url=https://folkdancefootnotes.org/dance/a-real-folk-dance-what-is-it/about/perinita-another-romanian-wedding-dance/ |access-date=10 September 2021 |website=Folkdance Footnotes |publisher= |language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt; == See also == * [[Adana (dance)]], a Macedonian oro * [[An Dro]], a [[Brittany|Breton]] circle dance * [[Attan]], a dance performed by Pashtun people in Afghanistan and Pakistan * [[Circle dance]] * [[Dabke]] * [[Faroese dance]] * [[Horae]] * [[Khigga]], an [[Assyrian people|Assyrian]] circle dance * [[Khorovod]], an Eastern European circle dance * [[Kochari]] * [[Kolo (dance)]], Serbian, Croatian and Bosnian circle dance * {{ill|Kola (dance)|ru|Кола (танец)}}, Belarusian circle dance * [[Syrtos]] * [[Tamzara]] * [[Tresenica]], a Macedonian oro performed by women * [[Yalli]] ==References== {{Reflist}} {{Circle dance}} {{Turkish dances}} {{Balkan music}} [[Category:Circle dances]] [[Category:European folk dances]] [[Category:Romanian folk dances]] [[Category:Moldovan folk dances]] [[Category:Turkish dances]] [[Category:Greek dances]] [[Category:Macedonian dances]] [[Category:Klezmer]] [[Category:Dance in Israel]] [[Category:Slavic carnival]] [[Category:Bulgarian dances]]</div></summary> <author><name>Βατο</name></author> </entry> <entry> <id>https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=%C5%A0ar_Mountains&diff=1257573778</id> <title>Šar Mountains</title> <link rel="alternate" type="text/html" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=%C5%A0ar_Mountains&diff=1257573778"/> <updated>2024-11-15T16:54:08Z</updated> <summary type="html">Βατο: rv IP edit, unreliable source <hr /> <div>{{Short description|Mountain range in Southeast Europe}} {{Infobox mountain | name = Šar Mountains&lt;br/&gt;Sharr Mountains | other_name = | photo = Small Turk and Titov Vrv.jpg | photo_caption = Titov Vrv (back) and Small Turk (front), the tallest peaks of Šar Mountains | highest = [[Titov Vrv]] | highest_location = [[North Macedonia]] | elevation_m = 2748 | elevation_ref= | range_coordinates = {{coord|42|20.7333|format=dms|display=it}} | range_coordinates_ref= | country = {{hlist|[[Albania]]|[[Kosovo]]|[[North Macedonia]]}} | location = [[Kukës County|Kukës]] and [[Dibër County|Dibër]] Counties – [[Albania]] &lt;br/&gt; [[District of Prizren]] – [[Kosovo]]&lt;br/&gt; [[Polog|Polog Valley]] - [[North Macedonia]] | map_image = Macedonia relief Sar location map.jpg }} The '''Šar Mountains''' ({{langx|sr|Шар-планина|Šar-planina}}, {{langx|mk|Шар Планина|Šar Planina}}; [[Colloquialism|colloquially]] also '''''Šara''''', {{Cyrl|Шара}})&lt;ref name=&quot;trezor&quot;&gt;{{Citation | author = Dimitrije Bukvić | title = Trezor Evrope | newspaper = [[Politika]] | pages = 01 &amp; 09 | language = sr | date = 31 July 2017 | url = http://www.politika.rs/scc/clanak/385944/Trezor-Evrope }}&lt;/ref&gt; or '''Sharr Mountains''' ({{langx|sq|Malet e Sharrit}}) is a mountain range in [[Southeast Europe]], extending into several countries from southern [[Kosovo]], to northwestern [[North Macedonia]], to northeastern [[Albania]].&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book|last=Selçuk Biricik|first=Ali|chapter=Structure and Relief of Albania|title=The 2nd International Balkan Conference (IBAC 2012): 'The Balkans at a Crossroads: Evaluating Past, Reading Present, Imagining Future' on 11-14 October 2012 in Tirana; organized by Istanbul University in collaboration with the University of Tirana and Epoka University|volume=2|year=2012|publisher=[[İstanbul University]]|editor=Bekir Çınar|pages=211, 224, 236|url=https://cdn.istanbul.edu.tr/FileHandler2.ashx?f=ibac-2012-albania-volume-ii-1.pdf}}&lt;/ref&gt; The sections in Kosovo, and in North Macedonia are national parks ([[Sharr Mountains National Park]] in Kosovo).&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|date=2021-06-30|title=СОБРАНИЕТО ГО УСВОИ ЗАКОНОТ СО КОЈ ШАР ПЛАНИНА СТАНУВА НАЦИОНАЛЕН ПАРК|url=https://sdk.mk/index.php/makedonija/sobranieto-go-usvoi-zakonot-so-koj-shar-planina-stanuva-natsionalen-park/|access-date=2021-06-30|website=Сакам Да Кажам|language=mk-MK}}&lt;/ref&gt; Rugged and barren, the mountains are among the highest in the Balkans, with 30 peaks higher than {{convert|2500|m|ft|0|abbr=on}}. == Etymology == In [[ancient history|antiquity]], the mountains were known as ''Scardus'', ''Scodrus'', or ''Scordus'' (το Σκάρδον ὂρος in [[Polybius]] and [[Ptolemy]]).&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book|author=Sir William Smith|title=Dictionary of Greek and Roman Geography: Isabadius-Zymethus. 1857|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=UhkQAAAAYAAJ&amp;pg=PA928|year=1872|publisher=John Murray|page=928}}&lt;/ref&gt; It is considered of [[Indo-European languages|Indo-European]] origin (cf. {{langx|lt|skardús}} 'steep'),&lt;ref name=Lafe/&gt; and has been compared to the toponym ''[[Scardona]]''&lt;ref name=Lafe/&gt; and to the [[Scordisci#Name|tribal name ''Scordisci'']] (with ''Scardus'' featuring the [[Illyrian language|Illyrian]] vocalism ''/a/'').&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal|last=Borel|first=Francesco Rubat|title=Lingue e scritture delle Alpi occidentali prima della romanizzazione. Stato della questione e nuove ricerche|journal=Bulletin d'Études Préhistoriques et Archéologiques Alpines|volume=XVI|year=2005|publisher=Société Valdôtaine de Préhistoire et d’Archéologie|pages=9–50}} p. 32.&lt;/ref&gt; The theory according to which the modern ''Sharr/Šar'' represents an evolution of the ancient name ''Scardus'' through Albanian sound changes is untenable on the basis of current [[Historical linguistics|historical-linguistic]] research. ''Sharr/Šar'' rather can be traced to {{langx|sq|sharrë}} meaning 'saw', denoting the jagged peaks and 'saw-toothed ridge', ultimately from {{langx|la|sĕrra}} (also used in some [[Romance languages]]: cf. {{langx|it|serra}}, {{langx|es|sierra}}, 'steep mountain range').&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |last1=Matzinger |first1=Joachim |title=Die albanische Autochthoniehypothese aus der Sicht der Sprachwissenschaft |url=https://www.albanologie.uni-muenchen.de/downloads/meldungen/gastvortrag_matzinger_nov_2016/muenchen_2_ethnogenese.pdf |pages=14–15 |date=2016}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=Lafe&gt;{{cite book|last=Lafe|first=Genc|chapter=I rapporti tra toponimi e voci ereditate dell'albanese sulla base dell'analisi della loro evoluzione fonetica|title=Albanologu i arvanitëve &quot;Atje kam u shpirtin tim...&quot;|editor1=Shaban Sinani|editor2=Francesco Altimari|editor3=Matteo Mandalà|publisher=[[Academy of Sciences of Albania]]|year=2022|isbn=978-9928-339-74-4|pages=355–370}} p. 363.&lt;/ref&gt; In the early 16th century, it was recorded that the mountain was called &quot;''Catena Mundi''&quot; ([[Latin]] for &quot;the chains of the world&quot;).&lt;ref name=&quot;trezor&quot;/&gt; Sometimes the range is called &quot;''Carska Planina''&quot; ({{Cyrl|Царска Планина}}, &quot;[[Tsar]]'s Mountain&quot;), as a reference to the capitals ([[Prizren]] and [[Skopje]]), courts (Nerodimlje, Pauni, [[Svrčin]], etc.) and monasteries ([[monastery of the Holy Archangels]]) of the [[Serbian Empire]] located in the region.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book |last=Veselinović |first=Andrija |author2=Radoš Ljušić |title=Srpske dinastije |year=2001 |location=Novi Sad |language=sr |isbn= 86-83639-01-0}}&lt;/ref&gt; In the medieval period, [[Serbs]] called the mountain &quot;''Mlečni''&quot; ({{Cyrl|Млечни}}), because of the major milk production on the mountain and the vast herds of cattle, goats and sheep. In the [[golden bull]] issued by [[Emperor Dušan]] on 20 September 1349, he says: &quot;I also bequest all of mine estates and areas around the Mlečni Mountain (&quot;Milk Mountain&quot;), the Durlev estates and all the [[metochion]]s and all the wealth and treasure of that region&quot;. The bull is kept in the [[Dubrovnik Archive]].&lt;ref&gt;{{ cite news | title = Да ли знате? - Како се некад звала Шар-планина | trans-title = Do you know? - How the Šar Mountains used to be called | newspaper = Politika | page = 30 | language = sr | date = 6 June 2018 }}&lt;/ref&gt; == Borders == The mountain borders extend from the city of [[Prizren]], following the two rivers of the [[Prizrenska Bistrica]] and the [[Lepenac]]. In the east, it passes by the town of [[Kaçanik]] through the [[Kaçanik Gorge]] and into North Macedonia via the [[Polog|Polog Valley]]. The border passes near the [[Vardar]] spring called Vrutok and enters near the [[Mavrovo (region)|Mavrovo Valley]]. There the [[Radika]] river separates the mountain massif from the higher [[Mount Korab]]. After that, the border is mounting, reaching the point of junction of three state borders: [[Kosovo]], [[North Macedonia]] and [[Albania]]. The border now follows the road to the small, mountainous, town of [[Restelicë|Restelica]], the rivers of Globocica, Plava and the [[White Drin]] and finally reaches the city of Prizren. == Geographical characteristics == [[File:Šar Mountain, Macedonia.jpg|thumb|alt=Šar Mountains|right|200px|Šar Mountains in North Macedonia]] [[File:Bogovinje Lake 02.jpg|thumb|alt=Bogovinje Lake overview|right|200px|Bogovinje Lake]] [[File:Kobilica.jpg|thumb|alt=Peaks|right|200px|Šar Mountains peak Kobilica]] [[File:Wild horses, Šar Mountains.jpg|thumb|right|200px|Wild horses spotted near [[Dragash]] at Kosovo's Sharr Mountains National Park]] The Šar Mountains have a total area of 1,600&amp;nbsp;km&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt;. 56,25% of that area is in North Macedonia, 43.12% in Kosovo, and 0,63% in Albania.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book|author=Rista Nikolić|title=Glacijacija Šar Planine i Koraba|location=Beograd|year=1912|language=sr}}&lt;/ref&gt;{{page needed|date=November 2023}}{{Better source needed|date=July 2013}} There are three plains: Sirinić, Vraca and Rudoka.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book|title=Šar Planina|author=Živko Stefanovski|publisher=Napredok|location=Tetovo|language=mk}}&lt;/ref&gt; The system is about {{convert|80|km|mi|0|abbr=on}} long and {{convert|10|-|20|km|mi|0|abbr=on}} wide. The mountain massif was formed in the [[Tertiary Period]]. The peaks are covered with ice and snow. It includes several high peaks: * [[Titov Vrv]] ({{convert|2747|m|ft|0|abbr=on|disp=or}}) * Mal Turčin ({{convert|2707|m|ft|0|abbr=on|disp=or}}) * Bakardan ({{convert|2704|m|ft|0|abbr=on|disp=or}}) * Borislavec ({{convert|2675|m|ft|0|abbr=on|disp=or}}) * [[Velika Rudoka]] ({{convert|2660|m|ft|0|abbr=on|disp=or}}) * [[Peskovi]] – east summit ({{convert|2651|m|ft|0|abbr=on|disp=or}}) * [[Peskovi]] – west summit ({{convert|2641|m|ft|0|abbr=on|disp=or}}) * Mala Rudoka ({{convert|2629|m|ft|0|abbr=on|disp=or}}) * [[Džini Beg]] ({{convert|2610|m|ft|0|abbr=on|disp=or}}) * [[Ezerski Vrv]] ({{convert|2604|m|ft|0|abbr=on|disp=or}}) * Karabunar ({{convert|2600|m|ft|0|abbr=on|disp=or}}) * [[Trpeznica]] ({{convert|2590|m|ft|0|abbr=on|disp=or}}) * [[Maja e zezë]] ({{convert|2585|m|ft|0|abbr=on|disp=or}}) * [[Golema Vraca]] ({{convert|2582|m|ft|0|abbr=on|disp=or}}) * Guzhbaba ({{convert|2582|m|ft|0|abbr=on|disp=or}}) * [[Isa Aga]] ({{convert|2555|m|ft|0|abbr=on|disp=or}}) * [[Black Peak, Šar Mountains|Black Peak]] ({{convert|2536|m|ft|0|abbr=on|disp=or}}) * [[Kobilica]] ({{convert|2528|m|ft|0|abbr=on|disp=or}}) * [[Piribeg]] ({{convert|2524|m|ft|0|abbr=on|disp=or}}) * [[Ljuboten]] ({{convert|2498|m|ft|0|abbr=on|disp=or}}) * [[Maja Livadh]] ({{convert|2497|m|ft|0|abbr=on|disp=or}}) * [[Zallina]] ({{convert|2493|m|ft|0|abbr=on|disp=or}}) * [[Mala Vraca]] ({{convert|2483|m|ft|0|abbr=on|disp=or}}) {{coord|41.8861|20.7375|type:mountain|name=Small Vraca}} * [[Kara Nikolla]] ({{convert|2409|m|ft|0|abbr=on|disp=or}}) {{Coord|42.0836|20.7942|type:mountain|name=Kara Nikolla}} * [[Koritnik|Maja Koritnik]] ({{convert|2393|m|ft|0|abbr=on|disp=or}}) * [[Tumba Peak (Šar)|Tumba Peak]] ({{convert|2346|m|ft|0|abbr=on|disp=or}}) * [[Gemitash]] ({{convert|2183|m|ft|0|abbr=on|disp=or}}) {{coord|41.9075|20.6808|type:mountain|name=Gemitaš}} * [[Kallabak (mountain)|Kallabak]] ({{convert|2174|m|ft|0|abbr=on|disp=or}}) {{coord|41.918|20.576|type:mountain|name=Kalabak}}&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|url=http://www.brezovica-ski.com/en/national-park|title=National Park Šar-Mountain|publisher=brezovica-ski.com}}&lt;/ref&gt; * [[Kamenkullë]] ({{convert|2117|m|ft|0|abbr=on|disp=or}}) {{Coord|41.9006|20.6639|type:mountain|name=Crnkamenska Kula}} * [[Ksulje e Priftit Peak]] ({{convert|2092|m|ft|0|abbr=on|disp=or}}) tri-point {{Coord|41.877|20.595|type:mountain|name=Maja e Ksula e Priftit}} There are 30 peaks higher than {{convert|2,500|m|abbr=on}} and 70 above the {{convert|2,000|m|abbr=on}}.&lt;ref name=&quot;trezor&quot;/&gt; The Šar Mountains extend to [[Mount Korab]] ({{convert|2764|m|ft|0|abbr=on|disp=or}}) in the southwest, and pass into northeastern Albania with very small part (0.63% of the entire length). Vegetation on the mountains includes [[agriculture|crops]] up to around {{convert|1000|m|ft|0|abbr=on}}, [[forest]]s up to {{convert|1700|m|ft|0|abbr=on}}, and above that lie high [[pasture]]s which encompass around {{convert|550|km2|sqmi|0|abbr=on}}. The Šar Mountains are the largest compact area covered with pastures on the European [[continent]]. The [[dog breed]] [[Šarplaninac]] comes from this area. The snowy peaks of the Šar Mountains are depicted on the coat of arms of the city of [[Skopje]], which in turn is incorporated in the city's flag.&lt;ref&gt;Official portal of the city of Skopje: [http://www.skopje.gov.mk/EN/DesktopDefault.aspx?tabindex=0&amp;tabid=34 City symbols]. – Retrieved on 13 May 2009.&lt;/ref&gt; == History == The remains of the Široko complex are located near [[Mušutište]]. The complex originates from the period between the 10th and the 7th century BC, but also has medieval remnants. In Roman period, the mountain was a [[tripoint]] between the provinces of [[Dalmatia (Roman province)|Dalmatia]], [[Moesia]] and [[Macedonia (Roman province)|Macedonia]]. The route of an ancient road crossed the ''Scardus'' from 169 BC. The road was later named ''Velji'' (&quot;Great&quot;) or Prizren road. ''Lisinski'' road was built. Remnants of the fort on the Kradište hill, near Prizren, dates from the 2nd to the 6th century and testifies the change of civilizations in this region: it started in the pre-Roman period, then became a Roman town and later a Byzantine one. Locality of Ravna Gora, predating the 6th century, where Slavs later cremated their dead, is situated in the area. Medieval military complex of [[Petrič Fortress]], which consists of two fortresses, Little Petrič and Great Petrič, is also preserved. Remains of the Višegrad Fort, older part of the [[Prizren Fortress]], are located in the gorge of the Bistrica river. When [[King Milutin]] donated lands to the [[Our Lady of Ljeviš]] church, he also donated the Višegrad Fort to serve as an Prizren's defence outpost. [[Emperor Dušan]] later expanded the fort to the river and built his endowment, the [[Monastery of the Holy Archangels]].&lt;ref name=&quot;trezor&quot;/&gt; There are 45 [[Serbian Orthodox monasteries]] on the slopes of the mountain, dating from the 12th to the 16th century. Additional 32 monasteries were damaged or demolished during the [[NATO bombing of Serbia]] in 1999 and in the later years. Church of the [[Dormition of the Mother of God]] in the village of [[Gotovuša]] in [[Sirinićka Župa]] was built in 16th century. It was destroyed later and rebuilt in the second half of the 19th century. During the works in [[churchyard]] in the 2010s a floor mosaic was discovered from the much older church from the [[Byzantine Empire|Byzantine]] period.&lt;ref name=&quot;trezor&quot;/&gt; == Šar Mountains in Kosovo == [[File:Sardog.jpg|thumb|alt=Šar Mountains|right|200px|[[Šarplaninac]], a [[dog breed]] of the [[livestock guardian dog|livestock guardian]] [[Dog type|type]] named after the Šar Mountains]] [[File:Brezovicë (14).jpg|thumb|alt=Šar Mountains|right|200px|[[Brezovica ski resort]]]] The Šar Mountains are located in the south and south-east of [[Kosovo]], where 43.12% of the range is located. Many [[alpine climate|alpine]] and [[glacial]] mountain lakes are found on the Kosovar part of the Šar Mountains, especially south of the town of [[Dragash]], the area of Shutman and the region north of Vraca. The [[Brezovica ski resort]], with an elevation of {{convert|900|m|ft|0|abbr=on}} to {{convert|2524|m|ft|0|abbr=on}} above sea level, is located north-east of the mountains. The mountain range in Kosovo is divided into three main zones: The zone of [[Ljuboten]] and [[Brezovica, Kosovo|Brezovica]], the central zone of [[Prizren]] and the zone of Opoja and [[Gora (region)|Gora]]. [[File:Peizazh dimëror, Jelak, afer fshati Krushevo, komuna Dragash.jpg|thumb|301x301px|Fir forest in Dragash, Kosovo]] The mountains border the Kosovo Plain to the north-east and the Metohia Valley in the northwest. Kosovo consists of the most eastern tip and the most northern part of the mountain ridge.{{confusing|date=September 2016}} The Ljuboten peak and the mountain of [[Skopska Crna Gora]] create the [[Kaçanik Gorge]] in Kosovo. The Šar Mountains are split from the [[Nerodimka Mountain]] by the Sirinić Valley. The Šar National Park is located in [[Kosovo]]. Villages and towns that are found near the mountain are: * [[Prizren]], largest city located at the foot of the mountains. * [[Kaçanik]] * [[Dragash]] * [[Brezovica, Kosovo|Brezovica]] * [[Štrpce]] Lakes in the Kosovo part of the Šar Mountains are: * [[Jazhincë Lake]] * [[Small Jazhincë Lake]] * [[Shutman Lake]] * [[Lower Defsko Lake]] * [[Livadh Lake]] * [[Black Vir Lake]] * [[Donji Vir Lake]] * [[Blateško Lake]] * [[Upper Defsko Lake]] * [[Dinivodno Lake]] In total, there are 70 [[glacial lakes]] on Šara.&lt;ref name=&quot;trezor&quot;/&gt; === Kosovo national park === {{Main|Sharr Mountains National Park}} {{Infobox protected area | name = Sharr Mountains National Park | iucn_category = II | photo = Shutman lake.jpg | photo_caption = [[Shutman Lake]] | location = | nearest_city = | coordinates = | area_km2 = 534.69 | established = 1986 | visitation_num = | visitation_year = | governing_body = }} ==== History ==== Sharr Mountains National Park is in the territory of Kosovo and covers {{convert|534.69|km2|sqmi|0|abbr=on}} on the northern slopes of the Šar Mountains as well as the mountains of [[Oshlak (mountain)|Oshlak]] and [[Jezercë]]. The National Park &quot;Šar-Planina Mt.&quot; was proclaimed in 1986 within the temporary boundaries of {{convert|390.00|km2|abbr=on}},&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal|url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/263503961|title=Extension of national park &quot;Sharri&quot; boundaries and its significance for nature conservation in Kosovo|first=Veselaj|last=Zeqir|date=1 January 2013|journal=Natura Montenegrina|volume=12|pages=607–616|access-date=10 April 2018|via=ResearchGate}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|url= http://www.paragrafco.co.rs/dnevne-vesti/081015/081015-vest10.html |title= Zakon o nacionalnim parkovima (National parks law)|date=5 October 2015 |language=sr}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;Politika&quot;&gt;{{Citation | author = Aleksandra Mijalković | title = O očuvanju naše prirodne baštine: najbolja zaštita u naconalnim parkovima | newspaper = [[Politika]]-Magazin | pages = 3–6 | language = sr | date =18 June 2017 }}&lt;/ref&gt; and opened in 1995.&lt;ref&gt;[http://www.ks-gov.net/mmph/shqip/depart/parkn_pz.htm Ministry of Environment and Spatial Planning](''in Albanian'')&lt;/ref&gt; The final boundaries of the Park were expanded in 2012 to cover an area of {{convert|534.69|km2|abbr=on}}. ==== Geography ==== The park occupies the northwest sections of the mountain's main massif, including the highest peak, Bistra, an spreads over the sections of Prevalac, Ošljak, Ostrovica and Kodža Balkan. The park encompasses several different types of [[topographic relief]]: [[glacial]] ([[cirque]]s, [[moraine]]s and [[glacial lake]]s), [[periglacial]] (snow cirques, sliding blocks, &quot;tundra mosaic&quot; type of micro-shapes in the deposits of silt), [[karstic]] and [[fluvial]]. There are numerous rivers, springs, creeks, bogs and lakes.&lt;ref name=&quot;Politika&quot;/&gt; ==== Plant life ==== In total, there are 1,800 plant species. The mountain is inhabited by 175 strictly protected plant species, 247 Balkan [[endemite]]s and 18 plants which can be found only on Šara.&lt;ref name=&quot;trezor&quot;/&gt; The park includes the endemic relict [[Macedonian Pine]]&lt;ref name=&quot;Politika&quot;/&gt; and [[Pinus heldreichii|white-bark pine]],&lt;ref name=&quot;Politika&quot;/&gt; as well as the [[mugo pine]]&lt;ref name=&quot;Politika&quot;/&gt; and [[Alpine rose]]. Other perennial plants include [[Achillea#List of species|King Alexander's yarrow]] (''Achillea alexandri-regis''), [[Heliosperma#Species|Nikolić's silene]] (''Heliosperma nikolicii''), ''Bornmuellera dieckii'', [[Dianthus#subdivision|Šar carnation]] (''Dianthus scardicus Wettst.''),&lt;ref name=&quot;Politika&quot;/&gt; [[List of Potentilla species|Doerfler's cinquefoils]] and Macedonian meadow saffron (''Colhicum macedonicum''). One of the relic species is [[Ramonda nathaliae|Natalie's ramonda]]. It went extinct from the most of Europe during the last ice age and today grows as an endemic species in several gorges in Serbia, North Macedonia and Greece. It has been chosen as the Serbian symbol for the [[Armistice Day]].&lt;ref name=&quot;trezor&quot;/&gt; [[File:Ramonda nathaliae.jpg|thumb|alt=Šar Mountains|right|200px|''[[Ramonda nathaliae]]'']] ==== Animal life ==== Rusenica locality on the mountain has been in the first level of protection, as the strict reserve of nature, since 1955. It is one of the rare habitats of [[Balkan lynx]], the largest European cat. It is estimated that on the entire Balkans there are no more than 100 specimens. [[European pond turtle]] and [[Hermann's tortoise]], only two European species of freshwater turtles, live on the mountain. There are 147 butterfly species (excluding moths), 45 amphibians and reptilians and 37 mammalian species.&lt;ref name=&quot;trezor&quot;/&gt; Other animals include [[brown bear|bear]], [[chamois]], [[eurasian wolf|wolf]], [[roe deer]], [[wild boar]] and other species including many bird species. The national park contains 720 chamois while the Opoja and [[Gora (region)|Gora]] region contains 600 chamois. The National Park is administered by the Ministry of Environment and Spatial Planning (MESP) of Kosovo. == See also == * [[List of mountains in Albania]] * [[List of mountains in Kosovo]] * [[List of mountains in North Macedonia]] == References == {{reflist}} == External links == * {{Commons category-inline}} {{Mountains of Kosovo}} {{Authority control}} {{DEFAULTSORT:Sar Mountains}} [[Category:Šar Mountains| ]] [[Category:Geography of Europe]] [[Category:Mountain ranges of Albania]] [[Category:Mountain ranges of Kosovo]] [[Category:Mountain ranges of North Macedonia]] [[Category:Protected areas established in 1986]] [[Category:Mountain ranges of Europe]] [[Category:Mountains associated with Byzantine monasticism]]</div></summary> <author><name>Βατο</name></author> </entry> <entry> <id>https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Dita_e_Ver%C3%ABs&diff=1256412203</id> <title>Dita e Verës</title> <link rel="alternate" type="text/html" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Dita_e_Ver%C3%ABs&diff=1256412203"/> <updated>2024-11-09T21:02:48Z</updated> <summary type="html">Βατο: <hr /> <div>{{Short description|Public holiday in Albania, March 14}} {{Infobox holiday | holiday_name = Dita e Verës | type = National | image = | imagesize = 300px | caption = Albanians celebrating Dita e Verës with Ballokume and Verore. | official_name = | nickname = | observedby = [[Albanians]] | litcolor = Red, White | longtype = [[Albanian paganism|Pagan]] Holiday | significance = | begins = | ends = | date = March 14 | scheduling = | duration = 2 days | frequency = Annual | celebrations = [[March equinox|Spring equinox]]: the beginning of the [[Spring (season)|spring]]-[[Summer (season)|summer]] period | observances = | relatedto = }} {{Use mdy dates|date=May 2012}} '''Dita e Verës''' or '''Verëza''' (English &quot;Summer Day&quot;) is an [[Albanians|Albanian]] [[Spring Day|spring festival]] and [[Albanian paganism|pagan]] holiday celebrated (also officially in [[Albania]]) on [[March 14]] of the [[Gregorian calendar]] (March 1 of the [[Julian calendar]]), for the beginning of the [[Spring (season)|spring]]-[[Summer (season)|summer]] period. In the old Albanian calendar, Verëza corresponds to the first three days of the new year ({{lang-sq|Kryeviti, Kryet e Motmotit, Motmoti i Ri, Nata e Mojit}}) and marks the end of the [[winter]] season (the second half of the year) and the beginning of the &quot;summer&quot; season (the first half of the year) on the [[March equinox|spring equinox]] ({{lang-sq|sadita-nata}}), the period of the year when daylight is longer than night. Dita e Verës is a chief festivity in traditional [[Albanian paganism|Albanian]] religion, celebrating the strengthening of the Sun ([[Dielli (Albanian paganism)|Dielli]]) and the renewal of nature, also respecting the vegetation and the Earth ([[Dheu (Albanian paganism)|Dheu]]).{{sfn|Tirta|2004|pp=253–255}}{{Sfn|Elsie|2001|pp=259–260}}{{sfn|Qafleshi|2011|pp=43–71}}{{sfn|Halimi|Halimi-Statovci|Xhemaj|2011|pp=2–5, 7–18, 41}}{{sfn|Sela|2017|pp=63–66}} == Description == [[File:Zjarri.jpg|thumb|[[Zjarri (Albanian paganism)|Zjarri]] for the celebration of Dita e Verës in [[Tropojë]], northern Albania. Kindled on the eve or before sunrise in order to give strength to the Sun ([[Dielli (Albanian paganism)|Dielli]]), people dance and sing around it or jump across it, a ritual practiced for the end of winter, renewal, purification and apotropaic purposes.]] ''Dita e Verës'' is celebrated on March 1 of the [[Julian calendar]], the first day of the new year (which is March 14 in the Gregorian calendar). It is celebrated both in the Northern and Southern regions, but with regional differences. On the eve or before sunrise, bonfires ([[Zjarri (Albanian paganism)|zjarre]]) are traditionally lit in yards throughout Abanian-inhabited territories with the function to drive away the darkness of the winter season and for the strengthening of the [[Sun]], as well as for purification and apotropaic purposes. The ritual is performed with people dancing and singing around the fire or jumping across it.{{sfn|Tirta|2004|pp=253–255}}{{Sfn|Elsie|2001|pp=259–260}} The shrine of Diana of Cermenika, located in the Albanian city of [[Elbasan]], celebrates [[Diana (mythology)|Diana]] the goddess of forests, greenery and nature.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=http://www.gazetadita.al/dita-e-veres/|title=Dita e Verës|website=Gazeta Dita|language=en-US|access-date=2018-04-27}}&lt;/ref&gt; The distinctive sign of this holiday is baking ''[[ballokume]]'', a sugar cookie made with Albanian corn. In [[Lezha]], ''Dita e Verës'' fires are lit to signify the sun's purity and strength. Although the holiday continues to be highlighted in the ancient city of [[Elbasan]], it is celebrated by all Albanians. A Red and White wool bracelet called &quot;[[Verore]]&quot; is worn to celebrate the beginning of summer. This along with other March Summer Balkan traditions is a UNESCO recognized &quot;intangible cultural heritage&quot;.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://globalvoices.org/2017/12/14/unesco-protects-balkan-grandma-march-day-custom-as-cultural-heritage/|title=UNESCO Protects Balkan Grandma March Day Custom As Cultural Heritage|website=globalvoices|language=en-US|access-date=2022-03-14}}&lt;/ref&gt; The holiday maintains a family and traditional atmosphere, in which parents, children and families celebrate together. On this day Albanians congratulate each other on living long and happy lives. Families would jump over a small fire, signifying a full cleansing going into a new year.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=http://telegraf.al/kulture/historia-e-dites-se-veres-nga-ermenika-deri-ne-elbasan|title=Historia e Ditës së Verës, nga Çermenika deri në Elbasan|last=Telegraf|first=Gazeta|website=Gazeta Telegraf|language=en|access-date=2018-05-04}}&lt;/ref&gt; Thanas Meksi, a renowned researcher and musicologist, divided the festival into four phases:&lt;ref name=&quot;:0&quot;&gt;{{Cite book |last=Meksi |first=Thanas |title=Dita e Veres |publisher=Albanian production |year=1999 |url=https://www.oeaw.ac.at/resources/Record/993588676104498 |location=Elbasan Albania |pages=50–75 |trans-title=The albanian summer day}}&lt;/ref&gt; # Preparatory Phase: This begins with the collection of necessary items for the Summer Day. # Summer Night: Starting on the evening of March 13, this phase is marked by fire. # Morning of Summer Day: Commences on March 14, bringing joy and festivity. # Summer Day Picnic: Held at noon on March 14, this phase embodies communal celebration. Rituals of the Summer Day include washing eyes with summer flowers, drinking water from &quot;the pig's trough&quot; (a wild spring found underground in forested areas), symbolizing a healthy and prosperous year. Another tradition is the boiling of eggs on the night of March 13th and washing the eyes with this water on the morning of March 14th. The morning of March 14 begins with visits to relatives, where the youngest son delivers shared goods. The picnic starts at 10:00&amp;nbsp;am, although in recent years activities have begun an hour earlier. [[Albanians]] head to scenic spots for this celebration. Each year, the festival evolves, reflecting the spirit of its people. [[Elbasan]] becomes a pilgrimage center on March 14, with the entire city dressing up in vibrant decorations. The local government allocates special funds for the festival, planning concerts, traditional games, and comedic performances in tourist spots and parks, enhancing the festive atmosphere and community bonding.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |last=Bashkia Tirane |title=Dita e Veres |url=https://blog.visit-tirana.com/2017/03/summer-day-unique-festive-day-of-albania.html#:~:text=14%20March%20is%20a%20unique,before%20the%20birth%20of%20Christianity.}}&lt;/ref&gt; [[Edith Durham]] – who collected Albanian ethnographic material from northern Albania and Montenegro – reported that [[Albanian traditional tattooing]] of girls was practiced on March 19, which falls in the days of the Albanian spring celebrations.{{sfn|Tirta|2004|p=254}} == Ballokume == [[File:Ballokume elbasani.jpg|thumb|Ballokume from Elbasan, Albania|300x300px]] [[Ballokume]] is a dessert unique to [[Elbasan]] and is synonymous with the Summer Day celebration. It's widely enjoyed across [[Albania]] and in [[Albanians|Albanian]] communities around the world. This cookie is especially associated with Dita e Verës. The name Ballokume is believed to have originated from a 15th-century [[Ottoman Empire|Ottoman]] ruler's exclamation, &quot;Është ba si llokume!&quot; which means &quot;It’s as good as a [[Turkish delight|lokum]]!&quot; after tasting a small cake made from corn flour cooked in a wood fire. This term, over time, evolved into Ballokume. The primary ingredients of Ballokume include [[butter]], [[sugar]], [[Eggs as food|eggs]], and [[cornmeal|cornflour]]. Traditionally, it is kneaded in a copper bowl to enhance the texture of the dough, a process that involves vigorous kneading, often done by men in the household due to the strength required. The cookie sometimes contains finj, a mixture of ashes from a wood stove boiled in water, adding a unique flavor to the cookie. == Traditions across regions == Source:&lt;ref name=&quot;:0&quot; /&gt; === [[Tropojë|Tropoja]] === In Tropojë, this season gathers many people in the village of Luzhë, where they seek help and prosperity from tombs that have now been turned into idols. Adults and children travel for kilometers across mountainous terrains to reach these truly sacred and divine tombs. === [[Dibër County|Dibra]] === In Dibër, children light fires in the evening. Around four in the morning, people there wake up &quot;to close the doors.&quot; This term means to wake up early and tie the gate's lock with wool. The symbolism of this action is not known. [[Boiled egg|Boiled eggs]] are also an indicator of this day in [[Dibër County|Dibra.]] === [[Elbasan]] === Elbasan is believed to be the birthplace of the so-called Summer Day. In [[Elbasan]], the festive dimensions are larger than anywhere else. They take on a popular character, and participation is at a national level. Songs, dances, crowds filling the city, boiled eggs painted in various colors, and the famous sweets called Ballokume that fill the markets. On this day, citizens from many cities of the country visit the city of Elbasan. === [[Skrapar]] and [[Lushnjë]] === In Skrapar and Lushnjë once the verore is removed, a wish is thought of, and then the bracelet is thrown into a bush or rose, or placed on a tree branch in the hope that a swallow will come to take it to build its nest, thereby fulfilling the thought wish. On this day, children in Skrapar go door to door singing the song of Summer Day, receiving as gifts colored eggs which they crack on each other's heads. The typical dish of Skrapar for this festival, besides Ballokume, is also Anak (a type of pie) with wild greens. Just like in Tropojë, in the evening, fires are lit to produce smoke, bidding farewell to the old and the bad, while children sing and dance around the fire. In [[Lushnjë]], along with eggs, corn and wheat are also boiled to give to the children that come singing. Despite this, in [[Lushnjë]] Summer Day is not always celebrated on March 14; in fact, for [[Eastern Orthodoxy|Orthodox Christian]]s, it is celebrated on March 1, while [[Muslims]] celebrate it on March 14. === [[Berat]] === The celebration starts early in the morning with groups of children from neighborhoods of this city. The children, dressed as if in the day of the [[Carnival|carnivals]] improvising the devil, appeared with various masks as a symbol of the Summer Day festival. Various groups of children from kindergartens, schools, and high schools with their masks have traversed all the roads leading to the city's central square, performing humorous gestures. On the other hand, a car is displayed, which has the portrait of the devil on its body, ahead of which a carriage with brides symbolizes the day of the celebration. === [[Korçë|Korcë]] === [[Korçë]], along with [[Kolonjë]], are regions that utilize both calendars for the celebration of the Summer Day. In these areas, the festival is celebrated on both March 1st and March 14th. Particularly on March 14 and on the evening before, the youth and children of Korçë roam through the city's neighborhoods lighting fires. Traditionally, children compete to find more scraps to make the biggest fire. Then, for prosperity, everyone tries to jump over the fire as a symbol of successfully overcoming winter's cold, the revival, and the warming of the blood that Spring brings. Families in their homes bake sweet or salty cakes, symbolizing life, revival, and abundance. === [[Kosovo]] === The Summer Day, also known as &quot;Dita e Verëzës,&quot; has been celebrated in the [[Kosovo]]. The festivities include young men and women going out to village squares and mountainsides, gathering the first flowers of the season, dancing, singing, lighting fires, and preparing special dishes made with corn and wheat flour, which are similar yet distinct from Elbasan's ballokume. This festival is celebrated with the belief that the Summer Day brings luck, health, prosperity, rejuvenation, and human love, and the rituals are connected with the awakening of vegetation, the revival of life, and the transition from winter to spring. === [[Albanians in North Macedonia]] === In North Macedonia ethnologist Afet Jashari notes that for this festival various caves such as the Vertop Cave or the Red Water Cave are visited. It is believed that washing with their water, especially on Summer Day, brings fertility and good luck for women, health for children. ==See also== *[[Culture of Albania]] *[[Albanian paganism]] *[[Ballokume]] ==Sources== ===Citations=== {{Reflist}} ===Bibliography=== &lt;!-- E --&gt; *{{cite book|last=Elsie|first=Robert|author-link=Robert Elsie|title=A Dictionary of Albanian Religion, Mythology and Folk Culture|place=London|publisher=Hurst &amp; Company|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=N_IXHrXIsYkC|isbn=1-85065-570-7|year=2001}} &lt;!-- H --&gt; *{{cite book|last1=Halimi|first1=Zanita|last2=Halimi-Statovci|first2=Drita|last3=Xhemaj|first3=Ukë|translator=Lumnije Kadriu|title=Rite dhe Aktualiteti|trans-title=Rites and Contemporariness/Present Time|publisher=[[University of Prishtina]]|year=2011|url=https://chwbkosova.org/wp-content/uploads/2014/09/Publication_2011_7-min.pdf}} &lt;!-- Q --&gt; *{{cite book|last=Qafleshi|first=Muharrem|title=Opoja dhe Gora ndër shekuj|trans-title=Opoja and Gora During Centuries|publisher=[[Albanological Institute of Pristina]]|year=2011|isbn=978-9951-596-51-0}} &lt;!-- S --&gt; *{{cite book|last=Sela|first=Jonida|title=International Conference &quot;Education and Cultural Heritage&quot;|chapter=Values and Traditions in Ritual Dances of All-Year Celebrations in Korça Region, Albania|volume=1|publisher=Association of Heritage and Education|year=2017|pages=62–71}} &lt;!-- T --&gt; *{{cite book|last=Tirta|first=Mark|title=Mitologjia ndër shqiptarë|language=sq|editor=Petrit Bezhani|publisher=Mësonjëtorja|year=2004|place=Tirana|isbn=99927-938-9-9}} {{DEFAULTSORT:Dita e Verës}} [[Category:Albanian paganism]] [[Category:Culture of Albania]] [[Category:Albanian traditions]] [[Category:Festivals in Albania]] [[Category:March observances]] [[Category:Folk festivals in Albania]] [[Category:Spring (season) events in Albania]] [[Category:Events in Elbasan]] [[Category:Spring equinox]] {{Albania-stub}}</div></summary> <author><name>Βατο</name></author> </entry> <entry> <id>https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Skanderbeg%27s_rebellion&diff=1256399736</id> <title>Skanderbeg's rebellion</title> <link rel="alternate" type="text/html" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Skanderbeg%27s_rebellion&diff=1256399736"/> <updated>2024-11-09T19:37:23Z</updated> <summary type="html">Βατο: rv IP, not an improvement <hr /> <div>{{Short description|15th-century Albanian rebellion against the Ottoman Empire}} {{Infobox military conflict | conflict = Skanderbeg's rebellion&lt;br /&gt;{{small|{{lang|sq|Kryengritja e Skënderbeut}}}} | partof = | image = [[File:Skanderbeg by Cristofano Dell'Altissimo.jpg|280px]] | caption = Skanderbeg's portrait by [[Cristofano dell'Altissimo]] (1552) | date = November 1443 — 17 January 1468 | place = {{Plainlist | *Sanjaks of [[Sanjak of Albania|Albania]], [[Sanjak of Dibra|Dibra]], and [[Sanjak of Ohrid|Ohrid]] in the [[Ottoman Empire]] *[[League of Lezhë]] *[[Venetian Albania|Albania Veneta]] }}&lt;small&gt;(modern [[Albania]], [[North Macedonia]], [[Montenegro]], and [[Kosovo]])&lt;/small&gt; | coordinates = | map_type = | map_relief = | latitude = | longitude = | map_size = | map_marksize = | map_caption = | map_label = | territory = Some Ottoman-held Albanian territories are ceded to the newly formed [[League of Lezhe]] | result = {{ublist|Albanian victory}} *Formation of the [[League of Lezhe]] *Ottomans were defeated in [[Albania]] | status = | combatants_header = | combatant1 = [[File:Coa Kastrioti Family.svg|18px]] [[League of Lezhë]] {{Collapsible list |framestyle=border:none; padding:0; &lt;!--Hides borders and improves row spacing--&gt; |title=Members |1=[[Principality of Kastrioti]] |2=[[Principality of Dukagjini]] |3=[[Arianiti family|Principality of Arianiti]] &lt;small&gt;(1444-50, 1451-62)&lt;/small&gt; |4=[[Andrea Thopia|Lordship of Scuria]] |5=[[Principality of Muzaka]] &lt;small&gt;(until 1450)&lt;/small&gt; |6=[[Lekë Zaharia|Lordship of Sati and Dagnum]] &lt;small&gt;(until 1444)&lt;/small&gt; |7=[[Peter Spani (League of Lezhë)|Lordship of Spani]] &lt;small&gt;(until 1455)&lt;/small&gt; |8=[[Moisi Golemi|Lordship of Golemi]] &lt;small&gt;(1444-55, 1456-64)&lt;/small&gt; |9=[[George Strez Balšić|Lordship of Misia]] &lt;small&gt;(until 1447)&lt;/small&gt; |10=[[Stefan Crnojević|Lordship of Upper Zeta]] &lt;small&gt;(until 1447)&lt;/small&gt; }} [[File:Royal Banner of Arag%C3%B3n.svg|22px]] [[Crown of Aragon]] (1450-)&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite book |last=Marinescu |first=Constantin |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=9IPtrh4LbXQC&amp;pg=PA182 |title=La politique orientale d'Alfonse V d'Aragon, roi de Naples (1416-1458) |date=1994 |publisher=Institut d'Estudis Catalans |isbn=978-84-7283-276-3 |language=fr}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite book |last1=Pastor |first1=José Manuel Azcona |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=_n23zQEACAAJ |title=La política exterior de la Corona de Aragón en los Balcanes (1416-1478): la Albania de Skanderbeg y la guerra contra los turcos |last2=Abdiu |first2=Majlinda |date=2020 |publisher=Ommpress |isbn=978-84-17387-59-4 |language=es |access-date=19 April 2024 |archive-date=23 May 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240523013345/https://books.google.com/books?id=_n23zQEACAAJ |url-status=live }}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;:6&quot;&gt;[https://books.google.com/books?id=ZfpTAAAACAAJ Spremić, Momčilo (2005). Balkanski vazali kralja Alfonsa Aragonskog [Spremić, Momčilo (2005). Balkan vassals of King Alfonso of Aragon&lt;nowiki&gt;]&lt;/nowiki&gt;]. {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240523013345/https://books.google.com.pe/books?id=ZfpTAAAACAAJ&amp;redir_esc=y |date=23 May 2024 }}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal |last=Muhaj |first=Ardian |date=2008 |title=A política oriental de Alfonso V de Aragao e a Albânia de George Castriota-Skenderbeg |url=https://dialnet.unirioja.es/servlet/articulo?codigo=2782723 |journal=Iacobus: Revista de estudios jacobeos y medievales |issue=23 |pages=237–248 |issn=1137-2397 |access-date=28 April 2024 |archive-date=28 April 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240428045241/https://dialnet.unirioja.es/servlet/articulo?codigo=2782723 |url-status=live }}&lt;/ref&gt; * [[File:Coat of arms of the Kingdom of Naples under Aragonese monarchs (1442–1501), crowned version.svg|18px]] [[Kingdom of Naples]] [[File:Coat of Arms of the Republic of Venice.svg|20px]] [[Republic of Venice]] (from 1463) | combatant2 = [[File:Flag of the Ottoman Empire (1453-1844).svg|20px]] [[Ottoman Empire]] [[File:Coat of Arms of the Republic of Venice.svg|20px]] [[Republic of Venice]] (1447-48) | commander1 = {{Plainlist| *[[Skanderbeg]] *[[Alfonso V of Aragon]] *[[Ferdinand I of Naples]]}} | commander2 = {{Plainlist| *[[Murad II]] *[[Mehmed II]] *[[Andrea Venier]]}} | notes = | campaignbox = }} {{Ottoman-Albanian Wars}} '''Skanderbeg's rebellion''' ({{langx|sq|Kryengritja e Skënderbeut}}) was an almost 25-year long anti-Ottoman rebellion led by the Albanian military commander [[Skanderbeg]] in what is today [[Albania]] and its neighboring countries. It was a rare successful instance of resistance by Christians during the 15th century and through his leadership led Albanians in guerrilla warfare against the Ottomans.&lt;ref name=&quot;Sedlar1994&quot;&gt;{{cite book|author=Jean W Sedlar|title=East Central Europe in the Middle Ages, 1000-1500|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=3o5lrvuwOVwC&amp;pg=PA393|year=1994|publisher=University of Washington Press|isbn=978-0-295-97291-6|pages=393–|quote=A rare example of successful Christian resistance to the Turks in the 15th century, although in a fairly remote part of Europe, was provided by Skanderbeg, the Albanian mountain chieftain who became the leader of a national revolt. For over a quarter-century until his death in 1468, he led the Albanians in surprisingly effective guerrilla warfare against the Turkish occupiers.}}&lt;/ref&gt; On 2 March 1444 the regional Albanian chieftains and nobles united against the Ottoman Empire and established the [[League of Lezhë]]. The coalition would go on to successfully fight the Ottoman forces up until 1479, after which it was dissolved. After Skanderbeg's death in 1468, the league would continue fighting under [[Lekë Dukagjini]]. Skanderbeg's revolt represented a reaction by sections of local society and feudal lords against the loss of privilege and the exactions of the Ottoman government which they resented.{{citation needed|date=September 2021}} Because of the frequent conflicts between rival families in Albania during Skanderbeg's rebellion, particularly between Skanderbeg and [[Leke Dukagjini|Lekë Dukagjini]], Albanian studies scholar [[Robert Elsie]] described the period as more of an Albanian civil war.&lt;ref&gt;{{Citation |last=Elsie |first=Robert |author-link=Robert Elsie |title=Albanian literature: a short history |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ox3Wx1Nl_2MC&amp;q=%22Memorandum+on+Albanian+Autonomy%22+%22Pashko+Vasa%22&amp;pg=PA81 |access-date=January 18, 2011 |year=2005 |publisher=I.B. Tauris in association with the Centre for Albanian Studies |location=London |isbn=1845110315 |pages=33, 34 |chapter=Muslim literature |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ox3Wx1Nl_2MC&amp;q=leke+dukagjini+1458&amp;pg=PA34 |quote=Much legendry has been attached to the name of Scanderbeg...based on embellishments by historian Marinus ... according to legendry, Scanderbeg successfully repulsed thirteen Ottoman incursions, including three major Ottoman sieges of the citadel of Kruja led by the Sultans themselves...In fact, this period was more of an Albanian civil war between rival families, in particular between Skanderbeg and Leke Dukagjini }}&lt;/ref&gt; However, Skanderbeg reconciled with Lekë in 1453 and re-allied with [[Gjergj Arianiti]] in 1456. == Background == In Albania, the rebellion against the Ottomans had already been smouldering for years before Skanderbeg deserted the Ottoman army.&lt;ref name=&quot;BuryWhitney1966&quot;&gt;{{cite book|last1=Bury|first1=John Bagnell|author-link1=John Bagnell Bury|last2=Whitney|first2=James Pounder|author-link2=James Pounder Whitney|last3=Tanner|first3=Joseph Robson|author-link3=Joseph Robson Tanner |author4=Charles William Previté-Orton |author5-link=Zachary Nugent Brooke|author5=Zachary Nugent Brooke|title=The Cambridge Medieval History|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=S5btAAAAMAAJ|year=1966|publisher=Macmillan|page=383|quote= In Albania, where rebellion had been smouldering for several years, the heroic Skanderbeg (George Castriota) revolted and under ...|author4-link=Charles William Previté-Orton}}&lt;/ref&gt; The most notable earlier revolt was [[Albanian Revolt of 1432–36|revolt of 1432–36]] led principally by [[Gjergj Arianiti]]. Although Skanderbeg was summoned by his relatives during this rebellion, he remained loyal to the sultan and did not fight the Ottomans.&lt;ref&gt;Fine 1994, p. 535 {{quote|In 1432 Andrew Thopia revolted against his Ottoman overlords&amp;nbsp;... inspired other Albanian chiefs, in particular George Arianite (Araniti)&amp;nbsp;... The revolt spread&amp;nbsp;... from region of Valona up to Skadar&amp;nbsp;... At this time, though summoned home by his relatives&amp;nbsp;... Skanderbeg did nothing, he remained&amp;nbsp;... loyal to sultan}}&lt;/ref&gt; After this rebellion was suppressed by the Ottomans, Arianiti again revolted against the Ottomans in the region of central Albania in August 1443. Skanderbeg decided to leave his position of Ottoman sanjakbey and revolt against the Ottomans only after the victorious [[Crusade of Varna]] in 1443.&lt;ref name=&quot;SettonHazard1990&quot;&gt;{{cite book|author1=Kenneth M. Setton|author-link1=Kenneth M. Setton|author2=Harry W. Hazard|author3=Norman P. Zacour|title=A History of the Crusades: The Impact of the Crusades on Europe|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=TKaPrQPFIAMC&amp;pg=PA292|date=1 June 1990|publisher=Univ of Wisconsin Press|isbn=978-0-299-10744-4|page=293|quote=One result of the victorious campaign of 1443 was the successful revolt of Albanians under George Castriota}}&lt;/ref&gt; Successes of the crusaders inspired revolt of Skanderbeg and revolt of [[Constantine XI Palaiologos]] in the [[Despotate of the Morea]].&lt;ref name=&quot;FineFine1994&quot;&gt;{{cite book|last1=Fine|first1=John V. A.|author-link1=John V. A. Fine|last2=Fine|first2=John Van Antwerp|author-link2=John Van Antwerp Fine|title=The Late Medieval Balkans: A Critical Survey from the Late Twelfth Century to the Ottoman Conquest|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=LvVbRrH1QBgC&amp;pg=PA548|year=1994|publisher=University of Michigan Press|isbn=0-472-08260-4|page=548|quote=The crusaders' successes inspired two other major revolts, ... the revolt of Skanderbeg in Albania...}}&lt;/ref&gt; In early November 1443, Skanderbeg deserted the forces of Sultan Murad II during the Battle of Niš, while fighting against the crusaders of John Hunyadi.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite book|title = Gjergj Kastrioti Skënderbeu: jeta dhe vepra, 1405–1468|last = Frasheri|first = Kristo|author-link1=Kristo Frashëri|year = 2002| publisher=Botimet Toena |isbn = 99927-1-627-4|url = https://books.google.com/books?id=vwR3PQAACAAJ&amp;q=kristo+frasheri+skenderbeu}}&lt;/ref&gt; Skanderbeg quit the field along with 300 other Albanians serving in the Ottoman army.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite book|title = Gjergj Kastrioti Skënderbeu: jeta dhe vepra, 1405–1468|last = Frasheri|first = Kristo|year = 2002| publisher=Botimet Toena |isbn = 99927-1-627-4}}&lt;/ref&gt; He immediately led his men to Krujë, where he arrived on November 28,&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite book|title = Scanderbeg; his life, correspondence, orations, victories, and philosophy|last = Drizari|first = Nelo|year = 1968|url = https://books.google.com/books?id=QYppAAAAMAAJ}}&lt;/ref&gt; and by the use of a forged letter from Sultan Murad to the Governor of Krujë he became lord of the city.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite book|title = Gjergj Kastrioti Skënderbeu: jeta dhe vepra, 1405–1468|last = Frasheri|first = Kristo|year = 2002| publisher=Botimet Toena |isbn = 9789992716274|url = https://books.google.com/books?id=vwR3PQAACAAJ&amp;q=kristo+frasheri+skenderbeu}}&lt;/ref&gt; To reinforce his intention of gaining control of the former domains of Zeta, Skanderbeg proclaimed himself the heir of the Balsha family. After capturing some less important surrounding castles (Petrela, Prezë, Guri i Bardhë, Svetigrad, Modrič and others) and eventually gaining control over more than his father Gjon Kastrioti's domains, Skanderbeg abjured Islam and proclaimed himself the avenger of his family and country.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite book|title =Volume 12|publisher =T. Cadell jun. and W. Davies|series= [[The History of the Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire]]|last = Gibbon|first = Edward|author-link1=Edward Gibbon|year = 1802|pages = [https://archive.org/details/historydeclinea49gibbgoog/page/n186 168]|url = https://archive.org/details/historydeclinea49gibbgoog}}&lt;/ref&gt; He raised a red flag with a black double-headed eagle on it: Albania uses a similar flag as its national symbol to this day.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite book|title = Gjergj Kastrioti Skënderbeu: jeta dhe vepra (1405-1468)|last = Frasheri|first = Kristo|year = 2002|isbn = 9789992716274|url = https://books.google.com/books?id=vwR3PQAACAAJ&amp;q=kristo+frasheri+skenderbeu}}&lt;/ref&gt; == Forces == Dorotheos, the [[Archbishop of Ohrid]] and clerics and boyars of [[Orthodox Archbishopric of Ohrid (ancient)|Ohrid Archbishopric]] together with considerable number of Christian citizens of Ohrid were expatriated by sultan to [[Istanbul]] in 1466 because of their anti-Ottoman activities during [[Skanderbeg]]'s rebellion.&lt;ref&gt;{{Citation |last=Shukarova |first=Aneta |author-link=Aneta Shukarova |author2=Mitko B. Panov |author3=Dragi Georgiev |author4=Krste Bitovski |author5=Ivan Katardziev |author6=Vanche Stojchev |author7=Novica Veljanovski |author8=Todor Chepreganov |editor=Todor Chepreganov |title= History of the Macedonian People |url=https://www.scribd.com/doc/66035878/History-of-The-Macedonian-People-ed-Todor-Chepreganov-Institute-of-National-History-Skopje-2008 |access-date= 26 December 2011| date= 2008 |publisher= Institute of National History |location= Skopje |isbn=978-9989159244 |oclc=276645834 |page=133 |quote= deportation of the Archbishop of Ohrid, Dorotei, to Istanbul in 1466, together with other clerks and bolyars who probably were expatriated because of their anti Ottoman acts during the Skender-Bey’s rebellion.}}&lt;/ref&gt; Skanderbeg's rebellion was also supported by Greeks in the Morea.&lt;ref name=&quot;Herrin2013&quot;&gt;{{cite book|author=Judith Herrin|title=Margins and Metropolis: Authority Across the Byzantine Empire|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=iKlR4xyOmKUC&amp;pg=PA11|year=2013|publisher=Princeton University Press|isbn=978-0-691-15301-8|page=11|quote=A revolt against Turkish authority in Albania, led by George Castriota (Iskender Bey or “Skanderbeg”) was successful for a brief period and was supported by dissident Greeks in the Morea.}}&lt;/ref&gt; According to [[Fan Noli]], the most reliable counselor of Skanderbeg was [[Vladan Jurica]].&lt;ref name=&quot;Noli1968&quot;&gt;{{cite book|last=Noli|first=Fan Stylian|author-link=Fan Stylian Noli|title=Vepra të plota: Gjergj Kastrioti Skënderbeu (1405-1468)|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=u7FDAQAAIAAJ|year=1968|publisher=Rilindija.|page=138|quote=...Vladan Jurica, këshilltari i tij më i besueshëm, ...}}&lt;/ref&gt; [[Himara]] also supported the war and supplied men to fight under Skanderbeg. === League of Lezhë (1444–1450)=== On 2 March 1444 the regional Albanian and Zetan chieftains united against the [[Ottoman Empire]].&lt;ref name=&quot;Babinger1992&quot;&gt;{{cite book|last=Babinger|first=Franz|author-link=Franz Babinger|title=Mehmed the Conqueror and His Time|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=PPxC6rO7vvsC&amp;pg=PA153|year=1992|publisher=Princeton University Press|isbn=0-691-01078-1|page=153|quote=... a solid military alliance was concluded among all the Albanian and Serbian chieftains along the Adriatic coast from southern Epirus to the Bosnian border.}}&lt;/ref&gt; This alliance ([[League of Lezhë]]) was forged in the Venetian held [[Lezhë]].&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|url=http://uwhistory.romanhords.com/Skanderbeg/Timeline.html|title=A Timeline of Skanderbeg's Campaigns|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110607035926/http://uwhistory.romanhords.com/Skanderbeg/Timeline.html|archive-date=June 7, 2011|access-date=March 28, 2011|url-status=dead}}&lt;/ref&gt; The main members of the league were the [[Arianiti]], [[Balšić noble family|Balšić]], [[Dukagjini family|Dukagjini]], [[Muzaka]], [[Spani family|Spani]], [[Thopia family|Thopia]] and [[Crnojević noble family|Crnojevići]]. All earlier and many modern historians accepted [[Marin Barleti|Marin Barleti's]] news about this meeting in Lezhë (without giving it equal weight), although no contemporary Venetian document mentions it.&lt;ref&gt;{{harvnb|Božić|1979|p=363}}{{quote|Мада ниједан савремени млетачки документ не помиње овај скуп, сви старији и многи новији историчари прихватили су Барлецијеве вести не придајући им, разуме се, исти значај.}}&lt;/ref&gt; Barleti referred to the meeting as the ''generalis concilium'' or ''universum concilium'' [general or whole council]; the term &quot;League of Lezhë&quot; was coined by subsequent historians.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book |last=Biçoku |first=Kasem |title=Kastriotët në Dardani |location=Prishtinë |publisher=Albanica |year=2009 |pages=111–116 |isbn=978-9951-8735-4-3 }}&lt;/ref&gt; == Early battles == [[Kenneth Meyer Setton]] claims that majority of accounts on Skanderbeg's activities in the period 1443–1444 &quot;owe far more to fancy than to fact.&quot;&lt;ref name=&quot;Setton p. 73&quot;&gt;Setton p. 73.&lt;/ref&gt; Soon after Skanderbeg captured [[Krujë]] using the forged letter to take control from Zabel Pasha, his rebels managed to capture many Ottoman fortresses including strategically very important Svetigrad ([[Kodžadžik]]) taken with support of [[Moisi Arianit Golemi]] and 3,000 rebels from [[Debar]].&lt;ref name=&quot;Stojanovski1988&quot;&gt;{{cite book|last=Stojanovski|first=Aleksandar|title=Istorija na makedonskiot narod|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=eJ0MAAAAIAAJ|year=1988|publisher=Makedonska kniga|page=88}}&lt;/ref&gt; According to some sources, Skanderbeg impaled captured Ottoman officials who refused to be baptized into Christianity.&lt;ref name=&quot;II2013&quot;&gt;{{cite book|last=II|first=Pope Pius|author-link=Pope Pius II|title=Europe (c.1400-1458)|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=z4lvAgAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PA114|date=1 November 2013|publisher=CUA Press|isbn=978-0-8132-2182-3|page=114|quote=George Skanderbeg, a man of noble birth, received his inheritance. ... fortress of Krujë by stratagem and declared himselfa Christian, going so far as to impale the Ottoman officials who refused to accept baptism; see Fine, LMB, 521–22, 556.}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;(Firm)1872&quot;&gt;{{cite book|last=(Firm)|first=John Murray|title=A Handbook for Travellers in Greece: Describing the Ionian Islands, Continental Greece, Athens, and the Peloponnesus, the Islands of the Ægean Sea, Albania, Thessaly, and Macedonia|url=https://archive.org/details/ahandbookfortra29firgoog|year=1872|publisher=J. Murray|page=[https://archive.org/details/ahandbookfortra29firgoog/page/n503 478]|quote=The names of religion and liberty provoked a general revolt of the Albanians, who indulged the Ottoman garrisons in the choice of martyrdom or baptism; and for 23 years Skanderbeg resisted the powers of the Turkish Empire, — the hero of ...}}&lt;/ref&gt; The first battle of Skanderbeg's rebels against the Ottomans was fought on 10 October 1445, on the mountain Mokra. According to Setton, after Skanderbeg was allegedly victorious in the [[Battle of Torvioll]], the [[Hungarians]] are said to have sung praises about him and urged Skanderbeg to join the alliance of [[Kingdom of Hungary in the Middle Ages|Hungary]], the [[Papacy]] and [[Duchy of Burgundy|Burgundy]] against the Ottomans.&lt;ref name=&quot;Setton p. 73&quot;/&gt; In the spring of 1446, using help of [[Dubrovnik|Ragusan]] diplomats, Skanderbeg requested support from the Pope and [[Kingdom of Hungary]] for his struggle against the Ottomans.&lt;ref name=&quot;Radonić1905&quot;&gt;{{cite book|author=Jovan Radonić|title=Zapadna Evropa i balkanski narodi prema Turcima u prvoj polovini XV veka|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=PD1pAAAAMAAJ|access-date=21 June 2013|year=1905|publisher=Izd. Matice srpske|page=249|quote=...с пролећа 1946 обраћао за помоћ папи и Угарској преко републике дубровачке...}}&lt;/ref&gt; === War against Venice === {{Main|Albanian–Venetian War (1447–1448)}} Marin Span was commander of Skanderbeg's forces which lost the fortress [[Baleč]] to Venetian forces in 1448 during [[Albanian–Venetian War (1447–1448)|Skanderbeg's war against Venice]]. Marin and his soldiers retreated toward [[Dagnum]] after being informed by his relative Peter Span about the large Venetian forces heading toward Baleč.&lt;ref&gt;{{harvnb|Srpska Akademija Nauka i Umetnosti|1980|loc=p. 39: &quot;...да поруше обновљени Балеч с таквим снагама као да је у питању највећа тврђава. То је Петар Спан јавио свом рођаку Марину и овај је у последњем тренутку сакупио војнике и спустио се према Дању&quot;}}.&lt;/ref&gt; == Treaty of Gaeta == {{Main|Treaty of Gaeta}} On 26 March 1450 a political treaty was stipulated in [[Gaeta]] between [[Alfonso V of Aragon|Alfonso V]] for the [[Kingdom of Naples]] and [[Stefan, Bishop of Krujë]], and [[Nikollë de Berguçi]], ambassadors of [[Skanderbeg]]. In the treaty Skanderbeg would recognize himself a vassal of the Kingdom of Naples, and in return he would have the Kingdom's protection from the [[Ottoman Empire]]. After Alfonso signed this treaty with Skanderbeg, he signed similar treaties with other chieftains from Albania: [[Gjergj Arianiti]], Gjin Muzaka, [[Gjergj Balsha]], [[Peter Spani (League of Lezhë)|Peter Spani]], [[Dukagjini family|Paul Dukagjini]], Thopia Muzaka, Peter of Himara, [[Simon Zenebishi]] and [[Carlo II Tocco]]. To follow the treaty of Gaeta, Naples sent a detachment of 100 Napolitan soldiers commanded by Bernard Vaquer to the castle of Kruje in the end of May 1451.&lt;ref name=&quot;Tibbetts2016&quot;&gt;{{cite book|last=Tibbetts|first=Jann|title=50 Great Military Leaders of All Time|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=lsHLDAAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PT571|date=30 July 2016|publisher=Vij Books India Pvt Ltd|isbn=978-93-85505-66-9|page=571|quote=Following the Treaty of Gaeta, in the end of May 1451, a small detachment of 100 Catalan soldiers, headed by Bernard Vaquer, was established at the castle of Kruje.}}&lt;/ref&gt; Vaquer was appointed as special commissioner&lt;ref name=&quot;Gegaj1937&quot;&gt;{{cite book|last=Gegaj|first=Athanas|title=L'Albanie et l'Invasion turque au XVe siècle|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=usxBAAAAYAAJ|access-date=19 December 2017|year=1937|publisher=Bureaux du Recueil, Bibliothéque de l'Université|language=fr|page=88|isbn=9780598935991 |quote=En vertu du traité, Alphonse V envoya en Albanie, au mois de juin 1451, un officier de sa trésorerie, Bernard Vaquer, avec les pouvoirs de commissaire spécial.}}&lt;/ref&gt; and took over Kruje on behalf of the Kingdom of Naples and put its garrison under his command.&lt;ref name=&quot;Marinescu1994&quot;&gt;{{cite book|last=Marinescu|first=Constantin|title=La politique orientale d'Alfonse V d'Aragon, roi de Naples (1416-1458)|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=9IPtrh4LbXQC&amp;pg=PA182|year=1994|publisher=Institut d'Estudis Catalans|isbn=978-84-7283-276-3|pages=181, 182}}&lt;/ref&gt; == Aftermath == [[Gjergj Balsha]] was perceived by Venice as Skanderbeg's successor,&lt;ref&gt;{{Citation |last=Jens Schmitt|first=Oliver |author-link=Oliver Jens Schmitt |author2=Konrad Clewing, Edgar Hösch |title= Südosteuropa : von vormoderner Vielfalt und nationalstaatlicher Vereinheitlichung : Festschrift für Edgar Hösch |year=2005 |publisher=Oldenbourg Verlag |language= de |isbn=978-3-486-57888-1 |oclc=62309552 |page=167 |chapter=Die venezianischen Jahrbücher des Stefano Magno (ÖNB Codd 6215–6217) als Quelle zur albanischen und epirotischen Geschichte im späten Mittelalter (1433–1477) |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=4eXlZq6aBrkC&amp;pg=PA167 |quote= ...Ivan Strez Balsics, des von Venedig anerkannten Nachfolgers Skanderbegs,...}}&lt;/ref&gt; whilst [[Lekë Dukagjini]] became the leader of the League. After Skanderbeg's death Ivan and his brother [[Gjok Balsha]], together with Leke, Progon and [[Nicholas Pal Dukagjini|Nicholas Dukagjini]], continued to fight for Venice.&lt;ref&gt;{{harvnb|Schmitt|2001|p=297}}{{quote|die Skanderbegs Personlichkeit gelassen hatte, nicht zu füllen. Deshalb muste Venedig wie in den Jahrzehnten vor Skanderbeg mit einer Vielzahl von Adligen zusammenarbeiten; neben Leka, Progon und Nikola Dukagjin gehörten zu dieser Schicht auch Comino Araniti, wohl derselbe, der 1466 Durazzo überfallen hatte; die Söhne von Juani Stexi, di Johann Balsha, Machthaber zwischen Alessio und Kruja; Gojko Balsha und seine söhne der woiwode Jaran um Kruja (1477), und auch der mit seinem Erbe überforderte Johann Kastriota.}}&lt;/ref&gt; == See also == * [[Timeline of Skanderbeg]] == References == {{Reflist|30em}} == Sources == * {{Citation|last=Schmitt |first=Oliver Jens|author-link=Oliver Jens Schmitt|title=Die Albaner: eine Geschichte zwischen Orient und Okzident|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=OD9D_tmufccC&amp;pg=PA55 |year=2012|publisher=C.H.Beck|language=de|isbn=978-3-406-63031-6}} * {{citation|last=Setton|first=Kenneth Meyer|year=1978|title=The Papacy and the Levant, 1204–1571|publisher=DIANE Publishing|isbn=978-0-87169-127-9}} * {{cite book|last=Božić|first=Ivan|title=Nemirno pomorje XV veka|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=SnkBAAAAMAAJ|access-date=12 February 2012|year=1979|publisher=Srpska književna zadruga|location=Belgrade |language= sr |oclc=5845972}} * {{The Late Medieval Balkans}} *{{cite book|author=Srpska Akademija Nauka i Umetnosti|title=Glas (Volumes 319–323)|year=1980|location=Belgrade|publisher=Serbian Academy of Science and Arts|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=kqorAQAAIAAJ&amp;q=%D1%81%D0%BF%D0%B0%D0%BD|language=sr}} {{Wars and battles involving Albanians}} {{Rebellions in the Ottoman Empire}} {{Albania topics}} {{Albanians under the Ottoman Empire}} [[Category:15th-century rebellions]] [[Category:Rebellions against the Ottoman Empire]] [[Category:Warfare by Skanderbeg]]</div></summary> <author><name>Βατο</name></author> </entry> <entry> <id>https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Dodola_and_Perperuna&diff=1256398931</id> <title>Dodola and Perperuna</title> <link rel="alternate" type="text/html" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Dodola_and_Perperuna&diff=1256398931"/> <updated>2024-11-09T19:32:45Z</updated> <summary type="html">Βατο: ce <hr /> <div>{{Short description|Rainmaking rituals in Southeast Europe}} [[File:&quot;Watering of Dodola&quot; by Uroš Predić, published in magazine &quot;Orao&quot; in 1892.jpg|300px|thumb|The sprinkling of ''Dodola'' with water by [[Uroš Predić]] (1892)]] '''Dodola''' (also spelled ''Dodole'', ''Dudola'', ''Dudula'', ''Diva-Dodola'' etc.), '''Perperuna''' (also spelled ''Peperuda'', ''Preperuda'', ''Preperuša'', ''Prporuša'', ''Papaluga'', ''Peperuna'' etc.), '''riti i ndjelljes/thirrjes së shiut''' (&quot;Rain-Invoking/Calling Ritual&quot; or &quot;Rite of Invoking/Calling the Rain&quot;) or simply '''thirrja e shiut''' (&quot;Call of the Rain&quot;), '''riti me dordolecin''' (&quot;Dordoleci Ritual&quot;), '''riti i dodolisë''' (&quot;Dodoli Ritual&quot;) are [[Rainmaking (ritual)|rainmaking]] [[Paganism|pagan]] customs widespread among different peoples in [[Southeast Europe]] until the 20th century, found in [[Albania]], [[Bulgaria]], [[Croatia]], [[Greece]], [[Hungary]], [[Kosovo]], [[Moldova]], [[Montenegro]], [[North Macedonia]], [[Romania]], and [[Serbia]]. It is still practiced in remote [[Albanians|Albanian]] ethnographic regions, but only in rare events, when the summer is dry and without atmospheric precipitation.&lt;ref&gt;{{harvnb|Qafleshi|2011|pp=51–52|}}; {{harvnb|Ministria|2014|p=66}}.&lt;/ref&gt; The ceremonial ritual is an analogical-imitative [[incantation|magic rite]] that consists of singing and dancing done by young boys and girls in processions following a main performer who is dressed with fresh branches, leaves and herbs, with the purpose of invoking rain, usually practiced in times of [[drought]]s, especially in the summer season, when drought endangers crops and pastures, even human life itself.&lt;ref&gt;{{harvnb|Qafleshi|2011|pp=51–52|}}; {{harvnb|Halimi|Halimi-Statovci|Xhemaj|2011|pp=2–6, 32–43}}&lt;/ref&gt; == Names == {{quote box|align=right|quote=&lt;poem&gt;&lt;small&gt;Περπερούνα περπατεί / Perperouna perambulates Κή τόν θεό περικαλεί / And to God prays Θέ μου, βρέξε μια βροχή / My God, send a rain Μιἁ βροχή βασιλική / A right royal rain Οσ ἀστἀχυα ς τἀ χωράΦια / That as many (as are there) ears of corn in the fields Τόσα κούτσουρα ς τ ἁμπέλια / So many stems (may spring) on the vines&lt;/small&gt; &lt;/poem&gt;|source=&lt;br /&gt;&lt;small&gt;Shatista near [[Siatista]], [[Western Macedonia]], Ottoman Empire, 1903&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book |last=Abbott |first=George Frederick |author-link=George Frederick Abbott |date=1903 |title=Macedonian Folklore |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=M7o8AAAAIAAJ |location=Cambridge |publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]] |page=119}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;/small&gt;}} Rainmaking rites are generally called after the divine figure invoked in the ritual songs, as well as the boy or girl who perform the rite, who are called with different names among different peoples (South Slavs, Albanians, Greeks, Hungarians, Moldovans, Romanians, Vlachs or Aromanians (including regions of [[Bukovina]] and [[Bessarabia]])).:&lt;ref&gt;{{harvnb|Ḱulavkova|2020|p=19}}&lt;/ref&gt; *''Preperuna'', ''Peperuna'', ''Preperuda/Peperuda'', ''Pepereda'', ''Preperuga/Peperuga'', ''Peperunga'', ''Pemperuga'' in [[Bulgaria]] and [[North Macedonia]]: ''Prporuša'', ''Parparuša'', ''Preporuša/Preporuča'', ''Preperuša'', ''Barburuša/Barbaruša'' in [[Croatia]]; ''Peperuda'', ''Papaluga'', ''Papaluda/Paparudă'', ''Babaruta'', ''Mamaruta'' in [[Romania]] and [[Moldova]]; ''Perperouna'', ''Perperinon'', ''Perperouga'', ''Parparouna'' in [[Greece]]; ''Perperona/Perperone'' in [[Albania]]; ''Pirpirunã'' among [[Aromanians]]; *''Dodola'' among previous countries as well as [[Serbia]], with variants ''Dodole'', ''Dudola'', ''Dudula'', ''Dudule'', ''Dudulica'', ''Doda'', ''Dodočka'', ''Dudulejka'', ''Didjulja'', etc.{{sfn|Gimbutas|1967|p=743}}{{sfn|Evans|1974|p=100}}{{sfn|Jakobson|1985|p=22–24|ps=:Mythological associations linked with the butterfly (cf. her Serbian name ''Vještica'') also explain the Bulgarian entomological names ''peperuda'', ''peperuga''}}{{sfn|Čulinović-Konstantinović|1963|p=80, 93}}{{Sfn|Puchner|2009|p=346}} *''Rona'', used by Albanians alternatively to ''Perperona/Perperone'';{{sfn|Norris|1993|p=34}}{{sfn|Tirta|2004|pp=310–312}} *''Dordoleci'' (''durduleci''), used by Albanians for this custom in association with a male figure.{{sfn|Tirta|2004|pp=310–312}} In [[Albanian language|Albanian]] the rainmaking ritual is called ''riti i ndjelljes së shiut'' (&quot;Rain-Invoking Ritual&quot;), ''riti i thirrjes së shiut'' (&quot;Rain-Calling Ritual&quot; or &quot;Rite of Calling the Rain&quot;) or simply ''thirrja e shiut'' (&quot;Call of the Rain&quot;), ''riti i thatësisë'' (&quot;Drought Ritual&quot;), as well as ''riti me dordolecin'' or ''riti i dordolecit'' (&quot;Dordoleci Ritual&quot;), ''riti i dodolisë'' (&quot;Dodoli Ritual&quot;), etc.&lt;ref&gt;{{harvnb|Tirta|2004|pp=310–312}}; {{harvnb|Qafleshi|2011|pp=51–52|}}; {{harvnb|Ministria|2014|p=66}}; {{harvnb|Halimi|Halimi-Statovci|Xhemaj|2011|pp=2–6, 32–43}}&lt;/ref&gt; In Albanian rainmaking ritual songs, besides the divine figure that is invoked and also personified by boys or girls during the procession, other Albanian divine figures are invoked: [[Dielli (Albanian paganism)|Dielli]] (the Sun), [[Perëndi]], and Ilia.{{sfn|Gjoni|2012|pp=85–86}}{{sfn|Gamkrelidze|1995|p=528}}{{sfn|Sela|2017|pp=69–70}} Perëndi is a name that is used for &quot;god&quot;, &quot;deity&quot;, &quot;sky&quot; in Albanian, but considered by some scholars to be an Albanian thunder-god, cognate to Indo-European ''[[*Perkʷūnos]]'';{{sfn|Gamkrelidze|1995|p=528}} Ilia is [[Elijah]], who in Christianized Albanian folklore has replaced the Sun god and the thunder or weather god (also [[Drangue]]).{{sfn|Gjoni|2012|pp=85–86}}{{sfn|Elsie|2001a|pp=46–47}}{{sfn|Elsie|2000|pp=43–45}} In Slavic rainmaking ritual songs also the sky or Elijah are invoked. In Slavic Christianized folklore Elijah has replaced [[Perun]], the Slavic thunder-god, cognate to IE ''*Perkʷūnos''.{{sfn|Jakobson|1985|p=6}} ===Etymologies=== Some scholars consider all the Balkan names of the type ''per-'', ''perper-'', ''peper-'', ''papar-'', etc. to be taboo-alternations to &quot;avoid profaning the holy name&quot; of the pagan [[Proto-Indo-European mythology|Indo-European]] god ''[[*Perkʷūnos]]''.{{sfn|Evans|1974|p=116}}{{sfn|Gimbutas|1967|p=743}} According to [[Roman Jakobson]] and others ''perperuna'' is formed by reduplication of the Indo-European root &quot;per-&quot; (to strike/beat).{{sfn|Gimbutas|1967|p=743}}{{sfn|Jakobson|1985|p=23}}&lt;ref name=&quot;Katicic&quot;/&gt; Those with root &quot;peper-&quot;, &quot;papar-&quot; and &quot;pirpir-&quot; were changed accordingly modern words for [[Schinus molle|pepper-tree]] and [[poppy]] plant,{{sfn|Gimbutas|1967|p=743}}{{Sfn|Puchner|2009|p=348}} possibly also [[Hyperpyron|perper]] and else.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal |last=Puchner |first=Walter |author-link=Walter Puchner |date=1983 |title=Бележки към ономатологията и етимологиятана българските и гръцките названия на обреда за дъжд додола/перперуна |trans-title=Notes on the Onomatology and the Etymology of Bulgarian and Greek Names for the Dodola / Perperuna Rite |url=https://www.ceeol.com/search/article-detail?id=17959 |journal=Bulgarian Folklore |volume=IX |issue=1 |pages=59–65 |language=bg}}&lt;/ref&gt;{{Sfn|Puchner|2009|p=347–349}} Some scholars consider in particular that the name ''Perperuna'' can be identified as the reduplicated feminine [[Morphological derivation|derivative]] of the name of the Slavic thunder god ''[[Perun]]'' (''per-perun-a''), allegedly being his female consort, wife and goddess of rain ''Perperuna Dodola'', which would parallel the Old Norse couple [[Fjörgyn and Fjörgynn|Fjörgyn–Fjörgynn]] and the Lithuanian Perkūnas–Perkūnija.{{sfn|Jakobson|1985|p=22–23}}{{Sfn|Puhvel|1987|p=235}}{{Sfn|Jackson|2002|p=70}}&lt;ref name=&quot;York&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |last=York |first=Michael |author-link=Michael York (religious studies scholar) |date=1993 |title=Toward a Proto-Indo-European vocabulary of the sacred |journal=[[Word (journal)|Word]] |volume=44 |issue=2 |pages=240, 251 |doi=10.1080/00437956.1993.11435902|doi-access=free }}&lt;/ref&gt;{{sfn|Ḱulavkova|2020|p=19–20a|ps=:The Balkan rainmaking customs themselves go by different names. They are usually referred to as the Dodola or Peperuga(Peperuda) rituals, after the name of the goddess of rain, wife or consort of the Slavic sky-god Perun ... According to others, these rain-rituals derive specifically from Slavic languages, and the names Peperuda, Peperuga, Peperuna, and Perperuna are cognate with that of the storm-god Perun.}} According to another theory the Balkan names with the root ''per-'' are connected to the Greek [[Persephone]], a fertility goddess, daughter of the sky god [[Zeus]], and of the earth goddess [[Demeter]].{{sfn|Burns|2008|pp=231–232}} Dimitar Marinov derived it from Bulgarian word for butterfly where in folk beliefs has supernatural powers related to rain,{{sfn|Čulinović-Konstantinović|1963|p=94}} but according to Jakobson the mythological context of the customs and links explains the Bulgarian entomological names.&lt;ref&gt;{{harvnb|Jakobson|1985|p=22|ps=:Mythological associations linked with the butterfly (cf. her Serbian name ''Vještica'') also explain the Bulgarian entomological names ''peperuda'', ''peperuga''}}&lt;/ref&gt; [[Michail Arnaudov]] derived it from Slavic verb &quot;pršiti&quot; (spray).{{sfn|Čulinović-Konstantinović|1963|p=94}} [[Petar Skok]] considered ''prporuša'' a metaphorical derivation from Slavic ''prpor/pŕpa'' (hot ash), ''pórusa'' (&quot;when water is poured on burning ash&quot;{{sfn|Burns|2008|p=232}}).&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book |last=Skok |first=Petar |author-link=Petar Skok |title=Etimologijski rječnik hrvatskoga ili srpskoga jezika: poni-Ž |url=https://archive.org/details/EtimologijskiRjecnikHrvatskogaIliSrpskogaJezika |language=sh |year=1973 |location=Zagreb |publisher=[[JAZU]] |volume=3 |page=55}}&lt;/ref&gt; [[Stanisław Urbańczyk]] and Michal Łuczyński put into question Jakobson's theonymic derivation, deriving instead from Proto-Slavic ''*perpera'', ''*perperъka'' (in Polish ''przepiórka''), name for [[Common quail]], which has a role in Polish harvest rituals and the name of the bride in the wedding dance.{{sfn|Urbańczyk|1991|p=150}}{{sfn|Łuczyński|2020|p=141}} These are also related to ''*pъrpati'' (onomatopoeic), cf. Polish dial. ''perpotać'', ''perpac'', Old East Slavic ''poropriti''.{{sfn|Łuczyński|2020|p=141}} The name ''Dodola'' has been suggested to be a cognate to the Lithuanian ''Dundulis'', a word for &quot;thunder&quot; and another name of the Baltic thunder-god Perkūnas.{{sfn|Jakobson|1985|p=23}}{{Sfn|Puhvel|1987|p=235}} It is also hypothesised to be distantly related to Greek [[Dodona]] and [[Daedala]].{{sfn|Evans|1974|p=127–128}}&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book |last=Dauksta |first=Dainis |date=2011 |chapter=From Post to Pillar – The Development and Persistence of an Arboreal Metaphor |title=New Perspectives on People and Forests |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=XxB-HZlbTe0C |publisher=Springer |page=112 |isbn=978-94-007-1150-1}}&lt;/ref&gt; Bulgarian variant ''Didjulja'' is similar to alleged Polish goddess [[Dzidzilela]], and Polish language also has verb ''dudnić'' (&quot;to thunder&quot;).{{sfn|Jakobson|1985|p=22–23}} The uncertainty of the etymologies provided by scholars leads to a call for a &quot;detailed and in-depth comparative analysis of formulas, set phrases and patterns of imagery in rainmaking songs from ''all'' the Balkan languages&quot;.{{sfn|Burns|2008|pp=232–233}} == Origin == The rainmaking practice is a shared tradition among Balkan peoples, and it is not clear who borrowed it from whom.&lt;ref name=Wachtel&gt;{{harvnb|Wachtel|2008|ps=:Anthropologists have noted shared traditions as well, such as a rainmaking ritual in which a young woman covered in a costume of leaves would sing and dance through the village: this ritual was practiced among Greek, Albanian, Romanian, and Slavic speakers throughout the region, and it is not clear who borrowed it from whom.}}&lt;/ref&gt; The fact so similar customs in the Balkans are known by two different names the differences are considered not to be from the same time period and ethnic groups.{{sfn|Čulinović-Konstantinović|1963|p=93}} Similar customs outside the Balkans have been observed in the Caucasus, Middle East, and North Africa.{{sfn|Čulinović-Konstantinović|1963|p=84, 93}}{{sfn|Kulišić|1979|p=108}}&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal |last1=Başgöz |first1=İlhan |date=2007 |title=Rain Making Ceremonies in Iran |journal=[[Iranian Studies (journal)|Iranian Studies]] |volume=40 |issue=3 |pages=385–403 |doi=10.1080/00210860701390588 |jstor=4311905 |s2cid=162315052 |quote=Type II in the classification (that is, the procession with a doll, or ''chomcha gelin'', and its sub-group, which consists in a real child's proceeding through the neighborhood) ... Although the same ceremony is performed in other parts of Turkey, the ladle bride is given different names: ''Bodi Bodi'' among the Karalar Turkmen tribe in Adana province, ''Dodo'' or ''Dodu'' in Kars ... As the type spreads toward the west, sub-type (a) becomes dominant and (b) disappears. In Bulgaria, the girl who visits the houses during the ceremony is called ''doldol'' or ''Perperuga''.46 In Greece, the ceremony is sometimes incorporated into the Epiphany, the ritual throwing of the cross into a river, or sometimes is performed as an independent rain ritual.47 In Yugoslavia, the Turks, Serbians, and the Albanians practice the ritual, naming it ''dodola'' or ''dodoliče'' (little ''dodola'').48 The ritual is known in Hungary and is performed there under the name of ''doldola'', being especially common in villages inhabited by Gypsies and Serbians.49 The custom has spread to Rumania, but there the ''chomcha gelin'' is replaced by a coffin with a clay figure in it. This is reminiscent of Type II in Iran.50 The ''chomcha gelin'' is also observed in Iraq among the Kerkuk Turkmens, who call it &quot;the bride with ladle&quot; (''Chomchalı Gelin'').51 In Syria, the Arabs call the doll ''Umm al-Guys'' (&quot;mother of rain&quot;).52 The Christians in Syria practice the ceremony and call the doll &quot;the bride of God&quot;.53 In North Africa, the doll is called &quot;the mother of Bangau&quot;,54 and a similar symbol carried during the ritual is called Al Gonja.55 In Uzbekistan, Turks and Tajiks perform the ritual, calling the doll ''suskhatun'' (probably meaning &quot;water woman&quot;).56}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book |last=Chirikba |first=Viacheslav |author-link=Viacheslav Chirikba |date=2015 |chapter=Between Christianity and Islam: Heathen Heritage in the Caucasus |title=Studies on Iran and The Caucasus: In Honour of Garnik Asatrian |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=iLS9CwAAQBAJ |location=Leiden |publisher=Brill |pages=169–171 |isbn=978-90-04-30206-8 |quote=Thus, during the festival welcoming the spring, the Avars made ... In the ritual of summoning rains there figured a specially made doll called Dodola ... The Dagestan doll Dodola and the ritual strikingly resemble the Balkan rituals for summoning rain, whereby girls called Dodola would undressed and put on leaves, flowers and herbs to perform the rainmaking ceremony. The Balkan Dodola is regarded as being connected with the Slavic cult of the thunder-god Perun (cf. Tokarev 1991: 391).}}&lt;/ref&gt; [[William Ralston Shedden-Ralston|William Shedden-Ralston]] noted that [[Jacob Grimm]] thought Perperuna/Dodola were &quot;originally identical with the Bavarian ''Wasservogel'' and the Austrian ''Pfingstkönig''&quot; rituals.&lt;ref name=&quot;Ralston&quot;&gt;{{cite book |last=Shedden-Ralston |first=William Ralston |author-link=William Ralston Shedden-Ralston |date=1872 |title=The Songs of the Russian People: As Illustrative of Slavonic Mythology and Russian Social Life |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=429UAAAAcAAJ |location=London |publisher=Ellis &amp; Green |pages=227–229}}&lt;/ref&gt; Ancient rainmaking practices have been widespread [[Mediterranean]] traditions, already documented in the Balkans since [[Minoan]] and [[Mycenaean Greece|Mycenaean]] times.{{sfn|Burns|2008|pp=228–231}}{{sfn|Håland|2001|pp=197–201}} There is a lack of any strong historical evidence for a link between the figures and practices of the ancient times and those that survided to the end of the 20th century, however, according to [[Richard Berengarten]], if seen as &quot;typologically parallel&quot; practices in the ancient world, they may be interpretable at least as forerunners, even if not as direct progenitors of the modern Balkan rainmaking customs.{{sfn|Burns|2008|pp=228–231}} Some consider the ''perperuna'' figure to have a mythological and etymological Slavic origin related to Slavic thunder-god [[Perun]],{{#tag:ref|&lt;ref&gt;{{harvnb|Čulinović-Konstantinović|1963|pp=93–94|ps=:Ovakav obred za kišu poznat je i u Madžarskoj. Analizirao ga je Z. Ujvary te je u svojoj studiji citirao mnoge madžarske autore koji su o tome pisali. Prema njegovu mišljenju, običaj se tamo proširio pod utjecajem Slavena i Rumunja ... M. S. Thompson, međutim, misli da riječ &quot;perperuna&quot; potječe od imena slavenskog boga Peruna, boga gromovnika ... Teoriju o slavenskom porijeklu ovog običaja prihvatili su osim M. S. Thompsona još i G. F. Abbott i E. Fischer.}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;Katicic&quot;&gt;{{cite book |last=Katičić |first=Radoslav |author-link=Radoslav Katičić |title=Naša stara vjera: Tragovima svetih pjesama naše pretkršćanske starine |trans-title=Our Old Faith: Tracing the Sacred Poems of Our Pre-Christian Antiquity |year=2017 |publisher=Ibis Grafika, [[Matica hrvatska]] |location=Zagreb |language=hr |isbn=978-953-6927-98-2 |page=105}}&lt;/ref&gt;{{sfn|Gieysztor|2006|p=89, 104–106}}&lt;ref name=&quot;Zecevic&quot;&gt;{{cite book |last=Zečević |first=Slobodan |date=1974 |title=Elementi naše mitologije u narodnim obredima uz igru |language=sr |location=Zenica |publisher=Muzej grada Zenice |pages=125–128, 132–133}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book |author=Institut za književnost i umetnost (Hatidža Krnjević) |title=Rečnik književnih termina |trans-title=Dictionary of literary terms |year=1985 |publisher=Nolit |location=Beograd |language=sr |isbn=978-86-19-00635-4 |pages=130, 618}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book |last=Sikimić |first=Biljana |date=1996 |title=Etimologija i male folklorne forme |language=sr |location=Beograd |publisher=SANU |pages=85–86 |quote=О vezi Peruna i prporuša up. Ivanov i Toporov 1974: 113: можно думать об одновременной связи имени nеnеруна - nрnоруша как с обозначением nорошения дождя, его распыления (ср. с.-хорв. ирпошuмu (се), nрnошка и Т.Д.; чешск. pršeti, prch, prš), так и с именем Громовержца. Связъ с порошением дождя представляется тем более вероятной, что соответствующий глагол в ряде индоевропейских язЪП&lt;ов выступает с архаическим удвоением&quot;. Za etimologiju sh. ргроrušа up. i Gavazzi 1985: 164.}}&lt;/ref&gt;{{sfn|Belaj|2007|p=80, 112}}{{Sfn|Dragić|2007|p=80, 112}}{{Sfn|Lajoye|2015|p=114}}}} and became widespread in the Southeastern Europe with the [[Slavic migrations to Southeastern Europe|Slavic migration]] (6th–10th century).&lt;ref&gt;{{harvnb|Gimbutas|1967|p=743|ps=:The names applied to the Balkan rain-ceremonies and to those who perform them suggest, by the modest, degree of variation from one another, by the large number of different variants, and their distribution (not only throughout Romania but in Albania and Greek Epirus and Macedonia), the diffusion of a Slavic ritual linked with the name of Perun in any one of its numerous minor variants.}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{harvnb|Jakobson|1985|pp=22, 24|ps=:The ritual call for rain was transmitted long ago from the Balkan Slavs to neighboring peoples, who evidently preserved the original form of the mythological name ... But even if one leaves aside the late, conjectural echoes of Perun's name, one is still forced to conclude that his cult had wide dissemination and deep roots in Slavic paganism, a fact that is clearly reflected not only in the texts, but also in onomastics, as well as in the folklore of the Slavs and their neighbors.}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal |last=Zaroff |first=Roman |date=1999 |title=Organized pagan cult in Kievan Rus': The invention of foreign elite or evolution of local tradition? |url=https://ojs.zrc-sazu.si/sms/article/view/1844 |journal=[[Studia mythologica Slavica]] |volume=2 |page=57 |doi=10.3986/sms.v2i0.1844 |quote=As a consequence of the relatively early Christianisation of the Southern Slavs, there are no more direct accounts in relation to Perun from the Balkans. Nevertheless, as late as the first half of the 12th century, in Bulgaria and Macedonia, peasants performed a certain ceremony meant to induce rain. A central figure in the rite was a young girl called Perperuna, a name clearly related to Perun. At the same time, the association of Perperuna with rain shows conceptual similarities with the Indian god Parjanya. There was a strong Slavic penetration of Albania, Greece and Romania, between the 6th and 10th centuries. Not surprisingly the folklore of northern Greece also knows Perperuna, Albanians know Pirpirúnă, and also the Romanians have their Perperona. Also, in a certain Bulgarian folk riddle the word ''perušan'' is a substitute for the Bulgarian word ''гърмомеҽица'' (grmotevitsa) for thunder. Moreover, the name of Perun is also commonly found in Southern Slavic toponymy. There are places called: Perun, Perunac, Perunovac, Perunika, Perunićka Glava, Peruni Vrh, Perunja Ves, Peruna Dubrava, Perunuša, Perušice, Perudina and Perutovac.|doi-access=free }}&lt;/ref&gt; According to the Slavic theory, it is a (Balto-)Slavic heritage of Proto-Indo-European origin related to Slavic thunder-god Perun. It has parallels in ritual prayers for bringing rain in times of drought dedicated to rain-thunder deity [[Parjanya]] recorded in the ''[[Vedas]]'' and Baltic thunder-god [[Perkūnas]], [[cognates]] alongside Perun of Proto-Indo-European weather-god [[Perkwunos]].{{sfn|Jakobson|1985|p=6–7, 21, 23}} An early medieval Ruthenian manuscript mentions the East Slavic deity [[Pereplut]], who was worshiped with whirling and libations.{{sfn|Jakobson|1955|p=616}}{{sfn|Gimbutas|1967|p=743}}{{sfn|Jakobson|1985|p=23–24}} According to Jakobson, ''[[Novgorod Chronicle]]'' (&quot;dožd prapruden&quot;) and ''Pskov Chronicle'' (&quot;dožd praprudoju neiskazaemo silen&quot;) could have &quot;East Slavic trace of Peperuda calling forth the rain&quot;, and West Slavic god [[Pripegala]] reminds of ''Preperuga/Prepeluga'' variation and connection with Perun.{{sfn|Gimbutas|1967|p=743}}{{sfn|Jakobson|1985|p=24}} Serbo-Croatian archaic variant ''Prporuša'' and verb ''prporiti se'' (&quot;to fight&quot;) also have parallels in Old Russian (&quot;porъprjutъsja&quot;).{{sfn|Jakobson|1985|p=23}} Perun's battle against [[Veles (god)|Veles]] because of Perperuna/Dodola's kidnapping{{clarify|date=August 2024}} has parallels in [[Zeus]] saving of [[Persephone]] after [[Hades]] carried her underground causing big drought on Earth, also seen in the similarity of the names Perperuna and Persephone.&lt;ref name=&quot;York&quot;/&gt;{{sfn|Evans|1974|p=116–117}}{{sfn|Burns|2008|p=232}} Recent research criticize invention of a Slavic female goddess.{{sfn|Łuczyński|2020|p=141}} Some scholars relate ''Dodole'' with pagan custom and songs of ''Lade'' (Ladarice) in [[Hrvatsko Zagorje]] (so-called &quot;Ladarice Dodolske&quot;),&lt;ref name=&quot;Cubelic&quot;&gt;{{cite book |last=Čubelić |first=Tvrtko |date=1990 |title=Povijest i historija usmene narodne književnosti: historijske i literaturno-teorijske osnove te genološki aspekti: analitičko-sintetički pogledi |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=hb1iAAAAMAAJ |language=hr |location=Zagreb |publisher=Ante Pelivan i Danica Pelivan |pages=75–76 |isbn=978-86-81703-01-4}}&lt;/ref&gt;{{Sfn|Dragić|2007|p=279, 283}}&lt;ref name=&quot;Dragic2012&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |last=Dragić |first=Marko |date=2012 |title=Lada i Ljeljo u folkloristici Hrvata i slavenskom kontekstu |trans-title=Lada and Ljeljo in the folklore of Croats and Slavic context |url=https://hrcak.srce.hr/136243 |language=hr |journal=Zbornik radova Filozofskog fakulteta u Splitu |volume=5 |pages=45, 53–55}}&lt;/ref&gt; and in [[Žumberak]]-[[Križevci]] for the ''Preperuša'' custom was also used term ''Ladekarice''.{{sfn|Čulinović-Konstantinović|1963|p=80–81}}{{sfn|Muraj|1987|p=160–161}} Other scholars, due to the geographical distribution, consider that the rainmaking ritual is of [[Paleo-Balkan mythology|Paleo-Balkan]] origin.{{sfn|Kulišić|1979|p=205}}{{sfn|Belaj|2007|p=80}} Some of them consider such origin even relating the ritual to Perun's cult. One theory, in particular, argues that Slavic deity Perun and Perperuna/Dodola customs are of [[Thracians|Thracian]] origin,&lt;ref&gt;Dimitǔr Dechev, ''[https://books.google.com/books/about/Die_thrakischen_Sprachreste.html?id=CrA_AAAAIAAJ Die thrakischen Sprachreste]'', Wien: R.M. Rohrer, 1957, pp. 144, 151&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;Sorin&quot;&gt;{{cite web|author=[[Sorin Paliga]]|title=Influenţe romane și preromane în limbile slave de sud|date=2003|url=http://egg.mnir.ro/pdf/Paliga_InflRomane.pdf|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131228002745/http://egg.mnir.ro/pdf/Paliga_InflRomane.pdf |archive-date=December 28, 2013}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal |first=Mihai |last=Dragnea |url=https://www.academia.edu/9334808 |title=The Thraco-Dacian Origin of the Paparuda/Dodola Rain-Making Ritual |journal=Brukenthalia Acta Musei |issue=4 |date=2014 |pages=18–27}}&lt;/ref&gt;{{sfn|Ḱulavkova|2020|p=19–20b|ps=:According to some researchers ... these pagan rites of worship are thought to be of Thracian origin ... According to other beliefs, Perun, Perin, or Pirin was the supreme deity of the Thracians.}} however, the name of the Slavic thunder-god [[Perun]] is commonly accepted to be formed from the [[Proto-Slavic]] root ''*per'' &quot;to strike&quot; attached to the common agent suffix ''-unŭ'', explained as &quot;the Striker&quot;.{{sfn|West|2007|p=242}} == Ritual == Rainmaking rituals were performed in times of summer drought to make it rain, usually in June and July, but sometimes also in the spring months when there was severe drought. The ritual was a village kinship or community type performance, and an imitative type of [[Incantation|magic practice]] that reproduced rainfall and soil irrigation, accompanied with ritual songs that addressed prayers to the pagan deity associated with rain as well as agriculture and vegetation. The ritual practice traces back to times when the social structure was based on the common property of the land and of the products, which belonged to the whole tribe/clan.{{sfn|Tirta|2004|pp=310–312}} They essentially belong to rituals related to [[Fertility rite|fertility]], but over time differentiated to a specific form connected with water and vegetation.{{sfn|Čulinović-Konstantinović|1963|p=73, 75–76, 91}}{{clarification needed|date=August 2024}} Perperuna and Dodola are considered very similar pagan customs with common origin,{{sfn|Čulinović-Konstantinović|1963|p=75, 78, 93, 95}}&lt;ref name=&quot;Revija&quot;&gt;{{cite magazine |last=Vukelić |first=Deniver |date=2010 |title=Pretkršćanski prežici u hrvatskim narodnim tradicijam |trans-title=Pre-Christian belief traces in Croatian folk traditions |url=https://www.matica.hr/hr/360/PRETKR%C5%A0%C4%86ANSKI%20PRE%C5%BDICI%20U%20HRVATSKIM%20NARODNIM%20TRADICIJAMA%20/ |language=hr |magazine=[[Hrvatska revija]] |issue=4 |publisher=[[Matica hrvatska]] |access-date=20 July 2022}}&lt;/ref&gt; with main difference being in the most common gender of the central character (possibly related to social hierarchy of the specific ethnic or regional group{{sfn|Čulinović-Konstantinović|1963|p=85, 95}}), lyric verses, sometimes religious content, and presence or absence of a chorus.{{sfn|Čulinović-Konstantinović|1963|p=84–85, 90}} They represent a group of rituals with a human collective going on a procession around houses and fields of a village, but with a central live character which differentiates them from other similar collective rituals in the same region and period (''[[Kermesse (festival)|Krstonoše]]'', ''[[Carnival|Poklade]]'', ''[[Koledari|Kolade]]'', ''[[German (mythology)|German]]'', ''Ladarice'', those during ''[[Jurjevo]]'' and ''[[Saint John's Eve|Ivandan]]'' and so on).{{sfn|Čulinović-Konstantinović|1963|p=74–75, 80}}{{Sfn|Dragić|2007|p=276}}{{Sfn|Puchner|2009|p=289, 345}} In the valley of [[Skopje]] in [[North Macedonia]] the Dodola were held on Thursday which was Perun's day.{{Sfn|Dragić|2007|p=291}} In [[Hungary]] the ritual was usually held on [[Saint George's Day|St. George's Day]].&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |last=T. |first=Dömötör |date=1967 |title=Dodola |url=https://gepeskonyv.btk.elte.hu/adatok/Neprajz/82Vereb%E9lyi/folklorisztika_es_rokonteruleteinek_fogalmi_rendszere/dodola.html}}&lt;/ref&gt; The core of the song always mentions a type of rain and list of regional crops.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book |last=Puchner |first=Walter |author-link=Walter Puchner |date=2016 |title=Die Folklore Südosteuropas: Eine komparative Übersicht |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=hZpVDAAAQBAJ |language=de |publisher=Böhlau Verlag Wien |page=65 |isbn=978-3-205-20312-4}}&lt;/ref&gt; The first written mentions and descriptions of the pagan custom are from the 18th century by [[Dimitrie Cantemir]] in ''[[Descriptio Moldaviae]]'' (1714/1771, ''Papaluga''),{{Sfn|Puchner|2009|p=346}}&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book |last=Cantemir |first=Dimitrie |author-link=Dimitrie Cantemir |date=1771 |title=Descriptio antiqui et hodierni status Moldaviae |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=2rZfAAAAcAAJ |location=Frankfurt, Leipzig |language=de |pages=315–316 |quote=Im Sommer, wenn dem Getreide wegen der Dürre Gefabr bevorzustehen fcheinet, ziehen die Landleute einem kleinen Ragdchen, welches noch nicht über zehen Jahr alt ist, ein Hemde an, welches aus Blattern von Baumen und Srantern gemacht wird. Alle andere Ragdchen und stnaben vol gleiechem Alter folgen ihr, und siehen mit Tanzen und Singen durch die ganze Racharfchaft; wo sie aber hin komuien, da pflegen ihnen die alten Weiber kalt Wasser auf den Stopf zu gieffen. Das Lied, welches fie fingen, ist ohngefähr von folegendem Innbalte: &quot;Papaluga! steige nech dem Himmel, öffne feine Thüren, fend von oben Regen ber, daß der Roggen, Weizen, Hirfe u. f. w. gut wachsen.&quot;}}&lt;/ref&gt; then in a Greek law book from [[Bucharest]] (1765, it invoked 62nd Cannon to stop the custom of ''Paparuda''),{{Sfn|Puchner|2009|p=346}}&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book |last=Puchner |first=Walter |author-link=Walter Puchner |date=2017 |chapter=2 - Byzantium High Culture without Theatre or Dramatic Literature? |title=Greek Theatre between Antiquity and Independence: A History of Reinvention from the Third Century BC to 1830 |chapter-url=https://www.cambridge.org/core/books/abs/greek-theatre-between-antiquity-and-independence/byzantium/AD8A310DFF20316E196BA81890C36797 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |page=73 |isbn=978-1-107-44502-4 |doi=10.1017/9781107445024.004 |quote=...in 1765, a Greek law book from Bucharest quotes the 62nd Canon of the Trullanum in order to forbid public dancing by girls in a custom well known throughout the Balkans as 'paparuda', 'perperuna' or 'dodole', a ritual processional rain dance.}}&lt;/ref&gt; and by the Bulgarian [[hieromonk]] [[Spiridon Gabrovski]] who also noted to be related to Perun (1792, ''Peperud'').{{sfn|Belaj|2007|p=80}}&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite book|url=https://archive.org/details/istoriiavokratt00spirgoog|title=История во кратце о болгарском народе славенском. Сочинися и исписа в лето 1792|last=Габровски|first=Спиридон Иеросхимонах|publisher=изд. Св. Синод на Българската Църква|year=1900|location=София|pages=[https://archive.org/details/istoriiavokratt00spirgoog/page/n156 14]}}&lt;/ref&gt; Peoples generally used to organise the Perperuna/Dodola ritual in times of spring and especially summer [[drought]]s, where they worshipped the god/goddess and prayed to him/her for rain (and fertility, later also asked for other field and house blessings). The central character of the ceremony of Perperuna was usually a young boy, while of Dodola usually a young girl, both aged between 10 and 15 years. Purity was important, and sometimes to be orphans. They would be naked, but were not anymore in latest forms of 19-20th century, wearing a skirt and dress densely made of fresh green knitted vines, leaves and flowers of ''[[Sambucus nigra]]'', ''[[Sambucus ebulus]]'', ''[[Clematis flammula]]'', ''[[Clematis vitalba]]'', [[fern]] and other deciduous shrubs and vines, small branches of ''[[Tilia]]'', [[Oak]] and other. The green cover initially covered all body so that the central person figure was almost unrecognizable, but like the necessity of direct skin contact with greenery it also greatly decreased and was very simple in modern period. They whirled and were followed by a small procession of children who walked and danced with them around the same village and fields, sometimes carrying oak or [[Fagus sylvatica|beech]] branches, singing the ritual prayer, stopping together at every house yard, where the hosts would sprinkle water on chosen boy/girl who would shake and thus sprinkle everyone and everything around it (example of &quot;analogical magic&quot;{{Sfn|Puchner|2009|p=346}}), hosts also gifted treats (bread, eggs, cheese, sausages etc., in a later period also money) to children who shared and consumed them among them and sometimes even hosts would drink wine, seemingly as a sacrifice in Perun's honor.&lt;ref name=&quot;Ribaric&quot;&gt;{{Cite book|last=Ribarić|first=Josip|title=O istarskim dijalektima: razmještaj južnoslavenskih dijalekata na poluotoku Istri s opisom vodičkog govora|publisher=Josip Turčinović|date=2002|location=Pazin|orig-date=1916|language=hr|isbn=953-6262-43-6|pages=84–85, 206}}&lt;/ref&gt;{{sfn|Gimbutas|1967|p=743–744}}{{sfn|Evans|1974|p=100, 119}}{{sfn|Jakobson|1985|p=21, 23}}{{sfn|Čulinović-Konstantinović|1963|p=74–77, 83–93}}{{sfn|Muraj|1987|p=158–163}}{{Sfn|Dragić|2007|p=290–293}} The chosen boy/girl was called by one of the name variants of the ritual itself, however in [[Istria]] was also known as ''Prporuš'' and in [[Dalmatia]]-[[Boka Kotorska]] as ''Prpac/Prpats'' and both regions his companions as ''Prporuše'',&lt;ref name=&quot;Ralston&quot;/&gt;{{Sfn|Dragić|2007|p=291}}&lt;ref name=&quot;Ribaric&quot;/&gt;{{sfn|Čulinović-Konstantinović|1963|p=76, 80}} while at [[Pirot]] and [[Nišava District]] in [[Southern Serbia (geographical region)|Southern Serbia]] near Bulgarian border were called as ''dodolće'' and ''preperuđe'', and as in Macedonia both names appear in the same song.{{sfn|Čulinović-Konstantinović|1963|p=79, 95}}{{sfn|Burns|2008|p=220, 222|ps=:The finely documented account by Đorđević of a version of the Balkan rainmaking custom, performed near the River Morava in south-eastern Serbia near the Bulgarian border ... Fly, fly, peperuga/Oh, dodolas, Dear Lord!}} [[File:Пеперуда в Добруджа 1950.jpg|thumb|right|250px|''Peperuda'' performed by Romani in [[Dobruja]], Bulgaria, 1950s.]] By the 20th century once common rituals almost vanished in the Balkans, although rare examples of practice can be traced until 1950-1980s and remained in folk memory. The main reason is the development of agriculture and consequently lack of practical need for existence of mystical connection and customs with nature and weather. Christian church also tried to diminish pagan beliefs and customs, resulting in &quot;dual belief&quot; (''dvoeverie'') in rural populations, a conscious preservation of pre-Christian beliefs and practices alongside Christianity. Into customs and songs were mixed elements from other rituals including Christianity, but they also influenced the creation of Christian songs and prayers invoking the rain which were used as a close Christian alternative (decline was reportedly faster among Catholics{{sfn|Muraj|1987|p=161}}).{{sfn|Čulinović-Konstantinović|1963|p=77, 91–93}}{{sfn|Predojević|2019|p=581, 583, 589–591}} According to [[:hr:Velimir Deželić mlađi|Velimir Deželić Jr.]] in 1937, it was an old custom that &quot;Christians approved it, took it over and further refined it. In the old days, ''Prporuša'' were very much like a [[Piety|pious]] ritual, only later the leaders - ''Prpac'' - began to boast too much, and ''Prporuše'' seemed to be more interested in gifts than beautiful singing and prayer&quot;.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book |last=Deželić Jr. |first=Velimir |date=1937 |title=Kolede: Obrađeni hrvatski godišnji običaji |trans-title=Kolede: Examined Croatian annual customs |url=https://archive.org/details/kolede_obradjeni_hrvatski_godisnji_obicaji-velimir_dezelic_sin/ |language=hr |publisher=Hrvatsko književno društvo svetog Jeronima |page=70 |quote=Ljeti, kad zategnu suše, pošle bi našim selima Prporuše moliti od Boga kišu. Posvuda su Hrvatskom išle Prporuše, a običaj je to prastar — iz pretkršćanskih vremena — ali lijep, pa ga kršćani odobrili, preuzeli i još dotjerali. U stara vremena Prporuše su bile veoma nalik nekom pobožnom obredu, tek poslije su predvodnici — Prpci— počeli suviše lakrdijati, a Prporušama ko da je više do darova, nego do lijepa pjevanja i molitve.}}&lt;/ref&gt; Depending on region, instead of village boys and girls the pagan ritual by then was mostly done by migrating [[Romani people]] from other villages and for whom it became a professional performance motivated by gifts, sometimes followed by financially poor members from other ethnic groups.{{sfn|Čulinović-Konstantinović|1963|p=77, 91–93}}{{sfn|Predojević|2019|p=581, 583, 589–591}}&lt;ref name=&quot;Horvat&quot;&gt;{{cite book |last=Horvat |first=Josip |date=1939 |title=Kultura Hrvata kroz 1000 godina |trans-title=Culture of Croats through 1000 years |url=https://archive.org/details/kultura_hrvata_kroz_1000_godina_ii.izdanje_1939-josip_horvat |language=hr |location=Zagreb |publisher=A. Velzek |pages=23–24}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book |last=Kovačević |first=Ivan |date=1985 |title=Semiologija rituala |trans-title=Semiology of ritual |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=qPMXAAAAIAAJ |language=sr |location=Beograd |publisher=Prosveta |page=79}}&lt;/ref&gt;{{Sfn|Dragić|2007|p=278, 290}} Due to [[Anti-Romani sentiment]], the association with Romani also caused repulsion, shame and ignorance among last generations of members of ethnic groups who originally performed it.{{sfn|Predojević|2019|p=583–584, 589}} Eventually it led to a dichotomy of identification with own traditional heritage, Christianity and stereotypes about Romani witchcraft.{{sfn|Predojević|2019|p=581–582, 584}} In the present days, older generations of Albanians demonstrate the common practice of rainmaking rituals in their life, but newer generations generally see them as something applied in the past, a tradition that their parents have gone through. Nevertheless, elders still accompany [[processions]] of boys and girls, who perform the rainmaking rite dressed with their best [[Albanian traditional clothing|traditional clothing]] except for the main boy or girl, who is dressed entirely in fresh branches, leaves and herbs.&lt;ref&gt;{{harvnb|Qafleshi|2011|pp=51–52|}}; {{harvnb|Ministria|2014|p=66}}; {{harvnb|Halimi|Halimi-Statovci|Xhemaj|2011|pp=2–6, 32–43}}&lt;/ref&gt; Public exhibitions of the ritual are usually performed during Albanian festivals, often for the local audience, but also in the [[Gjirokastër National Folk Festival]], one of the most important events of Albanian culture.{{sfn|Sela|2017|pp=69–70}} ===Perperuna songs=== [[Ioan Slavici]] reported in 1881 that the custom of ''Paparuga'' was already &quot;very disbanded&quot; in Romania.{{sfn|Nodilo|1981|p=51}} Stjepan Žiža in 1889/95 reported that the once common ritual almost vanished in Southwestern and Central-Eastern Istria, Croatia.{{sfn|Čulinović-Konstantinović|1963|p=78}} [[:hr:Ivan Milčetić|Ivan Milčetić]] recorded in 1896 that the custom of ''Prporuša'' also almost vanished from the North Adriatic island of [[Krk]], although almost recently it was well known in all Western parts of Croatia, while in other parts as ''Dodola''.&lt;ref name=&quot;Milcetic&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |last=Milčetić |first=Ivan |date=1896 |title=Prporuša |journal=Zbornik za narodni život i običaje južnih Slavena |location=Belgrade |publisher=[[JAZU]] |volume=1 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=8TwSAAAAYAAJ |pages=217–218 |quote=Čini mi se da je već nestalo prporuše i na otoku Krku, a bijaše još nedavno poznata svuda po zapadnim stranama hrvatskog naroda, dok je po drugim krajevima živjela dodola. Nego i za dodolu već malo gdje znadu. Tako mi piše iz Vir‐Pazara g. L. Jovović, koga sam pitao, da li još Crnogorci poznaju koledu...}}&lt;/ref&gt; Croatian linguist Josip Ribarić recorded in 1916 that it was still alive in Southwestern Istria and [[Ćićarija]] (and related it to the 16th century migration from Dalmatia of speakers of [[Southwestern Istrian]] dialect).&lt;ref name=&quot;Ribaric&quot;/&gt; On island of Krk was also known as ''Barburuša/Barbaruša/Bambaruša'' (occurrence there is possibly related to the 15th century migration which included besides Croats also [[Vlachs of Croatia|Vlach]]-[[Istro-Romanians|Istro-Romanian]] shepherds{{sfn|Zebec|2005|p=68–71, 248}}).{{sfn|Čulinović-Konstantinović|1963|p=80}}{{sfn|Zebec|2005|p=71}} It was also widespread in [[Dalmatia]] (especially [[Zadar]] hinterland, coast and islands), [[Žumberak]] (also known as ''Pepeluše'', ''Prepelice''{{sfn|Muraj|1987|p=161}}) and Western [[Slavonia]] (Križevci).&lt;ref name=&quot;Ralston&quot;/&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;Revija&quot;/&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;Horvat&quot;/&gt;{{sfn|Zebec|2005|p=71}}{{sfn|Čulinović-Konstantinović|1963|p=78, 80–81}}{{Sfn|Dragić|2007|p=291–293}} It was held in Istria at least until the 1950s,{{sfn|Čulinović-Konstantinović|1963|p=82}} in Žumberak until the 1960s,{{sfn|Muraj|1987|p=165}} while according to one account in [[Jezera, Tisno|Jezera]] on island [[Murter]] the last were in the late 20th century.{{Sfn|Dragić|2007|p=292}} In Serbia, Perperuna was only found in [[Kosovo]], Southern and Eastern Serbia near Bulgarian border.{{sfn|Čulinović-Konstantinović|1963|p=79}} According to [[Natko Nodilo]] the discrepancy in distribution between these two countries makes an idea that originally Perperuna was Croatian while Dodola was Serbian custom.{{sfn|Nodilo|1981|p=50a|ps=:Po tome, pa i po različitome imenu za stvar istu, mogao bi ko pomisliti, da su dodole, prvim postankom, čisto srpske, a prporuše hrvatske. U Bosni, zapadno od Vrbasa, zovu se čaroice. Kad bi ovo bilo hrvatski naziv za njih, onda bi prporuše bila riječ, koja k nama pregje od starih Slovenaca.}} Seemingly it was not present in Slovenia, Northern Croatia, almost all of Bosnia and Herzegovina and Montenegro (only sporadically in [[Boka Kotorska]]).{{sfn|Muraj|1987|p=159}} Luka Jovović from [[Virpazar]], Montenegro reported in 1896 that in Montenegro existed some ''koleda'' custom for summer droughts, but was rare and since 1870s not practiced anymore.&lt;ref name=&quot;Milcetic&quot;/&gt; {|class=&quot;wikitable&quot; ||Bulgaria&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book |last=Антонова |first=Илонка Цанова |date=2015 |title=Календарни празници и обичаи на българите |trans-title=Calendar holidays and customs of the Bulgarians |language=bg |location=Sofia |publisher=Издателство на Българската академия на науките &quot;Проф. Марин Дринов&quot; |pages=66–68 |isbn=978-954-322-764-8}}&lt;/ref&gt;||Albania&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book|last=Pipa|first=Arshi|title=Albanian Folk Verse: Structure and Genre|publisher=O. Harrassowitz|year=1978|isbn=3-87828-119-6|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=WCIHAQAAIAAJ|page=58}}&lt;/ref&gt;||Croatia-Krk&lt;br /&gt;&lt;small&gt;([[Dubašnica]], 1896&lt;ref name=&quot;Milcetic&quot;/&gt;)&lt;/small&gt;||Croatia-Istria&lt;br /&gt;&lt;small&gt;([[Lanišće|Vodice]], 1916&lt;ref name=&quot;Ribaric&quot;/&gt;)&lt;/small&gt;||Croatia-Istria&lt;br /&gt;&lt;small&gt;([[Polje Čepić|Čepić]], 1896&lt;ref name=&quot;Milcetic&quot;/&gt;/Štifanići near [[Baderna]], 1906/08&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book |last=Ribarić |first=Josip |editor=Tanja Perić-Polonijo |date=1992 |title=Narodne pjesme Ćićarije |language=hr |location=Pazin |publisher=Istarsko književno društvo &quot;Juraj Dobrila&quot; |pages=11, 208}}&lt;/ref&gt;)&lt;/small&gt;||Croatia-Dalmatia&lt;br /&gt;&lt;small&gt;([[Ražanac]], 1905{{sfn|Čulinović-Konstantinović|1963|p=81}})&lt;/small&gt;||Croatia-Dalmatia&lt;br /&gt;&lt;small&gt;([[Ravni Kotari]], 1867&lt;ref name=&quot;Vuk&quot;&gt;{{cite book |last=Karadžić |first=Vuk Stefanović |author-link=Vuk Stefanović Karadžić |date=1867 |title=Život i običaji naroda srpskoga |trans-title=Life and customs of Serbian nation |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=fX0RAAAAYAAJ |language=sr |location=Vienna |publisher=A. Karacić |pages=61–66}}&lt;/ref&gt;)&lt;/small&gt;||Croatia-Žumberak&lt;br /&gt;&lt;small&gt;(Pavlanci, 1890{{sfn|Muraj|1987|p=164}})&lt;/small&gt;||Macedonia&lt;br /&gt;&lt;small&gt;([[Struga]], 1861&lt;ref name=&quot;Miladinovci&quot;/&gt;)&lt;/small&gt; |- | &lt;poem&gt; &lt;small&gt;Letela e peperuda Daĭ, Bozhe, dŭzhd Daĭ, Bozhe, dŭzhd Ot orache na kopache Da se rodi zhito, proso Zhito, proso i pshenitsa Da se ranyat siracheta Siracheta, siromasi&lt;/small&gt; &lt;/poem&gt; || &lt;poem&gt; &lt;small&gt;Rona-rona, Peperona Bjerë shi ndë arat tona! Të bëhetë thekëri I gjatë gjer në çati Gruri gjer në perëndi Ashtu edhe misëri!&lt;/small&gt; &lt;/poem&gt; || &lt;poem&gt; &lt;small&gt;Prporuša hodila Službu boga molila Dajte sira, dajte jaj Da nam bog da mladi daž Od šenice višnji klas! A ti, bože vični Smiluj se na nas!&lt;/small&gt; &lt;/poem&gt; || &lt;poem&gt; &lt;small&gt;Prporuše hodile Slavu Boga molile I šenice bilice Svake dobre sričice Bog nan ga daj Jedan tihi daž!&lt;/small&gt; &lt;/poem&gt; || &lt;poem&gt; &lt;small&gt;Preporuči hodili / Prporuše hodile Iz Prepora grada / 's Prpora grada Kuda hodili / Da nam bog da dažda Tuda Boga molili / Crljenoga mažda Da nam Bog da dažda / I šenice bilice I crljenoga masta / Svake dobre sričice I šenice bilice / Šenica nan rodila I svake dobre srećice / Dičica prohodila Šenica narodila / Šenicu pojili Dica nam prohodila / Dicu poženili I šenicu pojili / Skupi, bože, oblake! I dicu poženili / Struni bojžu rosicu Skupi, Bože, oblake / Na tu svetu zemljicu! Hiti božju kapljicu / Amen, amen, amen Na ovu svetu zemljicu! Amen&lt;/small&gt; &lt;/poem&gt; || &lt;poem&gt; &lt;small&gt;Prporuše hodile Putom Boga molile Da ni pane kišica Da ni rodi šenica bilica I vinova lozica&lt;/small&gt; &lt;/poem&gt; || &lt;poem&gt; &lt;small&gt;Prporuše hodile Terem Boga molile Da nam dade kišicu Da nam rodi godina I šenica bjelica I vinova lozica I nevjesta đetića Do prvoga božića Daruj nama, striko naša Oku brašna, striko naša Bublu masla, striko naša Runce vune, striko naša Jedan sirčić, striko naša Šaku soli, striko naša Dva, tri jajca, striko naša Ostaj s Bogom, striko naša Koja si nas darovala&lt;/small&gt; &lt;/poem&gt; || &lt;poem&gt; &lt;small&gt;Preperuša odila Za nas Boga molila Daj nam Bože kišice Na ovu našu ljetinu Da pokvasi mladinu Pucaj, pucaj ledeno Škrapaj, škrapaj godino Mi smo tebi veseli Kano Isus Mariji Kaj Marija Isusu Kano mati djetetu&lt;/small&gt; &lt;/poem&gt; || &lt;poem&gt; &lt;small&gt;Otletala preperuga, oj ljule, oj! Ot oracha na oracha, oj ljule, oj! Ot kopacha na kopacha, oj ljule, oj! Ot rezhacha na rezhacha; oj ljule, oj! Da zarosit sitna rosa, oj ljule, oj! Sitna rosa beriketna, oj ljule, oj! I po pole i po more; oj ljule, oj! Da se rodit s' beriket, oj ljule, oj! S' beriket vino-zhito; oj ljule, oj! Cheincite do gredite, oj ljule, oj! Jachmenite do streite, oj ljule, oj! Lenoite do pojasi, oj ljule, oj! Uroite do kolena; oj ljule, oj! Da se ranet siromasi, oj ljule, oj! Drvete ne so osito, oj ljule, oj! Da je sita godina; oj ljule, oj! Drvete ne so oshnica, oj ljule, oj! Da ja polna koshnica; oj ljule, oj! Drvete ne so jamache, oj ljule, oj! Da je tuchna godina, oj ljule, oj!&lt;/small&gt; &lt;/poem&gt; |} ===Dodola songs=== The oldest record for Dodole rituals in Macedonia is the song &quot;Oj Ljule&quot; from [[Struga]] region, recorded in 1861.&lt;ref name=&quot;Miladinovci&quot;&gt;{{cite book|last = Miladinovci|title = Зборник|publisher = Kočo Racin|year = 1962|location = Skopje|url = http://www.gbiblsk.edu.mk/images/stories/eknigi/zbornik.pdf|page = 462|archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20120216225647/http://www.gbiblsk.edu.mk/images/stories/eknigi/zbornik.pdf |archive-date = 2012-02-16}}&lt;/ref&gt; The Dodola rituals in Macedonia were actively held until the 1960s.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book|last=Veličkovska|first=Rodna|title=Музичките дијалекти во македонското традиционално народно пеење: обредно пеење|trans-title=Musical dialects in the Macedonian traditional folk singing: ritual singing| publisher=Institute of folklore &quot;Marko Cepenkov&quot;|year=2009|location=Skopje|language=mk|page=45}}&lt;/ref&gt; In Bulgaria the chorus was also &quot;Oj Ljule&quot;.{{sfn|Nodilo|1981|p=50b}} The oldest record in Serbia was by [[Vuk Karadžić]] (1841),{{sfn|Čulinović-Konstantinović|1963|p=79}} where was widespread all over the country and held at least until 1950/70s.&lt;ref name=&quot;Zecevic&quot;/&gt;{{sfn|Čulinović-Konstantinović|1963|p=77–78, 86, 88}} In Croatia was found in Eastern Slavonia, Southern [[Baranya (region)|Baranja]] and Southeastern [[Srijem]].&lt;ref name=&quot;Horvat&quot;/&gt;{{sfn|Čulinović-Konstantinović|1963|p=77–78, 90}}{{sfn|Muraj|1987|p=159}}{{sfn|Dragić|2012|p=54}}&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book |last=Janković |first=Slavko |date=1956 |title=Kuhačeva zbirka narodnih popijevaka (analizirana): od br. 1801 do br. 2000 |url=https://repozitorij.dief.eu/a/?pr=i&amp;id=69581 |quote=Naša doda moli Boga ([[Otok, Vukovar-Syrmia County|Otok]], Slavonia, 1881, sken ID: IEF_RKP_N0096_0_155; IEF_RKP_N0096_0_156A) - Ide doda preko sela ([[Erdevik]], Srijem, 1885, sken ID: IEF_RKP_N0096_0_163; IEF_RKP_N0096_0_164A) - Filip i Jakob, Koleda na kišu ([[Gibarac]], Srijem, 1886, sken ID: IEF_RKP_N0096_0_165; IEF_RKP_N0096_0_166A)}}&lt;/ref&gt; [[August Šenoa]] in his writing about the travel to Okić-grad near [[Samobor]], Croatia mentioned that saw two dodole.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |url=https://www.knjizevnost.hr/zagrebulje-1866-august-senoa/ |title=Zagrebulje I (1866.) |last=Šenoa |first=August |author-link=August Šenoa |date=1866 |website=Književnost.hr |publisher=informativka d.o.o. |access-date=23 July 2022 |quote=...već se miču niz Okić put naše šljive dvije u zeleno zavite dodole. S ovoga dodolskoga dualizma sjetih se odmah kakvi zecevi u tom grmu idu, i moja me nada ne prevari. Eto ti pred nas dva naša junaka, ne kao dodole, kao bradurina i trbušina, već kao pravi pravcati bogovi – kao Bako i Gambrinus... Naša dva boga, u zeleno zavita, podijeliše društvu svoj blagoslov, te bjehu sa živim usklikom primljeni. No i ova mitologička šala i mrcvarenje božanske poezije po našem generalkvartirmeštru pobudi bogove na osvetu; nad našim glavama zgrnuše se oblaci, i naskoro udari kiša.}}&lt;/ref&gt; To them is related the custom of Lade/Ladarice from other parts of Croatia, having chorus &quot;''Oj Lado, oj!''&quot; and similar verses &quot;''Molimo se višnjem Bogu/Da popuhne tihi vjetar, Da udari rodna kiša/Da porosi naša polja, I travicu mekušicu/Da nam stada Lado, Ugoje se naša stada''&quot;.&lt;ref name=&quot;Cubelic&quot;/&gt;{{Sfn|Dragić|2007|p=279, 283}}&lt;ref name=&quot;Dragic2012&quot;/&gt; {|class=&quot;wikitable&quot; ||Serbia&lt;br /&gt;&lt;small&gt;(1841&lt;ref name=&quot;Vuk&quot;/&gt;{{sfn|Čulinović-Konstantinović|1963|p=88}})&lt;/small&gt;||Serbia&lt;br /&gt;&lt;small&gt;(1867&lt;ref name=&quot;Vuk&quot;/&gt;)&lt;/small&gt;||Serbia&lt;br /&gt;&lt;small&gt;(1867&lt;ref name=&quot;Vuk&quot;/&gt;)&lt;/small&gt;||Croatia-Slavonia&lt;br /&gt;&lt;small&gt;([[Đakovo]]&lt;ref name=&quot;Dragic2012&quot;/&gt;)&lt;/small&gt;||Croatia-Slavonia&lt;br /&gt;&lt;small&gt;(Đakovo, 1957{{sfn|Čulinović-Konstantinović|1963|p=77, 90}})&lt;/small&gt;||Croatia-Srijem&lt;br /&gt;&lt;small&gt;([[Tovarnik]], 1979&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal |last=Černelić |first=Milana |date=1998 |title=Kroz godinu dana srijemskih običaja vukovarskog kraja |trans-title=Annual customs of Srijem in the Vukovar region |url=https://hrcak.srce.hr/80816 |language=hr |journal=Etnološka tribina |volume=28 |issue=21 |page=135}}&lt;/ref&gt;)&lt;/small&gt; |- | &lt;poem&gt; &lt;small&gt;Mi idemo preko sela, Oj dodo, oj dodo le! A oblaci preko neba, Oj dodo, oj dodo le! A mi brže, oblak brže, Oj dodo, oj dodo le! Oblaci nas pretekoše, Oj dodo, oj dodo le! Žito, vino porosiše, Oj dodo, oj dodo le!&lt;/small&gt; &lt;/poem&gt; || &lt;poem&gt; &lt;small&gt;Molimo se višnjem Bogu, Oj dodo, oj dodo le! Da udari rosna kiša, Oj dodo, oj dodo le! Da porosi naša polja, Oj dodo, oj dodo le! I šenicu ozimicu, Oj dodo, oj dodo le! I dva pera kukuruza, Oj dodo, oj dodo le!&lt;/small&gt; &lt;/poem&gt; || &lt;poem&gt; &lt;small&gt;Naša doda Boga moli, Oj dodo, oj dodo le! Da udari rosna kiša, Oj dodo, oj dodo le! Da pokisnu svi orači, Oj dodo, oj dodo le! Svi orači i kopači, Oj dodo, oj dodo le! I po kući poslovači, Oj dodo, oj dodo le!&lt;/small&gt; &lt;/poem&gt; || &lt;poem&gt; &lt;small&gt;Naša doda moli Boga Oj dodole, moj božole! Da porosi rosna kiša Oj dodole, moj božole! Da pokvasi naša polja Oj dodole, moj božole! Da urode, da prerode Oj dodole, moj božole!&lt;/small&gt; &lt;/poem&gt; || &lt;poem&gt; &lt;small&gt;Naša dojda moli boga da kiša pada Da pokisne suvo polje, oj, dojdole! Da pokisnu svi orači Svi orači i kopači, oj, dojdole! I po kući poslovači Oj, dojdole, oj, dojdole! I dva pera kukuruza I lanovi za darove, oj, dojdole! Da urodi, da prerodi, da ne polegne Oj, dojdole, oj, dojdole!&lt;/small&gt; &lt;/poem&gt; || &lt;poem&gt; &lt;small&gt;Naša doda moli Boga Da nam Bog da rosne kiše Rosne kiše malo više Na orače i kopače I na naše suve bašće Oj dodo, oj dodole! Da trava raste Da paun pase Da sunce sija Da žito zrija Oj dodo, oj dodole!&lt;/small&gt; &lt;/poem&gt; |} ==Other== According to [[Albanian folk beliefs]], the Sun ([[Dielli (Albanian paganism)|Dielli]]) makes the sky cloudy or clears it up.&lt;ref&gt;{{harvnb|Tirta|2004|pp=71–72}}; {{harvnb|Gjoni|2012|pp=85–86}}&lt;/ref&gt; Albanians used to invoke the Sun with rainmaking and soil fertility rituals. In rainmaking rituals from the [[Albanian Ionian Sea Coast]], Albanians used to pray to the Sun, in particular facing Mount [[Shëndelli]] (Mount &quot;Holy Sun&quot;), by invoking the names ''Dielli'', ''Shën Dëlliu'', ''Ilia'' or ''[[Perëndi]]a''. Children used to dress a boy with fresh branches, calling him ''dordolec''. A typical invocation song repeated three times during the ritual was:{{sfn|Gjoni|2012|pp=85–86}} {{blockquote|&quot;O Ilia, Ilia,&lt;br /&gt;Peperuga rrugëzaj&lt;br /&gt;Bjerë shi o Perëndi,&lt;br /&gt;Se qajnë ca varfëri,&lt;br /&gt;Me lot e logori&lt;br /&gt;Thekëri gjer mbë çati,&lt;br /&gt;Gruri gjer në Perëndi.&quot;}} Afterwards, people used to say: ''Do kemi shi se u nxi Shëndëlliu'' (&quot;We will have rain because ''Shëndëlliu'' went dark&quot;).{{sfn|Gjoni|2012|pp=85–86}} The Sun used to be also invoked when reappearing after the rain, prayed for increased production in agriculture.{{sfn|Gjoni|2012|pp=85–86}} == See also == {{commons category|Dodola}} * [[Albanian paganism]] * [[Folklore of Romania]] * [[Slavic paganism]] * [[Caloian]] * [[Perëndi]] * [[Porenut]] * [[Porevit]] == References == {{reflist}} === Bibliography === {{Refbegin|30em|indent=yes}} &lt;!-- B --&gt; *{{cite book |last=Belaj |first=Vitomir |author-link=Vitomir Belaj |date=2007 |orig-date=1998 |title=Hod kroz godinu: Mitska pozadina hrvatskih narodnih običaja i vjerovanja |trans-title=The walk within a year: the mythic background of the Croatian folk customs and beliefs |language=hr |location=Zagreb |publisher=Golden marketing-Tehnička knjiga |isbn=978-953-212-334-0}} *{{cite journal|last=Burns|first=Richard|title=Rain and Dust|journal=[[Studia Mythologica Slavica]]|volume=XI|issn=1581-128X|doi=10.3986/sms.v11i0.1696|year=2008|pages=217–236|doi-access=free}} &lt;!-- C --&gt; *{{cite journal |last=Čulinović-Konstantinović |first=Vesna |date=1963 |title=Dodole i prporuše: narodni običaji za prizivanje kiše |trans-title=Dodole and prporuše: folk customs for invoking the rain |url=https://hrcak.srce.hr/34409 |language=hr |journal=Narodna Umjetnost |volume=2 |issue=1 |pages=73–95}} &lt;!-- D --&gt; *{{cite journal |last=Dragić |first=Marko |date=2007 |title=Ladarice, kraljice i dodole u hrvatskoj tradicijskoj kulturi i slavenskom kontekstu |trans-title=Ladarice, Queens and Dodole in Croatian Traditionary Culture and Slavic Context |url=https://www.bib.irb.hr/299913 |language=hr |journal=Hercegovina, godišnjak za kulturno i povijesno naslijeđe |volume=21 |pages=275–296}} &lt;!-- G --&gt; *{{cite book|last=Gamkrelidze|first=Ivanov|title=Indo-European and the Indoeuropeans|publisher=Mouton de Gruyter|year=1995}} *{{cite book |last=Gieysztor |first=Aleksander |author-link=Aleksander Gieysztor |date=2006 |orig-date=1982 |edition=II |title=Mitologia Slowian |publisher=Wydawn. Uniwersytetu Warszawskiego |location=Warszawa |language=pl |isbn=978-83-235-0234-0}} *{{cite book |last=Gimbutas |first=Marija |author-link=Marija Gimbutas |date=1967 |chapter=Ancient Slavic Religion: A Synopsis |title=To honor Roman Jakobson: essays on the occasion of his seventieth birthday, 11 October 1966 (Vol. I) |pages=738–759 |publisher=Mouton |doi=10.1515/9783111604763-064 |isbn=978-3-11-122958-4}} *{{cite thesis|type=PhD|last=Gjoni|first=Irena|title=Marrëdhënie të miteve dhe kulteve të bregdetit të Jonit me areale të tjera mitike|publisher=University of Tirana, Faculty of History and Philology|language=sq|year=2012|place=Tirana}} &lt;!-- E --&gt; * {{cite book|last=Elsie|first=Robert|year=2000|title=The Christian Saints of Albania|publisher=Balkanistica|url=http://home.olemiss.edu/~mldyer/balk/article2.html|volume=13}} * {{cite book|last=Elsie|first=Robert|author-link=Robert Elsie|title=A Dictionary of Albanian Religion, Mythology and Folk Culture|place=London|publisher=Hurst &amp; Company|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=N_IXHrXIsYkC|isbn=1-85065-570-7|year=2001a}} *{{cite book|last=Elsie|first=Robert|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ve4SAQAAIAAJ|title=Albanian Folktales and Legends|year=2001b|publisher=Dukagjini Publishing House}} *{{cite book |last=Evans |first=David |date=1974 |chapter=Dodona, Dodola, and Daedala |title=Myth in Indo-European Antiquity |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=QNzuDwAAQBAJ |pages=99–130 |publisher=University of California Press |isbn=978-0-520-02378-9}} &lt;!-- H --&gt; *{{cite journal|last=Håland|first=Evy Johanne|title=Rituals of Magical Rain-Making in Modern and Ancient Greece: A Comparative Approach|journal=Cosmos|volume=17|year=2001|pages=197–251}} *{{cite book|last1=Halimi|first1=Zanita|last2=Halimi-Statovci|first2=Drita|last3=Xhemaj|first3=Ukë|translator=Lumnije Kadriu|title=Rite dhe Aktualiteti|trans-title=Rites and Contemporariness/Present Time|publisher=[[University of Prishtina]]|year=2011|url=https://chwbkosova.org/wp-content/uploads/2014/09/Publication_2011_7-min.pdf}} &lt;!-- J --&gt; *{{cite journal|last=Jackson|first=Peter|date=2002|title=Light from Distant Asterisks. Towards a Description of the Indo-European Religious Heritage|journal=Numen|volume=49|issue=1|pages=61–102|issn=0029-5973|jstor=3270472|doi=10.1163/15685270252772777}} *{{cite journal |last1=Jakobson |first1=Roman |author-link=Roman Jakobson |date=1955 |title=While Reading Vasmer's Dictionary |url=https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/pdf/10.1080/00437956.1955.11659581 |journal=[[Word (journal)|Word]] |volume=11 |issue=4 |pages=611–617 |doi=10.1080/00437956.1955.11659581}} *{{cite book |last=Jakobson |first=Roman |author-link=Roman Jakobson |date=1985 |title=Selected Writings VII: Contributions to Comparative Mythology |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=db7iuvTX1bkC |publisher=[[Walter de Gruyter]] |isbn=978-3-11-010617-6}} &lt;!-- K --&gt; *{{cite journal |last=Ḱulavkova |first=Katica |date=2020 |title=A Poetic Ritual Invoking Rain and Well-Being: Richard Berengarten's In a Time of Drought |url=https://scholarworks.iu.edu/journals/index.php/aeer/article/view/28956 |journal=Anthropology of East Europe Review |volume=37 |issue=1 |pages=17–26}} *{{cite book |last=Kulišić |first=Špiro |author-link=Špiro Kulišić |editor=[[Alojz Benac]] |date=1979 |title=Stara slovenska religija u svjetlu novijih istraživanja – posebno balkanoloških |language=sh |volume=Djela LVI, CBI knjiga 3 |location=Sarajevo |publisher=Centre for Balkan Studies, [[ANUBIH]]}} &lt;!-- L --&gt; *{{cite book |last=Lajoye |first=Patrice |author-link=Patrice Lajoye |date=2015 |title=Perun, dieu slave de l'orage: Archéologie, histoire, folklore |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=o5LdCgAAQBAJ |language=fr |publisher=Lingva |isbn=979-10-94441-25-1}} *{{cite book|last=Łuczyński|first=Michal|year=2020|title=Bogowie dawnych Słowian: Studium onomastyczne|publisher=Kieleckie Towarzystwo Naukowe|location=Kielce|isbn=978-83-60777-83-1|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=rv-izQEACAAJ|language=pl}} &lt;!-- M --&gt; *{{cite book|author=Ministria e Mjedisit dhe Planifikimit Hapësinor|title=Parku Kombëtar &quot;Sharri&quot; – Plani Hapësinor|publisher=Kosovo Environmental Protection Agency, Institute for Spatial Planning|year=2014|ref={{harvid|Ministria|2014}}}} *{{cite journal |last=Muraj |first=Aleksandra |date=1987 |title=Iz istraživanja Žumberka (preperuše, preslice, tara) |trans-title=From Research on Žumberak (preperuše, spindles, tara) |url=https://hrcak.srce.hr/clanak/76272 |language=hr |journal=Narodna Umjetnost |volume=24 |issue=1 |pages=157–175}} &lt;!-- N --&gt; *{{cite book |last=Nodilo |first=Natko |author-link=Natko Nodilo |date=1981 |orig-date=1884 |title=Stara Vjera Srba i Hrvata |trans-title=Old Faith of Serbs and Croats |url=https://archive.org/details/StaraVjeraSrbaIHrvata/ |language=hr |location=Split |publisher=Logos}} *{{cite book|last=Norris|first=Harry Thirlwall|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=RGmzir-ITtUC&amp;pg=PA34|title=Islam in the Balkans: Religion and Society Between Europe and the Arab World|publisher=University of South Carolina Press|year=1993|isbn=9780872499775|location=Columbia, S.C|pages=211|language=en|oclc=28067651}} &lt;!-- P --&gt; *{{cite book |last=Predojević |first=Željko |date=2019 |chapter=O pučkim postupcima i vjerovanjima za prizivanje kiše iz južne Baranje u kontekstu dvovjerja |trans-chapter=On folk practices and beliefs for invoking rain from southern Baranja in the context of dual belif |chapter-url=https://www.bib.irb.hr/1100049 |title=XIV. međunarodni kroatistički znanstveni skup |editor=István Blazsetin |editor-link=István Blazsetin (born 1963) |location=Pečuh |publisher=Znanstveni zavod Hrvata u Mađarskoj |language=hr |pages=581–593 |isbn=978-963-89731-5-3}} *{{cite book |last=Puchner |first=Walter |author-link=Walter Puchner |date=2009 |title=Studien zur Volkskunde Südosteuropas und des mediterranen Raums |url=https://library.oapen.org/handle/20.500.12657/34402 |location=Wien, Köln, Weimar |publisher=Böhlau Verlag |hdl=20.500.12657/34402 |language=de |isbn=978-3-205-78369-5}} *{{cite book|last1=Puhvel|first1=Jaan|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=OMPagyYOe8gC|title=Comparative Mythology|date=1987|publisher=Johns Hopkins University Press|isbn=978-0-8018-3938-2|author-link=Jaan Puhvel}} &lt;!-- Q --&gt; *{{cite book|last=Qafleshi|first=Muharrem|title=Opoja dhe Gora ndër shekuj|trans-title=Opoja and Gora During Centuries|publisher=[[Albanological Institute of Pristina]]|year=2011|isbn=978-9951-596-51-0}} &lt;!-- S --&gt; *{{cite book|last=Sela|first=Jonida|title=International Conference &quot;Education and Cultural Heritage&quot;|chapter=Values and Traditions in Ritual Dances of All-Year Celebrations in Korça Region, Albania|volume=1|publisher=Association of Heritage and Education|year=2017|pages=62–71}} &lt;!-- T --&gt; *{{cite book|last=Tirta|first=Mark|title=Mitologjia ndër shqiptarë|language=sq|editor=Petrit Bezhani|publisher=Mësonjëtorja|year=2004|place=Tirana|isbn=99927-938-9-9}} &lt;!-- U --&gt; *{{cite book|last=Urbańczyk|first=Stanisław|author-link=Stanisław Urbańczyk|year=1991|title=Dawni Słowianie: wiara i kult|trans-title=Old Slavs: faith and cult|publisher=Ossolineum, Polska Akademia Nauk, Komitet Słowianoznawstwa|location=Kraków|isbn=978-83-04-03825-7|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=4iUtAAAAMAAJ|language=pl}} &lt;!-- W --&gt; *{{cite book|last=Wachtel|first=Andrew Baruch|year=2008|title=The Balkans in World History|publisher=Oxford University Press|location=Oxford, England|isbn=978-0-19-988273-1|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=t6CeBgAAQBAJ}} *{{cite book|last=West|first=M. L.|title=Indo-European Poetry and Myth|publisher=Oxford University Press|year=2007|isbn=978-0-19-928075-9}} &lt;!-- Z --&gt; *{{cite book |last=Zebec |first=Tvrtko |date=2005 |title=Krčki tanci: plesno-etnološka studija |trans-title=Tanac dances on the island of Krk: dance ethnology study |url=https://www.academia.edu/35914079 |location=Zagreb, Rijeka |publisher=Institut za etnologiju i folkloristiku, Adamić |language=hr |isbn=953-219-223-9}} {{refend}} === Further reading === {{refbegin}} * {{ill|Bellosics, Bálint|hu|Bellosics Bálint}}. &quot;[http://real-j.mtak.hu/17297/ Dodola (Adatok az esőcsináláshoz)]&quot; [Dodola, Beiträge zum Regenmachen]. In: ''Ethnographia'' 6 (1895): 418–422. (In Hungarian) *{{cite book |last=Beza |first=Marcu |author-link=Marcu Beza |date=1928 |chapter=The Paparude and Kalojan |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=m2jTDwAAQBAJ |title=Paganism in Roumanian Folklore |location=London |publisher=J.M.Dent &amp; Sons LTD. |pages=27–36|isbn=978-3-8460-4695-1 }} * Boghici, Constantina. &quot;Archaic Elements in the Romanian Spring-Summer Traditions. Landmarks for Dâmboviţa County&quot;. In: ''Bulletin of the Transilvania University of Braşov'', Series VIII: Performing Arts 2 (2013): 17–18. https://ceeol.azurewebsites.net/search/article-detail?id=258246 * {{cite book |last=Cook |first=Arthur Bernard |author-link=Arthur Bernard Cook |date=1940 |chapter=Zeus and the Rain: Rain-magic in modern Greece |title=Zeus: A Study in Ancient Religion: God of the Dark Sky (earthquakes, clouds, wind, dew, rain, meteorites) |volume=3 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=2Yk8AAAAIAAJ |publisher=Cambridge University Press |pages=284–290 |isbn=978-0-511-69664-0 |doi=10.1017/CBO9780511696640}} * {{ill|Dömötör, Tekla|hu|Dömötor Tekla}}; {{ill|Eperjessy, Ernő|hu|Eperjessy Ernő}}. &quot;[http://real-j.mtak.hu/2925/ Dodola and Other Slavonic Folk-Customs in County Baranya (Hungary)]&quot;. In: ''Acta Ethnographica'', 16 (1967): 399–408. * {{cite journal |title=Paparuda |trans-title=Paparuda |first=Mihai |last=Dragnea |publisher=MUZEUL ETNOGRAFIC AL TRANSILVANIEI |journal=Anuarul Muzeului Etnografic al Transilvaniei |date=2012 |issue=6 |pages=73–81 |lang=Romanian}} * {{Cite journal |title=Песента в обреда Пеперуда |trans-title=The Song in the Peperuda Ritual |first=Bozhanka |last=Ganeva |publisher=Институт за етнология и фолклористика с Етнографски музей при БАН |journal=Български фолклор |volume=XXIX |date=2003 |issue=1 |pages=40–49 |lang=BG}} * Janković, Danica S., and Ljubica S. Janković. &quot;Serbian Folk Dance Tradition in Prizren&quot;. In: ''Ethnomusicology'' 6, no. 2 (1962): 117. https://doi.org/10.2307/924671. * {{cite journal |title=Вариантн на обредите Пеперуда и Герман |trans-title=Variants of the Rites Peperuda and German |first=Rusko |last=Kalev |publisher=Институт за етнология и фолклористика с Етнографски музей при БАН |journal=Български фолклор |volume=XII |date=1986 |issue=3 |pages=47–58 |lang=BG}} * {{cite journal |title=Słownictwo związane z wywoływaniem deszczu w dialektach sztokawskich |trans-title=Vocabulary related to rain calling in Shtokavian dialects |first=Agata |last=Kruszec |publisher=Instytut Slawistyki Polskiej Akademii Nauk |journal=Studia z Filologii Polskiej i Słowiańskiej |date=2008 |issue=43 |pages=141–148 |lang=PL}} * Мандич, Мария. &quot;[https://dais.sanu.ac.rs/123456789/7850 &quot;Жизнь&quot; ритуала после &quot;угасания&quot;: Пример додолы из села Сигетчеп в Венгрии]&quot; [The 'life' of an extinguished ritual: The case of the rain ritual dodola from Szigetcsép in Hungary]. In: &quot;Славяноведение&quot; 6 (2019): 15–29. DOI: 10.31857/S0869544X0006755-3 (In Russian) * {{cite book |last1=Marushiakova |first1=E. |last2=Popov |first2=V. |date=2016 |chapter=Roma Culture: Problems and Challenges |editor1-first=E. |editor1-last=Marushiakova |editor2-first=V. |editor2-last=Popov |title=Roma Culture: Myths and Realities |page=48 |location=München |publisher=Lincom Academic Publishers |url=https://www.academia.edu/26969260}} * {{cite journal |title=Женска антропоморфна пластика в два обреда за дъжд от Ямболски окръг |trans-title=Female Anthropomorphic Figures in Two Rain-Making Ceremonies from the District of Yambol |first=Lyubomir |last=Mikov |publisher=Институт за етнология и фолклористика с Етнографски музей при БАН |journal=Български фолклор |volume=XI |date=1985 |issue=4 |pages=19–27 |lang=BG}} * Puchner, Walter. &quot;Liedtextstudien Zur Balkanischen Regenlitanei: Mit Spezieller Berücksichtigung Der Bulgarischen Und Griechischen Varianten&quot;. In: ''Jahrbuch Für Volksliedforschung'' 29 (1984): 100–111. https://doi.org/10.2307/849291. *{{cite book |last=Schneeweis |first=Edmund |date=2019 |orig-date=1961 |title=Serbokroatische Volkskunde: Volksglaube und Volksbrauch |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=bR6bDwAAQBAJ |publisher=Walter de Gruyter GmbH &amp; Co KG |pages=161–163 |language=de |isbn=978-3-11-133764-7}} *{{cite book |last=MacDermott |first=Mercia |author-link=Mercia MacDermott |date=2003 |title=Explore Green Men |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=vT1NAAAAYAAJ |publisher=Heart of Albion Press |pages=17–19 |isbn=978-1-872883-66-3}} *{{citation |title=Dodole |url=https://www.enciklopedija.hr/natuknica.aspx?ID=15709 |author=Croatian Encyclopaedia |author-link=Croatian Encyclopaedia |year=2021}} {{refend}} ===External links=== *{{YouTube|id=X0BgBEtnK4s|title=Dodole ritual on TV in Macedonia}} *{{YouTube|id=aeCQgFUsIKA|title=Reconstruction of Dodole ritual in Bulgaria}} at [[Etar Architectural-Ethnographic Complex]] *{{YouTube|id=n2Vhk_eiwkg|title=&quot;Dodole&quot; song by Croatian ethno-folk rock band Kries}} *[https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=G8O5-a4rCk4 Pirpirouna/Pirpiruna/Perperouna – Rainmaking ritual song], and its [https://www.oeaw.ac.at/fileadmin/kommissionen/vanishinglanguages/Collections/Greek_varieties/Macedonian_Greek/Transcription_pdfs/mace1251TRV0001a_transcription.pdf lyrics], recorded 2016 by Thede Kahl and Andreea Pascaru in Turkey *[https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=evOGzUGT8kc Dodola/Pirpiruna – Rainmaking ritual song, description of the custom] and [https://www.oeaw.ac.at/fileadmin/kommissionen/vanishinglanguages/Collections/Greek_varieties/Macedonian_Greek/Transcription_pdfs/mace1251TRV0001a_transcription.pdf its lyrics], recorded 2020 in Northeast Greece by Sotirios Rousiakis {{Slavic mythology}} [[Category:Albanian folklore]] [[Category:Aromanian culture]] [[Category:Bulgarian folklore]] [[Category:Bulgarian traditions]] [[Category:Croatian folklore]] [[Category:Greek folklore]] [[Category:Macedonian traditions]] [[Category:Moldovan traditions]] [[Category:Rainmaking (ritual)]] [[Category:Romanian folklore]] [[Category:Romanian traditions]] [[Category:Serbian folklore]] [[Category:Serbian traditions]] [[Category:Slavic pseudo-deities]] [[Category:South Slavic culture]]</div></summary> <author><name>Βατο</name></author> </entry> <entry> <id>https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Dodola_and_Perperuna&diff=1256398885</id> <title>Dodola and Perperuna</title> <link rel="alternate" type="text/html" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Dodola_and_Perperuna&diff=1256398885"/> <updated>2024-11-09T19:32:28Z</updated> <summary type="html">Βατο: rv addition in lede of interpretations that are also limited only to some traditions <hr /> <div>{{Short description|Rainmaking rituals in Southeast Europe}} [[File:&quot;Watering of Dodola&quot; by Uroš Predić, published in magazine &quot;Orao&quot; in 1892.jpg|300px|thumb|The sprinkling of ''Dodola'' with water by [[Uroš Predić]] (1892)]] '''Dodola''' (also spelled ''Dodole'', ''Dudola'', ''Dudula'', ''Diva-Dodola'' etc.), '''Perperuna''' (also spelled ''Peperuda'', ''Preperuda'', ''Preperuša'', ''Prporuša'', ''Papaluga'', ''Peperuna'' etc.), '''riti i ndjelljes/thirrjes së shiut''' (&quot;Rain-Invoking/Calling Ritual&quot; or &quot;Rite of Invoking/Calling the Rain&quot;) or simply '''thirrja e shiut''' (&quot;Call of the Rain&quot;), '''riti me dordolecin''' (&quot;Dordoleci Ritual&quot;), '''riti i dodolisë''' (&quot;Dodoli Ritual&quot;) are [[Rainmaking (ritual)|rainmaking]] [[Paganism|pagan]] customs widespread among different peoples in [[Southeast Europe]] until the 20th century, found in [[Albania]], [[Bulgaria]], [[Croatia]], [[Greece]], [[Hungary]], [[Kosovo]], [[Moldova]], [[Montenegro]], [[North Macedonia]], [[Romania]], and [[Serbia]]. It is still practised in remote [[Albanians|Albanian]] ethnographic regions, but only in rare events, when the summer is dry and without atmospheric precipitation.&lt;ref&gt;{{harvnb|Qafleshi|2011|pp=51–52|}}; {{harvnb|Ministria|2014|p=66}}.&lt;/ref&gt; The ceremonial ritual is an analogical-imitative [[incantation|magic rite]] that consists of singing and dancing done by young boys and girls in processions following a main performer who is dressed with fresh branches, leaves and herbs, with the purpose of invoking rain, usually practiced in times of [[drought]]s, especially in the summer season, when drought endangers crops and pastures, even human life itself.&lt;ref&gt;{{harvnb|Qafleshi|2011|pp=51–52|}}; {{harvnb|Halimi|Halimi-Statovci|Xhemaj|2011|pp=2–6, 32–43}}&lt;/ref&gt; == Names == {{quote box|align=right|quote=&lt;poem&gt;&lt;small&gt;Περπερούνα περπατεί / Perperouna perambulates Κή τόν θεό περικαλεί / And to God prays Θέ μου, βρέξε μια βροχή / My God, send a rain Μιἁ βροχή βασιλική / A right royal rain Οσ ἀστἀχυα ς τἀ χωράΦια / That as many (as are there) ears of corn in the fields Τόσα κούτσουρα ς τ ἁμπέλια / So many stems (may spring) on the vines&lt;/small&gt; &lt;/poem&gt;|source=&lt;br /&gt;&lt;small&gt;Shatista near [[Siatista]], [[Western Macedonia]], Ottoman Empire, 1903&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book |last=Abbott |first=George Frederick |author-link=George Frederick Abbott |date=1903 |title=Macedonian Folklore |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=M7o8AAAAIAAJ |location=Cambridge |publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]] |page=119}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;/small&gt;}} Rainmaking rites are generally called after the divine figure invoked in the ritual songs, as well as the boy or girl who perform the rite, who are called with different names among different peoples (South Slavs, Albanians, Greeks, Hungarians, Moldovans, Romanians, Vlachs or Aromanians (including regions of [[Bukovina]] and [[Bessarabia]])).:&lt;ref&gt;{{harvnb|Ḱulavkova|2020|p=19}}&lt;/ref&gt; *''Preperuna'', ''Peperuna'', ''Preperuda/Peperuda'', ''Pepereda'', ''Preperuga/Peperuga'', ''Peperunga'', ''Pemperuga'' in [[Bulgaria]] and [[North Macedonia]]: ''Prporuša'', ''Parparuša'', ''Preporuša/Preporuča'', ''Preperuša'', ''Barburuša/Barbaruša'' in [[Croatia]]; ''Peperuda'', ''Papaluga'', ''Papaluda/Paparudă'', ''Babaruta'', ''Mamaruta'' in [[Romania]] and [[Moldova]]; ''Perperouna'', ''Perperinon'', ''Perperouga'', ''Parparouna'' in [[Greece]]; ''Perperona/Perperone'' in [[Albania]]; ''Pirpirunã'' among [[Aromanians]]; *''Dodola'' among previous countries as well as [[Serbia]], with variants ''Dodole'', ''Dudola'', ''Dudula'', ''Dudule'', ''Dudulica'', ''Doda'', ''Dodočka'', ''Dudulejka'', ''Didjulja'', etc.{{sfn|Gimbutas|1967|p=743}}{{sfn|Evans|1974|p=100}}{{sfn|Jakobson|1985|p=22–24|ps=:Mythological associations linked with the butterfly (cf. her Serbian name ''Vještica'') also explain the Bulgarian entomological names ''peperuda'', ''peperuga''}}{{sfn|Čulinović-Konstantinović|1963|p=80, 93}}{{Sfn|Puchner|2009|p=346}} *''Rona'', used by Albanians alternatively to ''Perperona/Perperone'';{{sfn|Norris|1993|p=34}}{{sfn|Tirta|2004|pp=310–312}} *''Dordoleci'' (''durduleci''), used by Albanians for this custom in association with a male figure.{{sfn|Tirta|2004|pp=310–312}} In [[Albanian language|Albanian]] the rainmaking ritual is called ''riti i ndjelljes së shiut'' (&quot;Rain-Invoking Ritual&quot;), ''riti i thirrjes së shiut'' (&quot;Rain-Calling Ritual&quot; or &quot;Rite of Calling the Rain&quot;) or simply ''thirrja e shiut'' (&quot;Call of the Rain&quot;), ''riti i thatësisë'' (&quot;Drought Ritual&quot;), as well as ''riti me dordolecin'' or ''riti i dordolecit'' (&quot;Dordoleci Ritual&quot;), ''riti i dodolisë'' (&quot;Dodoli Ritual&quot;), etc.&lt;ref&gt;{{harvnb|Tirta|2004|pp=310–312}}; {{harvnb|Qafleshi|2011|pp=51–52|}}; {{harvnb|Ministria|2014|p=66}}; {{harvnb|Halimi|Halimi-Statovci|Xhemaj|2011|pp=2–6, 32–43}}&lt;/ref&gt; In Albanian rainmaking ritual songs, besides the divine figure that is invoked and also personified by boys or girls during the procession, other Albanian divine figures are invoked: [[Dielli (Albanian paganism)|Dielli]] (the Sun), [[Perëndi]], and Ilia.{{sfn|Gjoni|2012|pp=85–86}}{{sfn|Gamkrelidze|1995|p=528}}{{sfn|Sela|2017|pp=69–70}} Perëndi is a name that is used for &quot;god&quot;, &quot;deity&quot;, &quot;sky&quot; in Albanian, but considered by some scholars to be an Albanian thunder-god, cognate to Indo-European ''[[*Perkʷūnos]]'';{{sfn|Gamkrelidze|1995|p=528}} Ilia is [[Elijah]], who in Christianized Albanian folklore has replaced the Sun god and the thunder or weather god (also [[Drangue]]).{{sfn|Gjoni|2012|pp=85–86}}{{sfn|Elsie|2001a|pp=46–47}}{{sfn|Elsie|2000|pp=43–45}} In Slavic rainmaking ritual songs also the sky or Elijah are invoked. In Slavic Christianized folklore Elijah has replaced [[Perun]], the Slavic thunder-god, cognate to IE ''*Perkʷūnos''.{{sfn|Jakobson|1985|p=6}} ===Etymologies=== Some scholars consider all the Balkan names of the type ''per-'', ''perper-'', ''peper-'', ''papar-'', etc. to be taboo-alternations to &quot;avoid profaning the holy name&quot; of the pagan [[Proto-Indo-European mythology|Indo-European]] god ''[[*Perkʷūnos]]''.{{sfn|Evans|1974|p=116}}{{sfn|Gimbutas|1967|p=743}} According to [[Roman Jakobson]] and others ''perperuna'' is formed by reduplication of the Indo-European root &quot;per-&quot; (to strike/beat).{{sfn|Gimbutas|1967|p=743}}{{sfn|Jakobson|1985|p=23}}&lt;ref name=&quot;Katicic&quot;/&gt; Those with root &quot;peper-&quot;, &quot;papar-&quot; and &quot;pirpir-&quot; were changed accordingly modern words for [[Schinus molle|pepper-tree]] and [[poppy]] plant,{{sfn|Gimbutas|1967|p=743}}{{Sfn|Puchner|2009|p=348}} possibly also [[Hyperpyron|perper]] and else.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal |last=Puchner |first=Walter |author-link=Walter Puchner |date=1983 |title=Бележки към ономатологията и етимологиятана българските и гръцките названия на обреда за дъжд додола/перперуна |trans-title=Notes on the Onomatology and the Etymology of Bulgarian and Greek Names for the Dodola / Perperuna Rite |url=https://www.ceeol.com/search/article-detail?id=17959 |journal=Bulgarian Folklore |volume=IX |issue=1 |pages=59–65 |language=bg}}&lt;/ref&gt;{{Sfn|Puchner|2009|p=347–349}} Some scholars consider in particular that the name ''Perperuna'' can be identified as the reduplicated feminine [[Morphological derivation|derivative]] of the name of the Slavic thunder god ''[[Perun]]'' (''per-perun-a''), allegedly being his female consort, wife and goddess of rain ''Perperuna Dodola'', which would parallel the Old Norse couple [[Fjörgyn and Fjörgynn|Fjörgyn–Fjörgynn]] and the Lithuanian Perkūnas–Perkūnija.{{sfn|Jakobson|1985|p=22–23}}{{Sfn|Puhvel|1987|p=235}}{{Sfn|Jackson|2002|p=70}}&lt;ref name=&quot;York&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |last=York |first=Michael |author-link=Michael York (religious studies scholar) |date=1993 |title=Toward a Proto-Indo-European vocabulary of the sacred |journal=[[Word (journal)|Word]] |volume=44 |issue=2 |pages=240, 251 |doi=10.1080/00437956.1993.11435902|doi-access=free }}&lt;/ref&gt;{{sfn|Ḱulavkova|2020|p=19–20a|ps=:The Balkan rainmaking customs themselves go by different names. They are usually referred to as the Dodola or Peperuga(Peperuda) rituals, after the name of the goddess of rain, wife or consort of the Slavic sky-god Perun ... According to others, these rain-rituals derive specifically from Slavic languages, and the names Peperuda, Peperuga, Peperuna, and Perperuna are cognate with that of the storm-god Perun.}} According to another theory the Balkan names with the root ''per-'' are connected to the Greek [[Persephone]], a fertility goddess, daughter of the sky god [[Zeus]], and of the earth goddess [[Demeter]].{{sfn|Burns|2008|pp=231–232}} Dimitar Marinov derived it from Bulgarian word for butterfly where in folk beliefs has supernatural powers related to rain,{{sfn|Čulinović-Konstantinović|1963|p=94}} but according to Jakobson the mythological context of the customs and links explains the Bulgarian entomological names.&lt;ref&gt;{{harvnb|Jakobson|1985|p=22|ps=:Mythological associations linked with the butterfly (cf. her Serbian name ''Vještica'') also explain the Bulgarian entomological names ''peperuda'', ''peperuga''}}&lt;/ref&gt; [[Michail Arnaudov]] derived it from Slavic verb &quot;pršiti&quot; (spray).{{sfn|Čulinović-Konstantinović|1963|p=94}} [[Petar Skok]] considered ''prporuša'' a metaphorical derivation from Slavic ''prpor/pŕpa'' (hot ash), ''pórusa'' (&quot;when water is poured on burning ash&quot;{{sfn|Burns|2008|p=232}}).&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book |last=Skok |first=Petar |author-link=Petar Skok |title=Etimologijski rječnik hrvatskoga ili srpskoga jezika: poni-Ž |url=https://archive.org/details/EtimologijskiRjecnikHrvatskogaIliSrpskogaJezika |language=sh |year=1973 |location=Zagreb |publisher=[[JAZU]] |volume=3 |page=55}}&lt;/ref&gt; [[Stanisław Urbańczyk]] and Michal Łuczyński put into question Jakobson's theonymic derivation, deriving instead from Proto-Slavic ''*perpera'', ''*perperъka'' (in Polish ''przepiórka''), name for [[Common quail]], which has a role in Polish harvest rituals and the name of the bride in the wedding dance.{{sfn|Urbańczyk|1991|p=150}}{{sfn|Łuczyński|2020|p=141}} These are also related to ''*pъrpati'' (onomatopoeic), cf. Polish dial. ''perpotać'', ''perpac'', Old East Slavic ''poropriti''.{{sfn|Łuczyński|2020|p=141}} The name ''Dodola'' has been suggested to be a cognate to the Lithuanian ''Dundulis'', a word for &quot;thunder&quot; and another name of the Baltic thunder-god Perkūnas.{{sfn|Jakobson|1985|p=23}}{{Sfn|Puhvel|1987|p=235}} It is also hypothesised to be distantly related to Greek [[Dodona]] and [[Daedala]].{{sfn|Evans|1974|p=127–128}}&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book |last=Dauksta |first=Dainis |date=2011 |chapter=From Post to Pillar – The Development and Persistence of an Arboreal Metaphor |title=New Perspectives on People and Forests |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=XxB-HZlbTe0C |publisher=Springer |page=112 |isbn=978-94-007-1150-1}}&lt;/ref&gt; Bulgarian variant ''Didjulja'' is similar to alleged Polish goddess [[Dzidzilela]], and Polish language also has verb ''dudnić'' (&quot;to thunder&quot;).{{sfn|Jakobson|1985|p=22–23}} The uncertainty of the etymologies provided by scholars leads to a call for a &quot;detailed and in-depth comparative analysis of formulas, set phrases and patterns of imagery in rainmaking songs from ''all'' the Balkan languages&quot;.{{sfn|Burns|2008|pp=232–233}} == Origin == The rainmaking practice is a shared tradition among Balkan peoples, and it is not clear who borrowed it from whom.&lt;ref name=Wachtel&gt;{{harvnb|Wachtel|2008|ps=:Anthropologists have noted shared traditions as well, such as a rainmaking ritual in which a young woman covered in a costume of leaves would sing and dance through the village: this ritual was practiced among Greek, Albanian, Romanian, and Slavic speakers throughout the region, and it is not clear who borrowed it from whom.}}&lt;/ref&gt; The fact so similar customs in the Balkans are known by two different names the differences are considered not to be from the same time period and ethnic groups.{{sfn|Čulinović-Konstantinović|1963|p=93}} Similar customs outside the Balkans have been observed in the Caucasus, Middle East, and North Africa.{{sfn|Čulinović-Konstantinović|1963|p=84, 93}}{{sfn|Kulišić|1979|p=108}}&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal |last1=Başgöz |first1=İlhan |date=2007 |title=Rain Making Ceremonies in Iran |journal=[[Iranian Studies (journal)|Iranian Studies]] |volume=40 |issue=3 |pages=385–403 |doi=10.1080/00210860701390588 |jstor=4311905 |s2cid=162315052 |quote=Type II in the classification (that is, the procession with a doll, or ''chomcha gelin'', and its sub-group, which consists in a real child's proceeding through the neighborhood) ... Although the same ceremony is performed in other parts of Turkey, the ladle bride is given different names: ''Bodi Bodi'' among the Karalar Turkmen tribe in Adana province, ''Dodo'' or ''Dodu'' in Kars ... As the type spreads toward the west, sub-type (a) becomes dominant and (b) disappears. In Bulgaria, the girl who visits the houses during the ceremony is called ''doldol'' or ''Perperuga''.46 In Greece, the ceremony is sometimes incorporated into the Epiphany, the ritual throwing of the cross into a river, or sometimes is performed as an independent rain ritual.47 In Yugoslavia, the Turks, Serbians, and the Albanians practice the ritual, naming it ''dodola'' or ''dodoliče'' (little ''dodola'').48 The ritual is known in Hungary and is performed there under the name of ''doldola'', being especially common in villages inhabited by Gypsies and Serbians.49 The custom has spread to Rumania, but there the ''chomcha gelin'' is replaced by a coffin with a clay figure in it. This is reminiscent of Type II in Iran.50 The ''chomcha gelin'' is also observed in Iraq among the Kerkuk Turkmens, who call it &quot;the bride with ladle&quot; (''Chomchalı Gelin'').51 In Syria, the Arabs call the doll ''Umm al-Guys'' (&quot;mother of rain&quot;).52 The Christians in Syria practice the ceremony and call the doll &quot;the bride of God&quot;.53 In North Africa, the doll is called &quot;the mother of Bangau&quot;,54 and a similar symbol carried during the ritual is called Al Gonja.55 In Uzbekistan, Turks and Tajiks perform the ritual, calling the doll ''suskhatun'' (probably meaning &quot;water woman&quot;).56}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book |last=Chirikba |first=Viacheslav |author-link=Viacheslav Chirikba |date=2015 |chapter=Between Christianity and Islam: Heathen Heritage in the Caucasus |title=Studies on Iran and The Caucasus: In Honour of Garnik Asatrian |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=iLS9CwAAQBAJ |location=Leiden |publisher=Brill |pages=169–171 |isbn=978-90-04-30206-8 |quote=Thus, during the festival welcoming the spring, the Avars made ... In the ritual of summoning rains there figured a specially made doll called Dodola ... The Dagestan doll Dodola and the ritual strikingly resemble the Balkan rituals for summoning rain, whereby girls called Dodola would undressed and put on leaves, flowers and herbs to perform the rainmaking ceremony. The Balkan Dodola is regarded as being connected with the Slavic cult of the thunder-god Perun (cf. Tokarev 1991: 391).}}&lt;/ref&gt; [[William Ralston Shedden-Ralston|William Shedden-Ralston]] noted that [[Jacob Grimm]] thought Perperuna/Dodola were &quot;originally identical with the Bavarian ''Wasservogel'' and the Austrian ''Pfingstkönig''&quot; rituals.&lt;ref name=&quot;Ralston&quot;&gt;{{cite book |last=Shedden-Ralston |first=William Ralston |author-link=William Ralston Shedden-Ralston |date=1872 |title=The Songs of the Russian People: As Illustrative of Slavonic Mythology and Russian Social Life |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=429UAAAAcAAJ |location=London |publisher=Ellis &amp; Green |pages=227–229}}&lt;/ref&gt; Ancient rainmaking practices have been widespread [[Mediterranean]] traditions, already documented in the Balkans since [[Minoan]] and [[Mycenaean Greece|Mycenaean]] times.{{sfn|Burns|2008|pp=228–231}}{{sfn|Håland|2001|pp=197–201}} There is a lack of any strong historical evidence for a link between the figures and practices of the ancient times and those that survided to the end of the 20th century, however, according to [[Richard Berengarten]], if seen as &quot;typologically parallel&quot; practices in the ancient world, they may be interpretable at least as forerunners, even if not as direct progenitors of the modern Balkan rainmaking customs.{{sfn|Burns|2008|pp=228–231}} Some consider the ''perperuna'' figure to have a mythological and etymological Slavic origin related to Slavic thunder-god [[Perun]],{{#tag:ref|&lt;ref&gt;{{harvnb|Čulinović-Konstantinović|1963|pp=93–94|ps=:Ovakav obred za kišu poznat je i u Madžarskoj. Analizirao ga je Z. Ujvary te je u svojoj studiji citirao mnoge madžarske autore koji su o tome pisali. Prema njegovu mišljenju, običaj se tamo proširio pod utjecajem Slavena i Rumunja ... M. S. Thompson, međutim, misli da riječ &quot;perperuna&quot; potječe od imena slavenskog boga Peruna, boga gromovnika ... Teoriju o slavenskom porijeklu ovog običaja prihvatili su osim M. S. Thompsona još i G. F. Abbott i E. Fischer.}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;Katicic&quot;&gt;{{cite book |last=Katičić |first=Radoslav |author-link=Radoslav Katičić |title=Naša stara vjera: Tragovima svetih pjesama naše pretkršćanske starine |trans-title=Our Old Faith: Tracing the Sacred Poems of Our Pre-Christian Antiquity |year=2017 |publisher=Ibis Grafika, [[Matica hrvatska]] |location=Zagreb |language=hr |isbn=978-953-6927-98-2 |page=105}}&lt;/ref&gt;{{sfn|Gieysztor|2006|p=89, 104–106}}&lt;ref name=&quot;Zecevic&quot;&gt;{{cite book |last=Zečević |first=Slobodan |date=1974 |title=Elementi naše mitologije u narodnim obredima uz igru |language=sr |location=Zenica |publisher=Muzej grada Zenice |pages=125–128, 132–133}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book |author=Institut za književnost i umetnost (Hatidža Krnjević) |title=Rečnik književnih termina |trans-title=Dictionary of literary terms |year=1985 |publisher=Nolit |location=Beograd |language=sr |isbn=978-86-19-00635-4 |pages=130, 618}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book |last=Sikimić |first=Biljana |date=1996 |title=Etimologija i male folklorne forme |language=sr |location=Beograd |publisher=SANU |pages=85–86 |quote=О vezi Peruna i prporuša up. Ivanov i Toporov 1974: 113: можно думать об одновременной связи имени nеnеруна - nрnоруша как с обозначением nорошения дождя, его распыления (ср. с.-хорв. ирпошuмu (се), nрnошка и Т.Д.; чешск. pršeti, prch, prš), так и с именем Громовержца. Связъ с порошением дождя представляется тем более вероятной, что соответствующий глагол в ряде индоевропейских язЪП&lt;ов выступает с архаическим удвоением&quot;. Za etimologiju sh. ргроrušа up. i Gavazzi 1985: 164.}}&lt;/ref&gt;{{sfn|Belaj|2007|p=80, 112}}{{Sfn|Dragić|2007|p=80, 112}}{{Sfn|Lajoye|2015|p=114}}}} and became widespread in the Southeastern Europe with the [[Slavic migrations to Southeastern Europe|Slavic migration]] (6th–10th century).&lt;ref&gt;{{harvnb|Gimbutas|1967|p=743|ps=:The names applied to the Balkan rain-ceremonies and to those who perform them suggest, by the modest, degree of variation from one another, by the large number of different variants, and their distribution (not only throughout Romania but in Albania and Greek Epirus and Macedonia), the diffusion of a Slavic ritual linked with the name of Perun in any one of its numerous minor variants.}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{harvnb|Jakobson|1985|pp=22, 24|ps=:The ritual call for rain was transmitted long ago from the Balkan Slavs to neighboring peoples, who evidently preserved the original form of the mythological name ... But even if one leaves aside the late, conjectural echoes of Perun's name, one is still forced to conclude that his cult had wide dissemination and deep roots in Slavic paganism, a fact that is clearly reflected not only in the texts, but also in onomastics, as well as in the folklore of the Slavs and their neighbors.}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal |last=Zaroff |first=Roman |date=1999 |title=Organized pagan cult in Kievan Rus': The invention of foreign elite or evolution of local tradition? |url=https://ojs.zrc-sazu.si/sms/article/view/1844 |journal=[[Studia mythologica Slavica]] |volume=2 |page=57 |doi=10.3986/sms.v2i0.1844 |quote=As a consequence of the relatively early Christianisation of the Southern Slavs, there are no more direct accounts in relation to Perun from the Balkans. Nevertheless, as late as the first half of the 12th century, in Bulgaria and Macedonia, peasants performed a certain ceremony meant to induce rain. A central figure in the rite was a young girl called Perperuna, a name clearly related to Perun. At the same time, the association of Perperuna with rain shows conceptual similarities with the Indian god Parjanya. There was a strong Slavic penetration of Albania, Greece and Romania, between the 6th and 10th centuries. Not surprisingly the folklore of northern Greece also knows Perperuna, Albanians know Pirpirúnă, and also the Romanians have their Perperona. Also, in a certain Bulgarian folk riddle the word ''perušan'' is a substitute for the Bulgarian word ''гърмомеҽица'' (grmotevitsa) for thunder. Moreover, the name of Perun is also commonly found in Southern Slavic toponymy. There are places called: Perun, Perunac, Perunovac, Perunika, Perunićka Glava, Peruni Vrh, Perunja Ves, Peruna Dubrava, Perunuša, Perušice, Perudina and Perutovac.|doi-access=free }}&lt;/ref&gt; According to the Slavic theory, it is a (Balto-)Slavic heritage of Proto-Indo-European origin related to Slavic thunder-god Perun. It has parallels in ritual prayers for bringing rain in times of drought dedicated to rain-thunder deity [[Parjanya]] recorded in the ''[[Vedas]]'' and Baltic thunder-god [[Perkūnas]], [[cognates]] alongside Perun of Proto-Indo-European weather-god [[Perkwunos]].{{sfn|Jakobson|1985|p=6–7, 21, 23}} An early medieval Ruthenian manuscript mentions the East Slavic deity [[Pereplut]], who was worshiped with whirling and libations.{{sfn|Jakobson|1955|p=616}}{{sfn|Gimbutas|1967|p=743}}{{sfn|Jakobson|1985|p=23–24}} According to Jakobson, ''[[Novgorod Chronicle]]'' (&quot;dožd prapruden&quot;) and ''Pskov Chronicle'' (&quot;dožd praprudoju neiskazaemo silen&quot;) could have &quot;East Slavic trace of Peperuda calling forth the rain&quot;, and West Slavic god [[Pripegala]] reminds of ''Preperuga/Prepeluga'' variation and connection with Perun.{{sfn|Gimbutas|1967|p=743}}{{sfn|Jakobson|1985|p=24}} Serbo-Croatian archaic variant ''Prporuša'' and verb ''prporiti se'' (&quot;to fight&quot;) also have parallels in Old Russian (&quot;porъprjutъsja&quot;).{{sfn|Jakobson|1985|p=23}} Perun's battle against [[Veles (god)|Veles]] because of Perperuna/Dodola's kidnapping{{clarify|date=August 2024}} has parallels in [[Zeus]] saving of [[Persephone]] after [[Hades]] carried her underground causing big drought on Earth, also seen in the similarity of the names Perperuna and Persephone.&lt;ref name=&quot;York&quot;/&gt;{{sfn|Evans|1974|p=116–117}}{{sfn|Burns|2008|p=232}} Recent research criticize invention of a Slavic female goddess.{{sfn|Łuczyński|2020|p=141}} Some scholars relate ''Dodole'' with pagan custom and songs of ''Lade'' (Ladarice) in [[Hrvatsko Zagorje]] (so-called &quot;Ladarice Dodolske&quot;),&lt;ref name=&quot;Cubelic&quot;&gt;{{cite book |last=Čubelić |first=Tvrtko |date=1990 |title=Povijest i historija usmene narodne književnosti: historijske i literaturno-teorijske osnove te genološki aspekti: analitičko-sintetički pogledi |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=hb1iAAAAMAAJ |language=hr |location=Zagreb |publisher=Ante Pelivan i Danica Pelivan |pages=75–76 |isbn=978-86-81703-01-4}}&lt;/ref&gt;{{Sfn|Dragić|2007|p=279, 283}}&lt;ref name=&quot;Dragic2012&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |last=Dragić |first=Marko |date=2012 |title=Lada i Ljeljo u folkloristici Hrvata i slavenskom kontekstu |trans-title=Lada and Ljeljo in the folklore of Croats and Slavic context |url=https://hrcak.srce.hr/136243 |language=hr |journal=Zbornik radova Filozofskog fakulteta u Splitu |volume=5 |pages=45, 53–55}}&lt;/ref&gt; and in [[Žumberak]]-[[Križevci]] for the ''Preperuša'' custom was also used term ''Ladekarice''.{{sfn|Čulinović-Konstantinović|1963|p=80–81}}{{sfn|Muraj|1987|p=160–161}} Other scholars, due to the geographical distribution, consider that the rainmaking ritual is of [[Paleo-Balkan mythology|Paleo-Balkan]] origin.{{sfn|Kulišić|1979|p=205}}{{sfn|Belaj|2007|p=80}} Some of them consider such origin even relating the ritual to Perun's cult. One theory, in particular, argues that Slavic deity Perun and Perperuna/Dodola customs are of [[Thracians|Thracian]] origin,&lt;ref&gt;Dimitǔr Dechev, ''[https://books.google.com/books/about/Die_thrakischen_Sprachreste.html?id=CrA_AAAAIAAJ Die thrakischen Sprachreste]'', Wien: R.M. Rohrer, 1957, pp. 144, 151&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;Sorin&quot;&gt;{{cite web|author=[[Sorin Paliga]]|title=Influenţe romane și preromane în limbile slave de sud|date=2003|url=http://egg.mnir.ro/pdf/Paliga_InflRomane.pdf|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131228002745/http://egg.mnir.ro/pdf/Paliga_InflRomane.pdf |archive-date=December 28, 2013}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal |first=Mihai |last=Dragnea |url=https://www.academia.edu/9334808 |title=The Thraco-Dacian Origin of the Paparuda/Dodola Rain-Making Ritual |journal=Brukenthalia Acta Musei |issue=4 |date=2014 |pages=18–27}}&lt;/ref&gt;{{sfn|Ḱulavkova|2020|p=19–20b|ps=:According to some researchers ... these pagan rites of worship are thought to be of Thracian origin ... According to other beliefs, Perun, Perin, or Pirin was the supreme deity of the Thracians.}} however, the name of the Slavic thunder-god [[Perun]] is commonly accepted to be formed from the [[Proto-Slavic]] root ''*per'' &quot;to strike&quot; attached to the common agent suffix ''-unŭ'', explained as &quot;the Striker&quot;.{{sfn|West|2007|p=242}} == Ritual == Rainmaking rituals were performed in times of summer drought to make it rain, usually in June and July, but sometimes also in the spring months when there was severe drought. The ritual was a village kinship or community type performance, and an imitative type of [[Incantation|magic practice]] that reproduced rainfall and soil irrigation, accompanied with ritual songs that addressed prayers to the pagan deity associated with rain as well as agriculture and vegetation. The ritual practice traces back to times when the social structure was based on the common property of the land and of the products, which belonged to the whole tribe/clan.{{sfn|Tirta|2004|pp=310–312}} They essentially belong to rituals related to [[Fertility rite|fertility]], but over time differentiated to a specific form connected with water and vegetation.{{sfn|Čulinović-Konstantinović|1963|p=73, 75–76, 91}}{{clarification needed|date=August 2024}} Perperuna and Dodola are considered very similar pagan customs with common origin,{{sfn|Čulinović-Konstantinović|1963|p=75, 78, 93, 95}}&lt;ref name=&quot;Revija&quot;&gt;{{cite magazine |last=Vukelić |first=Deniver |date=2010 |title=Pretkršćanski prežici u hrvatskim narodnim tradicijam |trans-title=Pre-Christian belief traces in Croatian folk traditions |url=https://www.matica.hr/hr/360/PRETKR%C5%A0%C4%86ANSKI%20PRE%C5%BDICI%20U%20HRVATSKIM%20NARODNIM%20TRADICIJAMA%20/ |language=hr |magazine=[[Hrvatska revija]] |issue=4 |publisher=[[Matica hrvatska]] |access-date=20 July 2022}}&lt;/ref&gt; with main difference being in the most common gender of the central character (possibly related to social hierarchy of the specific ethnic or regional group{{sfn|Čulinović-Konstantinović|1963|p=85, 95}}), lyric verses, sometimes religious content, and presence or absence of a chorus.{{sfn|Čulinović-Konstantinović|1963|p=84–85, 90}} They represent a group of rituals with a human collective going on a procession around houses and fields of a village, but with a central live character which differentiates them from other similar collective rituals in the same region and period (''[[Kermesse (festival)|Krstonoše]]'', ''[[Carnival|Poklade]]'', ''[[Koledari|Kolade]]'', ''[[German (mythology)|German]]'', ''Ladarice'', those during ''[[Jurjevo]]'' and ''[[Saint John's Eve|Ivandan]]'' and so on).{{sfn|Čulinović-Konstantinović|1963|p=74–75, 80}}{{Sfn|Dragić|2007|p=276}}{{Sfn|Puchner|2009|p=289, 345}} In the valley of [[Skopje]] in [[North Macedonia]] the Dodola were held on Thursday which was Perun's day.{{Sfn|Dragić|2007|p=291}} In [[Hungary]] the ritual was usually held on [[Saint George's Day|St. George's Day]].&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |last=T. |first=Dömötör |date=1967 |title=Dodola |url=https://gepeskonyv.btk.elte.hu/adatok/Neprajz/82Vereb%E9lyi/folklorisztika_es_rokonteruleteinek_fogalmi_rendszere/dodola.html}}&lt;/ref&gt; The core of the song always mentions a type of rain and list of regional crops.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book |last=Puchner |first=Walter |author-link=Walter Puchner |date=2016 |title=Die Folklore Südosteuropas: Eine komparative Übersicht |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=hZpVDAAAQBAJ |language=de |publisher=Böhlau Verlag Wien |page=65 |isbn=978-3-205-20312-4}}&lt;/ref&gt; The first written mentions and descriptions of the pagan custom are from the 18th century by [[Dimitrie Cantemir]] in ''[[Descriptio Moldaviae]]'' (1714/1771, ''Papaluga''),{{Sfn|Puchner|2009|p=346}}&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book |last=Cantemir |first=Dimitrie |author-link=Dimitrie Cantemir |date=1771 |title=Descriptio antiqui et hodierni status Moldaviae |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=2rZfAAAAcAAJ |location=Frankfurt, Leipzig |language=de |pages=315–316 |quote=Im Sommer, wenn dem Getreide wegen der Dürre Gefabr bevorzustehen fcheinet, ziehen die Landleute einem kleinen Ragdchen, welches noch nicht über zehen Jahr alt ist, ein Hemde an, welches aus Blattern von Baumen und Srantern gemacht wird. Alle andere Ragdchen und stnaben vol gleiechem Alter folgen ihr, und siehen mit Tanzen und Singen durch die ganze Racharfchaft; wo sie aber hin komuien, da pflegen ihnen die alten Weiber kalt Wasser auf den Stopf zu gieffen. Das Lied, welches fie fingen, ist ohngefähr von folegendem Innbalte: &quot;Papaluga! steige nech dem Himmel, öffne feine Thüren, fend von oben Regen ber, daß der Roggen, Weizen, Hirfe u. f. w. gut wachsen.&quot;}}&lt;/ref&gt; then in a Greek law book from [[Bucharest]] (1765, it invoked 62nd Cannon to stop the custom of ''Paparuda''),{{Sfn|Puchner|2009|p=346}}&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book |last=Puchner |first=Walter |author-link=Walter Puchner |date=2017 |chapter=2 - Byzantium High Culture without Theatre or Dramatic Literature? |title=Greek Theatre between Antiquity and Independence: A History of Reinvention from the Third Century BC to 1830 |chapter-url=https://www.cambridge.org/core/books/abs/greek-theatre-between-antiquity-and-independence/byzantium/AD8A310DFF20316E196BA81890C36797 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |page=73 |isbn=978-1-107-44502-4 |doi=10.1017/9781107445024.004 |quote=...in 1765, a Greek law book from Bucharest quotes the 62nd Canon of the Trullanum in order to forbid public dancing by girls in a custom well known throughout the Balkans as 'paparuda', 'perperuna' or 'dodole', a ritual processional rain dance.}}&lt;/ref&gt; and by the Bulgarian [[hieromonk]] [[Spiridon Gabrovski]] who also noted to be related to Perun (1792, ''Peperud'').{{sfn|Belaj|2007|p=80}}&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite book|url=https://archive.org/details/istoriiavokratt00spirgoog|title=История во кратце о болгарском народе славенском. Сочинися и исписа в лето 1792|last=Габровски|first=Спиридон Иеросхимонах|publisher=изд. Св. Синод на Българската Църква|year=1900|location=София|pages=[https://archive.org/details/istoriiavokratt00spirgoog/page/n156 14]}}&lt;/ref&gt; Peoples generally used to organise the Perperuna/Dodola ritual in times of spring and especially summer [[drought]]s, where they worshipped the god/goddess and prayed to him/her for rain (and fertility, later also asked for other field and house blessings). The central character of the ceremony of Perperuna was usually a young boy, while of Dodola usually a young girl, both aged between 10 and 15 years. Purity was important, and sometimes to be orphans. They would be naked, but were not anymore in latest forms of 19-20th century, wearing a skirt and dress densely made of fresh green knitted vines, leaves and flowers of ''[[Sambucus nigra]]'', ''[[Sambucus ebulus]]'', ''[[Clematis flammula]]'', ''[[Clematis vitalba]]'', [[fern]] and other deciduous shrubs and vines, small branches of ''[[Tilia]]'', [[Oak]] and other. The green cover initially covered all body so that the central person figure was almost unrecognizable, but like the necessity of direct skin contact with greenery it also greatly decreased and was very simple in modern period. They whirled and were followed by a small procession of children who walked and danced with them around the same village and fields, sometimes carrying oak or [[Fagus sylvatica|beech]] branches, singing the ritual prayer, stopping together at every house yard, where the hosts would sprinkle water on chosen boy/girl who would shake and thus sprinkle everyone and everything around it (example of &quot;analogical magic&quot;{{Sfn|Puchner|2009|p=346}}), hosts also gifted treats (bread, eggs, cheese, sausages etc., in a later period also money) to children who shared and consumed them among them and sometimes even hosts would drink wine, seemingly as a sacrifice in Perun's honor.&lt;ref name=&quot;Ribaric&quot;&gt;{{Cite book|last=Ribarić|first=Josip|title=O istarskim dijalektima: razmještaj južnoslavenskih dijalekata na poluotoku Istri s opisom vodičkog govora|publisher=Josip Turčinović|date=2002|location=Pazin|orig-date=1916|language=hr|isbn=953-6262-43-6|pages=84–85, 206}}&lt;/ref&gt;{{sfn|Gimbutas|1967|p=743–744}}{{sfn|Evans|1974|p=100, 119}}{{sfn|Jakobson|1985|p=21, 23}}{{sfn|Čulinović-Konstantinović|1963|p=74–77, 83–93}}{{sfn|Muraj|1987|p=158–163}}{{Sfn|Dragić|2007|p=290–293}} The chosen boy/girl was called by one of the name variants of the ritual itself, however in [[Istria]] was also known as ''Prporuš'' and in [[Dalmatia]]-[[Boka Kotorska]] as ''Prpac/Prpats'' and both regions his companions as ''Prporuše'',&lt;ref name=&quot;Ralston&quot;/&gt;{{Sfn|Dragić|2007|p=291}}&lt;ref name=&quot;Ribaric&quot;/&gt;{{sfn|Čulinović-Konstantinović|1963|p=76, 80}} while at [[Pirot]] and [[Nišava District]] in [[Southern Serbia (geographical region)|Southern Serbia]] near Bulgarian border were called as ''dodolće'' and ''preperuđe'', and as in Macedonia both names appear in the same song.{{sfn|Čulinović-Konstantinović|1963|p=79, 95}}{{sfn|Burns|2008|p=220, 222|ps=:The finely documented account by Đorđević of a version of the Balkan rainmaking custom, performed near the River Morava in south-eastern Serbia near the Bulgarian border ... Fly, fly, peperuga/Oh, dodolas, Dear Lord!}} [[File:Пеперуда в Добруджа 1950.jpg|thumb|right|250px|''Peperuda'' performed by Romani in [[Dobruja]], Bulgaria, 1950s.]] By the 20th century once common rituals almost vanished in the Balkans, although rare examples of practice can be traced until 1950-1980s and remained in folk memory. The main reason is the development of agriculture and consequently lack of practical need for existence of mystical connection and customs with nature and weather. Christian church also tried to diminish pagan beliefs and customs, resulting in &quot;dual belief&quot; (''dvoeverie'') in rural populations, a conscious preservation of pre-Christian beliefs and practices alongside Christianity. Into customs and songs were mixed elements from other rituals including Christianity, but they also influenced the creation of Christian songs and prayers invoking the rain which were used as a close Christian alternative (decline was reportedly faster among Catholics{{sfn|Muraj|1987|p=161}}).{{sfn|Čulinović-Konstantinović|1963|p=77, 91–93}}{{sfn|Predojević|2019|p=581, 583, 589–591}} According to [[:hr:Velimir Deželić mlađi|Velimir Deželić Jr.]] in 1937, it was an old custom that &quot;Christians approved it, took it over and further refined it. In the old days, ''Prporuša'' were very much like a [[Piety|pious]] ritual, only later the leaders - ''Prpac'' - began to boast too much, and ''Prporuše'' seemed to be more interested in gifts than beautiful singing and prayer&quot;.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book |last=Deželić Jr. |first=Velimir |date=1937 |title=Kolede: Obrađeni hrvatski godišnji običaji |trans-title=Kolede: Examined Croatian annual customs |url=https://archive.org/details/kolede_obradjeni_hrvatski_godisnji_obicaji-velimir_dezelic_sin/ |language=hr |publisher=Hrvatsko književno društvo svetog Jeronima |page=70 |quote=Ljeti, kad zategnu suše, pošle bi našim selima Prporuše moliti od Boga kišu. Posvuda su Hrvatskom išle Prporuše, a običaj je to prastar — iz pretkršćanskih vremena — ali lijep, pa ga kršćani odobrili, preuzeli i još dotjerali. U stara vremena Prporuše su bile veoma nalik nekom pobožnom obredu, tek poslije su predvodnici — Prpci— počeli suviše lakrdijati, a Prporušama ko da je više do darova, nego do lijepa pjevanja i molitve.}}&lt;/ref&gt; Depending on region, instead of village boys and girls the pagan ritual by then was mostly done by migrating [[Romani people]] from other villages and for whom it became a professional performance motivated by gifts, sometimes followed by financially poor members from other ethnic groups.{{sfn|Čulinović-Konstantinović|1963|p=77, 91–93}}{{sfn|Predojević|2019|p=581, 583, 589–591}}&lt;ref name=&quot;Horvat&quot;&gt;{{cite book |last=Horvat |first=Josip |date=1939 |title=Kultura Hrvata kroz 1000 godina |trans-title=Culture of Croats through 1000 years |url=https://archive.org/details/kultura_hrvata_kroz_1000_godina_ii.izdanje_1939-josip_horvat |language=hr |location=Zagreb |publisher=A. Velzek |pages=23–24}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book |last=Kovačević |first=Ivan |date=1985 |title=Semiologija rituala |trans-title=Semiology of ritual |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=qPMXAAAAIAAJ |language=sr |location=Beograd |publisher=Prosveta |page=79}}&lt;/ref&gt;{{Sfn|Dragić|2007|p=278, 290}} Due to [[Anti-Romani sentiment]], the association with Romani also caused repulsion, shame and ignorance among last generations of members of ethnic groups who originally performed it.{{sfn|Predojević|2019|p=583–584, 589}} Eventually it led to a dichotomy of identification with own traditional heritage, Christianity and stereotypes about Romani witchcraft.{{sfn|Predojević|2019|p=581–582, 584}} In the present days, older generations of Albanians demonstrate the common practice of rainmaking rituals in their life, but newer generations generally see them as something applied in the past, a tradition that their parents have gone through. Nevertheless, elders still accompany [[processions]] of boys and girls, who perform the rainmaking rite dressed with their best [[Albanian traditional clothing|traditional clothing]] except for the main boy or girl, who is dressed entirely in fresh branches, leaves and herbs.&lt;ref&gt;{{harvnb|Qafleshi|2011|pp=51–52|}}; {{harvnb|Ministria|2014|p=66}}; {{harvnb|Halimi|Halimi-Statovci|Xhemaj|2011|pp=2–6, 32–43}}&lt;/ref&gt; Public exhibitions of the ritual are usually performed during Albanian festivals, often for the local audience, but also in the [[Gjirokastër National Folk Festival]], one of the most important events of Albanian culture.{{sfn|Sela|2017|pp=69–70}} ===Perperuna songs=== [[Ioan Slavici]] reported in 1881 that the custom of ''Paparuga'' was already &quot;very disbanded&quot; in Romania.{{sfn|Nodilo|1981|p=51}} Stjepan Žiža in 1889/95 reported that the once common ritual almost vanished in Southwestern and Central-Eastern Istria, Croatia.{{sfn|Čulinović-Konstantinović|1963|p=78}} [[:hr:Ivan Milčetić|Ivan Milčetić]] recorded in 1896 that the custom of ''Prporuša'' also almost vanished from the North Adriatic island of [[Krk]], although almost recently it was well known in all Western parts of Croatia, while in other parts as ''Dodola''.&lt;ref name=&quot;Milcetic&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |last=Milčetić |first=Ivan |date=1896 |title=Prporuša |journal=Zbornik za narodni život i običaje južnih Slavena |location=Belgrade |publisher=[[JAZU]] |volume=1 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=8TwSAAAAYAAJ |pages=217–218 |quote=Čini mi se da je već nestalo prporuše i na otoku Krku, a bijaše još nedavno poznata svuda po zapadnim stranama hrvatskog naroda, dok je po drugim krajevima živjela dodola. Nego i za dodolu već malo gdje znadu. Tako mi piše iz Vir‐Pazara g. L. Jovović, koga sam pitao, da li još Crnogorci poznaju koledu...}}&lt;/ref&gt; Croatian linguist Josip Ribarić recorded in 1916 that it was still alive in Southwestern Istria and [[Ćićarija]] (and related it to the 16th century migration from Dalmatia of speakers of [[Southwestern Istrian]] dialect).&lt;ref name=&quot;Ribaric&quot;/&gt; On island of Krk was also known as ''Barburuša/Barbaruša/Bambaruša'' (occurrence there is possibly related to the 15th century migration which included besides Croats also [[Vlachs of Croatia|Vlach]]-[[Istro-Romanians|Istro-Romanian]] shepherds{{sfn|Zebec|2005|p=68–71, 248}}).{{sfn|Čulinović-Konstantinović|1963|p=80}}{{sfn|Zebec|2005|p=71}} It was also widespread in [[Dalmatia]] (especially [[Zadar]] hinterland, coast and islands), [[Žumberak]] (also known as ''Pepeluše'', ''Prepelice''{{sfn|Muraj|1987|p=161}}) and Western [[Slavonia]] (Križevci).&lt;ref name=&quot;Ralston&quot;/&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;Revija&quot;/&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;Horvat&quot;/&gt;{{sfn|Zebec|2005|p=71}}{{sfn|Čulinović-Konstantinović|1963|p=78, 80–81}}{{Sfn|Dragić|2007|p=291–293}} It was held in Istria at least until the 1950s,{{sfn|Čulinović-Konstantinović|1963|p=82}} in Žumberak until the 1960s,{{sfn|Muraj|1987|p=165}} while according to one account in [[Jezera, Tisno|Jezera]] on island [[Murter]] the last were in the late 20th century.{{Sfn|Dragić|2007|p=292}} In Serbia, Perperuna was only found in [[Kosovo]], Southern and Eastern Serbia near Bulgarian border.{{sfn|Čulinović-Konstantinović|1963|p=79}} According to [[Natko Nodilo]] the discrepancy in distribution between these two countries makes an idea that originally Perperuna was Croatian while Dodola was Serbian custom.{{sfn|Nodilo|1981|p=50a|ps=:Po tome, pa i po različitome imenu za stvar istu, mogao bi ko pomisliti, da su dodole, prvim postankom, čisto srpske, a prporuše hrvatske. U Bosni, zapadno od Vrbasa, zovu se čaroice. Kad bi ovo bilo hrvatski naziv za njih, onda bi prporuše bila riječ, koja k nama pregje od starih Slovenaca.}} Seemingly it was not present in Slovenia, Northern Croatia, almost all of Bosnia and Herzegovina and Montenegro (only sporadically in [[Boka Kotorska]]).{{sfn|Muraj|1987|p=159}} Luka Jovović from [[Virpazar]], Montenegro reported in 1896 that in Montenegro existed some ''koleda'' custom for summer droughts, but was rare and since 1870s not practiced anymore.&lt;ref name=&quot;Milcetic&quot;/&gt; {|class=&quot;wikitable&quot; ||Bulgaria&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book |last=Антонова |first=Илонка Цанова |date=2015 |title=Календарни празници и обичаи на българите |trans-title=Calendar holidays and customs of the Bulgarians |language=bg |location=Sofia |publisher=Издателство на Българската академия на науките &quot;Проф. Марин Дринов&quot; |pages=66–68 |isbn=978-954-322-764-8}}&lt;/ref&gt;||Albania&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book|last=Pipa|first=Arshi|title=Albanian Folk Verse: Structure and Genre|publisher=O. Harrassowitz|year=1978|isbn=3-87828-119-6|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=WCIHAQAAIAAJ|page=58}}&lt;/ref&gt;||Croatia-Krk&lt;br /&gt;&lt;small&gt;([[Dubašnica]], 1896&lt;ref name=&quot;Milcetic&quot;/&gt;)&lt;/small&gt;||Croatia-Istria&lt;br /&gt;&lt;small&gt;([[Lanišće|Vodice]], 1916&lt;ref name=&quot;Ribaric&quot;/&gt;)&lt;/small&gt;||Croatia-Istria&lt;br /&gt;&lt;small&gt;([[Polje Čepić|Čepić]], 1896&lt;ref name=&quot;Milcetic&quot;/&gt;/Štifanići near [[Baderna]], 1906/08&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book |last=Ribarić |first=Josip |editor=Tanja Perić-Polonijo |date=1992 |title=Narodne pjesme Ćićarije |language=hr |location=Pazin |publisher=Istarsko književno društvo &quot;Juraj Dobrila&quot; |pages=11, 208}}&lt;/ref&gt;)&lt;/small&gt;||Croatia-Dalmatia&lt;br /&gt;&lt;small&gt;([[Ražanac]], 1905{{sfn|Čulinović-Konstantinović|1963|p=81}})&lt;/small&gt;||Croatia-Dalmatia&lt;br /&gt;&lt;small&gt;([[Ravni Kotari]], 1867&lt;ref name=&quot;Vuk&quot;&gt;{{cite book |last=Karadžić |first=Vuk Stefanović |author-link=Vuk Stefanović Karadžić |date=1867 |title=Život i običaji naroda srpskoga |trans-title=Life and customs of Serbian nation |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=fX0RAAAAYAAJ |language=sr |location=Vienna |publisher=A. Karacić |pages=61–66}}&lt;/ref&gt;)&lt;/small&gt;||Croatia-Žumberak&lt;br /&gt;&lt;small&gt;(Pavlanci, 1890{{sfn|Muraj|1987|p=164}})&lt;/small&gt;||Macedonia&lt;br /&gt;&lt;small&gt;([[Struga]], 1861&lt;ref name=&quot;Miladinovci&quot;/&gt;)&lt;/small&gt; |- | &lt;poem&gt; &lt;small&gt;Letela e peperuda Daĭ, Bozhe, dŭzhd Daĭ, Bozhe, dŭzhd Ot orache na kopache Da se rodi zhito, proso Zhito, proso i pshenitsa Da se ranyat siracheta Siracheta, siromasi&lt;/small&gt; &lt;/poem&gt; || &lt;poem&gt; &lt;small&gt;Rona-rona, Peperona Bjerë shi ndë arat tona! Të bëhetë thekëri I gjatë gjer në çati Gruri gjer në perëndi Ashtu edhe misëri!&lt;/small&gt; &lt;/poem&gt; || &lt;poem&gt; &lt;small&gt;Prporuša hodila Službu boga molila Dajte sira, dajte jaj Da nam bog da mladi daž Od šenice višnji klas! A ti, bože vični Smiluj se na nas!&lt;/small&gt; &lt;/poem&gt; || &lt;poem&gt; &lt;small&gt;Prporuše hodile Slavu Boga molile I šenice bilice Svake dobre sričice Bog nan ga daj Jedan tihi daž!&lt;/small&gt; &lt;/poem&gt; || &lt;poem&gt; &lt;small&gt;Preporuči hodili / Prporuše hodile Iz Prepora grada / 's Prpora grada Kuda hodili / Da nam bog da dažda Tuda Boga molili / Crljenoga mažda Da nam Bog da dažda / I šenice bilice I crljenoga masta / Svake dobre sričice I šenice bilice / Šenica nan rodila I svake dobre srećice / Dičica prohodila Šenica narodila / Šenicu pojili Dica nam prohodila / Dicu poženili I šenicu pojili / Skupi, bože, oblake! I dicu poženili / Struni bojžu rosicu Skupi, Bože, oblake / Na tu svetu zemljicu! Hiti božju kapljicu / Amen, amen, amen Na ovu svetu zemljicu! Amen&lt;/small&gt; &lt;/poem&gt; || &lt;poem&gt; &lt;small&gt;Prporuše hodile Putom Boga molile Da ni pane kišica Da ni rodi šenica bilica I vinova lozica&lt;/small&gt; &lt;/poem&gt; || &lt;poem&gt; &lt;small&gt;Prporuše hodile Terem Boga molile Da nam dade kišicu Da nam rodi godina I šenica bjelica I vinova lozica I nevjesta đetića Do prvoga božića Daruj nama, striko naša Oku brašna, striko naša Bublu masla, striko naša Runce vune, striko naša Jedan sirčić, striko naša Šaku soli, striko naša Dva, tri jajca, striko naša Ostaj s Bogom, striko naša Koja si nas darovala&lt;/small&gt; &lt;/poem&gt; || &lt;poem&gt; &lt;small&gt;Preperuša odila Za nas Boga molila Daj nam Bože kišice Na ovu našu ljetinu Da pokvasi mladinu Pucaj, pucaj ledeno Škrapaj, škrapaj godino Mi smo tebi veseli Kano Isus Mariji Kaj Marija Isusu Kano mati djetetu&lt;/small&gt; &lt;/poem&gt; || &lt;poem&gt; &lt;small&gt;Otletala preperuga, oj ljule, oj! Ot oracha na oracha, oj ljule, oj! Ot kopacha na kopacha, oj ljule, oj! Ot rezhacha na rezhacha; oj ljule, oj! Da zarosit sitna rosa, oj ljule, oj! Sitna rosa beriketna, oj ljule, oj! I po pole i po more; oj ljule, oj! Da se rodit s' beriket, oj ljule, oj! S' beriket vino-zhito; oj ljule, oj! Cheincite do gredite, oj ljule, oj! Jachmenite do streite, oj ljule, oj! Lenoite do pojasi, oj ljule, oj! Uroite do kolena; oj ljule, oj! Da se ranet siromasi, oj ljule, oj! Drvete ne so osito, oj ljule, oj! Da je sita godina; oj ljule, oj! Drvete ne so oshnica, oj ljule, oj! Da ja polna koshnica; oj ljule, oj! Drvete ne so jamache, oj ljule, oj! Da je tuchna godina, oj ljule, oj!&lt;/small&gt; &lt;/poem&gt; |} ===Dodola songs=== The oldest record for Dodole rituals in Macedonia is the song &quot;Oj Ljule&quot; from [[Struga]] region, recorded in 1861.&lt;ref name=&quot;Miladinovci&quot;&gt;{{cite book|last = Miladinovci|title = Зборник|publisher = Kočo Racin|year = 1962|location = Skopje|url = http://www.gbiblsk.edu.mk/images/stories/eknigi/zbornik.pdf|page = 462|archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20120216225647/http://www.gbiblsk.edu.mk/images/stories/eknigi/zbornik.pdf |archive-date = 2012-02-16}}&lt;/ref&gt; The Dodola rituals in Macedonia were actively held until the 1960s.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book|last=Veličkovska|first=Rodna|title=Музичките дијалекти во македонското традиционално народно пеење: обредно пеење|trans-title=Musical dialects in the Macedonian traditional folk singing: ritual singing| publisher=Institute of folklore &quot;Marko Cepenkov&quot;|year=2009|location=Skopje|language=mk|page=45}}&lt;/ref&gt; In Bulgaria the chorus was also &quot;Oj Ljule&quot;.{{sfn|Nodilo|1981|p=50b}} The oldest record in Serbia was by [[Vuk Karadžić]] (1841),{{sfn|Čulinović-Konstantinović|1963|p=79}} where was widespread all over the country and held at least until 1950/70s.&lt;ref name=&quot;Zecevic&quot;/&gt;{{sfn|Čulinović-Konstantinović|1963|p=77–78, 86, 88}} In Croatia was found in Eastern Slavonia, Southern [[Baranya (region)|Baranja]] and Southeastern [[Srijem]].&lt;ref name=&quot;Horvat&quot;/&gt;{{sfn|Čulinović-Konstantinović|1963|p=77–78, 90}}{{sfn|Muraj|1987|p=159}}{{sfn|Dragić|2012|p=54}}&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book |last=Janković |first=Slavko |date=1956 |title=Kuhačeva zbirka narodnih popijevaka (analizirana): od br. 1801 do br. 2000 |url=https://repozitorij.dief.eu/a/?pr=i&amp;id=69581 |quote=Naša doda moli Boga ([[Otok, Vukovar-Syrmia County|Otok]], Slavonia, 1881, sken ID: IEF_RKP_N0096_0_155; IEF_RKP_N0096_0_156A) - Ide doda preko sela ([[Erdevik]], Srijem, 1885, sken ID: IEF_RKP_N0096_0_163; IEF_RKP_N0096_0_164A) - Filip i Jakob, Koleda na kišu ([[Gibarac]], Srijem, 1886, sken ID: IEF_RKP_N0096_0_165; IEF_RKP_N0096_0_166A)}}&lt;/ref&gt; [[August Šenoa]] in his writing about the travel to Okić-grad near [[Samobor]], Croatia mentioned that saw two dodole.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |url=https://www.knjizevnost.hr/zagrebulje-1866-august-senoa/ |title=Zagrebulje I (1866.) |last=Šenoa |first=August |author-link=August Šenoa |date=1866 |website=Književnost.hr |publisher=informativka d.o.o. |access-date=23 July 2022 |quote=...već se miču niz Okić put naše šljive dvije u zeleno zavite dodole. S ovoga dodolskoga dualizma sjetih se odmah kakvi zecevi u tom grmu idu, i moja me nada ne prevari. Eto ti pred nas dva naša junaka, ne kao dodole, kao bradurina i trbušina, već kao pravi pravcati bogovi – kao Bako i Gambrinus... Naša dva boga, u zeleno zavita, podijeliše društvu svoj blagoslov, te bjehu sa živim usklikom primljeni. No i ova mitologička šala i mrcvarenje božanske poezije po našem generalkvartirmeštru pobudi bogove na osvetu; nad našim glavama zgrnuše se oblaci, i naskoro udari kiša.}}&lt;/ref&gt; To them is related the custom of Lade/Ladarice from other parts of Croatia, having chorus &quot;''Oj Lado, oj!''&quot; and similar verses &quot;''Molimo se višnjem Bogu/Da popuhne tihi vjetar, Da udari rodna kiša/Da porosi naša polja, I travicu mekušicu/Da nam stada Lado, Ugoje se naša stada''&quot;.&lt;ref name=&quot;Cubelic&quot;/&gt;{{Sfn|Dragić|2007|p=279, 283}}&lt;ref name=&quot;Dragic2012&quot;/&gt; {|class=&quot;wikitable&quot; ||Serbia&lt;br /&gt;&lt;small&gt;(1841&lt;ref name=&quot;Vuk&quot;/&gt;{{sfn|Čulinović-Konstantinović|1963|p=88}})&lt;/small&gt;||Serbia&lt;br /&gt;&lt;small&gt;(1867&lt;ref name=&quot;Vuk&quot;/&gt;)&lt;/small&gt;||Serbia&lt;br /&gt;&lt;small&gt;(1867&lt;ref name=&quot;Vuk&quot;/&gt;)&lt;/small&gt;||Croatia-Slavonia&lt;br /&gt;&lt;small&gt;([[Đakovo]]&lt;ref name=&quot;Dragic2012&quot;/&gt;)&lt;/small&gt;||Croatia-Slavonia&lt;br /&gt;&lt;small&gt;(Đakovo, 1957{{sfn|Čulinović-Konstantinović|1963|p=77, 90}})&lt;/small&gt;||Croatia-Srijem&lt;br /&gt;&lt;small&gt;([[Tovarnik]], 1979&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal |last=Černelić |first=Milana |date=1998 |title=Kroz godinu dana srijemskih običaja vukovarskog kraja |trans-title=Annual customs of Srijem in the Vukovar region |url=https://hrcak.srce.hr/80816 |language=hr |journal=Etnološka tribina |volume=28 |issue=21 |page=135}}&lt;/ref&gt;)&lt;/small&gt; |- | &lt;poem&gt; &lt;small&gt;Mi idemo preko sela, Oj dodo, oj dodo le! A oblaci preko neba, Oj dodo, oj dodo le! A mi brže, oblak brže, Oj dodo, oj dodo le! Oblaci nas pretekoše, Oj dodo, oj dodo le! Žito, vino porosiše, Oj dodo, oj dodo le!&lt;/small&gt; &lt;/poem&gt; || &lt;poem&gt; &lt;small&gt;Molimo se višnjem Bogu, Oj dodo, oj dodo le! Da udari rosna kiša, Oj dodo, oj dodo le! Da porosi naša polja, Oj dodo, oj dodo le! I šenicu ozimicu, Oj dodo, oj dodo le! I dva pera kukuruza, Oj dodo, oj dodo le!&lt;/small&gt; &lt;/poem&gt; || &lt;poem&gt; &lt;small&gt;Naša doda Boga moli, Oj dodo, oj dodo le! Da udari rosna kiša, Oj dodo, oj dodo le! Da pokisnu svi orači, Oj dodo, oj dodo le! Svi orači i kopači, Oj dodo, oj dodo le! I po kući poslovači, Oj dodo, oj dodo le!&lt;/small&gt; &lt;/poem&gt; || &lt;poem&gt; &lt;small&gt;Naša doda moli Boga Oj dodole, moj božole! Da porosi rosna kiša Oj dodole, moj božole! Da pokvasi naša polja Oj dodole, moj božole! Da urode, da prerode Oj dodole, moj božole!&lt;/small&gt; &lt;/poem&gt; || &lt;poem&gt; &lt;small&gt;Naša dojda moli boga da kiša pada Da pokisne suvo polje, oj, dojdole! Da pokisnu svi orači Svi orači i kopači, oj, dojdole! I po kući poslovači Oj, dojdole, oj, dojdole! I dva pera kukuruza I lanovi za darove, oj, dojdole! Da urodi, da prerodi, da ne polegne Oj, dojdole, oj, dojdole!&lt;/small&gt; &lt;/poem&gt; || &lt;poem&gt; &lt;small&gt;Naša doda moli Boga Da nam Bog da rosne kiše Rosne kiše malo više Na orače i kopače I na naše suve bašće Oj dodo, oj dodole! Da trava raste Da paun pase Da sunce sija Da žito zrija Oj dodo, oj dodole!&lt;/small&gt; &lt;/poem&gt; |} ==Other== According to [[Albanian folk beliefs]], the Sun ([[Dielli (Albanian paganism)|Dielli]]) makes the sky cloudy or clears it up.&lt;ref&gt;{{harvnb|Tirta|2004|pp=71–72}}; {{harvnb|Gjoni|2012|pp=85–86}}&lt;/ref&gt; Albanians used to invoke the Sun with rainmaking and soil fertility rituals. In rainmaking rituals from the [[Albanian Ionian Sea Coast]], Albanians used to pray to the Sun, in particular facing Mount [[Shëndelli]] (Mount &quot;Holy Sun&quot;), by invoking the names ''Dielli'', ''Shën Dëlliu'', ''Ilia'' or ''[[Perëndi]]a''. Children used to dress a boy with fresh branches, calling him ''dordolec''. A typical invocation song repeated three times during the ritual was:{{sfn|Gjoni|2012|pp=85–86}} {{blockquote|&quot;O Ilia, Ilia,&lt;br /&gt;Peperuga rrugëzaj&lt;br /&gt;Bjerë shi o Perëndi,&lt;br /&gt;Se qajnë ca varfëri,&lt;br /&gt;Me lot e logori&lt;br /&gt;Thekëri gjer mbë çati,&lt;br /&gt;Gruri gjer në Perëndi.&quot;}} Afterwards, people used to say: ''Do kemi shi se u nxi Shëndëlliu'' (&quot;We will have rain because ''Shëndëlliu'' went dark&quot;).{{sfn|Gjoni|2012|pp=85–86}} The Sun used to be also invoked when reappearing after the rain, prayed for increased production in agriculture.{{sfn|Gjoni|2012|pp=85–86}} == See also == {{commons category|Dodola}} * [[Albanian paganism]] * [[Folklore of Romania]] * [[Slavic paganism]] * [[Caloian]] * [[Perëndi]] * [[Porenut]] * [[Porevit]] == References == {{reflist}} === Bibliography === {{Refbegin|30em|indent=yes}} &lt;!-- B --&gt; *{{cite book |last=Belaj |first=Vitomir |author-link=Vitomir Belaj |date=2007 |orig-date=1998 |title=Hod kroz godinu: Mitska pozadina hrvatskih narodnih običaja i vjerovanja |trans-title=The walk within a year: the mythic background of the Croatian folk customs and beliefs |language=hr |location=Zagreb |publisher=Golden marketing-Tehnička knjiga |isbn=978-953-212-334-0}} *{{cite journal|last=Burns|first=Richard|title=Rain and Dust|journal=[[Studia Mythologica Slavica]]|volume=XI|issn=1581-128X|doi=10.3986/sms.v11i0.1696|year=2008|pages=217–236|doi-access=free}} &lt;!-- C --&gt; *{{cite journal |last=Čulinović-Konstantinović |first=Vesna |date=1963 |title=Dodole i prporuše: narodni običaji za prizivanje kiše |trans-title=Dodole and prporuše: folk customs for invoking the rain |url=https://hrcak.srce.hr/34409 |language=hr |journal=Narodna Umjetnost |volume=2 |issue=1 |pages=73–95}} &lt;!-- D --&gt; *{{cite journal |last=Dragić |first=Marko |date=2007 |title=Ladarice, kraljice i dodole u hrvatskoj tradicijskoj kulturi i slavenskom kontekstu |trans-title=Ladarice, Queens and Dodole in Croatian Traditionary Culture and Slavic Context |url=https://www.bib.irb.hr/299913 |language=hr |journal=Hercegovina, godišnjak za kulturno i povijesno naslijeđe |volume=21 |pages=275–296}} &lt;!-- G --&gt; *{{cite book|last=Gamkrelidze|first=Ivanov|title=Indo-European and the Indoeuropeans|publisher=Mouton de Gruyter|year=1995}} *{{cite book |last=Gieysztor |first=Aleksander |author-link=Aleksander Gieysztor |date=2006 |orig-date=1982 |edition=II |title=Mitologia Slowian |publisher=Wydawn. Uniwersytetu Warszawskiego |location=Warszawa |language=pl |isbn=978-83-235-0234-0}} *{{cite book |last=Gimbutas |first=Marija |author-link=Marija Gimbutas |date=1967 |chapter=Ancient Slavic Religion: A Synopsis |title=To honor Roman Jakobson: essays on the occasion of his seventieth birthday, 11 October 1966 (Vol. I) |pages=738–759 |publisher=Mouton |doi=10.1515/9783111604763-064 |isbn=978-3-11-122958-4}} *{{cite thesis|type=PhD|last=Gjoni|first=Irena|title=Marrëdhënie të miteve dhe kulteve të bregdetit të Jonit me areale të tjera mitike|publisher=University of Tirana, Faculty of History and Philology|language=sq|year=2012|place=Tirana}} &lt;!-- E --&gt; * {{cite book|last=Elsie|first=Robert|year=2000|title=The Christian Saints of Albania|publisher=Balkanistica|url=http://home.olemiss.edu/~mldyer/balk/article2.html|volume=13}} * {{cite book|last=Elsie|first=Robert|author-link=Robert Elsie|title=A Dictionary of Albanian Religion, Mythology and Folk Culture|place=London|publisher=Hurst &amp; Company|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=N_IXHrXIsYkC|isbn=1-85065-570-7|year=2001a}} *{{cite book|last=Elsie|first=Robert|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ve4SAQAAIAAJ|title=Albanian Folktales and Legends|year=2001b|publisher=Dukagjini Publishing House}} *{{cite book |last=Evans |first=David |date=1974 |chapter=Dodona, Dodola, and Daedala |title=Myth in Indo-European Antiquity |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=QNzuDwAAQBAJ |pages=99–130 |publisher=University of California Press |isbn=978-0-520-02378-9}} &lt;!-- H --&gt; *{{cite journal|last=Håland|first=Evy Johanne|title=Rituals of Magical Rain-Making in Modern and Ancient Greece: A Comparative Approach|journal=Cosmos|volume=17|year=2001|pages=197–251}} *{{cite book|last1=Halimi|first1=Zanita|last2=Halimi-Statovci|first2=Drita|last3=Xhemaj|first3=Ukë|translator=Lumnije Kadriu|title=Rite dhe Aktualiteti|trans-title=Rites and Contemporariness/Present Time|publisher=[[University of Prishtina]]|year=2011|url=https://chwbkosova.org/wp-content/uploads/2014/09/Publication_2011_7-min.pdf}} &lt;!-- J --&gt; *{{cite journal|last=Jackson|first=Peter|date=2002|title=Light from Distant Asterisks. Towards a Description of the Indo-European Religious Heritage|journal=Numen|volume=49|issue=1|pages=61–102|issn=0029-5973|jstor=3270472|doi=10.1163/15685270252772777}} *{{cite journal |last1=Jakobson |first1=Roman |author-link=Roman Jakobson |date=1955 |title=While Reading Vasmer's Dictionary |url=https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/pdf/10.1080/00437956.1955.11659581 |journal=[[Word (journal)|Word]] |volume=11 |issue=4 |pages=611–617 |doi=10.1080/00437956.1955.11659581}} *{{cite book |last=Jakobson |first=Roman |author-link=Roman Jakobson |date=1985 |title=Selected Writings VII: Contributions to Comparative Mythology |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=db7iuvTX1bkC |publisher=[[Walter de Gruyter]] |isbn=978-3-11-010617-6}} &lt;!-- K --&gt; *{{cite journal |last=Ḱulavkova |first=Katica |date=2020 |title=A Poetic Ritual Invoking Rain and Well-Being: Richard Berengarten's In a Time of Drought |url=https://scholarworks.iu.edu/journals/index.php/aeer/article/view/28956 |journal=Anthropology of East Europe Review |volume=37 |issue=1 |pages=17–26}} *{{cite book |last=Kulišić |first=Špiro |author-link=Špiro Kulišić |editor=[[Alojz Benac]] |date=1979 |title=Stara slovenska religija u svjetlu novijih istraživanja – posebno balkanoloških |language=sh |volume=Djela LVI, CBI knjiga 3 |location=Sarajevo |publisher=Centre for Balkan Studies, [[ANUBIH]]}} &lt;!-- L --&gt; *{{cite book |last=Lajoye |first=Patrice |author-link=Patrice Lajoye |date=2015 |title=Perun, dieu slave de l'orage: Archéologie, histoire, folklore |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=o5LdCgAAQBAJ |language=fr |publisher=Lingva |isbn=979-10-94441-25-1}} *{{cite book|last=Łuczyński|first=Michal|year=2020|title=Bogowie dawnych Słowian: Studium onomastyczne|publisher=Kieleckie Towarzystwo Naukowe|location=Kielce|isbn=978-83-60777-83-1|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=rv-izQEACAAJ|language=pl}} &lt;!-- M --&gt; *{{cite book|author=Ministria e Mjedisit dhe Planifikimit Hapësinor|title=Parku Kombëtar &quot;Sharri&quot; – Plani Hapësinor|publisher=Kosovo Environmental Protection Agency, Institute for Spatial Planning|year=2014|ref={{harvid|Ministria|2014}}}} *{{cite journal |last=Muraj |first=Aleksandra |date=1987 |title=Iz istraživanja Žumberka (preperuše, preslice, tara) |trans-title=From Research on Žumberak (preperuše, spindles, tara) |url=https://hrcak.srce.hr/clanak/76272 |language=hr |journal=Narodna Umjetnost |volume=24 |issue=1 |pages=157–175}} &lt;!-- N --&gt; *{{cite book |last=Nodilo |first=Natko |author-link=Natko Nodilo |date=1981 |orig-date=1884 |title=Stara Vjera Srba i Hrvata |trans-title=Old Faith of Serbs and Croats |url=https://archive.org/details/StaraVjeraSrbaIHrvata/ |language=hr |location=Split |publisher=Logos}} *{{cite book|last=Norris|first=Harry Thirlwall|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=RGmzir-ITtUC&amp;pg=PA34|title=Islam in the Balkans: Religion and Society Between Europe and the Arab World|publisher=University of South Carolina Press|year=1993|isbn=9780872499775|location=Columbia, S.C|pages=211|language=en|oclc=28067651}} &lt;!-- P --&gt; *{{cite book |last=Predojević |first=Željko |date=2019 |chapter=O pučkim postupcima i vjerovanjima za prizivanje kiše iz južne Baranje u kontekstu dvovjerja |trans-chapter=On folk practices and beliefs for invoking rain from southern Baranja in the context of dual belif |chapter-url=https://www.bib.irb.hr/1100049 |title=XIV. međunarodni kroatistički znanstveni skup |editor=István Blazsetin |editor-link=István Blazsetin (born 1963) |location=Pečuh |publisher=Znanstveni zavod Hrvata u Mađarskoj |language=hr |pages=581–593 |isbn=978-963-89731-5-3}} *{{cite book |last=Puchner |first=Walter |author-link=Walter Puchner |date=2009 |title=Studien zur Volkskunde Südosteuropas und des mediterranen Raums |url=https://library.oapen.org/handle/20.500.12657/34402 |location=Wien, Köln, Weimar |publisher=Böhlau Verlag |hdl=20.500.12657/34402 |language=de |isbn=978-3-205-78369-5}} *{{cite book|last1=Puhvel|first1=Jaan|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=OMPagyYOe8gC|title=Comparative Mythology|date=1987|publisher=Johns Hopkins University Press|isbn=978-0-8018-3938-2|author-link=Jaan Puhvel}} &lt;!-- Q --&gt; *{{cite book|last=Qafleshi|first=Muharrem|title=Opoja dhe Gora ndër shekuj|trans-title=Opoja and Gora During Centuries|publisher=[[Albanological Institute of Pristina]]|year=2011|isbn=978-9951-596-51-0}} &lt;!-- S --&gt; *{{cite book|last=Sela|first=Jonida|title=International Conference &quot;Education and Cultural Heritage&quot;|chapter=Values and Traditions in Ritual Dances of All-Year Celebrations in Korça Region, Albania|volume=1|publisher=Association of Heritage and Education|year=2017|pages=62–71}} &lt;!-- T --&gt; *{{cite book|last=Tirta|first=Mark|title=Mitologjia ndër shqiptarë|language=sq|editor=Petrit Bezhani|publisher=Mësonjëtorja|year=2004|place=Tirana|isbn=99927-938-9-9}} &lt;!-- U --&gt; *{{cite book|last=Urbańczyk|first=Stanisław|author-link=Stanisław Urbańczyk|year=1991|title=Dawni Słowianie: wiara i kult|trans-title=Old Slavs: faith and cult|publisher=Ossolineum, Polska Akademia Nauk, Komitet Słowianoznawstwa|location=Kraków|isbn=978-83-04-03825-7|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=4iUtAAAAMAAJ|language=pl}} &lt;!-- W --&gt; *{{cite book|last=Wachtel|first=Andrew Baruch|year=2008|title=The Balkans in World History|publisher=Oxford University Press|location=Oxford, England|isbn=978-0-19-988273-1|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=t6CeBgAAQBAJ}} *{{cite book|last=West|first=M. L.|title=Indo-European Poetry and Myth|publisher=Oxford University Press|year=2007|isbn=978-0-19-928075-9}} &lt;!-- Z --&gt; *{{cite book |last=Zebec |first=Tvrtko |date=2005 |title=Krčki tanci: plesno-etnološka studija |trans-title=Tanac dances on the island of Krk: dance ethnology study |url=https://www.academia.edu/35914079 |location=Zagreb, Rijeka |publisher=Institut za etnologiju i folkloristiku, Adamić |language=hr |isbn=953-219-223-9}} {{refend}} === Further reading === {{refbegin}} * {{ill|Bellosics, Bálint|hu|Bellosics Bálint}}. &quot;[http://real-j.mtak.hu/17297/ Dodola (Adatok az esőcsináláshoz)]&quot; [Dodola, Beiträge zum Regenmachen]. In: ''Ethnographia'' 6 (1895): 418–422. (In Hungarian) *{{cite book |last=Beza |first=Marcu |author-link=Marcu Beza |date=1928 |chapter=The Paparude and Kalojan |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=m2jTDwAAQBAJ |title=Paganism in Roumanian Folklore |location=London |publisher=J.M.Dent &amp; Sons LTD. |pages=27–36|isbn=978-3-8460-4695-1 }} * Boghici, Constantina. &quot;Archaic Elements in the Romanian Spring-Summer Traditions. Landmarks for Dâmboviţa County&quot;. In: ''Bulletin of the Transilvania University of Braşov'', Series VIII: Performing Arts 2 (2013): 17–18. https://ceeol.azurewebsites.net/search/article-detail?id=258246 * {{cite book |last=Cook |first=Arthur Bernard |author-link=Arthur Bernard Cook |date=1940 |chapter=Zeus and the Rain: Rain-magic in modern Greece |title=Zeus: A Study in Ancient Religion: God of the Dark Sky (earthquakes, clouds, wind, dew, rain, meteorites) |volume=3 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=2Yk8AAAAIAAJ |publisher=Cambridge University Press |pages=284–290 |isbn=978-0-511-69664-0 |doi=10.1017/CBO9780511696640}} * {{ill|Dömötör, Tekla|hu|Dömötor Tekla}}; {{ill|Eperjessy, Ernő|hu|Eperjessy Ernő}}. &quot;[http://real-j.mtak.hu/2925/ Dodola and Other Slavonic Folk-Customs in County Baranya (Hungary)]&quot;. In: ''Acta Ethnographica'', 16 (1967): 399–408. * {{cite journal |title=Paparuda |trans-title=Paparuda |first=Mihai |last=Dragnea |publisher=MUZEUL ETNOGRAFIC AL TRANSILVANIEI |journal=Anuarul Muzeului Etnografic al Transilvaniei |date=2012 |issue=6 |pages=73–81 |lang=Romanian}} * {{Cite journal |title=Песента в обреда Пеперуда |trans-title=The Song in the Peperuda Ritual |first=Bozhanka |last=Ganeva |publisher=Институт за етнология и фолклористика с Етнографски музей при БАН |journal=Български фолклор |volume=XXIX |date=2003 |issue=1 |pages=40–49 |lang=BG}} * Janković, Danica S., and Ljubica S. Janković. &quot;Serbian Folk Dance Tradition in Prizren&quot;. In: ''Ethnomusicology'' 6, no. 2 (1962): 117. https://doi.org/10.2307/924671. * {{cite journal |title=Вариантн на обредите Пеперуда и Герман |trans-title=Variants of the Rites Peperuda and German |first=Rusko |last=Kalev |publisher=Институт за етнология и фолклористика с Етнографски музей при БАН |journal=Български фолклор |volume=XII |date=1986 |issue=3 |pages=47–58 |lang=BG}} * {{cite journal |title=Słownictwo związane z wywoływaniem deszczu w dialektach sztokawskich |trans-title=Vocabulary related to rain calling in Shtokavian dialects |first=Agata |last=Kruszec |publisher=Instytut Slawistyki Polskiej Akademii Nauk |journal=Studia z Filologii Polskiej i Słowiańskiej |date=2008 |issue=43 |pages=141–148 |lang=PL}} * Мандич, Мария. &quot;[https://dais.sanu.ac.rs/123456789/7850 &quot;Жизнь&quot; ритуала после &quot;угасания&quot;: Пример додолы из села Сигетчеп в Венгрии]&quot; [The 'life' of an extinguished ritual: The case of the rain ritual dodola from Szigetcsép in Hungary]. In: &quot;Славяноведение&quot; 6 (2019): 15–29. DOI: 10.31857/S0869544X0006755-3 (In Russian) * {{cite book |last1=Marushiakova |first1=E. |last2=Popov |first2=V. |date=2016 |chapter=Roma Culture: Problems and Challenges |editor1-first=E. |editor1-last=Marushiakova |editor2-first=V. |editor2-last=Popov |title=Roma Culture: Myths and Realities |page=48 |location=München |publisher=Lincom Academic Publishers |url=https://www.academia.edu/26969260}} * {{cite journal |title=Женска антропоморфна пластика в два обреда за дъжд от Ямболски окръг |trans-title=Female Anthropomorphic Figures in Two Rain-Making Ceremonies from the District of Yambol |first=Lyubomir |last=Mikov |publisher=Институт за етнология и фолклористика с Етнографски музей при БАН |journal=Български фолклор |volume=XI |date=1985 |issue=4 |pages=19–27 |lang=BG}} * Puchner, Walter. &quot;Liedtextstudien Zur Balkanischen Regenlitanei: Mit Spezieller Berücksichtigung Der Bulgarischen Und Griechischen Varianten&quot;. In: ''Jahrbuch Für Volksliedforschung'' 29 (1984): 100–111. https://doi.org/10.2307/849291. *{{cite book |last=Schneeweis |first=Edmund |date=2019 |orig-date=1961 |title=Serbokroatische Volkskunde: Volksglaube und Volksbrauch |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=bR6bDwAAQBAJ |publisher=Walter de Gruyter GmbH &amp; Co KG |pages=161–163 |language=de |isbn=978-3-11-133764-7}} *{{cite book |last=MacDermott |first=Mercia |author-link=Mercia MacDermott |date=2003 |title=Explore Green Men |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=vT1NAAAAYAAJ |publisher=Heart of Albion Press |pages=17–19 |isbn=978-1-872883-66-3}} *{{citation |title=Dodole |url=https://www.enciklopedija.hr/natuknica.aspx?ID=15709 |author=Croatian Encyclopaedia |author-link=Croatian Encyclopaedia |year=2021}} {{refend}} ===External links=== *{{YouTube|id=X0BgBEtnK4s|title=Dodole ritual on TV in Macedonia}} *{{YouTube|id=aeCQgFUsIKA|title=Reconstruction of Dodole ritual in Bulgaria}} at [[Etar Architectural-Ethnographic Complex]] *{{YouTube|id=n2Vhk_eiwkg|title=&quot;Dodole&quot; song by Croatian ethno-folk rock band Kries}} *[https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=G8O5-a4rCk4 Pirpirouna/Pirpiruna/Perperouna – Rainmaking ritual song], and its [https://www.oeaw.ac.at/fileadmin/kommissionen/vanishinglanguages/Collections/Greek_varieties/Macedonian_Greek/Transcription_pdfs/mace1251TRV0001a_transcription.pdf lyrics], recorded 2016 by Thede Kahl and Andreea Pascaru in Turkey *[https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=evOGzUGT8kc Dodola/Pirpiruna – Rainmaking ritual song, description of the custom] and [https://www.oeaw.ac.at/fileadmin/kommissionen/vanishinglanguages/Collections/Greek_varieties/Macedonian_Greek/Transcription_pdfs/mace1251TRV0001a_transcription.pdf its lyrics], recorded 2020 in Northeast Greece by Sotirios Rousiakis {{Slavic mythology}} [[Category:Albanian folklore]] [[Category:Aromanian culture]] [[Category:Bulgarian folklore]] [[Category:Bulgarian traditions]] [[Category:Croatian folklore]] [[Category:Greek folklore]] [[Category:Macedonian traditions]] [[Category:Moldovan traditions]] [[Category:Rainmaking (ritual)]] [[Category:Romanian folklore]] [[Category:Romanian traditions]] [[Category:Serbian folklore]] [[Category:Serbian traditions]] [[Category:Slavic pseudo-deities]] [[Category:South Slavic culture]]</div></summary> <author><name>Βατο</name></author> </entry> <entry> <id>https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Prende&diff=1256398004</id> <title>Prende</title> <link rel="alternate" type="text/html" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Prende&diff=1256398004"/> <updated>2024-11-09T19:27:45Z</updated> <summary type="html">Βατο: ce <hr /> <div>{{Short description|Albanian dawn goddess, goddess love, beauty, fertility and health}} [[File:Nje Peisazh i bukur kur mbi qytetin e Krumes dalin dy Ylbera.jpg|thumb|[[Rainbow]] in Northern Albania. In [[Albanian folk beliefs]] the rainbow is regarded as &quot;the belt of Zoja Prenne&quot;.{{sfn|Elsie|2001|p=258}}]] '''Prende''' or '''Premte'''{{Refn|Dialectal variants include: [[Gheg Albanian]] ''P(ë)rende'' ([[definiteness|def.]] ''P(ë)renda''), ''Pren(n)e'' ([[definiteness|def.]] ''Pren(n)a''); [[Tosk Albanian]]: ''Premte'' ([[definiteness|def.]] ''Premtja''), ''Preme'' ([[definiteness|def.]] ''Prema''). The Albanian name is thought to be a cognate with the [[Ancient Greek]] {{lang|grc|Περσεφάττα}} ''Persephatta'', a variant of [[Persephone]], both from the [[Indo-European]] ''*pers-é-bʰ(h₂)n̥t-ih₂'' (&quot;she who brings the light through&quot;).{{sfn|Hyllested|Joseph|2022|p=235}}{{sfn|Dedvukaj|2023|p=1}}|group=note}} is the [[Dawn goddess|dawn]] goddess, goddess of [[Love goddess|love]], [[List of beauty deities|beauty]], [[List of fertility deities|fertility]], [[health deity|health]] and protector of women, in the [[Albanian mythology|Albanian pagan mythology]].&lt;ref&gt;{{harvnb|Lambertz|1973|p=509}}; {{harvnb|Dunwich|2000|p=151}}; {{harvnb|Lurker|2005|p=155}}; {{harvnb|Hyllested|Joseph|2022|p=235}}; {{harvnb|Dedvukaj|2023|p=1}}.&lt;/ref&gt; She is also called '''Afër-dita''',&lt;ref&gt;{{harvnb|Sedaj|1982|p=78}}; {{harvnb|Lambertz|1973|p=509}}&lt;/ref&gt; an [[Albanian language|Albanian]] phrase meaning &quot;near day&quot;, &quot;the day is near&quot;, or &quot;dawn&quot;,&lt;ref&gt;{{harvnb|Dedvukaj|2023|pp=1–2}}; {{harvnb|Plangarica|2001|p=46}}&lt;/ref&gt;{{Refn|''Afërdita''{{sfn|Kostallari|1981|p=377}}{{sfn|Thomaj|2002|p=1488}} or {{langx|aln|Afêrdita}}{{sfn|Lambertz|1973|p=509}} is the native [[Albanian language|Albanian]] name of the planet [[Venus]]; ''Afro-dita'' is its Albanian imperative form meaning &quot;come forth the day/dawn&quot;.{{sfn|Dedvukaj|2023|p=1}}|group=note}} in association with the cult of the planet [[Venus]], the morning and evening star.&lt;ref&gt;{{harvnb|Sedaj|1982|p=78}}; {{harvnb|Lambertz|1973|p=509}}&lt;/ref&gt;{{Refn|Albanian: ''(h)ylli i dritës, Afërdita'' &quot;the Star of Light, Afërdita&quot; (i.e. Venus, the morning star){{sfn|Lambertz|1973|p=509}} and ''(h)ylli i mbrëmjes, Afërdita'' (i.e. Venus, the evening star).{{sfn|Frashëri|1980|p=294}}|group=note}} She is referred to as ''Zoja Prenne'' or ''Zoja e Bukuris'' (&quot;Goddess/Lady Prenne&quot; or &quot;Goddess/Lady of Beauty&quot;).{{sfn|Demiraj|Starostin|Lubotsky|de Vaan}}{{sfn|Elsie|2001|p=258}}{{sfn|Sedaj|1982|pp=78, 457}} Her sacred day is [[Friday]], named in Albanian after her: ''e premte'', ''premtja'' ({{langx|aln|e prende, prendja}}{{sfn|Camaj|Fox|1984|p=328}}).&lt;ref&gt;{{harvnb|Dunwich|2000|p=151}}; {{harvnb|Lurker|2005|p=155}}&lt;/ref&gt; She reflects features belonging to the [[*H₂éwsōs|original Indo-European dawn goddess]].{{sfn|Hyllested|2024|p=60}} A remarkable reflection associated with the Indo-European dawn goddess is the Albanian tradition according to which Prende is the daughter of the sky god – [[Zojz (deity)|Zojz]].{{sfn|Lambertz|1922|pp=47, 143–144, 146–148}} Thought to have been worshiped by the [[Illyrians]] in antiquity,&lt;ref&gt;{{harvnb|Dunwich|2000|p=151}}; {{harvnb|Lurker|2005|p=155}}&lt;/ref&gt; Prende is identified with the cult of [[Venus (mythology)|Venus]] and she was worshipped in northern [[Albania]], especially by the Albanian women, until recent times. She features attributes also belonging to [[Aphrodite]], [[Iris (mythology)|Iris]], and [[Helen of Troy|Helen]], as well as [[Persephone]] as shown by the etymology of her name.{{sfn|Hyllested|2024|p=60}} Describing a goddess of the underworld and at the same time a personification of springtime, the Albanian ''[[e Bukura e Dheut]]'' (&quot;the Beauty of the Earth&quot;) is evidently an epithet of the Albanian equivalent of Persephone.{{sfn|Elsie|2001|pp=79–81}} In Christian times she was called ''ShënePremte''{{sfn|Elsie|2001|p=258}} or ''Shën Prende''{{sfn|Galaty|Lafe|Lee|Tafilica|2013|p=43}} (&quot;Saint Veneranda&quot;), identified by the [[Catholic Church in Albania|Catholic Church]] as [[Saint Anne]], mother of [[Virgin Mary]]. She was so popular in Albania that over one in eight of the Catholic churches existing in the late 16th and the early 17th centuries were named after her. Many other historical Catholic and Orthodox churches were dedicated to her in the 18th and 19th centuries.{{sfn|Elsie|2001|p=258}} == Name == ===Variants=== Dialectal variants include: [[Gheg Albanian]] ''P(ë)rende'' ([[definiteness|def.]] ''P(ë)renda''), ''Pren(n)e'' ([[definiteness|def.]] ''Pren(n)a''); [[Tosk Albanian]]: ''Premte'' ([[definiteness|def.]] ''Premtja''), ''Preme'' ([[definiteness|def.]] ''Prema''). Prende is also called ''Afërdita''{{sfn|Sedaj|1982|p=78}} (''Afêrdita'' in [[Gheg Albanian]]{{sfn|Lambertz|1973|p=509}}) in association with the cult of the planet [[Venus]], the morning and evening star, which in Albanian is referred to as ''(h)ylli i dritës, Afërdita'' &quot;the Star of Light, Afërdita&quot; (i.e. Venus, the morning star){{sfn|Lambertz|1973|p=509}} and ''(h)ylli i mbrëmjes, Afërdita'' (i.e. Venus, the evening star).{{sfn|Frashëri|1980|p=294}} ''Afër-dita'', an Albanian phrase meaning &quot;near day&quot;, &quot;the day is near&quot;, or &quot;dawn&quot;,&lt;ref&gt;{{harvnb|Dedvukaj|2023|pp=1–2}}; {{harvnb|Plangarica|2001|p=46}}&lt;/ref&gt; is the native Albanian name of the planet Venus.{{sfn|Kostallari|1981|p=377}}{{sfn|Thomaj|2002|p=1488}} ''Afro-dita'' is its Albanian [[Imperative mood|imperative]] form meaning &quot;come forth the day/dawn&quot;.{{sfn|Dedvukaj|2023|pp=1–2}} The Albanian translation of &quot;evening&quot; is also rendered as πρέμε ''premë'' in the [[Markos Botsaris#Dictionary|Albanian-Greek dictionary]] of [[Marko Boçari]].{{sfn|Yochalas|1980|pp=143, 230}} In northern Albania, Prende is referred to as ''[[Zojz (deity)#Reflections|Zoja]] Prenne'' or ''Zoja e Bukuris'' &quot;Goddess/Lady Prenne&quot; or &quot;Goddess/Lady of Beauty&quot;.{{sfn|Demiraj|Starostin|Lubotsky|de Vaan}}{{sfn|Elsie|2001|p=258}}{{sfn|Sedaj|1982|pp=78, 457}} ===Etymology=== The Albanian name {{lang|sq|Premtë}} or {{lang|sq|P(ë)rende}} is thought to correspond regularly to the [[Ancient Greek]] counterpart {{lang|grc|Περσεφάττα}} (''Persephatta''), a variant of {{lang|grc|Περσεφόνη}} (''[[Persephone]]'').{{sfn|Hyllested|Joseph|2022|p=235}}{{sfn|Dedvukaj|2023|p=1}}{{sfn|Hyllested|2024|p=60}} The theonyms have been traced back to the [[Indo-European]] ''*pers-é-bʰ(h₂)n̥t-ih₂'' (&quot;she who brings the light through&quot;).{{sfn|Hyllested|Joseph|2022|p=235}}{{sfn|Hyllested|2024|p=60}} The Albanian phrase ''afro dita'' 'come forth the day/dawn' traces back to [[Proto-Albanian language|Proto-Albanian]] ''*apro dītā'' 'come forth brightness of the day/dawn', from Indo-European ''*h₂epero déh₂itis''.{{sfn|Dedvukaj|2023|p=8}} The theonym ''Aprodita'' is attested in [[Messapic language|Messapic]] inscriptions in [[Apulia]], which is considered to be a Messapic theonym of an Indo-European goddess.{{sfn|Marchesini|2021|p=16}} == Role == {{multiple image | align=right | total_width=360 | image_style=border:none; | image1=Albanian traditional art 1.png | alt1= | image2=Albanian traditional art 2.png | alt2= | footer=Albanian traditional art with an elaborate design representing the sun, serpent, bird (dove), wheat and flowering plant. Embroidered on the scarlet cloak that is traditionally given on the weddingday by the bridegroom to the bride (Catholic of Shkodra), the pattern suggests a fertility cult.{{sfn|Durham|1928|pp=126–128}} Drawn by Edith Durham in the early 20th century.}} In the Albanian pagan mythology Prende is the dawn goddess, goddess of love, beauty, fertility and health.{{sfn|Treimer|1971|p=}}{{sfn|Lambertz|1973|p=509}}{{sfn|Lurker|2005|p=155}}{{sfn|Hyllested|Joseph|2022|p=235}}{{sfn|Hyllested|2024|p=60}} She is considered the [[Albanian folk beliefs|Albanian]] equivalent of the [[Ancient Roman religion|Roman]] [[Venus (mythology)|Venus]], [[Norse mythology|Norse]] [[Freyja]] and [[Ancient Greek religion|Greek]] [[Aphrodite]].{{sfn|Treimer|1971|p=}}{{sfn|Lurker|2005|p=155}} In mythological terms Prende has attributes that also belong to Aphrodite, [[Iris (mythology)|Iris]] and [[Helen of Troy|Helen]], and is considered to be etymologically related to [[Persephone]].{{sfn|Hyllested|2024|p=60}} Describing a goddess of the underworld and at the same time a personification of springtime, the Albanian ''[[e Bukura e Dheut]]'' (&quot;the Beauty of the Earth&quot;) is evidently an epithet of the Albanian equivalent of Persephone.{{sfn|Elsie|2001|pp=79–81}} According to some Albanian traditions, Prende is the daughter of [[Zojz (deity)|Zojz]], the Albanian sky and lightning god.{{sfn|Lambertz|1922|pp=47, 143–144, 146–148}} Associated with the dawn goddess, the epithet &quot;daughter of the sky-god&quot; is commonly found in Indo-European traditions (cf. [[H₂éwsōs#Epithets]]). According to folk beliefs, swallows, called ''Pulat e Zojës'' &quot;the Lady's Birds&quot;, pull Prende across the sky in her chariot. Swallows are connected to the chariot by the rainbow (''Ylberi''), which the people also call ''Brezi'' or ''Shoka'' e ''Zojës'' &quot;the Lady's Belt&quot;.{{sfn|Lambertz|1973|p=509}}{{sfn|Elsie|2001|p=258}} The common Albanian name ''nepërkë'' for the venomous snake [[adder|adder, viper]] appears in the [[Arbëresh language|Arbëresh]] variety of [[Calabria]] as ''nepromtja'', probably based on ''Prende'' / ''Premte''.{{sfn|Çabej|2015|pp=118–119}} == Worship == Prende was worshipped in northern [[Albania]], especially by the Albanian women until recent times. Prende's festival was celebrated on July 26 every year, and her devotees would don beautiful clothing and would set out a mortar and pestle as a representation of sexual union.{{sfn|Elsie|2001|p=258}} [[Rainbow]] is regarded in popular beliefs as Prende's belt, and oral legend has it that anyone who jumps over the rainbow changes their sex.{{sfn|Elsie|2001|p=258}} The goddess Prende is associated in Albanian folk beliefs with the cult of the planet [[Venus]] (''Afërdita'' in Albanian).{{sfn|Lambertz|1973|p=509}}{{sfn|Sedaj|1982|p=78}} When [[Albania]] became [[Christianized]] in antiquity, Prende was identified by the Catholic Church as [[Saint Anne]], mother of Virgin Mary, and was called &quot;Saint Veneranda&quot; ({{langx|als|ShënePremte}}{{sfn|Elsie|2001|p=258}} or {{langx|aln|Shën Prende}}{{sfn|Galaty|Lafe|Lee|Tafilica|2013|p=43}}), later also associated with [[Greek language|Greek]] ''Paraskevi'', [[Romanian language|Romanian]] ''Sfânta Paraschiva'', [[South Slavic languages|South Slavic]] ''Petka''.{{sfn|Elsie|2000|p=43}} Another Albanian Christian saint thought by some to have a non-Christian origin is [[Gjin]]. Prende was so popular in Albania that of the some 275 Catholic churches recorded to have existed in Albania in the late 16th and the early 17th centuries, 33 were named after her, more than to any other saint except [[Virgin Mary]] and [[Saint Nicholas]]. Many other historical Catholic and Orthodox churches were dedicated to her in the 18th and 19th centuries. In the Kurbin valley pilgrimages to the church of Saint Veneranda were common among both Christians and Muslims. There people went also in the hope of a cure for mental illness.{{sfn|Elsie|2001|p=258}} As is usual in many cultures, in Albania the day sacred to the goddess of love is Friday, named in the [[Albanian language]] after her: ''dita e premte'', ''premtja'' ({{langx|aln|dita e prende, prendja}}{{sfn|Camaj|Fox|1984|p=328}}).{{sfn|Lurker|2005|p=155}}{{Sfn|Elsie|2001|p=258}} ==In popular culture== ''Prende'', ''Pren(n)e'' and their masculine counterparts ''Prend'', ''Preng'', ''Prenk'', ''Pren'', etc., are [[Albanian language|Albanian]] [[Albanian name|given names]], traditionally found among [[Catholicism in Albania|Albanian Catholics]].{{sfn|Alpion|2021|p=237}} &quot;Prende Publishing&quot;, from the publishing house Histria Books, was named for the Albanian goddess Prende.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|website=histriabooks.com|title=Prende|url=https://histriabooks.com/prende-publishing/}}&lt;/ref&gt; ==See also== * [[Albanian mythology]] * [[Illyrian religion]] * [[En (deity)|En]] * [[Perëndi]] * [[Venus (mythology)|Venus]] * [[Freyja]] ==Notes== {{Reflist|30em|group=note}} == References == {{Reflist}} == Bibliography == {{refbegin|30em|indent=yes}} *&lt;!-- A --&gt;{{cite book|last=Alpion|first=Gëzim|title=Mother Teresa: The Saint and Her Nation|publisher=Bloomsbury Publishing|year=2021|orig-year=2020|isbn=9789389812466|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=sylOEAAAQBAJ}} *&lt;!-- C --&gt;{{cite book|last=Çabej|first=Eqrem|title=Serta Romanica: Festschrift für Gerhard Rohlfs zum 75. Geburtstag|chapter=Die Albanischen Mundarten in Kalabrien|editor=Rudolf Baehr |editor2=Kurt Wais |editor3=W. Theodor Elwert |editor4=Heinrich Lausberg|publisher=Walter de Gruyter GmbH &amp; Co KG|year=2015|orig-year=1968|isbn=9783110945096|lang=de|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=4rQDDgAAQBAJ}} *{{cite book|last1=Camaj|first1=Martin|last2=Fox|first2=Leonard|title=Albanian Grammar: With Exercises, Chrestomathy and Glossaries|date=January 1984|publisher=Otto Harrassowitz Verlag|isbn=978-3-447-02467-9|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=rPfRUAuevq4C}} *&lt;!-- D --&gt;{{cite journal|last=Dedvukaj|first=Lindon|title=Linguistic evidence for the Indo-European and Albanian origin of Aphrodite|journal=Proceedings of the Linguistic Society of America|publisher=[[Linguistic Society of America]]|doi=10.3765/plsa.v8i1.5500|volume=8|number=1|year=2023|page=5500 |s2cid=258381736 |doi-access=free}} *{{cite web|title=The Albanian inherited lexicon|type=Database|url=https://www.win.tue.nl/~aeb/natlang/ie/alb.html|last1=Demiraj|first1=Bardhyl|last2=Starostin|first2=Sergei|last3=Lubotsky|first3=Alexander|last4=de Vaan|author-link1=Bardhyl Demiraj|author-link2=Sergei Starostin|author-link3=Alexander Lubotsky|author-link4=Michiel de Vaan|first4=Michiel}} *{{cite book|last=Dunwich|first=Gerina|title=Wicca Love Spells|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=hRxVytIiDGIC&amp;dq=Perendi+Prende&amp;pg=PA151|date=2000|publisher=Kensington Publishing Corporation|isbn=0-8065-1782-4}} *{{cite book|last1=Durham|first1=Edith|author-link=Edith Durham|title=Some tribal origins, laws and customs of the Balkans|year=1928|publisher=George Allen &amp; Unwin |isbn=978-0-598-76888-9 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=dSSBAAAAMAAJ}} *&lt;!-- E --&gt;{{cite book|last=Elsie|first=Robert|author-link=Robert Elsie|title=A Dictionary of Albanian Religion, Mythology and Folk Culture|place=London|publisher=Hurst &amp; Company|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=N_IXHrXIsYkC|isbn=1-85065-570-7|year=2001}} *{{cite journal|last=Elsie|first=Robert|title=The Christian Saints of Albania|journal=Balkanistica |volume=13|year=2000|publisher=American Association for South Slavic Studies|url=http://www.olemiss.edu/depts/modern_languages/BalkArticle2.html}} *&lt;!-- F --&gt;{{cite book|last=Frashëri|first=Naim|title=Vepra të zgjedhura|volume=1|editor=Dhimitër S. Shuteriqi|publisher=Akademia e Shkencave e RPSSH|year=1980|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=6xQHAQAAIAAJ}} *&lt;!-- G --&gt;{{cite book|last1=Galaty|first1=Michael|last2=Lafe|first2=Ols|last3=Lee|first3=Wayne|last4=Tafilica|first4=Zamir|title=Light and Shadow: Isolation and Interaction in the Shala Valley of Northern Albania|year=2013|publisher=The Cotsen Institute of Archaeology Press|isbn=978-1931745710|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=f2mRDwAAQBAJ}} *&lt;!-- H --&gt;{{cite book|last1=Hyllested|first1=Adam|last2=Joseph|first2=Brian D.|editor1-last=Olander |editor1-first=Thomas|title=The Indo-European Language Family : A Phylogenetic Perspective|year=2022|doi=10.1017/9781108758666|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=9781108758666|chapter=Albanian|chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=xzKAEAAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PA223|pages=223–245|s2cid=161016819 }} *{{cite book|last=Hyllested|first=Adam|chapter=The Indo-European origins of Persephone and the Albanian goddess ''Premtë''|title=Book of Abstracts – The Speakers of Indo-European and Their World: 17th Fachtagung of the Society for Indo-European Studies 9–12 September 2024, Basel University (Switzerland)|publisher=[[University of Basel]]|year=2024|pages=60–61|url=https://igfachtagung24.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/09/book_of_abstracts_version_september_11.pdf}} *&lt;!-- K --&gt;{{Cite book|last=Kostallari|first=Androkli|title=Fjalor i gjuhës së sotme shqipe|publisher=Rilindja|year=1981|location=Tiranë|volume=1|language=sq|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=PdfqAAAAMAAJ}} *&lt;!-- L --&gt;{{cite book|last=Lambertz|first=Maximilian|title=Albanische Märchen (und andere Texte zur albanischen Volkskunde)|place=Wien|publisher=A. Hölder|year=1922|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=0lxtzwEACAAJ}} *{{cite book|last=Lambertz|first=Maximilian|author-link=Maximilian Lambertz|editor=Hans Wilhelm Haussig|title=Wörterbuch der Mythologie|chapter=Die Mythologie der Albaner|volume=2|year=1973|language=de|pages=455–509}} *{{cite book|last=Lurker|first=Manfred|title=The Routledge Dictionary of Gods and Goddesses, Devils and Demons|publisher=Routledge, Taylor &amp; Francis|year=2005|isbn=0-203-64351-8}} &lt;!-- M --&gt;*{{cite book|last=Marchesini|first=Simona|chapter=I Messapi nel Mediterraneo|trans-chapter=The Messapians in the Mediterranean|title=Storia dei Mediterranei: Relazioni linguistiche, viaggi, politiche di dominio, conflitti. Annale 3|series=Mediterraneo e storia|volume=35|publisher=Edizioni di storia e studi sociali|year=2021|isbn=9788899168544|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=mF3OzgEACAAJ|pages=10–42}} &lt;!-- P --&gt;*{{cite journal|last=Plangarica|first=Tomor|title=Les noms propres en albanais et quelques-unes de leurs particularités à l'époque actuelle|journal=Cahiers balkaniques|volume=32|year=2001|editor=Christiane Montécot |editor2=Vladimir Osipov |editor3=Sophie Vassilaki|pages=39–54|isbn=9782858311286|issn=0290-7402|publisher=Publications Langues'O|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=09cLAQAAMAAJ}} *&lt;!-- S --&gt;{{cite journal|last=Sedaj|first=Engjëll|title=Ngjashmëri të hyjnive homerike dhe atyre shqiptare|journal=Gjurmime Albanologjike|publisher=[[Albanological Institute of Prishtina]]|year=1982|pages=71–90|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=a6niAAAAMAAJ}} *&lt;!-- T --&gt;{{cite book|last=Thomaj|first=Jan|title=Fjalor i shqipes së sotme: me rreth 34.000 fjalë|year=2002|publisher=Botimet Toena|isbn=9789992716076|lang=sq|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=2j4_AQAAIAAJ}} *{{cite book|last=Treimer|first=Karl|editor1=Henrik Barić |title=Arhiv za Arbanasku starinu, jezik i etnologiju|volume=I|chapter=Zur Rückerschliessung der illyrischen Götterwelt und ihre Bedeutung für die südslawische Philologie|pages=27–33|publisher=R. Trofenik|year=1971|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=dTIBAAAAMAAJ}} *&lt;!-- Y --&gt;{{cite book|last=Yochalas|first=Titos|title=Το Ελληνο-Αλβανικόν Λεξικόν του Μάρκου Μπότσαρη &amp;#91;The Greek-Albanian Dictionary of Markos Botsaris&amp;#93;|year=1980|publisher=Academy of Greece|url=https://www.scribd.com/doc/47759686/%CE%A4%CE%BF-%CE%95%CE%BB%CE%BB%CE%B7%CE%BD%CE%BF-%CE%91%CE%BB%CE%B2%CE%B1%CE%BD%CE%B9%CE%BA%CF%8C%CE%BD-%CE%9B%CE%B5%CE%BE%CE%B9%CE%BA%CF%8C%CE%BD-%CF%84%CE%BF%CF%85-%CE%9C%CE%AC%CF%81%CE%BA%CE%BF%CF%85-%CE%9C%CF%80%CF%8C%CF%84%CF%83%CE%B1%CF%81%CE%B7-%CE%93%CE%B9%CE%BF%CF%87%CE%AC%CE%BB%CE%B1%CF%82-%CE%A4%CE%AF%CF%84%CE%BF%CF%82}} {{refend}} {{Illyrians}} {{Albanian mythology}} {{DEFAULTSORT:Prende}} [[Category:Albanian paganism]] [[Category:Albanian mythology]] [[Category:Illyrian goddesses]] [[Category:Dawn goddesses]] [[Category:Light goddesses]] [[Category:Stellar goddesses]] [[Category:Love and lust goddesses]] [[Category:European goddesses]] [[Category:Beauty goddesses]] [[Category:Paleo-Balkan mythology]] [[Category:Rainbow deities]]</div></summary> <author><name>Βατο</name></author> </entry> <entry> <id>https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Rainbows_in_mythology&diff=1256397930</id> <title>Rainbows in mythology</title> <link rel="alternate" type="text/html" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Rainbows_in_mythology&diff=1256397930"/> <updated>2024-11-09T19:27:20Z</updated> <summary type="html">Βατο: ce <hr /> <div>{{Short description|none}} {{see also|Rainbows in culture}} {{more citations needed|date=March 2022}} [[File:Joseph Anton Koch 006.jpg|thumb|280px|''Noah's Thanksoffering'' (c.1803) by [[Joseph Anton Koch]]. Noah builds an altar to the Lord after being delivered from the Flood; God sends the rainbow as a sign of his covenant ([[Book of Genesis|Genesis]] 8–9).]] The [[rainbow]] has been a favorite component of [[mythology]] throughout history among many cultures around the world. Abrahamic traditions see it as a covenant with [[God]] to preserve the world from a second [[Genesis flood narrative|flood]]. Whether as a bridge to the heavens, messenger, archer's bow, or [[Serpent symbolism|serpent]], the rainbow has served as a symbol for millennia. There are myriad beliefs in a complex diversity with several repeated themes. == Rainbow deities == *In [[Mesopotamia]]n and [[Elam]]ite mythology, the goddess [[Manzat (goddess)|Manzat]] was a personification of the rainbow.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book |last=Lambert |first=W. G. |chapter=Manziʾat/Mazziʾat/Mazzât/Mazzêt |chapter-url=http://publikationen.badw.de/en/rla/index#7497 |title=Reallexikon der Assyriologie und vorderasiatischen Archäologie |volume=7 |date=1980 |pages=344–346}}&lt;/ref&gt; *In [[Greek mythology]], the goddess [[Iris (mythology)|Iris]] personifies the rainbow. In many stories, such as the ''[[Iliad]]'', she carries messages from the gods to the human world, thus forming a link between heaven and earth.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book |last=March |first=Jennifer R. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=v5jwAwAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PA270 |title=Dictionary of Classical Mythology |date=2014 |publisher=Oxbow Books |isbn=978-1-78297-635-6 |pages=270–271}}&lt;/ref&gt; Iris's messages often concerned war and retribution.&lt;ref name=Lee&gt;{{cite book |last1=Lee |first1=Raymond L. Jr.|last2=Fraser |first2=Alistair B. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=kZcCtT1ZeaEC&amp;q=bridge |title=The Rainbow Bridge: Rainbows in Art, Myth, and Science |page=viii |publisher=Penn State Press |date=2001 |isbn=9780271019772}}&lt;/ref&gt; In some myths, the rainbow merely represents the path made by Iris as she flies.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book |last=Andrews |first=Tamra |chapter=Rainbows and Rainbow Myths |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=7jS65aClvFEC&amp;pg=PA162 |title=Dictionary of Nature Myths: Legends of the Earth, Sea, and Sky |date=2000 |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0-19-513677-7 |page=162}}&lt;/ref&gt; *Many [[Australian Aboriginal religion and mythology|Aboriginal Australian mythologies]] include a [[Rainbow Serpent]] deity, the name and characteristics of which vary according to cultural traditions. It is often seen as a creator god, and also as a force of destruction. It is generally considered to control the rain, and conceals itself in waterholes during the dry season. *In Chinese mythology, [[Hong (rainbow-dragon)|Hong]] is a two-headed dragon that represents the rainbow. *In [[Mesoamerican religion|Mesoamerican]] cultures, [[Ixchel|Ix Chel]] is a maternal jaguar goddess associated with rain. Chel means rainbow in the [[Yucatán]] [[Poqomchi' people|Poqomchi']] language. Ix Chel wears a serpent headdress and presides principally over birth and healing. *Anuenue, the rainbow maiden, appears in Hawaiian legends as the messenger for her brothers, the gods Tane and Kanaloa.&lt;ref name=Craig2004&gt;{{cite book |last=Craig |first=Robert D. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=LOZuirJWXvUC&amp;pg=PA174 |title=Handbook of Polynesian Mythology |page=174 |publisher=ABC-CLIO |date=2004 |isbn=9781576078945}}&lt;/ref&gt; *Several [[West Africa]]n religions incorporate personified rainbow spirits. Examples include [[Oxumare]] in the [[Yoruba religion|Yoruban]] religion [[Ifá]]; [[Ayida-Weddo]] in [[Haitian Vodou]], as practiced in [[Benin]]; and the pythons Dagbe Dre and Dagbe Kpohoun in [[West African Vodun]], as practiced by the [[Ewe people]] of Benin. *In Māori mythology there are several personifications for the rainbow, depending on its form, who usually appear representing omens and are appealed to during times of war. The most widespread of these are [[Uenuku]] and [[Uenuku#Kahukura|Kahukura]].&lt;ref name=Best1982/&gt;&lt;ref name=Craig2004/&gt; *For the [[Karen people]] of [[Burma]], the rainbow is considered as a painted and dangerous demon that eats children. *In [[Muisca religion]], [[Cuchavira]] or Cuhuzabiba, who was called &quot;shining air&quot; is the rainbow deity,&lt;ref&gt;Ocampo López, 2013, Ch. 8, p.53&lt;/ref&gt; which in the [[Andes]] rain and sun were both very important for their agriculture. *Amitolane is a rainbow spirit from the [[Zuni mythology|mythology of the Zuni]], a Native American tribe. *In [[Albanian folk beliefs]] the rainbow is regarded as the belt of the goddess [[Prende]], and oral legend has it that anyone who jumps over the rainbow changes their sex.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book|last=Elsie|first=Robert|author-link=Robert Elsie|title=A Dictionary of Albanian Religion, Mythology and Folk Culture|place=London|publisher=Hurst &amp; Company|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=N_IXHrXIsYkC|isbn=1-85065-570-7|year=2001|page=258}}&lt;/ref&gt; *In pre-Hispanic Andean cosmology, the rainbow was related with both the sacred serpent or [[Amaru (mythology)|amaru]] and the thunder god Illapa.&lt;ref&gt;John E. Staller, Lightning (Illapa) and its manifestations: huacas and Ushnus, 177-79&gt;&lt;The Incas have gone inside: pattern and persistence in Andean iconography, pg 179-99 &gt; It was simultaneously considered as a mediating symbol between the lower, middle and upper worlds. &lt;https://www.dukeupress.edu/inka-bodies-and-the-body-of-christ pg. 145-47&gt;&lt;/ref&gt; ==Rainbow bridges== [[File:Heimdall an der Himmelsbrücke.jpg|thumb|Heimdall before the Rainbow Bridge]] *In Norse religion, a burning rainbow bridge called the [[Bifrost]] connects [[Midgard]] (earth) with [[Asgard]], home of the gods.&lt;ref name=natgeo&gt;{{cite web |url=http://education.nationalgeographic.com/education/encyclopedia/rainbow/?ar_a=1#page=4 |title=Rainbows in Myth |website=National Geographic |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140808061808/http://education.nationalgeographic.com/education/encyclopedia/rainbow/?ar_a=1#page=4 |archive-date=8 August 2014}}&lt;/ref&gt; Bifrost can be used only by gods and those who are killed in battle. It is eventually shattered under the weight of war – the [[Ragnarok]] (German Götterdämmerung). The notion that the rainbow bridge to heaven is attainable by only the good or virtuous, such as warriors and royalty, is a theme repeated often in world myths. *In Japanese mythology, the [[Ame-no-ukihashi|Floating Bridge of Heaven]] may have been inspired by the rainbow. The creator deities [[Izanami]] and [[Izanagi]] stood upon this bridge as they brought the Japanese archipelago into existence.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book |last=Roberts |first=Jeremy |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=xdfgjV2kw6oC&amp;pg=PA4 |title=Japanese Mythology A to Z |date=2009 |publisher=Infobase Publishing |isbn=978-1-4381-2802-3 |page=4}}&lt;/ref&gt; *In [[Navajo people|Navajo]] tradition, the rainbow is the path of the holy spirits, and is frequently depicted in sacred sandpaintings.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |url=http://www.native-languages.org/legends-rainbow.htm |title=Native American Rainbow Mythology |website=Native Languages of the Americas}}&lt;/ref&gt; *[[Māori mythology]] tells a tale of Hina, the moon, who caused a rainbow to span the heavens even down to the earth, for her mortal husband to return to earth to end his days, since death may not enter her celestial home.&lt;ref name=Best1982&gt;{{cite web |last=Best |first=Elsdon |url=http://nzetc.victoria.ac.nz/tm/scholarly/tei-Bes02Reli-t1-body-d4-d5-d10.html |title=Maori Religion and Mythology Part 2: Rainbow Myths |publisher=Victoria University of Welligton |date=1982}}&lt;/ref&gt; *[[Shaman]]s among [[Siberia]]'s [[Buryats]] speak of ascending to the sky-spirit world by way of the rainbow. *In [[Philippine mythology]], there are various legends about the rainbow and its origins. The Bagobo credit Pamulak Manobo as the creator of the rainbow;&lt;ref&gt;Benedict, L. W. (1913). Bagobo Myths. ''Journal of American Folklore'', pp. 26 (99): 13–63&lt;/ref&gt; in Tagalog folklore, &quot;bahaghari&quot;, the local word for rainbow comes from the name of Bighari, [[Bathala]]'s tardy daughter who created the rainbow out of colorful flowers to ask him to forgive her for missing important family meetings;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|title=''Philippine (Tagalog ): Bighari''|url=https://religer.org/philippine-tagalog-bighari/|publisher=Religer.org}}&lt;/ref&gt; the Tausug have the Biraddali,&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|last=Gaverza|first=Karl|date=March 31, 2018|title=''Biraddali, Angels from Above – Philippine Myth &amp; Folklore''|url=https://www.aswangproject.com/biraddali-angels-from-above/|publisher=The Aswang Project}}&lt;/ref&gt; seven [[Angel|angelic]] sisters who use the rainbow as a bridge to earth, but cannot fly if someone steals their detachable wings.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|last=Gaverza|first=Karl|date=September 25, 2019|title=''Local Stories: The 7 Biraddali Sisters (in Filipino)''|url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=jl7ki3-86YI|publisher=[[YouTube]]}}&lt;/ref&gt; In a variant of the Biraddali and [[swan maiden]] myths, the rainbow is said to symbolize a family's love for each other. The story starts with a farmer's plans to sow getting delayed by unidentified parties tearing down his stone wall. The farmer spends the first and second days rebuilding his wall before returning home at sunset. The [[Rule of three (writing)|third time this happens]], the farmer decides to hide and identify the vandal(s). That night, three identical sister [[star]] maidens fly down from the heavens. Taking off their [[Wing|wings]], the sisters proceed to play on the farmer's wall, knocking it down. While the star maidens are having fun, the farmer secretly swipes the [[Youngest son|youngest one]]'s wings, hiding them beneath his hut. After playing, the star maidens decide to go home before the sun melts their wings; only two of them fly back to the heavens as the youngest cannot find her own wings. The farmer returns to his field and brings the lone star maiden home. The two fall in love, marry, have a son, and live a contented life on the farm. But while the farmer is out working one day, his wife rediscovers her wings. Feeling that her husband had tricked her into staying on Earth, the star maiden dons her wings and flies back to the heavens, bringing their son with her. A [[sky deity]] takes pity on the farmer, sending down a rope for him to climb up and visit his family. Upon arriving in the heavens, the farmer discovers his wife is the youngest of [[Multiple birth|identical octuplet sisters]], but he is able to identify her due to the [[Callus|calluses]] she had sustained from doing chores. The farmer climbs up the rope every day to visit his family. One day, he gets trapped in a storm, hanging on to the rope for dear life; his wife tries to rescue him but she ends up hanging on too. To save their sister and brother-in-law, the other star maidens sacrifice their wings, combining them with sunlight and moonlight to create the first rainbow. Having forgiven her husband, the youngest star maiden returns to earth with him and their son, leaving her wings in the heavens for her sisters to remember her by. The legend ends by saying that whenever a rainbow appears, the farmer and his wife's family would climb it to visit each other.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|date=June 1, 2018|title=''Legends: The Story of the First Rainbow (in Filipino)''|url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=aGb41bGXCNg|publisher=[[YouTube]]}}&lt;/ref&gt; ==Rainbows and archery== *The rainbow is depicted as an archer's bow in [[Hindu mythology]]. [[Indra]], the god of thunder and war, uses the rainbow to shoot arrows of lightning.&lt;ref name=natgeo/&gt; *In pre-[[Islamic]] [[Arabian mythology]], the rainbow is the bow of a weather god, [[Quzah|Quzaḥ]], whose name survives in the Arabic word for rainbow, {{lang|ar|قوس قزح}} ''qaws Quzaḥ'', &quot;the bow of Quzaḥ&quot;. *The [[Sumer]]ian farmer god [[Ninurta]] defended Sumer with a bow and arrow, and wore a crown described as a rainbow.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book |first1=J. |last1=Black |first2=A. |last2=Green |chapter=Rainbow |title=Gods, Demons and Symbols of Ancient Mesopotamia: An Illustrated Dictionary |edition=2nd |date=2004 |page=153}}&lt;/ref&gt; ==Rainbow taboos== *The [[Sumu (people)|Sumu]] of [[Honduras]] and [[Nicaragua]] refer to the rainbow as ''walasa aniwe'', &quot;the devil is vexed&quot;. These people hide their children in their huts to keep them from looking or pointing at the rainbow.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book |last=Conzemius |first=Eduard |url=http://archive.org/details/ethnographicalsu0000conz/page/126/mode/2up?view=theater |title=Ethnographical Survey of the Miskito and Sumu Indians of Honduras and Nicaragua |date=1932 |publisher=Smithsonian Institution Bureau of American Ethnology |page=127}}&lt;/ref&gt; Similar taboos against pointing at rainbows can be found throughout the world, in over a hundred cultural traditions.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal |last=Blust |first=Robert |date=2021 |title=Pointing, Rainbows, and the Archaeology of Mind |journal=Anthropos |volume=116 |issue=1 |pages=145–162 |doi=10.5771/0257-9774-2021-1-145 |s2cid=236605041 |issn=0257-9774}}&lt;/ref&gt; *In [[Amazon Basin|Amazonian]] cultures, rainbows have long been associated with malign spirits that cause harm, such as miscarriages and (especially) skin problems. In the [[Amuesha language]] of central [[Peru]], certain diseases are called ''ayona'achartan'', meaning &quot;the rainbow hurt my skin&quot;.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal |title=The rainbow hurts my skin: Medicinal concepts and plants uses among the Yanesha (Amuesha), an Amazonian Peruvian ethnic group |first1=Céline |last1=Valadeau |first2=Joaquina Alban |last2=Castillo |first3=Michel |last3=Sauvain |first4=Augusto Francis |last4=Lorese |first5=Geneviève |last5=Bourdy |journal=Journal of Ethnopharmacology |volume=127 |issue=1 |date=8 January 2010 |pages=175–192 |doi=10.1016/j.jep.2009.09.024|pmid=19835943 }}&lt;/ref&gt; A tradition of closing one's mouth at the sight of a rainbow in order to avoid disease appears to pre-date the Incan empire. *In the mythology of ancient [[Slavs]], a man touched by the rainbow is drawn to heaven, and becomes a &quot;[[Płanetnik|Planetnik]]&quot; – half-demonic creature – which is under the power of the thunder and lightning god [[Perun]]. *In [[Latvian mythology|Latvian legends]] it was believed that the rainbow drank from river or lake like a living creature and thus released rain from its body. It was forbidden to approach the water source if there was a rainbow, or they would risk being accidentally swallowed by the rainbow, and later fall down during rainfall as nothing but bones. &lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |url=http://valoda.ailab.lv/folklora/pasakas/gr13/13C0124.htm |title=Latvian folktales and legends (Latviešu pasakas un teikas) Vol. 13|last=Šmits |first=Pēteris |date=1936 |website=Latviešu valodas resursi|publisher=Valters un Rapa |access-date=Oct 25, 2023 |quote=An example of such legend (Latvian language only)}}&lt;/ref&gt; ==Other legends== *In the Hebrew [[Book of Genesis]], after the flood had almost wiped out the entire human race, Yahweh told [[Noah]] that he will set the rainbow as a token of his promise that he would never send another flood large enough to destroy all life.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |title=Genesis 9:11–17 |url=https://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=genesis+9%3A11%E2%80%9317&amp;version=NIV |publisher=Bible Gateway}}&lt;/ref&gt; It is said that no rainbows appeared during the lifetime of 2nd-century rabbi [[Simeon bar Yochai]], as his own righteousness was sufficient to guarantee God's mercy.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book |last=Schwartz |first=Howard |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=5psRDAAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PA79 |title=Tree of Souls: The Mythology of Judaism |date=2006 |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0-19-532713-7 |page=79}}&lt;/ref&gt; * In [[Ireland]], a common legend asserts that a pot of gold is to be found at the end of a rainbow, guarded by a [[leprechaun]]. * In a Chinese folktale, Hsienpo and Yingt'ai are star-crossed lovers who must wait until the rainbow appears to be alone together. Hsienpo is the red in the rainbow, and Yingt'ai is the blue.&lt;ref name=Lee31&gt;{{harvnb|Lee|Fraser|2001|page=31}}&lt;/ref&gt; * The [[Fang people|Fang]] of [[Gabon]] (Africa) are initiated into the religion by a &quot;transcendent experience when they arrive at the rainbow's center, for there they can see both the entire circle of the rainbow and of the earth, signaling the success of their vision&quot;.&lt;ref name=Lee31/&gt; The Fang also prohibit their children from looking at the rainbow. * For [[Buddhism|Buddhists]], the rainbow is &quot;the highest state achievable before attaining [[Nirvana (concept)|Nirvana]], where individual desire and consciousness are extinguished.&quot; Accordingly, there is mention of a [[rainbow body]].&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book |author-link=Reginald Ray|last=Ray|first=Reginald|title=Secret of the Vajra World: The Tantric Buddhism of Tibet|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=kQMLAAAAYAAJ|publisher=[[Shambhala Publications]]|year=2001|page=323|isbn=9781570627729}}&lt;/ref&gt; * According to [[Syncretism|syncretic]] [[Malays (ethnic group)|Malay]] [[Pawang|shamanism]] and [[Malay folklore|folklore]], the rainbow is said to have been formed from the sword of the earth serpent Sakatimuna who was defeated by the archangel [[Gabriel]].&lt;ref name=&quot;MalayMagic&quot;&gt;{{Cite book|title=Malay Magic|last=Skeat|first=Walter William|publisher=Macmillan and Co., Limited|year=1900|location=London|pages=1–15, 582|chapter=Chapter 1: Nature|chapter-url=https://www.gutenberg.org/files/47873/47873-h/47873-h.htm#s1.2|author-link=Walter William Skeat (anthropologist)}}&lt;/ref&gt; * Rainbows are widely seen in Native American stories and prophecies. The [[Cherokee]] believe the rainbow forms the hem of the Sun's coat.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book |last1=Bastian |first1=Dawn Elaine |last2=Mitchell |first2=Judy K. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=IsyQu1kDK-kC&amp;pg=PA156 |title=Handbook of Native American Mythology |publisher=ABC-CLIO |date=2004 |isbn=9781851095339}}&lt;/ref&gt; ==References== {{Reflist}} [[Category:Comparative mythology]] [[Category:Rainbows in culture|Mythology]]</div></summary> <author><name>Βατο</name></author> </entry> <entry> <id>https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Rainbow&diff=1256397760</id> <title>Rainbow</title> <link rel="alternate" type="text/html" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Rainbow&diff=1256397760"/> <updated>2024-11-09T19:26:23Z</updated> <summary type="html">Βατο: add <hr /> <div>{{Other uses}} {{pp-semi-indef|small=yes}} {{pp-move-indef}} {{short description|Meteorological phenomenon}} {{Use British English|date=April 2014}} [[File:Double-alaskan-rainbow.jpg|thumb|upright=1.35|Double rainbow and supernumerary rainbows on the inside of the primary arc. The shadow of the photographer's head at the bottom of the photograph marks the centre of the rainbow circle (the [[antisolar point]]).]] A '''rainbow''' is an [[optical phenomenon]] caused by [[refraction]], [[internal reflection]] and [[dispersion (optics)|dispersion]] of light in water droplets resulting in a continuous [[visible spectrum|spectrum]] of light appearing in the sky.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book |title=The Rainbow Sky: An Exploration of Colors in the Solar System and Beyond |page=200 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=TKja1yLMLyQC&amp;pg=PA200 |author=Tony Buick |publisher=Springer Science &amp; Business Media |year=2010 |isbn=9781441910530 |access-date=28 May 2023 |archive-date=22 June 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230622005547/https://books.google.com/books?id=TKja1yLMLyQC&amp;pg=PA200 |url-status=live }}&lt;/ref&gt; The rainbow takes the form of a multicoloured circular [[arc (geometry)|arc]].&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |title=Rainbow |author= |work=National Geographic |date= |access-date=20 May 2023 |url=https://education.nationalgeographic.org/resource/rainbow/ |archive-date=20 May 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230520151245/https://education.nationalgeographic.org/resource/rainbow/ |url-status=live }}&lt;/ref&gt; Rainbows caused by sunlight always appear in the section of sky directly opposite the Sun. Rainbows can be caused by many forms of airborne water. These include not only rain, but also mist, spray, and airborne [[dew]]. Rainbows can be full circles. However, the observer normally sees only an arc formed by illuminated droplets above the ground,&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|title=The 360-degree Rainbow|last1=Masters|first1=Jeff|date=14 April 2005|website=Weather Underground|url=https://www.wunderground.com/blog/JeffMasters/the-360degree-rainbow.html|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150129105423/http://www.wunderground.com/blog/JeffMasters/the-360degree-rainbow|archive-date=29 January 2015|publisher=The Weather Company}}&lt;/ref&gt; and centered on a line from the Sun to the observer's eye. In a primary rainbow, the arc shows red on the outer part and violet on the inner side. This rainbow is caused by light being [[refracted]] when entering a droplet of water, then reflected inside on the back of the droplet and refracted again when leaving it. In a double rainbow, a second arc is seen outside the primary arc, and has the order of its colours reversed, with red on the inner side of the arc. This is caused by the light being reflected twice on the inside of the droplet before leaving it. == Visibility == [[File:Ring-billed gull and a rainbow (52910).jpg|thumb|A colorful rainbow and [[ring-billed gull]]]] Rainbows can be observed whenever there are water drops in the air and [[sunlight]] shining from behind the observer at a low [[Horizontal coordinate system|altitude angle]]. Because of this, rainbows are usually seen in the western sky during the morning and in the eastern sky during the early evening. The most spectacular rainbow displays happen when half the sky is still dark with raining [[cloud]]s and the observer is at a spot with clear sky in the direction of the Sun. The result is a luminous rainbow that contrasts with the darkened background. During such good visibility conditions, the larger but fainter secondary rainbow is often visible. It appears about 10° outside of the primary rainbow, with inverse order of colours. The rainbow effect is also commonly seen near waterfalls or fountains. In addition, the effect can be artificially created by dispersing water droplets into the air during a sunny day. Rarely, a [[moonbow]], lunar rainbow or nighttime rainbow, can be seen on strongly moonlit nights. As human [[visual perception]] for colour is poor in low light, moonbows are often perceived to be white.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|last=Walklet |first=Keith S. |year=2006 |url=http://www.anseladams.com/content/newsletter/lunar_rainbow.html |title=Lunar Rainbows – When to View and How to Photograph a &quot;Moonbow&quot; |publisher=The Ansel Adams Gallery |access-date=7 June 2007 |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20070525033800/http://www.anseladams.com/content/newsletter/lunar_rainbow.html |archive-date = 25 May 2007}}&lt;/ref&gt; It is difficult to photograph the complete semicircle of a rainbow in one frame, as this would require an [[angle of view]] of 84°. For a [[135 film|35&amp;nbsp;mm]] camera, a [[wide-angle lens]] with a [[focal length]] of 19&amp;nbsp;mm or less would be required. Now that software for [[Image stitching|stitching]] several images into a [[panorama]] is available, images of the entire arc and even secondary arcs can be created fairly easily from a series of overlapping frames. From above the Earth such as in an aeroplane, it is sometimes possible to [[#Full-circle_rainbow|see a rainbow as a full circle]]. This phenomenon can be confused with the [[glory (optical phenomenon)|glory]] phenomenon, but a glory is usually much smaller, covering only 5–20°. The sky inside a primary rainbow is brighter than the sky outside of the bow. This is because each raindrop is a sphere and it scatters light over an entire circular disc in the sky. The radius of the disc depends on the wavelength of light, with red light being scattered over a larger angle than blue light. Over most of the disc, scattered light at all wavelengths overlaps, resulting in white light which brightens the sky. At the edge, the wavelength dependence of the scattering gives rise to the rainbow.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|url=http://www.weatherquesting.com/Rainbows.htm |title=Why is the inside of a rainbow brighter than the outside sky? |publisher=WeatherQuesting |access-date=19 August 2013 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130528044635/http://www.weatherquesting.com/Rainbows.htm |archive-date=28 May 2013 }}&lt;/ref&gt; The light of a primary rainbow arc is 96% [[Polarization (physics)|polarised]] tangential to the arc.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |url=http://www.polarization.com/rainbow/rainbow.html |title=Rainbow – A polarized arch? |publisher=Polarization.com |access-date=19 August 2013 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130909003630/http://www.polarization.com/rainbow/rainbow.html |archive-date=9 September 2013 }}&lt;/ref&gt; The light of the second arc is 90% polarised. == {{Anchor|The seven colours of the rainbow}}Number of colours in a spectrum or a rainbow == {{also|Spectral color}} For colours seen by the human eye, the most commonly cited and remembered sequence is [[Isaac Newton]]'s sevenfold red, orange, yellow, green, blue, indigo and violet,&lt;ref name=&quot;Newton1740&quot; /&gt;{{efn|&quot;Newton named seven colors in the spectrum: red, orange, yellow, green, blue, indigo, and violet. More commonly today we only speak of six major divisions, leaving out indigo. A careful reading of Newton’s work indicates that the color he called indigo, we would normally call blue; his blue is then what we would name blue-green or cyan.&quot;&lt;ref name=Waldman2002&gt;{{cite book|last1=Waldman|first1=Gary|title=Introduction to Light: The Physics of Light, Vision, and Color|date=1983|page=193|edition=2002 revised|publisher=[[Dover Publications]]|location=Mineola, New York|isbn=978-0486421186|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=PbsoAXWbnr4C&amp;dq=%22the+color+he+called+indigo%22&amp;pg=RA1-PA193}}&lt;/ref&gt;}} remembered by the [[mnemonic]] ''Richard Of York Gave Battle In Vain,'' or as the name of a fictional person ([[ROYGBIV|Roy G. Biv]]). The initialism is sometimes referred to in reverse order, as VIBGYOR. More modernly, the rainbow is often divided into red, orange, yellow, green, cyan, blue and violet.&lt;ref name=&quot;Britannica&quot; /&gt; The apparent discreteness of main colours is an artefact of human perception and the exact number of main colours is a somewhat arbitrary choice. Newton, who admitted his eyes were not very critical in distinguishing colours,&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=EU74cB7kMMsC&amp;pg=PA140|title=Color and Meaning|last=Gage |first=John |year=1994|publisher=University of California Press|isbn=978-0-520-22611-1|page=140}}&lt;/ref&gt; originally (1672) divided the spectrum into five main colours: [[red]], [[yellow]], [[green]], [[blue]] and [[Violet (color)|violet]]. Later he included [[Orange (colour)|orange]] and [[indigo]], giving seven main colours by analogy to the number of notes in a musical scale.&lt;ref name=&quot;Newton1740&quot;&gt;Isaac Newton, ''Optice: Sive de Reflexionibus, Refractionibus, Inflexionibus &amp; Coloribus Lucis Libri Tres,'' Propositio II, Experimentum VII, edition 1740&lt;/ref&gt;{{efn|&quot;Ex quo clarissime apparet, lumina variorum colorum varia esset refrangibilitate : idque eo ordine, ut color ruber omnium minime refrangibilis sit, reliqui autem colores, aureus, flavus, viridis, cæruleus, indicus, violaceus, gradatim &amp; ex ordine magis magisque refrangibiles.&quot;&lt;ref name=&quot;Newton1740&quot; /&gt;}}&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|url=http://www1.umn.edu/ships/updates/newton1.htm |title=Newton's Colors |last=Allchin |first=Douglas |website=SHiPS Resource Center |access-date=16 October 2010 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140929225102/http://www1.umn.edu/ships/updates/newton1.htm |archive-date=29 September 2014 }}&lt;/ref&gt; Newton chose to divide the visible spectrum into seven colours out of a belief derived from the beliefs of the [[Ancient Greece|ancient Greek]] [[sophist]]s, who thought there was a connection between the colours, the musical notes, the known objects in the [[Solar System]], and the days of the week.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |last=Hutchison |first=Niels |year=2004 |title=Music For Measure: On the 300th Anniversary of Newton's ''Opticks'' |url=http://www.colourmusic.x10host.com/opticks3.htm |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170118041157/http://www.colourmusic.info/opticks3.htm |archive-date=18 January 2017 |access-date=20 October 2023 |website=Colour Music}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book |last=Newton |first=Isaac |author-link=Isaac Newton |title=Opticks |year=1704 |title-link=Opticks }}&lt;/ref&gt; Scholars have noted that what Newton regarded at the time as &quot;blue&quot; would today be regarded as [[cyan]], and what Newton called &quot;indigo&quot; would today be considered [[blue]].&lt;ref name=&quot;Waldman2002&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;Britannica&quot;&gt;{{cite web|title=Understand the science of appearance of different colors of the rainbow|url=https://www.britannica.com/video/185543/colours-rainbow|website=[[Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc.|Encyclopædia Britannica]]|date=2014|access-date=16 August 2020|archive-date=10 August 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200810092113/https://www.britannica.com/video/185543/colours-rainbow|url-status=live}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;sciencealert&quot;&gt;{{cite web|title=WATCH: This Is Not a Rainbow|url=https://www.sciencealert.com/watch-this-is-not-a-rainbow|website=ScienceAlert|date=29 October 2014|access-date=16 August 2020|archive-date=10 June 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210610230002/https://www.sciencealert.com/watch-this-is-not-a-rainbow|url-status=live}}&lt;/ref&gt; {| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; |- | Newton's first colours | style=&quot;background:red; color: white&quot; | Red | | style=&quot;background:yellow;&quot; | Yellow | style=&quot;background:green; color: white&quot; | Green | style=&quot;background:#0099ff; color: white&quot; | Blue | | style=&quot;background:#9900FF; color: white&quot; | Violet |- | Newton's later colours | style=&quot;background:red; color: white&quot; | Red | style=&quot;background:orange;&quot; | Orange | style=&quot;background:yellow;&quot; | Yellow | style=&quot;background:green; color: white&quot; | Green | style=&quot;background:#0099ff; color: white&quot; | Blue | style=&quot;background:#4400FF; color: white&quot; | Indigo | style=&quot;background:#9900FF; color: white&quot; | Violet |- | Modern reinterpretation | style=&quot;background:#ff0000; color: white&quot; | Red | style=&quot;background:#ff8000;&quot; | Orange | style=&quot;background:#ffff00;&quot; | Yellow | style=&quot;background:#00ff00; color: black&quot; | Green | style=&quot;background:#00ffff;&quot; | Cyan | style=&quot;background:#0000ff; color: white&quot; | Blue | style=&quot;background:#8000FF; color: white&quot; | Violet |} The colour pattern of a rainbow is different from a spectrum, and the colours are less saturated. There is spectral smearing in a rainbow since, for any particular wavelength, there is a distribution of exit angles, rather than a single unvarying angle.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|url=http://www.atoptics.co.uk/rainbows/primcol.htm|title=Primary rainbow colours |last=Cowley|first=Les|website=[[Atmospheric Optics]]|access-date=27 August 2012}}&lt;/ref&gt; In addition, a rainbow is a blurred version of the bow obtained from a point source, because the disk diameter of the sun (0.533°) cannot be neglected compared to the width of a rainbow (2.36°). Further red of the first supplementary rainbow overlaps the violet of the primary rainbow, so rather than the final colour being a variant of spectral violet, it is actually a purple. The number of colour bands of a rainbow may therefore be different from the number of bands in a spectrum, especially if the droplets are particularly large or small. Therefore, the number of colours of a rainbow is variable. If, however, the word ''rainbow'' is used inaccurately to mean ''spectrum'', it is the number of main colours in the spectrum. Moreover, rainbows have bands beyond red and violet in the respective near [[infrared]] and [[ultraviolet]] regions, however, these bands are not visible to humans. Only near frequencies of these regions to the visible spectrum are included in rainbows, since water and air become increasingly [[opaque]] to these frequencies, scattering the light. The UV band is sometimes visible to cameras using black and white film.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |title=UCSB Science Line |url=http://scienceline.ucsb.edu/getkey.php?key=704#:~:text=Rainbows%20do%20have%20UV%20and%20IR%20bands.&amp;text=People%20can't%20see%20these,other%20effects%20in%20a%20rainbow. |website=scienceline.ucsb.edu |access-date=1 June 2023 |archive-date=1 June 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230601120801/http://scienceline.ucsb.edu/getkey.php?key=704#:~:text=Rainbows%20do%20have%20UV%20and%20IR%20bands.&amp;text=People%20can't%20see%20these,other%20effects%20in%20a%20rainbow. |url-status=live }}&lt;/ref&gt; The [[Linguistic relativity and the color naming debate|question]] of whether everyone sees seven colours in a rainbow is related to the idea of [[linguistic relativity]]. Suggestions have been made that there is universality in the way that a rainbow is perceived.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|title =Universals in color naming and memory |last = Rosch Heider | first=Eleanor | author-link=Eleanor Rosch |year=1972|volume=93|issue=1|journal = Journal of Experimental Psychology|doi = 10.1037/h0032606|pmid = 5013326|pages=10–20 |issn = 0022-1015}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite book|title = The ancestor's tale: a pilgrimage to the dawn of evolution|last = Dawkins|first = Richard|year = 2005}}&lt;/ref&gt; However, more recent research suggests that the number of distinct colours observed and what these are called depend on the language that one uses, with people whose language has fewer colour words seeing fewer discrete colour bands.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|title = Color categories are not universal: Replications and new evidence from a stone-age culture|journal = Journal of Experimental Psychology: General|pages = 369–398|volume = 129|issue = 3|doi = 10.1037/0096-3445.129.3.369|first1 = Debi|last1 = Roberson|first2 = Ian|last2 = Davies|first3 = Jules|last3 = Davidoff|pmid = 11006906|date = September 2000|url = http://repository.essex.ac.uk/12996/1/PDF.js%20viewer1.pdf|access-date = 11 July 2019|archive-date = 9 May 2020|archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20200509002707/http://repository.essex.ac.uk/12996/1/PDF.js%20viewer1.pdf|url-status = live}}&lt;/ref&gt; == Explanation == {{multiple image &lt;!-- Essential parameters --&gt;| align = right | direction = vertical | width = 220 &lt;!-- Image 1 --&gt;| image1 = Rainbow single reflection.svg | alt1 = | caption1 = Light rays enter a raindrop from one direction (typically a straight line from the Sun), reflect off the back of the raindrop, and fan out as they leave the raindrop. The light leaving the rainbow is spread over a wide angle, with a maximum intensity at the angles 40.89–42°. (Note: Between 2 and 100% of the light is reflected at each of the three surfaces encountered, depending on the angle of incidence. This diagram only shows the paths relevant to the rainbow.) &lt;!-- Image 2 --&gt;| image2 = Rainbow1.svg | alt2 = | caption2 = White light separates into different colours on entering the raindrop due to dispersion, causing red light to be refracted less than blue light. }} When sunlight encounters a raindrop, part of the light is reflected and the rest enters the raindrop. The light is [[refraction|refracted]] at the surface of the raindrop. When this light hits the back of the raindrop, some of it is reflected off the back. When the internally reflected light reaches the surface again, once more some is internally reflected and some is refracted as it exits the drop. (The light that reflects off the drop, exits from the back, or continues to bounce around inside the drop after the second encounter with the surface, is not relevant to the formation of the primary rainbow.) The overall effect is that part of the incoming light is reflected back over the range of 0° to 42°, with the most intense light at 42°.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |url=http://eo.ucar.edu/rainbows/ |title=About Rainbows |publisher=Eo.ucar.edu |access-date=19 August 2013 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130818203028/http://eo.ucar.edu/rainbows/ |archive-date=18 August 2013 }}&lt;/ref&gt; This angle is independent of the size of the drop, but does depend on its [[refractive index]]. Seawater has a higher refractive index than rain water, so the radius of a &quot;rainbow&quot; in sea spray is smaller than that of a true rainbow. This is visible to the naked eye by a misalignment of these bows.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|author=Cowley, Les |url=http://www.atoptics.co.uk/rainbows/seabow.htm |title=Sea Water Rainbow |website=Atmospheric Optics |access-date=7 June 2007}}&lt;/ref&gt; The reason the returning light is most intense at about 42° is that this is a turning point – light hitting the outermost ring of the drop gets returned at less than 42°, as does the light hitting the drop nearer to its centre. There is a circular band of light that all gets returned right around 42°. If the Sun were a laser emitting parallel, monochromatic rays, then the [[luminance]] (brightness) of the bow would tend toward infinity at this angle if interference effects are ignored {{xref|(see [[Caustic (optics)]])}}. But since the Sun's luminance is finite and its rays are not all parallel (it covers about half a degree of the sky) the luminance does not go to infinity. Furthermore, the amount by which light is refracted depends upon its [[wavelength]], and hence its colour. This effect is called [[Dispersion (optics)|dispersion]]. Blue light (shorter wavelength) is refracted at a greater angle than red light, but due to the reflection of light rays from the back of the droplet, the blue light emerges from the droplet at a smaller angle to the original incident white light ray than the red light. Due to this angle, blue is seen on the inside of the arc of the primary rainbow, and red on the outside. The result of this is not only to give different colours to different parts of the rainbow, but also to diminish the brightness. (A &quot;rainbow&quot; formed by droplets of a liquid with no dispersion would be white, but brighter than a normal rainbow.) The light at the back of the raindrop does not undergo [[total internal reflection]], and most of the light emerges from the back. However, light coming out the back of the raindrop does not create a rainbow between the observer and the Sun because spectra emitted from the back of the raindrop do not have a maximum of intensity, as the other visible rainbows do, and thus the colours blend together rather than forming a rainbow.&lt;ref name=&quot;Zero order glow&quot;&gt;{{cite web |author=Cowley, Les |url=http://www.atoptics.co.uk/rainbows/ord0.htm |title=Zero order glow |website=Atmospheric Optics |access-date=8 August 2011 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://archive.today/20130113232653/http://www.atoptics.co.uk/rainbows/ord0.htm |archive-date=13 January 2013 }}&lt;/ref&gt; A rainbow does not exist at one particular location. Many rainbows exist; however, only one can be seen depending on the particular observer's viewpoint as droplets of light illuminated by the sun. All raindrops refract and reflect the sunlight in the same way, but only the light from some raindrops reaches the observer's eye. This light is what constitutes the rainbow for that observer. The whole system composed by the Sun's rays, the observer's head, and the (spherical) water drops has an [[axial symmetry]] around the axis through the observer's head and parallel to the Sun's rays. The rainbow is curved because the set of all the raindrops that have the right angle between the observer, the drop, and the Sun, lie on a [[cone]] pointing at the sun with the observer at the tip. The base of the cone forms a circle at an angle of 40–42° to the line between the observer's head and their shadow but 50% or more of the circle is below the horizon, unless the observer is sufficiently far above the earth's surface to see it all, for example in an aeroplane (see below).&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|url=https://van.physics.illinois.edu/qa/listing.php?id=2195|title=Why are rainbows curved as semicircles?|last=Anon|date=7 November 2014|website=Ask the van|publisher=The Board of Trustees at the University of Illinois|access-date=13 April 2015|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151002100400/https://van.physics.illinois.edu/qa/listing.php?id=2195|archive-date=2 October 2015}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|url=http://earthsky.org/earth/can-you-ever-see-the-whole-circle-of-a-rainbow|title=How to see a whole circle rainbow – EarthSky.org|website=earthsky.org|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131004232848/http://earthsky.org/earth/can-you-ever-see-the-whole-circle-of-a-rainbow|archive-date=4 October 2013}}&lt;/ref&gt; Alternatively, an observer with the right vantage point may see the full circle in a fountain or waterfall spray.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|url=http://usatoday30.usatoday.com/news/science/wonderquest/2002-03-06-rainbow.htm|title=USATODAY.com – Look down on the rainbow|website=usatoday30.usatoday.com|access-date=30 October 2013|archive-date=12 October 2013|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131012040155/http://usatoday30.usatoday.com/news/science/wonderquest/2002-03-06-rainbow.htm|url-status=live}}&lt;/ref&gt; Conversely, at lower latitudes near midday (specifically, when the sun's elevation exceeds 42 degrees) a rainbow will not be visible against the sky.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |title=Science of rainbows explains much, steals the magic not at all |url=https://www.the-triton.com/2016/12/science-of-rainbows-explains-much-steals-the-magic-not-at-all/ |website=Triton |access-date=28 October 2024}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |title=Rainbows |url=https://www.metoffice.gov.uk/weather/learn-about/weather/optical-effects/rainbows |website=Met Office |access-date=28 October 2024 |language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |title=Does latitude affect the frequency of &quot;double rainbows&quot;? {{!}} Naked Science Forum see Reply #2 on: 07/05/2008 |url=https://www.thenakedscientists.com/forum/index.php?topic=14118.0 |website=www.thenakedscientists.com |access-date=28 October 2024}}&lt;/ref&gt;{{better|reason=Geometry dictates this, but there is only partial mention of it in reliable literature searched to date (two incomplete/ partly wrong refs found!-https://pressbooks-dev.oer.hawaii.edu/atmo/chapter/chapter-22-atmospheric-optics/ &amp; https://atoptics.co.uk/blog/low-and-high-rainbows/ )|date=October 2024}} === Mathematical derivation === [[File:Raindrop optics.jpg|right|thumb|Mathematical derivation]] It is possible to determine the perceived angle which the rainbow subtends as follows.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|url=https://www.physics.harvard.edu/files/sol81.pdf|title=Solution, Week 81, Rainbows|last=Anon|date=29 March 2004|publisher=Harvard University Department of Physics|access-date=13 June 2016|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161008031439/https://www.physics.harvard.edu/uploads/files/undergrad/probweek/sol81.pdf|archive-date=8 October 2016}}&lt;/ref&gt; Given a spherical raindrop, and defining the perceived angle of the rainbow as {{math|2''φ''}}, and the angle of the internal reflection as {{math|2''β''}}, then the angle of incidence of the Sun's rays with respect to the drop's surface normal is {{math|2''β'' − ''φ''}}. Since the angle of refraction is {{math|''β''}}, [[Snell's law]] gives us :{{math|sin(2''β '' − ''φ'') {{=}} ''n'' sin ''β''}}, where {{math|''n'' {{=}} 1.333}} is the refractive index of water. Solving for {{math|''φ''}}, we get :{{math|''φ'' {{=}} 2''β'' − arcsin(''n'' sin ''β'')}}. The rainbow will occur where the angle {{math|''φ''}} is maximum with respect to the angle {{math|''β''}}. Therefore, from [[calculus]], we can set {{math|''dφ''/''dβ'' {{=}} 0}}, and solve for {{math|''β''}}, which yields :&lt;math&gt;\beta_\text{max} = \arccos\left(\frac{2 \sqrt{-1 + n^2}}{\sqrt{3} n}\right) \approx 40.2^\circ.&lt;/math&gt; Substituting back into the earlier equation for {{math|''φ''}} yields {{math|2''φ''&lt;sub&gt;max&lt;/sub&gt;}} ≈ 42° as the radius angle of the rainbow. For red light (wavelength 750nm, {{math|''n'' {{=}} 1.330}} based on [[Optical properties of water and ice|the dispersion relation of water]]), the radius angle is 42.5°; for blue light (wavelength 350nm, {{math|''n'' {{=}} 1.343}}), the radius angle is 40.6°. == Variations == === Double rainbows === {{Redirect|Double rainbow|other uses|Double Rainbow (disambiguation){{!}}Double Rainbow}} [[File:Regenbogen über dem Lipno-Stausee.JPG|thumb|Double rainbow with [[Alexander's band]] visible between the primary and secondary bows. Also note the pronounced [[#Supernumerary rainbows|supernumerary bows]] inside the primary bow.]]{{anchor|Secondary}}A secondary rainbow, at a greater angle than the primary rainbow, is often visible. The term '''double rainbow''' is used when both the primary and secondary rainbows are visible. In theory, all rainbows are double rainbows, but since the secondary bow is always fainter than the primary, it may be too weak to spot in practice. Secondary rainbows are caused by a double reflection of sunlight inside the water droplets. Technically the secondary bow is centred on the sun itself, but since its angular size is more than 90° (about 127° for violet to 130° for red), it is seen on the same side of the sky as the primary rainbow, about 10° outside it at an apparent angle of 50–53°. As a result of the &quot;inside&quot; of the secondary bow being &quot;up&quot; to the observer, the colours appear reversed compared to those of the primary bow. The secondary rainbow is fainter than the primary because more light escapes from two reflections compared to one and because the rainbow itself is spread over a greater area of the sky. Each rainbow reflects white light inside its coloured bands, but that is &quot;down&quot; for the primary and &quot;up&quot; for the secondary.&lt;ref name=&quot;atopticsSecondary&quot;&gt;{{cite web|url=http://www.atoptics.co.uk/rainbows/ord2form.htm|title=Secondary rainbow|website=www.atoptics.co.uk|date=16 September 2023 }}&lt;/ref&gt; The dark area of unlit sky lying between the primary and secondary bows is called [[Alexander's band]], after [[Alexander of Aphrodisias]], who first described it.&lt;ref&gt;See: *Alexander of Aphrodisias, ''Commentary on Book IV of Aristotle's'' Meteorology (also known as: ''Commentary on Book IV of Aristotle's'' De Meteorologica or ''On Aristotle's'' Meteorology 4), commentary 41. *Raymond L. Lee and Alistair B. Fraser, ''The Rainbow Bridge: Rainbows in Art, Myth, and Science'' (University Park, Pennsylvania: Pennsylvania State University Press, 2001), [https://books.google.com/books?id=kZcCtT1ZeaEC&amp;pg=PA110 pp. 110–111].&lt;/ref&gt; === Twinned rainbow === [[File:Alexander’s band will 1.jpg|thumb|The primary rainbow is &quot;twinned.&quot;]] Unlike a double rainbow that consists of two separate and concentric rainbow arcs, the very rare twinned rainbow appears as two rainbow arcs that split from a single base.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|url=http://www.atoptics.co.uk/rainbows/twin1.htm |title=Atmospheric Optics: Twinned rainbows |publisher=Atoptics.co.uk |date=3 June 2002 |access-date=19 August 2013}}&lt;/ref&gt; The colours in the second bow, rather than reversing as in a secondary rainbow, appear in the same order as the primary rainbow. A &quot;normal&quot; secondary rainbow may be present as well. Twinned rainbows can look similar to, but should not be confused with [[#Supernumerary rainbows|supernumerary bands]]. The two phenomena may be told apart by their difference in colour profile: supernumerary bands consist of subdued pastel hues (mainly pink, purple and green), while the twinned rainbow shows the same spectrum as a regular rainbow. The cause of a twinned rainbow is believed to be the combination of different sizes of water drops falling from the sky. Due to air resistance, raindrops flatten as they fall, and flattening is more prominent in larger water drops. When two rain showers with different-sized raindrops combine, they each produce slightly different rainbows which may combine and form a twinned rainbow.&lt;ref&gt;See: * {{cite journal |last1=Haußmann |first1=Alexander |title=Observation, analysis, and reconstruction of a twinned rainbow |journal=Applied Optics |date=February 2015 |volume=54 |issue=4 |doi=10.1364/AO.54.00B117 |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/273524022|pages=B117–B127|pmid=25967817 |bibcode=2015ApOpt..54B.117H }} * [https://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2012/08/120806151415.htm &quot;Researchers unlock secret of the rare 'twinned rainbow,' &quot; ''ScienceDaily.com,'' August 6, 2012.] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120809012419/https://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2012/08/120806151415.htm |date=9 August 2012 }}&lt;/ref&gt; A numerical ray tracing study showed that a twinned rainbow on a photo could be explained by a mixture of 0.40 and 0.45&amp;nbsp;mm droplets. That small difference in droplet size resulted in a small difference in flattening of the droplet shape, and a large difference in flattening of the rainbow top.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|url=http://graphics.ucsd.edu/~henrik/papers/physically_based_simulation_of_rainbows.pdf|doi=10.1145/2077341.2077344|title=Physically-based simulation of rainbows|journal=ACM Transactions on Graphics|volume=31|pages=1–12|year=2012|last1=Sadeghi|first1=Iman|last2=Munoz|first2=Adolfo|last3=Laven|first3=Philip|last4=Jarosz|first4=Wojciech|last5=Seron|first5=Francisco|last6=Gutierrez|first6=Diego|last7=Jensen|first7=Henrik Wann|citeseerx=10.1.1.296.3051|s2cid=6774839|access-date=9 May 2019|archive-date=12 March 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200312144121/http://graphics.ucsd.edu/~henrik/papers/physically_based_simulation_of_rainbows.pdf|url-status=live}}&lt;/ref&gt; Meanwhile, the even rarer case of a rainbow split into three branches was observed and photographed in nature.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |url=https://atoptics.wordpress.com/2015/03/11/triple-split-rainbow-observed-and-photographed-in-japan-august-2012/ |title=Triple-split rainbow observed and photographed in Japan, August 2012 |publisher=blog.meteoros.de |date=12 March 2015 |access-date=12 March 2015 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150402141556/https://atoptics.wordpress.com/2015/03/11/triple-split-rainbow-observed-and-photographed-in-japan-august-2012/ |archive-date=2 April 2015 }}&lt;/ref&gt; === Full-circle rainbow === [[File:Circular rainbow.jpg|thumb|upright|Circular rainbow]]In theory, every rainbow is a circle, but from the ground, usually only its upper half can be seen. Since the rainbow's centre is diametrically opposed to the Sun's position in the sky, more of the circle comes into view as the sun approaches the horizon, meaning that the largest section of the circle normally seen is about 50% during sunset or sunrise. Viewing the rainbow's lower half requires the presence of water droplets ''below'' the observer's horizon, as well as sunlight that is able to reach them. These requirements are not usually met when the viewer is at ground level, either because droplets are absent in the required position, or because the sunlight is obstructed by the landscape behind the observer. From a high viewpoint such as a high building or an aircraft, however, the requirements can be met and the full-circle rainbow can be seen.&lt;ref name=&quot;EarthSky&quot;&gt;{{cite web |url=http://earthsky.org/earth/can-you-ever-see-the-whole-circle-of-a-rainbow |title=Can you ever see the whole circle of a rainbow? &amp;#124; Earth |publisher=EarthSky |date=15 December 2012 |access-date=4 October 2013 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131004232848/http://earthsky.org/earth/can-you-ever-see-the-whole-circle-of-a-rainbow |archive-date=4 October 2013 }}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;Philip Laven&quot;&gt;{{cite web |author=Philip Laven |url=http://www.philiplaven.com/p5a.html |title=Circular rainbows |publisher=Philiplaven.com |date=4 August 2012 |access-date=4 October 2013 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131005003907/http://www.philiplaven.com/p5a.html |archive-date=5 October 2013 }}&lt;/ref&gt; Like a partial rainbow, the circular rainbow can have a [[#Double rainbows|secondary bow]] or [[#Supernumerary rainbows|supernumerary bows]] as well.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|url=http://apod.nasa.gov/apod/ap140930.html|title=APOD: 2014 September 30 – A Full Circle Rainbow over Australia|website=apod.nasa.gov|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150125081748/http://apod.nasa.gov/apod/ap140930.html|archive-date=25 January 2015}}&lt;/ref&gt; It is possible to produce the full circle when standing on the ground, for example by spraying a water mist from a garden hose while facing away from the sun.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|url=http://www.atoptics.co.uk/fz795.htm|title=OPOD – 360° Rainbow|website=www.atoptics.co.uk|date=16 September 2023 }}&lt;/ref&gt; A circular rainbow should not be confused with the [[glory (optical phenomenon)|glory]], which is much smaller in diameter and is created by different optical processes. In the right circumstances, a glory and a (circular) rainbow or [[fog bow]] can occur together. Another atmospheric phenomenon that may be mistaken for a &quot;circular rainbow&quot; is the [[22° halo]], which is caused by [[ice crystals]] rather than liquid water droplets, and is located around the Sun (or Moon), not opposite it. === Supernumerary rainbows {{anchor|Supernumerary}} === &lt;!-- Section title used in redirects --&gt; [[File:Supernumerary-rainbows-jb.jpg|thumb|[[High-dynamic-range imaging|High dynamic range]] photograph of a rainbow with additional supernumerary bands inside the primary bow]] In certain circumstances, one or several narrow, faintly coloured bands can be seen bordering the violet edge of a rainbow; i.e., inside the primary bow or, much more rarely, outside the secondary. These extra bands are called ''supernumerary rainbows'' or ''supernumerary bands''; together with the rainbow itself the phenomenon is also known as a ''stacker rainbow''. The supernumerary bows are slightly detached from the main bow, become successively fainter along with their distance from it, and have pastel colours (consisting mainly of pink, purple and green hues) rather than the usual spectrum pattern.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|url=http://www.atoptics.co.uk/rainbows/supers.htm|title=Supernumerary Rainbows|website=www.atoptics.co.uk|date=16 September 2023 }}&lt;/ref&gt; The effect becomes apparent when water droplets are involved that have a diameter of about 1&amp;nbsp;mm or less; the smaller the droplets are, the broader the supernumerary bands become, and the less saturated their colours.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|url=http://www.atoptics.co.uk/rainbows/supdrsz.htm|title=Supernumerary Rainbows and drop size|website=www.atoptics.co.uk|date=16 September 2023 }}&lt;/ref&gt; Due to their origin in small droplets, supernumerary bands tend to be particularly prominent in [[#Fogbow|fogbows]].&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|url=http://www.atoptics.co.uk/droplets/fogdrpsz.htm|title=Fogbow droplet size effect|website=www.atoptics.co.uk|date=16 September 2023 }}&lt;/ref&gt; Supernumerary rainbows cannot be explained using classical geometric [[optics]]. The alternating faint bands are caused by [[interference (wave propagation)|interference]] between rays of light following slightly different paths with slightly varying lengths within the raindrops. Some rays are in [[phase (waves)|phase]], reinforcing each other through [[constructive interference]], creating a bright band; others are out of phase by up to half a wavelength, cancelling each other out through [[destructive interference]], and creating a gap. Given the different angles of refraction for rays of different colours, the patterns of interference are slightly different for rays of different colours, so each bright band is differentiated in colour, creating a miniature rainbow. Supernumerary rainbows are clearest when raindrops are small and of uniform size. The very existence of supernumerary rainbows was historically a first indication of the [[wave]] nature of light, and the first explanation was provided by [[Thomas Young (scientist)|Thomas Young]] in 1804.&lt;ref&gt;See: * Thomas Young (1804) [https://books.google.com/books?id=7AZGAAAAMAAJ&amp;pg=PA1 &quot;Bakerian Lecture: Experiments and calculations relative to physical optics,&quot;] ''Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London'' '''94''': 1–16; see especially pp. 8–11. * [http://www.atoptics.co.uk/rainbows/supers.htm Atmospheric Optics: Supernumerary Rainbows]&lt;/ref&gt; === Reflected rainbow, reflection rainbow === {{anchor|Reflected rainbow}} [[File:ReflectionRainbow.jpg|thumb|upright|Reflection rainbow (top) and normal rainbow (bottom) at sunset]] When a rainbow appears above a body of water, two complementary mirror bows may be seen below and above the horizon, originating from different light paths. Their names are slightly different. A '''reflected rainbow''' may appear in the water surface below the horizon.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|url=http://www.atoptics.co.uk/rainbows/bowim6.htm|title=Bows everywhere! |last=Les Cowley (Atmospheric Optics)|access-date=13 April 2015}}&lt;/ref&gt; The sunlight is first deflected by the raindrops, and then reflected off the body of water, before reaching the observer. The reflected rainbow is frequently visible, at least partially, even in small puddles. {{anchor|Reflection rainbow}}A '''reflection rainbow''' may be produced where sunlight reflects off a body of water before reaching the raindrops, if the water body is large, quiet over its entire surface, and close to the rain curtain. The reflection rainbow appears above the horizon. It intersects the normal rainbow at the horizon, and its arc reaches higher in the sky, with its centre as high above the horizon as the normal rainbow's centre is below it. Reflection bows are usually brightest when the sun is low because at that time its light is most strongly reflected from water surfaces. As the sun gets lower the normal and reflection bows are drawn closer together. Due to the combination of requirements, a reflection rainbow is rarely visible. Up to eight separate bows may be distinguished if the reflected and reflection rainbows happen to occur simultaneously: the normal (non-reflection) primary and secondary bows above the horizon (1, 2) with their reflected counterparts below it (3, 4), and the reflection primary and secondary bows above the horizon (5, 6) with their reflected counterparts below it (7, 8).&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite APOD|date= 12 September 2007 |title=Six Rainbows Across Norway |access-date=7 June 2007}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |url=http://www.atoptics.co.uk/rainbows/reflform.htm |title=Atmospheric Optics: Reflection rainbows formation |publisher=Atoptics.co.uk |access-date=19 August 2013 |archive-date=23 September 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150923180213/http://www.atoptics.co.uk/rainbows/reflform.htm |url-status=live }}&lt;/ref&gt; === Monochrome rainbow === {{Main|Monochrome rainbow}} [[File:Monochrome rainbow.jpg|thumb|Unenhanced photo of a red (monochrome) rainbow]] Occasionally a shower may happen at sunrise or sunset, where the shorter wavelengths like blue and green have been scattered and essentially removed from the spectrum. Further scattering may occur due to the rain, and the result can be the rare and dramatic '''monochrome''' or '''red rainbow.'''&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|url=http://atoptics.co.uk/fz1100.htm|title=Dawn Red Rainbows Arizona – OPOD|website=atoptics.co.uk|access-date=4 February 2015|archive-date=4 February 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150204163924/http://atoptics.co.uk/fz1100.htm|url-status=live}}&lt;/ref&gt; === Higher-order rainbows === In addition to the common primary and secondary rainbows, it is also possible for rainbows of higher orders to form. The order of a rainbow is determined by the number of light reflections inside the water droplets that create it: One reflection results in the '''first-order''' or ''primary'' rainbow; two reflections create the '''second-order''' or ''secondary'' rainbow. More internal reflections cause bows of higher orders—theoretically unto infinity.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|url=http://www.atoptics.co.uk/rainbows/orders.htm|title=Untitled Document|website=www.atoptics.co.uk|date=16 September 2023 }}&lt;/ref&gt; As more and more light is lost with each internal reflection, however, each subsequent bow becomes progressively dimmer and therefore increasingly difficult to spot. An additional challenge in observing the '''third-order''' (or ''tertiary'') and '''fourth-order''' (''quaternary'') rainbows is their location in the direction of the sun (about 40° and 45° from the sun, respectively), causing them to become drowned in its glare.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|url=http://www.atoptics.co.uk/rainbows/ord34.htm|title=3rd &amp; 4th order rainbows|website=www.atoptics.co.uk|date=16 September 2023 }}&lt;/ref&gt; For these reasons, naturally occurring rainbows of an order higher than 2 are rarely visible to the naked eye. Nevertheless, sightings of the third-order bow in nature have been reported, and in 2011 it was photographed definitively for the first time.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last1= Großmann|first1= Michael|author2= Schmidt, Elmar|author3= Haußmann, Alexander|title= Photographic evidence for the third-order rainbow|journal= Applied Optics|volume= 50|issue= 28|pages= F134–F141|date= 1 October 2011|issn= 1559-128X|doi= 10.1364/AO.50.00F134|bibcode= 2011ApOpt..50F.134G|pmid= 22016237|s2cid= 796963}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |url=https://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2011/10/111005111001.htm |title=''Triple Rainbows Exist, Photo Evidence Shows'', ScienceDaily.com, Oct. 5, 2011 |publisher=Sciencedaily.com |date=6 October 2011 |access-date=19 August 2013 |url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131004213413/https://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2011/10/111005111001.htm |archive-date=4 October 2013 }}&lt;/ref&gt; Shortly after, the fourth-order rainbow was photographed as well,&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last1= Theusner|first1= Michael|title= Photographic observation of a natural fourth-order rainbow|journal= Applied Optics|volume= 50|issue= 28|pages= F129–F133|date= 1 October 2011|issn= 1559-128X|doi= 10.1364/AO.50.00F129|bibcode= 2011ApOpt..50F.129T|pmid= 22016236|s2cid= 20238055}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|url=https://www.newscientist.com/blogs/shortsharpscience/2011/10/third-and-fourth-order-rainbow.html|title=Short Sharp Science: First ever image of fourth-order rainbow|website=www.newscientist.com|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170711065726/https://www.newscientist.com/blogs/shortsharpscience/2011/10/third-and-fourth-order-rainbow.html|archive-date=11 July 2017}}&lt;/ref&gt; and in 2014 the first ever pictures of the '''fifth-order''' (or ''quinary'') rainbow were published.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|url=http://www.weatherscapes.com/quinary/ |title=Observations of the quinary rainbow |website=www.weatherscapes.com |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150103142928/http://www.weatherscapes.com/quinary/ |archive-date=3 January 2015}}&lt;/ref&gt; The quinary rainbow lies partially in the gap between the primary and secondary rainbows and is far fainter than even the secondary. In a laboratory setting, it is possible to create bows of much higher orders. Felix Billet (1808–1882) depicted angular positions up to the 19th-order rainbow, a pattern he called a &quot;rose of rainbows&quot;.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal |title=Mémoire sur les Dix-neuf premiers arcs-en-ciel de l'eau |trans-title=Memoir on the first nineteen rainbows |first=Felix |last=Billet |journal=Annales Scientifiques de l'École Normale Supérieure |volume=1 |issue=5 |pages=67–109 |year=1868 |doi=10.24033/asens.43 |doi-access=free }}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=Walker1977&gt;{{Cite journal |url=http://optica.machorro.net/Optica/SciAm/Rainbow/1977-07-body.html |title=How to create and observe a dozen rainbows in a single drop of water |first=Jearl |last=Walker |journal=Scientific American |volume=237 |issue=July |pages=138–144 + 154 |year=1977 |access-date=8 August 2011 |doi=10.1038/scientificamerican0777-138 |bibcode=1977SciAm.237a.138W |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110814054045/http://optica.machorro.net/Optica/SciAm/Rainbow/1977-07-body.html |archive-date=14 August 2011 }}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=Walker1980&gt;J.D. Walker, &quot;Mysteries of rainbows, notably their rare supernumerary arcs,&quot; Sci. Am. 242(6), 174–184 (1980).&lt;/ref&gt; In the laboratory, it is possible to observe higher-order rainbows by using extremely bright and well [[collimated]] light produced by [[laser]]s. Up to the 200th-order rainbow was reported by Ng et al. in 1998 using a similar method but an argon ion laser beam.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal| last1=Ng| first1=P. H.| last2=Tse| first2=M. Y.| last3=Lee| first3=W. K.| title=Observation of high-order rainbows formed by a pendant drop| journal=Journal of the Optical Society of America B| volume=15| issue=11| page=2782| year=1998| doi=10.1364/JOSAB.15.002782|bibcode = 1998JOSAB..15.2782N }}&lt;/ref&gt; Tertiary and quaternary rainbows should not be confused with &quot;triple&quot; and &quot;quadruple&quot; rainbows—terms sometimes erroneously used to refer to the (much more common) supernumerary bows and reflection rainbows. === Rainbows under moonlight === {{Main|Moonbow}} [[File:Moonbow at lower Yosemite fall.jpg|thumb|Spray moonbow at the Lower [[Yosemite Falls|Yosemite Fall]]]] Like most atmospheric optical phenomena, rainbows can be caused by light from the Sun, but also from the Moon. In case of the latter, the rainbow is referred to as a '''lunar rainbow''' or '''[[moonbow]]'''. They are much dimmer and rarer than solar rainbows, requiring the Moon to be near-full in order for them to be seen. For the same reason, moonbows are often perceived as white and may be thought of as monochrome. The full spectrum is present, however, but the human eye is not normally sensitive enough to see the colours. Long exposure photographs will sometimes show the colour in this type of rainbow.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|url=http://www.atoptics.co.uk/rainbows/moonbow.htm|title=Moonbow – Lunar Rainbow|website=www.atoptics.co.uk|access-date=28 June 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080421035300/http://www.atoptics.co.uk/rainbows/moonbow.htm|archive-date=21 April 2008|url-status=dead}}&lt;/ref&gt; === Fogbow === {{Main|Fog bow}} [[File:Fogbow spectre and glory filtered.jpg|thumb|Fogbow and glory, as well as a [[Brocken spectre]]]] Fogbows form in the same way as rainbows, but they are formed by much smaller cloud and fog droplets that diffract light extensively. They are almost white with faint reds on the outside and blues inside; often one or more broad [[#Supernumerary rainbows|supernumerary bands]] can be discerned inside the inner edge. The colours are dim because the bow in each colour is very broad and the colours overlap. Fogbows are commonly seen over water when air in contact with the cooler water is chilled, but they can be found anywhere if the fog is thin enough for the sun to shine through and the sun is fairly bright. They are very large—almost as big as a rainbow and much broader. They sometimes appear with a [[Glory (optical phenomenon)|glory]] at the bow's centre.&lt;ref&gt;See: * [http://www.atoptics.co.uk/droplets/fogbow.htm Atmospheric Optics: Fogbow] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220615000415/https://atoptics.co.uk/droplets/fogbow.htm |date=15 June 2022 }} * James C. McConnel (1890) [https://books.google.com/books?id=fFAEAAAAYAAJ&amp;pg=PA453 &quot;The theory of fog-bows,&quot;] ''Philosophical Magazine'', series 5, '''29''' (181): 453–461.&lt;/ref&gt; Fog bows should not be confused with [[Halo (optical phenomenon)|ice halos]], which are very common around the world and visible much more often than rainbows (of any order),&lt;ref&gt;Les Cowley. [http://atoptics.co.uk/halo/p1.htm Observing Halos – Getting Started Atmospheric Optics] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120603230151/http://www.atoptics.co.uk/halo/p1.htm |date=3 June 2012 }}, accessed 3 December 2013.&lt;/ref&gt; yet are unrelated to rainbows. === Sleetbow === [[File:Sleetbow.jpeg|thumb|Monochrome sleetbow captured during the early morning on 7 January 2016 in Valparaiso, Indiana.]] A sleetbow forms in the same way as a typical rainbow, with the exception that it occurs when light passes through falling [[ice pellets|sleet]] (ice pellets) instead of liquid water. As light passes through the sleet, the light is refracted causing the rare phenomena. These have been documented across United States with the earliest publicly documented and photographed sleetbow being seen in Richmond, Virginia on 21 December 2012.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=http://johncohn.org/base/2012/12/21/friday-night-sleetbow/|title=Friday Night – Sleetbow|access-date=10 February 2021|website=johncohn.org|date=22 December 2012|archive-date=28 October 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211028151121/http://johncohn.org/base/2012/12/21/friday-night-sleetbow/|url-status=live}}&lt;/ref&gt; Just like regular rainbows, these can also come in various forms, with a [[Monochrome rainbow|monochrome]] sleetbow being documented on 7 January 2016 in Valparaiso, Indiana.{{citation needed|date=February 2021}} === Circumhorizontal and circumzenithal arcs === [[File:A Double Rainbow Halo on June 1, 2014, at 1-57 PM.jpg|thumb|A circumhorizontal arc (bottom), below a [[circumscribed halo]]]]The [[circumzenithal arc|circumzenithal]] and [[circumhorizon arc|circumhorizontal arcs]] are two related optical phenomena similar in appearance to a rainbow, but unlike the latter, their origin lies in light refraction through hexagonal [[ice crystals]] rather than liquid water droplets. This means that they are not rainbows, but members of the large family of [[halo (optical phenomenon)|halos]]. Both arcs are brightly coloured ring segments centred on the [[zenith]], but in different positions in the sky: The circumzenithal arc is notably curved and located high above the Sun (or Moon) with its convex side pointing downwards (creating the impression of an &quot;upside down rainbow&quot;); the circumhorizontal arc runs much closer to the horizon, is more straight and located at a significant distance below the Sun (or Moon). Both arcs have their red side pointing towards the Sun and their violet part away from it, meaning the circumzenithal arc is red on the bottom, while the circumhorizontal arc is red on top.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|url=http://www.atoptics.co.uk/halo/cza.htm|title=Circumzenithal Arc|website=www.atoptics.co.uk|access-date=2 March 2015|archive-date=26 January 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210126054726/http://www.atoptics.co.uk/halo/cza.htm|url-status=live}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;atoptics-circumhor&quot;&gt;{{cite web|url=http://www.atoptics.co.uk/halo/cha2.htm |title=Circumhorizontal arc |author=Cowley, Les |website=Atmospheric Optics |access-date=22 April 2007}}&lt;/ref&gt; The [[circumhorizontal arc]] is sometimes referred to by the misnomer &quot;fire rainbow&quot;. In order to view it, the Sun or Moon must be at least 58° above the horizon, making it a rare occurrence at higher latitudes. The circumzenithal arc, visible only at a solar or lunar elevation of less than 32°, is much more common, but often missed since it occurs almost directly overhead. === Extraterrestrial rainbows === {{main|Extraterrestrial skies}} It has been suggested that rainbows might exist on [[Saturn]]'s moon [[Titan (moon)|Titan]], as it has a wet surface and humid clouds. The radius of a Titan rainbow would be about 49° instead of 42°, because the fluid in that cold environment is methane instead of water. Although visible rainbows may be rare due to [[Titan's atmosphere|Titan's hazy skies]], [[infrared]] rainbows may be more common, but an observer would need infrared [[night vision goggles]] to see them.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |url=https://science.nasa.gov/headlines/y2005/25feb_titan2.htm |title=Rainbows on Titan |author=Science@NASA |access-date=25 November 2008 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080921112813/http://science.nasa.gov/headlines/y2005/25feb_titan2.htm |archive-date=21 September 2008 }}&lt;/ref&gt; === Rainbows with different materials === [[File:First order rainbows from water droplets and a sugar solution droplets.jpg|upright|thumb|A first order rainbow from water (left) and a sugar solution (right).]] Droplets (or spheres) composed of materials with different refractive indices than plain water produce rainbows with different radius angles. Since salt water has a higher refractive index, a sea spray bow does not perfectly align with the ordinary rainbow, if seen at the same spot.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|url= http://www.atoptics.co.uk/rainbows/seabow.htm |title= Sea Water Rainbow |author=Cowley, Les |website=Atmospheric Optics |access-date=10 November 2016}}&lt;/ref&gt; Tiny plastic or glass marbles may be used in road marking as a [[retroreflector|reflectors]] to enhance its visibility by drivers at night. Due to a much higher refractive index, rainbows observed on such marbles have a noticeably smaller radius.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|url= http://www.atoptics.co.uk/rainbows/beadbow.htm |title= Glass Bead Bows |author=Cowley, Les |website=Atmospheric Optics |access-date=10 November 2016}}&lt;/ref&gt; One can easily reproduce such phenomena by sprinkling liquids of different refractive indices in the air, as illustrated in the photo. The displacement of the rainbow due to different refractive indices can be pushed to a peculiar limit. For a material with a refractive index larger than 2, there is no angle fulfilling the requirements for the first order rainbow. For example, the index of refraction of [[diamond]] is about 2.4, so diamond spheres would produce rainbows starting from the second order, omitting the first order. In general, as the refractive index exceeds a number {{math|'''n'''&amp;nbsp;+&amp;nbsp;1}}, where {{math|'''n'''}} is a [[natural number]], the critical [[Angle of incidence (optics)|incidence angle]] for {{math|'''n'''}} times internally reflected rays escapes the domain &lt;math&gt;[0,\frac{\pi}{2}]&lt;/math&gt;. This results in a rainbow of the {{math|'''n'''}}-th order shrinking to the [[antisolar point]] and vanishing. == Scientific history == The classical Greek scholar [[Aristotle]] (384–322&amp;nbsp;BC) was first to devote serious attention to the rainbow.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|url=http://classics.mit.edu/Aristotle/meteorology.3.iii.html#211|title=The Internet Classics Archive – Meteorology by Aristotle|website=classics.mit.edu|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140218151153/http://classics.mit.edu/Aristotle/meteorology.3.iii.html#211|archive-date=18 February 2014}}&lt;/ref&gt; According to Raymond L. Lee and Alistair B. Fraser, &quot;Despite its many flaws and its appeal to Pythagorean numerology, Aristotle's qualitative explanation showed an inventiveness and relative consistency that was unmatched for centuries. After Aristotle's death, much rainbow theory consisted of reaction to his work, although not all of this was uncritical.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book| url=https://books.google.com/books?id=kZcCtT1ZeaEC&amp;pg=PA109 | title=The rainbow bridge: rainbows in art, myth, and science |year=2001|publisher=Penn State Press|page=109| isbn =978-0-271-01977-2|author1=Raymond L. Lee |author2=Alistair B. Fraser }}&lt;/ref&gt; In Book I of ''[[Naturales Quaestiones]]'' ({{Circa|65&amp;nbsp;AD}}), the [[Roman Empire|Roman]] philosopher [[Seneca the Younger]] discusses various theories of the formation of rainbows extensively, including those of Aristotle. He notices that rainbows appear always opposite to the Sun, that they appear in water sprayed by a rower, in the water spat by a [[fulling|fuller]] on clothes stretched on pegs or by water sprayed through a small hole in a burst pipe. He even speaks of rainbows produced by small rods (virgulae) of glass, anticipating Newton's experiences with prisms. He takes into account two theories: one, that the rainbow is produced by the Sun reflecting in each water drop, the other, that it is produced by the Sun reflected in a cloud shaped like a [[concave mirror]]; he favours the latter. He also discusses other phenomena related to rainbows: the mysterious &quot;virgae&quot; (rods), halos and [[Sun dog|parhelia]].&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book|last=Seneca|first=Lucius Anneus|title=Delphi Complete Works of Seneca the Younger (Illustrated)|publisher=Delphi Classics|date=1 April 2014|edition=Delphi Ancient Classics Book 27|volume=Book I|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=l-07AwAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PR26-IA136}}&lt;/ref&gt; According to Hüseyin Gazi Topdemir, the [[Physics in medieval Islam|Arab physicist]] and [[polymath]] [[Ibn al-Haytham]] (965–1039&amp;nbsp;AD) attempted to provide a scientific explanation for the rainbow phenomenon. In his ''Maqala fi al-Hala wa Qaws Quzah'' (''On the Rainbow and Halo''), al-Haytham &quot;explained the formation of rainbow as an image, which forms at a concave mirror. If the rays of light coming from a farther light source reflect to any point on axis of the concave mirror, they form concentric circles in that point. When it is supposed that the sun as a farther light source, the eye of viewer as a point on the axis of mirror and a cloud as a reflecting surface, then it can be observed the concentric circles are forming on the axis.&quot;{{citation needed|date=November 2019}} He was not able to verify this because his theory that &quot;light from the sun is reflected by a cloud before reaching the eye&quot; did not allow for a possible [[experiment]]al verification.&lt;ref name=MacTutor /&gt; This explanation was repeated by [[Averroes]],{{citation needed|date=November 2019}} and, though incorrect, provided the groundwork for the correct explanations later given by [[Kamāl al-Dīn al-Fārisī]] in 1309 and, independently, by [[Theodoric of Freiberg]] (c.&amp;nbsp;1250–c.&amp;nbsp;1311){{citation needed|date=November 2019}}—both having studied al-Haytham's ''[[Book of Optics]]''.&lt;ref&gt;Nader El-Bizri 'Ibn al-Haytham et le problème de la couleur', Oriens-Occidens: Cahiers du centre d'histoire des sciences et des philosophies arabes et médiévales, C.N.R.S. 7 (2009), pp. 201–226.&lt;/ref&gt; In [[Song Dynasty|Song dynasty China]] (960–1279), a polymath [[scholar-bureaucrat|scholar-official]] named [[Shen Kuo]] (1031–1095) hypothesised—as a certain Sun Sikong (1015–1076) did before him—that rainbows were formed by a phenomenon of sunlight encountering droplets of rain in the air.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book|author=Sivin, Nathan |year=1995| title=Science in Ancient China: Researches and Reflections Brookfield, Vermont: VARIORUM|publisher= Ashgate Publishing.|location= III|page=24}}&lt;/ref&gt; Paul Dong writes that Shen's explanation of the rainbow as a phenomenon of [[atmospheric refraction]] &quot;is basically in accord with modern scientific principles.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book|author=Dong, Paul |year=2000| title=China's Major Mysteries: Paranormal Phenomena and the Unexplained in the People's Republic|page= 72|publisher= San Francisco: China Books and Periodicals, Inc.|isbn= 978-0-8351-2676-2}}&lt;/ref&gt; According to Nader El-Bizri, the [[Astronomy in medieval Islam|Persian astronomer]], [[Qutb al-Din al-Shirazi]] (1236–1311), gave a fairly accurate explanation for the rainbow phenomenon. This was elaborated on by his student, [[Kamāl al-Dīn al-Fārisī]] (1267–1319), who gave a more mathematically satisfactory explanation of the rainbow. He &quot;proposed a model where the ray of light from the sun was refracted twice by a water droplet, one or more reflections occurring between the two refractions.&quot; An experiment with a water-filled glass sphere was conducted and al-Farisi showed the additional refractions due to the glass could be ignored in his model.&lt;ref name=MacTutor&gt;{{cite web |author1=O'Connor, J.J. |author2=Robertson, E.F. |date=November 1999 |url=http://www-gap.dcs.st-and.ac.uk/~history/Biographies/Al-Farisi.html |title=Kamal al-Din Abu'l Hasan Muhammad Al-Farisi |publisher=[[MacTutor History of Mathematics archive]], University of St Andrews|access-date=7 June 2007 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070325123238/http://www-gap.dcs.st-and.ac.uk/~history/Biographies/Al-Farisi.html |archive-date=25 March 2007}}&lt;/ref&gt;{{efn|&quot;approximation obtained by his model was good enough to allow him to ignore the effects of the glass container.&quot;&lt;ref name=MacTutor /&gt;}} As he noted in his ''Kitab Tanqih al-Manazir'' (''The Revision of the Optics''), al-Farisi used a large clear vessel of glass in the shape of a sphere, which was filled with water, in order to have an experimental large-scale model of a rain drop. He then placed this model within a camera obscura that has a controlled [[aperture]] for the introduction of light. He projected light unto the sphere and ultimately deduced through several trials and detailed observations of reflections and refractions of light that the colours of the rainbow are phenomena of the decomposition of light. In Europe, Ibn al-Haytham's ''Book of Optics'' was [[Latin translations of the 12th century|translated into Latin]] and studied by [[Robert Grosseteste]]. His work on light was continued by [[Roger Bacon]], who wrote in his {{Lang|la|[[Opus Majus]]}} of 1268 about experiments with light shining through crystals and water droplets showing the colours of the rainbow.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |last=Davidson |first=Michael W. |date=1 August 2003 |url=http://micro.magnet.fsu.edu/optics/timeline/people/bacon.html |title=Roger Bacon (1214–1294) |publisher=Florida State University |access-date=10 August 2006 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060830075608/http://micro.magnet.fsu.edu/optics/timeline/people/bacon.html |archive-date=30 August 2006 }}&lt;/ref&gt; In addition, Bacon was the first to calculate the angular size of the rainbow. He stated that the rainbow summit can not appear higher than 42° above the horizon.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book| url=https://books.google.com/books?id=kZcCtT1ZeaEC&amp;pg=PA155| title= The rainbow bridge: rainbows in art, myth, and science|page=156|author1=Raymond L. Lee |author2=Alistair B. Fraser | isbn=978-0-271-01977-2| year=2001| publisher= Penn State Press}}&lt;/ref&gt; [[Theodoric of Freiberg]] is known to have given an accurate theoretical explanation of both the primary and secondary rainbows in 1307. He explained the primary rainbow, noting that &quot;when sunlight falls on individual drops of moisture, the rays undergo two refractions (upon ingress and egress) and one reflection (at the back of the drop) before transmission into the eye of the observer.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|author=Lindberg, David C |date=Summer 1966 |title=Roger Bacon's Theory of the Rainbow: Progress or Regress? |journal=Isis |volume=57 |issue=2 |page=235 |doi=10.1086/350116|s2cid=170749000 |author-link=Lindberg, David C }}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;Theodoric of Freiberg (c. 1304–1310) ''De iride et radialibus impressionibus'' (On the rainbow and the impressions of radiance).&lt;/ref&gt; He explained the secondary rainbow through a similar analysis involving two refractions and two reflections. [[File:Descartes Rainbow.png|thumb|René Descartes's sketch of how primary and secondary rainbows are formed]] [[René Descartes|Descartes]]' 1637 treatise, ''[[Discourse on Method]],'' further advanced this explanation. Knowing that the size of raindrops did not appear to affect the observed rainbow, he experimented with passing rays of light through a large glass sphere filled with water. By measuring the angles that the rays emerged, he concluded that the primary bow was caused by a single internal reflection inside the raindrop and that a secondary bow could be caused by two internal reflections. He supported this conclusion with a derivation of the law of [[refraction]] (subsequently to, but independently of, [[Snell's law|Snell]]) and correctly calculated the angles for both bows. His explanation of the colours, however, was based on a mechanical version of the traditional theory that colours were produced by a modification of white light.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Boyer |first=Carl B. |title=Descartes and the Radius of the Rainbow |journal=Isis |year=1952 |volume=43 |issue=2 |pages=95–98 |doi=10.1086/349399|s2cid=145493641 }}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Gedzelman |first=Stanley David |title=Did Kepler's Supplement to Witelo Inspire Descartes' Theory of the Rainbow? |journal=Bulletin of the American Meteorological Society |year=1989 |volume=70 |issue=7 |pages=750–751 |doi=10.1175/1520-0477(1989)070&lt;0750:DKSTWI&gt;2.0.CO;2|bibcode=1989BAMS...70..750G|issn=1520-0477|doi-access=free }}&lt;/ref&gt; Isaac Newton demonstrated that white light was composed of the light of all the colours of the rainbow, which a glass [[prism (optics)|prism]] could separate into the full spectrum of colours, rejecting the theory that the colours were produced by a modification of white light. He also showed that red light is refracted less than blue light, which led to the first scientific explanation of the major features of the rainbow.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |author1=O'Connor, J.J. |author2=Robertson, E.F. |date=January 2000 |url=http://www-history.mcs.st-andrews.ac.uk/history/Biographies/Newton.html |title=Sir Isaac Newton |publisher=University of St. Andrews |access-date=19 June 2007 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070610094750/http://www-history.mcs.st-andrews.ac.uk/history/Biographies/Newton.html |archive-date=10 June 2007 }}&lt;/ref&gt; Newton's corpuscular theory of light was unable to explain supernumerary rainbows, and a satisfactory explanation was not found until [[Thomas Young (scientist)|Thomas Young]] realised that light behaves as a wave under certain conditions, and can [[interference (wave propagation)|interfere]] with itself. Young's work was refined in the 1820s by [[George Biddell Airy]], who explained the dependence of the strength of the colours of the rainbow on the size of the water droplets.&lt;ref&gt;See: * {{cite journal | last1 = Airy | first1 = G. B. | year = 1838 | title = On the intensity of light in the neighbourhood of a caustic | url = https://books.google.com/books?id=-yI8AAAAMAAJ&amp;pg=PA379| journal = Transactions of the Cambridge Philosophical Society | volume = 6 | issue = 3 | pages = 379–403 | bibcode = 1838TCaPS...6..379A}} * G. B. Airy (1849) [https://books.google.com/books?id=2vsIAAAAIAAJ&amp;pg=PA595 &quot;Supplement to a paper, &quot;On the intensity of light in the neighbourhood of a caustic,&quot; &quot;] ''Transactions of the Cambridge Philosophical Society'' '''8''': 595–600.&lt;/ref&gt; Modern physical descriptions of the rainbow are based on [[Mie scattering]], work published by [[Gustav Mie]] in 1908.&lt;ref&gt;G. Mie (1908) [http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/andp.19083300302/pdf &quot;Beiträge zur Optik trüber Medien, speziell kolloidaler Metallösungen&quot;] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120302035259/http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/andp.19083300302/pdf |date=2 March 2012 }} (Contributions to the optics of turbid media, especially of colloidal metal solutions), ''Annalen der Physik'', 4th series, '''25''' (3): 377–445.&lt;/ref&gt; Advances in computational methods and optical theory continue to lead to a fuller understanding of rainbows. For example, [[Herch Moysés Nussenzveig|Nussenzveig]] provides a modern overview.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal| author=Nussenzveig, H. Moyses| title=The Theory of the Rainbow|journal=Scientific American|volume=236|issue=4|year=1977|page= 116| doi=10.1038/scientificamerican0477-116|bibcode=1977SciAm.236d.116N}}&lt;/ref&gt; == Experiments == [[File:Round bottom flask rainbow demonstration experiment.png|thumb|Round bottom flask rainbow demonstration experiment - Johnson 1882]] Experiments on the rainbow phenomenon using artificial raindrops, i.e. water-filled spherical flasks, go back at least to [[Theodoric of Freiberg]] in the 14th century. Later, also Descartes studied the phenomenon using a [[Florence flask]]. A flask experiment known as Florence's rainbow is still often used today as an imposing and intuitively accessible demonstration experiment of the rainbow phenomenon.&lt;ref name=Harvard&gt;“Florence's Rainbow”, Harvard Natural Sciences Lecture Demonstrations, [http://sciencedemonstrations.fas.harvard.edu/presentations/florences-rainbow link] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170108093457/http://sciencedemonstrations.fas.harvard.edu/presentations/florences-rainbow |date=8 January 2017 }}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=Berkeley1&gt;“Rainbow: Refraction of white light by a liquid sphere.”, U.C. Berkeley Physics Lecture Demonstrations, [http://berkeleyphysicsdemos.net/node/638 link] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170108013906/http://berkeleyphysicsdemos.net/node/638 |date=8 January 2017 }}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=Calvert&gt;“The Rainbow,”J.B. Calvert, [https://mysite.du.edu/~jcalvert/astro/bow.htm link] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160524152323/http://mysite.du.edu/~jcalvert/astro/bow.htm |date=24 May 2016 }}, Retrieved 10 January 2016&lt;/ref&gt; It consists in illuminating (with parallel white light) a water-filled spherical flask through a hole in a screen. A rainbow will then appear thrown back / projected on the screen, provided the screen is large enough. Due to the finite wall thickness and the macroscopic character of the artificial raindrop, several subtle differences exist as compared to the natural phenomenon,&lt;ref name=SelmkeSelmkeRainbow2016&gt;“Revisiting the round bottom flask rainbow experiment.”, M. Selmke and S. Selmke, arXiv, [https://arxiv.org/abs/1612.09563 link] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170108002437/https://arxiv.org/abs/1612.09563 |date=8 January 2017 }}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=SelmkeHomepage2016&gt;Pictures and Raytracings under &quot;Alexander's dark band (or bright band?)&quot;, M. Selmke, [https://photonicsdesign.jimdo.com/physics-at-home/ link] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170108003455/https://photonicsdesign.jimdo.com/physics-at-home/ |date=8 January 2017 }}&lt;/ref&gt; including slightly changed rainbow angles and a splitting of the rainbow orders. A very similar experiment consists in using a cylindrical glass vessel filled with water or a solid transparent cylinder and illuminated either parallel to the circular base (i.e. light rays remaining at a fixed height while they transit the cylinder)&lt;ref name=Casini2012&gt;G. Casini and A. Covello, “The ”rainbow” in the drop,” Am. J. Phys. 80(11), 1027–1034 (2012).&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=Berkeley2&gt;“Primary and Secondary Bow of a Rainbow”, U.C. Berkeley Physics Lecture Demonstrations, [http://berkeleyphysicsdemos.net/node/9265 link] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170108012939/http://berkeleyphysicsdemos.net/node/9265 |date=8 January 2017 }}&lt;/ref&gt; or under an angle to the base. Under these latter conditions the rainbow angles change relative to the natural phenomenon since the effective index of refraction of water changes (Bravais' index of refraction for inclined rays applies).&lt;ref name=SelmkeSelmkeRainbow2016 /&gt;&lt;ref name=SelmkeHomepage2016 /&gt; Other experiments use small liquid drops&lt;ref name= Walker1977 /&gt;&lt;ref name= Walker1980 /&gt; (see text above). == Culture and mythology == {{Main|Rainbows in culture|Rainbows in mythology}} {{See also|Rainbow flag}} [[File:Joseph Anton Koch 006.jpg|thumb|1803 depiction by [[Joseph Anton Koch]] of the rainbow in the [[Book of Genesis]] ]] [[File:Frederic Edwin Church - Niagara Falls - WGA04867.jpg|thumb|''[[Niagara (Frederic Edwin Church)|Niagara]]'', by [[Frederic Edwin Church]] (1857), depicts a rainbow at the [[Horseshoe Falls]] section of [[Niagara Falls]].]] Rainbows occur frequently [[rainbows in mythology|in mythology]], and have been used in the arts. The first literary occurrence of a rainbow is in the [[Book of Genesis]] chapter 9, as part of the flood story of [[Noah]], where it is a sign of God's covenant to never destroy all life on Earth with a global flood again. In [[Norse mythology]], the rainbow bridge [[Bifröst]] connects the world of men ([[Midgard]]) and the realm of the gods ([[Asgard]]). [[Cuchavira]] was the god of the rainbow for the [[Muisca]] in present-day [[Colombia]] and when the regular rains on the [[Bogotá savanna]] were over the people thanked him, offering [[gold]], [[snail]]s and small [[emerald]]s. Some forms of [[Tibetan Buddhism]] or [[Dzogchen]] reference a [[rainbow body]].&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book |author-link=Reginald Ray|last=Ray|first=Reginald|title=Secret of the Vajra World: The Tantric Buddhism of Tibet|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=kQMLAAAAYAAJ|publisher=[[Shambhala Publications]]|year=2001|page=323|isbn=9781570627729}}&lt;/ref&gt; The Irish [[leprechaun]]'s secret hiding place for his pot of gold is usually said to be at the end of the rainbow. This place is appropriately impossible to reach, because the rainbow is an optical effect which cannot be approached. In [[Greek mythology]], the goddess [[Iris (mythology)|Iris]] is the personification of the rainbow, a messenger goddess who, like the rainbow, connects the mortal world with the gods through messages.&lt;ref&gt;[[William Smith (lexicographer)|Smith]], [https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.04.0104%3Aalphabetic+letter%3DI%3Aentry+group%3D9%3Aentry%3Diris-bio-1 s.v. Iris] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230214163300/http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.04.0104%3Aalphabetic+letter%3DI%3Aentry+group%3D9%3Aentry%3Diris-bio-1 |date=14 February 2023 }}.&lt;/ref&gt; In [[Albanian folk beliefs]] the rainbow is regarded as the belt of the goddess [[Prende]], and oral legend has it that anyone who jumps over the rainbow changes their sex.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book|last=Elsie|first=Robert|author-link=Robert Elsie|title=A Dictionary of Albanian Religion, Mythology and Folk Culture|place=London|publisher=Hurst &amp; Company|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=N_IXHrXIsYkC|isbn=1-85065-570-7|year=2001|page=258}}&lt;/ref&gt; In [[heraldry]], the rainbow proper consists of 4 bands of colour ([[argent]], [[gules]], [[Or (heraldry)|or]], and [[Vert (heraldry)|vert]]) with the ends resting on clouds.&lt;ref&gt;{{citation | url = https://mistholme.com/dictionary/rainbow/ | title = Rainbow | work = mistholme.com | access-date = 21 October 2019 | archive-date = 21 October 2019 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20191021142301/https://mistholme.com/dictionary/rainbow/ | url-status = live }}&lt;/ref&gt; Generalised examples in coat of arms include those of the towns of [[Regen]] and [[Pfreimd]], both in Bavaria, Germany; of [[Bouffémont]], France; and of the [[69th Infantry Regiment (New York)]] of the United States [[Army National Guard]]. [[Rainbow flag]]s have been used for centuries. It was a symbol of the Cooperative movement in the [[German Peasants' War]] in the 16th century, of peace in Italy, and of [[LGBT pride]] and [[LGBT social movements]]; the [[Rainbow flag (LGBT)|rainbow flag as a symbol of LGBT pride]] and the June pride month since it was designed by [[Gilbert Baker (artist)|Gilbert Baker]] in 1978.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite encyclopedia |title=How Did the Rainbow Flag Become a Symbol of LGBTQ Pride? |last=Gonzalez |first=Nora |encyclopedia=Encyclopedia Britannica |date= |access-date=20 May 2023 |url= https://www.britannica.com/story/how-did-the-rainbow-flag-become-a-symbol-of-lgbt-pride}}&lt;/ref&gt; In 1994, Archbishop [[Desmond Tutu]] and President [[Nelson Mandela]] described newly democratic post-[[apartheid]] South Africa as the [[rainbow nation]]. The rainbow has also been used in technology product logos, including the [[Apple Inc.|Apple computer]] logo. Many political alliances spanning multiple political parties have called themselves a &quot;[[Rainbow Coalition (disambiguation)|Rainbow Coalition]]&quot;. Pointing at rainbows has been considered a taboo in many cultures.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal |last1=Blust |first1=Robert |author1-link=Robert Blust |title=Pointing, Rainbows, and the Archaeology of Mind |journal=Anthropos |date=June 2021 |volume=116 |pages=145–161 |doi=10.5771/0257-9774-2021-1-145 |s2cid=236605041 |url=https://www.anthropos.eu/anthropos/journal/abstracts/1161/116-1-11.php |access-date=29 November 2021 |archive-date=18 November 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211118201651/http://www.anthropos.eu/anthropos/journal/abstracts/1161/116-1-11.php |url-status=live }}&lt;/ref&gt; In Saudi Arabia and other similar-minded countries, authorities seize children's clothing (including hats, hair clips, pencil cases, etc.) and toys if they are rainbow-coloured, claiming that such can encourage homosexuality, and selling such items is illegal.&lt;!-- The commerce ministry tweeted separately that its teams were confiscating &quot;products that contain symbols and signs calling for deviation and contradicting common sense&quot;.--&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite news |date=15 June 2022 |title=Saudi authorities seize rainbow toys for promoting homosexuality |language=en-GB |work=BBC News |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-middle-east-61813390 |access-date=7 September 2022 |archive-date=7 September 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220907144051/https://www.bbc.com/news/world-middle-east-61813390 |url-status=live }}&lt;/ref&gt; == See also == * [[Atmospheric optics]] * [[Circumzenithal arc]] * [[Circumhorizontal arc]] * [[Glory (optical phenomenon)]] * [[Soap bubble#Colored bubbles|Iridescent colours in soap bubbles]] * [[Sun dog]] * [[Fog bow]] * [[Moonbow]] == Notes == {{notelist}} == References == {{reflist}} ==Further reading== * {{Cite book|first=Carl B. |last=Boyer |year=1987 |title=The Rainbow, From Myth to Mathematics |publisher=[[Princeton University Press]] |isbn=978-0-691-08457-2}} * {{Cite book|first=Ul |last=De Rico |author-link=Ul de Rico |year=1978 |title=The Rainbow Goblins |publisher=[[Thames &amp; Hudson]] |isbn=978-0-500-27759-1}} * {{cite book|editor-last=Graham|editor-first= Lanier F.|title=The Rainbow Book|location=Berkeley, California|publisher= Shambhala Publications and The Fine Arts Museums of San Francisco |year=1976}} (Large format handbook for the Summer 1976 exhibition ''The Rainbow Art Show'' which took place primarily at the [[De Young Museum]] but also at other museums. The book is divided into seven sections, each coloured a different colour of the rainbow.) * {{Cite book |first=Robert |last=Greenler |year=1980 |title=Rainbows, Halos, and Glories |publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]] |isbn=978-0-19-521833-6 |url=https://archive.org/details/astronomyencyclo0000unse }} * {{Cite book|author1=Lee, Raymond L. |author2=Alastair B. Fraser |name-list-style=amp |year=2001 |title=The Rainbow Bridge: Rainbows in Art, Myth and Science |publisher=[[Pennsylvania State University Press]] and [[SPIE Press]] |location=New York |isbn=978-0-271-01977-2}} * {{Cite book|author1=Lynch, David K. |author2=Livingston, William |year=2001 |title=Color and Light in Nature |edition=2nd |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-0-521-77504-5}} * {{Cite book|author=Minnaert, Marcel G.J. |author2=Lynch, David K. |author3=Livingston, William |year=1993 |title=Light and Color in the Outdoors |publisher=[[Springer-Verlag]] |isbn=978-0-387-97935-9}} * {{Cite book |author=Minnaert, Marcel G.J. |author2=Lynch, David K. |author3=Livingston, William |year=1973 |title=The Nature of Light and Color in the Open Air |publisher=[[Dover Publications]] |isbn=978-0-486-20196-2 |url=https://archive.org/details/natureoflightc00mmin }} * {{Cite book|author=Naylor, John |author2=Lynch, David K. |author3=Livingston, William |year=2002 |title=Out of the Blue: A 24-Hour Skywatcher's Guide |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-0-521-80925-2}} == External links == {{Wikiquote|Rainbows}} {{Commons}} *[http://www.ams.org/publicoutreach/feature-column/fcarc-rainbows The Mathematics of Rainbows], article from the [[American mathematical society]] * [http://www.phy.ntnu.edu.tw/ntnujava/index.php?topic=44.0 Interactive simulation of light refraction in a drop (java applet)] * [https://web.archive.org/web/20110718165204/http://www.grad.ucl.ac.uk/comp/2007-2008/research/gallery/index.pht?entryID=183 Rainbow seen through infrared filter and through ultraviolet filter] * [http://www.atoptics.co.uk/bows.htm ''Atmospheric Optics'' website by Les Cowley] – Description of multiple types of bows, including: &quot;bows that cross, red bows, twinned bows, coloured fringes, dark bands, spokes&quot;, etc. * {{cite web|last=Merrifield|first=Michael|title=Rainbows|url=http://www.sixtysymbols.com/videos/rainbows.htm|website=Sixty Symbols|publisher=[[Brady Haran]] for the [[University of Nottingham]]}} * [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=BU1n0mtB1xs Creating Circular and Double Rainbows!] – video explanation of basics, shown artificial rainbow at night, second rainbow and circular one. {{Colour topics}} {{Authority control}} [[Category:Rainbow| ]] [[Category:Atmospheric optical phenomena]] [[Category:Lucky symbols]] [[Category:Heraldic charges]] [[Category:LGBTQ symbols]] [[Category:Atmospheric sciences]]</div></summary> <author><name>Βατο</name></author> </entry> <entry> <id>https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Byzantine_Empire&diff=1256391901</id> <title>Byzantine Empire</title> <link rel="alternate" type="text/html" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Byzantine_Empire&diff=1256391901"/> <updated>2024-11-09T18:53:48Z</updated> <summary type="html">Βατο: rm restrictive wikilink <hr /> <div>{{Short description|Continuation of the Roman Empire}} {{Redirect|Byzantine}} {{pp|small=yes}} {{Featured article}} {{Use dmy dates|date=October 2023}} {{EngvarB|date=July 2019}} {{Infobox country | common_name = Byzantine Empire | life_span = 330–1453 | image_map = Justinian555AD.png | image_map_caption = The empire in 555 under [[Justinian I]], its greatest extent since the fall of the [[Western Roman Empire]], with [[vassal state|vassals]] in pink | capital = [[Constantinople]] {{nwr|(modern-day [[Istanbul]])}} | common_languages = {{plainlist}} * [[Late Latin|Latin]] and [[Medieval&amp;nbsp;Greek|Greek]] * [[Languages of the Roman Empire|Regional languages]] {{end plainlist}} | religion = [[Christianity as the Roman state religion|Christianity]] ([[State religion|official]]) | government_type = [[Autocracy]] | title_leader = [[List of Byzantine emperors|Notable emperors]] | leader1 = [[Constantine the Great|Constantine I]] | year_leader1 = 306–337 | leader2 = [[Theodosius I]] | year_leader2 = 379–395 | leader3 = [[Theodosius II]] | year_leader3 = 408–450 | leader4 = [[Justinian I]] | year_leader4 = 527–565 | leader5 = [[Heraclius]] | year_leader5 = 610–641 | leader6 = [[Leo III the Isaurian|Leo III]] | year_leader6 = 717–741 | leader7 = [[Basil II]] | year_leader7 = 976–1025 | leader8 = [[Alexios I Komnenos|Alexios I]] | year_leader8 = 1081–1118 | leader9 = [[Manuel I Komnenos|Manuel I]] | year_leader9 = 1143–1180 | leader10 = [[Michael VIII]] | year_leader10 = 1261–1282 | leader11 = [[Constantine XI Palaiologos|Constantine XI]] | year_leader11 = 1449–1453 | era = [[Late antiquity]] to {{nwr|[[Late Middle Ages]]}} | stat_year1 = 457 | stat_pop1 = 16,000,000 &lt;!-- | stat_year2 = 555–450 | stat_area2 = 2,700,000–2,800,000&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal |author1-last=Turchin |author1-first=Peter |author2-last=Adams |author2-first=Jonathan M. |author3-last=Hall |author3-first=Thomas D |date=December 2006 |title=East-West Orientation of Historical Empires and Modern States |journal=Journal of World-Systems Research |volume=12 |issue=2 |pp=222–223 |ISSN=1076-156X |doi=10.5195/jwsr.2006.369 |url=https://jwsr.pitt.edu/ojs/jwsr/article/view/369/381 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200627192448/https://jwsr.pitt.edu/ojs/jwsr/article/view/369/381 |archive-date=27 June 2020 |access-date=7 July 2020}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal |last=Taagepera |first=Rein |year=1979 |title=Size and Duration of Empires: Growth-Decline Curves, 600 B.C. to 600 A.D. |journal=Social Science History |volume=3 |issue=3/4 |pp=121–122, 124–129, 132–133 |JSTOR=1170959 |url=https://escholarship.org/uc/item/6wf6m5qg |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230409011313/https://escholarship.org/uc/item/6wf6m5qg |archive-date=9 April 2023}}.&lt;/ref&gt; --&gt;| stat_year2 = 565 | stat_pop2 = 26,000,000 | stat_year3 = 775 | stat_pop3 = 7,000,000 | stat_year4 = 1025 | stat_pop4 = 12,000,000 | stat_year5 = 1320 | stat_pop5 = 2,000,000 | currency = [[Solidus (coin)|Solidus]], [[denarius]], and [[hyperpyron]]&lt;!-- | p1 = Roman Empire | p2 = Diocese of Dacia{{!}}'''∟'''Diocese of Dacia | p3 = Diocese of Macedonia{{!}}'''∟'''Diocese of Macedonia | p4 = Praetorian prefecture of the East{{!}}'''∟'''Praetorian prefecture of the East | s1 = Ottoman Empire --&gt; | demonym = {{plainlist}} * [[Byzantine Greeks|Byzantine]] * Roman {{end plainlist}} }} The '''Byzantine Empire''', also referred to as the '''Eastern Roman Empire''', was the continuation of the [[Roman Empire]] centred in [[Constantinople]] during [[late antiquity]] and the [[Middle Ages]]. The eastern half of the Empire survived the conditions that caused the [[fall of the Western Roman Empire|fall of the West]] in the 5th century&amp;nbsp;AD, and continued to exist until the [[fall of Constantinople]] to the [[Ottoman Empire]] in 1453. During most of its existence, the empire remained the most powerful economic, cultural, and military force in the [[Mediterranean world]]. The term &quot;Byzantine Empire&quot; was only coined following the empire's demise; its citizens referred to the polity as the &quot;Roman Empire&quot; and to themselves as &quot;Romans&quot;.{{Efn|{{Langx|grc-x-medieval|Ῥωμαῖοι|Rhōmaîoi}}}} Due to the imperial seat's move from Rome to [[Byzantium]], the [[Christianity as the Roman state religion|adoption of state Christianity]], and the predominance of [[Medieval Greek|Greek]] instead of [[Latin]], modern historians continue to make a distinction between the earlier ''Roman Empire'' and the later ''Byzantine Empire''. During the earlier [[Pax Romana]] period, the western parts of the empire became [[Romanization (cultural)|increasingly Latinised]], while the eastern parts largely retained their preexisting [[Hellenistic culture]]. This created a dichotomy between the [[Greek East and Latin West]]. These cultural spheres continued to diverge after [[Constantine the Great|Constantine I]] ({{Reign|324|337}}) moved the capital to Constantinople and legalised [[Christianity]]. Under [[Theodosius I]] ({{Reign|379|395|lk=no}}), Christianity became the [[state religion]], and other religious practices [[Persecution of pagans under Theodosius I|were proscribed]]. Greek gradually replaced Latin for official use as Latin fell into disuse. The empire experienced several cycles of decline and recovery throughout its history, reaching its greatest extent after the fall of the west during the reign of [[Justinian I]] ({{Reign|527|565|lk=no}}), who briefly reconquered much of Italy and the western [[Mediterranean Sea|Mediterranean coast]]. The [[Plague of Justinian|appearance of plague]] and a [[Byzantine–Sasanian War of 602–628|devastating war with Persia]] exhausted the empire's resources; the [[early Muslim conquests]] that followed saw the loss of the empire's richest provinces—[[Roman Egypt|Egypt]] and [[Roman Syria|Syria]]—to the [[Rashidun Caliphate]]. In 698, Africa [[Battle of Carthage (698)|was lost]] to the [[Umayyad Caliphate]], but the empire subsequently stabilised under the [[Byzantine Empire under the Isaurian dynasty|Isaurian]] dynasty. The empire was able to expand once more under the [[Macedonian dynasty]], experiencing [[Macedonian Renaissance|a two-century-long renaissance]]. This came to an end in 1071, with the defeat by the [[Seljuk dynasty|Seljuk Turks]] at the [[Battle of Manzikert]]. Thereafter, periods of civil war and Seljuk incursion resulted in the loss of most of [[Anatolia|Asia Minor]]. The empire recovered during the [[Komnenian restoration]], and Constantinople would remain the largest and wealthiest city in Europe until the 13th century. The empire was largely dismantled in 1204, following the [[Sack of Constantinople]] by Latin armies at the end of the [[Fourth Crusade]]; its former territories [[Partitio terrarum imperii Romaniae|were then divided]] into competing Greek [[rump state]]s and [[Frankokratia|Latin realms]]. Despite the eventual [[Byzantine Empire under the Palaiologos dynasty|recovery of Constantinople]] in 1261, the reconstituted empire would wield only regional power during its final two centuries of existence. Its remaining territories were progressively annexed by the Ottomans in [[Byzantine–Ottoman wars|perennial wars]] fought throughout the 14th and 15th centuries. The fall of Constantinople to the Ottomans in 1453 ultimately brought the empire to an end. Many refugees who had fled the city after its capture settled in Italy and throughout Europe, helping to ignite the [[Renaissance]]. The fall of Constantinople is sometimes used to mark the dividing line between the Middle Ages and the [[early modern period]]. == Nomenclature == {{See also|Roman people|Names of the Greeks}} The inhabitants of the empire, now generally termed Byzantines, thought of themselves as [[Roman people|Romans]] ({{transliteration|grc|Romaioi}}). Their Islamic neighbours similarly called their empire the &quot;land of the Romans&quot; ({{transliteration|ar|Bilād al-Rūm}}), but the people of medieval Western Europe preferred to call them &quot;Greeks&quot; (''Graeci''), due to having a contested legacy to Roman identity and to associate negative connotations from ancient Latin literature.{{sfnm|Kaldellis|2023|1p=2|2a1=Aschenbrenner|2a2=Ransohoff|2y=2022|2pp=1–2|Cormack|2008|3pp=8–9}} The adjective &quot;Byzantine&quot;, which derived from [[Byzantium|{{transliteration|grc|Byzantion}}]] (Latinised as {{lang|la|Byzantium}}), the name of the Greek settlement [[Constantinople]] was established on, was only used to describe the inhabitants of that city; it did not refer to the empire, which they called {{transliteration|grc|Romanía}}—&quot;Romanland&quot;.{{sfnm|Kaldellis|2022|1pp=349–351|Cormack|2008|2p=4}} After the empire's fall, early modern scholars referred to the empire by many names, including the &quot;Empire of Constantinople&quot;, the &quot;Empire of the Greeks&quot;, the &quot;Eastern Empire&quot;, the &quot;Late Empire&quot;, the &quot;Low Empire&quot;, and the &quot;Roman Empire&quot;.{{sfn|Aschenbrenner|Ransohoff|2022|p=2}} The increasing use of &quot;Byzantine&quot; and &quot;Byzantine Empire&quot; likely started with the 15th-century historian [[Laonikos Chalkokondyles]], whose works were widely propagated, including by [[Hieronymus Wolf]]. &quot;Byzantine&quot; was used adjectivally alongside terms such as &quot;Empire of the Greeks&quot; until the 19th century.{{sfn|Kaldellis|2022|pp=352–357}} It is now the primary term, used to refer to all aspects of the empire; some modern historians believe that, as an originally prejudicial and inaccurate term, it should not be used.{{sfnm|Kaldellis|2023|1pp=2–3|Cormack|2008|2p=4}} == History == {{Main|History of the Byzantine Empire}} As the historiographical [[periodization]]s of &quot;[[Ancient Rome|Roman history]]&quot;, &quot;[[late antiquity]]&quot;, and &quot;Byzantine history&quot; significantly overlap, there is no consensus on a &quot;foundation date&quot; for the Byzantine Empire, if there was one at all. The growth of the study of &quot;late antiquity&quot; has led to some historians setting a start date in the seventh or eighth centuries.{{sfnm|Cameron|2002|1pp=190–191|Kaldellis|2015}} Others believe a &quot;new empire&quot; began during changes in {{circa|300}}{{Nbsp}}AD.{{sfnm|Kaldellis|2023|1p=34|Shepard|2009|2p=22}} Still others hold that these starting points are too early or too late, and instead begin {{circa|500}}.{{sfn|Shepard|2009|p=26}} Geoffrey Greatrex believes that it is impossible to precisely date the foundation of the Byzantine Empire.{{sfn|Greatrex|2008|p=232}} === Early history (pre-518) === {{further|Byzantine Empire under the Constantinian and Valentinianic dynasties|Byzantine Empire under the Theodosian dynasty|Byzantine Empire under the Leonid dynasty}} [[File:Tetrarchy map3.jpg|thumb|Four-way division of the [[Roman Empire]] under the [[Tetrarchy]] system established by [[Diocletian]].|alt=A map showing the division of the Roman empire {{circa|300}}]] In a series of conflicts between the third and first centuries{{Nbsp}}BC, the [[Roman Republic]] gradually established hegemony over the [[eastern Mediterranean]], while [[Ancient Rome#Government|its government]] ultimately transformed into the one-person rule of [[Roman emperors|an emperor]]. The [[Roman Empire]] enjoyed a period of [[Pax Romana|relative stability]] until [[Crisis of the Third Century|the third century AD]], when a combination of external threats and internal instabilities caused the Roman state to splinter as regional armies acclaimed their generals as &quot;soldier-emperors&quot;.{{sfnm|Greatrex|2008|1p=233|Kaldellis|2023|2pp=16–17|Treadgold|1997|3pp=4–7}} One of these, [[Diocletian]] ({{reign|284|305}}), seeing that the state was too big to be ruled by one man, attempted to fix the problem by instituting a [[Tetrarchy]], or rule of four, and dividing the empire into eastern and western halves. Although the Tetrarchy system quickly failed, the division of the empire proved an enduring concept.{{sfnm|Greatrex|2008|1pp=233–235|Kaldellis|2023|2pp=17–18|Treadgold|1997|3pp=14–18}} [[Constantine I]] ({{reign|306|337}}) secured sole power in 324. Over the following six years, he rebuilt the city of [[Byzantium]] as a [[capital city]], which was renamed [[Constantinople]]. [[Rome]], the previous capital, was further from the important eastern provinces and in a less strategically important location; it was not esteemed by the &quot;soldier-emperors&quot; who ruled from the frontiers or by the empire's population who, [[Constitutio Antoniniana|having been granted citizenship]], considered themselves &quot;Roman&quot;.{{sfnm|Greatrex|2008|1p=335|Kaldellis|2023|2pp=16–20|Treadgold|1997|3pp=39–40}} Constantine extensively reformed the empire's military and civil administration and instituted the [[solidus (coin)|gold solidus]] as a stable currency.{{sfnm|Greatrex|2008|1pp=335–337|Kaldellis|2023|2loc=chapter 2|Treadgold|1997|3p=40}} He favoured [[Christianity]], which [[Constantine the Great and Christianity|he had converted to]] in 312.{{sfnm|Greatrex|2008|1pp=336–337|Kaldellis|2023|2pp=81–84|Treadgold|1997|3pp=31–33, 40–47}} [[Constantinian dynasty|Constantine's dynasty]] fought [[Perso-Roman wars of 337–361|a lengthy conflict]] against [[Sasanian Empire|Sasanid Persia]] and ended in 363 with the death of his son-in-law [[Julian (emperor)|Julian]].{{sfnm|Greatrex|2008|1pp=337–338|Kaldellis|2023|2pp=92–99, 106–111|Treadgold|1997|3pp=52–62}} The short [[Valentinianic dynasty]], occupied with [[Gothic Wars#Fourth century|wars against barbarians]], religious debates, and anti-corruption campaigns, ended in the East with the death of [[Valens]] at the [[Battle of Adrianople]] in 378.{{sfnm|Greatrex|2008|1pp=239–240|Kaldellis|2023|2pp=114–118, 121–123|Treadgold|1997|3pp=63–67}} [[File:Roman-empire-395AD.svg|thumb|Division of the empire after the death of Theodosius I in 395.{{Legend|#85d295|The Western Roman Empire}} {{Legend|#ed9595|The Byzantine/Eastern Roman Empire}}|alt=A map showing the western and eastern Roman empires {{circa|395}}, divided in the Balkans and North Africa]] Valens's successor, [[Theodosius I]] ({{reign|379|395}}), restored political stability in the east by allowing the [[Goths]] to settle in Roman territory;{{sfnm|Greatrex|2008|1p=240|Kaldellis|2023|2pp=128–129|Treadgold|1997|3p=73}} he also twice intervened in the western half, defeating the usurpers [[Magnus Maximus]] and [[Eugenius]] in 388 and 394 respectively.{{sfnm|Greatrex|2008|1p=241|Kaldellis|2023|2pp=129–137|Treadgold|1997|3pp=74–75}} He [[Persecution of pagans under Theodosius I|actively condemned paganism]], confirmed the primacy of [[Nicene Christianity]] over [[Arianism]], and established [[Christianity as the Roman state religion]].{{sfnm|Greatrex|2008|1pp=240–241|Kaldellis|2023|2pp=126–128|Treadgold|1997|3pp=71–74}} He was the last emperor to rule both the western and eastern halves of the empire;{{sfn|Kaldellis|2023|p=136}} after his death, the West would be destabilised by a succession of &quot;soldier-emperors&quot;, unlike the East, where administrators would continue to hold power. [[Theodosius II]] ({{reign|408|450}}) largely left the rule of the east to officials such as [[Anthemius (praetorian prefect)|Anthemius]], who constructed the [[Theodosian Walls]] to defend Constantinople, now firmly entrenched as Rome's capital.{{sfnm|Greatrex|2008|1p=242|Kaldellis|2023|2pp=165–167|Treadgold|1997|3pp=87–90}} Theodosius' reign was marked by the theological dispute over [[Nestorianism]], which was eventually deemed [[heretical]], and by the formulation of the ''[[Codex Theodosianus]]'' law code.{{sfnm|Greatrex|2008|1p=242|Kaldellis|2023|2pp=172–178|Treadgold|1997|3pp=91–92, 96–99|Shepard|2009|4p=23}} It also saw the arrival of [[Attila]]'s [[Huns]], who ravaged the [[Balkans]] and exacted a massive [[tribute]] from the empire; Attila however switched his attention to the [[Fall of the Western Roman Empire|rapidly-deteriorating western empire]], and his people fractured after his death in 453.{{sfnm|Greatrex|2008|1pp=242–243|Kaldellis|2023|2pp=193–196, 200|Treadgold|1997|3pp=94–95, 98}} After [[Leo I (emperor)|Leo I]] ({{reign|457|474}}) failed in his [[Basiliscus#Military career|468 attempt to reconquer]] the west, the warlord [[Odoacer]] deposed [[Romulus Augustulus]] in 476, killed his titular successor [[Julius Nepos]] in 480, and the office of western emperor was formally abolished.{{sfnm|Greatrex|2008|1pp=243–244|Kaldellis|2023|2pp=209, 214–215|Treadgold|1997|3pp=153, 158–159}} Through a combination of luck, cultural factors, and political decisions, the Eastern empire never suffered from rebellious barbarian vassals and was never ruled by barbarian warlords—the problems which ensured the downfall of the West.{{sfn|Kaldellis|2023|pp=243–246}} [[Zeno (emperor)|Zeno]] ({{reign|474|491}}) convinced the problematic [[Ostrogoth]] king [[Theodoric the Great|Theodoric]] to take control of Italy from Odoacer, which he did; dying with the empire at peace, Zeno was succeeded by [[Anastasius I Dicorus|Anastasius I]] ({{reign|491|518}}).{{sfnm|Greatrex|2008|1p=244|Kaldellis|2023|2pp=220–221|Treadgold|1997|3pp=162–164}} Although his [[Monophysitism]] brought occasional issues, Anastasius was a capable administrator and instituted several successful financial reforms including the abolition of the [[Collatio lustralis|chrysargyron tax]]. He was the first emperor to die with no serious problems affecting his empire since Diocletian.{{sfnm|Greatrex|2008|1p=244|Kaldellis|2023|2pp=223–226|Treadgold|1997|3pp=164–173}} === 518–717 === {{See also|Byzantine Empire under the Justinian dynasty|Byzantine Empire under the Heraclian dynasty}} {{Multiple image | perrow = 2 | align = right | image1 = Mosaic of Justinianus I - Basilica San Vitale (Ravenna).jpg | alt1 = A close up photograph of a mosaic of a person painted on a golden colored background. The person has a dark brown cloth covering up his upper body till the neck, three jewels on his right shoulder, a crown with two pendants each hanging from both ends and an aura like circle around his head | image2 = Belisarius mosaic.jpg | alt2 = A close up photograph of a mosaic of a person painted on a golden colored background. The person has a white cloth covering up his upper body till the neck, an embroidered pattern on his right shoulder, wavy hair, a stubble beard and a moustache | footer = Emperor [[Justinian]] (''left''), and the general [[Belisarius]] (''right''). [[Mosaic]]s, 6th century, from the [[Basilica of San Vitale]], Ravenna, Italy | direction = | total_width = 270 }} &lt;!--The Acacian schism should be discussed in the Religion section. Whether the renovatio imperii existed at all is not within the scope of this article.--&gt; The reign of [[Justinian I]] was a watershed in Byzantine history.{{sfnm|Haldon|2008|1p=250|Louth|2009a|2p=106|Kaldellis|2023|3pp=257–258|Treadgold|1997|4p=174}} Following his accession in 527, the law-code was rewritten as the influential ''[[Corpus Juris Civilis]]'' and Justinian produced extensive legislation on provincial administration;{{sfnm|Louth|2009a|1pp=108–109|Kaldellis|2023|2pp=269–271|Sarris|2002|3p=45|Treadgold|1997|4pp=178–180}} he reasserted imperial control over religion and morality through purges of non-Christians and &quot;deviants&quot;;{{sfnm|Sarris|2002|1pp=43–45|Kaldellis|2023|2pp=271–274|Louth|2009a|3pp=114–119}} and having ruthlessly subdued [[Nika riots|the 532 Nika revolt]] he rebuilt much of Constantinople, including the original [[Hagia Sophia]].{{sfnm|Louth|2009a|1pp=111–114|Kaldellis|2023|2pp=274–277|Sarris|2002|3p=46}} Justinian took advantage of political instability in Italy to attempt the reconquest of lost western territories. The [[Vandal Kingdom]] in North Africa [[Vandalic War|was subjugated in 534]] by the general [[Belisarius]], who [[Gothic War (535–554)|then invaded Italy]]; the [[Ostrogothic Kingdom]] was destroyed in 554.{{sfnm|Sarris|2002|1p=46|Kaldellis|2023|2pp=279–283, 287–288, 305–307|Moorhead|2009|3pp=202–209}} In the 540s, however, Justinian began to suffer reversals on multiple fronts. Taking advantage of Constantinople's preoccupation with the West, [[Khosrow I]] of the [[Sasanian Empire]] invaded Byzantine territory and sacked [[Antioch]] in 540.{{sfnm|Kaldellis|2023|1p=297|Treadgold|1997|2pp=193–194|Haldon|2008|3pp=252–253}} Meanwhile, the emperor's internal reforms and policies began to falter, not helped by [[Plague of Justinian|a devastating plague]] that killed a large proportion of the population and severely weakened the empire's social and financial stability.{{sfnm|Sarris|2002|1p=49|Kaldellis|2023|2pp=298–301}} The most difficult period of the Ostrogothic war, against their king [[Totila]], came during this decade, while divisions among Justinian's advisors undercut the administration's response.{{sfnm|Treadgold|1997|1pp=196–207|Kaldellis|2023|2pp=298–299, 305–306|Moorhead|2009|3pp=207–208}} He also did not fully heal the divisions in [[Chalcedonian Christianity]], as the [[Second Council of Constantinople]] failed to make a real difference.{{sfnm|Treadgold|1997|1pp=210–211, 214|Louth|2009a|2pp=117–118|Haldon|2008|3p=253}} Justinian died in 565; his reign saw more success than that of any other Byzantine emperor, yet he left his empire under massive strain.{{sfnm|Kaldellis|2023|1pp=318–319|Treadgold|1997|2p=217|Sarris|2002|3p=51}} Financially and territorially overextended, [[Justin II]] ({{reign|565|578}}) was soon at war on many fronts. The [[Lombards]], fearing the aggressive [[Pannonian Avars|Avars]], conquered much of northern Italy by 572.{{sfnm|Sarris|2002|1p=51|Haldon|2008|2p=254|Treadgold|1997|3pp=220–222}} The [[Byzantine–Sasanian War of 572–591|Sasanian wars restarted]] that year, and continued until the emperor [[Maurice (emperor)|Maurice]] finally emerged victorious in 591; by that time, the Avars and [[Slavic migrations to the Balkans|Slavs had repeatedly invaded the Balkans]], causing great instability.{{sfnm|Louth|2009a|1pp=124–127|Haldon|2008|2p=254|Sarris|2002|3p=51}} Maurice [[Maurice's Balkan campaigns|campaigned extensively in the region]] during the 590s, but although he managed to re-establish Byzantine control up to the [[Danube River|Danube]], he pushed his troops too far in 602—they mutinied, proclaimed an officer named [[Phocas]] as emperor, and executed Maurice.{{sfnm|Kaldellis|2023|1pp=336–338|Treadgold|1997|2pp=232–235|Haldon|2008|3p=254}} The Sasanians seized their moment and [[Byzantine–Sasanian War of 602–628|reopened hostilities]]; Phocas was unable to cope and soon faced [[Heraclian revolt|a major rebellion]] led by [[Heraclius]]. Phocas lost Constantinople in 610 and was soon executed, but the destructive civil war accelerated the empire's decline.{{sfnm|Kaldellis|2023|1pp=347–350|Haldon|2008|2p=254|Louth|2009b|3pp=226–227|Treadgold|1997|4p=241}} {{multiple image | align = left | direction = vertical | width = 300 | image1 = The Sasanian Empire at its apex under Khosrow II-es.svg | alt1 = A map centred on West Asia, with the territories controlled by the Sassanian Empire colored light brown. All of modern day Iran, Armenia, Azerbaijan, Syria, Iraq, Israel, Palestine; southern Yemen, northern Arabia and Egypt along with a bulge through Turkey are colored light brown | image2 = Walls of Constantinople.JPG | alt2 = A photograph of a large double-layered fortification. | footer = '''Top:''' the [[Sasanian Empire]] at its territorial apex under [[Khosrow II]]&lt;br /&gt;'''Bottom:''' the [[Walls of Constantinople|Theodosian Walls]] of Constantinople, critically important during the [[siege of Constantinople (717–718)|717–718 siege]]. }} Under [[Khosrow II]], the Sassanids occupied the [[Levant]] and Egypt and pushed into Asia Minor, while Byzantine control of Italy slipped and the Avars and Slavs ran riot in the Balkans.{{sfnm|Haldon|2008|1pp=254–255|Treadgold|1997|2pp=287–293|Kaldellis|2023|3pp=351–355}} Although Heraclius repelled [[Siege of Constantinople (626)|a siege of Constantinople]] in 626 and [[Battle of Nineveh (627)|defeated the Sassanids]] in 627, this was a [[pyrrhic victory]].{{sfnm|Sarris|2002|1pp=56–58|Haldon|2008|2p=255|Kaldellis|2023|3pp=364–367, 369, 372|Louth|2009b|4pp=227–229|Treadgold|1997|5pp=397–400}} The [[early Muslim conquests]] soon saw the conquest of [[Muslim conquest of the Levant|the Levant]], [[Arab conquest of Egypt|Egypt]], and [[Muslim conquest of Persia|the Sassanid Empire]] by the newly-formed Arabic [[Rashidun Caliphate]].{{sfnm|Kaldellis|2023|1p=375|Haldon|2008|2p=256|Louth|2009b|3pp=229–230}} By Heraclius' death in 641, the empire had been severely reduced economically as well as territorially—the loss of the wealthy eastern provinces had deprived Constantinople of three-quarters of its revenue.{{sfnm|Kaldellis|2023|1p=387|Haldon|2008|2p=256|Treadgold|2002|3p=129}} The next seventy-five years are poorly documented.{{sfn|Kaldellis|2023|p=387}} [[Arab–Byzantine wars#Arab attacks on Anatolia and sieges of Constantinople|Arab raids into Asia Minor]] began almost immediately, and the Byzantines resorted to holding fortified centres and avoiding battle at all costs; although it was invaded annually, Anatolia avoided permanent Arab occupation.{{sfnm|Haldon|2008|1p=257|Kaldellis|2023|2p=387}} The outbreak of the [[First Fitna]] in 656 gave Byzantium breathing space, which it used wisely: some order was restored in the Balkans by [[Constans II]] ({{reign|641|668}}),{{sfnm|Kaldellis|2023|1p=389|Louth|2009b|2pp=230–231}} who began the administrative reorganisation known as the &quot;[[Theme (Byzantine district)|theme system]]&quot;, in which troops were allocated to defend specific provinces.{{sfnm|Treadgold|1997|1pp=315–316|Louth|2009b|2pp=239–240}} With the help of the recently rediscovered [[Greek fire]], [[Constantine IV]] ({{reign|668|685}}) repelled the Arab efforts to [[Siege of Constantinople (674–678)|capture Constantinople in the 670s]],{{sfnm|Treadgold|1997|1pp=323–327|Haldon|2008|2p=257|Louth|2009b|3pp=232–233}} but suffered [[Battle of Ongal|a reversal]] against the [[Bulgars]], who soon established [[First Bulgarian Empire|an empire in the northern Balkans]].{{sfnm|Kaldellis|2023|1p=403|Haldon|2008|2pp=257–258|Treadgold|2002|3pp=134–135}} Nevertheless, he and Constans had done enough to secure the empire's position, especially as the [[Umayyad Caliphate]] was undergoing [[Second Fitna|another civil war]].{{sfnm|Kaldellis|2023|1p=403|Treadgold|2002|2p=135}} [[Justinian II]] sought to build on the stability secured by his father Constantine but was overthrown in 695 after attempting to exact too much from his subjects; over the next twenty-two years, six more rebellions followed in [[Twenty Years' Anarchy|an era of political instability]].{{sfnm|Treadgold|2002|1pp=136–138|Haldon|2008|2p=257|Kaldellis|2023|3pp=438–440}} The reconstituted caliphate sought to break Byzantium by taking Constantinople, but the newly crowned [[Leo III the Isaurian|Leo III]] managed to [[siege of Constantinople (717–718)|repel the 717–718 siege]], the first major setback of the Muslim conquests.{{sfnm|Treadgold|2002|1pp=137–138|Haldon|2008|2p=257|Auzépy|2009|3p=265}} === 718–867 === {{See also|Twenty Years' Anarchy|Byzantine Empire under the Isaurian dynasty|Byzantine Empire under the Nikephorian dynasty|Byzantine Empire under the Amorian dynasty}}[[File:Solidus-Leo III and Constantine V-sb1504.jpg|thumb|Gold ''solidus'' of [[Leo III the Isaurian|Leo III]] (left), and his son and heir, [[Constantine V]] (right)|alt=Two gold coins, each depicting a man]] Leo and his son [[Constantine V]] ({{reign|741|775}}), two of the most capable Byzantine emperors, withstood continued Arab attacks, civil unrest, and natural disasters, and reestablished the state as a major regional power.{{sfnm|Haldon|2008|1pp=258–259|Kaldellis|2023|2pp=443, 451–452|Auzépy|2009|3pp=255–260}} Leo's reign produced the ''[[Ecloga]]'', a new code of law to succeed that of Justinian II,{{sfnm|Kaldellis|2023|1pp=444–445|Auzépy|2009|2pp=275–276}} and continued to reform the &quot;theme system&quot; in order to lead offensive campaigns against the Muslims, culminating in [[Battle of Akroinon|a decisive victory in 740]].{{sfnm|Auzépy|2009|1pp=265–273|Kaegi|2009|2pp=385–385|Kaldellis|2023|3p=450}} Constantine overcame an early civil war against his brother-in-law [[Artabasdos]], made peace with the new [[Abbasid Caliphate]], [[Constantine V#Repeated campaigns against the Bulgarians|campaigned successfully]] against the Bulgars, and continued to make administrative and military reforms.{{sfnm|Haldon|2008|1p=260|Kaldellis|2023|2pp=450–454|Treadgold|2002|3pp=140–141}} However, due to both emperors' support for the [[Byzantine Iconoclasm]], which opposed the use of [[icon|religious icons]], they were later vilified by Byzantine historians;{{sfnm|Kaldellis|2023|1pp=443, 447–449, 454–459|Haldon|2008|2pp=258–261|Auzépy|2009|3pp=253–254}} Constantine's reign also saw the loss of [[Ravenna]] to the [[Kingdom of the Lombards|Lombards]], and the beginning of a split with the [[Papal States|Roman papacy]].{{sfnm|Treadgold|2002|1pp=140–141|Kaldellis|2023|2pp=459–561|Auzépy|2009|3pp=284–287}} In 780, Empress [[Irene of Athens|Irene]] assumed power on behalf of her son [[Constantine VI]].{{sfnm|Haldon|2008|1p=261|Treadgold|2002|2pp=141–142|Magdalino|2002|3p=170}} Although she was a capable administrator who temporarily resolved the iconoclasm controversy,{{sfnm|Haldon|2008|1p=261|Kaldellis|2023|2pp=464–469}} the empire was destabilized by her feud with her son. The Bulgars and Abbasids meanwhile inflicted numerous defeats on the Byzantine armies, and the papacy crowned [[Charlemagne]] as Roman emperor in 800.{{sfnm|Kaldellis|2023|1pp=470–473|Magdalino|2002|2pp=169–171|Haldon|2008|3p=261}} In 802, the unpopular Irene was overthrown by [[Nikephoros I]]; he reformed the empire's administration but died [[Battle of Pliska|in battle against the Bulgars]] in 811.{{sfnm|Kaldellis|2023|1pp=473–474, 478–481}} Military defeats and societal disorder, especially the resurgence of iconoclasm, characterised the next eighteen years.{{sfnm|Holmes|2008|1p=265|Auzépy|2009|2pp=257, 259, 289|Kaldellis|2023|3pp=482–483, 485–491}} Stability was somewhat restored during the reign of [[Theophilos (emperor)|Theophilos]] ({{reign|829|842}}), who exploited economic growth to complete construction programs, including rebuilding the [[Walls of Constantinople#Sea walls|sea walls of Constantinople]], overhaul provincial governance, and wage inconclusive campaigns against the Abbasids.{{sfnm|Kaldellis|2023|1pp=491–495|Holmes|2008|2p=265|Auzépy|2009|3pp=273–274}} After his death, his empress [[Theodora (wife of Theophilos)|Theodora]], ruling on behalf of her son [[Michael III]], permanently extinguished the iconoclastic movement;{{sfnm|Kaldellis|2023|1pp=498–501|Holmes|2008|2p=266}} the empire prospered under their sometimes-fraught rule. However, Michael was posthumously vilified by historians loyal to the dynasty of his successor [[Basil I]], who assassinated him in 867 and who was given credit for his predecessor's achievements.{{sfnm|Holmes|2008|1pp=265–266|Kaldellis|2023|2pp=504–505|Auzépy|2009|3p=254|Tougher|2009|4pp=292–293, 296}} === 867–1081 === {{further|Byzantine Empire under the Macedonian dynasty|Byzantine Empire under the Doukas dynasty}} [[File:ByzantineEmpire867AD4-en.svg|thumb|upright=1.25|The Byzantine Empire, {{Circa|867}}|alt=A map showing the Byzantine Empire's holdings (Greece, Anatolia, and some of Italy) {{Circa|867}}]] Basil I ({{reign|867|886}}) continued Michael's policies.{{sfnm|Tougher|2009|1pp=292, 296|Holmes|2008|2p=266}} His armies campaigned with mixed results in Italy but [[Battle of Bathys Ryax|defeated]] the [[Paulician principality of Tephrike|Paulicians of Tephrike]].{{sfnm|Holmes|2008|1p=266|Kaldellis|2023|2pp=522–524|Treadgold|1997|3pp=455–458}} His successor [[Leo VI the Wise|Leo VI]] ({{reign|886|912}}){{efn|Leo VI was officially the son of Basil I, but a persistent rumour alleged that he had been fathered by Michael III, who had previously taken Leo's mother [[Eudokia Ingerina]] as his mistress. One of Leo's first acts was to rebury Michael III in Basil's mausoleum, which exacerbated the rumours.{{sfnm|Tougher|2009|1p=296|Kaldellis|2023|2p=526}}}} compiled and propagated a huge number of written works. These included the ''[[Basilika]]'', a Greek translation of Justinian I's law-code which included over 100 new laws of Leo's devising; the ''[[Tactica of Emperor Leo VI the Wise|Tactica]]'', a military treatise; and the ''[[Book of the Prefect|Book of the Eparch]]'', which codified Constantinople's trading regulations.{{sfnm|Shepard|2009b|1pp=493, 496–498|Kaldellis|2023|2pp=429–433|Holmes|2008|2p=267}} In non-literary contexts Leo was less successful: the empire [[Siege of Taormina (902)|lost in Sicily]] and [[Battle of Boulgarophygon|against the Bulgarians]],{{sfnm|Holmes|2008|1p=267|Kaldellis|2023|2pp=534–535}} while he provoked theological scandal by marrying four times in an attempt to father a legitimate heir.{{sfnm|Kaldellis|2023|1pp=537–539|Holmes|2008|2p=267|Shepard|2009b|3p=503}} The early reign of that heir, [[Constantine VII]], was tumultuous, as his mother [[Zoe Karbonopsina|Zoe]], his uncle [[Alexander (Byzantine emperor)|Alexander]], the patriarch [[Nicholas Mystikos|Nicholas]], the powerful [[Simeon I of Bulgaria]], and other influential figures jockeyed for power.{{sfnm|Shepard|2009b|1p=505|Kaldellis|2023|2pp=540–543|Holmes|2008|3p=267}} In 920, the admiral [[Romanos I Lekapenos|Romanos I]] used his fleet to secure power, crowning himself and demoting Constantine to the position of junior co-emperor.{{sfnm|Kaldellis|2023|1pp=543–544|Shepard|2009b|2pp=505–507}} His reign, which brought [[Byzantine–Bulgarian war of 913–927#Peace treaty|peace with Bulgaria]] and successes in the east under the general [[John Kourkouas]], was ended in 944 by the machinations of his sons, whom Constantine soon usurped in turn.{{sfnm|Shepard|2009b|1pp=508–509|Kaldellis|2023|2pp=546–552|Holmes|2008|3p=268}} Constantine's ineffectual sole rule has often been construed as [[Macedonian Renaissance|the zenith of Byzantine learning]], but while several works were compiled, they were largely intended to legitimise and glorify the emperor's [[Macedonian dynasty]].{{sfnm|Kaldellis|2023|1pp=553–555|Holmes|2008|2p=268}} [[Romanos II|His son and successor]] died young; under two soldier-emperors, [[Nikephoros II Phokas|Nikephoros II]] ({{reign|963|969}}) and [[John I Tzimiskes]] ({{reign|969|976}}), the Roman army claimed numerous military successes, including the [[Byzantine conquest of Cilicia|conquest of Cilicia]] and [[Siege of Antioch (968–969)|Antioch]], and a [[Sviatoslav's invasion of Bulgaria|sensational victory against Bulgaria and the Kievan Rus']] in 971. John in particular was an astute administrator who reformed military structures and implemented effective fiscal policies.{{sfnm|Kaldellis|2023|1pp=563–573|Holmes|2008|2p=268–269|Magdalino|2002|3p=176}} [[File:Bizansist touchup.jpg|thumb|upright=1.45|Constantinople was the largest and wealthiest city in Europe throughout late antiquity and most of the Middle Ages until the [[Fourth Crusade]] in 1204.|alt=A 3D model of a large city bordered on two sides by water]] After John's death, Constantine VII's grandsons [[Basil II]] and [[Constantine VIII]] ruled jointly for half a century, although the latter exercised no real power before Basil's death in 1025.{{sfn|Holmes|2008|pp=268, 271}} Their early reign was occupied by conflicts against two prominent generals, [[Bardas Skleros]] and [[Bardas Phokas the Younger|Bardas Phokas]], which ended in 989 with the former's death and the latter's submission.{{sfnm|Shepard|2009b|1pp=522–526|Magdalino|2002}} Between 1021 and 1022, following years of tensions, [[Basil II]] led a series of victorious campaigns against the [[Kingdom of Georgia]], resulting in the annexation of several Georgian provinces to the empire. Basil's successors also annexed [[Bagratid Armenia]] in 1045. Importantly, both Georgia and Armenia were significantly weakened by the Byzantine administration's policy of heavy taxation and abolishing of the levy. The weakening of Georgia and Armenia played a significant role in the Byzantine [[Battle of Manzikert|defeat at Manzikert]] in 1071.&lt;ref name=&quot;RappCrego2018&quot;&gt;{{Cite book |last=Toumanoff |first=Cyril |author-link=Cyril Toumanoff |title=Languages and Cultures of Eastern Christianity: Georgian |publisher=Taylor &amp; Francis |year=2018 |isbn=978-1-351-92326-2 |editor-last=Rapp |editor-first=Stephen H. |editor-link=Stephen H. Rapp Jr |location=London and New York |pages=62 |chapter=Caucasia and Byzantium |access-date=30 December 2018 |editor-last2=Crego |editor-first2=Paul |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=rH10DwAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PT62 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200727162836/https://books.google.com/books?id=rH10DwAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PT62 |archive-date=27 July 2020 |url-status=live}}&lt;/ref&gt; Basil II is considered among the most capable Byzantine emperors and his reign as the apex of the empire in the [[Middle Ages]]. By 1025, the date of Basil II's death, the Byzantine Empire stretched from Armenia in the east to [[Calabria]] in southern Italy in the west.{{Sfn|Browning|1992|p=116}} Many successes had been achieved, ranging from the conquest of Bulgaria to the annexation of parts of Georgia and Armenia, and the [[Byzantine Crete|reconquests of Crete]], [[Cyprus in the Middle Ages|Cyprus]], and the important city of [[Siege of Antioch (968–969)|Antioch]]. These were not temporary tactical gains but long-term reconquests.{{Sfn|Browning|1992|p=96}} [[File:The seizure of Edessa in Syria by the Byzantine army and the Arabic counterattack from the Chronicle of John Skylitzes.jpg|thumb|upright=1.3|The seizure of [[Edessa]] (1031) by the Byzantines under [[George Maniakes]] and the counterattack by the [[Seljuk Turks]]|alt=Depiction of an army attacking a walled town]] At the same time, Byzantium was faced with new enemies. Its provinces in southern Italy were threatened by the [[Italo-Normans|Normans]] who arrived in Italy at the beginning of the 11th century. During a period of strife between Constantinople and Rome culminating in the [[East–West Schism|East-West Schism of 1054]], the [[Norman conquest of southern Italy|Normans advanced]] gradually into [[Byzantine Italy]].{{sfn|Vasiliev|1928–1935|p=[https://web.archive.org/web/20171012025518/http://www.intratext.com/IXT/ENG0832/_P17.HTM 17]}} [[Reggio Calabria|Reggio]], the capital of the tagma of Calabria, was captured in 1060 by [[Robert Guiscard]], followed by [[Otranto]] in 1068. [[Bari]], the main Byzantine stronghold in [[Apulia]], was besieged in August 1068 and [[Siege of Bari|fell in April 1071]].{{Sfnm|2=2000|1p=157|Stephenson|2a1=Hooper|2a2=Bennett|2y=1996|2p=82}} About 1053, [[Constantine IX Monomachos|Constantine IX]] disbanded what the historian [[John Skylitzes]] calls the &quot;Iberian Army&quot;, which consisted of 50,000 men, and it was turned into a contemporary [[Droungarios of the Watch|Drungary of the Watch]]. Two other knowledgeable contemporaries, the former officials [[Michael Attaleiates]] and [[Kekaumenos]], agree with Skylitzes that by demobilising these soldiers, Constantine did catastrophic harm to the empire's eastern defences. The emergency lent weight to the military aristocracy in Anatolia, who in 1068 secured the election of one of their own, [[Romanos IV Diogenes|Romanos Diogenes]], as emperor. In the summer of 1071, Romanos undertook a massive eastern campaign to draw the [[Sultanate of Rum|Seljuks]] into a general engagement with the Byzantine army. At the [[Battle of Manzikert]], Romanos suffered a surprise defeat against [[Sultan]] [[Alp Arslan]] and was captured. Alp Arslan treated him with respect and imposed no harsh terms on the Byzantines.&lt;ref name=&quot;PM&quot;&gt;Markham, Paul. &quot;[http://faculty.uml.edu/ethan_spanier/Teaching/documents/TheBattleofManzikert.pdf The Battle of Manzikert]&quot;. 1 August 2005. UMass Lowell Faculty. {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160429203111/http://faculty.uml.edu/ethan_spanier/Teaching/documents/TheBattleofManzikert.pdf|date=29 April 2016}}&quot;.&lt;/ref&gt; In Constantinople a coup put in power [[Michael VII Doukas|Michael Doukas]], who soon faced the opposition of [[Nikephoros Bryennios the Elder|Nikephoros Bryennios]] and [[Nikephoros III Botaneiates]]. By 1081, the Seljuks had expanded their rule over virtually the entire Anatolian plateau from Armenia in the east to [[Bithynia]] in the west, and had established their capital at [[Nicaea]], just {{Convert|90|km|0|abbr=off}} from Constantinople.&lt;ref name=&quot;:0&quot;&gt;{{Cite encyclopedia |title=Byzantine Empire |encyclopedia=Encyclopædia Britannica |url=https://www.britannica.com/place/Byzantine-Empire |last1=MacGillivray Nicol |first1=Donald |date= 2024|author-link=Donald Nicol |last2=Teall |first2=John L.}}; Markham, Paul. &quot;[http://faculty.uml.edu/ethan_spanier/Teaching/documents/TheBattleofManzikert.pdf The Battle of Manzikert]&quot;. 1 August 2005. UMass Lowell Faculty {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160429203111/http://faculty.uml.edu/ethan_spanier/Teaching/documents/TheBattleofManzikert.pdf|date=29 April 2016}}&quot;.&lt;/ref&gt; === Komnenian dynasty and the Crusades === {{See also|Byzantine Empire under the Komnenos dynasty}} [[File:Alexios I Komnenos.jpg|thumb|upright|Depiction of [[Alexios I Komnenos|Alexios I]], founder of the [[Komnenos|Komnenos dynasty]]|alt=A mosaic depicting a haloed crowned man holding a book.]] ==== Alexios I and the First Crusade ==== {{See also|First Crusade}} [[File:Chora Church Constantinople 2007 panorama 002.jpg|thumb|250px|The [[Chora Church]] in modern Istanbul, dating from the [[Byzantine Empire under the Komnenos dynasty|Komnenian period]], has some of the finest Byzantine frescoes and mosaics.|alt=A color photograph of a domed stone structure with a tree at front center]] The [[Komnenos|Komnenian dynasty]] attained full power under [[Alexios I Komnenos|Alexios I]] in 1081. From the outset of his reign, Alexios faced a formidable attack from the Normans under Guiscard and his son [[Bohemond I of Antioch|Bohemund of Taranto]], who [[Battle of Dyrrhachium (1081)|captured Dyrrhachium]] and [[Corfu]] and laid siege to [[Larissa]] in [[Thessaly]]. Guiscard's death in 1085 temporarily eased the Norman problem. The following year, the Seljuq sultan died, and the sultanate was split due to internal rivalries. By his own efforts, Alexios defeated the [[Pechenegs]], who were caught by surprise and annihilated at the [[Battle of Levounion]] on 28 April 1091.&lt;ref name=&quot;Br&quot;&gt;{{Cite encyclopedia |title=Byzantine Empire |encyclopedia=Encyclopædia Britannica |url=https://www.britannica.com/place/Byzantine-Empire |last1=MacGillivray Nicol |first1=Donald |date= 2024|author-link=Donald Nicol |last2=Teall |first2=John L.}}&lt;/ref&gt; [[File:Byzantiumforecrusades.jpg|thumb|upright=1.15|The Byzantine Empire and the Seljuk [[Sultanate of Rûm]] before the [[First Crusade]] (1095–1099)|alt=A map showing most of Greece under Byzantine rule and most of Anatolia under Seljuk rule.]] Having achieved stability in the West, Alexios could turn his attention to the severe economic difficulties and the disintegration of the empire's traditional defences.{{Sfn|Birkenmeier|2002|p=234}} However, he still did not have enough manpower to recover the lost territories in Asia Minor and to the advance by the Seljuks. At the [[Council of Piacenza]] in 1095, envoys from Alexios spoke to [[Pope Urban II]] about the suffering of the Christians of the East and underscored that without help from the West, they would continue to suffer under Muslim rule. Urban saw Alexios' request as a dual opportunity to cement Western Europe and reunite the [[Eastern Orthodox Church]] with the [[Catholic Church|Roman Catholic Church]] under his rule.{{Sfnm|Harris|2014|Read|2000|Watson|1993|1p=55|2p=124|3p=12}} On 27 November 1095, Urban called the [[Council of Clermont]] and urged all those present to take up arms under the sign of the [[Christian cross|Cross]] and launch an armed [[pilgrimage]] to recover Jerusalem and the East from the Muslims. The response in Western Europe was overwhelming.&lt;ref name=&quot;Br&quot; /&gt; Alexios was able to recover a number of important cities, islands and much of western Asia Minor. The Crusaders agreed to become Alexios' vassals under the [[Treaty of Devol]] in 1108, which marked the end of the Norman threat during Alexios' reign.{{sfn|Komnene|1928|loc= [http://www.fordham.edu/halsall/basis/annacomnena-alexiad13.html ''Alexiad'' 13.348–13.358]}}{{sfn|Birkenmeier|2002|p=46}} ==== John II, Manuel I, and the Second Crusade ==== {{See also|Second Crusade}} [[File:Comnenus mosaics Hagia Sophia.jpg|thumb|250px|A [[mosaic]] from the [[Hagia Sophia]] of Constantinople (modern Istanbul), depicting [[Mary, mother of Jesus|Mary]] and [[Jesus]], flanked by [[John II Komnenos]] (left) and his wife [[Irene of Hungary]] (right), 12th century|alt=A mosaic depicting a haloed woman holding a baby, flanked by a man and woman, both crowned and haloed]] Alexios's son [[John II Komnenos]] succeeded him in 1118 and ruled until 1143. John was a pious and dedicated emperor who was determined to undo the damage to the empire suffered at the Battle of Manzikert half a century earlier.{{Sfn|Norwich|1998|p=267}} Famed for his piety and his remarkably mild and just reign, John was an exceptional example of a moral ruler at a time when cruelty was the norm.{{Sfn|Ostrogorsky|1969|p=377}} For this reason, he has been called the Byzantine [[Marcus Aurelius]]. During his twenty-five-year reign, John made alliances with the [[Holy Roman Empire]] in the West and decisively defeated the Pechenegs at the [[Battle of Beroia]].{{Sfn|Birkenmeier|2002|p=90}} He thwarted Hungarian and Serbian threats during the 1120s, and in 1130 he allied himself with [[Lothair III, Holy Roman Emperor|Lothair III]], the [[List of German monarchs|German Emperor]] against the Norman King [[Roger II of Sicily]].{{Sfn|Cinnamus|1976|pp=74–75}} In the later part of his reign, John focused his activities on the East, personally leading [[Byzantine–Seljuk wars|numerous campaigns against the Turks]] in Asia Minor. His campaigns fundamentally altered the balance of power in the East, forcing the Turks onto the defensive, while retaking many towns, fortresses, and cities across the peninsula for the Byzantines. He defeated the [[Danishmendids|Danishmend Emirate]] of [[Malatya|Melitene]] and reconquered all of [[Cilicia]],{{Sfn|Harris|2014|p=87}} while forcing [[Raymond of Poitiers]], Prince of Antioch, to recognise Byzantine suzerainty.{{Sfn|Harris|2014|p=93}} In an effort to demonstrate the emperor's role as the leader of the Christian world, John marched into the [[Holy Land]] at the head of the combined forces of the empire and the Crusader states; yet despite his efforts in leading the campaign, his hopes were disappointed by the treachery of his Crusader allies.{{Sfn|Harris|2014|pp=95–97}} In 1142, John returned to press his claims to Antioch, but he died in the spring of 1143 following a hunting accident.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |date=4 April 2024 |title=John II Comnenus |url=https://www.britannica.com/biography/John-II-Comnenus |access-date=2024-09-02 |website=Encyclopedia Britannica |language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt; John's chosen heir was his fourth son, [[Manuel I Komnenos]], who campaigned aggressively against his neighbours both in the west and east. In Palestine, Manuel allied with the Crusader [[Kingdom of Jerusalem]] and sent a large fleet to participate in a combined [[Crusader invasions of Egypt|invasion]] of [[Fatimid Caliphate|Fatimid Egypt]]. Manuel reinforced his position as overlord of the Crusader states, with his hegemony over Antioch and Jerusalem secured by agreement with [[Raynald of Châtillon|Raynald]], Prince of Antioch, and [[Amalric of Jerusalem]].{{Sfn|Magdalino|2002a|p=74}} In an effort to restore Byzantine control over the ports of southern Italy, he sent an expedition to Italy in 1155, but disputes within the coalition led to the eventual failure of the campaign. Despite this military setback, Manuel's armies successfully invaded the southern parts of the [[Kingdom of Hungary]] in 1167, defeating the Hungarians at the [[Battle of Sirmium]]. By 1168, nearly the whole of the eastern Adriatic coast lay in Manuel's hands.{{Sfn|Sedlar|1994|p=372}} Manuel made several alliances with the pope and Western Christian kingdoms, and he successfully handled the passage of the crusaders through his empire.{{Sfn|Magdalino|2002a|p=67}} In the East, Manuel suffered a major defeat in 1176 at the [[Battle of Myriokephalon]] against the Turks. These losses were quickly recovered, and in the following year Manuel's forces inflicted a defeat upon a force of &quot;picked Turks&quot;.{{Sfn|Birkenmeier|2002|p=128}} The Byzantine commander [[John Komnenos Vatatzes|John Vatatzes]], who destroyed the Turkish invaders at the [[Battle of Hyelion and Leimocheir]], brought troops from the capital and was able to gather an army along the way, a sign that the Byzantine army remained strong and that the defensive program of western Asia Minor was still successful.{{Sfn|Birkenmeier|2002|p=196}} John and Manuel pursued active military policies, and both deployed considerable resources on sieges and city defences; aggressive fortification policies were at the heart of their imperial military policies.{{Sfn|Birkenmeier|2002|pp=185–186}} Despite the defeat at Myriokephalon, the policies of Alexios, John and Manuel resulted in vast territorial gains, increased frontier stability in Asia Minor, and secured the stabilisation of the empire's European frontiers. From {{Circa|1081}} to {{Circa|1180}}, the Komnenian army assured the empire's security, enabling Byzantine civilisation to flourish.{{Sfn|Birkenmeier|2002|p=1}} This allowed the Western provinces to achieve an economic revival that continued until the close of the century. It has been argued that Byzantium under the Komnenian rule was more prosperous than at any time since the Persian invasions of the 7th century. During the 12th century, population levels rose and extensive tracts of new agricultural land were brought into production. Archaeological evidence from both Europe and Asia Minor shows a considerable increase in the size of urban settlements, together with a notable upsurge in new towns. Trade was also flourishing; the Venetians, the [[Genoa|Genoese]] and others opened up the ports of the Aegean to commerce, shipping goods from the Crusader states and Fatimid Egypt to the west and trading with the empire via Constantinople.{{Sfnm|Day|1977|Harvey|2003|1pp=289–290|2pp=241–243}} === Decline and disintegration === {{Main|Decline of the Byzantine Empire}} ==== Angelid dynasty ==== {{Main|Byzantine Empire under the Angelos dynasty}} Manuel's death on 24 September 1180 left his 11-year-old son [[Alexios II Komnenos]] on the throne. Alexios was highly incompetent in the office, and with his mother [[Maria of Antioch]]'s Frankish background, his regency was unpopular.{{Sfn|Norwich|1998|p=291}} Eventually, [[Andronikos I Komnenos]], a grandson of Alexios I, overthrew Alexios II in a violent ''coup d'état''. After eliminating his potential rivals, he had himself crowned as co-emperor in September 1183. He eliminated Alexios II and took his 12-year-old wife [[Agnes of France, Byzantine Empress|Agnes of France]] for himself.{{Sfn|Norwich|1998|p=292}} Andronikos began his reign well; in particular, the measures he took to reform the government of the empire have been praised by historians. According to the historian [[George Ostrogorsky]], Andronikos was determined to root out corruption: under his rule, the sale of offices ceased; selection was based on merit, rather than favouritism; and officials were paid an adequate salary to reduce the temptation of bribery. In the provinces, Andronikos's reforms produced a speedy and marked improvement.{{Sfn|Ostrogorsky|1969|p=397}} Gradually, however, Andronikos's reign deteriorated. The aristocrats were infuriated against him, and to make matters worse, Andronikos seemed to have become increasingly unbalanced; executions and violence became increasingly common, and his reign turned into a reign of terror.{{Sfn|Harris|2014|p=118}} Andronikos seemed almost to seek the extermination of the aristocracy as a whole. The struggle against the aristocracy turned into wholesale slaughter, while the emperor resorted to ever more ruthless measures to shore up his regime.{{Sfn|Ostrogorsky|1969|p=397}} Despite his military background, Andronikos failed to deal with [[Isaac Komnenos of Cyprus|Isaac Komnenos]] of Cyprus, [[Béla III of Hungary]] who [[Byzantine–Hungarian War (1180–1185)|reincorporated]] Croatian territories into Hungary, and [[Stefan Nemanja|Stephen Nemanja of Serbia]] who declared his independence from the Byzantine Empire. Yet, none of these troubles compared to [[William II of Sicily]]'s invasion force of 300 ships and 80,000 men, arriving in 1185 and [[Sack of Thessalonica (1185)|sacking Thessalonica]].{{Sfn|Norwich|1998|p=293}} Andronikos mobilised a small fleet of 100 ships to defend the capital, but other than that he was indifferent to the populace. He was finally overthrown when [[Isaac II Angelos]], surviving an imperial assassination attempt, seized power with the aid of the people and had Andronikos killed.{{Sfn|Norwich|1998|pp=294–295}} The reign of Isaac II, and more so that of his brother [[Alexios III Angelos|Alexios III]], saw the collapse of what remained of the centralised machinery of Byzantine government and defence. Although the Normans were driven out of Greece, in 1186 the [[Vlachs]] and Bulgars began a rebellion that led to the formation of the [[Second Bulgarian Empire]]. The internal policy of the Angeloi was characterised by the squandering of the public treasure and fiscal maladministration. Imperial authority was severely weakened, and the growing power vacuum at the centre of the empire encouraged fragmentation. There is evidence that some Komnenian heirs had set up a semi-independent state in [[Trabzon|Trebizond]] before 1204.{{Sfnm|Angold|1997|2a1=Paparrigopoulos|2a2=Karolidis|2p=216|2y=1925|1pp=305–307}} According to the historian [[Alexander Vasiliev (historian)|Alexander Vasiliev]], &quot;the dynasty of the Angeloi, Greek in its origin,&amp;nbsp;... accelerated the ruin of the Empire, already weakened without and disunited within.&quot;{{sfn|Vasiliev|1928–1935|p=[https://web.archive.org/web/20210227032548/http://www.intratext.com/IXT/ENG0832/_P1B.HTM 18]}} ==== Fourth Crusade and aftermath ==== {{further|Fourth Crusade|Frankokratia|Byzantine Empire under the Palaiologos dynasty}} [[File:Eugène Ferdinand Victor Delacroix 012.jpg|thumb|250px|[[Entry of the Crusaders in Constantinople|''The Entry of the Crusaders into Constantinople'']], by [[Eugène Delacroix]] (1840)|alt=A painting of an army marching into a city gate with much smoke burning in the background]] In 1198, [[Pope Innocent III]] broached the subject of a new crusade through [[Papal legate|legates]] and [[encyclical]] letters.{{Sfn|Norwich|1998|p=299}} The stated intent of the crusade was to conquer [[History of Arab Egypt#Ayyubid period|Egypt]], the centre of Muslim power in the Levant. The Crusader army arrived at [[Republic of Venice|Venice]] in the summer of 1202 and hired the Venetian fleet to transport them to Egypt. As a payment to the Venetians, they captured the (Christian) port of [[Zadar#History|Zara]] in [[Dalmatia]], which was a vassal city of Venice, it had rebelled and placed itself under Hungary's protection in 1186.&lt;ref name=&quot;BrC&quot;&gt;Britannica Concise, [http://concise.britannica.com/ebc/article-9383275/Siege-of-Zara Siege of Zara] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070706062040/http://concise.britannica.com/ebc/article-9383275/Siege-of-Zara |date=6 July 2007 }}.&lt;/ref&gt; Shortly afterward, [[Alexios IV Angelos]], son of the deposed and blinded Emperor Isaac II, made contact with the Crusaders. Alexios offered to reunite the Byzantine church with Rome, pay the Crusaders 200,000 silver marks, join the crusade, and provide all the supplies they needed to reach Egypt.{{Sfn|Norwich|1998|p=301}} [[File:LatinEmpire2.png|thumb|upright=1.15|The partition of the empire following the [[Fourth Crusade]], {{Circa|1204}}|alt=A map showing the competing states after the Fourth Crusade.]] The crusaders arrived at Constantinople in the summer of 1203 and [[Siege of Constantinople (1203)|quickly attacked]], starting a major fire that damaged large parts of the city, and briefly seized control. Alexios III fled from the capital, and Alexios Angelos was elevated to the throne as Alexios IV along with his blind father Isaac. Alexios IV and Isaac II were unable to keep their promises and were deposed by [[Alexios V Doukas|Alexios V]]. The crusaders again [[Sack of Constantinople|took the city on 13 April 1204]], and Constantinople was subjected to pillage and massacre by the rank and file for three days. Many priceless icons, relics and other objects later turned up in [[Western Europe]], a large number in Venice. According to chronicler [[Niketas Choniates]], a prostitute was even set up on the patriarchal throne.{{sfn|Choniates|1912|loc=[https://web.archive.org/web/20141030004048/http://www.fordham.edu/halsall/source/choniates1.html]}} When order had been restored, the crusaders and the Venetians proceeded to implement their agreement; [[Baldwin I, Latin Emperor|Baldwin of Flanders]] was elected emperor of a new [[Latin Empire]], and the Venetian [[Thomas Morosini]] was chosen as patriarch. The lands divided up among the leaders included most of the former Byzantine possessions.&lt;ref name=&quot;Br40 million&quot;&gt;{{Cite encyclopedia |title=The Fourth Crusade and the Latin Empire of Constantinople |encyclopedia=Encyclopædia Britannica |url=https://www.britannica.com/event/Crusades/The-Fourth-Crusade-and-the-Latin-empire-of-Constantinople |last1=Madden |first1=Thomas F. |author-link=Thomas F. Madden |last2=Dickson |first2=Gary|date=2024 }}&lt;/ref&gt; Although Venice was more interested in commerce than conquering territory, it took key areas of Constantinople, and the [[Doge (title)|Doge]] took the title of &quot;''Lord of a Quarter and Half a Quarter of the Roman Empire''&quot;.{{Sfn|Norwich|1982|pp=11.1–11.2, 127–143}} After the sack of Constantinople in 1204 by Latin crusaders, two Byzantine successor states were established: the [[Empire of Nicaea]] and the [[Despotate of Epirus]]. A third, the [[Empire of Trebizond]], was created after [[Alexios I of Trebizond]], commanding the [[Kingdom of Georgia|Georgian]] expedition in [[Chaldia]]&lt;ref name=&quot;:1&quot;&gt;{{Cite journal |last=Vasiliev |first=A. A. |author-link=Alexander Vasiliev (historian) |year=1936 |title=The Foundation of the Empire of Trebizond (1204–1222) |journal=[[Speculum (journal)|Speculum]] |volume=11 |issue=1 |pages=18ff |doi=10.2307/2846872 |jstor=2846872}}&lt;/ref&gt; a few weeks before the sack of Constantinople, found himself [[de facto]] emperor and established himself in Trebizond. Of the three successor states, Epirus and Nicaea stood the best chance of reclaiming Constantinople. The Nicaean Empire struggled to survive the next few decades, however, and by the mid-13th century it had lost much of southern Anatolia.{{Sfnm|Kean|2006|Madden|2005|1pp=150, 164|2p=162}} The weakening of the [[Sultanate of Rum|Sultanate of Rûm]] following the [[Battle of Köse Dağ|Mongol invasion in 1242–1243]] allowed many [[Anatolian beyliks|beyliks]] and [[Ghazi (warrior)|ghazis]] to set up their own principalities in Anatolia, weakening the Byzantine hold on Asia Minor.{{Sfn|Köprülü|1992|pp=33, 41}} Two centuries later, one of the Beys of these beyliks, [[Osman I]], would establish the [[Ottoman Empire]] that would eventually conquer Constantinople.{{Sfn|Köprülü|1992|pp=3–4}} However, the Mongol invasion also gave Nicaea a temporary respite from Seljuk attacks, allowing it to concentrate on the Latin Empire to its north. The Empire of Nicaea, founded by the [[Laskaris|Laskarid dynasty]], managed to [[Reconquest of Constantinople|recapture Constantinople]] in 1261 and defeat [[Epirus]]. This led to a short-lived revival of Byzantine fortunes under [[Michael VIII Palaiologos]], but the war-ravaged empire was ill-equipped to deal with the enemies that surrounded it. To maintain his campaigns against the Latins, Michael pulled troops from Asia Minor and levied crippling taxes on the peasantry, causing much resentment.{{Sfnm|Madden|2005|Reinert|2002|1p=179|2p=260}} Massive construction projects were completed in Constantinople to repair the damage of the Fourth Crusade, but none of these initiatives were of any comfort to the farmers in Asia Minor suffering raids from Muslim ghazis.{{Sfn|Reinert|2002|p=257}} Rather than holding on to his possessions in Asia Minor, Michael chose to expand the empire, gaining only short-term success. To avoid another sacking of the capital by the Latins, he forced the Church to submit to Rome, again a temporary solution for which the peasantry hated Michael and Constantinople.{{Sfn|Reinert|2002|p=257}} The efforts of [[Andronikos II Palaiologos|Andronikos II]] and later his grandson [[Andronikos III Palaiologos|Andronikos III]] marked Byzantium's last genuine attempts to restoring the glory of the empire. However, the use of mercenaries by Andronikos II often backfired, with the [[Catalan Company]] ravaging the countryside and increasing resentment towards Constantinople.{{Sfn|Reinert|2002|p=261}} === Fall === {{Main|Byzantine–Ottoman wars|Fall of Constantinople}} [[File:Le siège de Constantinople (1453) by Jean Le Tavernier after 1455.jpg|thumb|upright|The [[Fall of Constantinople|siege of Constantinople]] in 1453, depicted in a 15th-century French miniature|alt=A painting of a siege of a city]] The situation became worse for Byzantium during the civil wars after Andronikos III died. A [[Byzantine civil war of 1341–1347|six-year-long civil war]] devastated the empire, allowing the Serbian ruler [[Stefan Dušan]] to overrun most of the empire's remaining territory and establish a [[Serbian Empire]]. In 1354, an earthquake at [[Gelibolu|Gallipoli]] devastated the fort, allowing the [[Ottoman Turks|Ottomans]] (who were hired as mercenaries during the civil war by [[John VI Kantakouzenos]]) to establish themselves in Europe.{{Sfn|Reinert|2002|p=268}}&lt;ref name=&quot;:2&quot;&gt;{{Cite book |last=Vasilʹev |first=Aleksandr Aleksandrovich |author-link=Alexander Vasiliev (historian) |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=EXiWAwAAQBAJ |title=History of the Byzantine Empire, 324–1453 |date=1964 |publisher=Univ of Wisconsin Press |isbn=978-0-299-80925-6 |location=Madison, Wisconsin and London |language=en |access-date=19 July 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210808183933/https://books.google.com/books?id=EXiWAwAAQBAJ |archive-date=8 August 2021 |url-status=live}}&lt;/ref&gt; By the time the Byzantine civil wars had ended, the Ottomans had defeated the Serbians and subjugated them as vassals. Following the [[Battle of Kosovo]], much of the Balkans became dominated by the Ottomans.{{Sfn|Reinert|2002|p=270}} Constantinople by this stage was underpopulated and dilapidated. The population of the city had collapsed so severely that it was now little more than a cluster of villages separated by fields. On 2 April 1453, [[Mehmed II|Sultan Mehmed]]'s army of 80,000 men and large numbers of irregulars laid siege to the city.{{Sfn|Runciman|1990|pp=84–86}} Despite a desperate last-ditch defence of the city by the massively outnumbered Christian forces (c. 7,000 men, 2,000 of whom were foreign),{{sfnm|Runciman|1990|1pp=84–85}} Constantinople finally fell to the Ottomans after a two-month siege on 29 May 1453. The final Byzantine emperor, [[Constantine XI Palaiologos]], was last seen casting off his imperial regalia and throwing himself into hand-to-hand combat after the walls of the city were taken.{{Sfn|Hindley|2004|p=300}} == Geography == {{Main|Outline of the Byzantine Empire#Geography of the Byzantine Empire}} The Empire was centred in what is now [[Greece]] and [[Turkey]] with [[Constantinople]] as its capital.{{sfnm|Stathakopoulos|2023|1p=29|Herrin|2009|2p=24}} In the 5th century, it controlled the eastern basis of the Mediterranean running east from [[Singidunum]] (modern [[Belgrade]]) in a line through the [[Adriatic Sea]] and south to [[Cyrene, Libya]].{{sfn|Herrin|2009|p=24}} This encompassed most of the [[Balkans]], all of modern Greece, Turkey, [[Syria (region)|Syria]], [[Palestine (region)|Palestine]]; North Africa, primarily with modern [[Egypt]] and [[Libya]]; the [[Aegean Islands|Aegean islands]] along with [[Crete]], [[Cyprus (island)|Cyprus]] and [[Sicily]], and a small settlement in [[Crimea]].{{sfnm|Stathakopoulos|2023|1p=29|Herrin|2009|2p=24}} The landscape of the Empire was defined by the fertile fields of [[Anatolia]], long mountain ranges and rivers such as the [[Danube]].{{sfn|Stathakopoulos|2023|pp=29–30}} In the north and west were the Balkans, the corridors between the mountain ranges of [[Pindus|Pindos]], the [[Dinaric Alps]], the [[Rhodope Mountains|Rhodopes]] and the [[Balkan Mountains|Balkans]]. In the south and east were Anatolia, the [[Pontic Mountains]] and the [[Taurus Mountains|Taurus]]-[[Anti-Taurus Mountains|Anti-Taurus]] range, which served as passages for armies, while the [[Caucasus Mountains|Caucasus mountains]] lay between the Empire and its eastern neighbours.{{sfn|Stathakopoulos|2023|p=30}} [[Roman roads]] connected the Empire by land, with the [[Via Egnatia]] running from Constantinople to the Albanian coast through [[Macedonia (region)|Macedonia]] and the [[Via Traiana]] to Adrianople (modern [[Edirne]]), Serdica (modern [[Sofia]]) and Singidunum.{{sfn|Stathakopoulos|2023|pp=30–31}} By water, Crete, Cyprus and Sicily were key naval points and the main ports connecting Constantinople were Alexandria, Gaza, [[Caesarea Maritima|Caesarea]] and Antioch.{{sfnm|Stathakopoulos|2023|1p=30|Herrin|2009|2p=25}} The [[Aegean Sea|Aegean sea]] was considered an internal lake within the Empire.{{sfn|Stathakopoulos|2023|p=30}} == Government == {{Multiple image | footer = | align = right | direction = vertical | image1 = Byzantine Empire Themata-750-en.svg | width1 = 220 | alt1 = A map centred on Turkey. From west to east and north to south with the corresponding colors in brackets; are the themes of Opsikion (light purple), Thracesians (light grey), Cibyrrhaeots (light green), Optimatoi (green), Anatolic (brown), Bucellarians (orange) and Armeniacs (purple). On the map are marked the major rivers; the Aegean, Black and Mediterranean Seas; the cities of Ephesos, Constantinople, Ancyra, Tarsus, Adana, Antioch and Edessa; and the islands of Samos, Crete and Cyprus. | caption1 = The ''themes'', {{Circa|750}} | image2 = Byzantine Empire Themata-950-en.svg | width2 = 220 | alt2 = A map centred on Turkey. From west to east and north to south with the corresponding colors in brackets; are the themes of Opsikion (light purple), Samos (dark grey), Thracesians (light grey), Cibyrrhaeots (light green), Optimatoi (dark grey), Anatolic and Seleucia (brown), Bucellarians (orange), Paphlagonia (navy blue), Cappadocia (green), Charsianon (pink), Armeniacs (purple), Lycandus and Mesopotamia (brown), Sebastea (blue), Koloneia (dark green) and Chaldia (light blue). On the map are marked the major rivers; the Aegean, Black and Mediterranean Seas; the cities of Ephesos, Constantinople, Ancyra, Tarsus, Adana, Antioch and Edessa; and the islands of Crete and Cyprus. | caption2 = The ''themes'', {{Circa|950}} }} === Governance === {{See also|Roman emperor|Coronation of the Byzantine emperor|Byzantine bureaucracy and aristocracy}} The emperor was the centre of the whole administration of the Empire, who the legal historian Kaius Tuori has said was &quot;above the law, within the law, and the law itself&quot;; with a power that is difficult to define{{efn|Scholars from the previous and current generation who still cite the historian [[George Ostrogorsky]] focus on Byzantinian emperors being ''[[nomos empsychos]]'', the &quot;living law&quot;, both lawgiver and administrator, claimed as being in accordance with what Justinian I had codified.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal |last=Maas |first=Michael |date=1986 |title=Roman History and Christian Ideology in Justinianic Reform Legislation |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/1291527 |journal=Dumbarton Oaks Papers |volume=40 |page=29 |doi=10.2307/1291527 |jstor=1291527 |issn=0070-7546}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal |last=Atkinson |first=J.E. |date=2000 |title=Justinian and the Tribulations of Transformation |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/24595080 |journal=Acta Classica |volume=43 |page=18 |jstor=24595080 |issn=0065-1141}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite book |title=Encyclopedia of medieval philosophy: philosophy between 500 and 1500 |date=2020 |publisher=Springer |isbn=978-94-024-1663-3 |editor-last=Lagerlund |editor-first=Henrik |last=Christov |first=Ivan |edition=2nd |series=Springer reference |location=Dordrecht |chapter=Political Philosophy, Byzantine| page=1574}}&lt;/ref&gt;{{sfnm|Nicol|1988|1pp=64–65 |Bleicken |1978 |2p=6 |Tussay|2022}} The concept is associated with Hellenistic ideas of kingship and authoritarianism that influenced medieval thought of absolute power, and is now better understood as being promoted by the pagan rhetorician [[Themistius]] from 364 as the Empire transitioned into Christianity.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal |last=Hadas |first=Moses |author-link=Moses Hadas |date=1958 |editor-last=Voegelin |editor-first=Eric |editor1-link=Eric Voegelin |title=Order and History |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/2708049 |journal=Journal of the History of Ideas |volume=19 |issue=3 |page=444 |doi=10.2307/2708049 |jstor=2708049 |issn=0022-5037}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal |last=Stertz |first=Stephen A. |date=1976 |title=Themistius: A Hellenic Philosopher-Statesman in the Christian Roman Empire |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/3298499 |journal=The Classical Journal |volume=71 |issue=4 |page=358 |jstor=3298499 |issn=0009-8353}}&lt;/ref&gt;{{sfn|Tussay|2022|pp=11, 15}} More recent scholarship, such as the narrative histories of [[Warren Treadgold]] and [[Anthony Kaldellis]], or edited collections such as The Oxford Handbook of Byzantine Studies do not even mention the concept. It has been used as a way to distinguish earlier Roman emperors and Byzantine philosophy, but it is now understood that there was no real change and that the concept codified by Justinian originated with the power transition of the [[Julio-Claudian emperors]].{{sfnm|Bleicken|1978|1p=25|Tuori|2016|2p=11}}}} and which does not align with our modern understanding of the separation of powers.{{sfn|Tuori|2016|page=11}}&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite book |last=Eck |first=Werner |chapter=The Emperor, the Law and Imperial Administration |date=2016|title=The Oxford Handbook of Roman Law and Society |page=108 |editor-last=DuPlessis |editor-first=Paul J. |editor-last2=Tuori |editor-first2=Kaius |editor-last3=Ando |editor-first3=Clifford |url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/oxfordhb/9780198728689.013.8 |access-date=2024-08-15 |place=Oxford and New York |publisher=Oxford University Press |doi=10.1093/oxfordhb/9780198728689.013.8 |isbn=978-0-19-872868-9}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite book |last=Christoforou |first=Panayiotis |chapter=A History of the Roman Emperor |date=2023-07-31 |title=Imagining the Roman Emperor: Perceptions of Rulers in the High Empire |page=28 |url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/9781009362504.003 |access-date=2024-08-15 |place=Cambridge, New York, Port Melbourne, New Delhi and Singapore |publisher=Cambridge University Press |doi=10.1017/9781009362504.003 |isbn=978-1-009-36250-4}}&lt;/ref&gt; The proclamations of the crowds of Constantinople, and the inaugurations of the patriarch from 457, would legitimise the rule of an emperor.{{sfnm|Kaldellis|2023|1pp=35, 189, 222|Nicol|1988|2p=63|Howard-Johnston|2024|3p=8}} The [[Byzantine senate|senate]] had its own identity but would become an extension of the emperor's court, becoming largely ceremonial.{{sfnm|Kaldellis|2023|1p=35|Howard-Johnston|2024|2p=8|Browning|1992|3p=98}} The reign of Phocas ({{Reign|602|610}}) was the first military overthrow since the third century, his reign also being one of 43 emperors violently removed.{{sfnm|Kaldellis|2023|1p=338|Treadgold|1997|2p=326|Nicol|1988|3p=64}} The historian [[Donald Nicol]] states that there were nine dynasties between Heraclius in 610 and 1453, however, for only 30 of those 843 years was the Empire not ruled by men linked by blood or kinship which was largely due to the practice of co-emperorship.{{sfn|Nicol|1988|p=63}} As a result of the Diocletianic–Constantinian reforms, the Empire was organised into [[Praetorian prefecture]]s and the army was separated from the civil administration.{{sfnm|Louth|2005|1pp=306–308|Treadgold|1997|2pp=82–83}} From the 7th century onwards, the prefectures became provinces and were later divided into districts called ''[[Theme (Byzantine district)|themata]]'' governed by a military commander called a ''strategos'' who oversaw the civil and military administration.{{sfnm|Louth|2005|1p=303|Treadgold|1997|2pp=430–431|Kaldellis|2023|3pp=418, 421}} In earlier times, cities had been a collection of self-governing communities with central government and church representatives, whereas the emperor focused on defense and foreign relations.{{sfnm|Browning|1992|1p=98|Kaldellis|2023|2p=185}} The Arab destruction primarily changed this due to constant war and their regular raids, with a decline in city councils and the local elites that supported them.{{sfnm|Kaldellis|2023|Howard-Johnston|2024|2p=67|1pp=397, 407–409, 536}} The historian [[Robert Browning (Byzantinist)|Robert Browning]] states that due to the Empire's fight for survival, it developed into one centre of power, with Leo VI ({{reign|886|912}}) during his legal reforms formally ending the rights of city councils and the legislative authority of the senate.{{sfn|Browning|1992|p=98}} === Diplomacy === {{main|Byzantine diplomacy}} {{see also|Foreign relations of the Byzantine Empire}} According to the historian [[Dimitri Obolensky]], the preservation of civilisation in eastern Europe was due to the skill and resourcefulness of the Empire's diplomacy, and that imperial diplomacy is one of its lasting contributions to the history of Europe.{{sfn|Obolensky|1994|p=3}} The Empire's longevity has been said to be due to its aggressive diplomacy in negotiating treaties, the formation of alliances, and partnerships with the enemies of its enemies, notably seen with the [[Perso-Turkic war of 627–629|Turks against the Persians]] or riffs between states like the [[Umayyad state of Córdoba|Umayyads in Spain]] and the [[Aghlabid dynasty|Aghlabids in Sicily]].{{sfnm|Zhang|2023|1p=221|Kaldellis|2023|2pp=322–323, 325, 366–367, 511}} Diplomacy often involved long-term embassies, hosting foreign royals as potential hostages or political pawns, and overwhelming visitors with displays of wealth and power (with deliberate efforts that word of it would travel).{{sfnm|Neumann|2006|1pp=4–5|Chrysos|1990|2p=35|Shepherd|1990|3pp=61–66}} Other tools in diplomacy included political marriages, bestowing titles, bribery, differing levels of persuasion, and leveraging intelligence as attested in the '[[Bureau of Barbarians]]' from the 4th century and which is likely the first foreign intelligence agency.{{sfnm|Zhang|2023|1p=221|2a1=Sinnigen|2y=1963|2p=[https://www.jstor.org/stable/41524218]|Haldon|1990|3pp=281–282|Shepherd|1990|4pp=65–67}} [[File:John the Grammarian as ambassador before Theophilos and Mamun.jpg|thumb|left|upright=1.15|The embassy of [[Patriarch John VII of Constantinople|John the Grammarian]] in 829, between the emperor [[Theophilos (emperor)|Theophilos]] and the Abbasid caliph [[Al-Ma'mun]] |alt=Manuscript illustration of an embassy travelling between two rulers]] Ancient historian [[Michael Whitby]] claims diplomacy in the Empire following Theodosius I ({{reign|379|395}}) contrasted sharply with that of the [[Roman Republic]], emphasizing peace as a strategic necessity.{{sfn|Whitby|2008|pp=122–123}} Even when it had more resources and less threats in the 6th century, the costs of defense were enormous;{{sfn|Haldon|1990|p=283}} foreign affairs had become more multi-polar, complex and interconnected;{{sfnm|Kaldellis|2023|1p=309|Whitby|2008|2pp=122–123, 125}} further the challenges in protecting the empire's primarily agricultural income as well as numerous aggressive neighbours made avoiding war a preferred strategy.{{sfn|Haldon|1990|p=282}} Between the 4th and 8th centuries, diplomats leveraged the Empire's status as ''Orbis Romanus'' and sophistication as a state, which influenced the formation of new settlements on former Roman territories.{{sfnm|Chrysos|1990|1pp=25,36|Haldon|1990|2p=289}} Byzantine diplomacy drew fledgling states into dependency, creating a network of international and inter-state relations (the [[Ecumene|oikouménē]]) dominated by the Empire, utilising Christianity as a tool.{{sfnm|Haldon|1990|1p=289|Chrysos|1990|2pp=25, 33, 35|Neumann|2006|3pp=4–5}} This network focused on treaty-making, welcoming new rulers into the family of kings, and assimilating social attitudes, values, and institutions into what {{interlanguage link|Evangelos Chrysos|de}} has called a &quot;Byzantine Caliphate&quot;.{{sfnm|Chrysos|1990|1pp=33, 35|Neumann|2006|2pp=4–5|Kaldellis|2023|3p=338}} Diplomacy with the Muslim states, however, differed and centred on war-related matters such as hostages or the prevention of hostilities.{{sfnm|Kazhdan|1990|1p=4|Kennedy|1990|2pp=134, 137, 143}} [[File:Sketch of Emperor John VIII Palaeologus.jpeg|thumb|upright=0.8|Italian sketch of Emperor [[John VIII Palaiologos|John VIII]] during his visit in [[Ferrara]] and [[Florence]] in 1438|alt=A pencil sketch of a bearded, crowned horseman]] The primary objective of diplomacy was survival, not conquest, and it was fundamentally defensive or as [[Dimitri Obolensky]] has claimed &quot;defensive imperialism&quot;, shaped by the Empire's strategic location and limited resources.{{sfnm|Kazhdan|1990|1pp=7, 10|Kennedy|1990|2p=134|Chrysos|1990|3pp=28–29|Howard-Johnston|2008|4p=949|Haldon|1990|5p=286}} Historian [[James Howard-Johnston]] states a change in policies by emperors in the 9th and early 10th centuries was the basis for future activity.{{sfn|Howard-Johnston|2008|p=949}} This change involved halting, reversing, and attacking Muslim power; cultivating relations with Armenians and Rus; and subjugating the Bulgarians.{{sfn|Howard-Johnston|2008|p=949}} Telemachos Lounghis notes that diplomacy with the West became more challenging from 752/3 and later with the Crusades, as the balance of power shifted.{{sfn|Kazhdan|1990|p=5}} Historian [[Alexander Kazhdan]] claims the number and nature of the Empire's neighbours also changed significantly, making the [[Limitrophe states|''Limitrophe'' system]] (satellite states) and the principle of unbalanced power less effective and eventually abandoned.{{sfn|Kazhdan|1990|pp=11, 13, 20}} This meant by the 11th century, the Empire had changed this core diplomatic principle to one of equality, and Byzantine diplomacy evolved instead to solicit and utilise the emperor's presence.{{sfn|Kazhdan|1990|pp=20–21}} Complex diplomatic manoeuvring is how [[Michael VIII Palaiologos|Michael Palaiologos]] managed to recover Constantinople in 1261 and its statecraft is what allowed the weakened Empire to act like a great power of the past in the 13–14th centuries.{{sfnm|Howard-Johnston|2008|1p=945|Oikonomides|1990|2p=74}} The historian [[Nikolaos Oikonomides]] states that the Constantinople patriarch elevated the emperor's credibility, during this challenging time as the Empire battled militant Islam geographically and Latin Christians economically; and ultimately, it was its efficient foreign relations that kept the state alive in this late era and not anything else.{{sfn|Oikonomides|1990|pp=74–77}} === Law === {{Main|Byzantine law}} [[Roman law]] has its origins in the [[Twelve Tables]] and evolved mainly through the annual [[Praetor's Edict|Praetorian Edict]] and the opinions of educated specialists called [[Jurist]]s.{{sfnm|Chitwood|2017|Stein|1999|1p=16|2pp=3–4, 8, 16|Longchamps de Berier|2014|3pp=217–218}} Hadrian ({{reign|117|138}}) made the Praetorian Edict permanent and ruled that if all the Jurists agreed on a legal point, it would be considered law.{{sfnm|Stein|1999|1pp=14, 16}} The law eventually became confusing due to conflicting sources, and it was not clear what it should be.{{sfnm|Gregory|2010|1p=135|Kaldellis|2023|2p=168|Stein|1999|3p=27}} Efforts were made to reduce the confusion, such as two private collections collating the imperial constitutions since Hadrian's reign, the ''Codices [[Codex Gregorianus|Gregorianus]]'' and the ''[[Codex Hermogenianus|Hermogenianus]]'', which were developed during the reign of Diocletian ({{reign|284|305}}).{{sfnm|Dingledy|2019|Kaiser|2015|1pp=2–14|2p=120}} Eventually, an official reform of Roman law was initiated by the East, when Theodosius II ({{reign|402|450}}) elevated five Jurists to the role of principal authorities and compiled the legislation issued since Constantine's reign into the [[Codex Theodosianus]].{{sfnm|Kaldellis|2023|Stein|1999|Kaiser|2015|1p=168|3p=120|2pp=14, 16, 28}} This work was completed by what is collectively known today as the ''[[Corpus Juris Civilis]]'', when Justinian I ({{reign|527|565}}) commissioned a complete standardisation of imperial decrees since Hadrian's reign, and also incorporated a comprehensive collection of Jurists' opinions, resolving conflicts to create a final authority.{{sfnm|Gregory|2010|Stein|1999|1p=135|2pp=33–35|Dingledy|2019|3pp=2–14|Kaiser|2015|4pp=123–126}} This work was not restricted in its scope to just [[Civil law (legal system)|civil law]], but also covered the power of the emperor, the organisation of the Empire and other matters now classified as [[public law]].{{sfnm|MerrymanPérez-Perdomo|2007|Stein|1999|1p=8|2p=21}} After 534, Justinian would legislate the [[Novellae Constitutiones|Novellae (New Laws)]] in Greek as well, which legal historian Bernard Stolte proposes as a convenient breaking point to demarcate the end of Roman law and the start of Byzantine law. This division is proposed largely due to the legal heritage of Western Europe coming mostly from law written in Latin as transmitted through the ''Corpus Juris Civilis''.{{sfn|Stolte|2015|pp=356, 370}}&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite book |last=Stolte |first=Bernard |url=https://academic.oup.com/edited-volume/27972/chapter/211607076 |title=Byzantine Law |date=2018 |publisher=Oxford University Press |editor-last=Pihlajamäki |editor-first=Heikki |volume=1 |language=en |doi=10.1093/oxfordhb/9780198785521.013.10 |editor-last2=Dubber |editor-first2=Markus D. |editor-last3=Godfrey |editor-first3=Mark|pages=231–232 |location=Oxford and New York}}&lt;/ref&gt; The researcher Zachary Chitwood claims that the ''Corpus Juris Civilis'' was inaccessible in Latin, particularly in the Empire's provinces.{{sfn|Chitwood|2017|p=23}} There was also a stronger association of Christianity with the law, after people questioned how the law was developed and used following the 7th century Islamic conquests.{{sfn|Chitwood|2017|p=185}} Together, this created the backdrop for Leo III ({{Reign|717|741}}) to develop the ''[[Ecloga]]'', 'with a greater view of humanity'.{{sfnm|Chitwood|2017|1p=185|Nicol|1988|2pp=23–24|2p=65}} The three so-called ''leges speciales'' (the Farmers' Law, the Seamen's Law, and the Soldiers' Law) were derived from the ''Ecloga,'' which Zachary Chitwood claims were likely used on a daily basis in the provinces as companions to the ''Corpus Juris Civilis''.{{sfn|Chitwood|2017|pp=23, 132, 364}} The Macedonian dynasty started their reform attempts with the ''Procheiron'' and the ''Eisagoge'' to replace the ''Ecloga'' due to its associations with [[iconoclasm]], but also noteworthy because they show an effort to define the emperor's power according to the prevalent laws.{{sfnm|Browning|1992|Kaldellis|2023|Chitwood|2017|1p=97|2p=529|3pp=25–32, 44}} Leo VI ({{Reign|886|912}}) achieved the [[Codification (law)|complete codification]] of Roman law in the Greek language with the ''[[Basilika]]'', a monumental work consisting of 60 books, and that became the foundation of all subsequent Byzantine law.{{sfnm|Browning|1992|Chitwood|2017|Kaldellis|2023|1pp=97–98|2pp=32–35|3p=529}} The ''[[Constantine Harmenopoulos|Hexabiblos]]'', published in 1345 by a jurist, was a law book in six volumes compiled from a wide range of Byzantine legal sources.{{sfn|Stein|1999|p=35}} The Roman and Byzantine law codes form the basis of the modern world's civil law tradition, underlying the legal system of Western and Eastern Europe, Latin America, African nations like Ethiopia, the countries that follow [[Common law]], with ongoing debates about its impact on Islamic countries.{{sfnm|MerrymanPérez-Perdomo|2007|Stolte|2015|Stein|1999|1pp=10–11|2pp=367–368|3p=36}}&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite book |last=Hudson |first=John |author-link=John Hudson (historian) |url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1515/9781846158124-009 |title=Magna Carta and the England of King John |date=2010 |publisher=Boydell and Brewer |isbn=978-1-84615-812-4 |editor-last=Senderowitz Loengard |editor1-first=Janet |location=London |page=114 |chapter=Magna Carta, the ius commune, and English Common Law |doi=10.1515/9781846158124-009 |access-date=2024-08-24}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal |last1=Salogubova |first1=Elena |last2=Zenkov |first2=Alan |date=2018-06-15 |title=Roman law 's influence on russian civil law and procedure |journal=Russian Law Journal |volume=6 |issue=2 |pages=118–133 |doi=10.17589/2309-8678-2018-6-2-118-133 |doi-broken-date=1 November 2024 |issn=2312-3605|doi-access=free }}&lt;/ref&gt; As an example, the ''Hexabiblos'' was the basis of Greece's civil code until the mid-20th century.{{sfnm|Stolte|2015|Stolte|1998|Stein|1999|1p=358|2p=264|3p=35}} Historians used to think that &quot;there was no continuity between Roman and Byzantine law&quot;, but this view has now changed due to new scholarship.{{sfnm|Chitwood|2017|Stolte|1998|1pp=4, 364–365|2p=264}}&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal |last=Stolte |first=Bernard H. |date=2019 |title=Review of Byzantine Legal Culture and the Roman Legal Tradition, 867–1056 |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/26845546 |journal=Speculum |volume=94 |issue=4 |pages=1139–1140 |doi=10.1086/704909 |jstor=26845546 |issn=0038-7134}}&lt;/ref&gt; == Military == === Army === {{Main|Eastern Roman army|Byzantine army|Byzantine army (Komnenian era)}} In the 5th century the East was fielding five armies of ~20,000 each in two army branches: stationary frontier units ([[limitanei]]) and mobile forces ([[comitatenses]]).{{sfnm|Kaldellis|2023|1pp=59, 194|Haldan|2008|2p=554|Treadgold|1997|3p=50}} The historian [[Anthony Kaldellis]] claims that the fiscally stretched Empire could only handle one major enemy at a time in the 6th century.{{sfn|Kaldellis|2023|p=331}} The Islamic conquests between 634 and 642 led to significant changes, transforming the 4th-7th centuries field forces into provincialised militia-like units with a core of professional soldiers.{{sfnm|Kaldellis|2023|1pp=454–455|Haldan|2008|2p=555}} The state shifted the burden of supporting the armies onto local populations and during Leo VI ({{Reign|886|912}}) wove them into the tax system, with provinces evolving into military regions known as ''themata''.{{sfnm|Kaldellis|2023|1pp=421-422,437|Haldan|2008|2pp=555–556|Treadgold|1997|3pp=430–431|Neville|2004|4p=7}} Despite many challenges, the historian [[Warren Treadgold]] states that the field forces of the Eastern Empire between 284 and 602 were the best in the western world, while the historian [[Anthony Kaldellis]] believes that during the conquest period of the [[Macedonian dynasty]] ({{reign|867|1056}}), they were the best in the empire's history.{{sfnm|Kaldellis|2023|1p=562|Treadgold|1995|2p=206}} The military structure would diversify to include militia-like soldiers tied to regions, professional thematic forces ([[turma|tourmai]]), and imperial units mostly based in Constantinople ([[Tagma (military)|tagmata]]).{{sfnm|Haldan|2008|1p=555|Treadgold|1997|2pp=281, 432, 489}} Foreign mercenaries also increasingly became employed, including the better-known ''tagma'' regiment, the [[Varangian Guard|Varangians]], that guarded the emperor.{{sfnm|Haldan|2008|1p=556|Blöndal|1979|2pp=17, 20–22, 178–179}} The defence-orientated thematic militias were gradually replaced with more specialised offensive field armies but also to counter the generals who would rebel against the emperor.{{sfnm|Kaldellis|2021a|1p=463|Haldan|2008|2p=556|Treadgold|1997|3pp=730–734, 737|Treadgold|1995|4p=29}} When the Empire was expanding, the state began to commute thematic military service for cash payments: in the 10th century, there were 6,000 Varangians, another 3,000 foreign mercenaries and when including paid and unpaid citizen soldiers, the army on paper was 140,000 (an expeditionary force was 15,000 soldiers and field armies seldom were more than 40,000).{{sfnm|Kaldellis|2021a|1p=463|Haldan|2008|2p=555|Treadgold|1997|3pp=735–736}} The thematic forces faded into insignificance—the government relying on the ''tagmata'', mercenaries and allies instead—and which led to a neglect in defensive capability.{{sfnm|Haldan|2008|1p=557|Treadgold|1997|2pp=737, 794–796, 810}} Mercenary armies would further fuel political divisions and civil wars that led to a collapse in the Empire's defence and resulting in significant losses such as Italy and the Anatolian heartland in the 11th century.{{sfnm|Kaldellis|2023|1p=634|Haldan|2008|2p=557}} Major military and fiscal reforms under the emperors of the Komnenian dynasty after 1081 re-established a modest-sized, adequately compensated and competent army.{{sfnm|Haldan|2008|1p=557|Treadgold|1997|2pp=825–826}} However, the costs were not sustainable and the structural weaknesses of the Komnenian approach—namely, the reliance on fiscal exemptions called [[pronoia]]—unraveled after the end of the reign of Manuel I ({{Reign|1143|1180}}).{{sfnm|Haldan|2008|1p=557|Treadgold|1997|2pp=905–906}} === Navy === {{Main|Byzantine Navy}} The navy dominated the eastern Mediterranean and were active also on the Black Sea, the Sea of Marmara, and the Aegean.{{sfnm|Kaldellis|2023|1pp=562, 656|Pryor|2002|p=489}} Imperial naval forces were restructured to challenge Arab naval dominance in the 7th century, and would later cede its own dominance to the [[Republic of Venice|Venetians]] and [[Republic of Genoa|Genoans]] in the 11th century.{{sfnm|Kaldellis|2023|1pp=399, 442|Blöndal|1979|2p=29|Haldan|2008|3p=555}} The navy's patrols, in addition to chains of watchtowers and fire signals that warned inhabitants of threats, created the coastal defense for the Empire and were the responsibility of three themes ([[Cibyrrhaeot|Cibirriote]], [[Aegean Sea (theme)|Aegean Sea]], [[Samos (theme)|Samos]]) and an imperial fleet that consisted of mercenaries like the Norsemen and Russians that later became Varangians.{{sfnm|Kaldellis|2023|1p=502|Blöndal|1979|2pp=16, 29–30|Haldan|2008|3p=560}} A new type of war galley, the [[dromon]], appeared early in the sixth century.{{sfnm|Pryor|2002|1p=487|Pryor|2017|2p=401|Markis|2002a|3p=92}}&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite book |last=MacGeorge |first=Penny |title=Late Roman warlords |date=2002 |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0-19-925244-2 |series=Oxford classical monographs |location=Oxford and New York |page=311}}&lt;/ref&gt; A multi-purpose variant, the [[chelandion|chelandia]], appeared during the reign of [[Justinian II]] ({{reign|685|711}}) and could be used to transport cavalry.{{sfnm|Pryor|2002|1p=488|Pryor|2017|2p=403|Markis|2002a|3p=93}} The galleys were oar-driven, designed for coastal navigation, and are estimated to be able to operate for up to four days at a time.{{sfn|Pryor|2002|p=489}}&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal |last=Howard-Johnston |first=James |date=2008b |title=John H. Pryor and Elizabeth M. Jeffreys, The Age of the ΔPOMΩN: the Byzantine Navy ca. 500–1204. Leiden-Boston: Brill, 2006. Pp. lxxvii, 754. |url=https://www.cambridge.org/core/product/identifier/S030701310000536X/type/journal_article |journal=Byzantine and Modern Greek Studies |language=en |volume=32 |issue=2 |page=240 |doi=10.1017/S030701310000536X |issn=0307-0131}}&lt;/ref&gt; They were equipped with apparatus to deliver [[Greek fire]] in the 670s, and when [[Basil I]] ({{reign|867|886}}) developed professional marines, this combination kept a check on Muslim raiding through piracy.{{sfnm|Kaldellis|2023|1p=489|Blöndal|1979|2p=29|Treadgold|1995|3p=33|Howard-Johnston|2008|4p=947}} The ''dromon'' were the most advanced galleys on the Mediterranean, until the 10th century development of a ''dromon'' called a ''galeai'' and which superseded ''dromons'' with the development of a late 11th century Western (Southern Italian) variant.{{sfnm|Pryor|2002|1p=489|Pryor|2017|2pp=404, 408}} === Late era (1204–1453) === {{Main|Byzantine army (Palaiologan era)}} The rulers of the [[Empire of Nicaea]] that retook the capital and the [[Palaiologos dynasty|Palaiologos]] that ruled until 1453, built on the Komnenian foundation initially with four types of military units—the Thelematarii (volunteer soldiers), [[Gasmouloi]] and the Southern Peloponnese Tzacones/Lakones (marines), and Proselontes/Prosalentai (oarsmen)—but similarly could not sustain funding a standing force, largely relying on mercenaries as soldiers and fiscal exemptions to [[pronoia]]rs who provided a small force of mostly cavalry.{{sfnm|Haldan|2008|1p=558|Treadgold|1997|2pp=975, 1084}} The Fleet was disbanded in 1284 and attempts were made to build it back later but the [[Republic of Genoa|Genoese]] sabotaged the effort.{{sfnm|Kaldellis|2023|1pp=812, 860–861|Treadgold|1997|2pp=989, 1024}} The historian [[John Haldon]] claims that over time, the distinction between field troops and garrison units eventually disappeared as resources were strained.{{sfn|Haldan|2008|p=558}} The frequent civil wars further drained the Empire, now increasingly instigated by foreigners such as the Serbs and Turks to win concessions, and the emperors were dependent on mercenaries to keep control all the while dealing with the impact of the [[Black Death]].{{sfnm|Kaldellis|2023|1p=1881|Haldan|2008|2p=559|Treadgold|1997|3p=1112}} The strategy of employing mercenary Turks to fight civil wars was repeatedly used by emperors and always led to the same outcome: subordination to the Turks.{{sfnm|Kaldellis|2023|1p=896|Haldan|2008|2pp=558–559}} == Society == === Demography === {{Main|Population of the Byzantine Empire}} From the rule of [[Diocletian]] ({{reign|284|305}}) until the East's peak following Justinian's recovery of western territories in 540, the population could have been as high as 27 million, but would fall to as low as 12 million in 800.{{Sfnm|Treadgold|1997|1pp=197, 384–385|Kaldellis|2023|2pp=21–22|Stathakopoulos|2008|3p=310}} Plague and loss of territories to the Arab Muslim invaders significantly impacted the Empire, but it recovered, and by the near end of the [[Macedonian dynasty]] in 1025, the population is estimated to have been as high as 18 million.{{Sfnm|Stathakopoulos|2008|1p=312|Treadgold|1997|2pp=931–932}} A few decades after the recapture of Constantinople in 1282, the Empire's population was in the range of 3–5 million; by 1312, the number had dropped to 2 million.{{Sfnm|Stathakopoulos|2008|1p=313|Treadgold|1997|2p=1112}} By the time the Ottoman Turks captured Constantinople, there were only 50,000 people in the city, which was one-tenth of its population in its prime.{{Sfnm|Stathakopoulos|2008|1pp=310, 314|Stathakopoulos|2023|2p=31|Kaldellis|2023|3p=21}} === Education === {{Further|Byzantine university|Byzantine rhetoric|University of Constantinople}} Education was voluntary and required financial means to attend, with the most literate people being the ones associated with the church.{{sfnm|Markopoulos|2008|1p=786|Jeffreys|2008|2p=798}} Reading, writing, and arithmetic were foundational subjects taught in primary education whereas Secondary school focused on the [[trivium]] and [[quadrivium]] as their curriculum.{{Sfn|Markopoulos|2008|p=789}} The [[University of Constantinople|Imperial University of Constantinople]], sometimes known as the ''University of the Palace Hall of Magnaura'' ({{langx|el|Πανδιδακτήριον τῆς Μαγναύρας}}), was an educational institution that could trace its origins to 425{{Nbsp}}AD, when Emperor Theodosius II had established the ''Pandidakterion'' ({{langx|grc-x-medieval|Πανδιδακτήριον}}).&lt;ref&gt;[[Demetrios Constantelos]]. &quot;The Formation of the Hellenic Christian Mind&quot;. Christian Hellenism: Essays and Studies in Continuity and Change. 1998: A. D. Caratzas. {{ISBN|978-0-89241-588-5}}: &quot;The fifth century marked a definite turning point in Byzantine higher education. Theodosios ΙΙ founded in 425 a major university with 31 chairs for law, philosophy, medicine, arithmetic, geometry, astronomy, music, rhetoric and other subjects. Fifteen chairs were assigned to Latin and 16 to Greek. The university was reorganized by Michael III (842–867) and flourished down to the fourteenth century&quot;.&lt;/ref&gt; The Pandidakterion was re-established in 1046 by [[Constantine IX Monomachos]] who created the Departments of Law (Διδασκαλεῖον τῶν Νόμων) and Philosophy (Γυμνάσιον).&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite book |last=Rosser |first=John H. |title=Historical Dictionary of Byzantium |date= 2011 |publisher=Scarecrow Press |isbn=9780810874770 |location=Lanham, Maryland |page=xxx}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite book |last1=Kazhdan |first1=Alexander Petrovich |author-link=Alexander Kazhdan |title=Change in Byzantine Culture in the Eleventh and Twelfth Centuries |last2=Wharton |first2=Annabel Jane |author-link2=Annabel Jane Wharton |publisher=University of California Press |year=1990 |isbn=9780520069626 |series=Transformation of the Classical Heritage |volume=7 |location=Berkeley, Los Angeles and London |page=122}}&lt;/ref&gt; === Transition into an Eastern Christian empire === {{Further|Anti-paganism policies of the early Byzantine Empire}} The [[Constitutio Antoniniana|granting of citizenship]] in 212 to all free men residing in its territories transformed the multi-lingual Roman Empire, expanding citizenship to a vast majority of its population and leading to a shift towards societal uniformity, particularly in its citizens' religious practices.{{sfnm|Beard|2015|1pp=165, 521, 527–533|Spawforth|1993|2p=254|Kaldellis|2023|3pp=19–20, 60, 71|Lavan|2016|4pp=32, 34}}&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite book |last1=Heller |first1=Anna |title=Patrie d'origine et patries électives: les citoyennetés multiples dans le monde grec d'époque romaine actes du colloque international de Tours, 6–7 novembre 2009 |last2=Pont |first2=Anne-Valérie |date=2012 |publisher=Ausonius éd. diff. de Boccard |isbn=978-2-35613-061-7 |series=Scripta antiqua |location=Bordeaux Pessac Paris |pages=79–98 [85–88] |trans-title=Homeland of origin and elective homelands: multiple citizenships in the Greek world during the Roman period; proceedings of the international conference of Tours, 6–7 November 2009 |language=fr}} Referenced with commentary by Christina Kokkinia in {{Cite journal |title=Review of: Law, Language, and Empire in the Roman Tradition. Empire and After |url=https://bmcr.brynmawr.edu/2012/2012.06.10/ |journal=Bryn Mawr Classical Review |issn=1055-7660}} and {{Cite book |last=Ando |first=Clifford |title=Law, language, and empire in the Roman tradition |date=2011 |publisher=University of Pennsylvania Press |isbn=978-0-8122-4354-3 |series=Empire and after |author-link=Clifford Ando |location=Philadelphia |page=46 |doi=10.9783/9780812204889}} Referenced with commentary by Christina Kokkinia in {{Cite journal |title=Review of: Law, Language, and Empire in the Roman Tradition. Empire and After |url=https://bmcr.brynmawr.edu/2012/2012.06.10/ |journal=Bryn Mawr Classical Review |issn=1055-7660}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal |last=Adams |first=J. N. |date=2003 |title='Romanitas' and the Latin Language |url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/cq/53.1.184 |journal=The Classical Quarterly |volume=53 |issue=1 |pages=185–186, 205 |doi=10.1093/cq/53.1.184 |issn=0009-8388}}&lt;/ref&gt; [[Diocletian]]'s reforms significantly altered governmental structure, reach and taxation, and these reforms also had the effect of downgrading the first capital, Rome.{{sfnm|Kaldellis|2023|1p=34|Treadgold|1997|2pp=39, 45, 85|Rotman|2022|3pp=41–43|Greatrex|2008|3p=234–235}} The [[Constantine the Great|Constantinan]] dynasty's support for Christianity, as well as the elevation of Constantinople as an imperial seat, further solidified this transformation.{{sfnm|Kaldellis|2023|1p=34|Treadgold|1997|2pp=85–86, 94, 153}}&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite book |last=Moser |first=Muriel |chapter=The Senatorial Officials of Constantius II |date=2018 |title=Emperor and Senators in the Reign of Constantius II: Maintaining Imperial Rule Between Rome and Constantinople in the Fourth Century AD |pages=215–228, 325 |url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/9781108646086.004 |access-date=2024-08-16 |place=Cambridge, New York, Port Melbourne, New Delhi and Singapore |publisher=Cambridge University Press |doi=10.1017/9781108646086.004 |isbn=978-1-108-64608-6}}&lt;/ref&gt; In the late 4th century, when the majority of the Empire's citizens were pagan, [[Theodosius I|Theodosius]] built on previous emperors' bans and enacted many laws restricting pagan activities; but it would not be until [[Justinian I|Justinian]] in 529 when conversions would be enforced.{{Sfnm|FriellWilliams|2005|1p=121|Greatrex|2008|2p=236|Kaldellis|2023|3pp=138, 178|Treadgold|1997|4pp=72, 94, 113|Salzman|1993|5p=364}} The confiscation of pagan treasures, diversion of funds, and legal discrimination led to the decline of paganism, resulting in events like the closure of schools of philosophy and the end of the [[Ancient Olympic Games|Ancient Olympics]].{{efn|The historian Sofie Remijsen indicates that there are several reasons to conclude that the Olympic games continued after Theodosius I, as the traditional end day of 393 is linked to his anti-pagan constitution. She argues that the games instead came to an end under Theodosius II when a fire burned down the temple of the Olympian Zeus during his reign.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite book |last=Remijsen |first=Sofie |url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/cbo9781107279636 |title=The End of Greek Athletics in Late Antiquity |date=2015 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-1-107-27963-6|pages=47–49|doi=10.1017/cbo9781107279636 }}&lt;/ref&gt; The historian [[Anthony Kaldellis]] argues that it's a common misconception that they were banned by decree and that instead the declining interest in chariot games, lack of funding (due to state policies) and hostility from zealots is what led to their end.{{Sfn|Kaldellis|2023|p=138}}}}{{Sfnm|Kaldellis|2023|1pp=25, 67–68, 179, 181, 340|Treadgold|1997|2pp=71, 252–253}} Christianity was also aided by the prevalence of Greek, and Christianity's debates further increased the importance of Greek, making the emergent church dependent on branches of [[Hellenistic philosophy|Hellenic thought]] such as [[Neoplatonism]].{{efn|This is despite Hellenic culture already having a long influence on Roman identity and the entrenchment of the Greek language in the east since the Hellenistic era.{{Sfnm|Wallace-Hadrill|1998|1pp=79–91|Goldhill|2024|2pp=847–848|Rochette|2018 |3p=108|Millar|2006|4pp=97–98|Treadgold|1997|5pp=5–7}}}}{{Sfnm|Kaldellis|2023|1pp=111, 180|Jones|1986|2p=991 |Treadgold|1997|3pp=27–28, 175–176}} Despite the transition, the historian Anthony Kaldellis views Christianity as &quot;bringing no economic, social, or political changes to the state other than being more deeply integrated into it&quot;.{{sfn|Kaldellis|2023|pp=141, 186, 342}} === Slavery === {{further||Slavery in the Byzantine Empire}} During the third century, 10–15% of the population was enslaved (numbering around 3 million in the east).{{sfnm|Kaldellis|2023|1p=40|Rotman|2022|2p=32|Lavan|2016|3pp=16, 19}} Youval Rotman calls the changes to slavery during this period &quot;different degrees of unfreedom&quot;.{{sfnm|Rotman|2009|1pp=18, 179|Rotman |2022|2p=59}} Previous roles fulfilled by slaves became high-demand free market professions (like tutors), and the state encouraged the [[Colonus (person)|''coloni'']], tenants bound to the land, as a new legal category between freemen and slaves.{{sfnm|Kaldellis|2023|1p=39|Lenski|2021|2pp=473–474}} From 294, but not completely, the enslavement of children was forbidden; [[Honorius (emperor)|Honorius]] ({{reign|393|423}}) would begin to free enslaved people who were prisoners of war, and from the 9th century onwards, emperors would free the slaves of conquered people.{{sfnm|Rotman|2009|1pp=30–31|Kaldellis|2023|2p=425|Rotman|2022|3p=42|Lenski|2021|4p=470}}&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal |title=Review of: Response: Rotman on Lenski on Youval Rotman, Byzantine Slavery and the Mediterranean World |url=https://bmcr.brynmawr.edu/2010/2010.07.02 |journal=Bryn Mawr Classical Review |issn=1055-7660 |access-date=9 January 2024 |archive-date=9 January 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240109104527/https://bmcr.brynmawr.edu/2010/2010.07.02 |url-status=live }}&lt;/ref&gt; Christianity as an institution had no direct impact, but by the 6th century it was a bishop's duty to ransom Christians, there were established limits on trading them, and state policies which prohibited the enslavement of Christians shaped Byzantine slave-holding from the 8th century onwards.{{sfnm|Kaldellis|2023|1p=140|Rotman|2009|2loc=Chapter 2|Rotman|2022|3pp=37–38, 53|Lenski|2021|4pp=461–462}} However, slavery persisted due to a steady source of non-Christians with prices remaining stable until 1300, when prices for adult slaves, particularly females, started rising.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal |last=Harper |first=Kyle |date=2010 |title=Slave Prices in Late Antiquity (and in the Very Long Term) |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/27809564 |journal=[[Historia (classical antiquity history journal)|Historia: Zeitschrift für Alte Geschichte]] |volume=59 |issue=2 |page=237 |doi=10.25162/historia-2010-0013 |issn=0018-2311 |jstor=27809564 |s2cid=160720781}}&lt;/ref&gt;{{sfnm|Kaldellis|2023|1p=40|Rotman|2022|2p=53|Lenski|2021|3pp=467–468}} === Socio-economic === Agriculture was the main basis of taxation and the state sought to bind everyone to land for productivity.{{sfnm|Kaldellis|2023|1p=38|Brandes|2008|2p=563}} Most land consisted of small and medium-sized lots around villages, with family farms serving as the primary source of agriculture.{{sfnm|Kaldellis|2023|1p=39|Harvey|2008|2p=329}} The ''coloni,'' once referred to as proto-serfs, were free citizens; however, their status remains a subject of historical debate.{{sfnm|Kaldellis|2023|1p=39|Harvey|2008|2p=331}} The Ekloge in 741 made marriage a Christian institution and no longer a private contract, and the institution's development correlated with the increased rights of slaves and the change in power relations.{{sfnm|Kaldellis|2023|1p=444|Rotman|2022|2p=85|Lenski|2021|3pp=464–465}} Marriage was considered an institution to sustain the population, transfer property rights, support the elderly of the family; and the Empress [[Theodora (wife of Theophilos)|Theodora]] had additionally said that it was needed to restrict sexual [[hedonism]].{{sfnm|Talbot|1997|1p=121|Kazhdan|1990a|2p=132}} Women usually married at ages 15–20, and were used as a way to connect men and create economic benefit among families.{{sfnm|Rotman|2022|1p=83|Talbot|1997|2p=121}} The average family had 2 children, with mortality rates around 40–50%.{{sfnm|Kaldellis|2023|1p=41|Stathakopoulos|2008|2pp=309, 313}} Divorce could be done by mutual consent but would be restricted over time, for example, only being allowed if a married person was joining a convent.{{sfnm|Kaldellis|2023|1pp=88, 321, 444, 529, 588, 769|Talbot|1997|2pp=119, 122, 128}} Inheritance rights were well developed, including for all women.{{sfnm|Harris|2017|1p=13|Kaldellis|2023|2p=41|Garland|2006|3p=xiv}} The historian Anthony Kaldellis claims that these rights may have been what prevented the emergence of large properties and a hereditary nobility capable of intimidating the state.{{sfnm|Kaldellis|2023|1p=40}} The prevalence of widows (estimated at 20%) meant that women often controlled family assets as heads of households and businesses, contributing to the rise of some empresses to power.{{sfnm|Kaldellis|2023|1pp=40, 592|Stephenson|2010|2p=66}} Women were major taxpayers, landowners, and petitioners to the imperial court, primarily seeking resolution for property-related disputes in the latter capacity.{{sfnm|Kaldellis|2023|1pp=40, 592|Talbot|1997|2p=129|Garland|2006|3p=xvi}} === Women === {{further||Women in the Byzantine Empire}} Although women shared the same socio-economic status as men, they faced legal discrimination and had limitations in economic opportunities and vocations.{{sfnm|Kaldellis|2023|1p=40|Talbot|1997|2pp=118–119}} Prohibited from serving as soldiers or holding political office, and restricted from serving as [[deaconess]]es in the Church from the 7th century onwards, women were mostly assigned household responsibilities that were &quot;labour-intensive&quot;.{{sfnm|Kaldellis|2023|1p=40|Talbot|1997|2pp=126–127|Karras|2004|3pp=309–314}} They worked in professions, such as in the food and textile industry, as medical staff, in public baths, had a heavy presence in retail, and were practicing members of artisan guilds.{{sfnm|Talbot|1997|1pp=130–131|Harris|2017|2p=133|Garland|2006|3p=xiv|Kaldellis|2023|4pp=40–41}} They also worked in disreputable occupations: entertainers, tavern keepers, and prostitutes; a class where some saints and empresses allegedly originated from.{{sfnm|Talbot|1997|1p=131|Kazhdan|1990a|2p=136}} Prostitution was widespread, and attempts were made to limit it, especially during Justinian's reign under the influence of Theodora.{{sfnm|Grosdidier de Matons|1967|1pp=23–25|Garland|1999|2pp=11–39}} Women participated in public life, engaging in social events and protests.{{sfnm|Kaldellis|2023|1p=40|Karras|2004|2p=310}} Women's rights would not be better in comparable societies, Western Europe or America until the 19th century.{{sfnm|Kaldellis|2023|1p=529|Harris|2017|2p=133}} === Language === {{further||Languages of the Roman Empire}} {{Multiple image | align = right | image1 = Mudil_Psalter.jpg | width1 = 140 | alt1 = A photograph of two pages of a book written in a Greek script. The lower portions of both pages are damaged. | caption1 = | image2 = Joshua_Roll.jpg | width2 = 146 | alt2 = A photograph of an illustrated manuscript written in Greek. At the left are two people who are standing talking to a person who is seated, while 5 soldiers listen. At the right are a group of soldiers going somewhere. | caption2 = | footer = Left: The Mudil Psalter, the oldest complete [[psalter]] in the Coptic language ([[Coptic Museum]], Egypt, [[Coptic Cairo]])&lt;br /&gt; Right: The [[Joshua Roll]], a 10th-century illuminated Greek manuscript possibly made in Constantinople ([[Vatican Library]], Rome) }} [[File:Asia Minor dialects.png|thumb|Distribution of Greek dialects in Anatolia in the late Byzantine Empire through to 1923. [[Modern Greek#Demotic|Demotic]] in light grey. [[Pontic Greek|Pontic]] in orange. [[Cappadocian Greek|Cappadocian]] in green. Green dots indicate Cappadocian Greek-speaking villages in 1910.&lt;ref&gt;[[Richard MacGillivray Dawkins|Dawkins, R.M.]] (1916). [https://archive.org/details/moderngreekinas00hallgoog Modern Greek in Asia Minor. A study of the dialects of Sílli, Cappadocia and Phárasa.] Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.&lt;/ref&gt;|alt=A map showing Pontic Greek dialects in Northern Turkey, Demotic Greek dialects in the west, and Cappadocian Greek dialects in the south.]] There was never an official language of the Empire, however, Latin and Greek were the main languages.{{sfnm|Rochette|2023|1p=285|Goldhill|2024|2p=850}} During the early years of the Roman Empire, knowledge of Greek had been useful to pass the requirements to be an educated noble, and knowledge of Latin was useful for a career in the military, government, or law.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite book |last=Dickey |first=Eleanor |author-link=Eleanor Dickey |url=https://www.cambridge.org/core/product/identifier/9781108888387/type/book |title=Latin Loanwords in Ancient Greek: A Lexicon and Analysis |date=2023 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-1-108-88838-7 |edition=1st |location=Cambridge, New York, Port Melbourne, New Delhi and Singapore |page=4 |doi=10.1017/9781108888387 |access-date=21 December 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240209190604/https://www.cambridge.org/core/books/latin-loanwords-in-ancient-greek/F5D4E8C56689A2584BD68753B99CCDE9 |archive-date=9 February 2024 |url-status=live |s2cid=258920619}}&lt;/ref&gt; In the east, Greek was the dominant language, a legacy of the [[Hellenistic period]].{{sfnm|Rochette|2018|1p=108|Millar|2006|2pp=97–98|Treadgold|1997|3p=5–7}} Greek was also the language of the Christian Church and trade.{{sfnm|Bryce|1901|1p=59|McDonnell|2006|2p=77|Millar|2006|3pp=97–98|Oikonomides|1999|4pp=12–13}} Most early emperors were bilingual but had a preference for Latin in the public sphere for political reasons, a practice that first started during the [[Punic Wars]].{{sfnm|Rochette|2023|1pp=263, 268|Rochette|2018|2pp=114–115, 118|Wallace-Hadrill|1998|3pp=80–83}} Classical languages expert Bruno Rochette claims Latin had experienced a period of spread from the second century{{Nbsp}}BC onwards, and especially so in the western provinces, but not as much in the eastern provinces with a change due to Diocletian's reforms: there was a decline in the knowledge of Greek in the west, and Latin was asserted as the language of power in the east.{{sfnm|Rochette|2011|1pp=560, 562–563|Rochette|2018|2p=109}} Despite this, Greek's influence gradually grew in the government, beginning when [[Arcadius]] in 397{{Nbsp}}AD allowed judges to issue decisions in Greek, [[Theodosius II]] in 439 expanded its use in legal procedures, the first law in Greek was issued in 448, and when [[Leo I (emperor)|Leo I]] legislated in the language in the 460s.{{sfnm|Kaldellis|2023|1p=191|Rochette|2023|2p=283|Rochette|2011|3p=562}}&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite book |last=Wickham |first=Chris |author-link=Chris Wickham |title=The inheritance of Rome: a history of Europe from 400 to 1000 |date=2009 |publisher=Viking Penguin |isbn=978-0-670-02098-0 |location=New York |page=90}}&lt;/ref&gt; [[Justinian I]]'s ''[[Corpus Juris Civilis]]'', a compilation of mostly Roman jurists, was written almost entirely in Latin; however, the laws issued after 534, from Justinian's [[Novellae Constitutiones]] onwards, were in both Greek and Latin, which marks the year when the government also officially began to use the former language.{{sfnm|Kaldellis|2023|1p=289|Rochette|2011|2p=562|Rochette|2023|3p=283}} Historian [[Nikolaos Oikonomides]] states that Greek for a time became [[Diglossia|diglossic]] with the spoken language, known as [[Koine Greek|Koine]] (later, [[Demotic Greek]]), used alongside an older written form ([[Attic Greek]]) until [[Koine Greek|Koine]] won out as the spoken and written standard.{{sfn|Oikonomides|1999|pp=12–13}} Latin fragmented into the incipient [[Romance languages]] in the 8th century, following the collapse of the Western Empire after the Muslim invasions broke the connection between speakers.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite book |last1=Pei |first1=Mario |author-link=Mario Pei |title=The story of Latin and the Romance languages |last2=Gaeng |first2=Paul A. |date=1976 |publisher=Harper &amp; Row |isbn=978-0-06-013312-2 |location=New York |pages=76–81}}&lt;/ref&gt;{{sfn|Sedlar|1994|pp=403–440}} During the reign of Justinian ({{Reign| 527|565}}), Latin disappeared in the east, though it may have lingered in the military until [[Heraclius]] ({{Reign|610|641}}).{{sfnm|Apostolides|1887|1pp=25–26|Rochette|2023|2p=283}}&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal |last=Rance |first=Philip |date=2010 |title=The De Militari Scientia or Müller Fragment as a philological resource. Latin in the East Roman army and two new loanwords in Greek: palmarium and *recala |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/41219881 |journal=Glotta |volume=86 |issue=1–4 |pages=63–64 |doi=10.13109/glot.2010.86.14.63 |jstor=41219881 |issn=0017-1298 |access-date=23 December 2023 |archive-date=7 April 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230407213721/https://www.jstor.org/stable/41219881 |url-status=live }}&lt;/ref&gt; Historian [[Steven Runciman]] claims contact with Western Europe in the 10th century revived Latin studies, and by the 11th century, knowledge of Latin was no longer unusual in Constantinople.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite book |last=Runciman |first=Steven |author-link=Steven Runciman |url=http://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.509885 |title=Byzantine Civilisation |date=1933 |publisher=Methuen |location=London |page=232}}&lt;/ref&gt; Many other languages are attested in the Empire, not just in Constantinople but also at its frontiers.{{sfnm|Oikonomides|1999|1p=20|Harris|2014|2p=12}} They include [[Syriac language|Syriac]], [[Coptic language|Coptic]], [[Slavic languages|Slavonic]], [[Armenian language|Armenian]], [[Georgian language|Georgian]], [[Illyrian language|Illyrian]], [[Thracian language|Thracian]], and [[Celtic languages|Celtic]]; these were typically the languages of the lower strata of the population and the illiterate, who were the vast majority.{{sfnm|Beaton|1996|1p=10|Jones|1986|2pp=991–997|Versteegh|1977|3p=1|Harris|2014|4p=12}} The Empire was a multi-lingual state, but Greek bound everyone, and the forces of assimilation would lead to the diversity of its peoples' languages declining over time.{{sfnm|Kaldellis|2007|1p=95|Nicol|1993|2pp=1–2}} == Economy == {{main|Byzantine economy}} {{Further|Byzantine silk|Sino-Roman relations}}Following the split of the Western and Eastern Roman Empires, the West fell victim to political instability, social unrest, civil war, and invasions from foreign powers. In contrast, the Byzantines remained comparatively stable, allowing for the growth of a flourishing and resilient economy.{{Sfn|Laiou|Morrisson|2007|p=23}} Institutional stability, such as the presence of a [[Byzantine law|legal system]], and the maintenance of infrastructure created a secure environment for economic growth.{{Sfn|Laiou|Morrisson|2007|p=24}} In the 530s, the territory of the empire encompassed both a massive population of around 30 million people and a wide array of natural resources.{{Sfn|Laiou|Morrisson|2007|p=25}} The Byzantines had access to resources such as abundant [[Gold mining|gold mines]] in the Balkans or the fertile fields of Egypt.{{Sfn|Laiou|Morrisson|2007|pp=29–30}} Large sections of the Byzantine population lived within the many urbanized settlements inherited from the previously unified Roman Empire. Constantinople, the capital of the empire, was the largest city in the world at the time; it housed at least 400,000 people.{{Sfn|Laiou|Morrisson|2007|pp=|p=26}} These cities continued to grow during the 6th century, with evidence of massive construction projects suggesting that the Byzantine treasury remained strong.{{Sfn|Laiou|Morrisson|2007|p=27}} During the 5th and 6th centuries, rural development continued alongside urban development; the number of documented agricultural settlements increased significantly during this period.{{Sfn|Laiou|Morrisson|2007|p=25}} Although the [[Vandalic War|reconquests of North Africa]] and [[Gothic War (535–554)|Italy]] by Justinian I were expensive and draining campaigns, they reopened Mediterranean trade routes and parts of the Roman west were reconnected with the east.{{Sfn|Laiou|Morrisson|2007|p=23}}[[File:Gold coin of Justinian I 527CE 565CE excavated in India probably in the south.jpg|thumb|upright|Golden [[Solidus (coin)|solidus]] of [[Justinian I]] (527–565) excavated in India probably in the south, an example of [[Indo-Roman trade]] during the period. [[British Museum]], London|alt=A photograph of a gold coin, showing a man wearing a crown holding up a cross with his right shoulder. On the top are letters in the Roman script.]] The [[Plague of Justinian]] caused significant demographic decline, negatively affecting the production and demand of the Byzantine economy; consequently, the Imperial treasury took a substantial hit. Economic downturn was worsened by conflicts with the [[Slavs]], [[Pannonian Avars|Avars]], and [[Sasanian Empire|Sassanids]]. Heraclius waged numerous campaigns to fend off the mounting threats to the empire, recovering the wealthy provinces of [[Roman Syria|Syria]], Egypt, and [[Roman Palestine|Palestine]]. However, these short-term fortunes were quickly reversed following the [[Early Muslim conquests|Arab conquests]]. Beginning in the 630s, the Arab wars with the Romans halved Byzantine territory, including rich provinces such as Egypt.{{Sfn|Laiou|Morrisson|2007|p=24}} These collective disasters led to severe economic deterioration, culminating in large-scale deurbanization and impoverishment throughout the empire.{{Sfn|Laiou|Morrisson|2007|p=39}} Demographic and urban decline sparked the destruction of trade routes, with trade reaching its lowest point by the 8th century.{{Sfn|Laiou|Morrisson|2007|p=24}} Isaurian reforms and Constantine V's repopulation, public works, and tax measures marked the beginning of a revival that continued until 1204 despite territorial contraction.{{Sfnm|Magdalino|2002b|1a1=Laiou|1a2=Morrisson|1y=2007|1pp=3, 45, 49–50, 231|2p=532}} From the 10th century until the end of the 12th, the Byzantine Empire projected an image of luxury; travellers were impressed by the wealth accumulated in the capital.{{Sfnm|Magdalino|2002b|1a1=Laiou|1a2=Morrisson|1y=2007|1pp=90–91, 127, 166–169, 203–204|2p=535}} The Fourth Crusade led to the disruption of Byzantine manufacturing and the commercial dominance of the Western Europeans in the [[eastern Mediterranean]], both events which amounted to an economic catastrophe for the empire.{{Sfnm|Magdalino|2002b|1a1=Laiou|1a2=Morrisson|1y=2007|1pp=90–91, 127, 166–169, 203–204|2p=535}} The [[Palaiologos|Palaiologoi]] tried to revive the economy, but the late Byzantine state could not gain full control of either foreign or domestic economic forces. Eventually, Constantinople also lost its influence on the [[Modalities (trade negotiations)|modalities]] of trade, price mechanisms, control over the outflow of precious metals and, according to some scholars, even over the minting of coins.{{Sfn|Matschke|2002|pp=805–806}} The government attempted to exercise formal control over interest rates and to set the parameters for the activity of the [[guild]]s and [[corporation]]s, where they held special interests. The emperor and his officials intervened at times of crises to ensure the stockpiling of provisions for the capital and to keep the prices of cereals affordable. Finally, the government often collected a part of the economic surplus through taxation, and put it back into circulation through either redistribution in the form of salaries to state officials or in the form of investment in public works.{{Sfnm|1=Laiou|2=2002a|1a1=Laiou|1a2=Morrisson|1y=2007|1p=18|2pp=3–4}} One of the economic foundations of Byzantium was trade, fostered by the maritime character of the empire. Textiles must have been by far the most important item of export; [[silk]]s were certainly imported into Egypt and appeared also in Bulgaria and the West.{{Sfnm|2=2002b|1a1=Laiou|1a2=Morrisson|1y=2007|1p=13|2p=723|Laiou}} The state strictly controlled internal and international trade, and retained the monopoly of issuing [[Byzantine coinage|coinage]], maintaining a durable and flexible monetary system adaptable to the needs of trade.{{Sfnm|1=Laiou|2=2002a|1a1=Laiou|1a2=Morrisson|1y=2007|1p=18|2pp=3–4}} ==Daily life== === Clothing === {{Main|Byzantine dress}} It is known that the court had a distinguishable dress, while certain conventions of clothing were observed by non-elite men and women.{{sfn|Shepard|2009|p=69}} However, no garments survive, with the historical record distorted and incomplete.{{sfnm|Ball|2005|1p=4|Dawsom|2006|2pp=41,43}} Art historian Jennifer Ball claims that a fashion system began in the Empire many centuries before western Europe, and was not merely a textile industry, with trends driven by the provinces and not the capital which was more conservative.{{sfn|Ball|2005|pp=57, 75-76, 118-119}} The imperial dress was centred around the [[loros]], tzangia and crown which represented the Empire and the court.{{sfn|Ball|2005|pp=35, 177}} The ''Loros'' derived from the [[Trabea|trabea triumphalis]], a ceremonial toga worn by consuls and was more prominent in the earlier period, showing a continuation of the traditions of the Roman Empire.{{sfn|Ball|2005|pp=12, 29}} Jennifer Ball claims the [[chlamys]] was like a modern-day business suit, which originated with the military and is an evolution of the [[paludamentum]], that aristocratic men wore (including the emperor during the early period).{{sfnm|Ball|2005|1pp=24, 30, 32, 34|Dawsom|2006|2p=43}} In the middle era, dresses replaced the tunic for women.{{sfn|Ball|2005|p=9}} The late period sees the larger influence of non-Greek cultures on dress such as Italian (Genoese, Venetian), Turk (Ottoman) and Bulgarian.{{sfn|Ball|2005|p=6}} === Cuisine === {{Main|Byzantine cuisine}} Byzantine cuisine still relied heavily on the Greco-Roman fish-sauce condiment [[garum|garos]], but it also contained foods still familiar today, such as the cured meat [[pastirma]] (known as &quot;paston&quot; in Byzantine Greek),{{Sfnm|1a1=Ash|1y=1995|2a1=Davidson|2y=2014|3a1=Dalby|3a2=Bourbou|3a3=Koder|3a4=Leontsinē|3y=2013 |1p=224|3p=81|2p=123}} [[baklava]] (known as [[Placenta cake|koptoplakous]] κοπτοπλακοῦς),{{Sfnm|Ash|1995|Faas|2005|Vryonis|1971|1p=223|2p=184|3p=482}} [[tiropita]] (known as plakountas tetyromenous or tyritas plakountas),{{Sfnm|Faas|2005|Vryonis|1971|Salaman|1986|1pp=184–185|2p=482|3p=184}} and the famed medieval sweet wines ([[Malvasia]] from [[Monemvasia]], [[Commandaria]] and the eponymous [[Rumney wine]]).&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite book |last=Unwin |first=P. T. H. |title=Wine and the vine: an historical geography of viticulture and the wine trade |date=2010 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-0-415-14416-2 |location=London |page=185}}&lt;/ref&gt; [[Retsina]], wine flavoured with pine resin, was also drunk, as it still is in Greece today.{{Sfn|Bryer|2008|p=672}} &quot;To add to our calamity the Greek wine, on account of being mixed with pitch, resin, and plaster was to us undrinkable&quot;, complained [[Liutprand of Cremona]], who was the ambassador sent to Constantinople in 968 by the German Holy Roman Emperor [[Otto I]].&lt;ref name=&quot;Fordham&quot;&gt;{{Cite web |last=Halsall |first=Paul |date=January 1996 |title=Medieval Sourcebook: Liutprand of Cremona: Report of his Mission to Constantinople |url=http://www.fordham.edu/halsall/source/liudprand1.asp |access-date=25 June 2016 |website=Internet History Sourcebooks Project |publisher=Fordham University |archive-date=17 October 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141017151834/http://www.fordham.edu/halsall/source/liudprand1.asp |url-status=dead }}&lt;/ref&gt; The garos fish sauce condiment was also not much appreciated by the unaccustomed; Liutprand of Cremona described being served food covered in an &quot;exceedingly bad fish liquor&quot;.&lt;ref name=&quot;Fordham&quot; /&gt; The Byzantines also used a soy sauce-like condiment, [[murri (condiment)|murri]], a fermented barley sauce, which, like soy sauce, provided [[umami]] flavouring to their dishes.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |last=Perry |first=Charles |date=31 October 2001 |title=The Soy Sauce That Wasn't |url=https://www.latimes.com/archives/la-xpm-2001-oct-31-fo-63688-story.html |access-date=25 June 2016 |website=Los Angeles Times |archive-date=27 May 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160527001857/http://articles.latimes.com/2001/oct/31/food/fo-63688 |url-status=live }}&lt;/ref&gt;{{Sfn|Jayyusi|Marín|1994|p=729}} === Recreation === {{See also|Sports before 1001|1001 to 1600 in sports}} [[File:Tabula - boardgame - Zeno game.svg|thumb|A game of [[tabula (game)|τάβλι (tabula)]] played by the [[Byzantine]] emperor [[Zeno (emperor)|Zeno]] in 480 and recorded by [[Agathias]] in {{Circa|530}} because of a very unlucky dice throw for Zeno (red), as he threw 2, 5 and 6 and was forced to leave eight pieces alone.{{Sfn|Austin|1934|pp=202–205}}|alt=A visualised depiction of a board game]] Byzantines were avid players of [[tabula (game)|tavli]] ([[Byzantine Greek]]: τάβλη), a game known in English as [[backgammon]], which is still popular in former Byzantine realms and still known by the same name in Greece.{{Sfn|Austin|1934|pp=202–205}} Byzantine nobles were devoted to horsemanship, particularly [[Tzykanisterion|tzykanion]], now known as [[polo]]. The game came from Sassanid Persia, and a Tzykanisterion (stadium for playing the game) was built by Theodosius II inside the [[Great Palace of Constantinople]].{{Sfn|Kazhdan|1991a|p=2137, &quot;Tzykanisterion&quot;}} Emperor Basil I excelled at it; Emperor Alexander died from exhaustion while playing, Emperor Alexios I Komnenos was injured while playing with [[Tatikios]], and John I of Trebizond died from a fatal injury during a game.{{Sfn|Komnene|1928|loc=[https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/The_Alexiad/Book_XIV#Chapter_IV 14.4]}} Other than Constantinople and Trebizond, other Byzantine cities also featured ''tzykanisteria'', most notably [[Sparta]], [[Ephesus]], and [[Athens]], an indication of a thriving urban aristocracy.{{Sfn|Kazanaki-Lappa|2002|p=643}} The game was introduced to the West by crusaders, who had developed a taste for it particularly during the pro-Western reign of Emperor Manuel I Komnenos.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |last=Suren-Pahlav |first=Shapour |date=1998 |title=The History of Chogân (Polo) |url=https://www.parstimes.com/sports/polo/polo.html |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230519155343/https://www.parstimes.com/sports/polo/polo.html |archive-date=19 May 2023 |access-date=2024-09-01 |website=Pars Times}}&lt;/ref&gt; Chariot races were popular and held at hippodromes across the empire. There were four major factions in chariot racing, differentiated by the colour of the uniform which they wore; the colours were also worn by their supporters. These factions were the Blues (''Veneti''), the Greens (''Prasini''), the Reds (''Russati''), and the Whites (''Albati'').&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite book |last1=Mehlman |first1=Bernard H. |title=Medieval Midrash: the house for inspired innovation |last2=Limmer |first2=Seth M. |date=2016 |publisher=Brill |isbn=978-90-04-33133-4 |series=The Brill reference library of Judaism |location=Leiden and Boston |page=162 |doi=10.1163/9789004331334_014}}&lt;/ref&gt; == Arts == === Architecture === {{main|Byzantine architecture}}{{multiple image | perrow = 2 | total_width = 400 | align = | image1 = Hagia Sophia in Istanbul (focused on the original Roman building).jpg | image2 = Istanbul Oct 2019 12 20 46 794000.jpeg | image3 = Deesis mosaic Hagia Sophia.jpg | image4 = Hagia Sophia Southwestern entrance mosaics 2.jpg | footer = The [[Hagia Sophia]] ([[Istanbul]], Turkey), 537, by [[Anthemius of Tralles]] and [[Isidore of Miletus]] | alt1 = A photograph of a large blue-domed structure at the centre with at least four smaller white-domed structures at the right | alt2 = A photograph taken from a height of the interior of a domed building built in the classical style, large circular shield like objects with Arabic calligraphy on them are on the walls | alt3 = A mosaic painted golden yellow scraped off at the bottom. Three people with halos are depicted, the ones on the right and left are bowing towards the one on the centre. Greek letters can be seen, possibly labels describing the three people | alt4 = A mosaic painted golden yellow. One crowned man each is standing on the right and left, both are offering models of large buildings to a woman seated on a throne holding her baby. All four people have halos, Greek letters can be seen, possibly labels describing the people }} Influences from [[Byzantine architecture]], particularly in religious buildings, can be found in diverse regions ranging from Egypt and Arabia to [[Neo-Byzantine architecture in the Russian Empire|Russia]] and Romania. Byzantine architecture is known for the use of [[dome]]s, and [[pendentive]] architecture was invented in the Byzantine Empire. In contrast to the [[basilica]] plans favored in medieval Western European churches, Byzantine churches usually had more centralized ground plans, such as the [[cross-in-square]] plan deployed in many Middle Byzantine churches.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite book |last=Ousterhout |first=Robert |url=https://pressbooks.pub/smarthistoryguidetobyzantineart/chapter/middle-byzantine-church-architecture/ |title=A Smarthistory Guide to Byzantine Art |date=2021 |editor-last=Freeman |editor-first=Evan |chapter=Middle Byzantine Church Architecture |access-date=30 December 2023 |archive-date=29 December 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231229225223/https://pressbooks.pub/smarthistoryguidetobyzantineart/chapter/middle-byzantine-church-architecture/ |url-status=live }}&lt;/ref&gt; They also often featured marble columns, [[coffer]]ed ceilings and sumptuous decoration, including the extensive use of [[mosaic]]s with golden backgrounds. Byzantine architects used marble mostly as interior cladding, in contrast to the structural roles it had for the Ancient Greeks. They used mostly stone and brick, and also thin [[alabaster]] sheets for windows. Mosaics were used to cover brick walls and any other surface where fresco would not resist. Notable examples of mosaics from the proto-Byzantine era are at the [[Hagios Demetrios]] in [[Thessaloniki]] (Greece), the [[Basilica of Sant'Apollinare Nuovo]] and the [[Basilica of San Vitale]], both in Ravenna (Italy), and the Hagia Sophia in [[Istanbul]]. Christian liturgies were held in the interior of the churches, the exterior usually having little to no ornamentation.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book |last1=Hurmuziadis |first1=George D. |title=Cultura Greciei |date=1979 |publisher=Editura științifică și enciclopedică |location=Bucharest |pages=92, 93 |language=ro |trans-title=Greek Culture |oclc=64273966}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book |last1=Hopkins |first1=Owen |url= |title=Architectural Styles: A Visual Guide |date=2014 |publisher=Laurence King |isbn=978-1-78067-163-5 |location=London |page=17 |language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt; {{Multiimage | align = center | total_width = 600 | image1 = &quot;The good Shepherd&quot; mosaic - Mausoleum of Galla Placidia.jpg | alt1 = A mosaic below a wall, the latter is painted blue and has circular patterns. A man with a halo holding a cross is depicted herding sheep | caption1 = Christ as the [[Good Shepherd]]; {{circa}} 425–430; mosaic; width: {{circa}} 3 m; [[Mausoleum of Galla Placidia]] ([[Ravenna]], Italy)&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book |last1=Fortenberry |first1=Diane |title=The Art Museum |date=2017 |publisher=Phaidon |isbn=978-0-7148-7502-6 |location=New York |page=108 |language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt; | image2 = KHM Wien Kaiserin Ariadne X 39.jpg | alt2 = A carving of a crowned woman seated on a throne behind undrawn curtains. She is holding a cross atop a globe on her left hand | caption2 = Diptych Leaf with a Byzantine Empress; 6th century; ivory with traces of gilding and leaf; height: {{cvt|26.5|cm}}; [[Kunsthistorisches Museum]] ([[Vienna]], Austria)&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book |last1=Fortenberry |first1=Diane |title=The Art Museum |date=2017 |publisher=Phaidon |isbn=978-0-7148-7502-6 |location=New York |page=114 |language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt; }} ===Art=== {{further|Byzantine art}} {{Byzantine culture|Iconoclasm|alt=A close up photograph of a mosaic painted on a wall. One peacock each is depicted to the right and left of an amphora (pot)}} Constantine's sponsorship produced an exuberant burst of Christian art and architecture, frescoes and mosaics for church walls, and hieroglyphic type drawings.{{sfn|Weitzmann|1979|pp=xix–xx}} While classical and Christian culture did coexist into the seventh century, Christian imagery gradually replaced classical images, which had undergone a short revival under [[Julian (emperor)|Julian the Apostate]] and in the Theodosian renaissance.{{sfn|Weitzmann|1979|p=xix}} [[File:Officina costantinopolitana, tesoro di asyut (egitto), V-VI sec ca. 01 collier.JPG|alt=A close up photograph of a piece of golden necklace like jewellery, with multiple beads of varying shades of blue hanging from the central gold plate in a semicircular pattern|[[Collier (necklace)|Collier]]; late 6th–7th century; gold, an [[emerald]], a [[sapphire]], [[amethyst]]s and [[pearl]]s; diameter: {{cvt|23|cm}}; from a [[Constantinopol]]itan workshop; [[Antikensammlung Berlin]] ([[Berlin]], Germany)&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book |last1=Fortenberry |first1=Diane |title=The Art Museum |date=2017 |publisher=Phaidon |isbn=978-0-7148-7502-6 |location=New York |page=115 |language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt;|thumb]] In the 720s, the Byzantine Emperor [[Leo III the Isaurian|Leo III]] banned the pictorial representation of Christ, saints, and biblical scenes. Bishops, the army and the civil service supported the emperors, while monks, sometimes at the cost of their lives, and the western papacy, refused to participate, leading to further separation between the East and West.{{sfn|Matthews|Platt|1997|pp=181, 185}}{{sfn|Halsall|2021}} Lasting for over one hundred years, this ban led to nearly all figurative religious art being destroyed.{{sfn|Matthews|Platt|1997|p=185}} It wasn't until the tenth and early eleventh centuries that Byzantine culture fully recovered and Orthodoxy was again manifested in art.{{sfn|Louth|2008|p=46}}{{sfn|Cameron|2017|at=Icons and Iconoclasm, chapter 5}} Surviving [[Byzantine art]] is mostly religious{{Sfn|Rice|1968|pp=62–64}} and, with exceptions during certain periods, is highly conventional, following traditional models that translate carefully controlled church theology into artistic terms. Painting in [[fresco]], [[illuminated manuscript]]s and on wood panels and mosaics, especially in earlier periods, were the main media, and figurative [[sculpture]] was very rare except for small [[ivory carving|carved ivories]]. Manuscript painting preserved some of the classical realist tradition that was missing in larger works till the end of the empire. Byzantine art was highly prestigious and sought-after in Western Europe, where it maintained a continuous influence on [[medieval art]] till the near end of the period. This was especially true in Italy, where Byzantine styles persisted in modified forms through the 12th century, and became formative influences on [[Italian Renaissance]] art. However, few incoming influences affected the Byzantine style.{{Sfnm|Rice|1968|Weitzmann|1982|Evans|2004|2loc=Chapters 2–7|1loc=Chapter 17|3pp=389–555}} With the expansion of the Eastern Orthodox Church, Byzantine forms and styles spread throughout the Orthodox world and beyond.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |last=Jones |first=Muffet |date=2020-05-01 |title=9.1: Early Byzantine Art |url=https://human.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Art/Art_History_(Boundless)/09:_The_Byzantines/9.01:_Early_Byzantine_Art |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240313203244/https://human.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Art/Art_History_(Boundless)/09%3A_The_Byzantines/9.01%3A_Early_Byzantine_Art |archive-date=13 March 2024 |access-date=2024-09-01 |website=Humanities LibreTexts |language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt;{{Sfn|Rice|1968|p=524|ps=See also Chapter 16.}} === Literature === {{main|Byzantine literature|List of Byzantine scholars}} [[Byzantine literature]] concerns all [[Greek literature]] from the [[Middle Ages]].{{sfn|Browning|2022|loc=§ para. 1}} Although the Empire was [[Languages of the Roman Empire|linguistically diverse]], the vast majority of extant texts are in [[medieval Greek]],{{sfn|Papaioannou|2021a|pp=1–2, 5–7}} albeit in two [[Diglossia|diglossic]] variants: a scholarly form based on [[Attic Greek]], and a [[vernacular]] based on [[Koine Greek]].{{sfn|Browning|1991a}} Most contemporary scholars consider all medieval Greek texts to be literature,{{sfn|Papaioannou|2021a|p=10}} but some offer varying constraints.{{sfnm|1a1=Kazhdan|1y=1999|1p=1|2a1=van Dieten|2y=1980|2pp=101–105}} The literature's early period ({{circa|330–650}}) was dominated by the competing cultures of [[Hellenistic period|Hellenism]], [[Eastern Orthodox Church|Christianity]] and [[Religion in ancient Rome|Paganism]].{{sfnm|1a1=Browning|1y=2022|1loc=§ paras. 1–2|2a1=Kaldellis|2y=2021|2pp=162–163}} The [[Church Fathers#Greek Fathers|Greek Church Fathers]]—educated in an Ancient Greek [[rhetoric]] tradition—sought to synthesize these influences.{{sfn|Browning|2022|loc=§ para. 1}} Important early writers include [[John Chrysostom]], [[Pseudo-Dionysius the Areopagite]] and [[Procopius]], all of whom aimed to reinvent older forms to fit the empire.{{sfn|Kazhdan|1991b|p=1236}} Theological [[miracle]] stories were particularly innovative and popular;{{sfn|Kazhdan|1991b|p=1236}} the ''[[Sayings of the Desert Fathers]]'' (''Apophthegmata Patrum'') were copied in practically every Byzantine monastery.{{sfn|Martín|2021|p=685}} During the [[Byzantine Dark Ages]] ({{circa|650–800}}), production of literature mostly stopped, although some important theologians were active, such as [[Maximus the Confessor]], [[Germanus I of Constantinople]] and [[John of Damascus]].{{sfn|Kazhdan|1991b|p=1236}} The subsequent Encyclopedism period ({{circa|800–1000}}) saw a renewed proliferation of literature and revived the earlier Hellenic-Christian synthesis.{{sfn|Browning|2022|loc=§ para. 1}} Works by [[Homer]], [[List of ancient Greek philosophers|Ancient Greek philosophers]] and [[Greek tragedy|tragedians]] were translated, while [[hagiography]] was heavily reorganized.{{sfn|Kazhdan|1991b|p=1236}} After this early flowering of monastic literature, there was a dearth until [[Symeon the New Theologian]] in the late 10th-century.{{sfn|Kazhdan|1991b|p=1236}} A new generation ({{circa|1000–1250}}), including Symeon, [[Michael Psellos]] and [[Theodore Prodromos]], rejected the Encyclopedist emphasis on order, and were interested in individual-focused ideals variously concerning [[Christian mysticism|mysticism]], [[authorial voice]], heroism, humor and love.{{sfn|Kazhdan|1991b|pp=1236–1237}} This included the Hellenistic-inspired [[Byzantine romance]] and [[Chivalry|Chivalric]] approaches in rhetoric, historiography and the influential epic ''[[Digenes Akritas]]''.{{sfn|Kazhdan|1991b|p=1236}} The empire's final centuries saw a renewal of hagiography and increased Western influence, leading to mass Greek to Latin translations.{{sfn|Kazhdan|1991b|p=1237}} Authors such as [[Gemistos Plethon]] and [[Bessarion]] exemplified a new focus on human [[vice]]s alongside the preservation of classical traditions, which greatly influenced the [[Italian Renaissance]].{{sfn|Kazhdan|1991b|p=1237}} === Music === {{See also|Byzantine music|List of Byzantine composers}} {{Annotated image | image = Mosaic of the Female Musicians.jpg | image-width = 800 | image-left = -210 | image-top = -100 | width = 200 | height = 200 | float = right | annotations = | caption = Late 4th century &quot;Mosaic of the Musicians&quot; with [[pipe organ|organ]], [[aulos]], and [[lyre]] from a Byzantine villa in [[Maryamin, Hama|Maryamin]], [[Syria]]&lt;ref name=&quot;Ring&quot;&gt;{{Cite book |last=Ring |first=Trudy |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=R44VRnNCzAYC |title=International Dictionary of Historic Places: Middle East and Africa |publisher=Taylor &amp; Francis |date=1994 |isbn=978-1-884964-03-9 |volume=4 |page=318 |access-date=23 October 2016 |archive-date=9 June 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190609091417/https://books.google.com/books?id=R44VRnNCzAYC |url-status=live |location=London and New York}}&lt;/ref&gt; | icon = none |alt=A cropped image of a photograph of a mosaic, which depicts two women playing a church organ like instrument}} The ecclesiastical forms of [[Byzantine music]] – composed to Greek texts as ceremonial, festival, or church music&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite encyclopedia |title=Byzantine Music |encyclopedia=The Columbia Electronic Encyclopedia |url=https://www.infoplease.com/encyclopedia/arts/performing/music-history/byzantine-music |edition=6th |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240604235234/https://www.infoplease.com/encyclopedia/arts/performing/music-history/byzantine-music |archive-date=4 June 2024}}&lt;/ref&gt; – are today the most well-known forms. Ecclesiastical chants were a fundamental part of this genre. Greek and foreign historians agree that the ecclesiastical tones and in general the whole system of Byzantine music is closely related to the [[Music of ancient Greece|ancient Greek system]].&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |url=http://www.ec-patr.net/en/psaltai/index.htm |last=Ecumenical Patriarchate |title=Byzantine Music |access-date=23 November 2014 |archive-date=16 April 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160416204900/http://www.ec-patr.net/en/psaltai/index.htm |url-status=live }}&lt;/ref&gt; It remains the oldest genre of extant music, of which the manner of performance and (with increasing accuracy from the 5th century onwards) the names of the composers, and sometimes the particulars of each musical work's circumstances, are known. [[File:Byzantine Lyra Museo Nazionale.jpg|thumb|upright|200px|Earliest known depiction of a [[Byzantine lyra|bowed lyra]], from a Byzantine ivory casket (900–1100) (''[[Museo Nazionale Alinari della Fotografia|Museo Nazionale]], Florence'')|alt=A close up black and white photograph of a carving, which depicts a seated young man playing a stringed instrument with a long bow]] The 9th-century Persian geographer [[Ibn Khordadbeh]], in his lexicographical discussion of instruments, cited the [[Byzantine lyra|lyra]] (lūrā) as the typical instrument of the Byzantines along with the ''urghun'' (organ), ''shilyani'' (probably a type of [[harp]] or [[lyre]]) and the ''salandj'' (probably a [[Bagpipes|bagpipe]]).{{Sfn|Kartomi|1990|p=124}} The first of these, the early bowed stringed instrument known as the Byzantine lyra, came to be called the ''[[lira da braccio]]'',&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite encyclopedia |date=2009 |title=lira |encyclopedia=[[Encyclopædia Britannica]] |url=https://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/343204/lira |access-date=2 June 2022 |archive-date=1 August 2009 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090801000612/https://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/343204/lira |url-status=live }}&lt;/ref&gt; in Venice, where it is considered by many to have been the predecessor of the contemporary violin, which later flourished there.&lt;ref name=&quot;Arkenberg109&quot;&gt;{{Cite web |last=Arkenberg |first=Rebecca |date=October 2002 |title=Renaissance Violins |url=http://www.metmuseum.org/toah/hd/renv/hd_renv.htm |access-date=22 September 2006 |publisher=[[Metropolitan Museum of Art]] |archive-date=7 March 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210307212424/http://www.metmuseum.org/toah/hd/renv/hd_renv.htm |url-status=live }}&lt;/ref&gt; The bowed &quot;lyra&quot; is still played in former Byzantine regions, where it is known as the [[Classical kemençe|Politiki lyra]] ({{Literal translation|lyra of the City}}, i.e. Constantinople) in Greece, the [[Calabrian lira]] in southern Italy, and the [[lijerica]] in Dalmatia. The [[water organ]] originated in the Hellenistic world and was used in the [[Hippodrome]] during races.&lt;ref&gt;Journal of Sport History, Vol. 8, No. 3 (Winter, 1981) [http://rbedrosian.com/Byz/Byz_Sports.pdf p. 44] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170622090211/http://rbedrosian.com/Byz/Byz_Sports.pdf |date=22 June 2017 }}.&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;Bush-Kassel-327&quot;&gt;Bush, Douglas Earl; Kassel, Richard (eds.). ''The Organ: An Encyclopedia.'' London and New York: Routledge. 2006. {{ISBN|978-0-415-94174-7}}. [https://books.google.com/books?id=cgDJaeFFUPoC&amp;pg=PA327 p. 327] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160530120840/https://books.google.com/books?id=cgDJaeFFUPoC&amp;pg=PA327|date=30 May 2016}}&lt;/ref&gt; A [[pipe organ]] with &quot;great leaden pipes&quot; was sent by Emperor Constantine V to [[Pepin the Short]], [[List of Frankish kings#Later Kings of the Franks (679–751)|King of the Franks]] in 757. Pepin's son [[Charlemagne]] requested a similar organ for his chapel in [[Aachen]] in 812, beginning its establishment in Western church music.&lt;ref name=&quot;Bush-Kassel-327&quot; /&gt; The [[aulos]] was a double-reeded woodwind like the modern [[oboe]] or Armenian [[duduk]]. Other forms include the ''plagiaulos'' (''πλαγίαυλος'', from ''πλάγιος'' &quot;sideways&quot;), which resembled the [[flute]],&lt;ref name=&quot;Howard&quot;&gt;{{Cite journal |last=Howard |first=Albert A. |date=1893 |title=The Αὐλός or Tibia |journal=Harvard Studies in Classical Philology |volume=4 |pages=1–60 |doi=10.2307/310399 |jstor=310399 |issn = 0073-0688 }}&lt;!-- | access-date = 16 August 2006 --&gt;&lt;/ref&gt; and the ''askaulos'' (ἀσκός ''askos'' – [[wineskin]]), a bagpipe.&lt;ref name=&quot;google15&quot;&gt;{{Cite book |last=Flood |first=William Henry Grattan |author-link=W. H. Grattan Flood |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=DOfuAgAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PA15 |title=The story of the bagpipe |publisher=Рипол Классик |isbn=978-1-176-34422-8 |access-date=23 October 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170226140149/https://books.google.com/books?id=DOfuAgAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PA15 |archive-date=26 February 2017 |url-status=live}}&lt;/ref&gt; The modern descendant of the aulos is the Greek [[Zurna|Zourna]].&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite book |last1=Miller |first1=Terry E. |title=World Music: A Global Journey |last2=Shahriari |first2=Andrew |date=2016-12-19 |publisher=Taylor &amp; Francis |isbn=978-1-317-43437-5 |location=Oxford and New York |page=51 |language=en |doi=10.4324/9781315692791}}&lt;/ref&gt; Bagpipes, also known as ''[[dankiyo]]'' (from ancient Greek: angion (Τὸ ἀγγεῖον), &quot;the container&quot;), had been played even in Roman times and continue to be played throughout the empire's former realms till the present day. These are namely the Balkan [[Gaida]], Greek [[Tsampouna]], Pontic [[Tulum (bagpipe)|Tulum]], Cretan [[Askomandoura]], Armenian [[Parkapzuk]], and Romanian [[Cimpoi]]. Other instruments used in Byzantine music were the [[Qanun (instrument)|Kanonaki]], [[Tambouras]], Semantron, [[Salpinx]], Boukina, [[Syrinx (instrument)|Syrinx]], [[Crotala]], Tympana and Cheirokymbala.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |last=Touliatos-Miles |first=Diane H. |title=Byzantine instruments |date=2010-01-01 |work=The Oxford Dictionary of the Middle Ages |url=https://www.oxfordreference.com/display/10.1093/acref/9780198662624.001.0001/acref-9780198662624-e-1082 |access-date=2024-09-01 |publisher=Oxford University Press |language=en |doi=10.1093/acref/9780198662624.001.0001 |isbn=978-0-19-866262-4}}&lt;/ref&gt; ===12th-century renaissance=== {{Further|Byzantine civilisation in the 12th century}} {{See also|Byzantine army (Komnenian era)}} [[File:Meister von Nerezi 001.jpg|thumb|upright=1.16|''The Lamentation of Christ'' (1164), a fresco from the [[Church of St. Panteleimon (Nerezi)|church of Saint Panteleimon]] in [[Nerezi]], [[North Macedonia]], considered a superb example of 12th-century [[Comnenus|Komnenian]] art|alt=A close up photograph of a mosaic, which depicts a seated veiled woman holding up a dead man, whose left hand is being held up by a bent man. All three people have golden halos around their heads]] During the 12th century, there was a revival in [[mosaic]], and regional schools of architecture began producing many distinctive styles that drew on a range of cultural influences.{{Sfn|Diehl|1948 |pp=179, 185, 190}} In this period, the Byzantines provided the earliest model of [[Renaissance humanism]] through their revival of interest in classical authors. [[Eustathius of Thessalonica]] is considered the greatest example of Byzantine humanism as he studied both classics and theology.{{Sfn|Tatakes|Moutafakis|2003|p=110}} In philosophy, there was a resurgence of classical learning not seen since the 7th century, characterised by a significant increase in the publication of commentaries on classical works.{{Sfn|Browning|1992|pp=198–208}} Moreover, the first transmission of classical Greek knowledge to the West occurred during the Komnenian period.{{Sfn|Browning|1992|p=218}} In terms of prosperity and cultural life, the Komnenian period was one of the peaks in Byzantine history,{{Sfn|Cameron|2006|p=42}} and Constantinople remained the leading city of the Christian world in size, wealth, and culture.{{Sfn|Cameron|2006|p=47}} There was a renewed interest in [[Ancient Greek philosophy|classical Greek philosophy]], as well as an increase in literary output in vernacular Greek.{{Sfn|Browning|1992|pp=198–208}} Byzantine art and literature held a pre-eminent place in Europe, and the cultural impact of Byzantine art on the West during this period was enormous and of long-lasting significance.{{Sfn|Browning|1992|p=218}} == Science and medicine == {{Main|Byzantine science}} {{See also|Byzantine medicine|4=List of Byzantine inventions|Byzantine philosophy}} [[File:20131203 Istanbul 048.jpg|thumb|upright=1.15|Interior of the [[Hagia Sophia]], the patriarchal [[basilica]] in Constantinople designed 537 by [[Isidore of Miletus]], who was influenced by [[Archimedes]]' principles of solid geometry is evident.|alt=A photograph of the interior of a building built with blue arches and pillars and ornate yellow walls]] [[Byzantine science]] played an important and crucial role in the [[Greek contributions to the Islamic world|transmission of classical knowledge]] to the [[Muslim world|Islamic world]] and to [[Italian Renaissance|Renaissance Italy]].&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |author=Saliba |first=George |author-link=George Saliba |date=27 April 2006 |title=Islamic Science and the Making of Renaissance Europe |url=https://www.loc.gov/today/cyberlc/feature_wdesc.php?rec=3883 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060629204411/https://www.loc.gov/today/cyberlc/feature_wdesc.php?rec=3883 |archive-date=29 June 2006 |access-date=1 March 2008 |website=[[Library of Congress]]}}&lt;/ref&gt;{{sfn|Robins|1993|p=8}} Many of the most distinguished classical scholars held high offices in the [[Eastern Orthodox Church]].{{Sfn|Tatakes|Moutafakis|2003|p=189}} The writings of [[classical antiquity]] were cultivated and preserved in Byzantium. Therefore, Byzantine science was in every period closely connected with [[ancient philosophy]] and [[metaphysics]].{{Sfn|Anastos|1962|p=409}} In the field of engineering, [[Isidore of Miletus]], the Greek mathematician and architect of the Hagia Sophia, produced the first compilation of [[Archimedes]]' works {{Circa|530}}, and it is through this manuscript tradition, kept alive by the school of mathematics and engineering founded {{Circa|850}} during the &quot;Byzantine Renaissance&quot; by [[Leo the Mathematician]], that such works are known today, primarily through the school's production, the [[Archimedes Palimpsest]].&lt;ref&gt;Alexander Jones, [https://www.ams.org/notices/200505/rev-jones.pdf &quot;Book Review, Archimedes Manuscript&quot;] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220302190047/https://www.ams.org/notices/200505/rev-jones.pdf |date=2 March 2022 }} American Mathematical Society, May 2005.&lt;/ref&gt; Alexandrian philosopher [[John Philoponus]] was the first to question [[Aristotelian physics]]. Unlike Aristotle, who based his physics on verbal arguments, Philoponus relied on observations. Philoponus' criticism of the Aristotelian principles of physics was an inspiration for [[Galileo Galilei]]'s refutation of Aristotelian physics during the [[Scientific Revolution]] many centuries later, as Galileo cites Philoponus substantially in his works.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite book |last=Wildberg |first=Christian |author-link=Christian Wildberg |url=https://plato.stanford.edu/archives/spr2016/entries/philoponus/ |title=The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy |date=2018 |publisher=Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University |editor-last=Zalta |editor-first=Edward N. |editor-link=Edward N. Zalta |access-date=8 March 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190822110331/https://plato.stanford.edu/archives/spr2016/entries/philoponus/ |archive-date=22 August 2019 |url-status=live |via=Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;lindberg162&quot;&gt;{{Cite book |last=Lindberg |first=David |author-link=David C. Lindberg |title=The Beginnings of Western Science |title-link=The Beginnings of Western Science |publisher=University of Chicago Press |year=1992 |isbn=9780226482057 |location=Chicago |page=162}}&lt;/ref&gt; The Byzantines pioneered the concept of the hospital as an institution offering medical care and the possibility of a cure for the patients, as a reflection of the ideals of Christian charity, rather than merely being a place to die.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite book |last=Lindberg |first=David |author-link=David C. Lindberg |title=The Beginnings of Western Science |title-link=The Beginnings of Western Science |publisher=University of Chicago Press |year=1992 |isbn=9780226482057 |location=Chicago |page=349}}&lt;/ref&gt; [[File:Liquid fire granades Chania.jpg|thumb|upright|left|Ceramic grenades that were filled with [[Greek fire]], surrounded by [[caltrop]]s, 10th–12th century, [[National Historical Museum (Greece)|National Historical Museum]], Athens, Greece|alt=Two pots surrounded by caltrops]] [[Greek fire]], an incendiary weapon which could even burn on water, is attributed to the Byzantines. It played a crucial role in the empire's victory over the Umayyad Caliphate during the siege of Constantinople (717–718).&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |title=Greek fire &amp;#124; weaponry |url=https://www.britannica.com/technology/Greek-fire |website=Encyclopedia Britannica |access-date=1 March 2018 |archive-date=10 March 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180310022524/https://www.britannica.com/technology/Greek-fire |url-status=live }}&lt;/ref&gt; The discovery is attributed to [[Callinicus of Heliopolis]] from Syria who fled during the Arab conquest of Syria. However, it has also been argued that no single person invented Greek fire, but rather, that it was &quot;invented by the chemists in Constantinople who had inherited the discoveries of the Alexandrian chemical school...&quot;.&lt;ref name=&quot;auto&quot;&gt;{{Cite book |last=Partington |first=J. R. |author-link=J. R. Partington |title=A History of Greek Fire and Gunpowder |publisher=The Johns Hopkins University Press |year=1999 |isbn=9780801859540 |location=Baltimore and London |page=13}}&lt;/ref&gt; In the final century of the empire, [[astronomy]] and other [[mathematics|mathematical sciences]] were taught in Trebizond; medicine attracted the interest of almost all scholars.{{Sfn|Tatakes|Moutafakis|2003|p=189}} The Fall of Constantinople in 1453 fuelled the era later commonly known as the &quot;[[Italian Renaissance]]&quot;. During this period, [[Greek scholars in the Renaissance|refugee Byzantine scholars]] were principally responsible for carrying, in person and writing, ancient Greek grammatical, literary, mathematical, and astronomical knowledge to early Renaissance Italy.{{Sfn|Robins|1993|p=8}} They also brought with them classical learning and texts on botany, medicine and zoology, as well as the works of [[Pedanius Dioscorides|Dioscorides]] and John Philoponus' criticism of Aristotelian physics.&lt;ref name=&quot;lindberg162&quot; /&gt; == Religion == === Christianity === {{Main|History of Christianity|Christianity as the Roman state religion|History of the Eastern Orthodox Church#Byzantine period}} [[File:Distribution of the documented presence of Christian congregations in the first three centuries.tif|upright=1.5|thumb|Map of the Roman empire with the distribution of the Christian congregations of the first three centuries displayed for each century{{sfn|Fousek et al|2018|p=3/14, Fig. 1}}|alt=A map of Europe and North Africa where the maximum extent of the Roman Empire is shaded grey, differently colored dots mark places where Christian congregations were based]] The first Christian communities began in Judea, in the Roman Empire, in the second quarter of the first century. They swiftly spread into the [[Jewish diaspora]],{{sfn|Humfress|2013|pp=3, 76, 83–88;,91}}{{sfn|Bokenkotter|2007|p=18}} along the trade and travel routes followed by merchants, soldiers and migrating tribes, moving from fewer than 50,000 adherents to over a million in the hundred years between 150 and 250.{{sfn|Bundy|2007|p=118}}{{sfn|Harnett|2017|pp=200, 217}}{{sfn|Hopkins|1998|pp=192–193}} Driven by a universalist logic, Christianity has been, from its beginnings, a missionary faith with global aspirations, leading it to become a part of the history of a great many civilizations.{{sfn|Casiday|Norris|2007a|p=4}}{{sfn|Robert|2009|p=1}} [[File:Constantine the Great in Oria (Retouched).jpg|thumb|upright=.8|Statue of Constantine the Great in [[Oria, Apulia|Oria]], Italy (Retouched)|alt=A close up photograph of a sculpture of a standing crowned man, his left hand is on his sword hilt while his shield is at his left leg]] [[Constantine I (emperor)|Constantine the Great]] became the Roman emperor in 306 and issued the [[Edict of Milan]] expressing tolerance for all religions in 313.{{sfn|Cameron|2006b|p=542}} The Edict was a pluralist policy, and throughout the Roman Empire of the fourth to sixth centuries, people chose between a variety of religious groups in a kind of &quot;religious marketplace&quot;.{{sfn|Papaconstantinou|2016|p=xxix}} Constantine did not make Christianity the state religion.{{sfn|Cameron|2006b|pp=538; 544}} Law, literature, rituals, and institutions indicate that converting the empire to Christianity was a complex, long-term, slow-paced, and uneven process with no single moment or event to mark Christianity becoming the Roman Empire's state religion.{{sfn|Papaconstantinou|2016|pp=xxx, xxxii}}{{sfn|Cameron|2016|pp=6, 7}} Constantine wrote laws against sacrifice and magic, and laws that favored Christianity, but there was no legislation forcing the conversion of polytheists until the reign of the [[Justinian I|Eastern Emperor Justinian I]] in A.D. 529.{{sfn|Salzman|1993|p=364}}{{sfn|Drake|2007|pp=418, 421}} [[File:Fethiye Museum 9607.jpg|thumb|250px|Mosaic of Jesus in the [[Pammakaristos Church]], Istanbul|alt=A close up photograph of a mosaic painted golden yellow, which depicts a bearded man with long hair holding a book in his left hand]] In the fourth century, the diverse network of separate churches became an organization that mirrored the structure of the Roman Empire.{{sfn|Johnson|2015|p=xx}}{{sfn|Sághy|Schoolman|2017|pp=1–3}}{{sfn|Hall|2007|loc=abstract}} Often referred to as the &quot;golden age&quot; of [[Patristics|patristic Christianity]], Christians of this era compiled many of Christianity's greatest works as they transformed and defined its art, culture, literature, philosophy and politics, its internal and external relationships, and its theology.{{sfn|Casiday|Norris|2007a|pp=1–3}} The Church of this age was seen by its supporters as a universal all-embracing union of separate individual churches.{{sfn|Cameron|2017|at=A United Church, chapter 1}} Yet, the tendency for East and West to grow apart was already evident. {{sfn|Brown|1976|p=2}} The western church spoke Latin, while the East spoke, and wrote, in Greek and at least five other languages.{{sfn|Matthews|Platt|1997|p=181}} The ancient state was a religious institution, yet East and West related to that State differently: the Catholic church condemned Roman culture as sinful, kept itself as separate as possible, and struggled to resist State control. This is in pointed contrast with Eastern Christianity which acclaimed harmony with Greek culture, and whose emperors and [[Ecumenical Patriarch of Constantinople|Patriarchs]] upheld unanimity between church and state.{{sfn|Brown|1976|p=8}}{{sfn|Drake|2007|p=418}} Regional variations led to competing orthodoxies, and conflicts over defining heresy and orthodoxy dominated fourth century Christianity.{{sfn|Olson|1999|p=14}}{{sfn|Lieu|2007|pp=293–294}} These ongoing controversies were a large part of what led the Armenian, Assyrian, and Egyptian churches to combine into what is today known as [[Oriental Orthodoxy]], one of three major branches of Eastern Christianity, along with the [[Church of the East]] in Persia and [[Eastern Orthodoxy]] in Byzantium.{{sfn|Adams|2021|pp=366–367}}{{sfn|Micheau|2006|p=375}}{{sfn|Bussell|1910|p=346}}{{efn|The first great controversy concerned [[Arianism]] and whether Christ's divinity was equal to the Father's. It produced the [[Nicene Creed]] as a resolution, yet more problems continued to develop.{{sfn|Goodman|2007|pp=30–32}} {{sfn|Berndt|Steinacher|2014|p=9}}{{sfn|Sabo|2018|p=vii}} Schisms broke out after the Council of Chalcedon in 451 wrote the [[Chalcedonian Definition]] on the human and divine natures of Christ as one [[Ontology|ontological]] entity.{{sfn|Löhr|2007|loc=abstract}}{{sfn|Cross|2001|p=363}}}} The patriarchs in the East frequently looked to the Pope, the bishop of Rome, to resolve disagreements for them, thereby establishing what would later become important features of papal power and influence.{{sfn|Casiday|Norris|2007a|pp=1–3}} Still, by the end of the sixth century, large sections of both the Western and Eastern church remained unconvinced they should be submissive to the Roman See.{{sfn|Nicholson|1960|pp=54, 60}} The vision of a universal and united Christendom was slowly coming undone.{{Sfn|Louth|2008|p=47}} According to the early Christian expert Tia Kolbaba, the Arab, Lombard, and Slavic invasions contributed to the alienation between the churches of Rome and Constantinople despite their shared past.{{Sfn|Kolbaba|2008|pp=213–215}} Disagreement about Constantinople's jurisdiction compared to Rome's intensified as a result.{{Sfn|Kolbaba|2008|pp=214}}{{sfn|Matthews|Platt|1997|p=181}} Misunderstandings and conflicts over ritual, such as the use of unleavened bread in the Eucharist, and differences in points of doctrine (such as the [[Filioque|Filioque Clause]] and [[Nestorianism]]), as well as differences in religious practices (such as celibacy, and even the growing of beards), underline the increasing separation of their unique social structures and cultures.{{sfn|Brown|1976|p=2}}{{sfn|Kolbaba|2008|pp=214, 223}}{{sfn|Meyendorff|1979|p=intro.}}{{sfn|Lorenzetti|2023}} Theological differences became more pronounced.{{sfn|Rahner|2013|pp=xiii, xiv}}{{sfn|Brown|2008|pp=6–8}} There was a general lack of charity and respect on both sides. In 1054, the Patriarch of Constantinople refused to submit to the supremacy of the Roman Pope. Eventually, this all led to the [[East–West Schism]], also known as the &quot;Great Schism&quot;, which officially separated Christianity into Western Catholicism and Eastern Orthodoxy.{{Sfnm|Kolbaba|2008|Meyendorff|1979|Lorenzetti|2023|1pp=214, 223|2p=intro.}}{{Sfn|Matthews|Platt|1997|p=181}} In 1439, a reunion agreement between the Eastern and Western church was proposed. Popular resistance in the East interfered, so it wasn't until 1452 that the decree of union was officially published in Constantinople. The agreement was overthrown the very next year by the [[Fall of Constantinople]] to the Ottoman Turks in 1453.{{sfn|Dowley|2018|pp=342–343}}{{sfn|Kitromilides|2006|p=187}} The conquest of 1453 destroyed the Orthodox Church as an institution of the Christian empire inaugurated by Constantine, sealing off Greek-speaking Orthodoxy from the West for almost a century and a half.{{sfn|Kitromilides|2006|pp=187, 191}}{{sfn|Kenworthy|2008|p=173}} However, the church survived in altered form, and the spiritual and cultural influence of the Eastern church, Constantinople, and [[Mount Athos|Mount Athos the monastic peninsula]] has continued.{{sfn|Kenworthy|2008|p=173}} === Judaism === {{Main|History of the Jews in the Byzantine Empire}} Byzantine Jewry played a prominent role in the medieval Jewish world. The [[Karaite Judaism|Karaite]] schism and the Venetian and Genoese conquests during the Fourth Crusade introduced divisions, but these did not significantly impact the commercial or cultural life of the Jewish or Christian communities.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite book |last=De Lange |first=Nicholas |author-link=Nicholas de Lange |url=https://www.cambridge.org/core/books/abs/cambridge-history-of-judaism/byzantium/4C101463C3F13E10EF20652B7FE13DD0 |title=The Cambridge History of Judaism |date=2018 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-0-521-51724-9 |editor-last=Chazan |editor-first=Robert |editor1-link=Robert Chazan |volume=6: The Middle Ages: The Christian World |place=Cambridge and New York |pages=76–97 |chapter=Byzantium |doi=10.1017/9781139048880.005 |access-date=2024-09-02}}&lt;/ref&gt; == Legacy == {{Main|Legacy of the Roman Empire}} === Political aftermath === {{Main|Succession to the Byzantine Empire}} [[File:Eastern Mediterranean 1450.svg|thumb|upright|200px|The Eastern Mediterranean just before the [[Fall of Constantinople]]|alt=A map centered on Greece and Turkey in 1450 AD. The Byzantine Empire holds only Southern Greece and northwestern Turkey]] By the time of the fall of Constantinople, the Byzantine Empire, already an empire in name only since the Fourth Crusade, had been reduced to three [[rump state]]s: the [[Despotate of the Morea]], the Empire of Trebizond and the [[Principality of Theodoro]]. The Morea was ruled by the brothers of Constantine XI, [[Thomas Palaiologos]] and [[Demetrios Palaiologos]]. The despotate continued as an independent state by paying an annual tribute to the Ottomans. Incompetent rule, failure to pay the annual tribute, and a revolt against the Ottomans finally led to Mehmed II's invasion of Morea in May 1460.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite book |last=Russell |first=Eugenia |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=gCwU8eqbxBoC&amp;q=Mehmed+II%27s+invasion+of+Morea+in+May+1460.&amp;pg=PA160 |title=Literature and Culture in Late Byzantine Thessalonica |date=2013 |publisher=Bloomsbury Academic |isbn=978-1-4411-5584-9 |location=London and New York |language=en |access-date=2 October 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180628225720/https://books.google.com/books?id=gCwU8eqbxBoC |archive-date=28 June 2018 |url-status=live}}&lt;/ref&gt; A few holdouts remained for a time. In the Morea, the island of [[Monemvasia]] came under the pope's protection before the end of 1460, while the [[Mani Peninsula]] submitted to Venice.{{Sfn|Miller|1907|p=[https://archive.org/stream/journalofhelleni27sociuoft#page/236/mode/1up 236]}} The Empire of Trebizond, which had split away from the Byzantine Empire just weeks before Constantinople was taken by the Crusaders in 1204, became the last remnant of and de facto successor state to the Byzantine Empire. Efforts by Emperor [[David of Trebizond|David]] to recruit European powers for an anti-Ottoman crusade provoked war between the Ottomans and Trebizond in the summer of 1461. After a [[Siege of Trebizond (1461)|month-long siege]], David surrendered the city of Trebizond on 14 August 1461. Trebizond's Crimean principality, the Principality of Theodoro (part of the [[Perateia]]), lasted another 14 years, falling to the Ottomans in December 1475.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite book |last=Nicol |first=Donald MacGillivray |author-link=Donald MacGillivray Nicol |title=The last centuries of Byzantium, 1261–1453 |date=2004 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-0-521-43991-6 |edition=2nd |location=Cambridge |pages=407–408}}&lt;/ref&gt; Mehmed II and his successors continued to [[Ottoman claim to Roman succession|consider themselves heirs]] to the Roman Empire. They considered that they had shifted their religious basis as Constantine had done before, and they continued to refer to their conquered Eastern Roman inhabitants ([[Orthodoxy#Christianity|Orthodox Christians]]) as [[Rum (endonym)|Rûm]]. This claim gradually faded away as the Ottoman Empire assumed a more Islamic political identity.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite book |last=Üre |first=Pinar |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=d7rEDwAAQBAJ |title=Reclaiming Byzantium: Russia, Turkey and the Archaeological Claim to the Middle East in the 19th Century |publisher=Bloomsbury Academic |year=2020 |isbn=978-1-78831-012-3 |location=London and New York |language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt; Meanwhile, the [[Danubian Principalities]] (whose rulers also considered themselves the heirs of the Eastern Roman Emperors){{Sfn|Clark|2000|p=213}} harboured Orthodox refugees, including some Byzantine nobles. At Constantine's death, the role of the emperor as a patron of Eastern Orthodoxy was claimed by [[Ivan III of Russia|Ivan III]], Grand Prince of [[Grand Duchy of Moscow|Muscovy]]. He had married Andreas' sister, [[Sophia Palaiologina]], whose grandson, [[Ivan the Terrible|Ivan IV]], would become the first tsar of Russia (''tsar'', or ''czar'', meaning ''caesar'', is a term traditionally applied by Slavs to the Byzantine emperors). Their successors supported the idea that Moscow was the proper heir to Rome and Constantinople. The idea of the [[Russian Empire]] as the successive [[Succession of the Roman Empire|Third Rome]] was kept alive until its demise with the [[Russian Revolution]].{{Sfn|Seton-Watson|1967|p=31}} === Cultural aftermath === {{See also|Succession of the Roman Empire|Greek scholars in the Renaissance}} [[File:Christ Pantocrator mosaic from Hagia Sophia 2744 x 2900 pixels 3.1 MB.jpg|thumb|250px|A [[Christ Pantocrator]] mosaic in the [[Hagia Sophia]], painted {{circa|1261}}|alt=A close up photograph of a mosaic painted golden yellow, which depicts a bearded man with long hair holding a book in his left hand]] Byzantium has been often identified with absolutism, orthodox spirituality, orientalism and exoticism, while the terms &quot;Byzantine&quot; and &quot;Byzantinism&quot; have been used as bywords for decadence, complex bureaucracy, and repression. Both Eastern and Western European authors have often perceived Byzantium as a body of religious, political, and philosophical ideas contrary to those of the West. Even in [[History of modern Greece|19th-century Greece]], the focus was mainly on the classical past, while Byzantine tradition had been associated with negative connotations.{{Sfn|Cameron|2009|pp=277–281}} This traditional approach towards Byzantium has been partially or wholly disputed and revised by modern studies, which focus on the positive aspects of Byzantine culture and legacy. From the ninth to the twelfth centuries, Byzantine Christianity converted and helped establish multiple nations in what is now Eastern Europe.{{sfn|Shepard|2006|pp=4–5, 7–8}}{{sfn|Harris|2014|p=7}} The historian [[Averil Cameron]] regards this as undeniable, and both Cameron and Obolensky recognize the major role of Byzantium in shaping Orthodoxy, which in turn occupies a central position in the history, societies and culture of Greece, Romania, Bulgaria, Russia, Georgia, Serbia and other countries.{{Sfn|Cameron|2009|pp=186–277}} [[File:Cyril Metodej.jpg|thumb|Monument to [[Saints Cyril and Methodius|St. Cyril and St. Methodius]], Byzantine missionaries to the Slavs, on [[Radhošť|Mt. Radhošť]] in the [[Czech Republic]]|alt=A photograph of statue, which depicts two bearded and hooded men, the one on the left is holding up a cross while the one on the right is holding up a book]] [[File:Lebedev baptism.jpg|thumb|''The Baptism of Kievans'', by the Russian painter [[Klavdiy Lebedev]]|alt=A painting which shows a Christian priest standing on a pier officiating the baptism of multiple people who are standing in a water body while other people watch on]] Its use of vernacular language, and the development of the first Slavic written script, increased education and literacy and influenced the direction of the spiritual, religious, and cultural development of the entire region.{{sfn|Poppe|1991|p=25}}{{sfn|Ivanič|2016|p=127}}{{sfn|Schaff|1953|pp=161–162}} The Byzantines also preserved and copied classical manuscripts, and they are thus regarded as transmitters of classical knowledge, as important contributors to modern European civilization, and as precursors of both [[Renaissance humanism]] and Slavic-Orthodox culture.{{Sfn|Cameron|2009|p=261}} As the only stable long-term state in Europe during the Middle Ages, Byzantium isolated Western Europe from newly emerging forces to the East. Constantly under attack, it distanced Western Europe from Persians, Arabs, Seljuk Turks, and for a time, the Ottomans. From a different perspective, since the 7th century, the evolution and constant reshaping of the Byzantine state were directly related to the respective progress of Islam.{{Sfn|Cameron|2009|p=261}} Following the conquest of Constantinople by the Ottoman Turks in 1453, Sultan Mehmed II took the title &quot;''Kaysar-i Rûm''&quot; (the Ottoman Turkish equivalent of [[Caesar (title)|Caesar]] of Rome), since he was determined to make the Ottoman Empire the heir of the Eastern Roman Empire.{{Sfnm|Béhar|1999|1a1=Bideleux|1a2=Jeffries|1y=1998|1p=71|2p=38}} == See also == * [[Family tree of Byzantine emperors]] * [[Index of Byzantine Empire–related articles]] * [[Legacy of the Roman Empire]] * [[List of Byzantine revolts and civil wars]] * [[List of Byzantine wars]] * [[List of Roman dynasties]] * [[Outline of the Byzantine Empire]] * [[Succession of the Roman Empire]] {{clear}} == References == === Notes === {{Notelist}} === Citations === {{Reflist}} === Sources === ==== Primary sources ==== {{Refbegin|30em|indent=yes}} * {{Cite book |last=Choniates |first=Nicetas |url=https://origin.web.fordham.edu/Halsall/source/choniates1.asp |title=Translations and Reprints from the Original Sources of European History by D.C. Munro (Series 1, Vol 3:1) |publisher=University of Pennsylvania Press |date=1912 |location=Philadelphia |pages=15–16 |chapter=The Sack of Constantinople (1204) |author-link=Nicetas Choniates}} * {{Cite book |last=Cinnamus |first=Ioannes |title=Deeds of John and Manuel Comnenus |publisher=Columbia University Press |date=1976 |isbn=978-0-231-04080-8 |location=New York and West Sussex |author-link=John Kinnamos}} * {{Cite book |last=Komnene |first=Anna |title=The [[Alexiad]] |translator-first=Elizabeth A.S. |translator-last=Dawes |publisher=Internet Medieval Sourcebook |date=1928 |chapter=Books X–XIII |author-link=Anna Komnene |translator-link=Elizabeth Dawes |chapter-url=http://www.fordham.edu/halsall/basis/annacomnena-alexiad00.html |access-date=18 May 2007 |archive-date=13 April 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200413122745/http://www.fordham.edu/halsall/basis/annacomnena-alexiad00.html |url-status=live}} {{Refend}} ==== Secondary sources ==== {{Refbegin|30em|indent=yes}} * {{cite journal |last=Adams |first=Robert Merrihew |author-link=Robert Merrihew Adams |title=Nestorius and Nestorianism |year=2021 |journal=The Monist |volume=104 |issue=3 |pages=366–375 |doi=10.1093/monist/onab005}} * {{Cite journal |last=Anastos |first=Milton V. |date=1962 |title=The History of Byzantine Science. Report on the Dumbarton Oaks Symposium of 1961 |journal=Dumbarton Oaks Papers |volume=16 |pages=409–411 |doi=10.2307/1291170 |issn=0070-7546 |jstor=1291170}} * {{Cite book |last=Angold |first=Michael |author-link=Michael Angold |title=The Byzantine Empire, 1025–1204: A Political History |publisher=Longman |date=1997 |isbn=978-0-582-29468-4 |location=London}} * {{Cite book |editor-last=Angold |editor-first=Michael |title=The Cambridge History of Christianity |publisher=Cambridge University Press |year=2006 |volume=5 |isbn=9781139054089 |editor-link=Michael Angold}} ** {{harvc |last=Kitromilides |first=Paschalis |c=Orthodoxy and the west: Reformation to Enlightenment |in=Angold |year=2006 |pp=187–209 |author-link=Paschalis Kitromilides}} ** {{harvc |last=Micheau |first=Françoise |c=Eastern Christianities (eleventh to fourteenth century): Copts, Melkites, Nestorians and Jacobites |year=2006 |in=Angold |pp=371–403 }} ** {{harvc |last=Shepard |first=Jonathan |author-link=Jonathan Shepard |c=The Byzantine Commonwealth 1000–1550 |in=Angold |year=2006 |pp=1–52}} * {{Cite book |last=Apostolides |first=Sophocles Evangelinos |author-link=Evangelinos Apostolides Sophocles |title=Greek Lexicon of the Roman and Byzantine Periods |publisher=Georg Olms |date=1887 |isbn=978-3-487-05765-1 |location=Hildesheim}} * {{Cite book |title=The Invention of Byzantium in Early Modern Europe |publisher=Harvard University Press |year=2022 |isbn=978-0-88402-484-2 |last2=Ransohoff |first2=Jake |pages=349–367 |language=English |chapter=Introduction |last1=Aschenbrenner |first1=Nathanael |location=Washington, D.C.}} * {{Cite book |last=Ash |first=John |author-link=John Ash (writer) |url=https://archive.org/details/byzantinejourney00ashj |title=A Byzantine Journey |publisher=Random House |date=1995 |isbn=978-1-84511-307-0 |location=New York |url-access=registration}} * {{Cite journal |last=Austin |first=Roland G. |date=1934 |title=Zeno's Game of τάβλη |journal=The Journal of Hellenic Studies |volume=54 |issue=2 |pages=202–205 |doi=10.2307/626864 |jstor=626864 |s2cid=163212104}} * {{Cite book |last=Beard |first=Mary |author-link=Mary Beard (classicist) |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=x795CgAAQBAJ |title=SPQR: A History of Ancient Rome |date=2015 |location=London |publisher=Profile |isbn=978-1-84765-441-0 |language=en |access-date=28 December 2023 |archive-date=30 October 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231030020942/https://books.google.com/books?id=x795CgAAQBAJ |url-status=live}} * {{Cite book |last=Ball |first=Jennifer |url=https://www.worldcat.org/title/ocm60402087 |title=Byzantine dress: representations of secular dress in eighth- to twelfth-century painting |date=2005 |publisher=Palgrave Macmillan |isbn=978-1-4039-6700-8 |edition=1st |series=The new Middle Ages |location=New York |oclc=ocm60402087}} * {{Cite book |last=Beaton |first=Roderick |author-link=Roderick Beaton |title=The Medieval Greek Romance |location=London and New York |publisher=Routledge |date=1996 |isbn=978-0-415-12032-6}} * {{Cite book |last=Béhar |first=Pierre |title=Vestiges d'Empires: La Décomposition de l'Europe Centrale et Balkanique |trans-title=Vestiges of Empires: The Decay of Central and Balkan Europe |publisher=Éditions Desjonquères |date=1999 |isbn=978-2-84321-015-0 |location=Paris}} * {{cite book |last1=Berndt |first1=Guido M. |author1-link=:de:Guido M. Berndt |last2=Steinacher |first2=Roland |author2-link=Roland Steinacher |year=2014 |title=Arianism: Roman Heresy and Barbarian Creed |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=8RsGDAAAQBAJ |location=London &amp; New York |publisher=Routledge |edition=1st |isbn=978-1-4094-4659-0 }} * {{Cite book |last=Blöndal |first=Sigfús |author-link=Sigfús Blöndal |editor-last=Benedikz |editor-first=Benedict |title=The Varangians of Byzantium |location=Cambridge |publisher=Cambridge University Press |year=1979 |isbn=9780521035521}} * {{Cite book |last1=Bideleux |first1=Robert |title=A History of Eastern Europe: Crisis and Change |last2=Jeffries |first2=Ian |publisher=Routledge |date=1998 |isbn=978-0-415-16111-4 |location=London and New York}} * {{Cite book |last=Birkenmeier |first=John W. |title=The Development of the Komnenian Army: 1081–1180 |publisher=Brill |date=2002 |isbn=978-90-04-11710-5 |location=Leiden}} * {{Cite book |last=Bleicken |first=Jochen |author-link=Jochen Bleicken |language=de |url=http://archive.org/details/prinzipatunddomi0000blei |title=Prinzipat und Dominat: Gedanken zur Periodisierung d. röm. Kaiserzeit |trans-title=Principate and Dominate: Thoughts on the Periodization of the Roman Imperial Period |date=1978 |location=Wisebaden |publisher=Steiner |others=Internet Archive |isbn=978-3-515-02876-9}} * {{cite book |last1=Bokenkotter |first1=Thomas |year=2007 |title=A Concise History of the Catholic Church |publisher=Crown Publishing Group |location=New York |isbn=978-0-307-42348-1 |edition=Rev.}} * {{cite journal |last=Brown |first=Peter |author-link=Peter Brown (historian) |title=Eastern and western Christendom in late antiquity: a parting of the way |journal=Studies in Church History |year=1976|volume=13 |pages=1–24 |doi=10.1017/S0424208400006574}} * {{Cite book |last=Browning |first=Robert |url=https://archive.org/details/byzantineempire0000brow |title=The Byzantine Empire |publisher=The Catholic University of America Press |date=1992 |isbn=978-0-8132-0754-4 |location=Washington, DC |url-access=registration}} * {{cite encyclopedia |last=Browning |first=Robert |author-link=Robert Browning (Byzantinist) |editor-last1=Lucas |editor-first1=Donald William |editor-link1=D. W. 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P. |editor-link=T. P. 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An Introduction |in=Papaioannou |pages=1–18 }} * {{Cite book |last1=Paparrigopoulos |first1=Constantine |last2=Karolidis |first2=Pavlos |publisher=Eleftheroudakis |date=1925 |volume=4 |language=el |script-title=el:Ιστορία του Ελληνικού Έθνους |trans-title=History of the Greek Nation |author-link=Constantine Paparrigopoulos |author-link2=Pavlos Karolidis |url=https://anemi.lib.uoc.gr/php/pdf_pager.php?rec=/metadata/d/a/6/metadata-91-0000028.tkl&amp;do=244638_04.pdf&amp;lang=en&amp;pageno=1&amp;pagestart=1&amp;width=840.96%20pts&amp;height=595.2%20pts&amp;maxpage=380 |title=}} * {{cite journal |last=Poppe |first=Andrzej |year=1991 |title=Christianity and Ideological change in Kievan Rus': The First Hundred Years |journal=Canadian-American Slavic Studies |volume=25 |issue=1–4|pages=3–26|doi=10.1163/221023991X00038}} * {{Cite book |last=Pryor |first=John H. |chapter=The Dromōn and the Byzantine navy |title=The Sea in History - The Medieval World |pages=401–411 |url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/9781782049104.037 |access-date=2024-08-18 |publisher=Boydell and Brewer |isbn=978-1-78204-910-4 |date=2017 |editor1-last=Buchet |editor1-first=Christian |editor2-last=Balard |editor2-first=Michel |jstor=10.7722/j.ctt1kgqt6m.41 |location=Suffolk and New York|doi=10.1017/9781782049104.037 }} * {{cite book |last1=Rahner |first1=Hugo |title=Church and State in Early Christianity |date=2013 |publisher=Ignatius Press |isbn=978-1-68149-099-1 |location=San Francisco}} * {{Cite book |last=Read |first=Piers Paul |title=The Templars: The Dramatic History of the Knights Templar, The Most Powerful Military Order of the Crusades |publisher=St. Martin's Press |date=2000 |isbn=978-0-312-26658-5 |location=New York |author-link=Piers Paul Read |orig-date=1999}} * {{Cite book |last=Rice |first=David Talbot |url=https://archive.org/details/david-talbot-rice-byzantine-art_202108/David%20Talbot%20Rice%20-%20Byzantine%20Art/mode/2up |title=Byzantine Art |publisher=Penguin Books |date=1968 |edition=3rd |location=Harmondsworth |author-link=David Talbot Rice |oclc=39485}} * {{cite book |last1=Robert |first1=Dana L. |title=Christian Mission: How Christianity Became a World Religion |date=2009 |publisher=John Wiley &amp; Sons |isbn=978-0-631-23619-1 |edition=illustrated |location=London}} * {{Cite book |last=Robins |first=Robert Henry |title=The Byzantine Grammarians: Their Place in History |publisher=Mouton de Gruyter |date=1993 |isbn=978-3-11-013574-9 |location=Berlin and New York |author-link=R. 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Robins}} * {{Cite book |last=Rochette |first=Bruno |date=2011 |chapter=Language Policies in the Roman Republic and Empire |url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/9781444343397.ch30 |title=A Companion to the Latin Language |pages=549–563 |doi=10.1002/9781444343397.ch30 |hdl=2268/35932 |isbn=9781405186056 |hdl-access=free |access-date=21 December 2023 |archive-date=9 February 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240209191514/https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/9781444343397.ch30 |url-status=live |publisher=John Wiley &amp; Sons |location=London |editor1-last=Clackson |editor1-first=James |editor1-link=James Clackson}} * {{Cite journal |last=Rochette |first=Bruno |date=2018 |title=Was there a Roman linguistic imperialism during the Republic and the early Principate? |url=https://www.rivisteweb.it/doi/10.1418/90426 |journal=Lingue e Linguaggio |issue=1/2018 |pages=107–128 |doi=10.1418/90426 |issn=1720-9331 |access-date=21 December 2023 |archive-date=4 October 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231004101938/https://www.rivisteweb.it/doi/10.1418/90426 |url-status=live |author-mask=3}} * {{Cite book |last=Rochette |first=Bruno |chapter=The Attitude of the Roman Emperors towards Language Practices |title=Social Factors in the Latinization of the Roman West |year=2023 |location=Oxford |chapter-url=https://academic.oup.com/book/55330/chapter/428805545 |editor-last=Mullen |editor-first=Alex |access-date=2023-12-22 |edition=1 |publisher=Oxford Academic |language=en |isbn=978-0-19-888729-4 |author-mask=3}} * {{Cite book |last=Rotman |first=Youval |title=Byzantine slavery and the Mediterranean world |date=2009 |publisher=Harvard University press |isbn=978-0-674-03611-6 |location=Cambridge (Mass.)}} * {{Cite book |last=Rotman |first=Youval |title=Slaveries of the First Millennium |date=2022 |publisher=Amsterdam University Press |isbn=978-1-64189-172-1 |author-mask=3 |location=Amsterdam |doi=10.2307/j.ctv2175h0p |jstor=j.ctv2175h0p}} * {{Cite book |last=Runciman |first=Steven |title=The Fall of Constantinople, 1453 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |date=1990 |isbn=978-0-521-39832-9 |author-link=Steven Runciman |location=Cambridge}} * {{cite book |last1=Sabo |first1=Theodore |title=From Monophysitism to Nestorianism: AD 431–681 |date=2018 |publisher=Cambridge Scholars Publishing |isbn=978-1-5275-0959-7|location=Newcastle upon Tyne}} * {{cite book|author1-last=Sághy|author1-first=Marianne|author2-last=Schoolman|author2-first=Edward M.|title=Pagans and Christians in the Late Roman Empire: New Evidence, New Approaches (4th–8th centuries)|publisher=Central European University Press|year=2017|isbn=978-963-386-256-8 |location=Budapest}} * {{Cite book |last=Salaman |first=Rena |url=https://archive.org/details/bub_gb_rbDzAYGcUa8C/page/184 |title=Oxford Symposium on Food &amp; Cookery 1984 &amp; 1985: Cookery: Science, Lore &amp; Books: Proceedings (Introduction by Alan Davidson) |publisher=Prospect Books |date=1986 |isbn=978-0-907325-16-1 |editor-last=Jaine |editor-first=Tom |location=London |pages=[https://archive.org/details/bub_gb_rbDzAYGcUa8C/page/184 184–187] |chapter=The Case of the Missing Fish, or ''Dolmathon'' Prolegomena |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=jYa3J6xrjt4C |editor-link=Tom Jaine}} * {{cite journal |last=Salzman |first=Michele Renee |author-link=Michele R. Salzman |title=The Evidence for the Conversion of the Roman Empire to Christianity in Book 16 of the 'Theodosian Code |journal=Historia: Zeitschrift für Alte Geschichte |volume=42 |issue=3 |publisher=Franz Steiner Verlag |year=1993 |pages=362–378 |jstor=4436297}} * {{cite book |last=Schaff |first=Philip |author-link=Philip Schaff |title=History of the Christian Church |volume=IV: Mediaeval Christianity. 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Supplement |issue=71 |pages=79–91 |jstor=43767621 |issn=2398-3264 |access-date=1 January 2024 |archive-date=28 December 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231228235559/https://www.jstor.org/stable/43767621 |url-status=live |author-link=Andrew Wallace-Hadrill}} * {{Cite book |last=Watson |first=Bruce |title=Sieges: A Comparative Study |publisher=Praeger |date=1993 |isbn=978-0-2759-4034-8 |location=Westport}} * {{Cite book |last=Weitzmann |first=Kurt |title=The Icon |publisher=Evans Brothers |date=1982 |isbn=978-0-2374-5645-0 |location=London |author-link=Kurt Weitzmann}} * {{cite book|last=Weitzmann|first=Kurt|title=Age of Spirituality: Late Antique and Early Christian Art, Third to Seventh Century|editor-last=Weitzmann |editor-first=Kurt|publisher=Metropolitan Museum of Art|year=1979|edition=illustrated|isbn=9780870991790|location=New York}} * {{Cite book |last=Whitby |first=Michael |chapter=Byzantine diplomacy: good faith, trust and co-operation in international relations in Late Antiquity |date=2008 |title=War and Peace in Ancient and Medieval History |pages=120–140 |url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/cbo9780511496301.008 |access-date=2024-07-26 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |author-link=Michael Whitby |location=Cambridge |doi=10.1017/cbo9780511496301.008 |isbn=978-0-521-81703-5}} * {{Cite book |last=Zhang |first=Yongjin |chapter=Barbarism and Civilization |date=2023 |title=The Oxford Handbook of History and International Relations |pages=218–232 |url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/oxfordhb/9780198873457.013.15 |access-date=2024-07-26 |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0-19-887345-7 |location=Oxford and New York|doi=10.1093/oxfordhb/9780198873457.013.15 }} {{Refend}} == External links == {{Library resources box |onlinebooks = yes }} * {{In Our Time|Byzantine Empire|p00547j9|Byzantine_Empire}} * [http://www.roman-emperors.org/ De Imperatoribus Romanis]. Scholarly biographies of many Byzantine emperors. * [http://www.anders.com/lectures/lars_brownworth/12_byzantine_rulers/ 12 Byzantine Rulers] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160718092221/http://www.anders.com/lectures/lars_brownworth/12_byzantine_rulers/ |date=18 July 2016 }} by Lars Brownworth of [[The Stony Brook School]]; audio lectures. * [http://www.cit.gu.edu.au/~s285238/Roman/RomanEmpire.html 18 centuries of Roman Empire by Howard Wiseman] (Maps of the Roman/Byzantine Empire throughout its lifetime). * [http://www.byzantinemuseum.gr/en/ Byzantine &amp; Christian Museum] ; Byzantine studies, resources and bibliography * [https://web.archive.org/web/20080410123427/http://www.doaks.org/Byzantine.html Byzantine studies homepage] at [[Dumbarton Oaks]]. Includes links to numerous electronic texts. * [http://www.fordham.edu/halsall/byzantium/ Byzantium: Byzantine studies on the Internet] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141008060507/http://www.fordham.edu/halsall/byzantium/ |date=8 October 2014 }}. Links to various online resources. * [https://web.archive.org/web/20111107172532/http://homepage.mac.com/paulstephenson/trans.html Translations from Byzantine Sources: The Imperial Centuries, c. 700–1204]. Online sourcebook. * [http://www.deremilitari.org/ De Re Militari]. Resources for medieval history, including numerous translated sources on the Byzantine wars. * [http://www.fordham.edu/halsall/sbook1c.html Medieval Sourcebook: Byzantium] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140814170022/http://www.fordham.edu/halsall/sbook1c.html |date=14 August 2014 }}. Numerous primary sources on Byzantine history. * [http://www.univie.ac.at/byzantine/ Bibliography on Byzantine Material Culture and Daily Life]. Hosted by the [[University of Vienna]]; in English. * [http://www.ellopos.net/elpenor/greek-texts/greek-resources-constantinople.asp Constantinople Home Page]. Links to texts, images and videos on Byzantium. * [https://web.archive.org/web/20160816053828/http://graal.org.ua/en/theodoro-principality Byzantium in Crimea: Political History, Art and Culture]. * [http://www.oeaw.ac.at/byzanz/ Institute for Byzantine Studies of the Austrian Academy of Sciences (with further resources and a repository with papers on various aspects of the Byzantine Empire)] {{Clear}} {{Byzantine Empire topics |state = collapsed }} {{Navboxes | list = {{Empires}} {{History of Turkey timeline}} {{Former monarchies Italian peninsula}} {{Ancient Syria and Mesopotamia}} {{Ancient Rome topics}} {{History of Europe}} }} {{Subject bar | portal1 = Ancient Rome | portal2 = Byzantine Empire | portal3 = Christianity | portal4 = Greece | portal5 = Middle Ages | commons = y | s = y | wikt = y | wikt-search = Byzantine | voy = y }} {{Authority control}} [[Category:Byzantine Empire| ]] [[Category:286 establishments]] [[Category:330s establishments]] [[Category:1453 disestablishments in Europe]] [[Category:1453 disestablishments in Asia]] [[Category:Christendom]] [[Category:States and territories established in the 390s]] [[Category:States and territories disestablished in 1453]] [[Category:Christian states]] [[Category:Former countries in Africa]] [[Category:Former countries in the Balkans]] [[Category:Former countries in Europe]] [[Category:Former countries in West Asia]] [[Category:Tributary states of the Ottoman Empire]] [[Category:Historical transcontinental empires]] [[Category:Former empires]]</div></summary> <author><name>Βατο</name></author> </entry> <entry> <id>https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Lord_Byron&diff=1255923681</id> <title>Lord Byron</title> <link rel="alternate" type="text/html" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Lord_Byron&diff=1255923681"/> <updated>2024-11-07T08:38:59Z</updated> <summary type="html">Βατο: removed unnecessary inaccuracy <hr /> <div>{{short description|English Romantic poet (1788–1824)}} {{redirect2|Byron|George Byron|other uses|Byron (disambiguation)|and|George Byron (disambiguation)}} {{EngvarB|date=October 2022}} {{Use dmy dates|date=February 2024}} {{Infobox writer | honorific_prefix = [[The Right Honourable]] | name = The Lord Byron | honorific_suffix = [[Fellow of the Royal Society|FRS]] | image = Byron 1813 by Phillips.jpg | image_upright = | alt = Portrait of Byron | caption = Portrait by [[Thomas Phillips]], {{c.|1813}} | module = {{infobox officeholder |embed=yes | office = {{ubl|[[Member of the House of Lords]]|[[Lord Temporal]]}} | term_start = 13 March 1809 | term_end = 19 April 1824 &lt;br&gt; [[Hereditary peerage]] | predecessor = [[William Byron, 5th Baron Byron|The 5th Baron Byron]] | successor = [[George Byron, 7th Baron Byron|The 7th Baron Byron]] }} | birth_name = George Gordon Byron | birth_date = {{birth date|1788|1|22|df=y}} | birth_place = London, England | death_date = {{death date and age|1824|4|19|1788|1|22|df=y}} | death_place = [[Missolonghi]], [[Aetolia]],&lt;!--Aetolia-Acarnania did not exist before the late 1820s--&gt; [[Ottoman Empire]] (present-day [[Aetolia-Acarnania]], Greece) | resting_place = [[Church of St. Mary Magdalene, Hucknall]], Nottinghamshire | occupation = {{hlist|Poet|politician}} | residence = | alma_mater = [[Trinity College, Cambridge]] | home_town = | period = | genre = | spouse = {{marriage|[[Anne Isabella Milbanke]]|1815|1816|reason=separated}} | partner = [[Claire Clairmont]] | children = {{plainlist| * [[Ada Lovelace|Ada King, Countess of Lovelace]] * [[Allegra Byron]] * [[Elizabeth Medora Leigh]] (presumed) }} | parents = {{plainlist| * [[John Byron (British Army officer)|John Byron]] (father) * Catherine Gordon (mother) }} | relatives = | awards = | signature = Autograph-LordByron.png }} '''George Gordon Byron, 6th Baron Byron''', {{post-nominals|country=GBR|size=100%|sep=,|FRS}} (22 January 1788 – 19 April 1824) was a British poet and [[Lords Temporal|peer]].&lt;ref name=nmcgann&gt;{{cite ODNB |last=McGann |first=Jerome |title=Byron, George Gordon Noel, sixth Baron Byron (1788–1824), poet |url=https://www.oxforddnb.com/view/10.1093/ref:odnb/9780198614128.001.0001/odnb-9780198614128-e-4279 |year=2004 |access-date=8 February 2021 |isbn=978-0-19-861412-8 |doi=10.1093/ref:odnb/4279}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;The British Library&quot;&gt;{{cite web |title=Lord Byron |url=https://www.bl.uk/people/lord-byron |access-date=17 October 2020 |publisher=The British Library}}&lt;/ref&gt; He is one of the major figures of the [[Romantic movement]],&lt;ref&gt;{{cite encyclopedia |last=Marchand |first=Leslie A. |title=Lord Byron &amp;#124; Biography, Poems, Don Juan, Daughter, &amp; Facts |chapter-url=https://www.britannica.com/biography/Lord-Byron-poet |chapter=Lord Byron |encyclopedia=[[Encyclopædia Britannica]] |publisher=[[Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc.]] |location=London |date=15 April 2019}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |url=http://robertjhmorrison.com/post/byron-and-scotland/|title=Byron and Scotland |publisher=[[Robert J. H. Morrison|Robert Morrison]].com}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |title=Lord Byron (George Gordon) |url=https://www.poetryfoundation.org/poets/lord-byron |publisher=Poetry Foundation |date=30 December 2018 |access-date=30 December 2018}}&lt;/ref&gt; and is regarded as being among the greatest of British poets.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite news |title=The Nation's Favourite Poet Result – TS Eliot is your winner! |url=http://www.bbc.co.uk/poetryseason/vote_results.shtml |publisher=[[BBC]] |access-date=25 May 2019}}&lt;/ref&gt; Among his best-known works are the lengthy narratives ''[[Don Juan (poem)|Don Juan]]'' and ''[[Childe Harold's Pilgrimage]]''; many of his shorter lyrics in ''[[Hebrew Melodies]]'' also became popular. Byron was educated at [[Trinity College, Cambridge]], before he travelled extensively in Europe. He lived for seven years in Italy, in [[Venice]], [[Ravenna]], and [[Pisa]] after he was forced to flee England due to threats of [[lynching]].&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |last=Poets |first=Academy of American |title=About George Gordon Byron {{!}} Academy of American Poets |url=https://poets.org/poet/george-gordon-byron |access-date=5 November 2022 |website=poets.org}}&lt;/ref&gt; During his stay in Italy, he would frequently visit his friend and fellow poet [[Percy Bysshe Shelley]].&lt;ref&gt;{{cite news |last=Perrottet |first=Tony |title=Lake Geneva as Shelley and Byron Knew It |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2011/05/29/travel/lake-geneva-as-byron-and-shelley-knew-it.html |newspaper=[[The New York Times]] |date=29 May 2011}}&lt;/ref&gt; Later in life, Byron joined the [[Greek War of Independence]] to fight the [[Ottoman Empire]], for which Greeks revere him as a [[folk hero]].&lt;ref&gt;&quot;Byron had yet to die to make philhellenism generally acceptable.&quot; – {{harvp|Plomer|1970}}.&lt;/ref&gt; He died leading a campaign in 1824, at the age of 36, from a fever contracted after the [[First Siege of Missolonghi|first]] and [[Second Siege of Missolonghi|second]] sieges of Missolonghi. His one child conceived within marriage, [[Ada Lovelace]], was a founding figure in the field of [[computer programming]] based on her notes for [[Charles Babbage]]'s [[Analytical Engine]].&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal |last1=Fuegi |first1=J |last2=Francis |first2=J |title=Lovelace &amp; Babbage and the creation of the 1843 'notes' |journal=[[IEEE Annals of the History of Computing]] |publisher=[[IEEE Computer Society]] |location=Washington DC |date=October–December 2003 |volume=25 |issue=4 |pages=16–26 |doi=10.1109/MAHC.2003.1253887 |issn = 1058-6180}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal |last=Phillips |first=Ana Lena |title=Crowdsourcing Gender Equity: Ada Lovelace Day, and its companion website, aims to raise the profile of women in science and technology |journal=[[American Scientist]] |publisher=Xi Society |location=Research Triangle Park, NC |date=November–December 2011 |volume=99 |issue=6 |page=463 |doi=10.1511/2011.93.463 |url=https://www.americanscientist.org/issues/pub/crowdsourcing-gender-equity}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite news |url=https://www.theguardian.com/technology/2012/dec/10/ada-lovelace-honoured-google-doodle |title=Ada Lovelace honoured by Google doodle |newspaper=[[The Guardian]] |date=10 December 2012 |location=London |access-date=10 December 2012}}&lt;/ref&gt; Byron's extramarital children include [[Allegra Byron]], who died in childhood, and possibly [[Elizabeth Medora Leigh]], daughter of his half-sister Augusta Leigh. __TOC__ ==Early life== {{main|Early life of Lord Byron}} [[File:CaptainByron.jpg|thumb|upright=1|An engraving of Byron's father, Captain [[John Byron (British Army officer)|John &quot;Mad Jack&quot; Byron]], date unknown]] George Gordon Byron was born on 22 January 1788, on [[Holles Street]] in London;&lt;ref name=nmcgann/&gt; his birthplace is now supposedly occupied by a branch of the department store [[John Lewis and Partners|John Lewis]].&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |last=Seargeant |first=Philip |last2=Packard |first2=Selina |date=22 April 2024 |title=Commemorating Lord Byron on the streets of London |url=https://www.open.edu/openlearn/languages/english-language/commemorating-lord-byron-on-the-streets-london |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240711002000/https://www.open.edu/openlearn/languages/english-language/commemorating-lord-byron-on-the-streets-london |archive-date=11 July 2024 |access-date=2024-09-26 |website=Open Learning |language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |last= |first= |date=2021-03-17 |title=Lord Byron's Birthplace |url=https://www.writerspath.co.uk/post/lord-byron-s-birthplace |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240713141456/https://www.writerspath.co.uk/post/lord-byron-s-birthplace |archive-date=13 July 2024 |access-date=2024-09-26 |website=Writer's Path |language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt; His family in the English Midlands can be traced back without interruption to Ralph de Buran who arrived in England with [[William the Conqueror]] in the 11th century.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |date=21 March 2020 |title=Bygone Byrons: The Weird and Wonderful Characters from Lord Byron's Family Tree |url=https://leftlion.co.uk/features/2020/03/lord-byron-family-tree/ |access-date=2024-09-26 |website=LEFTLION}}&lt;/ref&gt; His land holdings are listed in the [[Domesday Book]].&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |title=BYRON ASSOCIATIONS. |url=http://www.nottshistory.org.uk/books/hucknallchurch/hucknallchurch5.htm |access-date=2024-09-26 |website=Nottinghamshire History}}&lt;/ref&gt; Byron was the only child of Captain [[John Byron (British Army officer)|John Byron]] (known as 'Jack') and his second wife, Catherine [[Clan Gordon|Gordon]], heiress of the [[Gight]] estate in [[Aberdeenshire (traditional)|Aberdeenshire]], Scotland. Byron's paternal grandparents were [[Vice Admiral John Byron]] and Sophia Trevanion.&lt;ref&gt;{{harvp|Boase|Courtney|1878|p=792}}.&lt;/ref&gt; Having survived a shipwreck as a teenage midshipman, Byron's grandfather set a new speed record for circumnavigating the globe. After he became embroiled in a tempestuous voyage during the [[American Revolutionary War|American War of Independence]], he became nicknamed 'Foul-Weather Jack' Byron by the press.{{sfn|Brand|2020|p=183}} Byron's father had previously been somewhat scandalously married to [[Amelia Osborne, Marchioness of Carmarthen]], with whom he was having an affair – the wedding took place just weeks after her divorce from her husband, and she was around eight months pregnant.{{sfn|Brand|2020|p=181}} The marriage was not a happy one, and their first two children – Sophia Georgina, and an unnamed boy – died in infancy.{{sfn|Brand|2020|pp=189, 200}} Amelia herself died in 1784 almost exactly a year after the birth of their third child, the poet's half-sister [[Augusta Leigh|Augusta Mary]].{{sfn|Brand|2020|p=212}} Though Amelia died from a wasting illness, probably tuberculosis, the press reported that her heart had been broken out of remorse for leaving her husband. Much later, 19th-century sources blamed Jack's own &quot;brutal and vicious&quot; treatment of her.&lt;ref name=&quot;Galt, John 1830&quot;&gt;{{harvp|Galt|1830|loc=Chapter 1}}.&lt;/ref&gt; Jack would then marry Catherine Gordon of Gight on 13 May 1785, by all accounts only for her fortune.{{sfn|Brand|2020|p=221}} To claim his second wife's estate in Scotland, Byron's father took the additional surname &quot;Gordon&quot;, becoming &quot;John Byron Gordon&quot;, and occasionally styled himself &quot;John Byron Gordon of [[Gight]]&quot;. Byron's mother had to sell her land and title to pay her new husband's debts, and in the space of two years, the large estate, worth some £23,500, had been squandered, leaving the former heiress with an annual income in trust of only £150.&lt;ref name=&quot;Galt, John 1830&quot; /&gt; In a move to avoid his creditors, Catherine accompanied her husband to France in 1786, but returned to England at the end of 1787 to give birth to her son.{{sfn|Elze|1872|p=11}} Byron was born in January 1788, and christened at [[St Marylebone Parish Church]].&lt;ref name=nmcgann/&gt; His father appears to have wished to call his son 'William', but as he remained absent, Byron's mother named him after her own father, George Gordon of Gight,{{sfn|Brand|2020|p=236}} who was a descendant of [[James I of Scotland]] and who had died by suicide some years earlier, in 1779.&lt;ref name=&quot;nytimes 1898&quot;&gt;{{cite news |title=Byron as a Boy; His Mother's Influence&amp;nbsp;– His School Days and Mary Chaworth |url=https://timesmachine.nytimes.com/timesmachine/1898/02/26/102106462.pdf |newspaper=The New York Times |date=26 February 1898 |access-date=11 July 2008}}&lt;/ref&gt; [[File:Byronmother.jpg|thumb|upright=1|Catherine Gordon, Byron's mother, by [[Thomas Stewardson]]]] Byron's mother moved back to [[Aberdeenshire]] in 1790, and Byron spent part of his childhood there.&lt;ref name=&quot;nytimes 1898&quot;/&gt; His father soon joined them in their lodgings in Queen Street, but the couple quickly separated. Catherine regularly experienced mood swings and bouts of melancholy,&lt;ref name=&quot;nytimes 1898&quot;/&gt; which could be partly explained by her husband's continuously borrowing money from her. As a result, she fell even further into debt to support his demands. One of these loans enabled him to travel to [[Valenciennes]], France, where he died of a &quot;long &amp; suffering illness&quot; – probably tuberculosis – in 1791.{{sfn|Brand|2020|p=254}} When Byron's great-uncle, who was posthumously labelled [[William Byron, 5th Baron Byron|the &quot;wicked&quot; Lord Byron]], died on 21 May 1798, the 10-year-old became the sixth Baron Byron of [[Rochdale]] and inherited the ancestral home, [[Newstead Abbey]], in Nottinghamshire. His mother took him to England, but the Abbey was in a state of disrepair and, rather than live there, she decided to lease it to [[Henry Yelverton, 19th Baron Grey de Ruthyn|Lord Grey de Ruthyn]], among others, during Byron's adolescence.{{sfn|Grosskurth|1997|p=34}}&lt;ref name=&quot;Gross 2019 pp. 15–22&quot;&gt;{{cite book |last=Gross |first=Jonathan |title=Byron in Context |chapter=Early Years |publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]] |date=31 October 2019 |pages=15–22 |isbn=978-1-316-85043-5 |doi=10.1017/9781316850435.002}}&lt;/ref&gt; Described as &quot;a woman without judgment or self-command&quot;, Catherine either spoiled and indulged her son or vexed him with her capricious stubbornness. Her drinking disgusted him and he often mocked her for being short and corpulent, which made it difficult for her to catch him to discipline him. Byron had been born with a deformed right foot; his mother once retaliated and, in a fit of temper, referred to him as &quot;a lame brat&quot;.&lt;ref name=&quot;Galt_chapter3&quot;&gt;{{harvp|Galt|1830|loc=Chapter 3}}.&lt;/ref&gt; However, Byron's biographer, [[Doris Langley Moore]], in her 1974 book ''Accounts Rendered'', paints a more sympathetic view of Mrs Byron, showing how she was a staunch supporter of her son and sacrificed her own precarious finances to keep him in luxury at Harrow and Cambridge. Langley-Moore questions 19th-century biographer [[John Galt (novelist)|John Galt]]'s claim that she over-indulged in alcohol.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |date=22 January 2023 |title=George Gordon Byron |url=http://muzaffar.uz/mashhurlar-hayotidan/2014-george-gordon-byron.html |access-date=30 September 2023 |website=MUZAFFAR.UZ |language=ru}}&lt;/ref&gt; Byron's mother-in-law, Judith Noel, the Hon. Lady Milbanke, died in 1822, and her will required that he change his surname to &quot;Noel&quot; in order to inherit half of her estate. He accordingly obtained a [[Royal Warrant of Precedence|Royal Warrant]], enabling him to &quot;take and use the surname of Noel only&quot; and to &quot;subscribe the said surname of Noel before all titles of honour&quot;. From that point, he signed himself &quot;Noel Byron&quot; (the usual signature of a peer being merely the name of the peerage, in this case simply &quot;Byron&quot;). Some have speculated that he did this so that his initials would read &quot;N.B.&quot;, mimicking those of his hero, [[Napoleon Bonaparte]]. Lady Byron eventually succeeded to the [[Baron Wentworth|Barony of Wentworth]], becoming &quot;Lady Wentworth&quot;.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |title=George Gordon Byron's Poems with Analysis – KeyToPoetry.com |url=https://keytopoetry.com/george-gordon-byron-3/ |website=keytopoetry.com |access-date=30 September 2023}}&lt;/ref&gt; ==Education== Byron received his early formal education at [[Aberdeen Grammar School]] in 1798 until his move back to England as a 10-year-old. In August 1799 he entered the school of Dr. [[William Glennie]], in [[Dulwich]].&lt;ref name=&quot;ODNB&quot;&gt;{{harvp|McGann|2013}}.&lt;/ref&gt; Placed under the care of a Dr. Bailey, he was encouraged to exercise in moderation but could not restrain himself from &quot;violent&quot; bouts of activity in an attempt to compensate for his deformed foot. His mother interfered with his studies, often withdrawing him from school, which arguably contributed to his lack of self-discipline and his neglect of his classical studies.{{sfn|Galt|1830|p=36}} Byron was sent to [[Harrow School]] in 1801, and remained there until July 1805.{{sfn|Cousin|1910|p=67}}&lt;ref name=&quot;nytimes 1898&quot;/&gt; An undistinguished student and an unskilled cricketer, he nevertheless represented the school during the first [[Eton v Harrow]] cricket match at [[Lord's]] in 1805.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite magazine |last=Williamson |first=Martin |title=The oldest fixture of them all: the annual Eton vs Harrow match |url=http://content-uk.cricinfo.com/magazine/content/67/211281.html |journal=[[Cricinfo Magazine]] |publisher=[[Wisden Group]] |location=London |date=18 June 2005 |access-date=23 July 2008}}{{Dead link |date=March 2023 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes}}&lt;/ref&gt; His lack of moderation was not restricted to physical exercise. Byron fell in love with Mary Chaworth, whom he met while at school,&lt;ref name=&quot;nytimes 1898&quot;/&gt; and she was the reason he refused to return to Harrow in September 1803. His mother wrote, &quot;He has no indisposition that I know of but love, desperate love, the worst of all maladies in my opinion. In short, the boy is distractedly in love with Miss Chaworth.&quot;&lt;ref name=&quot;nytimes 1898&quot;/&gt; In Byron's later [[Byron's Memoirs|memoirs]], &quot;Mary Chaworth is portrayed as the first object of his adult sexual feelings.&quot;{{sfn|MacCarthy|2002|p=33}} [[File:John Fitzgibbon 2nd Earl of Clare-cropped.jpg|thumb|upright=1|[[John FitzGibbon, 2nd Earl of Clare]]]] Byron finally returned in January 1804,&lt;ref name=&quot;nytimes 1898&quot;/&gt; to a more settled period, which saw the formation of a circle of emotional involvements with other Harrow boys, which he recalled with great vividness: &quot;My school friendships were with {{em|me passions}} (for I was always violent)&quot;.{{sfn|MacCarthy|2002|p=37}} The most enduring of those was with [[John FitzGibbon, 2nd Earl of Clare]]—four years Byron's junior—whom he was to meet again unexpectedly many years later, in 1821, in Italy.{{sfn|MacCarthy|2002|p=404}} His nostalgic poems about his Harrow friendships, ''Childish Recollections'' (1806), express a prescient &quot;consciousness of sexual differences that may in the end make England untenable to him.&quot;{{sfn|MacCarthy|2002|p=40}} Letters to Byron in the John Murray archive contain evidence of a previously unremarked if short-lived romantic relationship with a younger boy at Harrow, [[John Thomas Claridge]].{{sfn|MacCarthy|2002|p=5}} In the following autumn he entered [[Trinity College, Cambridge]],&lt;ref&gt;{{acad|id=BRN805G|name=Byron [post Noel], George (Gordon), Baron Byron}}&lt;/ref&gt; where he met and formed a close friendship with the younger John Edleston. About his &quot;protégé&quot; he wrote, &quot;He has been my almost constant associate since October, 1805, when I entered Trinity College. His voice first attracted my attention, his countenance fixed it, and his manners attached me to him for ever.&quot; After Edleston's death, Byron composed ''Thyrza'', a series of elegies, in his memory.&lt;ref name=&quot;hudsonreview&quot;&gt;{{harvp|Allen|2003}}.&lt;/ref&gt; In later years, he described the affair as &quot;a violent, though {{em|pure}} love and passion&quot;. This statement, however, needs to be read in the context of hardening public attitudes toward homosexuality in England and the severe sanctions (including public hanging) imposed upon convicted or even suspected offenders.{{sfn|MacCarthy|2002|p=61}} The liaison, on the other hand, may well have been &quot;pure&quot; out of respect for Edleston's innocence, in contrast to the (probably) more sexually overt relations experienced at Harrow School.{{sfn|MacCarthy|2002|p=39}} The poem &quot;The Cornelian&quot; was written about the cornelian that Byron had received from Edleston.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book |last=Fone |first=Byrne |title=The Columbia Anthology of Gay Literature: Readings from Western Antiquity to the Present Day |url=https://archive.org/details/columbiaantholog00byrn |url-access=registration |publisher=[[Columbia University Press]] |location=New York City |date=1998 |page=[https://archive.org/details/columbiaantholog00byrn/page/219 219] |isbn=978-0-231-09670-6}}&lt;/ref&gt; Byron spent three years at Trinity College, engaging in boxing, horse riding, gambling, and sexual escapades. While at [[University of Cambridge|Cambridge]], he also formed lifelong friendships with men such as [[John Cam Hobhouse]], who initiated him into the Cambridge Whig Club, which endorsed liberal politics, and [[Francis Hodgson]], a Fellow at King's College, with whom he corresponded on literary and other matters until the end of his life.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|url=https://www.biography.com/writer/lord-byron#synopsis|title=Lord Byron Biography|publisher=A&amp;E Television Networks|year=2016}}&lt;/ref&gt; ==Career== ===Early career=== [[File:Burgage Manor - geograph.org.uk - 1144170.jpg|thumb|upright=1|Byron's house, Burgage Manor, in [[Southwell, Nottinghamshire]]]] While not at school or college, Byron lived at his mother's residence, Burgage Manor in [[Southwell, Nottinghamshire]].&lt;ref name=&quot;nytimes 1898&quot;/&gt; While there, he cultivated friendships with [[Elizabeth Bridget Pigot]] and her brother John, with whom he staged two plays for the entertainment of the community. During this time, with the help of Elizabeth Pigot, who copied many of his rough drafts, he was encouraged to write his first volumes of poetry. ''Fugitive Pieces'' was printed by Ridge of Newark, which contained poems written when Byron was only 17.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book|title=Fugitive Pieces|date = December 1933| publisher=Folcroft Library Editions |isbn = 978-0-8414-3243-7|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=hwheygAACAAJ|access-date=29 September 2015}}&lt;/ref&gt; However, it was promptly recalled and burned on the advice of his friend the Reverend J. T. Becher, on account of its more amorous verses, particularly the poem ''To Mary''.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|title=To Mary|author=Lord Byron|url= https://internetpoem.com/george-gordon-byron/to-mary-poem/}}&lt;/ref&gt; ''Hours of Idleness'', a collection of many of the previous poems, along with more recent compositions, was the culminating book. The savage, anonymous criticism it received (now known to be the work of [[Henry Peter Brougham]]) in the ''[[Edinburgh Review]]'' prompted Byron to compose his first major satire,&lt;ref name=&quot;akstate&quot;&gt;{{cite web |last=Hoeper |first=Jeffrey D. |date=17 December 2002 |title=The Sodomizing Biographer: Leslie Marchand's Portrait of Byron |url=http://engphil.astate.edu/gallery/marchand.html |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20030510053432/http://engphil.astate.edu/gallery/marchand.html |archive-date=10 May 2003 |access-date=11 July 2008 |publisher=Arkansas State University}}&lt;/ref&gt; ''English Bards and Scotch Reviewers'' (1809).{{sfn|Cousin|1910|p=67}} Byron put it into the hands of his relative [[R. C. Dallas]], and asked him to &quot;...get it published without his name.&quot;{{sfn|Dallas|1824|p=18}} [[Alexander Dallas (priest)|Alexander Dallas]] suggested a large number of changes to the manuscript, and provided the reasoning for some of them. Dallas also stated that Byron had originally intended to prefix an argument to this poem, which Dallas quoted.{{sfn|Dallas|1824|p=46}} Although it was published anonymously, that April R. C. Dallas wrote that &quot;you are already pretty generally known to be the author&quot;.{{sfn|Dallas|1824|p=55}} The work so upset some of his critics that they challenged Byron to a duel; over time, in subsequent editions, it became a mark of prestige to be the target of Byron's pen.&lt;ref name=&quot;akstate&quot;/&gt; [[File:George Gordon Byron Autograph.jpg|thumb|upright=1|Autograph letter signed to John Hanson, Byron's lawyer and business agent. Fondazione [[Biblioteca europea di informazione e cultura|BEIC]]]] After his return from travels he entrusted R. C. Dallas, as his literary agent, with the publication of his poem ''[[Childe Harold's Pilgrimage]]'', which Byron thought to be of little account. The first two cantos of ''Childe Harold's Pilgrimage'' were published in 1812 and were received with critical acclaim.&lt;ref name=&quot;real byron&quot;/&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;companion&quot;&gt;{{harvp|Stabler|1999}}.&lt;/ref&gt; In Byron's own words, &quot;I awoke one morning and found myself famous.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book|first=Thomas|last=Moore|chapter=Letters and Journals of Lord Byron, 1830, volume 1|title=The Concise Oxford Dictionary of Quotations|editor-first=Susan|editor-last=Ratcliffe|publisher=[[Oxford University Press]]|location=Oxford, England|date=2006|url=http://www.oxfordreference.com/views/ENTRY.html?subview=Main&amp;entry=t91.e416}}&lt;/ref&gt; He followed up this success with the poem's last two cantos, as well as four equally celebrated &quot;Oriental Tales&quot;: ''[[The Giaour]]'', ''[[The Bride of Abydos]]'', ''[[The Corsair]]'', and ''[[Lara, A Tale|Lara]]''. About the same time, he began his intimacy with his future biographer, [[Thomas Moore]].{{sfn|Cousin|1910|p=67&lt;!--but bot fo all the oriental tale names--&gt;}} ===First travels to the East=== [[File:Kalaja e Tepelenës.jpg|thumb|upright=1|Byron's Stone in [[Tepelenë]], [[Albania]]]] [[File:Teresa Makri 1870.jpg|thumb|upright=1|Teresa Makri in 1870]] Byron racked up numerous debts as a young man, owing to what his mother termed a &quot;reckless disregard for money&quot;.&lt;ref name=&quot;nytimes 1898&quot;/&gt; She lived at Newstead during this time, in fear of her son's creditors.&lt;ref name=&quot;nytimes 1898&quot;/&gt; He had planned to spend some time in 1808 cruising with his cousin [[George Edmund Byron Bettesworth|George Bettesworth]], who was captain of the 32-gun frigate [[HMS Tartar (1801)|HMS ''Tartar'']], but Bettesworth's death at the [[Battle of Alvøen]] in May 1808 made that impossible. From 1809 to 1811,&lt;ref&gt;{{harvp|Lansdown|2012}}.&lt;/ref&gt; Byron went on the [[Grand Tour]], then a customary part of the education of young noblemen. He travelled with Hobhouse for the first year, and his entourage of servants included Byron's trustworthy valet, [[William Fletcher (valet)|William Fletcher]]. Hobhouse and Byron often made Fletcher the butt of their humour. The [[Napoleonic Wars]] forced Byron to avoid touring in most of Europe; he instead turned to the [[Mediterranean]]. His journey enabled him to avoid his creditors and to meet up with a former love, Mary Chaworth (the subject of his poem &quot;To a Lady: On Being Asked My Reason for Quitting England in the Spring&quot;).&lt;ref name=&quot;akstate&quot;/&gt; Another reason for choosing to visit the Mediterranean was probably his curiosity about the [[Levant]]; he had read about the [[Ottoman Empire|Ottoman]] and [[Persia]]n lands as a child, was attracted to [[Islam]] (especially [[Sufi mysticism]]), and later wrote, &quot;With these countries, and events connected with them, all my really poetical feelings begin and end.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;{{harvp|Blackstone|1974}}.&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;Marchand, p. 45.&lt;/ref&gt; Byron began his trip in [[Portugal]], from where he wrote a letter to his friend Mr Hodgson in which he describes what he had learned of the Portuguese language: mainly swear words and insults. Byron particularly enjoyed his stay in [[Sintra]], which he later described in ''[[Childe Harold's Pilgrimage]]'' as &quot;glorious Eden&quot;. From Lisbon he travelled overland to [[Seville]], [[Jerez de la Frontera]], [[Cádiz]], and [[Gibraltar]], and from there by sea to Sardinia, [[Malta]], [[Albania]] and [[Greece]].&lt;ref name=Dauti&gt;{{cite thesis |type=phd |last=Dauti |first=Daut |title=Britain, the Albanian Question and the Demise of the Ottoman Empire 1876–1914 |url=http://etheses.whiterose.ac.uk/20950/ |publisher=[[University of Leeds]] |date=30 January 2018 |pages=29–30}}&lt;/ref&gt; The purpose of Byron's and Hobhouse's travel to Albania was to meet [[Ali Pasha of Ioannina]] and to see the country that was, until then, mostly unknown in Britain.&lt;ref name=Dauti/&gt; In Athens in 1810, Byron wrote &quot;[[Maid of Athens, ere we part]]&quot; for a 12-year-old girl, Teresa Makri (1798–1875). Byron and Hobhouse made their way to [[İzmir|Smyrna]], where they cadged a ride to [[Istanbul|Constantinople]] on [[HMS Salsette (1805)|HMS ''Salsette'']]. On 3 May 1810, while ''Salsette'' was anchored awaiting Ottoman permission to dock at the city, Byron and Lieutenant Ekenhead, of ''Salsette''{{'}}s Marines, swam the [[Hellespont]]. Byron commemorated this feat in the second canto of ''[[Don Juan (poem)|Don Juan]]''. He returned to England from Malta in July 1811 aboard {{HMS|Volage|1807|6}}.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |url=http://www.euromanticism.org/the-hellespont/ |title=The Hellespont – European Romanticisms in Association |date=23 April 2020}}&lt;/ref&gt; ===England 1811–1816=== [[File:George Gordon Byron, 6th Baron Byron by Richard Westall (2).jpg|thumb|upright=1|Portrait of Byron by [[Richard Westall]]]] After the publication of the first two cantos of ''[[Childe Harold's Pilgrimage]]'' (1812), Byron became a celebrity. &quot;He rapidly became the most brilliant star in the dazzling world of [[Regency era|Regency]] London. He was sought after at every society venue, elected to several exclusive clubs, and frequented the most fashionable London drawing-rooms.&quot;&lt;ref name=&quot;ODNB&quot;/&gt; During this period in England he produced many works, including ''[[The Giaour]], [[The Bride of Abydos]]'' (1813), ''[[Parisina]]'', and ''[[The Siege of Corinth (poem)|The Siege of Corinth]]'' (1815). On the initiative of the composer [[Isaac Nathan]], he produced in 1814–1815 the ''[[Hebrew Melodies]]'' (including what became some of his best-known lyrics, such as &quot;[[She Walks in Beauty]]&quot; and &quot;[[The Destruction of Sennacherib]]&quot;). Involved at first in an affair with [[Lady Caroline Lamb]] (who called him &quot;mad, bad and dangerous to know&quot;) and with other lovers and also pressed by debt, he began to seek a suitable marriage, considering – amongst others – [[Annabella Millbanke]].&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|title=Lord Byron, 19th-century bad boy|url=https://www.bl.uk/romantics-and-victorians/articles/lord-byron-19thcentury-bad-boy|access-date=17 October 2020|website=The British Library}}&lt;/ref&gt; However, in 1813 he met for the first time in four years his half-sister, [[Augusta Leigh]]. Rumours of incest surrounded the pair; Augusta's daughter Medora (b. 1814) was suspected to have been Byron's child. To escape from growing debts and rumours, Byron pressed in his determination to marry Annabella, who was said to be the likely heiress of a rich uncle. They married on 2 January 1815, and their daughter, [[Ada Lovelace|Ada]], was born in December of that year. However, Byron's continuing obsession with Augusta Leigh (and his continuing sexual escapades with actresses such as [[Charlotte Mardyn]]&lt;ref&gt;Alexander Kilgour, [https://books.google.com/books?id=hr-jp_Pph7oC&amp;pg=PA32 ''Anecdotes of Lord Byron: From Authentic Sources; with Remarks Illustrative of His Connection with the Principal Literary of the Present Day''], Knight and Lacey, London (1925) – Google Books p. 32&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;John Galt, [https://books.google.com/books?id=6YPslBr74P4C&amp;pg=PR107 ''The Complete Works of Lord Byron, Volume 2''], Baudry's European Library (1837) – Google Books cvii&lt;/ref&gt; and others) made their marital life a misery. Annabella considered Byron insane, and in January 1816 she left him, taking their daughter, and began proceedings for a legal separation. Their separation was made legal in a private settlement in March 1816. The scandal of the separation, the rumours about Augusta, and ever-increasing debts forced him to leave England in April 1816, never to return.&lt;ref name=&quot;ODNB&quot;/&gt; ==Life abroad (1816–1824)== ===Switzerland and the Shelleys=== &lt;gallery&gt; File:Portrait of Percy Bysshe Shelley by Curran, 1819.jpg|[[Percy Bysshe Shelley]], 1819 File:Claire Clairmont, by Amelia Curran.jpg|[[Claire Clairmont]], 1819 File:Mary Wollstonecraft Shelley Rothwell.tif|[[Mary Shelley]], 1840 &lt;/gallery&gt; After this break-up of his domestic life, and by pressure on the part of his creditors, which led to the sale of his library, Byron left England,{{sfn|Cousin|1910|p=67}} and never returned. (Despite his dying wishes, however, his body was returned for burial in England.) He journeyed through Belgium and continued up the [[Rhine]] river. In the summer of 1816 he settled at the [[Villa Diodati]] by [[Lake Geneva]], Switzerland, with his personal physician, [[John William Polidori]]. There Byron befriended the poet [[Percy Bysshe Shelley]] and author [[Mary Shelley|Mary Godwin]], Shelley's future wife. He was also joined by Mary's stepsister, [[Claire Clairmont]], with whom he'd had an affair in London, which subsequently resulted in the birth of their illegitimate child [[Allegra Byron|Allegra]], who died at the age of 5 under the care of Byron later in life.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite news|url=https://www.latimes.com/archives/la-xpm-1989-09-10-bk-2960-story.html|title=A Hero to His Physician: Lord Byron's Doctor by Paul West|newspaper=[[Los Angeles Times]]|date=10 September 1989|last=Rubin|first=Merle|access-date=26 December 2017|language=en-US|issn=0458-3035}}&lt;/ref&gt; Several times Byron went to see [[Germaine de Staël]] and her [[Coppet group]], which turned out to be a valid intellectual and emotional support to Byron at the time.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|url=https://www.nottingham.ac.uk/z-oldsites/crlc/documents/byronessays/lordbyronandgermainedestael.pdf|title=Lord Byron and Germaine de Staël|author=Silvia Bordoni|publisher=[[University of Nottingham]]|year=2005}}&lt;/ref&gt; [[File:Lord Byron - Childe Harold's Pilgimage - Dugdale edition.jpg|thumb|upright=1|Frontispiece to a {{Circa|1825}} edition of ''[[Childe Harold's Pilgrimage]]'']] Kept indoors at the [[Villa Diodati]] by the &quot;incessant rain&quot; of [[Year Without a Summer|&quot;that wet, ungenial summer&quot;]] over three days in June, the five turned to reading fantastical stories, including ''[[Fantasmagoriana]]'', and then devising their own tales. Mary Shelley produced what would become ''[[Frankenstein|Frankenstein, or The Modern Prometheus]]'', and Polidori produced ''[[The Vampyre]]'',&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|url=https://www.bl.uk/collection-items/the-vampyre-by-john-polidori|title=The Vampyre by John Polidori|website=[[British Library]]}}&lt;/ref&gt; the progenitor of the [[Romanticism|Romantic]] [[Vampire literature|vampire genre]].&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal|url=https://www.erudit.org/en/journals/ron/2004-n36-37-ron947/011135ar/|title='Prey to some cureless disquiet': Polidori's Queer Vampyre at the Margins of Romanticism|journal=Romanticism on the Net|issue=36–37|date=November 2004|last=Rigby|first=Mair|doi=10.7202/011135ar}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|url=https://www.angelfire.com/jazz/louxsie/polidori.html|title=John Polidori &amp; the Vampyre Byron|website=[[Angelfire]]|access-date=26 December 2017}}&lt;/ref&gt; The Vampyre was inspired by a fragmentary story of Byron, &quot;[[Fragment of a Novel|A Fragment]]&quot;.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|url=https://www.bl.uk/collection-items/fragment-of-a-novel-from-mazeppa-by-lord-george-byron|title='A Fragment', from Mazeppa by Lord George Byron|website=British Library}}&lt;/ref&gt; Byron's story fragment was published as a postscript to ''[[Mazeppa (poem)|Mazeppa]]''; he also wrote the third canto of ''Childe Harold''. ===Italy=== Byron wintered in [[Venice]], pausing in his travels when he fell in love with Marianna Segati, in whose Venice house he was lodging, and who was soon replaced by 22-year-old Margarita Cogni; both women were married. Cogni could not read or write, and she left her husband to move in with Byron. Their fighting often caused Byron to spend the night in his [[gondola]]; when he asked her to leave the house, she threw herself into the Venetian canal.&lt;ref name=&quot;Elze&quot;/&gt; [[File:Bayron's visit to San Lazzaro by Aivazovsky (1899).jpg|thumb|upright=1|Byron's visit to [[San Lazzaro degli Armeni]] as depicted in [[Ivan Aivazovsky]]'s 1899 portrait]] In 1816, Byron visited [[San Lazzaro degli Armeni]] in Venice, where he acquainted himself with [[Armenian culture]] with the help of the monks belonging to the [[Mechitarist Order]]. With the help of Father Pascal Aucher (Harutiun Avkerian), he learned the [[Armenian language]]&lt;ref name=&quot;Elze&quot;/&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite book|last=Byron|first=George Gordon|url=http://archive.org/details/lordbyronsarmeni01byro|title=Lord Byron's Armenian exercises and poetry|date=1870|publisher=Venice : In the island of S. Lazzaro|others=Duke University Libraries}}&lt;/ref&gt; and attended many seminars about language and history. He co-authored ''Grammar English and Armenian'' in 1817, an English textbook written by Aucher and corrected by Byron, and ''A Grammar Armenian and English'' in 1819, a project he initiated of a grammar of Classical Armenian for English speakers, where he included quotations from [[Classical Armenian|classical]] and [[Armenian language|modern Armenian]].&lt;ref name=&quot;Elze&quot;/&gt; Byron later helped to compile the ''English Armenian Dictionary'' (''Barraran angleren yev hayeren'', 1821) and wrote the preface, in which he explained Armenian oppression by the Turkish [[pasha]]s and the Persian satraps and the Armenian struggle of liberation. His two main translations are the ''Epistle of Paul to the Corinthians'', two chapters of [[Movses Khorenatsi]]'s ''[[History of Armenia (book)|History of Armenia]]'', and sections of [[Nerses of Lambron]]'s ''Orations''. He also translated into English those sections of the Armenian Bible that are not present in the English Bible. His fascination was so great that he even considered using the Armenian version of the story of [[Cain and Abel|Cain]] for his [[Cain (play)|play of the same name]]. Byron's interest in [[Armenian studies]] contributed to the spread and development of that discipline. His profound lyricism and ideological courage have inspired many Armenian poets, the likes of [[Ghevond Alishan]], [[Smbat Shahaziz]], [[Hovhannes Tumanyan]], Ruben Vorberian, and others.&lt;ref name=&quot;SAE&quot;&gt;{{in lang|hy}} Soghomonyan, Soghomon A. &quot;''Բայրոն, Ջորջ Նոել Գորդոն''&quot; (Byron, George Noel Gordon). [[Soviet Armenian Encyclopedia]]. vol. ii. Yerevan, Armenian SSR: [[Armenian Academy of Sciences]], 1976, pp. 266–267.&lt;/ref&gt; In 1817, he journeyed to [[Rome]]. On returning to Venice, he wrote the fourth canto of ''Childe Harold''. About the same time, he sold Newstead Abbey and published ''[[Manfred]]'', ''[[Cain (play)|Cain]]'', and ''The Deformed Transformed''. The first five cantos of ''[[Don Juan (poem)|Don Juan]]'' were written between 1818 and 1820.{{sfn|Cousin|1910|p=67}} During this period he met the 21-year-old [[Teresa, Contessa Guiccioli|Countess Guiccioli]], who found her first love in Byron; he asked her to elope with him.{{sfn|Cousin|1910|p=67}}&lt;ref name=&quot;Elze&quot;/&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite book|title = Letters: Byron e Teresa, L'Amore Italiano.|last = Graziani|first = Natale|publisher = Milan|year = 1995|pages = 22}}&lt;/ref&gt; After considering migrating to [[Venezuela]] or to the [[Cape Colony]],&lt;ref&gt;Letter to John Cam Hobhouse of Novembre 21, 1819.&lt;/ref&gt; Byron finally decided to leave [[Venice]] for [[Ravenna]]. Because of his love for the local aristocratic, young, newly married Teresa Guiccioli, Byron lived in [[Ravenna]] from 1819 to 1821. Here he continued ''Don Juan'' and wrote the ''Ravenna Diary'' and ''My Dictionary and Recollections''. Around this time he received visits from [[Percy Bysshe Shelley]], as well as from [[Thomas Moore]], to whom he confided his autobiography or &quot;life and adventures&quot;, which Moore, Hobhouse, and Byron's publisher, [[John Murray (1778–1843)|John Murray]],&lt;ref name=&quot;Elze&quot;/&gt; burned in 1824, a month after Byron's death.&lt;ref name=&quot;real byron&quot;&gt;{{cite news |author=Bostridge |first=Mark |author-link=Mark Bostridge |date=3 November 2002 |title=On the trail of the real Lord Byron |url=https://www.independent.co.uk/arts-entertainment/books/features/on-the-trail-of-the-real-lord-byron-126324.html |access-date=22 July 2008 |newspaper=[[The Independent on Sunday]] |location=London}}&lt;/ref&gt; Of Byron's lifestyle in Ravenna we know more from Shelley, who documented some of its more colourful aspects in a letter: {{blockquote|text=&lt;poem style=&quot;font-size:92%; line-height: 2.1em;&quot;&gt;Lord Byron gets up at two. I get up, quite contrary to my usual custom ... at 12. After breakfast we sit talking till six. From six to eight we gallop through the pine forest which divide Ravenna from the sea; we then come home and dine, and sit up gossiping till six in the morning. I don't suppose this will kill me in a week or fortnight, but I shall not try it longer. Lord B.'s establishment consists, besides servants, of ten horses, eight enormous dogs, three monkeys, five cats, an eagle, a crow, and a falcon; and all these, except the horses, walk about the house, which every now and then resounds with their unarbitrated quarrels, as if they were the masters of it... . [P.S.] I find that my enumeration of the animals in this Circean Palace was defective ... . I have just met on the grand staircase five peacocks, two guinea hens, and an Egyptian crane. I wonder who all these animals were before they were changed into these shapes.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite book|title = Letters: Shelley in Italy.|last = Shelley|first = Percy|publisher = Clarendon Press|year = 1964|pages = 330|url = https://books.google.com/books?id=ns4LAQAAIAAJ}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;/poem&gt;}} [[File:La Grotta di Byron.jpg|thumb|upright=1|&quot;Byron's Grotto&quot; in [[Porto Venere]], Italy, named in Byron's honour because, according to local legend, he meditated here and drew inspiration from this place for his literary works]] [[File:Monument to Georges Gordon Byron, Athens, Greece.jpg|thumb|upright=1|Α 19th-century sculptural composition by [[Henri Chapu|Henri-Michel Chapu]] and [[Alexandre Falguière]] depicting Greece in the form of a female figure crowning Lord Byron in the National Park in [[Athens]] (Άγαλμα Λόρδου Βύρωνος)]] In 1821, Byron left Ravenna and went to live in the [[Tuscany|Tuscan]] city of [[Pisa]], to which Teresa had also relocated. From 1821 to 1822, Byron finished Cantos 6–12 of ''Don Juan'' at Pisa, and in the same year he joined with [[Leigh Hunt]] and Shelley in starting a short-lived newspaper, ''The Liberal'', in whose first number ''[[The Vision of Judgment]]'' appeared.{{sfn|Cousin|1910|p=67}} For the first time since his arrival in Italy, Byron found himself tempted to give dinner parties; his guests included the Shelleys, [[Edward Ellerker Williams]], [[Thomas Medwin]], John Taaffe, and [[Edward John Trelawny]]; and &quot;never&quot;, as Shelley said, &quot;did he display himself to more advantage than on these occasions; being at once polite and cordial, full of social hilarity and the most perfect good humour; never diverging into ungraceful merriment, and yet keeping up the spirit of liveliness throughout the evening.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;Moore, Thomas, ''Letters and Journals of Lord Byron, London'', 1830, p. 612&lt;/ref&gt; Shelley and Williams rented a house on the coast and had a schooner built. Byron decided to have his own yacht, and engaged Trelawny's friend, Captain [[Daniel Roberts (Royal Navy officer)|Daniel Roberts]], to design and construct the boat. Named the ''Bolivar'', it was later sold to [[Charles John Gardiner, 1st Earl of Blessington]], and [[Marguerite, Countess of Blessington]], when Byron left for Greece in 1823.{{sfn|Lovell|1954|p=368}}&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book|last=Prell|first=Donald|title=A Biography of Captain Daniel Roberts|location=Palm Springs, CA|publisher=Strand Publishing|year=2010|page=66}}&lt;/ref&gt; Byron attended the beachside cremation of Shelley, which was orchestrated by Trelawny after Williams and Shelley drowned in a boating accident on 8 July 1822.&lt;ref&gt;Trelawny, Edward, ''Recollections of the last days of Shelley and Byron'', ed. H Frowde 1906, p. 88&lt;/ref&gt; His last Italian home was in [[Genoa]].{{sfn|Cousin|1910|p=68}} While living there he was accompanied by the Countess Guiccioli,{{sfn|Cousin|1910|p=68}} and the Blessingtons. Lady Blessington based much of the material in her book, ''Conversations with Lord Byron'', on the time spent together there.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |title=Marguerite Gardiner, Countess of Blessington {{!}} Orlando |url=https://orlando.cambridge.org/index.php/profiles/blesma |access-date=30 September 2023 |website=orlando.cambridge.org}}&lt;/ref&gt; This book became an important biographical text about Byron's life just prior to his death. ===Ottoman Greece=== {{Further|Greek War of Independence}} [[File:Lord Byron in Albanian Dress by Phillips, 1813.jpg|thumb|upright=1|''[[Lord Byron in Albanian Dress]]'' by [[Thomas Phillips]], 1813. Venizelos Mansion, Athens (the British Ambassador's residence).]] Byron was living in Genoa in 1823, when, growing bored with his life there, he accepted overtures for his support from representatives of the Greek independence movement from the [[Ottoman Empire]].{{sfn|Lovell|1954|p=369}} At first, Byron did not wish to leave his 22-year-old mistress, Countess Teresa Guiccioli, who had abandoned her husband to live with him. But ultimately Guiccioli's father, Count Gamba, was allowed to leave his exile in the Romagna under the condition that his daughter return to him, without Byron.{{sfn|Brewer|2011|p=197}} At the same time that the philhellene, Edward Blaquiere, was attempting to recruit him, Byron was confused as to what he was supposed to do in Greece, writing: &quot;Blaquiere seemed to think that I might be of some use—even ''here'';—though ''what'' he did not exactly specify&quot;.{{sfn|Brewer|2011|p=197}} With the assistance of his banker and Captain [[Daniel Roberts (Royal Navy officer)|Daniel Roberts]], Byron chartered the brig ''Hercules'' to take him to Greece. When Byron left Genoa, it caused &quot;passionate grief&quot; from Guiccioli, who wept openly as he sailed away. The ''Hercules'' was forced to return to port shortly afterwards. When it set sail for the final time, Guiccioli had already left Genoa.{{sfn|Brewer|2011|pp=197, 199}} On 16 July, Byron left Genoa, arriving at [[Kefalonia]] in the [[Ionian Islands]] on 4 August. His voyage is covered in detail in [[Donald Prell]]'s ''Sailing with Byron from Genoa to Cephalonia''.{{sfn|Prell|2009a}} Prell also wrote of a coincidence in Byron's chartering the ''Hercules''. The vessel was launched only a few miles south of [[Seaham Hall]], where in 1815 Byron had married Annabella Milbanke. Between 1815 and 1823 the vessel was in service between England and Canada. Suddenly in 1823, the ship's Captain decided to sail to Genoa and offer the ''Hercules'' for charter. After taking Byron to Greece, the ship returned to England, never again to venture into the Mediterranean. The ''Hercules'' was aged 37 when, on 21 September 1852, she went aground near [[Hartlepool]], 25 miles south of [[Sunderland]], the place where her keel had been laid in 1815. Byron's &quot;keel was laid&quot; nine months before his official birth date, 22 January 1788. Therefore in ship years, he was also 37 when he died in Missolonghi.{{sfn|Prell|2009b}} Byron initially stayed on the island of [[Kefalonia]], where he was besieged by agents of the rival Greek factions, all of whom wanted to recruit Byron for their own cause.{{sfn|Brewer|2011|p=201}} The Ionian islands, of which Kefalonia is one, were under British rule until 1864. Byron spent £4,000 of his own money to refit the Greek fleet.{{sfn|Brewer|2011|p=202}} When Byron travelled to the mainland of Greece on the night of 28 December 1823, Byron's ship was surprised by an Ottoman warship, which did not attack his ship, as the Ottoman captain mistook Byron's boat for a fireship. To avoid the Ottoman Navy, which he encountered several times on his voyage, Byron was forced to take a roundabout route and only reached Missolonghi on 5 January 1824.{{sfn|Brewer|2011|p=205}} After arriving in [[Missolonghi]], Byron joined forces with [[Alexandros Mavrokordatos]], a Greek politician with military power. Byron moved to the second floor of a two-story house and was forced to spend much of his time dealing with unruly [[Souliotes]] who demanded that Byron pay them the back-pay owed to them by the Greek government.{{sfn|Brewer|2011|pp=207–208}} Byron gave the Souliotes some £6,000.{{sfn|Brewer|2011|p=212}} Byron was supposed to lead an attack on the Ottoman fortress of Navpaktos, whose Albanian garrison were unhappy due to arrears in pay, and who offered to put up only token resistance if Byron was willing to bribe them into surrendering. However, Ottoman commander Yussuf Pasha executed the mutinous Albanian officers who were offering to surrender Navpaktos to Byron and arranged to have some of the arrears paid out to the rest of the garrison.{{sfn|Brewer|2011|p=210}} Byron never led the attack on Navpaktos because the Souliotes kept demanding that Byron pay them more and more money before they would march; Byron grew tired of their blackmail and sent them all home on 15 February 1824.{{sfn|Brewer|2011|p=210}} Byron wrote in a note to himself: {{blockquote|text=&quot;Having tried in vain at every expense, considerable trouble—and some danger to unite the Suliotes for the good of Greece—and their own—I have come to the following resolution—I will have nothing more to do with the Suliotes—they may go to the Turks or the devil...they may cut me into more pieces than they have dissensions among them, sooner than change my resolution&quot;.{{sfn|Brewer|2011|p=210}}}} At the same time, Guiccioli's brother, Pietro Gamba, who had followed Byron to Greece, exasperated Byron with his incompetence as he continually made expensive mistakes. For example, when asked to buy some cloth from Corfu, Gamba ordered the wrong cloth in excess, causing the bill to be 10 times higher than what Byron wanted.{{sfn|Brewer|2011|p=211}} Byron wrote about his right-hand man: &quot;Gamba—who is anything but ''lucky''—had something to do with it—and as usual—the moment he had—matters went wrong&quot;.{{sfn|Brewer|2011|p=212}} [[File:Lord Byron at Missolonghi.jpg|thumb|upright=1|The reception of Lord Byron at [[Missolonghi]]]] To help raise money for the revolution, Byron sold his estate in England, Rochdale Manor, which raised some £11,250. This led Byron to estimate that he now had some £20,000 at his disposal, all of which he planned to spend on the Greek cause.{{sfn|Brewer|2011|p=213}} In today's money Byron would have been a millionaire many times over. News that a fabulously wealthy British aristocrat, known for his financial generosity, had arrived in Greece made Byron the object of much solicitation in that desperately poor country.{{sfn|Brewer|2011|p=213}} Byron wrote to his business agent in England, &quot;I should not like to give the Greeks but a ''half helping'' hand&quot;, saying he would have wanted to spend his entire fortune on Greek freedom.{{sfn|Brewer|2011|p=213}} Byron found himself besieged by various people, both Greek and foreign, who tried to persuade him to open his pocketbook for support. By the end of March 1824, the so-called &quot;Byron brigade&quot; of 30 philhellene officers and about 200 men had been formed, paid for entirely by Byron.{{sfn|Brewer|2011|p=215}} Leadership of the Greek cause in the Roumeli region was divided between two rival leaders: a former ''Klepht'' (bandit), [[Odysseas Androutsos]]; and a wealthy [[Phanariot]] Prince, [[Alexandros Mavrokordatos]]. Byron used his prestige to attempt to persuade the two rival leaders to come together to focus on defeating the Ottomans.{{sfn|Brewer|2011|pp=215–216}} At the same time, other leaders of the Greek factions like [[Petrobey Mavromichalis]] and [[Theodoros Kolokotronis]] wrote letters to Byron telling him to disregard all of the Roumeliot leaders and to come to their respective areas in the Peloponnese. This drove Byron to distraction; he complained that the Greeks were hopelessly disunited and spent more time feuding with each other than trying to win independence.{{sfn|Brewer|2011|pp=216–217}} Byron's friend [[Edward John Trelawny]] had aligned himself with Androutsos, who ruled Athens, and was now pressing for Byron to break with Mavrokordatos in favour of backing the rival Androutsos.{{sfn|Brewer|2011|p=215}} Androutsos, having won over Trelawny to his cause, was now anxious to persuade Byron to put his wealth behind his claim to be the leader of Greece.{{sfn|Brewer|2011|p=216}} Byron wrote with disgust about how one of the Greek captains, former ''Klepht'' [[Georgios Karaiskakis]], attacked Missolonghi on 3 April 1824 with some 150 men supported by the Souliotes as he was unhappy with Mavrokordatos's leadership, which led to a brief bout of inter-Greek fighting before Karaiskakis was chased away by 6 April.{{sfn|Brewer|2011|p=217}} When the famous Danish sculptor [[Bertel Thorvaldsen]] heard about Byron's heroics in Greece, he voluntarily resculpted his earlier bust of Byron in Greek marble.&lt;ref name=&quot;Elze&quot; /&gt; ==Death== [[File:Lord Byron on his Death-bed c. 1826.jpg|thumb|upright=1|''Lord Byron on His Deathbed'', by [[Joseph Denis Odevaere]] ({{circa|1826}}). The sheet covers Byron's misshapen right foot.]] Mavrokordatos and Byron planned to attack the Turkish-held fortress of [[Nafpaktos|Lepanto]], at the mouth of the [[Gulf of Corinth]]. Byron employed a fire master to prepare artillery, and he took part of the rebel army under his own command despite his lack of military experience. Before the expedition could sail, on 15 February 1824, he fell ill, and bloodletting weakened him further.&lt;ref name=chron&gt;{{cite web|title=The Byron Chronology|url=http://www.rc.umd.edu/reference/chronologies/byronchronology/1823.html|work=Romantic Circles|publisher=University of Maryland|access-date=15 May 2012|author1=Neil Fraistat|author2=Steven E Jones|date=November 2000}}&lt;/ref&gt; He made a partial recovery, but in early April he caught a cold; the therapeutic bleeding insisted on by his doctors exacerbated it. He contracted a fever and died in Missolonghi on 19 April.&lt;ref name=&quot;chron&quot;/&gt; His physician at the time, [[Julius van Millingen]], son of Dutch–English archaeologist [[James Millingen]], was unable to prevent his death. It has been said that if Byron had lived and had gone on to defeat the Ottomans, he might have been declared [[King of Greece]]. However, modern scholars have found such an outcome unlikely.&lt;ref name=&quot;real byron&quot;/&gt; The British historian David Brewer wrote that in one sense, Byron failed to persuade the rival Greek factions to unite, won no victories and was successful only in the humanitarian sphere, using his great wealth to help the victims of the war, Christian and Muslim, but this did not affect the outcome of the Greek war of independence.{{sfn|Brewer|2011|p=219}} Brewer went on to argue, {{blockquote|In another sense, though, Byron achieved everything he could have wished. His presence in Greece, and in particular his death there, drew to the Greek cause not just the attention of sympathetic nations, but their increasing active participation ... Despite the critics, Byron is primarily remembered with admiration as a poet of genius, with something approaching veneration as a symbol of high ideals, and with great affection as a man: for his courage and his ironic slant on life, for his generosity to the grandest of causes and to the humblest of individuals, for the constant interplay of judgment and sympathy. In Greece, he is still revered as no other foreigner, and as very few Greeks are, and like a Homeric hero he is accorded an honorific standard epithet, ''megalos kai kalos'', a great and good man.{{sfn|Brewer|2011|pp=215–219}}}} === Post mortem === [[File:Narrative of Lord Byrons last journey to Greece.tif|thumb|upright=1|''A Narrative of Lord Byron's Last Journey to Greece'' by Pietro Gamba (1825)]] [[Alfred Tennyson]] would later recall the shocked reaction in Britain when word was received of Byron's death.&lt;ref name=&quot;real byron&quot;/&gt; The Greeks mourned Lord Byron deeply, and he became a hero.&lt;ref&gt;{{harvp|Edgcumbe|1972|pp=185–190}}.&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{harvp|Gamba|1975}}.&lt;/ref&gt; The national poet of Greece, [[Dionysios Solomos]], wrote a poem about the unexpected loss, named ''To the Death of Lord Byron''.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|url=http://www.sarantakos.com/kibwtos/solwmos_lordbyron.html|title=Εις το Θάνατο του Λόρδου Μπάιρον|trans-title=To the Death of Lord Byron|author=Dionysios Solomos|language=el|access-date=20 November 2008}}&lt;/ref&gt; Βύρων, the Greek form of &quot;Byron&quot;, continues in popularity as a masculine name in Greece, and a suburb of Athens is called [[Vyronas]] in his honour. Byron's body was embalmed, but the Greeks wanted some part of their hero to stay with them. According to some sources, his heart remained at [[Missolonghi]].&lt;ref&gt;{{cite news|url=http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,753874,00.html|title=Heart Burial|magazine=Time|date=31 July 1933|access-date=20 November 2008|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130808160318/http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,753874,00.html|archive-date=8 August 2013}}&lt;/ref&gt; His other remains were sent to England (accompanied by his faithful manservant, [[Giovanni Battista Falcieri|&quot;Tita&quot;]]) for burial in [[Westminster Abbey]], but the Abbey refused for reason of &quot;questionable morality&quot;.&lt;ref name=&quot;real byron&quot;/&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |last=Mondragon |first=Brenda |url=https://neuroticpoets.com/byron/|title=Lord Byron|website=Neurotic Poets C.|access-date=20 November 2008}}&lt;/ref&gt; Huge crowds viewed his coffin as he lay in state for two days at number 25 [[Great George Street]], Westminster.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book |last1=Hibbert |first1=Christopher |last2=Weinreb |first2=Ben |last3=Keay |first3=Julia |last4=Keay |first4=John |title=The London Encyclopaedia |date=2008 |publisher=Macmillan |isbn=978-1-4050-4924-5 |page=342 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=wN_H-__MBpYC}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;real byron&quot;/&gt; He is buried at the [[Church of St. Mary Magdalene, Hucknall|Church of St. Mary Magdalene]] in [[Hucknall]], Nottinghamshire.&lt;ref&gt;Wilson, Scott. ''Resting Places: The Burial Sites of More Than 14,000 Famous Persons'', 3d ed.: 2 (Kindle Locations 6724–6725). McFarland &amp; Company, Inc., Publishers. Kindle Edition.&lt;/ref&gt; A marble slab given by the [[King of Greece]] is laid directly above Byron's grave. His daughter [[Ada Lovelace]] was later buried beside him.&lt;ref&gt;{{harvp|Pevsner|1951|p=85}}.&lt;/ref&gt; Byron's friends raised £1,000 to commission a statue of the writer; Thorvaldsen offered to sculpt it for that amount.&lt;ref name=&quot;Elze&quot;/&gt; However, after the statue was completed in 1834, for ten years, British institutions turned it down and it remained in storage. It was refused by the [[British Museum]], [[St. Paul's Cathedral]], Westminster Abbey and the [[National Gallery]]&lt;ref name=&quot;Elze&quot;/&gt; before [[Trinity College, Cambridge]] finally placed the statue of Byron in its library.&lt;ref name=&quot;Elze&quot;/&gt; In 1969, 145 years after Byron's death, a memorial to him was finally placed in Westminster Abbey.&lt;ref name=&quot;abbey&quot;&gt;{{cite web|url=https://www.westminster-abbey.org/about-the-abbey/history/poets-corner|title=Westminster Abbey Poets' Corner|publisher=Dean and Chapter of the Collegiate Church of St. Peter Westminster|access-date=31 May 2009}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;abbey-byron&quot;&gt;{{cite web|url=https://www.westminster-abbey.org/abbey-commemorations/commemorations/lord-byron|title=Westminster Abbey Lord Byron|publisher=Dean and Chapter of the Collegiate Church of St. Peter Westminster|access-date=27 April 2016}}&lt;/ref&gt; The memorial had been lobbied for since 1907, when ''[[The New York Times]]'' wrote, {{blockquote|text=&quot;People are beginning to ask whether this ignoring of Byron is not a thing of which England should be ashamed&amp;nbsp;... a bust or a tablet might be put in the Poets' Corner and England be relieved of ingratitude toward one of her really great sons.&quot;&lt;ref name=&quot;nytimes 1907&quot;&gt;{{cite news|url=https://timesmachine.nytimes.com/timesmachine/1907/07/13/106710571.pdf|title=Byron Monument for the Abbey: Movement to Get Memorial in Poets' Corner Is Begun|newspaper=The New York Times|date=12 July 1907|access-date=11 July 2008}}&lt;/ref&gt;}} [[Robert Ripley]] had drawn a picture of [[Epitaph to a Dog|Boatswain's grave]] with the caption &quot;Lord Byron's dog has a magnificent tomb while Lord Byron himself has none&quot;. This came as a shock to the English, particularly schoolchildren, who, Ripley said, raised funds of their own accord to provide the poet with a suitable memorial.&lt;ref&gt;''Ripley's Believe It or Not!'', 3rd Series, 1950; p. xvi.&lt;/ref&gt; Close to the centre of Athens, Greece, outside the National Garden, is a statue depicting Greece in the form of a woman crowning Byron. The statue is by the French sculptors [[Henri Chapu|Henri-Michel Chapu]] and [[Alexandre Falguière]]. {{as of|2008}}, the anniversary of Byron's death, 19 April, has been honoured in Greece as &quot;Byron Day&quot;.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite news|url=https://www.theguardian.com/books/2008/oct/18/lordbyron-greece|title=Greeks honour fallen hero Byron with a day of his own|newspaper=The Guardian|date=18 October 2008|author=Martin Wainwright|access-date=4 May 2017}}&lt;/ref&gt; Upon his death, the barony passed to Byron's cousin [[George Anson Byron]], a career naval officer. ==Personal life== ===Relationships and scandals=== &lt;gallery&gt; File:Portrait of Lady Caroline Lamb.jpg|[[Lady Caroline Lamb]] File:Jane elizabeth countess-of-oxford1797 john hoppner.jpg|[[Jane Elizabeth Scott]] &quot;Lady Oxford&quot; File:Hon. Augusta Leigh.jpg|[[Augusta Leigh]] File:Annabella Byron (1792-1860).jpg|[[Anne Isabella Milbanke]] in 1812 by [[Charles Hayter]] File:Teresa, Contessa Guiccioli.gif|[[Teresa, Contessa Guiccioli]] &lt;/gallery&gt; In 1812, Byron embarked on a well-publicised affair with the married [[Lady Caroline Lamb]] that shocked the British public.&lt;ref name=&quot;spartandaily&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last=Wong|first=Ling-Mei|date=14 October 2004|title=Professor to speak about his book, 'Lady Caroline Lamb'|journal=Spartan Daily|publisher=San Jose State University|access-date=11 July 2008|url=http://media.www.thespartandaily.com/media/storage/paper852/news/2004/10/14/UndefinedSection/Professor.To.Speak.About.His.Book.lady.Caroline.Lamb-1499653.shtml|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081207054145/http://media.www.thespartandaily.com/media/storage/paper852/news/2004/10/14/UndefinedSection/Professor.To.Speak.About.His.Book.lady.Caroline.Lamb-1499653.shtml|archive-date=7 December 2008|url-status=dead}}&lt;/ref&gt; She had spurned the attention of the poet on their first meeting, subsequently giving Byron what became his lasting epitaph when she famously described him as &quot;mad, bad and dangerous to know&quot;.&lt;ref name=&quot;Castle&quot;&gt;{{cite news|url=https://www.nytimes.com/books/97/04/13/reviews/970413.13castlet.html|title='Mad, Bad and Dangerous to Know': A biography that sees Lord Byron as a victim of circumstances|newspaper=The New York Times|date=13 April 1997|last=Castle|first=Terry|author-link=Terry Castle|location=New York|access-date=19 November 2008}}&lt;/ref&gt; This did not prevent her from pursuing him.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite news|url=http://property.timesonline.co.uk/tol/life_and_style/property/article830128.ece?token=null&amp;offset=12&amp;page=2|title=Ireland: Poetic justice at home of Byron's exiled lover|newspaper=Sunday Times: Property|date=17 November 2002|quote='Mad, bad and dangerous to know' has become Lord Byron's lasting epitaph. Lady Caroline Lamb coined the phrase after her first meeting with the poet at a society event in 1812.|publisher=The Times Online|access-date=21 February 2010|location=Dublin, Ireland}}{{dead link|date=September 2024|bot=medic}}{{cbignore|bot=medic}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;Castle&quot; /&gt; Byron eventually broke off the relationship and moved swiftly on to others (such as [[Lady Oxford]]), but Lamb never entirely recovered, pursuing him even after he tired of her. She was emotionally disturbed and lost so much weight that Byron sarcastically commented to her mother-in-law, his friend [[Lady Melbourne]], that he was &quot;haunted by a skeleton&quot;.&lt;ref name=&quot;ehist net&quot;&gt; {{cite web|url=https://englishhistory.net/byron/lady-caroline-lamb/|title=Lady Caroline Lamb – Lord Byron's Lovers|access-date=20 November 2008}}&lt;/ref&gt; She began to stalk him, calling on him at home, sometimes dressed in disguise as a pageboy,&lt;ref name=&quot;spartandaily&quot; /&gt; at a time when such an act could ruin both of them socially. Once, during such a visit, she wrote on a book at his desk, &quot;Remember me!&quot; As a retort, Byron wrote a poem entitled ''Remember Thee! Remember Thee!'' which concludes with the line &quot;Thou false to him, thou fiend to me&quot;. As a child, Byron had seen little of his half-sister [[Augusta Leigh]]; in adulthood, he formed a close relationship with her that has been interpreted by some as incestuous,&lt;ref name=&quot;ehist net&quot; /&gt; and by others as innocent.&lt;ref name=&quot;akstate&quot; /&gt; Augusta (who was married) gave birth on 15 April 1814 to her third daughter, [[Elizabeth Medora Leigh]], rumoured by some to be Byron's. Eventually, Byron began to court Lady Caroline's cousin [[Anne Isabella Milbanke]] (&quot;Annabella&quot;), who refused his first proposal of marriage but later accepted him. Milbanke was a highly moral woman, intelligent and mathematically gifted; she was also an heiress. They married at [[Seaham]] Hall, [[County Durham]], on 2 January 1815.&lt;ref name=&quot;ehist net&quot; /&gt; The marriage proved unhappy. They had a daughter, [[Ada Lovelace|Augusta Ada]]. On 16 January 1816, Lady Byron left him, taking Ada with her. That same year on 21 April, Byron signed the Deed of Separation. Rumours of marital violence, adultery with actresses, incest with Augusta Leigh, and sodomy were circulated, assisted by a jealous Lady Caroline.&lt;ref name=&quot;ehist net&quot; /&gt; In a letter, Augusta quoted him as saying: &quot;Even to have such a thing said is utter destruction and ruin to a man from which he can never recover.&quot; That same year Lady Caroline published her popular novel ''[[Glenarvon]]'', in which Lord Byron was portrayed as the seedy title character.&lt;ref&gt;{{harvp|Barger|2011|p=15}}.&lt;/ref&gt; ==== Sexuality ==== Byron described his first intense romantic feelings at the age of seven for his distant cousin Mary Duff: {{blockquote|My mother used always to rally me about this childish amour, and at last, many years after, when I was sixteen, she told me one day, 'O Byron, I have had a letter from Edinburgh, and your old sweetheart, Mary Duff, is married to Mr. C***.' And what was my answer? I really cannot explain or account for my feelings at that moment, but they nearly threw me into convulsions... How the deuce did all this occur so early? Where could it originate? I certainly had no sexual ideas for years afterwards; and yet my misery, my love for that girl were so violent, that I sometimes doubt if I have ever been really attached since. Be that as it may, hearing of her marriage several years after was like a thunder-stroke – it nearly choked me – to the horror of my mother and the astonishment and almost incredulity of every body. And it is a phenomenon in my existence (for I was not eight years old) which has puzzled, and will puzzle me to the latest hour of it; and lately, I know not why, the recollection (not the attachment) has recurred as forcibly as ever...But, the more I reflect, the more I am bewildered to assign any cause for this precocity of affection.&lt;ref name=&quot;Moore, Thomas 1835&quot;/&gt;}} Byron also became attached to Margaret Parker, another distant cousin.&lt;ref name=&quot;akstate&quot; /&gt; While his recollection of his love for Mary Duff is that he was ignorant of adult sexuality during this time and was bewildered as to the source of the intensity of his feelings, he would later confess that: {{blockquote|My passions were developed very early – so early, that few would believe me – if I were to state the period – and the facts which accompanied it. Perhaps this was one of the reasons that caused the anticipated melancholy of my thoughts – having anticipated life.{{sfn|Marchand|1982|p=277}}}} This is the only reference Byron himself makes to the event, and he is ambiguous as to how old he was when it occurred. After his death, his lawyer wrote to a mutual friend telling him a &quot;singular fact&quot; about Byron's life which was &quot;scarcely fit for narration&quot;. But he disclosed it nonetheless, thinking it might explain Byron's sexual &quot;propensities&quot;: {{blockquote|When nine years old at his mother's house a [[Free Church of Scotland (1843–1900)|Free]] Scotch girl [May – sometimes called Mary – Gray, one of his first caretakers] used to come to bed to him and play tricks with his person.{{sfn|Marchand|1957|p=139}}}} Gray later used this knowledge as a means of ensuring his silence if he were to be tempted to disclose the &quot;low company&quot; she kept during drinking binges.{{sfn|Marchand|1957|p=435}} She was later dismissed, supposedly for beating Byron when he was 11.&lt;ref name=&quot;akstate&quot; /&gt; A few years later, while he was still a child, Lord Grey De Ruthyn (unrelated to May Gray), a suitor of his mother's, also made sexual advances on him.{{sfn|Marchand|1957|p=442}} Byron's personality has been characterised as exceptionally proud and sensitive, especially when it came to his foot deformity.&lt;ref name=&quot;Galt, John 1830&quot; /&gt; His extreme reaction to seeing his mother flirting outrageously with Lord Grey De Ruthyn after the incident suggests he did not tell her of Grey's conduct toward him; he simply refused to speak to him again and ignored his mother's commands to be reconciled.{{sfn|Marchand|1957|p=442}} [[Leslie A. Marchand]], one of Byron's biographers, theorises that Lord Grey De Ruthyn's advances prompted Byron's later sexual liaisons with young men at Harrow and Cambridge.&lt;ref name=&quot;real byron&quot; /&gt; Scholars acknowledge a more or less important bisexual component in Byron's very complex sentimental and sexual life. Bernhard Jackson asserts that &quot;Byron's sexual orientation has long been a difficult, not to say contentious, topic, and anyone who seeks to discuss it must to some degree speculate since the evidence is nebulous, contradictory and scanty... it is not so simple to define Byron as homosexual or heterosexual: he seems rather to have been both, and either.&quot;&lt;ref name=&quot;Jackson&quot;&gt;Emily A. Bernhard Jackson, &quot;Least Like Saints: The Vexed Issue of Byron's Sexuality, ''The Byron Journal'', (2010) 38#1 pp. 29–37.&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{harvp|Crompton|1985}}.&lt;/ref&gt; Crompton states: &quot;What was not understood in Byron's own century (except by a tiny circle of his associates) was that Byron was [[bisexual]]&quot;.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |last=Crompton |first=Louis |date=8 January 2007 |title=Byron, George Gordon, Lord |url=http://www.glbtq.com/literature/byron_gg.html |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140411013923/http://www.glbtq.com/literature/byron_gg.html |archive-date=11 April 2014 |access-date=16 October 2011 |publisher=[[glbtq.com]]}}&lt;/ref&gt; Another biographer, Fiona MacCarthy, has posited that Byron's true sexual yearnings were for adolescent males.&lt;ref name=&quot;real byron&quot; /&gt; It has been asserted that several letters to Byron from his friend Charles Skinner Matthews reveal that a key motive for Byron going on the [[Grand Tour]] was also the hope of homosexual experiences.&lt;ref&gt;{{harvp|Crompton|1985|pp=123–128}}.&lt;/ref&gt; While in Athens, Byron met 14-year-old [[Nicolo Giraud]], who taught him Italian. Byron arranged to have Giraud enrolled in school at a monastery in [[Malta]], and wrote him into his will, with a bequest of £7,000 (about £{{formatnum:{{Inflation|UK|7000|1810|r=-4}}|0}} in {{CURRENTYEAR}}). (That will, however, was later cancelled.){{sfn|MacCarthy|2002|p=135}} Byron wrote to Hobhouse from Athens, &quot;I am tired of pl &amp; opt Cs, the last thing I could be tired of.&quot; Opt Cs refers to a quote from ''&lt;u&gt;Petronius' Satyricon&lt;/u&gt;,'' &quot;{{lang|la|coitum plenum et optabilem}},&quot; &quot;complete intercourse to one's heart's desire&quot;.&lt;ref&gt;{{harvp|Tuite|2015|p=156}}.&lt;/ref&gt; Allegedly, Byron used this phrase as a code by which he communicated his homosexual Greek adventures to [[John Hobhouse, 1st Baron Broughton|John Hobhouse]] in England: Bernhard Jackson recalls that &quot;Byron's early code for sex with a boy&quot; was &quot;Plen(um). and optabil(em). -Coit(um)&quot;&lt;ref name=&quot;Jackson&quot; /&gt; Bullough summarises: {{blockquote|Byron, was attached to [[Nicolo Giraud]], a young French-Greek lad who had been a model for the painter [[Giovanni Battista Lusieri|Lusieri]] before Byron found him. Byron left him £7,000 in his will. When Byron returned to Italy, he became involved with a number of boys in Venice but eventually settled on Loukas Chalandritsanos, age 15, who was with him when he was killed {{sic}}&lt;ref&gt;Contrary to later misconception, Byron was not killed in battle nor died from battle wounds. See also ''The Dictionary of Misinformation'' (1975) by Tom Burname, Futura Publications, 1985, pp. 39–40.&lt;/ref&gt; (Crompton, 1985).|source={{harvp|Bullough|1990|p=72}}}} Loukas Chalandritsanos was Byron's Greek protégé whom he had rescued from [[Ithaca (island)|Ithaca]].&lt;ref name=&quot;real byron&quot; /&gt;{{sfn|Brewer|2011|p=214}} During Byron's voyage from [[Zakynthos]] to Missolonghi, Byron took Loukas as his page, but was concerned that the boy might be captured by the Turks. He spoiled the teenage Chalandritsanos outrageously, spending some £600 (about £{{formatnum:{{Inflation|UK|600|1824|r=-4}}|0}} in {{CURRENTYEAR}}) catering to his every whim over the course of 6 months.{{sfn|Brewer|2011|p=214}} On his deathbed he gave Loukas a bag of [[Maria Theresa]] crowns and a £600 receipt for one of his loans to the Greeks, but the government was in no position to honour this, and Loukas died in poverty six months later.{{sfn|Brewer|2011|p=214}} There has been speculation about whether the relationship between Byron and Loukas was homosexual, pointing to some of Byron's last poem verses as evidence for this claim.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |last=Snyder |first=Clifton |date=2007 |title=Homoerotic poems by Lord Byron |url=https://home.csulb.edu/~csnider/Byron.Homoerotic.Poems.html |website=[[California State University, Long Beach]]}}&lt;/ref&gt;{{sfn|Brewer|2011|p=214}} ===Children=== &lt;gallery&gt; File:ElizabethMedoraLeigh.jpg|alt=Seated woman, looking toward her left at artist, perhaps when interrupted while reading|[[Elizabeth Medora Leigh]] (1814–1849) File:Ada Lovelace 1838.jpg|alt=Formal profile of standing woman|[[Ada Lovelace]]&lt;br /&gt;(1815–1852) File:Allegra Byron.jpg|alt=Young, smiling child|[[Clara Allegra Byron]] (1817–1822) &lt;/gallery&gt; Byron wrote a letter to John Hanson from Newstead Abbey, dated 17 January 1809, that includes &quot;You will discharge my Cook, &amp; Laundry Maid, the other two I shall retain to take care of the house, more especially as the youngest is pregnant (I need not tell you by whom) and I cannot have the girl on the parish.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;Marchand, ''Byron's Letters and Journals'', 1982.&lt;!-- Far from being the only available secondary source --&gt;&lt;/ref&gt; His reference to &quot;The youngest&quot; is understood to have been to a maid, Lucy, and the parenthesised remark to indicate himself as siring a son born that year. In 2010 part of a baptismal record was uncovered which apparently said: &quot;September 24 George illegitimate son of Lucy Monk, illegitimate son of Baron Byron, of Newstead, Nottingham, Newstead Abbey.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite news|url=http://www.hucknalldispatch.co.uk/news/local/mystery-of-byron-an-illegitimate-child-and-linby-church-1-927440|title=Mystery of Byron, an illegitimate child and Linby church|newspaper=Hucknall Dispatch|date=1 June 2010|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150624123601/http://www.hucknalldispatch.co.uk/news/local/mystery-of-byron-an-illegitimate-child-and-linby-church-1-927440|archive-date=24 June 2015}}&lt;/ref&gt; [[Augusta Leigh]]'s child, [[Elizabeth Medora Leigh]], born in 1814, was possibly fathered by Byron, who was Augusta's half-brother. Byron had a child, [[Ada Lovelace|The Hon. Augusta Ada Byron]] (&quot;Ada&quot;, later Countess of Lovelace), in 1815, by his wife [[Anne Isabella Byron, Baroness Byron|Annabella Byron, Lady Byron]] (''née'' Anne Isabella Milbanke, or &quot;Annabella&quot;), later Lady Wentworth. Ada Lovelace, notable in her own right, collaborated with [[Charles Babbage]] on the [[analytical engine]], a predecessor to modern computers. She is recognised&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|url=http://cs-www.cs.yale.edu/homes/tap/Files/ada-bio.html|title=Ada Byron, Lady Lovelace|access-date=11 July 2010}}&lt;/ref&gt; as one of&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|url=https://www.bbvaopenmind.com/en/technology/visionaries/ada-lovelace-original-and-visionary-but-no-programmer/|access-date=3 April 2019|title=Ada Lovelace: Original and Visionary, but No Programmer|date=9 December 2015|website=OpenMind}}&lt;/ref&gt; the world's first computer programmers. He also had an extramarital child in 1817, [[Clara Allegra Byron]], with [[Claire Clairmont]], stepsister of [[Mary Shelley]] and stepdaughter of [[William Godwin]], writer of ''Political Justice'' and ''Caleb Williams''. Allegra is not entitled to the style &quot;The Hon.&quot; as is usually given to the daughter of barons, since she was born outside of his marriage. Born in Bath in 1817, Allegra lived with Byron for a few months in Venice; he refused to allow an Englishwoman caring for the girl to adopt her and objected to her being raised in the Shelleys' household.&lt;ref name=&quot;Elze&quot;/&gt; He wished for her to be brought up Catholic and not marry an Englishman, and he made arrangements for her to inherit 5,000 lire upon marriage or when she reached the age of 21, provided she did not marry a native of Britain. However, the girl died aged five of a fever in [[Bagnacavallo]], Italy, while Byron was in Pisa; he was deeply upset by the news. He had Allegra's body sent back to England to be buried at his old school, Harrow, because Protestants could not be buried in consecrated ground in Catholic countries. At one time he himself had wanted to be buried at Harrow. Byron was antagonistic towards Allegra's mother, Claire Clairmont, and prevented her from seeing the child.&lt;ref name=&quot;Elze&quot;&gt;{{harvp|Elze|1872}}.&lt;/ref&gt; During his time in Greece, Byron took interest in a Turkish Muslim nine-year old girl called Hato or Hatagée which he seriously considered adopting. Her mother was a wife of a local notable from Messolonghi, who, at the time, was a domestic servant to an Englishman named Dr. Millingen. The rest of the girl's family had either fled or perished after the Greek revolutionaries took over Messolonghi. Byron spent nearly £20 on elaborate dresses for Hato; he considered sending her to [[Teresa Guiccioli]], or to his half-sister [[Augusta Leigh|Augusta]], or to his estranged wife as a playmate for his daughter Ada. Ultimately, Byron sent both Hato and her mother to [[Cephalonia]] to be cared for temporarily by his friend James Kennedy; soon after Byron's death they were reunited with their surviving family.{{sfn|Brewer|2011|p=214}} ===Scotland=== Although neglected by traditional historiography,&lt;ref&gt;Pittock, Murray. &quot;Scotland, The Global History: 1603 to the Present&quot;. Yale University Press, 2022, p. 13.&lt;/ref&gt; Byron had a complex identity and strong ties to [[Scotland]]. His maternal family, the Gordons, had its roots in [[Aberdeenshire]] and Byron was educated at [[Aberdeen Grammar School]] between 1794 and 1798. In terms of his own identity, he described himself as &quot;half a Scot by birth, and bred/A whole one&quot; and he reportedly spoke with a faint Scottish accent throughout his life.&lt;ref&gt;Pittock, Murray. &quot;Scotland, The Global History: 1603 to the Present&quot;. Yale University Press, 2022, p. 222.&lt;/ref&gt; Byron was regarded as a Scot by a number of his contemporaries, including his lover [[Lady Caroline Lamb]] and by his first biographer Sir Cosmo Gordon, who described him as a &quot;Highlander&quot;.&lt;ref name=&quot;Pittock, Murray 2022, p. 223&quot;&gt;Pittock, Murray. ''Scotland, The Global History: 1603 to the Present''. Yale University Press, 2022, p. 223.&lt;/ref&gt; Byron's links to Scotland were demonstrated &quot;in his campaign for the liberation of Greece, where a disproportionate number of his closest friends and associates had strong Scottish connexions, particularly with regard to north-eastern Scotland, which through his Gordon links remained central to the Byronic network throughout his life&quot;.&lt;ref name=&quot;Pittock, Murray 2022, p. 223&quot;/&gt; ===Sea and swimming=== Byron enjoyed adventure, especially relating to the sea.&lt;ref name=&quot;nytimes 1898&quot;/&gt; The first recorded notable example of open water swimming took place on 3 May 1810 when Lord Byron swam from Europe to Asia across the [[Hellespont]] Strait.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|url=http://www.history.com/this-day-in-history.do?action=Article&amp;id=3958|title=Lord Byron swims the Hellespont|publisher=History.com|date=3 May 1810|access-date=5 March 2012|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090306071024/http://www.history.com/this-day-in-history.do?action=Article&amp;id=3958|archive-date=6 March 2009}}&lt;/ref&gt; This is often seen as the birth of the sport and pastime, and to commemorate it, the event is recreated every year as an open water swimming event.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite news|url=https://www.theguardian.com/travel/2007/sep/30/escape.turkey|title=The day I swam all the way to Asia|newspaper=The Guardian|date=30 September 2007|author=Matt Barr|access-date=5 March 2012|location=London}}&lt;/ref&gt; Whilst sailing from Genoa to Cephalonia in 1823, every day at noon, Byron and Trelawny, in calm weather, jumped overboard for a swim without fear of sharks, which were not unknown in those waters. Once, according to Trelawny, they let the geese and ducks loose and followed them and the dogs into the water, each with an arm in the ship Captain's new scarlet waistcoat, to the annoyance of the Captain and the amusement of the crew.{{sfn|Prell|2009a|p=13}} ===Fondness for animals=== Byron had a great love of animals, most notably for a [[Newfoundland dog]] named Boatswain. When the animal contracted [[rabies]], Byron nursed him, albeit unsuccessfully, without any thought or fear of becoming bitten and infected.&lt;ref&gt;&quot;Boatswain is dead! He expired in a state of madness on the 10th, after suffering much, yet retaining all the gentleness of his nature to the last, never attempting to do the least injury to anyone near him.&quot; Marchand, Leslie A. (ed.), ''Byron's Letters and Journals'' (BLJ), Johns Hopkins 2001, Letter to Francis Hodgson, 18 November 1808.&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;&quot;... the poor animal having been seized with a fit of madness, at the commencement of which so little aware was Lord Byron of the nature of the malady, that more than once, with his bare hand, he wiped away the slaver from the dog's lips during the paroxysm.&quot; Moore, Thomas. ''Letters and Journals of Lord Byron'', 1833.&lt;/ref&gt; Although deeply in debt at the time, Byron commissioned an impressive marble funerary monument for Boatswain at Newstead Abbey, larger than his own, and the only building work that he ever carried out on his estate. In his 1811 will, Byron requested that he be buried with him.&lt;ref name=&quot;Elze&quot;/&gt; The 26‐line poem &quot;[[Epitaph to a Dog]]&quot; has become one of his best-known works. But a draft of an 1830 letter by Hobhouse shows him to be the author; Byron decided to use Hobhouse's lengthy epitaph instead of his own, which read: &quot;To mark a friend's remains these stones arise/I never knew but one – and here he lies.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;Moore, Doris Langley. ''The Late Lord Byron''. Melville House Publishing, 1961, ch. 10.&lt;/ref&gt; In a letter sent to Thomas Moore,&lt;ref&gt;Letter to Thomas Moore of 28 January 1817&lt;/ref&gt; Byron admitted to follow a diet &quot;inspired by Pythagoras&quot;, who was a famous vegetarian. Byron also kept a tame bear while he was a student at Trinity out of resentment for rules forbidding pet dogs like his beloved Boatswain. There being no mention of bears in their statutes, the college authorities had no legal basis for complaining; Byron even suggested that he would apply for a college fellowship for the bear.&lt;ref&gt;&quot;I have got a new friend, the finest in the world, a tame bear. When I brought him here, they asked me what I meant to do with him, and my reply was, 'he should sit for a fellowship.'&quot; Marchand, Leslie A. (ed.), ''Byron's Letters and Journals'' (BLJ), Johns Hopkins 2001, Letter to Elizabeth Pigot, 26 October 1807:(BLJ I 135–6).&lt;/ref&gt; During his lifetime, in addition to numerous cats, dogs, and horses, Byron kept a fox, monkeys, an [[eagle]], a [[crow]], a [[falcon]], [[peacock]]s, [[guinea hen]]s, an Egyptian [[crane (bird)|crane]], a [[badger]], [[geese]], a [[heron]], and a goat.&lt;ref&gt;{{harvp|Cochran|2011|pp=176–177}}.&lt;/ref&gt; Except for the horses, they all resided indoors at his homes in England, Switzerland, Italy, and Greece.&lt;ref name=&quot;The British Library&quot; /&gt; [[Percy Shelley]], visiting Byron in Italy in 1821, described his menagerie:&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |last=Francis |first=Tiffany |date=21 April 2015 |title=Bears, badgers and Boatswain: Lord Byron and his animals |url=https://wordsworth.org.uk/blog/2015/04/21/bears-badgers-and-boatswain-lord-byron-and-his-animals/ |website=wordsworth.org}}&lt;/ref&gt; {{Blockquote|text=&quot;Lord B's establishment consists, besides servants, of ten horses, eight enormous dogs, three monkeys, five cats, an eagle, a crow, and a falcon; and all these, except the horses, walk about the house, which every now and then resounds with their unarbitrated quarrels, as if they were the masters of it… P.S. I find that my enumeration of the animals in this Circean Palace was defective…I have just met on the grand staircase five peacocks, two guinea hens, and an Egyptian crane.|author=Percy Shelley|title=Diary of Percy Shelley}} === Vaccine skepticism === Byron included an endorsement of [[vaccine hesitancy]] in his 1809 poem [[English Bards and Scotch Reviewers|''English'' ''Bards and Scotch Reviewers'']]'','' he writes: {{Blockquote|text=Thus saith the Preacher: &quot;Nought beneath the sun / Is new,&quot; yet still from change to change we run. / What varied wonders tempt us as they pass! / The Cow-pox, Tractors, Galvanism, and Gas, / In turns appear, to make the vulgar stare, / Till the swoln bubble bursts—and all is air!|author=Lord Byron|title=English Bards and Scotch Reviewers}} Byron refers to 'cow-pox', a reference to [[Edward Jenner]]'s [[smallpox vaccine]]. He compares these vaccines with [[Perkins Patent Tractors|tractors]] (a fraudulent medical device), and [[galvanism]], which was understood at the time to reference the reanimation of deceased convicts using electricity. &quot;Gas&quot; was likely a reference to [[nitrous oxide]], a substance recently discovered by [[Humphry Davy]] to treat respiratory ailments. The deliberate choice to frame vaccines as similar to well-known controversial medical treatments shows Byron's tendency toward vaccine hesitancy in his writings.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal |last=Galassi |first=Francesco |date=2022 |title=LORD BYRON (1788–1824) AS THE PRECURSOR OF CELEBRITIES ENDORSING VACCINE HESITANCY: A CULTURAL ANTHROPOLOGICAL LESSON FOR COVID-19 IMMUNISATION STRATEGIES |url=https://content.ebscohost.com/ |journal=Anthropologie (1962-) |volume=60 |issue=1 |pages=187–190 |via=JSTOR}}&lt;/ref&gt; However, it appears he held different views in private, as he had his protege Robert Rushton inoculated for [[smallpox]].&lt;ref&gt;Byron to Hobhouse, from Newstead Abbey, January 16th 1808&lt;/ref&gt; ==Health and appearance== [[File:Letters and journals.tif|thumb|upright=1|Byron in 1830]] ===Character and psyche=== {{blockquote|I am such a strange mélange of good and evil that it would be difficult to describe me.{{sfn|Marchand|1957|p=7}}}} As a boy, Byron's character is described as a &quot;mixture of affectionate sweetness and playfulness, by which it was impossible not to be attached&quot;, although he also exhibited &quot;silent rages, moody sullenness and revenge&quot; with a precocious bent for attachment and obsession.&lt;ref name=&quot;Moore, Thomas 1835&quot;&gt;Moore, Thomas, ''The Works of Lord Byron: With His Letters and Journals, and His Life'', John Murray, 1835.&lt;/ref&gt; ===Deformed foot=== From birth, Byron had a deformity of his right foot. Although it has generally been referred to as a &quot;[[club foot]]&quot;, some modern medical authors maintain that it was a consequence of infantile paralysis ([[poliomyelitis]]), and others that it was a [[dysplasia]], a failure of the bones to form properly.{{sfn|MacCarthy|2002|pp=3–4}} Whatever the cause, he was affected by a limp that caused him lifelong psychological and physical misery, aggravated by painful and pointless &quot;medical treatment&quot; in his childhood and the nagging suspicion that with proper care it might have been cured.{{sfn|Cousin|1910|p=66}}&lt;ref&gt;Gilmour, Ian (2003). ''The Making of the Poets: Byron and Shelley in Their Time''. Carroll &amp; Graf Publishers. p. 35.&lt;/ref&gt; He was extremely self-conscious about this from a young age, nicknaming himself ''{{lang|fr|le diable boîteux}}''&lt;ref&gt;&quot;For Byron, his deformed foot became the crucial catastrophe of his life. He saw it as the mark of satanic connection, referring to himself as ''le diable boiteux'', the lame devil.&quot; – {{harvp|Eisler|1999|p=13}}.&lt;/ref&gt; (French for &quot;the limping devil&quot;, after the nickname given to [[Asmodeus]] by [[Alain-René Lesage]] in his 1707 novel of the same name). Although he often wore specially-made shoes in an attempt to hide the deformed foot,&lt;ref name=&quot;real byron&quot;/&gt; he refused to wear any type of brace that might improve the limp.&lt;ref name=&quot;nytimes 1898&quot;/&gt; Scottish novelist [[John Galt (novelist)|John Galt]] felt his oversensitivity to the &quot;innocent fault in his foot was unmanly and excessive&quot; because the limp was &quot;not greatly conspicuous&quot;. He first met Byron on a voyage to Sardinia and did not realise he had any deficiency for several days, and still could not tell at first if the lameness was a temporary injury or not. At the time Galt met him he was an adult and had worked to develop &quot;a mode of walking across a room by which it was scarcely at all perceptible&quot;.&lt;ref name=&quot;Galt_chapter3&quot;/&gt; The motion of the ship at sea may also have helped to create a favourable first impression and hide any deficiencies in his gait, but Galt's biography is also described as being &quot;rather well-meant than well-written&quot;, so Galt may be guilty of minimising a defect that was actually still noticeable.&lt;ref&gt;Henley, William Ernest, ed., ''The works of Lord Byron: Letters, 1804–1813'', Volume 1, 1897&lt;/ref&gt; ===Physical appearance=== [[File:Lord Byron by Henry Pierce Bone.jpg|thumb|upright=1|''Lord Byron'' by [[Henry Pierce Bone]]]] Byron's adult height was {{Convert|5|ft|9|in|m|2}}, his weight fluctuating between {{Convert|9.5|stone|lb kg}} and {{Convert|14|stone|lb kg}}. He was renowned for his personal beauty, which he enhanced by wearing curl-papers in his hair at night.&lt;ref name=&quot;JHB&quot; /&gt; He was athletic, being a competent boxer and horse-rider and an excellent swimmer. He attended pugilistic tuition at the [[Bond Street]] rooms of former prizefighting champion [[John Jackson (English boxer)|'Gentleman' John Jackson]], whom Byron called 'the Emperor of Pugilism', and recorded these sparring sessions in his [[Byron's letters|letters]] and journals.&lt;ref&gt;David Snowdon, ''Writing the Prizefight: Pierce Egan's Boxiana World'' (Bern, 2013).&lt;/ref&gt; Byron and other writers, such as his friend [[John Hobhouse, 1st Baron Broughton|Hobhouse]], described his eating habits in detail. At the time he entered Cambridge, he went on a strict diet to control his weight. He also exercised a great deal, and at that time wore a great many clothes to cause himself to perspire. For most of his life, he was a vegetarian and often lived for days on dry biscuits and white wine. Occasionally he would eat large helpings of meat and desserts, after which he would [[bulimia|purge himself]]. Although he is described by Galt and others as having a predilection for &quot;violent&quot; exercise, Hobhouse suggests that the pain in his deformed foot made physical activity difficult and that his weight problem was the result.&lt;ref name=&quot;JHB&quot;&gt;{{harvp|Baron|1997}}.&lt;/ref&gt; Trelawny, who observed Byron's eating habits, noted that he lived on a diet of biscuits and soda water for days at a time and then would eat a &quot;horrid mess of cold potatoes, rice, fish, or greens, deluged in vinegar, and gobble it up like a famished dog&quot;.&lt;ref&gt;Trelawny, Edward John (2011 edition). ''Recollections of the Last Days of Shelley and Byron''. Cambridge University Press. p. 48. {{ISBN|978-1-108-03405-0}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;Coghlan, J. Michelle (2020). ''The Cambridge Companion to Literature and Food''. Cambridge University Press. p. 53. {{ISBN|978-1-108-44610-5}}&lt;/ref&gt; ==Political career== Byron first took his seat in the [[House of Lords]] on 13 March 1809{{sfn|Dallas|1824|p=33}} but left London on 11 June 1809 for the Continent.{{sfn|Dallas|1824|p=65}} Byron's association with the [[Holland House]] Whigs provided him with a discourse of liberty rooted in the [[Glorious Revolution of 1688]].&lt;ref name=&quot;Bone&quot;&gt;{{cite book |last=Bone |first=Drummond |title=The Cambridge Companion to Byron |publisher=Cambridge University Press |date=2004 |pages=44–47}}&lt;/ref&gt; A strong advocate of social reform, he received particular praise as one of the few [[Parliament of the United Kingdom|Parliamentary]] defenders of the [[Luddites]]: specifically, he was against a death penalty for Luddite &quot;frame breakers&quot; in [[Nottinghamshire]], who destroyed textile machines that were putting them out of work. His first speech before the Lords, on 27 February 1812, was loaded with sarcastic references to the &quot;benefits&quot; of automation, which he saw as producing inferior material as well as putting people out of work, and concluded the proposed law was only missing two things to be effective: &quot;Twelve Butchers for a Jury and a [[George Jeffreys, 1st Baron Jeffreys|Jeffries]] for a Judge!&quot;. Byron's speech was officially recorded and printed in [[Hansard]].&lt;ref&gt;Byron's speech of 27 February 1812, in T.C. Hansard (1812) ''The Parliamentary Debates'', vol. 21, [https://books.google.com/books?id=15JUAAAAcAAJ&amp;pg=PT491 pp. 966–972]&lt;/ref&gt; He said later that he &quot;spoke very violent sentences with a sort of modest impudence&quot; and thought he came across as &quot;a bit theatrical&quot;.&lt;ref name=&quot;moore life&quot;&gt;{{cite book|last=Moore|first=Thomas|title=The Life of Lord Byron: With His Letters and Journals|year=1829|volume=I|pages=154, 676|editor=John Wilson Croker|publisher=John Murray|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=lj5AAAAAMAAJ|access-date=20 November 2008|orig-year=1851}}&lt;/ref&gt; The full text of the speech, which he had previously written out, was presented to Dallas in manuscript form and he quotes it in his work.{{sfn|Dallas|1824|p=205}} Two months later, in conjunction with the other Whigs, Byron made another impassioned speech before the House of Lords in support of [[Catholic emancipation]].&lt;ref&gt;Byron's speech of 21 April 1812, in T.C. Hansard (1812) ''The Parliamentary Debates'', vol. 22, [https://books.google.com/books?id=9pJUAAAAcAAJ&amp;pg=PT332 pp. 642–653]&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |last=Byron |first=Daniel |date=2024-04-19 |title=Divine contradiction: Lord Byron's dance with Catholicism |url=https://scottishcatholicguardian.co.uk/2024/04/19/divine-contradiction-lord-byrons-dance-with-catholicism/ |access-date=2024-06-21 |website=Scottish Catholic Guardian |language=en-US}}&lt;/ref&gt; Byron expressed opposition to the established religion because it was unfair to people of other faiths.&lt;ref&gt;Byron's speech of 21 April 1812, in T. C. Hansard (1812) ''The Parliamentary Debates'', vol. 22, [https://books.google.com/books?id=9pJUAAAAcAAJ&amp;pg=PT332 p. 679].&lt;/ref&gt; These experiences inspired Byron to write political poems such as ''Song for the Luddites'' (1816) and ''The Landlords' Interest'', Canto XIV of ''The Age of Bronze''.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|title=The Age of Bronze|author=Lord Byron|date=April 1823|url=http://readytogoebooks.com/LB-bronze-P80.html|publisher=JGHawaii Publishing Co.|access-date=20 November 2008}}&lt;/ref&gt; Examples of poems in which he attacked his political opponents include ''[[Arthur Wellesley, 1st Duke of Wellington|Wellington]]: The Best of the Cut-Throats'' (1819) and ''The Intellectual Eunuch [[Robert Stewart, Viscount Castlereagh|Castlereagh]]'' (1818).&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|url=https://www.poetryfoundation.org/poems/43828/don-juan-dedication|title=Don Juan: Dedication|last=Gordon|first=George|date=26 May 2021}}&lt;/ref&gt; ==Poetic works== Byron wrote prolifically.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|title=List of Byron's works|url=http://readytogoebooks.com/LB-list.htm|access-date=20 November 2008|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190624013124/http://readytogoebooks.com/LB-list.htm|archive-date=24 June 2019}}&lt;/ref&gt; In 1832 his publisher, [[John Murray (publishing house)|John Murray]], released the complete works in 14 duodecimo volumes, including a life&lt;ref name=&quot;moore life&quot;/&gt; by [[Thomas Moore]]. Subsequent editions were released in 17 volumes, first published a year later, in 1833. An extensive collection of his works, including early editions and annotated manuscripts, is held within the [[John Murray Archive]] at the [[National Library of Scotland]] in Edinburgh. ===''Don Juan''=== {{Main|Don Juan (poem)}} Byron's [[magnum opus]], ''Don Juan'', a poem spanning 17 cantos, ranks as one of the most important long poems published in England since [[John Milton]]'s ''[[Paradise Lost]]''.&lt;ref&gt;{{harvp|Lansdown|2012|loc=[https://books.google.com/books?id=8z7P0WFNUY8C&amp;pg=PA129 p. 129]}}.&lt;/ref&gt; Byron published the first two cantos anonymously in 1819 after disputes with his regular publisher over the shocking nature of the poetry. By this time, he had been a famous poet for seven years, and when he self-published the beginning cantos, they were well received in some quarters. The poem was then released volume by volume through his regular publishing house.&lt;ref name=&quot;companion&quot;/&gt; By 1822, cautious acceptance by the public had turned to outrage, and Byron's publisher refused to continue to publish the work. In Canto III of ''Don Juan'', Byron expresses his detestation for poets such as [[William Wordsworth]] and [[Samuel Taylor Coleridge]].&lt;ref name=&quot;companion&quot;/&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book|title=[[s:Don Juan (Byron)/Canto the Third|Canto III, XCIII–XCIV]]|author=Lord Byron}}&lt;/ref&gt; In letters to Francis Hodgson, Byron referred to Wordsworth as &quot;Turdsworth&quot;.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite news|last=Brown|first=Mark|date=27 September 2009|title=Lord Byron's dig at William 'Turdsworth'|url=https://www.theguardian.com/books/2009/sep/27/lord-byron-letters-sothebys-auction|newspaper=[[The Guardian]]|access-date=2 July 2014}}&lt;/ref&gt; ===''Irish Avatar''=== {{Main|Irish Avatar}} Byron wrote the satirical pamphlet ''[[Irish Avatar]]'' after the royal visit by [[King George IV]] to [[History of Ireland (1801–1923)|Ireland]]. Byron criticised the attitudes displayed by the [[Irish people]] towards [[the Crown]], an institution he perceived as oppressing them, and was dismayed by the positive reception George IV received during his visit. In the pamphlet, Byron lambasted [[Irish unionists]] and voiced muted support towards [[Irish nationalism|nationalistic sentiments in Ireland]].&lt;ref&gt;Moore, Journals, ed. Dowden, II 501, quoted {{cite book |last=Vail |first=Jeffery |date=2001 |title=The Literary Relationship of Lord Byron &amp; Thomas Moore |url=https://archive.org/details/literaryrelation0000vail |url-access=registration |publisher=Johns Hopkins University Press |page=[https://archive.org/details/literaryrelation0000vail/page/74 74] |isbn=978-0-8018-6500-8}}&lt;/ref&gt; ==Parthenon marbles== {{Main|Elgin Marbles}} Byron was a bitter opponent of [[Lord Elgin]]'s removal of the Parthenon marbles from [[Athens]] and &quot;reacted with fury&quot; when Elgin's agent gave him a tour of the Parthenon, during which he saw the spaces left by the missing part of the frieze and [[metope]]s. He denounced Elgin's actions in his poem ''[[s:The Curse of Minerva|The Curse of Minerva]]'' and in Canto II (stanzas XI–XV) of ''[[Childe Harold's Pilgrimage]].''&lt;ref&gt;{{harvp|Atwood|2006|p=136}}.&lt;/ref&gt; ==Legacy and influence== {{Main|Byron's Memoirs}} [[File:Ottawa Public Library.jpg|thumb|upright=1|Stained glass at [[Ottawa Public Library]] featuring [[Charles Dickens]], [[Archibald Lampman]], [[Sir Walter Scott]], Byron, [[Alfred, Lord Tennyson]], [[William Shakespeare]], and [[Thomas Moore]]]] Byron's image fascinated the public, and his wife Annabella coined the term &quot;Byromania&quot; to refer to the commotion surrounding him.&lt;ref name=&quot;real byron&quot;/&gt; His self-awareness and personal promotion are seen as a beginning of what would become the modern rock star; he would instruct artists painting portraits of him not to paint him with pen or book in hand, but as a &quot;man of action.&quot;&lt;ref name=&quot;real byron&quot;/&gt; While Byron first welcomed fame, he later turned from it by going into voluntary exile from Britain.&lt;ref name=&quot;hudsonreview&quot;/&gt; Biographies were distorted by the burning of [[Byron's Memoirs]] in the offices of his publisher, [[John Murray (publishing house)|John Murray]], a month after his death and the suppression of details of Byron's bisexuality by subsequent heads of the firm (which held the richest Byron archive). As late as the 1950s, scholar [[Leslie Marchand]] was expressly forbidden by the Murray company to reveal details of Byron's same-sex passions.&lt;ref name=&quot;real byron&quot;/&gt; The re-founding of the Byron Society in 1971 reflected the fascination that many people had with Byron and his work.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|title=The Byron Society|url=http://www.thebyronsociety.com/|access-date=29 January 2021}}&lt;/ref&gt; This society became very active, publishing an annual journal. Thirty-six Byron Societies function throughout the world, and an International Conference takes place annually. Byron exercised a marked influence on Continental literature and art, and his reputation as a poet is higher in many European countries than in Britain,{{sfn|Cousin|1910|p=68}} or America, although not as high as in his time, when he was widely thought to be the greatest poet in the world.&lt;ref name=&quot;hudsonreview&quot;/&gt; Byron's writings also inspired many composers. Over forty operas have been based on his works, in addition to three operas about Byron himself (including [[Virgil Thomson]]'s ''[[Lord Byron (Thomson)|Lord Byron]]''). His poetry was set to music by many Romantic composers, including [[Beethoven]], [[Schubert]], [[Rossini]], [[Mendelssohn]], [[Schumann]] and [[Carl Loewe]]. Among his greatest admirers was [[Hector Berlioz]], whose operas and ''[[Mémoires (Berlioz)|Mémoires]]'' reveal Byron's influence.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite Grove|last=Warrack|first=John|title=Byron, Lord}}&lt;/ref&gt; In the twentieth century, [[Arnold Schoenberg]] set Byron's &quot;Ode to Napoleon&quot; to music. In April 2020, Byron was featured in a [[Great Britain commemorative stamps 2020–2029#2020|series of UK postage stamps]] issued by the [[Royal Mail]] to commemorate the Romantic poets on the 250th anniversary of the birth of [[William Wordsworth]]. Ten 1st class stamps were issued of all the major British romantic poets, and each stamp included an extract from one of their most popular and enduring works, with Byron's &quot;[[She Walks in Beauty]]&quot; selected for the poet.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite news |title=New stamps issued on 250th anniversary of William Wordsworth's birth |url=https://www.itv.com/news/2020-04-07/new-stamps-issued-on-250th-anniversary-of-william-wordsworths-birth |access-date=1 October 2022 |publisher=ITV}}&lt;/ref&gt; ===Byronic hero=== The literary heroic figure of the &quot;Byronic hero&quot; has come to epitomize many of Byron's characteristics, and indeed this type of character pervades his own work. The use of a Byronic hero by many authors and artists of the [[Romantic movement]] shows Byron's influence during the 19th century and beyond, including the [[Brontë sisters]].&lt;ref name=&quot;real byron&quot;/&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{harvp|Franklin|2013|pp=127–128}}.&lt;/ref&gt; His philosophy was more durably influential in continental Europe than in England; [[Friedrich Nietzsche]] admired him, and the Byronic hero was echoed in Nietzsche's ''[[Übermensch]]'', or superman.&lt;ref&gt;{{harvp|Russell|2004|pp=675–680, 688}}.&lt;/ref&gt; [[Dimitrios Galanos]] in his funeral oration for Lord Byron glorified him by saying &quot;IMMORTAL BE THY MEMORY, THOU DESERVEDLY BLESSED AND EVER-TO-BE-REMEMBERED HERO!!!&quot; published in BENGAL HURKARU, Calcutta, 21 October 1824.&lt;ref name=&quot;Funeral Oration for Lord Byron&quot;&gt;{{cite web | title=&quot;Funeral Oration for Lord Byron&quot; by Demetrios Galanos the Athenian | website=elinepa.org | date=2023-07-02 | url=https://elinepa.org/funeral-oration-for-lord-byron-by-demetrios-galanos-the-athenian}}&lt;/ref&gt; The Byronic hero presents an idealised, but flawed character whose attributes include: great talent; great passion; a distaste for society and social institutions; a lack of respect for rank and privilege (although possessing both); being thwarted in love by social constraint or death; rebellion; exile; an unsavoury secret past; arrogance; overconfidence or lack of foresight; and, ultimately, a self-destructive manner.{{Citation needed|date=April 2024}} These types of characters have since{{Dubious|reason=Most of these stock character attributes predated Byron - e.g. Don Juan|date=April 2024}} become ubiquitous in literature and politics. ===In popular culture=== {{Main|Lord Byron in popular culture}} {{See also|Cultural legacy of Mazeppa}} ==Bibliography== [[File:Bride of abydos 1857 950px.jpg|thumb|upright=1|''The Bride of Abydos'' or ''Selim and Zuleika'', an 1857 painting by [[Eugène Delacroix]] depicting Byron's work]] {{More citations needed|section|date=January 2023}} {{Category see also|Works by Lord Byron}} {{Div col|colwidth=30em|rules=yes}} *''[[s:Author:George Gordon Byron/Index of Titles|Index of Titles]]'' *''[[s:Author:George Gordon Byron/Index of First Lines|Index of First Lines]]'' {{Div col end}} ===Major works=== {{Div col}} * ''[[Hours of Idleness]]'' (1807) * ''[[Lachin y Gair]]'' (1807) * ''[[English Bards and Scotch Reviewers]]'' (1809) * ''[[Childe Harold's Pilgrimage]], Cantos I &amp; II'' (1812) * ''[[The Giaour]]'' (1813) ([[s:The Giaour (Byron)|text on Wikisource]]) * ''[[The Bride of Abydos]]'' (1813) * ''[[The Corsair]]'' (1814) ([[s:The Corsair (Byron)|text on Wikisource]]) * ''[[Lara, A Tale]]'' (1814) ([[s:Lara (Byron)|text on Wikisource]]) * ''[[Hebrew Melodies]]'' (1815) * ''[[The Siege of Corinth (poem)|The Siege of Corinth]]'' (1816) ([[s:The Siege of Corinth (Byron)|text on Wikisource]]) * ''[[Parisina]]'' (1816) ([[s:Parisina (Byron)|text on Wikisource]]) * ''[[The Prisoner of Chillon]]'' (1816) ([[s:The Prisoner of Chillon|text on Wikisource]]) * ''[[The Dream (Lord Byron poem)|The Dream]]'' (1816) ([[s:The Dream (Byron)|text on Wikisource]]) * ''[[Prometheus]]'' (1816) ([[s:Prometheus (Byron)|text on Wikisource]]) * ''[[Darkness (poem)|Darkness]]'' (1816) ([[s:Darkness (Byron, versions)|text on Wikisource]]) * ''[[Manfred]]'' (1817) ([[s:Manfred (Byron)|text on Wikisource]]) * ''The Lament of Tasso'' (1817) * ''[[Beppo (poem)|Beppo]]'' (1818) ([[s:Beppo (Byron, versions)|text on Wikisource]]) * ''[[Childe Harold's Pilgrimage]]'' (1818) ([[s:Childe Harold's Pilgrimage (Byron)|text on Wikisource]]) * ''[[Don Juan (poem)|Don Juan]]'' (1819–1824; incomplete on Byron's death in 1824) ([[s:Don Juan (Byron)|text on Wikisource]]) * ''[[Mazeppa (poem)|Mazeppa]]'' (1819) * ''[[The Prophecy of Dante]]'' (1819) * ''[[Marino Faliero, Doge of Venice|Marino Faliero]]'' (1820) * ''[[Sardanapalus (play)|Sardanapalus]]'' (1821) * ''[[The Two Foscari (Byron)|The Two Foscari]]'' (1821) * ''[[Cain (play)|Cain]]'' (1821) * ''[[The Vision of Judgment]]'' (1821) * ''Heaven and Earth'' (1821) * ''Werner'' (1822) * ''The Age of Bronze'' (1823) * ''The Island'' (1823) ([[s:The Works of Lord Byron (ed. Coleridge, Prothero)/Poetry/Volume 5/The Island|text on Wikisource]]) * ''The Deformed Transformed'' (1824) * [https://gutenberg.beic.it/webclient/DeliveryManager?pid=6420685 ''Letters and journals''], vol. 1 (1830) * [https://gutenberg.beic.it/webclient/DeliveryManager?pid=6418126 ''Letters and journals''], vol. 2 (1830) {{Div col end}} ===Selected shorter lyric poems=== {{Div col|colwidth=30em|rules=yes}} * ''[[Maid of Athens, ere we part]]'' (1810) ([[s:Maid of Athens, Ere We Part|text on Wikisource]]) * ''And thou art dead'' (1812) ([[s:And thou art dead, as young and fair|text on Wikisource]]) * ''[[She Walks in Beauty]]'' (1814) ([[s:She walks in beauty|text on Wikisource]]) * ''My Soul is Dark'' (1815) ([[s:The Works of Lord Byron (ed. Coleridge, Prothero)/Poetry/Volume 3/Hebrew Melodies/My Soul is Dark|text on Wikisource]]) * ''[[The Destruction of Sennacherib]]'' (1815) ([[s:The Destruction of Sennacherib|text on Wikisource]]) * ''Monody on the Death of the Right Hon. R. B. Sheridan'' (1816) ([[s:Monody on the Death of the Right Hon. R. B. Sheridan|text on Wikisource]]) * ''[[Fare Thee Well (poem)|Fare Thee Well]]'' (1816) ([[s:Fare Thee Well|text on Wikisource]]) * ''[[So, we'll go no more a roving]]'' (1817) ([[s:So We'll Go No More A-Roving|text on Wikisource]]) * ''When We Two Parted'' (1817) ([[s:When We Two Parted|text on Wikisource]]) * ''Ode on Venice'' (1819) ([[s:Ode on Venice|text on Wikisource]]) * ''Stanzas'' (1819) * ''[[Don Leon]]'' (not by Lord Byron, but attributed to him; 1830s) {{Div col end}} ==See also== {{Portal|Biography|Poetry|Arts}} * [[Early life of Lord Byron]] * [[Timeline of Lord Byron]] * [[19th century in poetry]] * [[Bridge of Sighs]], a [[Venice]] landmark Byron denominated * Asteroid [[3306 Byron]] ==References== {{reflist|20em}} ===Bibliography=== {{refbegin|30em}} *{{cite journal |last=Allen |first=Brooke |year=2003 |title=Byron: Revolutionary, Libertine and Friend |journal=[[The Hudson Review]] |volume=56 |issue=2 |pages=369–376 |doi=10.2307/3853260 |jstor=3853260}} *{{cite book |last=Atwood |first=Roger |year=2006 |title=Stealing History: Tomb Raiders, Smugglers, And the Looting of the Ancient World |publisher=St. Martin's Press |location=New York |isbn=0-312-32407-3 |url-access=registration |url=https://archive.org/details/stealinghistoryt00atwo}} *{{cite book |last=Barger |first=Andrew |year=2011 |title=BlooDeath: The Best Vampire Short Stories 1800–1849 |publisher=Bottletree Books |location=Collierville, TN |isbn=978-1-933747-35-4 |url=http://www.bottletreebooks.com/bloodeath-the-best-vampire-stories-1800-1849.html |access-date=25 May 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170815191311/http://www.bottletreebooks.com/bloodeath-the-best-vampire-stories-1800-1849.html |archive-date=15 August 2017 |url-status=dead}} *{{cite journal |last=Baron |first=J.H. |year=1997 |title=Illnesses and Creativity: Byron's appetites, James Joyce's gut, and Melba's meals and mésalliances |journal=[[British Medical Journal]] |volume=315 |issue=7123 |pages=1697–1703 |doi=10.1136/bmj.315.7123.1697 |pmc=2128026 |pmid=9448545}} *{{cite journal |last=Blackstone |first=Bernard |year=1974 |title=Byron and Islam: the triple Eros |journal=[[Journal of European Studies]] |volume=4 |issue=4 |pages=325–363 |doi=10.1177/004724417400400401 |s2cid=162373838}} *{{cite book |last1=Boase |first1=George Clement |author-link=George Clement Boase |last2=Courtney |first2=William Prideaux |year=1878 |title=Bibliotheca Cornubiensis: a Catalogue of the Writings of Cornishmen |volume=II |publisher=Longmans, Green, Reader and Dyer |location=London |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=sRYYAAAAMAAJ&amp;pg=PA791 |access-date=19 November 2008}} *{{cite book |last=Bone |first=Drummond |author-link=Drummond Bone |title=The Cambridge Companion to Byron |year=2004 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-0-521-78676-8 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ZtSF3PrMtNoC}} *{{cite book |last=Brewer |first=David |year=2011 |title=The Greek War of Independence |location=London |publisher=Overlook Duckworth |isbn=978-1-58567-172-4}} *{{cite book |last=Bullough |first=Vern L. |chapter=History in Adult Human Sexual Behavior with Children and Adolescents in Western Societies |author-link=Vern Bullough |year=1990 |title=Pedophilia: Biosocial Dimensions |editor=Jay R. Felerman |pages=69–90 |publisher=Springer-Verlag |location=New York |isbn=978-1-4613-9684-0 |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=nnKEBwAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PA69 |doi=10.1007/978-1-4613-9682-6_3}} *{{cite book |last=Christensen |first=Jerome |year=1993 |title=Lord Byron's Strength: Romantic Writing and Commercial Society |url=https://archive.org/details/lordbyronsstreng0000chri |url-access=registration |location=Baltimore, MD |publisher=Johns Hopkins University Press |isbn=978-0-8018-4356-3}} *{{cite book |editor-last=Cochran |editor-first=Peter |year=2010|title=Byron and Women [and men] |publisher=Cambridge Scholars |location=Newcastle-upon-Tyne, UK}} *{{cite book |last=Cochran |first=Peter |year=2011 |title=Byron and Italy |publisher=Cambridge Scholars |location=Newcastle-upon-Tyne |isbn=978-1-4438-3602-9}} *{{cite book |last=Crompton |first=Louis |author-link=Louis Crompton |year=1985 |title=Byron and Greek Love: Homophobia in 19th&amp;nbsp;Century England |publisher=University of California Press |isbn=978-0-520-05172-0}} *{{cite book |last=Dallas |first=Alexander Robert Charles |author-link=Alexander Dallas (priest) |year=1824 |title=Recollections of the life of Lord Byron, from the year 1808 to the end of 1814 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ZJYHAQAAIAAJ |publisher=Charles Knight |location=London}} *{{cite book |last=Edgcumbe |first=Richard |year=1972 |title=Byron: the Last Phase |publisher=Haskell House |location=New York}} *{{cite book |last=Eisler |first=Benita |year=1999 |title=Byron: Child of Passion, Fool of Fame |publisher=Alfred A. Knopf |isbn=0-679-41299-9 |location=New York |url=https://archive.org/details/byronchildofpass00eisl}} (Chapter one [https://www.nytimes.com/books/first/e/eisler-byron.html online] at ''[[The New York Times]]'') *{{cite book |last=Elwin |first=Malcolm |year=1975 |title=Lord Byron's Family: Annabella, Ada and Augusta, 1816–1824 |publisher=John Murray |location=London}} *{{cite book |last=Elwin |first=Malcolm |year=1962 |title=Lord Byron's Wife |publisher=Macdonald &amp; Co. |location=London}} *{{cite book |last=Elwin |first=Malcolm |year=1967 |title=The Noels and the Milbankes: Their Letters for Twenty-Five Years 1767–1792 |publisher=Macdonald &amp; Co. |location=London}} *{{cite book |last=Elze |first=Karl Friedrich |year=1872 |title=Lord Byron, a Biography |publisher=John Murray |location=London |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=kDYBAAAAQAAJ}} *{{cite book |last=Franklin |first=Caroline |year=2013 |title=The Female Romantics: Nineteenth-century Women Novelists and Byronism |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-0-415-99541-2}} *{{cite book |last=Galt |first=John |author-link=John Galt (novelist) |year=1830 |title=The Life of Lord Byron |url=https://archive.org/details/lifeoflordbyron1830galt |publisher=Henry Colburn and Richard Bentley |location=London}} *{{cite book |last=Gamba |first=Pietro |year=1975 |title=A Narrative of Lord Byron's Last Journey to Greece: Extracted from the journal of Count Peter Gamba, who attended his lordship on that expedition |publisher=Folcroft Library Editions}} *{{cite book |last=Grosskurth |first=Phyllis |year=1997 |title=Byron: The Flawed Angel |publisher=Hodder &amp; Stoughton}} *{{cite book |last=Lansdown |first=Richard |year=2012 |title=The Cambridge Introduction to Byron |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-0-521-11133-1}} *{{cite book |last=Larman |first=Alexander |year=2016 |title=Byron's Women |publisher=Head of Zeus |isbn=978-1-78408-202-4}} *{{cite book |editor-last=Lovell |editor-first=Ernest J. |year=1954 |title=His Very Self and Voice, Collected Conversations of Lord Byron |location=New York |publisher=MacMillan}} *{{cite book |last=MacCarthy |first=Fiona |author-link=Fiona MacCarthy |year=2002 |title=Byron: Life and Legend |publisher=John Murray |isbn=978-0-7195-5621-0}} *{{cite book |last=Marchand |first=Leslie |year=1957 |title=Byron: A Life |publisher=Alfred A. Knopf}} *{{cite book |editor-last=Marchand |editor-first=Leslie A. |year=1982 |title=Lord Byron: Selected Letters and Journals |publisher=Harvard University Press |location=Cambridge, Massachusetts |isbn=978-0-674-53915-0 |url=https://archive.org/details/lordbyronselecte00byro}} *{{cite book |last=Mayne |first=Ethel Colburn |author-link=Ethel Colburn Mayne |year=1912 |title=Byron |volume=1 |publisher=C. Scribner's sons |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=lB43AAAAIAAJ&amp;pg=PA7}} *{{cite ODNB |last=McGann |first=Jerome |author-link=Jerome McGann |year=2013 |orig-year=2004 |title=Byron, George Gordon Noel (1788–1824) |id=4279}} *{{cite book |last=Moore |first=Doris Langley |author-link=Doris Langley Moore |year=1974 |title=Lord Byron Accounts Rendered |publisher=John Murray |location=London}} *{{cite book |last=Moore |first=Doris Langley |year=1961 |title=The Late Lord Byron: Posthumous Dramas |publisher=John Murray |location=London}} *{{cite book |editor-last=Nicholson |editor-first=Andrew |year=2007 |title=The Letters of John Murray to Lord Byron |publisher=Liverpool University Press |isbn=978-1-84631-069-0}} *{{cite book |last=Parker |first=Derek |author-link=Derek Parker |year=1968 |title=Byron and His World |publisher=Thames and Hudson |location=London}} *{{cite book |last=Pevsner |first=N. |author-link=Nikolaus Pevsner |year=1951 |title=Nottinghamshire |url=https://archive.org/details/nottinghamshire00pevsuoft |series=Pevsner Architectural Guides: Buildings of England |location=Harmondsworth |publisher=Penguin}} *{{cite book |last=Plomer |first=William |author-link=William Plomer |year=1970 |orig-year=1936 |title=The Diamond of Jannina |url=https://archive.org/details/diamondofjannina00plom |url-access=registration |publisher=Taplinger Publishing |location=New York |isbn=978-0-224-61721-5}} *{{cite book |last=Prell |first=Donald B. |author-link=Donald Prell |year=2009a |title=Sailing with Byron from Genoa to Cephalonia (1823) |publisher=Strand Publishing |location=Palm Springs, CA |isbn=978-0-9741975-5-5 |url=https://archive.org/details/SailimgWithByron2011Ed.}} *{{cite book |last=Prell |first=Donald B. |author-link=Donald Prell |year=2009b |title=Lord Byron: Coincidence or Destiny |publisher=Strand Publishing |location=Palm Springs, CA |isbn=978-0-9741975-6-2 |url=https://archive.org/details/LordByronsDestiny_201501}} *{{cite book |last=Russell |first=Bertrand |author-link=Bertrand Russell |year=2004 |orig-year=1946 |title=History of Western Philosophy |publisher=Routledge |series=Routledge Classics |location=London |isbn=978-0-415-32505-9}} *{{cite book |last=Stabler |first=Jane |year=1999 |chapter=George Gordon, Lord Byron, ''Don Juan'' |editor=Duncan Wu |editor-link=Duncan Wu |title=A Companion to Romanticism |publisher=Blackwell |pages=247–257 |isbn=978-0-631-21877-7 |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=kJCHB0tqd1kC}} *{{cite book |last=Taborski |first=Bolesław |author-link=Bolesław Taborski |year=1972 |title=Byron and the Theatre |editor=James Hogg |publisher=[[University of Salzburg]], Institut für Englische Sprache und Literatur}} Volume 1 of Poetic drama &amp; poetic theory in &quot;Salzburg studies in English literature&quot; *{{cite book |last=Tuite |first=Clara |year=2015 |title=Lord Byron and Scandalous Celebrity |publisher=Cambridge University Press |location=Cambridge |series=Cambridge Studies in Romanticism |volume=110 |isbn=978-1-107-08259-5}} '''Attribution''' *{{cite SBDEL |wstitle=Byron, George Gordon, 6th Lord Byron |last=Cousin |year=1910 |pages=66–68}} {{refend}} ==Further reading== * Accardo, Peter X. [https://web.archive.org/web/20130518132521/http://hcl.harvard.edu/libraries/houghton/exhibits/byron/introduction.cfm Let Satire Be My Song: Byron's English Bards and Scotch Reviewers]. Web exhibit, Houghton Library, Harvard University, 2011. *{{cite book |last=Brand |first=Emily |title=The Fall of the House of Byron: Scandal and Seduction in Georgian England |publisher=John Murray Press |year=2020 |isbn=978-1-4736-6431-9}} * [[Angus Calder|Calder, Angus]] (1984), ''Byron and Scotland'', in Hearn, Sheila G. (ed.), ''[[Cencrastus]]'' No. 15, New Year 1984, pp.&amp;nbsp;21–24, {{issn|0264-0856}} * [[Angus Calder|Calder, Angus]] (ed.) (1989), ''Byron and Scotland: Radical or Dandy?'', [[Edinburgh University Press]], {{isbn|9780852246511}} * Drucker, Peter. &quot;Byron and Ottoman love: Orientalism, Europeanization and same sex sexualities in the early nineteenth-century Levant&quot; (''Journal of European Studies'' vol. 42 no. 2, June 2012, 140–57). * Elfenbein, Andrew. ''Byron and the Victorians''. (Studies in Nineteenth-Century Literature and Culture). [[Cambridge University Press]], 1995. {{ISBN|978-0-5214-5452-0}}. * Garrett, Martin: ''George Gordon, Lord Byron''. (British Library Writers' Lives). London: British Library, 2000. {{ISBN|0-7123-4657-0}}. * Garrett, Martin. ''Palgrave Literary Dictionary of Byron''. Palgrave, 2010. {{ISBN|978-0-230-00897-7}}. * Guiccioli, Teresa, contessa di, ''Lord Byron's Life in Italy'', transl. Michael Rees, ed. Peter Cochran, 2005, {{ISBN|0-87413-716-0}}. * [[Phyllis Grosskurth|Grosskurth, Phyllis]]: ''Byron: The Flawed Angel''. Hodder, 1997. {{ISBN|0-340-60753-X}}. * Marchand, Leslie A., editor, ''Byron's Letters and Journals'', [[Harvard University Press]]: ** [http://www.hup.harvard.edu/catalog.php?isbn=9780674089402 ''Volume I, 'In my hot youth', 1798–1810''], (1973) ** [http://www.hup.harvard.edu/catalog.php?isbn=9780674089419 ''Volume II, 'Famous in my time', 1810–1812''], (1973) ** [http://www.hup.harvard.edu/catalog.php?isbn=9780674089426 ''Volume III, 'Alas! the love of women', 1813–1814''], (1974) ** [http://www.hup.harvard.edu/catalog.php?isbn=9780674089440 ''Volume IV, 'Wedlock's the devil', 1814–1815''], (1975) ** [http://www.hup.harvard.edu/catalog.php?isbn=9780674089457 ''Volume V, 'So late into the night', 1816–1817''], (1976) ** [http://www.hup.harvard.edu/catalog.php?isbn=9780674089464 ''Volume VI, 'The flesh is frail', 1818–1819''], (1976) ** [http://www.hup.harvard.edu/catalog.php?isbn=9780674089471 ''Volume VII, 'Between two worlds', 1820''], (1978) ** [http://www.hup.harvard.edu/catalog.php?isbn=9780674089488 ''Volume VIII, 'Born for opposition', 1821''], (1978) ** [http://www.hup.harvard.edu/catalog.php?isbn=9780674089495 ''Volume IX, 'In the wind's eye', 1821–1822''], (1978) ** [http://www.hup.harvard.edu/catalog.php?isbn=9780674089525 ''Volume X, 'A heart for every fate', 1822–1823''], (1980) ** [http://www.hup.harvard.edu/catalog.php?isbn=9780674089532 ''Volume XI, 'For freedom's battle', 1823–1824''], (1981) ** [http://www.hup.harvard.edu/catalog.php?isbn=9780674089549 ''Volume XII, 'The trouble of an index', index''], (1982) ** [http://www.hup.harvard.edu/catalog.php?isbn=9780674539150 ''Lord Byron: Selected Letters and Journals''], (1982) * [[Jerome McGann|McGann, Jerome]]: ''Byron and Romanticism''. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2002. {{ISBN|0-521-00722-4}}. * [https://eb11.uvic.ca/byron_george_gordon.html Lord Bryon, by Jerome McGann (2023), in Then &amp; Now: Romantic-Era Poets in the Encyclopedia Britannica, 1910-1911] * {{cite EB9 |wstitle=Byron, Lord |volume=IV |last=Minto |first=William |author-link=William Minto |pages=604–612 |short=1}} * Oueijan, Naji B. ''A Compendium of Eastern Elements in Byron's Oriental Tales''. New York: Peter Lang Publishing, 1999. * Patanè, Vincenzo: ''L'estate di un ghiro. Il mito di Lord Byron attraverso la vita, i viaggi, gli amori e le opere''. Venezia, Cicero, 2013. {{ISBN|978-88-89632-39-0}}. * Patanè, Vincenzo: ''I frutti acerbi. Lord Byron, gli amori &amp; il sesso''. Venezia, Cicero, 2016. {{ISBN|978-88-89632-42-0}}. * Patanè, Vincenzo: ''The Sour Fruit. Lord Byron, Love &amp; Sex''. Lanham (MD), Rowman &amp; Littlefield, co-published by John Cabot University Press, Rome, 2019. {{ISBN|978-1-61149-681-9}}. * [[Frederic Raphael|Raphael, Frederic]]: ''Byron''. Yale University Press, 1982. {{ISBN|978-0-50001-278-9}}. * [[Joanna Richardson|Richardson, Joanna]]: ''Lord Byron and Some of His Contemporaries''. The Folio Society, 1988. * Rosen, Fred: ''Bentham, Byron and Greece''. [[Clarendon Press]], Oxford, 1992. {{ISBN|0-19-820078-1}}. * [[Jean-Pierre Thiollet|Thiollet, Jean-Pierre]]: ''Carré d'Art: Barbey d'Aurevilly, lord Byron, Salvador Dalí, Jean-Edern Hallier'', with texts by Anne-Élisabeth Blateau and François Roboth, Anagramme éditions, 2008. {{ISBN|978-2-35035-189-6}}. ==External links== {{Commons}} {{Wikiquote}} {{wikisource author}} * {{StandardEbooks|Standard Ebooks URL=https://standardebooks.org/ebooks/lord-byron}} * {{Gutenberg author |id=1708}} * {{Internet Archive author |sname=Lord Byron}} * {{Librivox author |id=39}} * [http://www.poetryfoundation.org/archive/poet.html?id=81299 Poems by Lord Byron] at PoetryFoundation.org * [http://www.thebyronsociety.com/ The Byron Society] * [http://www.messolonghibyronsociety.gr/ The Messolonghi Byron Society] * [https://norman.hrc.utexas.edu/fasearch/findingAid.cfm?eadID=00421 George Gordon Byron Collection] at the [[Harry Ransom Center]] * [https://archives.nypl.org/cps/19609 George Gordon Byron Collection] at the [[New York Public Library]] * [https://explore.library.leeds.ac.uk/special-collections-explore/8621 George Gordon Byron Collection] at the [[University of Leeds]] * [http://www.iatp.am/byron/years.htm Byron's 1816–1824 letters to Murray and Moore about Armenian studies and translations] * [https://www.britishlibrary.cn/en/authors/lord-byron/ Biography] at the [[British Library]] * [http://www.englishhistory.net/byron/ The Life and Work of Lord Byron] at EnglishHistory.net * [http://www.trin.cam.ac.uk/index.php?pageid=501 Statue of Byron at Trinity College, Cambridge] {{S-start}} {{S-reg|en}} {{Succession box |before=[[William Byron, 5th Baron Byron|William Byron]] |title=[[Baron Byron]] |after=[[George Byron, 7th Baron Byron|George Byron]] |years=1798–1824}} {{S-end}} {{Lord Byron}} {{Romanticism}} {{Greek War of Independence}} {{Authority control}} {{DEFAULTSORT:Byron, Lord}} [[Category:Lord Byron| ]] [[Category:1788 births]] [[Category:1824 deaths]] [[Category:18th-century English nobility]] [[Category:19th-century English dramatists and playwrights]] [[Category:19th-century English nobility]] [[Category:19th-century English poets]] [[Category:19th-century English LGBTQ people]] [[Category:San Lazzaro degli Armeni alumni]] [[Category:Alumni of Trinity College, Cambridge]] [[Category:Anglo-Scots]] [[Category:Anti-monarchists]] [[Category:Armenian studies scholars]] [[Category:Barons Byron|Byron, George Gordon Byron, 6th Baron]] [[Category:Bisexual male writers]] [[Category:Bisexual male politicians]] [[Category:Bisexual poets]] [[Category:English bisexual politicians]] [[Category:English bisexual writers]] [[Category:English bisexual men]] [[Category:British people of Cornish descent]] [[Category:British philhellenes in the Greek War of Independence]] [[Category:Greek people of English descent]] [[Category:Greek people of Scottish descent]] [[Category:Naturalized citizens of Greece]] [[Category:Burials at the Church of St Mary Magdalene, Hucknall]] [[Category:Burials in Nottinghamshire]] [[Category:Byron family]] [[Category:Carbonari]] [[Category:Coppet group]] [[Category:Deaths from sepsis]] [[Category:Deaths from typhoid fever]] [[Category:English dramatists and playwrights]] [[Category:English expatriates in Italy]] [[Category:English male dramatists and playwrights]] [[Category:English male poets]] [[Category:English people of Scottish descent]] [[Category:English writers with disabilities]] [[Category:Epic poets]] [[Category:Fellows of the Royal Society]] [[Category:Godwin family]] [[Category:House of Gordon]] [[Category:Left-wing politics in the United Kingdom]] [[Category:LGBTQ peers]] [[Category:English LGBTQ poets]] [[Category:Liberalism in the United Kingdom]] [[Category:Literary peers]] [[Category:Missolonghi]] [[Category:People associated with Aberdeen]] [[Category:People educated at Aberdeen Grammar School]] [[Category:People educated at Harrow School]] [[Category:Regency era]] [[Category:Romantic poets]] [[Category:Poets from London]] [[Category:Scholars and academics with disabilities]] [[Category:British politicians with disabilities]]</div></summary> <author><name>Βατο</name></author> </entry> <entry> <id>https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Albanian_war_dances&diff=1255581589</id> <title>Albanian war dances</title> <link rel="alternate" type="text/html" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Albanian_war_dances&diff=1255581589"/> <updated>2024-11-05T17:48:21Z</updated> <summary type="html">Βατο: <hr /> <div>'''Albanian war dances''' ({{lang-sq|valle luftarake}} or {{lang|sq|loja luftarake}}) are [[war dance]]s performed by the [[Albanians|Albanian]] people. They have been historically performed before Albanians' departure for the battle front, but in recent times they have been traditionally performed during particular events and feasts. The war dances differ in both form and content according to the Albanian ethnographic area.&lt;ref name=&quot;New Albania&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|author=New Albania|title=War Dances|journal=New Albania|volume=2-3|year=1973|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=vlUoAQAAMAAJ|pages=37–}}&lt;/ref&gt; ==War dance in circle around fire== [[File:Childe Harold's pilgrimage - a romaunt (1869) (14756251426).jpg|thumb|250px|Albanian warrior dance in circle around fire ([[Zjarri (Albanian paganism)|zjarri]]), drawing from the book ''[[Childe Harold's Pilgrimage]]'' written by [[Lord Byron]] in the early 19th century.]] Early descriptions of the Albanian war dance in circle around fire was provided in the early 19th century by western travellers who visited southern Albania. The dance is practiced for several hours with very short intervals, acquiring new vigour from the words of the accompanying song that starts with a [[battle cry]] invoking [[war drums]], and which is of a piece with the movement and usually changed only once or twice during the whole performance.{{sfn|Steiner-Karafili|2010|pp=143–144}} The ritual purifying fire ([[Zjarri (Albanian paganism)|Zjarri]]) is traditionally used by Albanians, in particular singing and dancing around it, to gain [[Apotropaic|protection and energizing]] from its supernatural power.&lt;ref&gt;{{harvnb|Tirta|2004|pp=279–281, 327}}; {{harvnb|Xhemaj|1983|pp=104–121}}; {{harvnb|Useini|2024|p=164}}.&lt;/ref&gt; ==Sword dance== {{multiple image |align=right |total_width=440 |image_style=border:none; |image1=Joanovitch Paul (1859–1957) The Sword Dance, Private Collection.jpg |alt1=''The Sword Dance''|caption1=''The Sword Dance'' (1890) by [[Paja Jovanović]].|image2=Jean-Léon Gérôme – Danse des Épées ou Danse Arnaoute, 1885.jpg|alt2=''The Sword Dance''|caption2=''The Sword Dance'' (1885) by [[Jean-Léon Gérôme]].}} The Albanian sword dance type has been commonly performed in the northern Albanian highlands. From there this type of dance spread in the lowlands of the [[Lezha]] area and the [[Mat (river)|Mati]] valley by the mountain shepherds. In its primordial form it is danced silently with free-flowing, only following the rhythmic movements of the body that are improvised by the dancer(s) (hence without instrumental music or vocals). Sword dances are also those performed in certain areas of northwestern Kosovo, which are accompanied by instrumental music and referred to as &quot;contest to win the maid&quot;. Also the Albanians of Italy – the [[Arbëreshë people|Arbëreshë]] – perform the sword dance, albeit in a different way.&lt;ref name=&quot;New Albania&quot;/&gt; Into the late 1400s Albanian sword dances were imitaded by Italian [[tarantella]]s.{{sfn|Snodgrass|2016|p=315}} The Albanian folk tale &quot;[[Skanderbeg]] and [[Ballaban Badera|Ballaban]]&quot; narrates about the Albanian sword dance, which is sung and danced by Skanderbeg's soldiers before battle.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book|last=Elsie|first=Robert|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ve4SAQAAIAAJ|title=Albanian Folktales and Legends|year=2001b|publisher=Dukagjini Publishing House|pages=208–209}}&lt;/ref&gt; ===Sword dance of Rugova=== The Rugova war dance&lt;ref name=&quot;Daubeny1952&quot;&gt;{{cite book|last=Daubeny|first=Peter|authorlink=Peter Daubeny|title=Stage by stage|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=b_o1AQAAIAAJ|year=1952|publisher=J. Murray|page=141|quote= THE WARRIOR DANCE OF RUGOVO.}}&lt;/ref&gt; ({{lang-sq|Vallja me shpata e Rugovës}} or ''Loja Luftarake e Rugovës'')&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book|last=Halimi|first=Kadri|title=Vendi i Lojës së Rugovës në Vallet Luftarake Shqiptare [The place of the Rugova Dance in Albanian War Dances]|language=sq|year=1971|place=Pristina}}&lt;/ref&gt; is a traditional Albanian [[sword dance]] named after the [[Rugova (region)|Rugova region]]&lt;ref name=UCLA&gt;{{cite book|title=UCLA Journal of Dance Ethnology|volume=13|publisher=UCLA Department of Dance|year=1989|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=pEf0AAAAMAAJ|pages=34–39}}&lt;/ref&gt; in [[Kosovo]]. Rugova dance is a relic of the [[war dance]]s, the remnants of pantomimic dances performed in the re-enactment or preparation of battles.&lt;ref name=UCLA /&gt; The dance is performed by two male dancers who fight a mock battle for the hand of a girl (a &quot;maiden's dance&quot;&lt;ref name=&quot;Tomašević1968&quot;&gt;{{cite book|author=Nebojša Tomašević|title=Yugoslavia in Colour|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=qqYrAAAAMAAJ|year=1968|publisher=&quot;Review,&quot; Yugoslav Illustrated Monthly|page=34}}&lt;/ref&gt;).&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book|title=Journal of the International Folk Music Council|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=njXYAAAAMAAJ|year=1951|publisher=Published with the assistance of the International Music Council, under the auspices of United Nations Educational Scientific and Cultural Organisation for the International Folk Music Council by W. Heffer|quote=A dance by two men of the Albanian minority from Rugova (Pec) represents a mock battle to obtain possession of a young girl. }}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book | title=Folk traditions in Yugoslavia: ten tours | publisher=Jugoslavija | author=Žunić-Baš, Leposava | year=1966 | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=rxTaAAAAMAAJ&amp;q=%22+the+favours+of+a+girl%22 | page=75 | quote=Besides their distinctive dress the people of Rugovo have inherited an ancient sword dance (borbena rugovska igra) in ... two dancers wielding short, curved swords act out for the favours of a girl.}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book|title=Zemlja i ljudi|volume=10|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=I3YRAAAAIAAJ|year=1960|page=31|quote=Изводе се симболични двобоји оружјем; бор- ци су окружени младим девојкама од којих најлегапа игра око њих}}&lt;/ref&gt; It was made internationally famous by the [[Kosovo Albanian]] Rugova clans (hailing from [[Kelmend (region)|Kelmend]] in Albania).&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book|author=Dennison I. Rusinow|title=Yugoslavia: Oblique Insights and Observations|year=2008|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=8vLegdmW9toC&amp;pg=PA291|publisher=University of Pittsburgh Pre|isbn=978-0-8229-7349-2|pages=290–291}}&lt;/ref&gt; The dance is also found in mountainous [[Montenegro]], where a tribe of shepherds settled in the 18th century.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book | title=Folk dance of Europe | publisher=Folk Dance Enterprises | author=Allenby Jaffé, Nigel | year=1990 | page=89 | quote=In mountainous Montenegro, a tribe of shepherds who settled there in the early eighteenth century have their own special sword dance, the 'Borbena rugovska igra&quot;}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=Cuddon&gt;{{cite book | title=The Companion Guide to JUGOSLAVIA | author=Cuddon, J. A. | authorlink=J. A. Cuddon | year=1968 | page=435 | quote=The militant traditions of Montenegrins are especially well illustrated in their sword dances: for instance, the Borbena Rugovska igra, (the Rugova war dance, named after the gorge) | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=wI4NRp8fjr0C&amp;q=%22borbena+rugovska+igra%22}}&lt;/ref&gt; Based on the war dance of the Rugova clans, Slavko Kvasnevski created in 1971 the Rugova choreography, which was part of Yugoslav folk dancing ensemble.&lt;ref name=UCLA /&gt; In 1982, it was noted that &quot;in the last time the Rugova dance has gained wide popularity&quot;.&lt;ref name=&quot;Božović1982&quot;&gt;{{cite book|author=Ratko Božović|title=Socijalistička Republika Srbija|volume=1|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=-a8qAAAAMAAJ|year=1982|publisher=NIRO &quot;Književne novine&quot;|page=515|quote=Y последнее време стекла je широку популарност игра Valija e Rugovëc (руговска игра) у KOJOJ nrpajy наиз- менично мушкарци и жене, да би се на Kpajy мешали у игри.}}&lt;/ref&gt; {{Clear}} == See also == {{Albanian tribes sidebar}} *[[Albanian tribes]] == References == {{Reflist}} ==Bibliography== &lt;!-- S --&gt; *{{Cite book|last=Snodgrass|first=Mary Ellen|title=The Encyclopedia of World Folk Dance|year=2016|publisher=Rowman &amp; Littlefield|isbn=9781442257498|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=DMGpDAAAQBAJ}} *{{cite journal|last=Steiner-Karafili|first=Enit|title=Byron and the Albanians: Unearthing Identities|journal=[[Studia Albanica]]|issn=0585-5047|year=2010|issue=2|pages=137–147}} &lt;!-- T --&gt; *{{cite book|last=Tirta|first=Mark|title=Mitologjia ndër shqiptarë|language=sq|editor=Petrit Bezhani|publisher=Mësonjëtorja|year=2004|place=Tirana|isbn=99927-938-9-9}} &lt;!-- U --&gt; *{{cite journal|last=Useini|first=Rini|title=Ethnology as a Vital Manifestation, (Folk Rites and Practices)|journal=Philosophica|volume=11|issue=22–23|pages=160–166|issn=2671-3020|publisher=[[University of Tetova]]|year=2024|doi=10.62792/ut.philosophica.v11.i22-23.p2732}} &lt;!-- X --&gt; *{{cite book|last=Xhemaj|first=Ukë|chapter=Zjarri në besimet popullore shqiptare|trans-chapter=The Fire in Albanian Folk Beliefs|title=Trashëgimia dhe tranformimi i kulturës popullore: materiala nga sesioni shkencor, mbajtur në Prishtinë më 7-8 shtator 1979|editor=Mark Krasniqi, Ukë Xhemaj|publisher=[[Albanological Institute of Prishtina]]|year=1983|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=lGgKAQAAIAAJ|pages=104–121}} [[Category:Culture of Albania]] [[Category:Albanian folk dances]] [[Category:War dances]] [[Category:Circle dances]] [[Category:Mock combat]] [[Category:Music of Albania]]</div></summary> <author><name>Βατο</name></author> </entry> <entry> <id>https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Hora_(dance)&diff=1255577859</id> <title>Hora (dance)</title> <link rel="alternate" type="text/html" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Hora_(dance)&diff=1255577859"/> <updated>2024-11-05T17:26:29Z</updated> <summary type="html">Βατο: better wording <hr /> <div>{{Short description|Form of circle dance originating in Eastern Europe, Asia Minor, Greece and the Balkans}} {{Other uses|Hora (disambiguation){{!}}Hora|Horo (disambiguation){{!}}Horo|Oro (disambiguation){{!}}Oro}} {{More citations needed|date=March 2012}} [[Image:Tanec folk ensemble Macedonia 1.jpg|thumb|right|300px|A traditional oro playing in [[North Macedonia]]]] '''Hora''', also known as '''horo''' and '''oro''', is a type of [[circle dance]] originating in [[Romania]] and [[Bulgaria]]. Other types of circle dances called with similar names are found in other [[Southeast Europe|South East European]] countries (such as [[Moldova]] and [[North Macedonia]]) and [[Acculturation|culturally adopted]] by [[Minority group|ethnic minorities]] such as the [[Ashkenazi Jews]]&lt;ref name=&quot;:0&quot;&gt;{{cite web |last1=Alpert |first1=Michael |title=Hora (LKT) |url=https://www.jewish-music.huji.ac.il/content/hora-lkt |website=Jewish Music Research Center |publisher=National Library of Israel |access-date=15 April 2021}}&lt;/ref&gt; ([[Yiddish]]: האָרע ''hore''), [[Sephardic Jews]] ([[Judaeo-Spanish|Ladino]]: הורו ''horo'') and the [[Romani people|Roma]]. ==Etymology== The name, spelled differently in various countries, is derived from the [[Greek language|Greek]] {{lang|el|χορός}} (''[[Choros (dance)|khorós]]''): &quot;dance&quot;,&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|title=What a long horo dance!|url=https://bnr.bg/en/post/100150354/what-a-long-horo-dance|access-date=2021-03-08|website=bnr.bg|language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt; which is cognate with the [[Ancient Greek]] art form of {{lang|grc|χορεία}} (''[[Choreia|khoreía]]''). The original meaning of the Greek word {{lang|grc|χορός}} may have been &quot;circle&quot;.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|title=χορός|url=https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%CF%87%CE%BF%CF%81%CF%8C%CF%82|access-date=2021-03-08|website=en.wiktionary.org|language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt; Also, the words ''hora'' and ''oro'' are found in many [[Slavic languages]] and have the meaning of &quot;round (dance)&quot;; the verb ''oriti'' means &quot;to speak, sound, sing&quot; and previously meant &quot;to celebrate&quot;. The [[Greek language|Greek]] {{lang|grc|χορός}} ({{lang|grc-Latn|[[Khoros (dance)|khorós]]}}) is cognate with [[Pontic Greek]] {{lang|pnt|χορόν}} ({{lang|pnt-Latn|[[Horon (dance)|khorón]]}}), and has also given rise to the names of [[Bulgarian language|Bulgarian]] {{lang|bg|хоро}} ({{lang|bg-Latn|horo}}), [[North Slavic Macedonian Language|Macedonian]] {{lang|mk|оро}} ({{lang|mk-Latn|oro}}), [[Romanian language|Romanian]] {{lang|ro|horă}}, {{lang|sh|[[Kolo (dance)|kolo]]}} / {{lang|sh-Cyrl|коло}} in [[Serbo-Croatian|Serbian]], the [[Turkish language|Turkish]] form {{lang|tr|hora}} and in [[Hebrew language|Hebrew]] {{lang|he|הורה|rtl=yes}} ({{lang|he-Latn|horah}}). The {{lang|ka-Latn|[[Khorumi]]}} dance of [[Georgia (country)|Georgia]] also might be connected to the [[Horon (dance)|Horon]] dance in the neighboring Turkish regions, as it rose out of the [[Adjara]] region, where [[Kartvelian languages|Kartvelian]] [[Laz people]] co-existed for centuries with Greek [[Pontians]]. Overall, Horos has its origins in ancient Greece and Greek culture and tradition, it has spread to areas heavily influenced by the Greek culture and were part of the [[Byzantine Empire]], these areas include most of the Balkans, Turkey, and [[Middle East]]. ==Variants== === Romania and Moldova === [[File:Stamp of Moldova md423.jpg|thumb|left]] [[Image:Hora din Dealul Spirei, 1857.jpg|thumb|300px|Dancing the hora on [[Dealul Spirii]] (Spirii Hill), [[Bucharest]] (1857 lithograph)]] '''Horă''' (plural: hore) is a traditional [[Romanians|Romanian]] and [[Moldovans|Moldovan]] folk dance where the dancers hold each other's hands and the circle spins, usually counterclockwise, as each participant follows a sequence of three steps forward and one step back. The dance is usually accompanied by musical instruments such as the [[cymbalom]], [[accordion]], [[violin]], [[viola]], [[double bass]], [[saxophone]], [[trumpet]] or the [[pan pipes]]. The hora is popular during wedding celebrations and festivals, and is an essential part of the social entertainment in rural areas. One of the most famous hore is the &quot;''[[Hora Unirii]]''&quot; (&quot;Hora of the Union&quot;), which became a Romanian patriotic song as a result of being the hymn when [[Wallachia]] and [[Moldavia]] [[Unification of Moldavia and Wallachia|united]] to form the [[Principality of Romania]] in 1859. During the 2006/2007 New Year's Eve celebration, when [[Romania]] and [[Bulgaria]] joined the [[European Union]], people were dancing ''[[Hora Bucuriei]]'' (&quot;Hora of Joy&quot;) over the boulevards of [[Bucharest]] as a tribute to the EU anthem, [[Ode to Joy]] ({{langx|ro|Odă bucuriei}}). Some of the biggest hora circles can be found on early 20th century movies filmed by the [[Yanaki and Milton Manaki|Manaki brothers]] in [[Pindus]], Greece, and performed by local [[Aromanians]]. === Horo in Bulgaria === [[File:Jan Mrkvička-Shopsko horo.jpg|right|thumb|A [[Shopi|Shop]] ''horo'' of Bulgaria]] The traditional [[Bulgarian dances|Bulgarian dance]] '''''[[Kolo (dance)|horo]]''''' ({{langx|bg|хоро}}) comes in many shapes. It is not necessary to be in a circle; a curving line of people is also acceptable. The steps used in a horo dance are extremely diverse. The horo may vary between three and seven or eight steps forward and one to five or six steps back, depending on the specific type. Bulgarians believe that each village has their own type of horo. They differ by the rhythm of the music and the steps taken. There are no two horo dances with similar steps. There are probably over one hundred types of horo dances in the [[Bulgarian folklore]].{{citation needed|date=April 2017}} In the past, the horo dance had a social role in Bulgarian society. It was mainly for fun, as a contest of skills, or for show, leading to the development of the variety of horo dances. There are hora for people with little skill that can be learned in five to ten minutes, but there are also very sophisticated dances that cannot be learned unless one is fluent in many of the simpler dances. === Oro in North Macedonia === [[File:Prilep-fête 1919.jpg|thumb|right|300px|Women in [[Prilep]], playing oro, beginning of the 20th century]] [[North Macedonia]] uses the [[Cyrillic script|Cyrillic]] spelling of '''''oro'''''. The origins of the word oro vary from its use in socializing and celebrating to historical dancing before going into battle. ''Teshkoto'', translated as &quot;The difficult one&quot;, is one of those, danced by men only, the music of which reflects the sorrow and mood of war. The oro is danced in a circle, with men and women holding one another by hand. They are used to celebrating occasions such as weddings, christenings, name-days, national and religious holidays, graduations, and birthdays. === Roma horo === The '''horo''' is also popular among the [[Romani people|Roma]] of [[Southeastern Europe]], and the dancing is practically the same as that of the neighboring ethnicities. Roma Horos, and [[Romani music|Roma music]] in general, are very much appreciated among the non-Roma in the [[Balkans]], as they also have a reputation as skillful performers of other people's folk music. === Jewish horah === {{JewishMusic}} ==== Klezmer horah ==== In [[klezmer]] music, the horah refers to a circle dance. The horah has a slow, limping gait in triple meter, often three/eight time ([[3/8 time|{{music|time|3|8}}]]), and generally leads into a faster and more upbeat duple meter, usually a [[Klezmer#Song types|freylekh]] or a [[Klezmer#Song types|bulgar]]. Among Yiddish-speaking Jews, the triple-meter horah has also been called ''zhok'' (Romanian ''joc'', 'dance') or ''krumer tants'' (Yiddish: 'crooked dance').&lt;ref name=&quot;:0&quot; /&gt; ==== Israeli horah ==== The '''horah''' (הורה), which differs somewhat from that of some of the Eastern European countries, is widespread in the [[Jewish diaspora]] and played a foundational role in modern [[Israeli folk dancing]]. It became the symbol of the reconstruction of the country by the socialistic-agricultural Zionist movement.&lt;ref name=&quot;:1&quot; /&gt; Although considered traditional, some claim it rose to popularity due to Hora Agadati, named after dancer and choreographer [[Baruch Agadati]] and performed for the first time in 1924.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite news |last=Sernovitz |first=Gary |date=2012-06-29 |title=I Do Not Want To Dance the Hora |language=en-US |work=Slate |url=https://slate.com/human-interest/2012/06/hora-and-my-jewish-wedding-forget-tradition-i-will-not-dance.html |access-date= |issn=1091-2339}}&lt;/ref&gt; According to [[Gurit Kadman]], the original melody was a Moldavian folk tune, which in mid-1940s was recognized by composer [[Uriya Boskovitz]] as an anti-Semitic one,{{clarify |Seldom such a thing. Folk songs often got adapted by either political parties or commercial companies and received a new &quot;message&quot;, see tune of Hatikva. But not impossible. Pls clarify. |date= February 2024}} and Gurit asked Boskovitz to write a new one. About the same time [[Ze’ev Havatselet]] wrote a lyrics to the tune&lt;ref&gt;[http://www.israelidances.com/horaagadati.asp &quot;Hora Agadati&quot;], israelidances.com&lt;/ref&gt; (found, e.g., in the [[Library of Congress]]&lt;ref&gt;[https://catalog.loc.gov/vwebv/search?searchCode=LCCN&amp;searchArg=2018571206&amp;searchType=1&amp;permalink=y &quot;Shire Zeʼev Ḥavatselet - The songs of Zeev Havatselet&quot;]&lt;/ref&gt;). Now the dance is usually performed to [[Music of Israel#Musical characteristics of the Israeli style|Israeli folk songs]], and sometimes to Jewish songs, often to the music of &quot;[[Hava Nagila]]&quot;. To start the dance, everybody forms a circle, holding hands or interlocking arms behind their backs or on their shoulders,&lt;ref name=&quot;:1&quot;&gt;{{Cite web | url=https://www.jewishvirtuallibrary.org/jsource/judaica/ejud_0002_0009_0_09187.html |title = Horah}}&lt;/ref&gt; and steps forward toward the left with the right foot, then follows with the left foot. The right foot is then brought back, followed by the left foot. This is done while holding hands and circling together in a fast and cheerful motion to the left. Large groups allow for the creation of several [[concentric]] circles, or a large spiral formation. In the early days, horah was popular mainly in [[kibbutz]]im and small communities, often continuing for hours.&lt;ref&gt;[http://forward.com/articles/12226/hora-history-/ Hora history]&lt;/ref&gt; The horah became popular in group dances throughout [[Israel]], and at weddings and other celebrations by Jews in Israel, the [[United States]], [[United Kingdom]], and [[Canada]]. The dance appeared in North America in the early 20th century, well before modern Israeli independence, brought directly from Eastern Europe by Jewish immigrants. At Jewish weddings during the horah it is customary to raise the bride and groom, each on their own chair and holding a handkerchief between them, following Jewish tradition. This is also done at [[Bar and bat mitzvah|b'nai mitzvah]], where the honoree and sometimes his or her family members are also raised on a chair, copying the wedding tradition. The song &quot;[[Hora (song)|Hora]]&quot;, sung by [[Avi Toledano]], who represented Israel in the [[Eurovision Song Contest 1982]], is based on this dance. ===Other variants=== ==== Horon in Turkey ==== [[Horon (dance)|Horon]] in several variants is danced in [[Black Sea Region]] / [[Pontus (region)|Pontos]] of modern-day [[Turkey]].&lt;!--copied from [[Horon]] lede--&gt;{{cn|date=April 2022}} ==== Oro in Montenegro ==== The '''oro''' ({{lang-sr-Cyrl|оро}}) circle dance should not be confused with the [[Montenegrin Oro]] dance of [[Montenegro]] and [[Herzegovina]], which is a paired courtship dance. Its name comes from the [[Serbian language|Serbian]] ''оrао'', meaning &quot;eagle&quot;. ====Perinița==== {{Main|Perinița}} Perinița is a traditional Romanian wedding folk dance. The dance is typical in the [[Muntenia]] region.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |last1= |date=9 April 2016 |title=&quot;Perinita&quot; – the Romanian traditional love dance |url=https://www.imperialtransilvania.com/read-more/argomenti/traditions/articolo/perinita-the-romanian-traditional-love-dance.html |access-date=10 September 2021 |website=ImperialTransilvania |publisher=}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |last1= |date=3 December 2018 |title=Perinita (L*) – Romanian version of a Pan-European Party/Wedding Dance |url=https://folkdancefootnotes.org/dance/a-real-folk-dance-what-is-it/about/perinita-another-romanian-wedding-dance/ |access-date=10 September 2021 |website=Folkdance Footnotes |publisher= |language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt; == See also == * [[Adana (dance)]], a Macedonian oro * [[An Dro]], a [[Brittany|Breton]] circle dance * [[Attan]], a dance performed by Pashtun people in Afghanistan and Pakistan * [[Circle dance]] * [[Dabke]] * [[Faroese dance]] * [[Horae]] * [[Khigga]], an [[Assyrian people|Assyrian]] circle dance * [[Khorovod]], an Eastern European circle dance * [[Kochari]] * [[Kolo (dance)]], Serbian, Croatian and Bosnian circle dance * {{ill|Kola (dance)|ru|Кола (танец)}}, Belarusian circle dance * [[Syrtos]] * [[Tamzara]] * [[Tresenica]], a Macedonian oro performed by women * [[Yalli]] ==References== {{Reflist}} {{Circle dance}} {{Turkish dances}} {{Balkan music}} [[Category:Circle dances]] [[Category:European folk dances]] [[Category:Romanian folk dances]] [[Category:Moldovan folk dances]] [[Category:Turkish dances]] [[Category:Greek dances]] [[Category:Macedonian dances]] [[Category:Klezmer]] [[Category:Dance in Israel]] [[Category:Slavic carnival]] [[Category:Bulgarian dances]]</div></summary> <author><name>Βατο</name></author> </entry> <entry> <id>https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Hora_(dance)&diff=1255576878</id> <title>Hora (dance)</title> <link rel="alternate" type="text/html" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Hora_(dance)&diff=1255576878"/> <updated>2024-11-05T17:20:12Z</updated> <summary type="html">Βατο: clarification <hr /> <div>{{Short description|Form of circle dance originating in Eastern Europe, Asia Minor, Greece and the Balkans}} {{Other uses|Hora (disambiguation){{!}}Hora|Horo (disambiguation){{!}}Horo|Oro (disambiguation){{!}}Oro}} {{More citations needed|date=March 2012}} [[Image:Tanec folk ensemble Macedonia 1.jpg|thumb|right|300px|A traditional oro playing in [[North Macedonia]]]] '''Hora''', also known as '''horo''' and '''oro''', is a type of [[circle dance]] originating in [[Romania]] and [[Bulgaria]]. It is also found under this name in other [[Southeast Europe|South East European]] countries (such as [[Moldova]] and [[North Macedonia]]) and [[Acculturation|culturally adopted]] by [[Minority group|ethnic minorities]] such as the [[Ashkenazi Jews]]&lt;ref name=&quot;:0&quot;&gt;{{cite web |last1=Alpert |first1=Michael |title=Hora (LKT) |url=https://www.jewish-music.huji.ac.il/content/hora-lkt |website=Jewish Music Research Center |publisher=National Library of Israel |access-date=15 April 2021}}&lt;/ref&gt; ([[Yiddish]]: האָרע ''hore''), [[Sephardic Jews]] ([[Judaeo-Spanish|Ladino]]: הורו ''horo'') and the [[Romani people|Roma]]. ==Etymology== The name, spelled differently in various countries, is derived from the [[Greek language|Greek]] {{lang|el|χορός}} (''[[Choros (dance)|khorós]]''): &quot;dance&quot;,&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|title=What a long horo dance!|url=https://bnr.bg/en/post/100150354/what-a-long-horo-dance|access-date=2021-03-08|website=bnr.bg|language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt; which is cognate with the [[Ancient Greek]] art form of {{lang|grc|χορεία}} (''[[Choreia|khoreía]]''). The original meaning of the Greek word {{lang|grc|χορός}} may have been &quot;circle&quot;.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|title=χορός|url=https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%CF%87%CE%BF%CF%81%CF%8C%CF%82|access-date=2021-03-08|website=en.wiktionary.org|language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt; Also, the words ''hora'' and ''oro'' are found in many [[Slavic languages]] and have the meaning of &quot;round (dance)&quot;; the verb ''oriti'' means &quot;to speak, sound, sing&quot; and previously meant &quot;to celebrate&quot;. The [[Greek language|Greek]] {{lang|grc|χορός}} ({{lang|grc-Latn|[[Khoros (dance)|khorós]]}}) is cognate with [[Pontic Greek]] {{lang|pnt|χορόν}} ({{lang|pnt-Latn|[[Horon (dance)|khorón]]}}), and has also given rise to the names of [[Bulgarian language|Bulgarian]] {{lang|bg|хоро}} ({{lang|bg-Latn|horo}}), [[North Slavic Macedonian Language|Macedonian]] {{lang|mk|оро}} ({{lang|mk-Latn|oro}}), [[Romanian language|Romanian]] {{lang|ro|horă}}, {{lang|sh|[[Kolo (dance)|kolo]]}} / {{lang|sh-Cyrl|коло}} in [[Serbo-Croatian|Serbian]], the [[Turkish language|Turkish]] form {{lang|tr|hora}} and in [[Hebrew language|Hebrew]] {{lang|he|הורה|rtl=yes}} ({{lang|he-Latn|horah}}). The {{lang|ka-Latn|[[Khorumi]]}} dance of [[Georgia (country)|Georgia]] also might be connected to the [[Horon (dance)|Horon]] dance in the neighboring Turkish regions, as it rose out of the [[Adjara]] region, where [[Kartvelian languages|Kartvelian]] [[Laz people]] co-existed for centuries with Greek [[Pontians]]. Overall, Horos has its origins in ancient Greece and Greek culture and tradition, it has spread to areas heavily influenced by the Greek culture and were part of the [[Byzantine Empire]], these areas include most of the Balkans, Turkey, and [[Middle East]]. ==Variants== === Romania and Moldova === [[File:Stamp of Moldova md423.jpg|thumb|left]] [[Image:Hora din Dealul Spirei, 1857.jpg|thumb|300px|Dancing the hora on [[Dealul Spirii]] (Spirii Hill), [[Bucharest]] (1857 lithograph)]] '''Horă''' (plural: hore) is a traditional [[Romanians|Romanian]] and [[Moldovans|Moldovan]] folk dance where the dancers hold each other's hands and the circle spins, usually counterclockwise, as each participant follows a sequence of three steps forward and one step back. The dance is usually accompanied by musical instruments such as the [[cymbalom]], [[accordion]], [[violin]], [[viola]], [[double bass]], [[saxophone]], [[trumpet]] or the [[pan pipes]]. The hora is popular during wedding celebrations and festivals, and is an essential part of the social entertainment in rural areas. One of the most famous hore is the &quot;''[[Hora Unirii]]''&quot; (&quot;Hora of the Union&quot;), which became a Romanian patriotic song as a result of being the hymn when [[Wallachia]] and [[Moldavia]] [[Unification of Moldavia and Wallachia|united]] to form the [[Principality of Romania]] in 1859. During the 2006/2007 New Year's Eve celebration, when [[Romania]] and [[Bulgaria]] joined the [[European Union]], people were dancing ''[[Hora Bucuriei]]'' (&quot;Hora of Joy&quot;) over the boulevards of [[Bucharest]] as a tribute to the EU anthem, [[Ode to Joy]] ({{langx|ro|Odă bucuriei}}). Some of the biggest hora circles can be found on early 20th century movies filmed by the [[Yanaki and Milton Manaki|Manaki brothers]] in [[Pindus]], Greece, and performed by local [[Aromanians]]. === Horo in Bulgaria === [[File:Jan Mrkvička-Shopsko horo.jpg|right|thumb|A [[Shopi|Shop]] ''horo'' of Bulgaria]] The traditional [[Bulgarian dances|Bulgarian dance]] '''''[[Kolo (dance)|horo]]''''' ({{langx|bg|хоро}}) comes in many shapes. It is not necessary to be in a circle; a curving line of people is also acceptable. The steps used in a horo dance are extremely diverse. The horo may vary between three and seven or eight steps forward and one to five or six steps back, depending on the specific type. Bulgarians believe that each village has their own type of horo. They differ by the rhythm of the music and the steps taken. There are no two horo dances with similar steps. There are probably over one hundred types of horo dances in the [[Bulgarian folklore]].{{citation needed|date=April 2017}} In the past, the horo dance had a social role in Bulgarian society. It was mainly for fun, as a contest of skills, or for show, leading to the development of the variety of horo dances. There are hora for people with little skill that can be learned in five to ten minutes, but there are also very sophisticated dances that cannot be learned unless one is fluent in many of the simpler dances. === Oro in North Macedonia === [[File:Prilep-fête 1919.jpg|thumb|right|300px|Women in [[Prilep]], playing oro, beginning of the 20th century]] [[North Macedonia]] uses the [[Cyrillic script|Cyrillic]] spelling of '''''oro'''''. The origins of the word oro vary from its use in socializing and celebrating to historical dancing before going into battle. ''Teshkoto'', translated as &quot;The difficult one&quot;, is one of those, danced by men only, the music of which reflects the sorrow and mood of war. The oro is danced in a circle, with men and women holding one another by hand. They are used to celebrating occasions such as weddings, christenings, name-days, national and religious holidays, graduations, and birthdays. === Roma horo === The '''horo''' is also popular among the [[Romani people|Roma]] of [[Southeastern Europe]], and the dancing is practically the same as that of the neighboring ethnicities. Roma Horos, and [[Romani music|Roma music]] in general, are very much appreciated among the non-Roma in the [[Balkans]], as they also have a reputation as skillful performers of other people's folk music. === Jewish horah === {{JewishMusic}} ==== Klezmer horah ==== In [[klezmer]] music, the horah refers to a circle dance. The horah has a slow, limping gait in triple meter, often three/eight time ([[3/8 time|{{music|time|3|8}}]]), and generally leads into a faster and more upbeat duple meter, usually a [[Klezmer#Song types|freylekh]] or a [[Klezmer#Song types|bulgar]]. Among Yiddish-speaking Jews, the triple-meter horah has also been called ''zhok'' (Romanian ''joc'', 'dance') or ''krumer tants'' (Yiddish: 'crooked dance').&lt;ref name=&quot;:0&quot; /&gt; ==== Israeli horah ==== The '''horah''' (הורה), which differs somewhat from that of some of the Eastern European countries, is widespread in the [[Jewish diaspora]] and played a foundational role in modern [[Israeli folk dancing]]. It became the symbol of the reconstruction of the country by the socialistic-agricultural Zionist movement.&lt;ref name=&quot;:1&quot; /&gt; Although considered traditional, some claim it rose to popularity due to Hora Agadati, named after dancer and choreographer [[Baruch Agadati]] and performed for the first time in 1924.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite news |last=Sernovitz |first=Gary |date=2012-06-29 |title=I Do Not Want To Dance the Hora |language=en-US |work=Slate |url=https://slate.com/human-interest/2012/06/hora-and-my-jewish-wedding-forget-tradition-i-will-not-dance.html |access-date= |issn=1091-2339}}&lt;/ref&gt; According to [[Gurit Kadman]], the original melody was a Moldavian folk tune, which in mid-1940s was recognized by composer [[Uriya Boskovitz]] as an anti-Semitic one,{{clarify |Seldom such a thing. Folk songs often got adapted by either political parties or commercial companies and received a new &quot;message&quot;, see tune of Hatikva. But not impossible. Pls clarify. |date= February 2024}} and Gurit asked Boskovitz to write a new one. About the same time [[Ze’ev Havatselet]] wrote a lyrics to the tune&lt;ref&gt;[http://www.israelidances.com/horaagadati.asp &quot;Hora Agadati&quot;], israelidances.com&lt;/ref&gt; (found, e.g., in the [[Library of Congress]]&lt;ref&gt;[https://catalog.loc.gov/vwebv/search?searchCode=LCCN&amp;searchArg=2018571206&amp;searchType=1&amp;permalink=y &quot;Shire Zeʼev Ḥavatselet - The songs of Zeev Havatselet&quot;]&lt;/ref&gt;). Now the dance is usually performed to [[Music of Israel#Musical characteristics of the Israeli style|Israeli folk songs]], and sometimes to Jewish songs, often to the music of &quot;[[Hava Nagila]]&quot;. To start the dance, everybody forms a circle, holding hands or interlocking arms behind their backs or on their shoulders,&lt;ref name=&quot;:1&quot;&gt;{{Cite web | url=https://www.jewishvirtuallibrary.org/jsource/judaica/ejud_0002_0009_0_09187.html |title = Horah}}&lt;/ref&gt; and steps forward toward the left with the right foot, then follows with the left foot. The right foot is then brought back, followed by the left foot. This is done while holding hands and circling together in a fast and cheerful motion to the left. Large groups allow for the creation of several [[concentric]] circles, or a large spiral formation. In the early days, horah was popular mainly in [[kibbutz]]im and small communities, often continuing for hours.&lt;ref&gt;[http://forward.com/articles/12226/hora-history-/ Hora history]&lt;/ref&gt; The horah became popular in group dances throughout [[Israel]], and at weddings and other celebrations by Jews in Israel, the [[United States]], [[United Kingdom]], and [[Canada]]. The dance appeared in North America in the early 20th century, well before modern Israeli independence, brought directly from Eastern Europe by Jewish immigrants. At Jewish weddings during the horah it is customary to raise the bride and groom, each on their own chair and holding a handkerchief between them, following Jewish tradition. This is also done at [[Bar and bat mitzvah|b'nai mitzvah]], where the honoree and sometimes his or her family members are also raised on a chair, copying the wedding tradition. The song &quot;[[Hora (song)|Hora]]&quot;, sung by [[Avi Toledano]], who represented Israel in the [[Eurovision Song Contest 1982]], is based on this dance. ===Other variants=== ==== Horon in Turkey ==== [[Horon (dance)|Horon]] in several variants is danced in [[Black Sea Region]] / [[Pontus (region)|Pontos]] of modern-day [[Turkey]].&lt;!--copied from [[Horon]] lede--&gt;{{cn|date=April 2022}} ==== Oro in Montenegro ==== The '''oro''' ({{lang-sr-Cyrl|оро}}) circle dance should not be confused with the [[Montenegrin Oro]] dance of [[Montenegro]] and [[Herzegovina]], which is a paired courtship dance. Its name comes from the [[Serbian language|Serbian]] ''оrао'', meaning &quot;eagle&quot;. ====Perinița==== {{Main|Perinița}} Perinița is a traditional Romanian wedding folk dance. The dance is typical in the [[Muntenia]] region.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |last1= |date=9 April 2016 |title=&quot;Perinita&quot; – the Romanian traditional love dance |url=https://www.imperialtransilvania.com/read-more/argomenti/traditions/articolo/perinita-the-romanian-traditional-love-dance.html |access-date=10 September 2021 |website=ImperialTransilvania |publisher=}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |last1= |date=3 December 2018 |title=Perinita (L*) – Romanian version of a Pan-European Party/Wedding Dance |url=https://folkdancefootnotes.org/dance/a-real-folk-dance-what-is-it/about/perinita-another-romanian-wedding-dance/ |access-date=10 September 2021 |website=Folkdance Footnotes |publisher= |language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt; == See also == * [[Adana (dance)]], a Macedonian oro * [[An Dro]], a [[Brittany|Breton]] circle dance * [[Attan]], a dance performed by Pashtun people in Afghanistan and Pakistan * [[Circle dance]] * [[Dabke]] * [[Faroese dance]] * [[Horae]] * [[Khigga]], an [[Assyrian people|Assyrian]] circle dance * [[Khorovod]], an Eastern European circle dance * [[Kochari]] * [[Kolo (dance)]], Serbian, Croatian and Bosnian circle dance * {{ill|Kola (dance)|ru|Кола (танец)}}, Belarusian circle dance * [[Syrtos]] * [[Tamzara]] * [[Tresenica]], a Macedonian oro performed by women * [[Yalli]] ==References== {{Reflist}} {{Circle dance}} {{Turkish dances}} {{Balkan music}} [[Category:Circle dances]] [[Category:European folk dances]] [[Category:Romanian folk dances]] [[Category:Moldovan folk dances]] [[Category:Turkish dances]] [[Category:Greek dances]] [[Category:Macedonian dances]] [[Category:Klezmer]] [[Category:Dance in Israel]] [[Category:Slavic carnival]] [[Category:Bulgarian dances]]</div></summary> <author><name>Βατο</name></author> </entry> <entry> <id>https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Choreia&diff=1255576770</id> <title>Choreia</title> <link rel="alternate" type="text/html" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Choreia&diff=1255576770"/> <updated>2024-11-05T17:19:25Z</updated> <summary type="html">Βατο: clarification, removed unrelated term <hr /> <div>{{Short description|Ancient Greek circle dance accompanied by singing}} {{for|the wasp genus in the subfamily [[Encyrtinae]]|Choreia (wasp)}} {{for|the medical disorder|Chorea}} '''Choreia''' ({{langx|grc|χορεία|choreía}}) is a [[circle dance]] accompanied by singing (see [[Greek chorus]], ''choros''), in [[ancient Greece]]. [[Homer]] refers to this dance in his [[epic poetry|epic poem]], the ''[[Iliad]]''. Terms descended from Greek ''choreia'' that are used for circle dances in a number of other countries are: * [[Horon (dance)|horon]], in [[Turkey]] * [[khorovod]] (хоровод), in [[Russia]] * [[Khora (dance)|khora]] (хора), in [[Ukraine]] * [[Hora (dance)|hora]], in [[Romania]] and [[Moldova]] * [[Horo (dance)|horo]] (хоро), in [[Bulgaria]] * [[Oro (dance)|oro]] (оро), in [[North Macedonia]] and [[Montenegro]] * [[Kolo (dance)|kolo]] (коло), in [[Bosnia]], [[Croatia]] and [[Serbia]] * {{ill|Kola (dance){{!}}kola|ru|Кола (танец)}} (кола), in [[Belarus]] == See also == * [[Rasa lila]] * [[Greek dance]] * [[Tanabata]] ==References== {{reflist}} * Calame, Claude. 2001. ''Choruses of Young Women in Ancient Greece: Their Morphology, Religious Role, and Social Functions.'' Trans. Derek Collins and Janice Orion. Rev. ed. Lanham: Rowman &amp; Littlefield. {{ISBN|0-7425-1525-7}}. * Ley, Graham. 2007. ''The Theatricality of Greek Tragedy: Playing Space and Chorus.'' Chicago and London: U of Chicago P. {{ISBN|0-226-47757-6}}. {{Greek dances}} [[Category:Ancient Greek dances]] [[Category:Ancient Greek theatre]] [[Category:Circle dances]]</div></summary> <author><name>Βατο</name></author> </entry> <entry> <id>https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Talk:Macedonia_(region)&diff=1255422233</id> <title>Talk:Macedonia (region)</title> <link rel="alternate" type="text/html" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Talk:Macedonia_(region)&diff=1255422233"/> <updated>2024-11-04T21:46:39Z</updated> <summary type="html">Βατο: <hr /> <div>{{Talk header}} {{WikiProject banner shell|class=B|1= {{WikiProject Greece|importance=High|topic=Geo|byzantine-task-force=yes}} {{WikiProject North Macedonia|importance=High|1=}} {{WikiProject Bulgaria|importance=High}} {{WikiProject Albania|importance=Mid}} {{WikiProject Kosovo|importance=Low}} {{WikiProject Geography|importance=Low}} {{WikiProject Classical Greece and Rome|importance=mid}} {{WikiProject European history|importance=Low}} {{WikiProject Serbia |importance=Low}} }} {{old move|date=14 June 2021|destination=Macedonia|result=not moved|link=Special:Permalink/1028877835#Requested move 14 June 2021}} {{User:ClueBot III/ArchiveThis |archiveprefix=Talk:Macedonia (region)/Archive |format= %%i |age=2160|&lt;!--90 days--&gt; |header={{automatic archive navigator}} |maxarchsize=100000 |minkeepthreads=4 |numberstart=4 |archivebox=yes |box-advert=yes }} == there's no such country as republic of macedonia == there's no such country as republic of macedonia &lt;!-- Template:Unsigned IP --&gt;&lt;small class=&quot;autosigned&quot;&gt;—&amp;nbsp;Preceding [[Wikipedia:Signatures|unsigned]] comment added by [[Special:Contributions/46.176.141.43|46.176.141.43]] ([[User talk:46.176.141.43#top|talk]]) 02:55, 26 June 2022 (UTC)&lt;/small&gt; &lt;!--Autosigned by SineBot--&gt; == Semi-protected edit request on 4 August 2022 == {{Edit semi-protected|Macedonia (region)|answered=yes}} [[Special:Contributions/89.19.89.11|89.19.89.11]] ([[User talk:89.19.89.11|talk]]) 16:49, 4 August 2022 (UTC) Philip II was an impressive military man in his own right. He turned Macedonia (a region on the northern part of the Greek peninsula) into a force to be reckoned with, and he fantasized about conquering the massive Persian Empire. There are no Byzantine records of &quot;Sklaviniai&quot; after 836/837 as they were absorbed into the expanding First Bulgarian Empire. Slavic influence in the region strengthened along with the rise of this state, which incorporated parts of the region to its domain in 837. In the early 860s Saints Cyril and Methodius, two Byzantine Greek brothers from Thessaloniki, created the first Slavic Glagolitic alphabet in which the Old Church Slavonic language was first transcribed, and are thus commonly referred to as the apostles of the Slavic world. Their cultural heritage was acquired and developed in medieval Bulgaria, where after 885 the region of Ohrid (present-day Republic of North Macedonia) became a significant ecclesiastical center with the nomination of the Saint Clement of Ohrid for &quot;first archbishop in Bulgarian language&quot; with residence in this region. In conjunction with another disciple of Saints Cyril and Methodius, Saint Naum, Clement created a flourishing Slavic cultural center around Ohrid, where pupils were taught theology in the Old Church Slavonic language and the Glagolitic and Cyrillic script at what is now called Ohrid Literary School. The Bulgarian-Byzantine boundary in the beginning of 10th century passed approximately 20 km (12 mi) north of Thessaloniki according to the inscription of Narash. According to the Byzantine author John Kaminiates, at that time the neighbouring settlements around Thessaloniki were inhabited by &quot;Scythians&quot; (Bulgarians) and the Slavic tribes of Drugubites and Sagudates, in addition to Greeks. At the end of the 10th century, what is now the Republic of North Macedonia became the political and cultural heartland of the First Bulgarian Empire, after Byzantine emperors John I Tzimiskes conquered the eastern part of the Bulgarian state during the Rus'–Byzantine War of 970–971. The Bulgarian capital Preslav and the Bulgarian Tsar Boris II were captured, and with the deposition of the Bulgarian regalia in the Hagia Sophia, Bulgaria was officially annexed to Byzantium. A new capital was established at Ohrid, which also became the seat of the Bulgarian Patriarchate. A new dynasty, that of the Comitopuli under Tsar Samuil and his successors, continued resistance against the Byzantines for several more decades, before also succumbing in 1018. The western part of Bulgaria including Macedonia was incorporated into the Byzantine Empire as the province of Bulgaria (Theme of Bulgaria) and the Bulgarian Patriarchate was reduced in rank to an Archbishopric. Intermittent Bulgarian uprisings continued to occur, often with the support of the Serbian princedoms to the north. Any temporary independence that might have been gained was usually crushed swiftly by the Byzantines. It was also marked by periods of war between the Normans and Byzantium. The Normans launched offensives from their lands acquired in southern Italy, and temporarily gained rule over small areas in the northwestern coast. At the end of the 12th century, some northern parts of Macedonia were temporarily conquered by Stefan Nemanja of Serbia. In the 13th century, following the Fourth Crusade, Macedonia was disputed among Byzantine Greeks, Latin crusaders of the short-lived Kingdom of Thessalonica, and the revived Bulgarian state. Most of southern Macedonia was secured by the Despotate of Epirus and then by the Empire of Nicaea, while the north was ruled by Bulgaria :[[File:Red question icon with gradient background.svg|20px|link=|alt=]] '''Not done:''' it's not clear what changes you want to be made. Please mention the specific changes in a [[WP:EDITXY|&quot;change X to Y&quot; format]] and provide a [[Wikipedia:Reliable sources|reliable source]] if appropriate.&lt;!-- Template:ESp --&gt; [[User:ScottishFinnishRadish|ScottishFinnishRadish]] ([[User talk:ScottishFinnishRadish|talk]]) 16:53, 4 August 2022 (UTC) == Semi-protected edit request on 2 February 2023 == {{edit semi-protected|Macedonia (region)|answered=yes}} Hello, Wikipedia. I want to correct some facts in this article, that are not true. That's why i request for an Edit allowance [[User:Mr3xc|Mr3xc]] ([[User talk:Mr3xc|talk]]) 17:58, 2 February 2023 (UTC) :{{ping|Mr3xc}} You have misunderstood article protection. You will get [[wp:autoconfirmed|autoconfirmed]] rights after 4 days on your account if you have made at least 10 edits. This will allow you to edit [[wp:semi-protected|semi-protected]] articles such as this one. In the meantime, please describe the errors you have seen in the article so that another user can correct them. [[User:SmallJarsWithGreenLabels|small jars]] &lt;small&gt;&lt;code&gt;[[User talk:SmallJarsWithGreenLabels|&lt;b style=&quot;color:#270&quot;&gt;t&lt;/b&gt;]][[special:contributions/SmallJarsWithGreenLabels|&lt;b style=&quot;color:#270&quot;&gt;c&lt;/b&gt;]]&lt;/code&gt;&lt;/small&gt; 23:03, 2 February 2023 (UTC) :[[File:Red question icon with gradient background.svg|20px|link=|alt=]] '''Not done:''' it's not clear what changes you want to be made. Please mention the specific changes in a [[WP:EDITXY|&quot;change X to Y&quot; format]] and provide a [[Wikipedia:Reliable sources|reliable source]] if appropriate.&lt;!-- Template:ESp --&gt; [[User:Lemonaka|Lemonaka]] ([[User talk:Lemonaka|talk]]) 10:37, 3 February 2023 (UTC) == Pov map == [[User:StephenMacky1]] [https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Macedonia_(region)&amp;diff=prev&amp;oldid=1254747442 the map here] is of Konstantinos Paparigopoulos not of Kiepert. See here [https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Ethnic_map_of_Balkans_Kiepert.1878.png summary] [[Special:Contributions/77.49.98.69|77.49.98.69]] ([[User talk:77.49.98.69|talk]]) 01:57, 3 November 2024 (UTC) :All right. Tagging [[User:Βατο|Βατο]] as the one who made the changes on Commons and [[User:Greek Rebel|Greek Rebel]], who added the map in this article. If you all can, discuss the issue here. [[User:StephenMacky1|StephenMacky1]] ([[User talk:StephenMacky1|talk]]) 08:54, 3 November 2024 (UTC) ::{{reply|StephenMacky1}} thanks for the tag, [[User:Greek Rebel]] just made an inaccurate POV addition: it is not by Kiepert, and it is a hugely erroneous and problematic old map produced by the [[Ethnographic cartography of the Balkans in the late 19th and early 20th century|19th century 'map mania']]. – [[User:Βατο|Βατο]] ([[User talk:Βατο|talk]]) 09:34, 3 November 2024 (UTC) :::@[[User:StephenMacky1|StephenMacky1]], @[[User:Βατο|Βατο]], I thought it was Kiepert, I did not saw that the map was not made by him. [[User:Greek Rebel|Greek Rebel]] ([[User talk:Greek Rebel|talk]]) 11:37, 3 November 2024 (UTC) :::Ιn fact, it is Kiepert's only one that was made under the insistent suggestions of Paparrigopoulos and expresses the Greek view on the subject. :::&quot;...Paparrigopoulos' pressure on Kiepert, as documented in their correspondence, resulted in the relatively favourable for Greece 'ethnocratic' map entitled Table of Greek Countries with the Adjacent Albanian, Slavic and Romanian Countries, which also depicts Cyprus and will be published in Berlin in 1878. This map is in fact a revision of a slightly earlier 'ethnographic' map with an opposite content for Greek interests....&quot; https://cartography.web.auth.gr/Livieratos/EL/Livieratos_Volos_1881.pdf pages 8-9 (el) [[Special:Contributions/77.49.98.69|77.49.98.69]] ([[User talk:77.49.98.69|talk]]) 18:26, 4 November 2024 (UTC) ::::It is not by Kiepert, the coloring of the map was made by Greek scholar [[Constantine Paparrigopoulos]], who falsely attributed it to Kiepert. ::::{{cite book|last=Yosmaoǧlu|first=I. K.|editor-last=Zartman|editor-first=I. William|chapter=Constructing national identity in Ottoman Macedonia|title=Understanding Life in the Borderlands: Boundaries in Depth and in Motion|publisher=University of Georgia Press|year=2010|isbn=9780820336145|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=kEyinJwjWIgC|chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=kEyinJwjWIgC&amp;pg=PA160}} pp. 177–178: ::::{{tquote|Paparrigopoulos's talent in manipulating ethnographic maps surpassed that of Gennadius because he did not only deploy that map as an apparatus of power, a visual tool with which the Greek nation's rights over an expanse Pf territory was asserted. He also highlighted the subjectivity of the whole pro- cess and questioned the authority of ethnographical maps in principle. The lit-eral issue of authorship was the most important symbolic element of the map, communicating to the public the scientific authority embodied in the geogra- pher's name. Gennadius had claimed that authority by remaining anonymous and giving the impression that the map was prepared by a British author.20 By contrast, Paparrigopoulos usurped the already existing and unquestionable au- thority of Kiepert by making sure that his name was the only one to be printed on the map and the text that accompanied it (written, however, by Paparri- gopoulos himself), deliberately misleading the reader. The result was so con-vincing that even the otherwise meticulous and thorough Wilkinson did not doubt its authenticity when he wrote: &quot;In the explanation accompanying the map Kiepert outlined the difficulties inherent in the production of an eth-nographic map and he maintained that the use of such maps for drawing up political boundaries was a malpractice which no geographer ought to counte-nance&quot; (1951, 75)'.}} ::::{{cite book|last=Heraclides|first=Alexis|title=The Macedonian Question and the Macedonians: A History|publisher=Routledge|year=2020|series=Routledge Histories of Central and Eastern Europe|isbn=9781000289404|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=TWYHEAAAQBAJ}} p. 22: ::::{{tquote|Greek 'map mania'17 persisted with a more ambitious scheme. The Greek for- eign ministry engaged the national historian, Paparrigopoulos, who was then at the apex of his prestige in Greece and in European academic circles. He was called upon 'to convince the European community of the righteousness of the Greek claims with scientific arguments to the degree possible bearing on real- ity'. 18 Paparrigopoulos came up with a device intended to bypass the well-known hurdle (known to the Greek Government and elite) of the Greeks not being the majority in Macedonia. He dubbed it an 'ethnocentric map' that was to present the future likely limits of the Balkan states, the main criterion being what was called the 'excelling race', that is which nation was considered prevailing culturally, educationally and economically in the region. To see this through, Paparrigopou-los corresponded repeatedly with Kiepert and met him at least twice in Berlin. 19 The outcome was indeed an ethnocentric map, which presented a future Greek state taking almost the whole of Macedonia and half the lands inhabited by the Albanians on the Adriatic coast.20 A reluctant Kiepert seemed to go along and the map produced in 1878 bears his name, but a bit later he disclaimed it (with a letter made public). And in 1882, Kiepert produced another map, in which the Greek presence is very limited and the majority only in Chalkidiki, but he compensated by showing overwhelming Greek presence in the southern Albanian inhabited ter- ritory (which was hardly the case).21}} ::::It cannot have been otherwise, because this is one of the worst maps published during the 19th century 'map mania', and Kiepert would not have lost his reputation publishing such work as its author. ::::Nevertheless, adding such an erroneous map obviously for POV pushing purposes is not an improvement to the article, and we should avoid wasting our time for such things. – [[User:Βατο|Βατο]] ([[User talk:Βατο|talk]]) 21:28, 4 November 2024 (UTC)</div></summary> <author><name>Βατο</name></author> </entry> <entry> <id>https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Ethnographic_cartography_of_the_Balkans_in_the_late_19th_and_early_20th_century&diff=1255421737</id> <title>Ethnographic cartography of the Balkans in the late 19th and early 20th century</title> <link rel="alternate" type="text/html" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Ethnographic_cartography_of_the_Balkans_in_the_late_19th_and_early_20th_century&diff=1255421737"/> <updated>2024-11-04T21:43:21Z</updated> <summary type="html">Βατο: clarification <hr /> <div> The [[decline of the Ottoman Empire]] in the late 19th century led to fierce territorial competition between the Greeks, Serbs, Bulgarians and Turks, in particular over the contested [[Macedonia (region)|region of Macedonia]]. As a result, a large number of maps attempting to depict the ethnic demographics of the Balkans were published at this time, particularly from 1876 onwards, following a Serb and Montenegrin uprising and the [[Russian-Turkish War (1877-1878)|Russo-Turkish War of 1877-1878]]. Maps were produced and used by the various sides to justify their claims. The phenomenon has been labelled as a &quot;map mania&quot;.{{sfn|Peckham|2000|pp=77–79}} Greeks, Serbs, and Bulgarians tended to manipulate and distort the maps, also relying on fake sources and modifying old data.{{sfn|Demeter|Bottlik|2021|pp=122–123}} The maps depicted ethnic groups as blocks of solid colors, obscured ethnic diversity, merged sub-groups into dominant ethnicities, and ignored population density. In order to provide an impression of uniformity and stability, substantial minorities (even up to 49 percent in some cases) and scattered communities were omitted; map's scale was adjusted according to the map's aim whether to include or exclude specific minorities.{{sfn|Peckham|2000|p=81}} The maps by [[Ami Boué]] and [[Guillaume Lejean]] were influential in the early period, and were generally favorable to the Bulgarians, but they greatly exaggerated Albanian presence towards the south, and their reputation suffered as a result.{{sfn|Demeter|Bottlik|2021|pp=56–71}} The 1876 map by [[Heinrich Kiepert]] was particularly influential and used at the Congress of Berlin. In response, three pro-Greek maps were generated due to Greek efforts (Stanford, Bianconi, Synvet), but these had little impact,{{sfn|Wilkinson|1951|pp=68074}} and no one outside Greece took them seriously.{{sfn|Heraclides|2020|p=22}} The standard Greek practice in all the maps it produced was to consider as [[Greeks]] not only the [[Greek language|Greek-speakers]], but also all the Christian [[Vlachs]] ([[Aromanians]] and [[Megleno-Romanians]]), the Christian [[Albanians]], and the Exarchist [[Southern Slavs|Slavs]], an approach rejected by international figures.{{sfn|Heraclides|2020|pp=21–22}} ==Maps== {| class=&quot;wikitable sortable&quot; border=&quot;1&quot; width=&quot;100%&quot; |+ |- ! scope=&quot;col&quot; class=unsortable width=100| Image ! scope=&quot;col&quot; width=20| Date ! scope=&quot;col&quot; width=50| [[Cartographer]] ! scope=&quot;col&quot; width=500| Comments |- | [[File:Ethnographic map Ami Boué, 1847.jpg|200px]] || 1847 || [[Ami Boué]] || The first map to show Slavic preponderance in the Balkans (until 1880). Among the maps' major mistakes are that it greatly exaggerated the southward presence of Albanians, while underrepresenting Ottomans and Muslims in Macedonia, Thrace, and northeastern Bulgaria, thereby ruining its reputation.&lt;ref&gt;{{harvnb|Demeter|Bottlik|2021|pp=56-57}}: &quot;It was Ami Boué, five years later, who drew the attention of the Western public opinion to the ethnic question and the Slavic predominance in the Balkans. In fact, the series of maps indicating Bulgarian predominance over the peninsula (a tendency remaining dominant until the 1880s) starts with Boué. Being a geologist (and not an ethnographer), he was among the first men trained for scientific fieldwork to explore the Balkan Peninsula in 1836–38. His attempt to separate Albanian tribes based on religion and dialects is remarkable, but his map contains major mistakes: the Albanian ethnos extends to the Bay of Arta in Greece, and the Ottomans are underrepresented in Macedonia. These mistakes ruined the reputation of the whole map. Compared to Šafarik's work, the map of Boué (published in 1847 in Berghaus's atlas) indicates fewer Greeks in Thrace and more Albanians in Kosovo and indicates the Vlachs separately in the Pindos Mountains. This map also underestimated the Turkish/Muslim presence in northeastern Bulgaria and in Thrace (App. 28). It is noteworthy that Boué was also supported by the Austrian government in his endeavour.&quot;&lt;/ref&gt; Boué was supported by the Austrian government and served Austrian imperial interests.{{sfn|Demeter|Bottlik|2021|p=131|ps=: &quot;Practically speaking, there is not much difference between the concept of Šafarik and Boué with the exception of their target groups. Both served Austrian imperial interests: the former advertised Austro-Yugoslavism for the inland (Slavs), while the latter was to disseminate this concept for the Western publicity, hiding imperial aspirations behind the sympathy towards the oppressed Slavs.&quot;}} |- | [[File:Balkans-ethnic (1861).jpg|200px]] || 1861 || [[Guillaume Lejean]] || The map further served to legitimize Bulgarian aspirations. Although it was the first map to rely on historical documents, it confused historical arguments with the contemporary situation, and secondly, incorrectly extended Albanian presence too far southwards.&lt;ref&gt;{{harvnb|Demeter|Bottlik|2021|pp=56-57}}: &quot;The map of Guillaume Lejean also served as a basis for the legitimization of Bulgarian aspirations (App. 30). Traveling the Ottoman Balkans in 1858–9, the consul pointed out in the introduction of his work (1861) that studying ethnographic relations is no longer an &quot;object of purely scientific curiosity&quot;, but a political issue as well, implicitly stating that science cannot remain neutral in its attitudes toward the national question. He separated himself from the previous ethnographers, claiming that language alone is not an adequate criterion for determining nationality in a region where &quot;religious hatred and political inequality&quot; overwrite original patterns, and people adopt languages that did not correspond to their &quot;race&quot;. Instead he advised the use of historical evidence to determine nationality. This is why he indicated small Serbian patches around Lake Ohrid, confirming their existence by using historical arguments (in the nineth century, the whole area as far as Durazzo was Slavic; a local saint – Jovan Vladislav of Duklja – was well-known to Serbs and was executed by a Bulgarian ruler in the 11th century; the neighbouring patriarchate of Ipek was a 'Serbian' one). Although he was the first to use historical documents to prove his statements, he committed two serious errors: he confused arguments from history with the contemporary situation; secondly, the southern limits of the Albanian nation were wrongly drawn.&quot;&lt;/ref&gt; |- | [[File:Ethnic map of Balkans - russian 1867.jpg|200px]] || 1867 || [[M. F. Mirkovich]] || Pro-Bulgarian map, which served as the basis of the Slavic Congress of 1867. It expanded the boundaries of the Bulgarian nation past Adrianople, and following Boué's map, also greatly exaggerated Albanian presence west of the Pindus, extending it down to the Gulf of Corinth. As a result, the map's reputation suffered and it was labeled unreliable with regards to the rest of its content.{{sfn|Demeter|Bottlik|2021|p=71|ps=: &quot;Another Slavist, the Russian L. F. Mirkovič, had one innovation (App. 25): the Muslim zone in northeastern Bulgaria, formerly indicated as a homogeneous patch, was dismembered and depicted as a mixed region using the technique of cross-hatching (in one of its earliest implementations). Furthermore, he expanded the boundaries of the Bulgarian nation in Thrace beyond Adrianople. In this way the Slavic preponderance on the peninsula became more obvious. This was another Bulgarophile map, serving as the basis of the Slavic Congress in 1867, and it was later sharply criticised by Cvijić because it depicted an unfavourable situation for the Serbs. Unfortunately, Mirkovič accepted Boué's idea that Albanians are abundant west of the Pindos Mountains down to the Gulf of Arta, for which the whole map was also labelled 'unreliable' in regard to its other content and ethnic boundaries.&quot;}} |- | [[File:Ethnic map of Balkans - german 1876.jpg|200px]] || 1876 || [[Heinrich Kiepert]] || Kiepert was considered the foremost cartographer of his day, particularly by Bismarck, and his map was used at the 1876 [[Congress of Berlin]].{{sfn|Wilkinson|1951|pp=68-69}} |- | [[File:Balkans-ethnic (1877).jpg|200px]] || 1877 || [[Alexandre Synvet]] || Pro-Greek map. Southern Albanians are not depicted as &quot;Albanians&quot;, but as &quot;Greeks&quot; and &quot;Muslims&quot;. The coast of the Black sea is indicated as &quot;Greek&quot;. The map's coloring with thick and dense cross-hatching makes it more or less useless.{{sfn|Demeter|Bottlik|2021|pp=86–89}} |- | [[File:Ethnographic map of European Turkey from 1877 by Carl Sax.jpg|200px]] || 1877 || [[Carl Sax]] || Former Austrian consul working for Austrian interests. His map undermined Slavic presence and also attempted to show the complexity of the demographics of Macedonia. The map was generally well-received.{{sfn|Wilkinson|1951|pp=76-82}} |- | [[File:Edward Stanford 1877.jpg|200px]] || 1877 || [[Ioannis Gennadios]], prepared at [[Stanfords]] Geographical Establishment || Extreme pro-Greek map, which covers most of the Balkan peninsula with the color associated with the Greeks. Cartographers [[Carl Sax|Sax]] and [[Heinrich Kiepert|Kiepert]] 'dismissed the map as utter nonsense'.{{sfn|Heraclides|2020|p=22}} |- | [[File:Ethnic map of Balkans Kiepert.1878.png|200px]] || 1878 || [[Constantine Paparrigopoulos]] || Extreme pro-Greek map, falsely attributed to [[Heinrich Kiepert]] who publicly disclaimed it.{{sfn|Heraclides|2020|p=22}}{{sfn|Yosmaoǧlu|2010|pp=171, 175–179}} |- | [[File:Ernst-Ravenstein-Balkans-Ethnic-Map-1880.jpg|200px]] || 1880 || [[Ernst Georg Ravenstein]] || |- | [[File:Andree64-1.jpg|200px]] || 1881 || Andrees Allgemeiner Handatlas || |- | [[File:Ethnographic map of the South Balkans, Pallas Nagy Lexikon, 1897.jpg|200px]] || 1897 || Pallas Nagy Lexikon || |- | [[File:Balkans-ethnique.JPG|200px]] || 1898 || [[Paul Vidal de la Blache]] || |- | [[File:The Balkan Peninsula, Distribution of Races. EB 1911.png|200px]] || 1911 || Encyclopædia Britannica, 1911 || |- | [[File:The Historical Atlas, 1911 – Distribution of Races in the Balkan Peninsula and Asia Minor.jpg|200px]] || 1911 || William Robert Shepherd|| |- | [[File:Ethnographic Map of Central and South Eastern Europe.jpg|200px]] || 1916 || War Office, London || |- | [[File:Cvijic, Jovan - Breisemeister, William A. - Carte ethnographique de la Péninsule balkanique (pd).jpg|200px]] || 1918 || [[Jovan Cvijić]] || Pro-Serbian map.{{sfn|Peckham|2000|p=80}} |- | [[File:Macedonians on a french.rev.jpg|200px]] || 1918 || Jovan Cvijić || Pro-Serbian map.{{sfn|Peckham|2000|p=80}} |- | [[File:Hellenism in the Near East 1918.jpg|200px]] || 1918 || George Soteiriades || Pro-Greek map. Less extreme than the previous Greek maps, but continuing the Greek approach that considered Vlachs ([[Aromanians]] and [[Megleno-Romanians]]), Christian Albanians, and Patriarchate Bulgarians as Greeks, although acknowledging the existence of &quot;Macedonoslavs&quot;. It was presented at the Paris conference of 1918 and represented the more realistic approach of [[Eleftherios Venizelos]].{{sfn|Heraclides|2020|p=31}} |- | [[File:Distribution Of Races 1918 National Geographic.jpg|200px]] || 1918 || National Georgaphic Society || |- | [[File:Macedonians coloured on this map from 1922.jpg|200px]] || 1922 || J. N. Larned et al. || |- | [[File:Ethnographic Map of the Balkans (1912-1918) - Historische alte Landkarte (Sammlerstück) von 1924.jpg|200px]] || 1924 || Unknown author - Historische alte Landkarte (Sammlerstück) 1924 || |- | [[File:Mitteleuropa (ethnische Karte) 1932.jpg|200px]] || 1932 || Der Grosse Herder Atlas|| |- |} ==References== {{reflist}} ==Bibliography== *{{cite book|last1=Demeter|first1=Gábor|last2=Bottlik|first2=Zsolt|title=Maps in the Service of the Nation: The Role of Ethnic Mapping in Nation-Building and Its Influence on Political Decision-Making Across the Balkan Peninsula (1840–1914)|location=Berlin|publisher=Frank &amp; Timme|year=2021|isbn=9783732906659|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=0L5HEAAAQBAJ}} *{{cite book|last=Heraclides|first=Alexis|title=The Macedonian Question and the Macedonians: A History|publisher=Routledge|year=2020|series=Routledge Histories of Central and Eastern Europe|isbn=9781000289404|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=TWYHEAAAQBAJ}} *{{cite journal|last=Peckham|first=Robert Shannan|title=Map mania: nationalism and the politics of place in Greece, 1870–1922|journal=Political Geography|volume=19|year=2000|pages=77–95|doi=10.1016/S0962-6298(99)00036-0 |url=http://www.arts.yorku.ca/hist/tgallant/documents/peckhammapmania_000.pdf|url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090205233122/http://arts.yorku.ca/hist/tgallant/documents/peckhammapmania_000.pdf |archive-date=5 February 2009}} *{{cite book | last=Wilkinson | first=H.R. | date=1951 | title=Maps and Politics; a review of the ethnographic cartography of Macedonia | publisher=Liverpool University Press | pages=68–74}} *{{cite book|last=Yosmaoǧlu|first=I. K.|editor-last=Zartman|editor-first=I. William|chapter=Constructing national identity in Ottoman Macedonia|title=Understanding Life in the Borderlands: Boundaries in Depth and in Motion|publisher=University of Georgia Press|year=2010|isbn=9780820336145|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=kEyinJwjWIgC|chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=kEyinJwjWIgC&amp;pg=PA160}} {{cartography-stub}} [[Category:Cartography]] [[Category:History of the Ottoman Empire in Europe]] [[Category:Modern history of the Balkans]] [[Category:Nationalism]] [[Category:Propaganda]]</div></summary> <author><name>Βατο</name></author> </entry> <entry> <id>https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Talk:Macedonia_(region)&diff=1255419296</id> <title>Talk:Macedonia (region)</title> <link rel="alternate" type="text/html" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Talk:Macedonia_(region)&diff=1255419296"/> <updated>2024-11-04T21:28:59Z</updated> <summary type="html">Βατο: <hr /> <div>{{Talk header}} {{WikiProject banner shell|class=B|1= {{WikiProject Greece|importance=High|topic=Geo|byzantine-task-force=yes}} {{WikiProject North Macedonia|importance=High|1=}} {{WikiProject Bulgaria|importance=High}} {{WikiProject Albania|importance=Mid}} {{WikiProject Kosovo|importance=Low}} {{WikiProject Geography|importance=Low}} {{WikiProject Classical Greece and Rome|importance=mid}} {{WikiProject European history|importance=Low}} {{WikiProject Serbia |importance=Low}} }} {{old move|date=14 June 2021|destination=Macedonia|result=not moved|link=Special:Permalink/1028877835#Requested move 14 June 2021}} {{User:ClueBot III/ArchiveThis |archiveprefix=Talk:Macedonia (region)/Archive |format= %%i |age=2160|&lt;!--90 days--&gt; |header={{automatic archive navigator}} |maxarchsize=100000 |minkeepthreads=4 |numberstart=4 |archivebox=yes |box-advert=yes }} == there's no such country as republic of macedonia == there's no such country as republic of macedonia &lt;!-- Template:Unsigned IP --&gt;&lt;small class=&quot;autosigned&quot;&gt;—&amp;nbsp;Preceding [[Wikipedia:Signatures|unsigned]] comment added by [[Special:Contributions/46.176.141.43|46.176.141.43]] ([[User talk:46.176.141.43#top|talk]]) 02:55, 26 June 2022 (UTC)&lt;/small&gt; &lt;!--Autosigned by SineBot--&gt; == Semi-protected edit request on 4 August 2022 == {{Edit semi-protected|Macedonia (region)|answered=yes}} [[Special:Contributions/89.19.89.11|89.19.89.11]] ([[User talk:89.19.89.11|talk]]) 16:49, 4 August 2022 (UTC) Philip II was an impressive military man in his own right. He turned Macedonia (a region on the northern part of the Greek peninsula) into a force to be reckoned with, and he fantasized about conquering the massive Persian Empire. There are no Byzantine records of &quot;Sklaviniai&quot; after 836/837 as they were absorbed into the expanding First Bulgarian Empire. Slavic influence in the region strengthened along with the rise of this state, which incorporated parts of the region to its domain in 837. In the early 860s Saints Cyril and Methodius, two Byzantine Greek brothers from Thessaloniki, created the first Slavic Glagolitic alphabet in which the Old Church Slavonic language was first transcribed, and are thus commonly referred to as the apostles of the Slavic world. Their cultural heritage was acquired and developed in medieval Bulgaria, where after 885 the region of Ohrid (present-day Republic of North Macedonia) became a significant ecclesiastical center with the nomination of the Saint Clement of Ohrid for &quot;first archbishop in Bulgarian language&quot; with residence in this region. In conjunction with another disciple of Saints Cyril and Methodius, Saint Naum, Clement created a flourishing Slavic cultural center around Ohrid, where pupils were taught theology in the Old Church Slavonic language and the Glagolitic and Cyrillic script at what is now called Ohrid Literary School. The Bulgarian-Byzantine boundary in the beginning of 10th century passed approximately 20 km (12 mi) north of Thessaloniki according to the inscription of Narash. According to the Byzantine author John Kaminiates, at that time the neighbouring settlements around Thessaloniki were inhabited by &quot;Scythians&quot; (Bulgarians) and the Slavic tribes of Drugubites and Sagudates, in addition to Greeks. At the end of the 10th century, what is now the Republic of North Macedonia became the political and cultural heartland of the First Bulgarian Empire, after Byzantine emperors John I Tzimiskes conquered the eastern part of the Bulgarian state during the Rus'–Byzantine War of 970–971. The Bulgarian capital Preslav and the Bulgarian Tsar Boris II were captured, and with the deposition of the Bulgarian regalia in the Hagia Sophia, Bulgaria was officially annexed to Byzantium. A new capital was established at Ohrid, which also became the seat of the Bulgarian Patriarchate. A new dynasty, that of the Comitopuli under Tsar Samuil and his successors, continued resistance against the Byzantines for several more decades, before also succumbing in 1018. The western part of Bulgaria including Macedonia was incorporated into the Byzantine Empire as the province of Bulgaria (Theme of Bulgaria) and the Bulgarian Patriarchate was reduced in rank to an Archbishopric. Intermittent Bulgarian uprisings continued to occur, often with the support of the Serbian princedoms to the north. Any temporary independence that might have been gained was usually crushed swiftly by the Byzantines. It was also marked by periods of war between the Normans and Byzantium. The Normans launched offensives from their lands acquired in southern Italy, and temporarily gained rule over small areas in the northwestern coast. At the end of the 12th century, some northern parts of Macedonia were temporarily conquered by Stefan Nemanja of Serbia. In the 13th century, following the Fourth Crusade, Macedonia was disputed among Byzantine Greeks, Latin crusaders of the short-lived Kingdom of Thessalonica, and the revived Bulgarian state. Most of southern Macedonia was secured by the Despotate of Epirus and then by the Empire of Nicaea, while the north was ruled by Bulgaria :[[File:Red question icon with gradient background.svg|20px|link=|alt=]] '''Not done:''' it's not clear what changes you want to be made. Please mention the specific changes in a [[WP:EDITXY|&quot;change X to Y&quot; format]] and provide a [[Wikipedia:Reliable sources|reliable source]] if appropriate.&lt;!-- Template:ESp --&gt; [[User:ScottishFinnishRadish|ScottishFinnishRadish]] ([[User talk:ScottishFinnishRadish|talk]]) 16:53, 4 August 2022 (UTC) == Semi-protected edit request on 2 February 2023 == {{edit semi-protected|Macedonia (region)|answered=yes}} Hello, Wikipedia. I want to correct some facts in this article, that are not true. That's why i request for an Edit allowance [[User:Mr3xc|Mr3xc]] ([[User talk:Mr3xc|talk]]) 17:58, 2 February 2023 (UTC) :{{ping|Mr3xc}} You have misunderstood article protection. You will get [[wp:autoconfirmed|autoconfirmed]] rights after 4 days on your account if you have made at least 10 edits. This will allow you to edit [[wp:semi-protected|semi-protected]] articles such as this one. In the meantime, please describe the errors you have seen in the article so that another user can correct them. [[User:SmallJarsWithGreenLabels|small jars]] &lt;small&gt;&lt;code&gt;[[User talk:SmallJarsWithGreenLabels|&lt;b style=&quot;color:#270&quot;&gt;t&lt;/b&gt;]][[special:contributions/SmallJarsWithGreenLabels|&lt;b style=&quot;color:#270&quot;&gt;c&lt;/b&gt;]]&lt;/code&gt;&lt;/small&gt; 23:03, 2 February 2023 (UTC) :[[File:Red question icon with gradient background.svg|20px|link=|alt=]] '''Not done:''' it's not clear what changes you want to be made. Please mention the specific changes in a [[WP:EDITXY|&quot;change X to Y&quot; format]] and provide a [[Wikipedia:Reliable sources|reliable source]] if appropriate.&lt;!-- Template:ESp --&gt; [[User:Lemonaka|Lemonaka]] ([[User talk:Lemonaka|talk]]) 10:37, 3 February 2023 (UTC) == Pov map == [[User:StephenMacky1]] [https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Macedonia_(region)&amp;diff=prev&amp;oldid=1254747442 the map here] is of Konstantinos Paparigopoulos not of Kiepert. See here [https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Ethnic_map_of_Balkans_Kiepert.1878.png summary] [[Special:Contributions/77.49.98.69|77.49.98.69]] ([[User talk:77.49.98.69|talk]]) 01:57, 3 November 2024 (UTC) :All right. Tagging [[User:Βατο|Βατο]] as the one who made the changes on Commons and [[User:Greek Rebel|Greek Rebel]], who added the map in this article. If you all can, discuss the issue here. [[User:StephenMacky1|StephenMacky1]] ([[User talk:StephenMacky1|talk]]) 08:54, 3 November 2024 (UTC) ::{{reply|StephenMacky1}} thanks for the tag, [[User:Greek Rebel]] just made an inaccurate POV addition: it is not by Kiepert, and it is a hugely erroneous and problematic old map produced by the [[Ethnographic cartography of the Balkans in the late 19th and early 20th century|19th century 'map mania']]. – [[User:Βατο|Βατο]] ([[User talk:Βατο|talk]]) 09:34, 3 November 2024 (UTC) :::@[[User:StephenMacky1|StephenMacky1]], @[[User:Βατο|Βατο]], I thought it was Kiepert, I did not saw that the map was not made by him. [[User:Greek Rebel|Greek Rebel]] ([[User talk:Greek Rebel|talk]]) 11:37, 3 November 2024 (UTC) :::Ιn fact, it is Kiepert's only one that was made under the insistent suggestions of Paparrigopoulos and expresses the Greek view on the subject. :::&quot;...Paparrigopoulos' pressure on Kiepert, as documented in their correspondence, resulted in the relatively favourable for Greece 'ethnocratic' map entitled Table of Greek Countries with the Adjacent Albanian, Slavic and Romanian Countries, which also depicts Cyprus and will be published in Berlin in 1878. This map is in fact a revision of a slightly earlier 'ethnographic' map with an opposite content for Greek interests....&quot; https://cartography.web.auth.gr/Livieratos/EL/Livieratos_Volos_1881.pdf pages 8-9 (el) [[Special:Contributions/77.49.98.69|77.49.98.69]] ([[User talk:77.49.98.69|talk]]) 18:26, 4 November 2024 (UTC) ::::It is not by Kiepert, the coloring of the map was made by Greek scholar [[Constantine Paparrigopoulos]], who falsely attributed it to Kiepert. ::::{{cite book|last=Yosmaoǧlu|first=I. K.|editor-last=Zartman|editor-first=I. William|chapter=Constructing national identity in Ottoman Macedonia|title=Understanding Life in the Borderlands: Boundaries in Depth and in Motion|publisher=University of Georgia Press|year=2010|isbn=9780820336145|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=kEyinJwjWIgC|chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=kEyinJwjWIgC&amp;pg=PA160}} pp. 177–178: ::::{{tquote|Paparrigopoulos's talent in manipulating ethnographic maps surpassed that of Gennadius because he did not only deploy that map as an apparatus of power, a visual tool with which the Greek nation's rights over an expanse Pf territory was asserted. He also highlighted the subjectivity of the whole pro- cess and questioned the authority of ethnographical maps in principle. The lit-eral issue of authorship was the most important symbolic element of the map, communicating to the public the scientific authority embodied in the geogra- pher's name. Gennadius had claimed that authority by remaining anonymous and giving the impression that the map was prepared by a British author.20 By contrast, Paparrigopoulos usurped the already existing and unquestionable au- thority of Kiepert by making sure that his name was the only one to be printed on the map and the text that accompanied it (written, however, by Paparri- gopoulos himself), deliberately misleading the reader. The result was so con-vincing that even the otherwise meticulous and thorough Wilkinson did not doubt its authenticity when he wrote: &quot;In the explanation accompanying the map Kiepert outlined the difficulties inherent in the production of an eth-nographic map and he maintained that the use of such maps for drawing up political boundaries was a malpractice which no geographer ought to counte-nance&quot; (1951, 75)'.}} ::::{{cite book|last=Heraclides|first=Alexis|title=The Macedonian Question and the Macedonians: A History|publisher=Routledge|year=2020|series=Routledge Histories of Central and Eastern Europe|isbn=9781000289404|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=TWYHEAAAQBAJ}} p. 22: ::::{{tquote|Greek 'map mania'17 persisted with a more ambitious scheme. The Greek for- eign ministry engaged the national historian, Papamgopoulos, who was then at the apex of his prestige in Greece and in European academic circles. He was called upon 'to convince the European community of the righteousness of the Greek claims with scientific arguments to the degree possible bearing on real- ity'. 18 Paparrigopoulos came up with a device intended to bypass the well-known hurdle (known to the Greek Government and elite) of the Greeks not being the majority in Macedonia. He dubbed it an 'ethnocentric map' that was to present the future likely limits of the Balkan states, the main criterion being what was called the 'excelling race', that is which nation was considered prevailing culturally, educationally and economically in the region. To see this through, Paparrigopou-los corresponded repeatedly with Kiepert and met him at least twice in Berlin. 19 The outcome was indeed an ethnocentric map, which presented a future Greek state taking almost the whole of Macedonia and half the lands inhabited by the Albanians on the Adriatic coast.20 A reluctant Kiepert seemed to go along and the map produced in 1878 bears his name, but a bit later he disclaimed it (with a letter made public). And in 1882, Kiepert produced another map, in which the Greek presence is very limited and the majority only in Chalkidiki, but he compensated by showing overwhelming Greek presence in the southern Albanian inhabited ter- ritory (which was hardly the case).21}} ::::It cannot have been otherwise, because this is one of the worst maps published during the 19th century 'map mania', and Kiepert would not have lost his reputation publishing such work as its author. ::::Nevertheless, adding such an erroneous map obviously for POV pushing purposes is not an improvement to the article, and we should avoid wasting our time for such things. – [[User:Βατο|Βατο]] ([[User talk:Βατο|talk]]) 21:28, 4 November 2024 (UTC)</div></summary> <author><name>Βατο</name></author> </entry> <entry> <id>https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Ethnographic_cartography_of_the_Balkans_in_the_late_19th_and_early_20th_century&diff=1255417135</id> <title>Ethnographic cartography of the Balkans in the late 19th and early 20th century</title> <link rel="alternate" type="text/html" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Ethnographic_cartography_of_the_Balkans_in_the_late_19th_and_early_20th_century&diff=1255417135"/> <updated>2024-11-04T21:18:05Z</updated> <summary type="html">Βατο: rv disruptive editing, check the sources accurately <hr /> <div> The [[decline of the Ottoman Empire]] in the late 19th century led to fierce territorial competition between the Greeks, Serbs, Bulgarians and Turks, in particular over the contested [[Macedonia (region)|region of Macedonia]]. As a result, a large number of maps attempting to depict the ethnic demographics of the Balkans were published at this time, particularly from 1876 onwards, following a Serb and Montenegrin uprising and the [[Russian-Turkish War (1877-1878)|Russo-Turkish War of 1877-1878]]. Maps were produced and used by the various sides to justify their claims. The phenomenon has been labelled as a &quot;map mania&quot;.{{sfn|Peckham|2000|pp=77–79}} Greeks, Serbs, and Bulgarians tended to manipulate and distort the maps, also relying on fake sources and modifying old data.{{sfn|Demeter|Bottlik|2021|pp=122–123}} The maps depicted ethnic groups as blocks of solid colors, obscured ethnic diversity, merged sub-groups into dominant ethnicities, and ignored population density. In order to provide an impression of uniformity and stability, substantial minorities (even up to 49 percent in some cases) and scattered communities were omitted; map's scale was adjusted according to the map's aim whether to include or exclude specific minorities.{{sfn|Peckham|2000|p=81}} The maps by [[Ami Boué]] and [[Guillaume Lejean]] were influential in the early period, and were generally favorable to the Bulgarians, but they greatly exaggerated Albanian presence towards the south, and their reputation suffered as a result.{{sfn|Demeter|Bottlik|2021|pp=56–71}} The 1876 map by [[Heinrich Kiepert]] was particularly influential and used at the Congress of Berlin. In response, three pro-Greek maps were generated due to Greek efforts (Stanford, Bianconi, Synvet), but these had little impact,{{sfn|Wilkinson|1951|pp=68074}} and no one outside Greece took them seriously.{{sfn|Heraclides|2020|p=22}} The standard Greek practice in all the maps it produced was to consider as [[Greeks]] not only the [[Greek language|Greek-speakers]], but also all the Christian [[Vlachs]] ([[Aromanians]] and [[Megleno-Romanians]]), the Christian [[Albanians]], and the Exarchist [[Southern Slavs|Slavs]], an approach rejected by international figures.{{sfn|Heraclides|2020|pp=21–22}} ==Maps== {| class=&quot;wikitable sortable&quot; border=&quot;1&quot; width=&quot;100%&quot; |+ |- ! scope=&quot;col&quot; class=unsortable width=100| Image ! scope=&quot;col&quot; width=20| Date ! scope=&quot;col&quot; width=50| [[Cartographer]] ! scope=&quot;col&quot; width=500| Comments |- | [[File:Ethnographic map Ami Boué, 1847.jpg|200px]] || 1847 || [[Ami Boué]] || The first map to show Slavic preponderance in the Balkans (until 1880). Among the maps' major mistakes are that it greatly exaggerated the southward presence of Albanians, while underrepresenting Ottomans and Muslims in Macedonia, Thrace, and northeastern Bulgaria, thereby ruining its reputation.&lt;ref&gt;{{harvnb|Demeter|Bottlik|2021|pp=56-57}}: &quot;It was Ami Boué, five years later, who drew the attention of the Western public opinion to the ethnic question and the Slavic predominance in the Balkans. In fact, the series of maps indicating Bulgarian predominance over the peninsula (a tendency remaining dominant until the 1880s) starts with Boué. Being a geologist (and not an ethnographer), he was among the first men trained for scientific fieldwork to explore the Balkan Peninsula in 1836–38. His attempt to separate Albanian tribes based on religion and dialects is remarkable, but his map contains major mistakes: the Albanian ethnos extends to the Bay of Arta in Greece, and the Ottomans are underrepresented in Macedonia. These mistakes ruined the reputation of the whole map. Compared to Šafarik's work, the map of Boué (published in 1847 in Berghaus's atlas) indicates fewer Greeks in Thrace and more Albanians in Kosovo and indicates the Vlachs separately in the Pindos Mountains. This map also underestimated the Turkish/Muslim presence in northeastern Bulgaria and in Thrace (App. 28). It is noteworthy that Boué was also supported by the Austrian government in his endeavour.&quot;&lt;/ref&gt; Boué was supported by the Austrian government and served Austrian imperial interests.{{sfn|Demeter|Bottlik|2021|p=131|ps=: &quot;Practically speaking, there is not much difference between the concept of Šafarik and Boué with the exception of their target groups. Both served Austrian imperial interests: the former advertised Austro-Yugoslavism for the inland (Slavs), while the latter was to disseminate this concept for the Western publicity, hiding imperial aspirations behind the sympathy towards the oppressed Slavs.&quot;}} |- | [[File:Balkans-ethnic (1861).jpg|200px]] || 1861 || [[Guillaume Lejean]] || The map further served to legitimize Bulgarian aspirations. Although it was the first map to rely on historical documents, it confused historical arguments with the contemporary situation, and secondly, incorrectly extended Albanian presence too far southwards.&lt;ref&gt;{{harvnb|Demeter|Bottlik|2021|pp=56-57}}: &quot;The map of Guillaume Lejean also served as a basis for the legitimization of Bulgarian aspirations (App. 30). Traveling the Ottoman Balkans in 1858–9, the consul pointed out in the introduction of his work (1861) that studying ethnographic relations is no longer an &quot;object of purely scientific curiosity&quot;, but a political issue as well, implicitly stating that science cannot remain neutral in its attitudes toward the national question. He separated himself from the previous ethnographers, claiming that language alone is not an adequate criterion for determining nationality in a region where &quot;religious hatred and political inequality&quot; overwrite original patterns, and people adopt languages that did not correspond to their &quot;race&quot;. Instead he advised the use of historical evidence to determine nationality. This is why he indicated small Serbian patches around Lake Ohrid, confirming their existence by using historical arguments (in the nineth century, the whole area as far as Durazzo was Slavic; a local saint – Jovan Vladislav of Duklja – was well-known to Serbs and was executed by a Bulgarian ruler in the 11th century; the neighbouring patriarchate of Ipek was a 'Serbian' one). Although he was the first to use historical documents to prove his statements, he committed two serious errors: he confused arguments from history with the contemporary situation; secondly, the southern limits of the Albanian nation were wrongly drawn.&quot;&lt;/ref&gt; |- | [[File:Ethnic map of Balkans - russian 1867.jpg|200px]] || 1867 || [[M. F. Mirkovich]] || Pro-Bulgarian map, which served as the basis of the Slavic Congress of 1867. It expanded the boundaries of the Bulgarian nation past Adrianople, and following Boué's map, also greatly exaggerated Albanian presence west of the Pindus, extending it down to the Gulf of Corinth. As a result, the map's reputation suffered and it was labeled unreliable with regards to the rest of its content.{{sfn|Demeter|Bottlik|2021|p=71|ps=: &quot;Another Slavist, the Russian L. F. Mirkovič, had one innovation (App. 25): the Muslim zone in northeastern Bulgaria, formerly indicated as a homogeneous patch, was dismembered and depicted as a mixed region using the technique of cross-hatching (in one of its earliest implementations). Furthermore, he expanded the boundaries of the Bulgarian nation in Thrace beyond Adrianople. In this way the Slavic preponderance on the peninsula became more obvious. This was another Bulgarophile map, serving as the basis of the Slavic Congress in 1867, and it was later sharply criticised by Cvijić because it depicted an unfavourable situation for the Serbs. Unfortunately, Mirkovič accepted Boué's idea that Albanians are abundant west of the Pindos Mountains down to the Gulf of Arta, for which the whole map was also labelled 'unreliable' in regard to its other content and ethnic boundaries.&quot;}} |- | [[File:Ethnic map of Balkans - german 1876.jpg|200px]] || 1876 || [[Heinrich Kiepert]] || Kiepert was considered the foremost cartographer of his day, particularly by Bismarck, and his map was used at the 1876 [[Congress of Berlin]].{{sfn|Wilkinson|1951|pp=68-69}} |- | [[File:Balkans-ethnic (1877).jpg|200px]] || 1877 || [[Alexandre Synvet]] || Pro-Greek map. Southern Albanians are not depicted as &quot;Albanians&quot;, but as &quot;Greeks&quot; and &quot;Muslims&quot;. The coast of the Black sea is indicated as &quot;Greek&quot;. The map's coloring with thick and dense cross-hatching makes it more or less useless.{{sfn|Demeter|Bottlik|2021|pp=86–89}} |- | [[File:Ethnographic map of European Turkey from 1877 by Carl Sax.jpg|200px]] || 1877 || [[Carl Sax]] || Former Austrian consul working for Austrian interests. His map undermined Slavic presence and also attempted to show the complexity of the demographics of Macedonia. The map was generally well-received.{{sfn|Wilkinson|1951|pp=76-82}} |- | [[File:Edward Stanford 1877.jpg|200px]] || 1877 || [[Ioannis Gennadios]] || Extreme pro-Greek map, which covers most of the Balkan peninsula with the color associated with the Greeks. Cartographers [[Carl Sax|Sax]] and [[Heinrich Kiepert|Kiepert]] 'dismissed the map as utter nonsense'.{{sfn|Heraclides|2020|p=22}} |- | [[File:Ethnic map of Balkans Kiepert.1878.png|200px]] || 1878 || [[Constantine Paparrigopoulos]] || Extreme pro-Greek map, falsely attributed to [[Heinrich Kiepert]] who publicly disclaimed it.{{sfn|Heraclides|2020|p=22}}{{sfn|Yosmaoǧlu|2010|pp=171, 175–179}} |- | [[File:Ernst-Ravenstein-Balkans-Ethnic-Map-1880.jpg|200px]] || 1880 || [[Ernst Georg Ravenstein]] || |- | [[File:Andree64-1.jpg|200px]] || 1881 || Andrees Allgemeiner Handatlas || |- | [[File:Ethnographic map of the South Balkans, Pallas Nagy Lexikon, 1897.jpg|200px]] || 1897 || Pallas Nagy Lexikon || |- | [[File:Balkans-ethnique.JPG|200px]] || 1898 || [[Paul Vidal de la Blache]] || |- | [[File:The Balkan Peninsula, Distribution of Races. EB 1911.png|200px]] || 1911 || Encyclopædia Britannica, 1911 || |- | [[File:The Historical Atlas, 1911 – Distribution of Races in the Balkan Peninsula and Asia Minor.jpg|200px]] || 1911 || William Robert Shepherd|| |- | [[File:Ethnographic Map of Central and South Eastern Europe.jpg|200px]] || 1916 || War Office, London || |- | [[File:Cvijic, Jovan - Breisemeister, William A. - Carte ethnographique de la Péninsule balkanique (pd).jpg|200px]] || 1918 || [[Jovan Cvijić]] || Pro-Serbian map.{{sfn|Peckham|2000|p=80}} |- | [[File:Macedonians on a french.rev.jpg|200px]] || 1918 || Jovan Cvijić || Pro-Serbian map.{{sfn|Peckham|2000|p=80}} |- | [[File:Hellenism in the Near East 1918.jpg|200px]] || 1918 || George Soteiriades || Pro-Greek map. Less extreme than the previous Greek maps, but continuing the Greek approach that considered Vlachs ([[Aromanians]] and [[Megleno-Romanians]]), Christian Albanians, and Patriarchate Bulgarians as Greeks, although acknowledging the existence of &quot;Macedonoslavs&quot;. It was presented at the Paris conference of 1918 and represented the more realistic approach of [[Eleftherios Venizelos]].{{sfn|Heraclides|2020|p=31}} |- | [[File:Distribution Of Races 1918 National Geographic.jpg|200px]] || 1918 || National Georgaphic Society || |- | [[File:Macedonians coloured on this map from 1922.jpg|200px]] || 1922 || J. N. Larned et al. || |- | [[File:Ethnographic Map of the Balkans (1912-1918) - Historische alte Landkarte (Sammlerstück) von 1924.jpg|200px]] || 1924 || Unknown author - Historische alte Landkarte (Sammlerstück) 1924 || |- | [[File:Mitteleuropa (ethnische Karte) 1932.jpg|200px]] || 1932 || Der Grosse Herder Atlas|| |- |} ==References== {{reflist}} ==Bibliography== *{{cite book|last1=Demeter|first1=Gábor|last2=Bottlik|first2=Zsolt|title=Maps in the Service of the Nation: The Role of Ethnic Mapping in Nation-Building and Its Influence on Political Decision-Making Across the Balkan Peninsula (1840–1914)|location=Berlin|publisher=Frank &amp; Timme|year=2021|isbn=9783732906659|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=0L5HEAAAQBAJ}} *{{cite book|last=Heraclides|first=Alexis|title=The Macedonian Question and the Macedonians: A History|publisher=Routledge|year=2020|series=Routledge Histories of Central and Eastern Europe|isbn=9781000289404|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=TWYHEAAAQBAJ}} *{{cite journal|last=Peckham|first=Robert Shannan|title=Map mania: nationalism and the politics of place in Greece, 1870–1922|journal=Political Geography|volume=19|year=2000|pages=77–95|doi=10.1016/S0962-6298(99)00036-0 |url=http://www.arts.yorku.ca/hist/tgallant/documents/peckhammapmania_000.pdf|url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090205233122/http://arts.yorku.ca/hist/tgallant/documents/peckhammapmania_000.pdf |archive-date=5 February 2009}} *{{cite book | last=Wilkinson | first=H.R. | date=1951 | title=Maps and Politics; a review of the ethnographic cartography of Macedonia | publisher=Liverpool University Press | pages=68–74}} *{{cite book|last=Yosmaoǧlu|first=I. K.|editor-last=Zartman|editor-first=I. William|chapter=Constructing national identity in Ottoman Macedonia|title=Understanding Life in the Borderlands: Boundaries in Depth and in Motion|publisher=University of Georgia Press|year=2010|isbn=9780820336145|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=kEyinJwjWIgC|chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=kEyinJwjWIgC&amp;pg=PA160}} {{cartography-stub}} [[Category:Cartography]] [[Category:History of the Ottoman Empire in Europe]] [[Category:Modern history of the Balkans]] [[Category:Nationalism]] [[Category:Propaganda]]</div></summary> <author><name>Βατο</name></author> </entry> <entry> <id>https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Ghegs&diff=1255372403</id> <title>Ghegs</title> <link rel="alternate" type="text/html" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Ghegs&diff=1255372403"/> <updated>2024-11-04T16:26:57Z</updated> <summary type="html">Βατο: rv IP, original research <hr /> <div>{{Short description|Linguistic subgroup of Albanians}} {{Infobox ethnic group | image = Prek Pjeter Cali.jpg | caption = [[Prek Cali]], Gheg tribal leader of the [[Kelmendi (tribe)|Kelmendi]] | group = Ghegs | native_name = Gegët | population = Unknown | popplace = [[Northern Albania]] (''Ghegeria''), [[Kosovo]], [[North Macedonia]], [[Montenegro]] | langs = [[Gheg Albanian]] | rels = [[File:Star and Crescent.svg|15px]] [[Islam]]&lt;br&gt;[[Sunni Islam|Sunni]]{{Small|{{efn|[[Sunni Islam]] is the largest denomination of the Albanian people in Albania, Kosovo, Montenegro and North Macedonia.}}}}&lt;br&gt; [[File:Christian cross.svg|15px]] [[Christianity]]&lt;br&gt;[[Catholic Church|Catholicism]]{{Small|{{efn|[[Roman Catholicism]] (both Latin and Greek-Byzantine rites) is the largest Christian denomination of the Albanian people in northern Albania, [[Arbanasi people|Croatia]].}}}} | related_groups = [[Arbanasi people]], [[Kosovo Albanians]] etc. }} {{Use dmy dates|date=August 2016}} The '''Ghegs''' (also spelled as '''Gegs'''; {{langx|sq|Gegët}}) are one of two major ethnic subgroups of [[Albanians]] (the other being the [[Tosks]]).&lt;ref name=&quot;Eberhardt2003&quot;&gt;{{Cite book |last=Piotr Eberhardt |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=jLfX1q3kJzgC&amp;pg=PA433 |title=Ethnic Groups and Population Changes in Twentieth-century Central-Eastern Europe: History, Data, and Analysis |date=January 2003 |publisher=M.E. Sharpe |isbn=978-0-7656-1833-7 |page=433 |quote=The Albanians comprise two ethnic subgroups: the Ghegs, who generally occupy the area north of the Shkumbin river; and the Tosks, most of whom live south of the river. |access-date=13 July 2013}}&lt;/ref&gt; They are differentiated by minor [[Culture|cultural]], [[Albanian dialects|dialectal]], [[Society|social]] and [[Religion|religious]] characteristics.&lt;ref name=&quot;Barringer&quot;&gt;{{Cite book |last=Barringer |first=Herbert |url=https://archive.org/details/socialchangeinde0000barr |title=Social Change in Developing Areas: A Reinterpretation of Evolutionary Theory |date=1965 |publisher=Schenkman Publishing Company |page=[https://archive.org/details/socialchangeinde0000barr/page/214 214] |ref=Barringer |access-date=15 March 2020 |url-access=registration}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;Shehi2007&quot;&gt;{{Cite book |last=Monika Shehi |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Bqd1-qPRqp0C&amp;pg=PA43 |title=When East Meets West: Examining Classroom Discourse at the Albanian Socio-political Intersection |year=2007 |isbn=978-0-549-12813-7 |page=43 |quote=There were and there remain distinct cultural and linguistic differences between Albanian Ghegs and Tosks |access-date=13 July 2013 }}{{Dead link|date=April 2023 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;PoultonFaruqi1997&quot;&gt;{{Cite book |last1=Hugh Poulton |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=lQqHjwW6XzcC&amp;pg=PA117 |title=Muslim Identity and the Balkan State |last2=Suha. Taji Faruqi |date=January 1997 |publisher=C. Hurst &amp; Co. Publishers |isbn=978-1-85065-276-2 |page=117 |quote=the two ethnic sub-groups to which Albanians actually belong: the Ghegs in the north and the Tosks in the south... The Ghegs and Tosks differ from each other in linguistic, historical-cultural and socio-religious character. |access-date=13 July 2013}}&lt;/ref&gt; The Ghegs live in [[Albania]] (north of the [[Shkumbin River|Shkumbin]] river), [[Kosovo]], [[North Macedonia]], [[Serbia]] and [[Montenegro]]. The Ghegs speak [[Gheg Albanian]], one of the two main dialects of [[Albanian language]]. The social organization of the Ghegs was traditionally [[Tribal society|tribal]], with several distinct tribal groups of Ghegs. The [[Ottoman Empire]] annexed and ruled the Tosk-inhabited south at the beginning of the 15th century, while the territory populated by Ghegs remained out of the reach of the regular Ottoman civil administration until the beginning of the 20th century. As a consequence, the Ghegs evolved isolated from the Tosks.&lt;ref name=&quot;Frucht2005&quot;&gt;{{Cite book |last=Richard C. Frucht |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=lVBB1a0rC70C&amp;pg=PA698 |title=Eastern Europe: An Introduction to the People, Lands, and Culture |publisher=ABC-CLIO |year=2005 |isbn=978-1-57607-800-6 |page=698 |quote=Thus the Tosks and the Ghegs evolved virtually in isolation until Albania obtained its independence. |access-date=15 July 2013}}&lt;/ref&gt; Similarly, the Islamization of the Ghegs was incomplete, with a large area of northwestern Albania remaining Catholic. The Ottomans never completely subdued the [[northern Albanian tribes]] of Ghegs because they were more useful to them as a stable source of mercenaries. Instead, they implemented the ''bayraktar'' system, and granted some privileges to the ''bayraktars'' (banner chiefs) in exchange for their obligation to mobilize local fighters to support military actions of the [[Ottoman Army|Ottoman forces]].{{Citation needed|date=July 2021}} {{TOC limit|2}} == Terminology == Proper ''Gegnia'' (the land of the ''Gegë'') is located north of the [[Shkumbin]] river along its right bank and extends up to modern border between [[Mat District|Mat]] and [[Mirditë District|Mirdita]], where ''Leknia'' begins. Leknia itself is bordered to the north by [[Malësia]]. None of these regions overlap with one another and each has its own self-identification. This is reflected in the fact that only the people of proper Gegnia call themselves ''Gegë'', while moving northwards it is not a form of regional self-identification. For example, the people of the Dukagjin highlands when asked about their regional appellation would reply ''na nuk jemi gegë, gegët janë përtej maleve'' (we are not Gheghs, the Ghegs live beyond the mountains).&lt;ref name=&quot;Akademia&quot;&gt;{{Cite book |last1=Zojzi |first1=Rrok |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Xe9KAAAAYAAJ&amp;q=na+nuk+jemi+gegë |title=Etnografa Shqiptare |last2=Dajaka |first2=Abaz |last3=Gjergji |first3=Andromaqi |last4=Qatipi |first4=Hasan |date=1962 |publisher=Academy of Sciences of Albania |page=27 |ref=Akademia}}&lt;/ref&gt; The popular perception in non-Albanian literature of all northern Albanians as Ghegs is a product of identifying major dialect groups with all corresponding regional groupings. Likewise, only the people of certain regions in southern Albania identify as Tosks. == Etymology == The [[etymology]] of the term Gheg is not completely clear. According to the writer [[Arshi Pipa]], the term ''Gegë'' was initially used for confessional denotation, being used in pre-Ottoman Albania by its Orthodox population when referring to their Catholic neighbors.&lt;ref name=&quot;Pipa1989&quot;&gt;{{Cite book |last=Arshi Pipa |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=nkhiAAAAMAAJ |title=The Politics of Language in Socialist Albania |publisher=East European Monographs |year=1989 |isbn=978-0-88033-168-5 |page=190 |quote=...was a confessional name in pre-Ottoman Albania. |access-date=15 July 2013 |author-link=Arshi Pipa}}&lt;/ref&gt; Some theories say that the term Gegë is derived from the [[onomatopoeic]] word for &quot;babbling&quot;, in contrast to ''Shqiptare'' which is the Albanian word for those who speak clearly. This is sometimes considered illogical because the self-ethnonym ''Shqiptare'' seems to have been developed by Ghegs.&lt;ref name=&quot;Kamusella2009&quot;&gt;{{Cite book |last=Tomasz Kamusella |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=mzEqAQAAIAAJ |title=The politics of language and nationalism in modern Central Europe |date=15 January 2009 |publisher=Palgrave Macmillan |isbn=978-0-230-55070-4 |page=242 |quote=Gheg (Gege) seems to be derived from an onomatopoeic word for 'babbling,' as contrasted with Shqiptare, or 'those who speak clearly, correctly. |access-date=15 July 2013}}&lt;/ref&gt; According to the Austrian-Czech linguist [[Julius Pokorny]], it derived from ([[Attic Greek|Attic]]) [[Greek language|Greek]] &quot;γίγας&quot; (giant). From the [[Homeric]] [[mythology]] ''the giants of the [[Acroceraunian]] mountains'' and probably denoting originally warlike invading tribes descending from [[Epirus]]. Cognate to [[Arbëresh]]ë (dialectal and archaic) &quot;glatë&quot; (tall, long) (Standard Albanian &quot;gjatë&quot;, Gheg &quot;gat&quot;); [[Albanian language|Albanian]] &quot;gatë&quot; (heron) and [[Latin]] &quot;gigas&quot; (giant).&lt;ref&gt;“Indogermanisches Etymologisches Wörterbuch”, J. Pokorny, 1959, Bern : Francke&lt;/ref&gt; == Territory == [[File:Krahinatetnografikegege.png|thumb|Ethnographic regions of the Ghegs]] In Albania, Ghegs predominantly live north of the [[Shkumbin River|Shkumbin]] river and in areas of the mountainous north.&lt;ref name=&quot;Shehi2007&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;Gawrych2129&quot;&gt;{{harvnb|Gawrych|2006|pp=21, 29.}}&lt;/ref&gt; This region is widely referred to by Albanians as Gegënia or Gegnia&lt;ref name=&quot;Gawrych21&quot; /&gt; and as Gegëria.&lt;ref name=&quot;cíVelímský1981&quot;&gt;{{Cite book |last1=Jaroslav Krej cí |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=BroNAAAAQAAJ&amp;pg=PA205 |title=Ethnic And Political Nations In Europe |last2=Vitězslav Velímský |publisher=Taylor &amp; Francis |year=1981 |isbn=978-0-85664-988-2 |page=205 |quote=...the Ghegs in the north (Ghegeria) and the Tosks in the south (Toskeria) |access-date=13 July 2013}}&lt;/ref&gt; The Ottoman Turkish term, used during the times when Albania and the wider area was included in the empire, was Gegalık, meaning land of the Ghegs.&lt;ref name=&quot;Gawrych21&quot; /&gt; During the late Ottoman period apart from the term Arnavudluk (Albania) being used for Albanian regions, the designation Gegalık was also used in documents by Ottomans.&lt;ref name=&quot;Gawrych22&quot;&gt;{{harvnb|Gawrych|2006|p=22.}}&lt;/ref&gt; Gegëni or Gegalık encompassed the [[Vilayet of Shkodër|İșkodra]], [[Kosovo Vilayet|Kosovo]], and a small area of the [[Manastir Vilayet|Monastir]] vilayets.&lt;ref name=&quot;Gawrych21&quot;&gt;{{harvnb|Gawrych|2006|p=21.}}&lt;/ref&gt; In the 1880s, Albanians defined the wider region of Gegalık (Ghegland) as encompassing the Ottoman administrative units of [[Sanjak of Scutari|İșkodra]] (Shkodër) and Duraç (Durrës) sanjaks that composed İșkodra vilayet (province), the sanjaks of [[Sanjak of Novi Pazar|Yenipazar]] (Novi Pazar), İpek (Pejë), Priștine (Prishtinë), [[Sanjak of Prizren|Prizren]], [[Sanjak of Üsküp|Üsküp]] (Skopje) of Kosovo vilayet and the sanjak of [[Sanjak of Dibra|Debre]] (Debar) in Monastir vilayet.&lt;ref name=&quot;Gawrych2829&quot;&gt;{{harvnb|Gawrych|2006|pp=28–29.}}&lt;/ref&gt; Little more than half of ethnic Albanians from Albania are Ghegs.&lt;ref name=&quot;Eberhardt2003-2&quot;&gt;{{Cite book |last=Piotr Eberhardt |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=jLfX1q3kJzgC&amp;pg=PA433 |title=Ethnic Groups and Population Changes in Twentieth-century Central-Eastern Europe: History, Data, and Analysis |date=January 2003 |publisher=M.E. Sharpe |isbn=978-0-7656-1833-7 |page=433 |quote=The Ghegs account for slightly more than half of the resident Albanian |access-date=13 July 2013}}&lt;/ref&gt; Except for a [[Arvanites|Tosk]] population in north-western Greece and around lake [[Prespa]] as well as southern North Macedonia, the ethnic Albanians in the Balkans who live in Kosovo, North Macedonia (mostly) and Montenegro are Ghegs.&lt;ref name=&quot;BroughtonEllingham1999&quot;&gt;{{Cite book |last1=Simon Broughton |url=https://archive.org/details/roughguidetoworl00simo |title=World music: the rough guide. Africa, Europe and the Middle East |last2=Mark Ellingham |last3=Richard Trillo |publisher=Rough Guides |year=1999 |isbn=978-1-85828-635-8 |page=[https://archive.org/details/roughguidetoworl00simo/page/5 5] |quote=Most of the ethnic Albanians that live outside the country are Ghegs, although there is a small Tosk population clustered around the shores of lakes Presp and Ohrid in the south of Macedonia. |access-date=13 July 2013 |url-access=registration}}&lt;/ref&gt; == Language == {{main|Gheg Albanian}} [[File:Albaniandialects.png|thumb|Gheg dialect and sub-dialects shown in red. [[Tosk Albanian|Tosk]] dialects shown in blue.]]The Ghegs speak Gheg Albanian, one of the two main Albanian dialects. The Albanian communist regime based the standard Albanian language mostly on [[Tosk Albanian]]. This practice has been criticized, notably by [[Arshi Pipa]], who claimed that this decision deprived the Albanian language of its richness at the expense of the Ghegs,&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=5DnzAAAAMAAJ |title=Canadian review of studies in nationalism: Revue canadienne des études sur le nationalisme, Volume 19 |publisher=University of Prince Edward Island |year=1992 |page=206 |access-date=10 January 2012}}&lt;/ref&gt; and referred to the literary Albanian language as a &quot;monstrosity&quot; produced by the Tosk communist leadership which conquered anti-Communist north Albania militarily, and imposed their Tosk Albanian dialect on the Ghegs.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=5DnzAAAAMAAJ |title=Canadian review of studies in nationalism: Revue canadienne des études sur le nationalisme, Volume 19 |publisher=University of Prince Edward Island |year=1992 |page=207 |access-date=10 January 2012}}&lt;/ref&gt; Although Albanian writers in former [[Yugoslavia]] were almost all Ghegs, they chose to write in Tosk for political reasons.&lt;ref name=&quot;Pipa1978&quot;&gt;{{Cite book |last=Arshi Pipa |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=pECAAAAAIAAJ |title=Albanian literature: social perspectives |publisher=R. Trofenik |year=1978 |isbn=978-3-87828-106-1 |page=173 |quote=Although the Albanian population in Yugoslavia is almost exclusively Gheg, the Albanian writers there have chosen, for sheer political reasons, to write in Tosk |access-date=15 July 2013}}&lt;/ref&gt; This change of literary language has significant political and cultural consequences because the language is the main criterion for Albanian self-identification.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ioA4AAAAIAAJ |title=Telos |publisher=Telos Press |year=1989 |page=1 |quote=The political-cultural relevance of the abolition of literary Gheg with literary Tosk....Albanians identify themselves with language... |access-date=16 July 2013}}&lt;/ref&gt;[[File:Granny_in_Albania.jpg|thumb|Gheg woman from North Albania]] == Social organization == The social organization of the Ghegs was traditionally [[Tribal society|tribal]].&lt;ref name=&quot;BogdaniLoughlin2007&quot;&gt;{{Cite book |last1=Mirela Bogdani |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=32Wu8H7t8MwC&amp;pg=PA75 |title=Albania and the European Union: The Tumultuous Journey Towards Integration and Accession |last2=John Loughlin |date=15 March 2007 |publisher=I.B.Tauris |isbn=978-1-84511-308-7 |page=75 |quote=The traditional social organization of the Ghegs was tribal |access-date=13 July 2013}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;Gawrych29&quot; /&gt; The Ghegs of Northern Albania are one of only two tribal societies which survived in Europe until the middle of the 20th century (the other being the Montenegrin highlanders in [[Montenegro]] and southern [[Serbia]]).&lt;ref name=&quot;Lewis1970&quot;&gt;{{Cite book |last=I. M. Lewis |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Pl09AAAAIAAJ&amp;pg=PA254 |title=History and social anthropology |publisher=Taylor &amp; Francis |year=1970 |isbn=9780422718608 |page=254 |quote=Ghegs of northern Albania present the only true example of a tribal system surviving in Europe until the mid-twentieth century. |access-date=12 May 2013}}&lt;/ref&gt; The tribal organization was based on the [[clan]] system of loyalties, and the [[dispersed settlement]] pattern of separate, scattered, mostly fortified homesteads.&lt;ref name=&quot;KingMai2011&quot;&gt;{{Cite book |last1=Russell King |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=_PUaNmz4Uc4C&amp;pg=PA62 |title=Out of Albania: From Crisis Migration to Social Inclusion in Italy |last2=Nicola Mai |date=15 January 2011 |publisher=Berghahn Books |isbn=978-0-85745-390-7 |page=62 |access-date=14 July 2013}}&lt;/ref&gt; There are several distinct tribal groups of Ghegs which include [[Mirditë District|Mirëdita]], [[Kelmendi]], [[Bjelopavlići|Palabardhi]], [[Kuči|Kuqi]], [[Vasojevići|Vasajt]], [[Hoti (tribe)|Hoti]], [[Kastrati (tribe)|Kastrati]], [[Berisha (tribe)|Berisha]], [[Krasniqi (tribe)|Krasniqi]] and [[Shala (tribe)|Shala]].&lt;ref name=&quot;Admiralty1916&quot;&gt;{{Cite book |last=Great Britain. Admiralty |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=LutBAAAAYAAJ |title=A handbook of Serbia, Montenegro, Albania and adjacent parts of Greece |publisher=H.M. Stationery Office |year=1916 |page=40 |quote=... the Ghegs being split up into a number of distinct tribal groups, such as the powerful and very independent Mirdite clan in the mountain fastnesses to the south-east of Scutari; the Klementi, Hoti, Kastrati; the Pulti, Shala,... |access-date=24 July 2013}}&lt;/ref&gt; Other important tribal groupings include the highlanders of the Dibra region known as the &quot;Tigers of Dibra&quot;.&lt;ref name=&quot;Gawrych3536&quot;&gt;{{harvnb|Gawrych|2006|pp=35–36.}}&lt;/ref&gt; Western Kosovo during the late Ottoman period was dominated by the Albanian tribal system, while parts of Albanian society within wider Kosovo were also part of the urban-professional and landowning classes of major towns.&lt;ref name=&quot;Gawrych3435&quot;&gt;{{harvnb|Gawrych|2006|pp=34–35.}}&lt;/ref&gt; The Ghegs, particularly those who lived in the north-eastern area, were the most faithful supporters of the set of traditional laws ([[Kanun (Albania)|Kanun]]), traditional [[hospitality]], and [[blood feud]].&lt;ref name=&quot;KingMai2011&quot; /&gt; Among Gheg Malësors (highlanders) the ''[[Albanian tribes|fis]]'' (clan) was headed by the oldest male and formed the basic unit of tribal society.&lt;ref name=&quot;Gawrych3031&quot; /&gt; A political and territorial equivalent consisting of several clans was the ''[[bajrak]]'' (standard).&lt;ref name=&quot;Gawrych3031&quot; /&gt; The leader of a bajrak, whose position was hereditary, was referred to as ''bajraktar'' (standard bearer).&lt;ref name=&quot;Gawrych3031&quot; /&gt; Several bajraks composed a tribe, which was led by a man from a notable family, while major issues were decided by the tribe assembly whose members were male members of the tribe.&lt;ref name=&quot;Jelavich1983&quot;&gt;{{Cite book |last=Barbara Jelavich |url=https://archive.org/details/historyofbalkans0000jela |title=History of the Balkans |date=29 July 1983 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-0-521-27458-6 |page=[https://archive.org/details/historyofbalkans0000jela/page/81 81] |access-date=14 July 2013 |url-access=registration}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;Gawrych3031&quot;&gt;{{harvnb|Gawrych|2006|pp=30–31.}}&lt;/ref&gt; The organization of once predominantly [[herder]] Gheg tribes was traditionally based on [[patrilineality]] (a system in which an individual belongs to his or her father's lineage), and on [[exogamy]] (a social arrangement where marriage is allowed only outside of a social group).&lt;ref name=&quot;Cole2011&quot;&gt;{{Cite book |last=Jeffrey E. Cole |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=M9fDifnkMJMC&amp;pg=PA10 |title=Ethnic Groups of Europe: An Encyclopedia |date=31 May 2011 |publisher=ABC-CLIO |isbn=978-1-59884-303-3 |page=10 |quote=The Ghegs, who live in the northern mountainous regions, were traditionally herders and were organized around the exogamous, patrilineal |access-date=14 July 2013}}&lt;/ref&gt; The land belongs to the clan, and families are traditionally extended, consisting of smaller families of many brothers who all live in one extended ménage ({{langx|sq|shtëpi}}. Gheg Albanian: shpi).&lt;ref name=&quot;Cole2011-2&quot;&gt;{{Cite book |last=Jeffrey E. Cole |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=M9fDifnkMJMC&amp;pg=PA10 |title=Ethnic Groups of Europe: An Encyclopedia |date=31 May 2011 |publisher=ABC-CLIO |isbn=978-1-59884-303-3 |page=10 |access-date=14 July 2013}}&lt;/ref&gt; Girls were married without their consent, while [[bride stealing]] still existed to some extent until the early 20th century.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=1XEsAAAAYAAJ |title=Area Handbook for Yugoslavia |publisher=U.S. Government Pub. Press Office |year=1973 |page=80 |access-date=14 July 2013}}&lt;/ref&gt; [[Marriage]] was basically an economic and political deal arranged among the members of the tribe, while those who got married had no say in the matter.&lt;ref name=&quot;Saltmarshe2001&quot;&gt;{{Cite book |last=Douglas Saltmarshe |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=_9KFAAAAMAAJ |title=Identity in a Post-Communist Balkan State: An Albanian Village Study |publisher=Ashgate Publishing, Limited |year=2001 |isbn=978-0-7546-1727-3 |page=104 |access-date=14 July 2013}}&lt;/ref&gt; [[Albanian sworn virgins|Sworn virginity]] was occasionally practised among the Ghegs.&lt;ref name=&quot;ComstockHenking1997&quot;&gt;{{Cite book |last1=Gary David Comstock |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=L7fx52UR2jUC&amp;pg=PA146 |title=Que(e)rying Religion: A Critical Anthology |last2=Susan E. Henking |date=1 February 1997 |publisher=Continuum |isbn=978-0-8264-0924-9 |page=146 |quote=...Albanian sworn virginity can never have been more than occasional phenomenon among Ghegs |access-date=16 July 2013}}&lt;/ref&gt; Child betrothal was also practised by the Ghegs, sometimes even before birth.&lt;ref name=&quot;ComstockHenking1997-2&quot;&gt;{{Cite book |last1=Gary David Comstock |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=L7fx52UR2jUC&amp;pg=PA147 |title=Que(e)rying Religion: A Critical Anthology |last2=Susan E. Henking |date=1 February 1997 |publisher=Continuum |isbn=978-0-8264-0924-9 |page=147 |quote=Ghegs practiced childhood betrothal — there are reports of the betrothal of fetuses. |access-date=16 July 2013}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;Levinson1992&quot;&gt;{{Cite book |last=David Levinson |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=PnMYAAAAIAAJ |title=Encyclopedia of world cultures |publisher=G.K. Hall |year=1992 |isbn=978-0-8168-8840-5 |page=5 |quote=Gheg clan society lasted until the 1950s in northern Albania. ... Children were betrothed sometimes even before birth, often in respect of an existing alliance or in order to establish friendship or piece |access-date=16 July 2013}}&lt;/ref&gt; == Religion == Christianity in Albania was under the jurisdiction of the [[Bishop of Rome]] until the eighth century. Then, dioceses in Albania were transferred to the [[patriarchate of Constantinople]]. In 1054 after the schism, the north became identified with the [[Roman Catholic Church]].&lt;ref name=&quot;Ramet1989&quot;&gt;{{Cite book |last=Ramet |first=Sabrina P. |url=https://archive.org/details/religionnational01rame |title=Religion and Nationalism in Soviet and East European Politics |publisher=Duke University Press |year=1989 |isbn=0-8223-0891-6 |page=[https://archive.org/details/religionnational01rame/page/381 381] |quote=Albanian Christianity lay within the orbit of the bishop of Rome from the first century to the eighth. But in the eighth century Albanian Christians were transferred to the jurisdiction of the patriarch of Constantinople. With the schism of 1054, however, Albania was divided between a Catholic north and an Orthodox south. [..] Prior to the Turkish conquest, the ghegs (the chief tribal group in northern Albania) had found in Roman Catholicism a means of resisting the Slavs, and though Albanian Orthodoxy remained important among the tosks (the chief tribal group in southern Albania)}}&lt;/ref&gt; Since that time all churches north of the [[Shkumbin]] river were Catholic and under the jurisdiction of the Pope.&lt;ref name=&quot;Murzaku&quot;&gt;{{Cite book |last=Murzaku |first=Ines |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=jNdzCgAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PT352 |title=Monasticism in Eastern Europe and the Former Soviet Republics |date=2015 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-1317391043 |page=352 |quote=The Albanian church north of Shkumbin River was entirely Latin and under the pope's jurisdiction. During the twelfth century, the Catholic church in Albania intensified efforts to strengthen its position in middle and southern Albania. The Catholic Church was organized in 20 dioceses. |ref=Murzaku |access-date=14 March 2020}}&lt;/ref&gt; Various reasons have been put forward for the spread of Catholicism among northern Albanians. Traditional affiliation with the Latin rite and Catholic missions in central Albania in the 12th century fortified the Catholic Church against Orthodoxy, while local leaders found an ally in Catholicism against Slavic Orthodox states.&lt;ref name=&quot;Lala&quot;&gt;{{Citation |last=Lala |first=Etleva |title=Regnum Albaniae, the Papal Curia, and the Western Visions of a Borderline Nobility |url=http://www.etd.ceu.hu/2009/mphlae01.pdf |page=1 |year=2008 |publisher=Central European University, Department of Medieval Studies}}&lt;/ref&gt; &lt;ref name=&quot;Murzaku&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;Stavrianos2000&quot;&gt;{{Cite book |last=Leften Stavros Stavrianos |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=xcp7OXQE0FMC&amp;pg=PA497 |title=The Balkans Since 1453 |date=January 2000 |publisher=C. Hurst &amp; Co. Publishers |isbn=978-1-85065-551-0 |page=498 |quote=Religious differences also existed before the coming of the Turks. Originally, all Albanians had belonged to the Eastern Orthodox Church... Then the Ghegs in the North adopted in order to better resist the pressure of Orthodox Serbs. |access-date=17 July 2013}}&lt;/ref&gt; During the Ottoman period in the history of Albania (1385–1912), the majority of Albanians converted to Islam. Today, the majority of Ghegs are [[Sunni Islam|Sunni]] [[Muslims]], with a large minority being Catholic. Catholic Albanians are most heavily concentrated in northwestern Albania and the [[Malesija, Montenegro|Malësia region]] of southeastern [[Montenegro]], in both of which they form of a majority of population, while they have a thinner distribution in central Albania and northeastern Albania and Kosovo. There are also Ghegs who practice Orthodox Christianity, mainly living in the southwest of the Gheg-speaking region, especially [[Durrës]] (where they formed 36% of the population in 1918) and [[Elbasan]] (where they formed 17% of the population in 1918).&lt;ref&gt;Gruber, Siegfried. [http://www-gewi.uni-graz.at/seiner/marriage_patterns.html ''Regional variation in marriage patterns in Albania at the beginning of the 20th century''] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191003001126/http://www-gewi.uni-graz.at/seiner/marriage_patterns.html |date=3 October 2019 }}. Social Science History Association Annual Meeting St. Louis, October 24–27, 2002. Data ultimately from the 1918 Albanian census. Urban city data displayed on this map here: http://www-gewi.uni-graz.at/seiner/density.html {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191027231335/http://www-gewi.uni-graz.at/seiner/density.html |date=27 October 2019 }}.&lt;/ref&gt; Orthodox Ghegs were traditionally also heavily concentrated in the region of [[Upper Reka]] (Reka e Epërme) in North Macedonia. There are also some groups of Ghegs who practice [[Bektashism and folk religion|Bektashism]], living in areas such as [[Krujë|Kruja]] and [[Bulqizë|Bulqiza]]. Additionally, as is the case with all Albanians as a legacy of the [[Enver Hoxha]] regime, many people don't identify with any faith, and a large number of people do not usually attend the services of any religion.&lt;ref&gt;&quot;Instantanés d’Albaníe, un autre regard sur les Balkans&quot; (2005), Etudiants en Tourisme et Actions Patrimoniales. (Plus de 72% irréligieux ou non pratiquants.) - {{Cite web |title=Archived copy |url=http://www.membres.lycos.fr/instantanesdalbanie/image/dossierdepresse.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090303221342/http://www.membres.lycos.fr/instantanesdalbanie/image/dossierdepresse.pdf |archive-date=3 March 2009 |access-date=2009-05-26 |df=dmy}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;Zuckerman, Phil. &quot;Atheism: Contemporary Rates and Patterns &quot;, chapter in The Cambridge Companion to Atheism, ed. by Michael Martin, Cambridge University Press: Cambridge, UK (2005) - http://www.adherents.com/Na/Na_472.html {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181226031151/http://www.adherents.com/Na/Na_472.html%20 |date=26 December 2018 }}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;O'Brien, Joanne and Martin Palmer (1993). The State of Religion Atlas. New York, NY: Simon and Schuster (&quot;Over 50% of Albanians claim 'no religious alliance.'&quot;) - http://www.adherents.com/Na/Na_472.html {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181226031151/http://www.adherents.com/Na/Na_472.html%20 |date=26 December 2018 }}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;Goring, Rosemary (ed). Larousse Dictionary of Beliefs &amp; Religions (Larousse: 1994); pg. 581-584. Table: &quot;Population Distribution of Major Beliefs&quot; (Nonreligious 74.00%) - http://www.adherents.com/Na/Na_472.html {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181226031151/http://www.adherents.com/Na/Na_472.html%20 |date=26 December 2018 }}&lt;/ref&gt; == Culture == [[File:Ceremonia_e_Marrjes_se_Nuses_-_Valbon%C3%AB.JPG|thumb|Albanian wedding ceremony in Valbona, northern Albania]] After the [[Tanzimat reforms]] in the second half of the 19th century, aiming to gain influence over Catholic Albanians, [[Austria-Hungary]], with Ottoman approval, opened and financed many schools in the Albanian language, and [[Franciscan]] seminaries and hospitals, and trained native clergy, which all resulted in the development of [[Albanian literature|literature in the Albanian language]].&lt;ref name=&quot;Gawrych2006&quot;&gt;{{Cite book |last=George Gawrych |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=wPOtzk-unJgC&amp;pg=PA23 |title=The Crescent and the Eagle: Ottoman Rule, Islam and the Albanians, 1874-1913 |date=26 December 2006 |publisher=I.B.Tauris |isbn=978-1-84511-287-5 |pages=29, 30 |access-date=25 July 2013}}&lt;/ref&gt; The culture of the Ghegs blossomed at the beginning of 20th century. [[Gjergj Fishta]] and the Scutarine Catholic School of Letters led by Fishta significantly contributed to this blossoming.&lt;ref name=&quot;Elsie2010&quot;&gt;{{Cite book |last=Robert Elsie |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=haFlGXIg8uoC&amp;pg=PA139 |title=Historical Dictionary of Albania |date=19 March 2010 |publisher=Scarecrow Press |isbn=978-0-8108-7380-3 |page=139 |quote=... a golden age in the first decades of the 20th century, and much credit for this blossoming of Gheg culture goes to him |access-date=15 July 2013}}&lt;/ref&gt; The Ghegs are known for their [[epic poetry]].&lt;ref name=&quot;Nidel2005&quot;&gt;{{Cite book |last=Richard Nidel |url=https://archive.org/details/worldmusic00rich_0 |title=World Music: The Basics |publisher=Routledge |year=2005 |isbn=978-0-415-96800-3 |page=[https://archive.org/details/worldmusic00rich_0/page/149 149] |quote=The Ghegs are known for a distinctive variety of epic poetry called Rapsodi Kreshnike sung by elderly men. |access-date=16 July 2013 |url-access=registration}}&lt;/ref&gt; The revival of [[Catholicism]] among Albanians gave a new and important impulse to the rise of Gheg culture.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=1kggAQAAMAAJ |title=Archives de sciences sociales des religions |publisher=Centre national de la recherche scientifique (France) |year=2001 |page=179 |quote=A new important impulse to the rise of Gheg culture is due to the revival of Albanian Catholicism, traditionally distinguished for ils highly prestigious cultural tradition and generic Albanianism. |access-date=16 July 2013}}&lt;/ref&gt; == Physical anthropology == The Ghegs have been characterized as an immensely tall people, with round, hyper-[[Brachycephaly|brachycephalic heads]], long faces, broad chests, robust builds, convex-shaped noses, and flat skulls.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite book |last=Geipel |first=John |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=M_2AAAAAMAAJ |title=The Europeans: An Ethnohistorical Survey |date=1969 |publisher=Longmans |isbn=978-0-582-11243-8 |language=en|quote=The Ghegs - are, characteristically , an immensely tall people, round - headed, long - faced and strong - nosed.}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;Hanbury-Tenison2009&quot;&gt;{{Cite book |last=Robin Hanbury-Tenison |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=JHUtAQAAIAAJ |title=Land of eagles: riding through Europe's forgotten country |date=15 July 2009 |publisher=I. B. Tauris |isbn=978-1-84511-855-6 |page=128 |quote=Ghegs, who are often described as fair, are taller than Tosks, who are darker and more Mediterranean. |access-date=17 July 2013 |author-link=Robin Hanbury-Tenison}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite book |last=Blunt |first=Fanny Janet Sandison |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=z5feEAAAQBAJ |title=Twenty Years' Residence among the People of Turkey; Bulgarians, Greeks, Albanians, Turks, and Armenians: in large print |date=2023-10-23 |publisher=BoD – Books on Demand |isbn=978-3-387-30368-1 |language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt; According to [[James Pettifer|Pettifer]] &amp; Vickers in 2007, &quot;Ghegs speak a slightly different dialect of the language, and are often taller and thinner than Tosks, but these traditional differences (often exaggerated in vulgar anthropology) have been much diminished by population movement in the post-communist period.&quot;&lt;ref name=&quot;Pettifer2007&quot;&gt;{{Cite book |last1=Pettifer |first1= James |authorlink1=James Pettifer |last2=Vickers |first2=Miranda |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=yuh2NebIN3oC&amp;pg=PA270 |title=The Albanian Question: Reshaping the Balkans |publisher=I.B.Tauris |year=2007 |isbn=978-1-86064-974-5 |page=270 |quote= |access-date=17 July 2013}}&lt;/ref&gt; == History == === Pre-Ottoman and Ottoman period === There was a distinction between Ghegs and Tosks before the Ottomans appeared in Albania at the end of the 14th century.&lt;ref name=&quot;Stavrianos2000-2&quot;&gt;{{Cite book |last=Leften Stavros Stavrianos |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=xcp7OXQE0FMC&amp;pg=PA497 |title=The Balkans Since 1453 |date=January 2000 |publisher=C. Hurst &amp; Co. Publishers |isbn=978-1-85065-551-0 |page=497 |quote=These differences existed before appearance of Turks. Traditionally there has been the division between the Ghegs in the north and the Tosks in the south, the Shkumbi River being the line |access-date=17 July 2013}}&lt;/ref&gt; The Ghegs remained out of the reach of the regular Ottoman civil administration until the end of Ottoman rule.&lt;ref name=&quot;Somel2001&quot;&gt;{{Cite book |last=Selçuk Akşin Somel |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=0JqPscM-kcYC&amp;pg=PA208 |title=The Modernization of Public Education in the Ottoman Empire, 1839-1908: Islamization, Autocracy, and Discipline |publisher=BRILL |year=2001 |isbn=978-90-04-11903-1 |page=208 |access-date=15 July 2013}}&lt;/ref&gt; In areas where Ghegs were still tribesmen they followed their own laws and lived an autonomous existence.&lt;ref name=&quot;Gawrych113&quot; /&gt; The fact that the tribes of northern Albania were not completely subdued by the [[Ottoman Empire|Ottomans]] is raised to the level of orthodoxy among the members of the tribes. A possible explanation is that the Ottomans did not have any real interest in subduing the [[northern Albanian tribes]] because they were more useful to them as a stable source of mercenaries. The Ottomans implemented the ''bayraktar'' system within northern Albanian tribes, and granted some privileges to the ''bayraktars'' (banner chiefs) in exchange for their obligation to mobilize local fighters to support military actions of the [[Ottoman Army|Ottoman forces]].&lt;ref name=&quot;Silverman2011&quot;&gt;{{Cite book |last=Helaine Silverman |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=HCM93pyDhMEC&amp;pg=PA120 |title=Contested Cultural Heritage: Religion, Nationalism, Erasure, and Exclusion in a Global World |date=1 January 2011 |publisher=Springer |isbn=978-1-4419-7305-4 |page=120 |access-date=31 May 2013}}&lt;/ref&gt; During the late Ottoman period Ghegs often lacked education and integration within the Ottoman system, while they had autonomy and military capabilities.&lt;ref name=&quot;Gawrych29&quot; /&gt; Those factors gave the area of Gegënia an importance within the empire that differed from Toskëria.&lt;ref name=&quot;Gawrych29&quot; /&gt; Still many Ottoman officers thought that Ghegs, in particular the highlanders were often a liability instead of an asset for the state being commonly referred to as &quot;wild&quot; ({{langx|tr|vahşi}}).&lt;ref name=&quot;Gawrych29&quot;&gt;{{harvnb|Gawrych|2006|p=29.}}&lt;/ref&gt; In areas of Albania were Malësors (highlanders) lived, the empire only posted Ottoman officers who had prior experience of service in other tribal regions of the state like [[Kurdistan]] or [[Yemen]] that could bridge cultural divides with Gheg tribesmen.&lt;ref name=&quot;Gawrych113&quot;&gt;{{harvnb|Gawrych|2006|p=113.}}&lt;/ref&gt; The [[Great Eastern Crisis]] resulted in Albanian resistance to partition by neighbouring powers with the formation of the [[Prizren League]] (1878) which issued a [[Kararname (League of Prizren)|Kararname]] (memorandum) that declared both Ghegs and Tosks had made an oath to defend the state and homeland in the name of Islam.&lt;ref name=&quot;Gawrych4647&quot;&gt;{{harvnb|Gawrych|2006|pp=46–47.}}&lt;/ref&gt; During the crisis Ghegs and Tosks made [[Besa (Albanian culture)|besas]] (pledges of honor) to arm themselves and shed blood to defend their rights.&lt;ref name=&quot;Gawrych48&quot;&gt;{{harvnb|Gawrych|2006|p=48.}}&lt;/ref&gt; Better armed than its southern Tosk counterpart, Gheg society was in a more effective position to resist the redrawing of borders in the region.&lt;ref name=&quot;Gawrych61&quot;&gt;{{harvnb|Gawrych|2006|p=61.}}&lt;/ref&gt; Ottoman officials initially assisted Gheg Albanians in their efforts to resist incorporation of their lands into Serbia, Montenegro or Bulgaria.&lt;ref name=&quot;Gawrych45&quot;&gt;{{harvnb|Gawrych|2006|p=45.}}&lt;/ref&gt; Ghegs experienced a brief moment of an autonomous administration where local tax was collected into Albanian coffers.&lt;ref name=&quot;Gawrych70&quot;&gt;{{harvnb|Gawrych|2006|p=70.}}&lt;/ref&gt; Calls for an autonomous united Albania made sultan [[Abdul Hamid II]] suppress the League of Prizren movement, especially after Gheg Albanians revolted in 1881 and posed a military challenge to Ottoman authority.&lt;ref name=&quot;Gawrych60210&quot;&gt;{{harvnb|Gawrych|2006|pp=60, 210.}}&lt;/ref&gt; Large parts of Gegënia posed a security problem for the Ottoman Empire, due to the tribalism of Gheg society and limited state control.&lt;ref name=&quot;Gawrych205&quot; /&gt; Gheg freedoms were tolerated by Abdul Hamid II and he enlisted them in his palace guard, integrated the sons of local notables from urban areas into the bureaucracy and co-opted leaders like [[Isa Boletini]] into the Ottoman system.&lt;ref name=&quot;Gawrych205&quot;&gt;{{harvnb|Gawrych|2006|p=205.}}&lt;/ref&gt; During the [[Young Turk Revolution]] (1908) some Ghegs were one group in Albanian society that gave its support for the restoration of the [[Ottoman constitution of 1876]] to end the Hamidian regime.&lt;ref name=&quot;Gawrych3141&quot;&gt;{{harvnb|Gawrych|2006|pp=3, 141.}}&lt;/ref&gt; Subsequent centralising policies and militarism toward the Albanian Question by the new Young Turk government resulted in four years of local revolts by Ghegs who fought to keep tribal privileges and the defense system of ''[[Tower houses in the Balkans|kulas]]'' (tower houses).&lt;ref name=&quot;Gawrych201&quot;&gt;{{harvnb|Gawrych|2006|p=201.}}&lt;/ref&gt; Ghegs from the Shkodër region supported the [[Greçë Memorandum]] that called for Albanian sociopolitical rights within the Ottoman Empire during the [[Albanian revolt of 1911]].&lt;ref name=&quot;Gawrych189&quot;&gt;{{Cite book |last=Gawrych |first=George |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=wPOtzk-unJgC&amp;q=Gegs |title=The Crescent and the Eagle: Ottoman rule, Islam and the Albanians, 1874–1913 |publisher=IB Tauris |year=2006 |isbn=9781845112875 |location=London |pages=189}}&lt;/ref&gt; On the eve of the [[Balkan Wars]] (1912-1913) Gheg and Tosk Albanians managed to secure two concessions from the Ottoman government: the rights of Albanian ethnicity and rights for the highlander population during the [[Albanian revolt of 1912]].&lt;ref name=&quot;Gawrych201&quot;/&gt; === Albania === The Ghegs were dominant in the political life of Albania in the pre-communist period. During [[World War II]] Nazi Germany recruited Ghegs from the northern territory of the [[Albanian Kingdom (1943–44)|Albanian Kingdom]] into the [[21st Waffen Mountain Division of the SS Skanderbeg (1st Albanian)]]. This recruitment was also supported by some anthropological research which considered Ghegs an [[Aryan race]].&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite book |last=Jonathan Trigg |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=djItAQAAIAAJ |title=Hitler's Jihadis: Muslim volunteers of the Waffen-SS |date=1 April 2009 |publisher=History Press |isbn=978-1-86227-487-7 |page=146 |quote=&lt;!-- Himmler himself, as the architect of Skanderbeg, was happy with recruitment from northern &quot;Greater Albania&quot; as it conformed to his racial ideals. During their occupation the Italians had carried out spurious 'anthropological research' that sought to show the Ghegs of the north (in the south Albanians were from the Tosk tribe) were actually Aryans, this was music to the Reichsfuhrer's ears. --&gt; |access-date=22 July 2013}}&lt;/ref&gt; At the end of [[World War II]], communist forces predominantly composed of Tosks captured Albania after the retreat of the [[Wehrmacht]]. That was perceived by many Ghegs as the Tosk takeover of Gheg lands.&lt;ref name=&quot;Kamusella2009-2&quot;&gt;{{Cite book |last=Tomasz Kamusella |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=mzEqAQAAIAAJ |title=The politics of language and nationalism in modern Central Europe |date=15 January 2009 |publisher=Palgrave Macmillan |isbn=978-0-230-55070-4 |page=244 |quote=However, many Ghegs perceived this event as the Tosk conquest of Gheg lands. |access-date=15 July 2013}}&lt;/ref&gt; Most members of the post-war [[Communism|communist]] regime and three quarters of the [[Party of Labour of Albania|Communist Party of Albania]] members were Tosks. Therefore, the communist takeover was accompanied by the transfer of political power from the Ghegs to the Tosks.&lt;ref name=&quot;Vickers1999&quot;&gt;{{Cite book |last=Miranda Vickers |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=IzI0uOZ2j6gC&amp;pg=PA164 |title=The Albanians: A Modern History |publisher=I.B.Tauris |year=1999 |isbn=978-1-86064-541-9 |page=164 |quote=The Communist victory had realized the transference of political power from the Ghegs to the Tosks, and as around |access-date=15 July 2013}}&lt;/ref&gt; The Ghegs were consistently persecuted by the predominantly Tosk regime, which saw them as traditionalist and less developed.&lt;ref name=&quot;Hamilton2007&quot;&gt;{{Cite book |last=Caroline Hamilton |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=uYQQAQAAIAAJ |title=The politics and aesthetics of refusal |date=1 August 2007 |publisher=Cambridge Scholars Pub. |isbn=978-1-84718-244-9 |page=54 |quote=Northern Ghegs were consistently persecuted by the largely Tosk-run socialist regime, stereotyped as less developed, steeped in traditional culture and communal law |access-date=15 July 2013}}&lt;/ref&gt; After [[Enver Hoxha]] died in 1985, he was succeeded by [[Ramiz Alia]], who was one of the few Ghegs among the leaders of the country.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite book |last=Dennis Kavanagh |title=A Dictionary of Political Biography |publisher=Oxford University Press |year=1998 |page=9 |chapter=Alia, Ramiz |access-date= |chapter-url=|isbn= }}{{ISBN?}}&lt;/ref&gt; He took cautious steps towards changing direction on the national identity issue by gradually assuming the cause of the Ghegs from [[Kosovo]].&lt;ref name=&quot;Janos2000&quot;&gt;{{Cite book |last=Andrew C. Janos |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=vGIJMuyJqAwC&amp;pg=PA287 |title=East Central Europe in the Modern World: The Politics of the Borderlands from Pre-To Postcommunism |publisher=Stanford University Press |year=2000 |isbn=978-0-8047-4688-5 |page=287 |access-date=13 July 2013}}&lt;/ref&gt; This change was accompanied by a long-lasting fear that the introduction of &quot;too-liberal&quot; Albanians from Kosovo might disturb the fragile balance between the Tosk and Gheg sub-ethnic groups.&lt;ref name=&quot;Janos2000&quot; /&gt; Absorbing Yugoslav Ghegs, who were almost as numerous as all Albanians from Albania, could have ruined the predominantly Tosk regime.&lt;ref name=&quot;BianchiniNation1998-2&quot;&gt;{{Cite book |last1=Stefano Bianchini |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=2JlpAAAAMAAJ |title=The Yugoslav Conflict and Its Implications for International Relations |last2=Robert Craig Nation |publisher=Longo |year=1998 |isbn=978-88-8063-155-2 |page=160 |quote=It is furthermore undeniable that the entry into Albania of 1.5 million Ghegs from Kosovo would change the balance of power between Ghegs ... |access-date=17 July 2013}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;Horowitz1985-2&quot;&gt;{{Cite book |last=Donald L. Horowitz |url=https://archive.org/details/ethnicgroupsinco00horo |title=Ethnic Groups in Conflict |date=1 January 1985 |publisher=University of California Press |isbn=978-0-520-05385-4 |page=[https://archive.org/details/ethnicgroupsinco00horo/page/285 285] |access-date=15 July 2013 |url-access=registration}}&lt;/ref&gt; After the fall of the communist regime, religion was again the major factor which determined social identity, and rivalry between Ghegs and Tosks re-emerged.&lt;ref name=&quot;VickersPettifer1997&quot;&gt;{{Cite book |last1=Miranda Vickers |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=9IbgsDdeVxsC&amp;pg=PA4 |title=Albania |last2=James Pettifer |publisher=C. Hurst &amp; Co. Publishers |year=1997 |isbn=978-1-85065-279-3 |page=4 |quote=Religion was once again a major factor in social identity, and elements of traditional Gheg- Tosk, north-south rivalries re-emerged. |access-date=15 July 2013}}&lt;/ref&gt; The new political leaders of post-communist Albania appointed by Gheg&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=IBUWAQAAMAAJ |title=The International Journal of Albanian Studies |publisher=Department of Political Science, Columbia University |year=1997 |page=11 |quote=Sali Berisha, a Gheg intellectual from the North-East |access-date=15 July 2013}}&lt;/ref&gt; [[Sali Berisha]] were almost all Ghegs from northern Albania.&lt;ref name=&quot;Watch1995-2&quot;&gt;{{Cite book |last=Human Rights Watch. Helsinki Watch |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=-sO9WMivFwsC&amp;pg=PA6 |title=Albania the Greek Minority |publisher=Human Rights Watch |year=1995 |page=6 |access-date=15 July 2013}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;GardnerSchaffer2000-2&quot;&gt;{{Cite book |last1=Hall Gardner |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=7dxoAAAAMAAJ |title=Central and southeastern Europe in transition: perspectives on success and failure since 1989 |last2=Elinore Schaffer |last3=Oleg Kobtzeff |publisher=Praeger |year=2000 |isbn=978-0-275-96460-3 |page=107 |quote=By contrast, the new leaders, including former president Sali Berisha, ousted in 1997, are almost all northern Ghegs |access-date=15 July 2013}}&lt;/ref&gt; The administration of Sali Berisha was identified as northern [[Albanian nationalism|nationalist]] Gheg in opposition to southern Socialist Tosk,&lt;ref name=&quot;Vickers2007-2&quot;&gt;{{Cite book |last=Miranda Vickers |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=yuh2NebIN3oC&amp;pg=PA219 |title=The Albanian Question: Reshaping the Balkans |publisher=I.B.Tauris |year=2007 |isbn=978-1-86064-974-5 |page=219 |quote=administration was identified as northern Gheg 'nationalist' as opposed to southern Tosk 'Socialist' |access-date=15 July 2013}}&lt;/ref&gt; which additionally increased the contention between Tosks and Ghegs.&lt;ref name=&quot;GardnerSchaffer2000-3&quot;&gt;{{Cite book |last1=Hall Gardner |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=7dxoAAAAMAAJ |title=Central and southeastern Europe in transition: perspectives on success and failure since 1989 |last2=Elinore Schaffer |last3=Oleg Kobtzeff |publisher=Praeger |year=2000 |isbn=978-0-275-96460-3 |page=107 |quote=The fact that former president Sali Berisha, elected in April 1992, was a northerner from Tropojë has only intensified Gheg-Tosk rivalry. |access-date=15 July 2013}}&lt;/ref&gt; In 1998 Berisha exploited the traditional Gheg—Tosk rivalry when he encouraged armed anti-Government protesters in Shkodër in actions that forced the resignation of prime minister [[Fatos Nano]].&lt;ref name=&quot;Bell2002&quot;&gt;{{Cite book |last=Imogen Bell |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=4CrpzRJCbckC&amp;pg=PA641 |title=Central and South-Eastern Europe: 2003 |publisher=Routledge |year=2002 |isbn=978-1-85743-136-0 |page=641 |quote=Exploiting the historic Gheg (north)-Tosk (south) rivalry, he encouraged rioters in the northern town of Shkoder (a traditional DPA stronghold) in February 1998 and, in September, led his armed supporters in anti-Government protests that led to resignation to prime minister Fatos Nano |access-date=15 July 2013}}&lt;/ref&gt; During the [[Kosovo War]], rivalry between Ghegs and Tosks faded, and a huge number of refugees from Kosovo were catered for with no internal conflict, despite unavoidable grumbles about the disruption of the community and theft.&lt;ref name=&quot;Vickers2007-3&quot;&gt;{{Cite book |last=Miranda Vickers |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=yuh2NebIN3oC&amp;pg=PA123 |title=The Albanian Question: Reshaping the Balkans |publisher=I.B.Tauris |year=2007 |isbn=978-1-86064-974-5 |page=123 |quote=...national solidarity for the refugees was overwhelming, albeit coupled with inevitable grumbles about theft and community disruption. Gheg-Tosk rivalry faded and the nation was able to cater for a vast refugee influx without internal conflict |access-date=15 July 2013}}&lt;/ref&gt; == See also == * [[Tribes of Albania]] * [[Gegić]] ==Notes== {{Notelist}} ==References== {{Reflist}} == External links == * [http://www.elsie.de/pdf/articles/A2012KanunLeiden.pdf Northern Albanian Culture and the Kanun] - Lecture given by [[Robert Elsie]] at the Symposium: Albanese Tradities en Taal: 100 Jaar Onafhankelijk Albanië / Albanian Language and Culture: 100 Years of Independence, University of Leiden, 10 November 2012 {{Authority control}} [[Category:Gegëri]] [[Category:Albanian ethnographic regions]]</div></summary> <author><name>Βατο</name></author> </entry> <entry> <id>https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Tosks&diff=1255372352</id> <title>Tosks</title> <link rel="alternate" type="text/html" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Tosks&diff=1255372352"/> <updated>2024-11-04T16:26:43Z</updated> <summary type="html">Βατο: rv IP, original research <hr /> <div>{{Use dmy dates|date=August 2016}} {{Infobox ethnic group | group = Tosks | native_name = Toskët | image = Çerçiz Topulli (portret).jpg | caption = [[Çerçiz Topulli]], a prominent leader of the Tosks. | population = Unknown | popplace = [[Southern Albania]] (''Toskëria''), [[Epirus (region)|Southern Epirus]], [[Southern Italy]] | langs = [[Tosk Albanian]] | rels = Eastern Orthodox Christianity, Islam (Sunni and Bektashi), Eastern Catholicism (minority) | related_groups = [[Arbëreshë people]] }} '''Tosks''' ({{lang-sq|Toskët}}) are one of two major ethnic subgroups of [[Albanians]] (the other being the [[Ghegs]])&lt;ref name=&quot;Eberhardt2003&quot;&gt;{{cite book|author=Piotr Eberhardt|title=Ethnic Groups and Population Changes in Twentieth-century Central-Eastern Europe: History, Data, and Analysis|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=jLfX1q3kJzgC&amp;pg=PA433|access-date=13 July 2013|date=January 2003|publisher=M.E. Sharpe|isbn=978-0-7656-1833-7|page=433|quote=The Albanians comprise two ethnic subgroups: the Ghegs, who generally occupy the area north of the Shkumbin river; and the Tosks, most of whom live south of the river.}}&lt;/ref&gt; differentiated by their [[Culture|cultural]], [[Language|linguistic]], [[Society|social]] and [[Religion|religious]] characteristics.&lt;ref name=&quot;Shehi2007&quot;&gt;{{cite book|author=Monika Shehi|title=When East Meets West: Examining Classroom Discourse at the Albanian Socio-political Intersection|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Bqd1-qPRqp0C&amp;pg=PA43|access-date=13 July 2013|year=2007|isbn=978-0-549-12813-7|page=43|quote=There were and there remain distinct cultural and linguistic differences between Albanian Ghegs and Tosks}}{{Dead link|date=April 2023 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;PoultonFaruqi1997&quot;&gt;{{cite book|author1=Hugh Poulton|author2=Suha. Taji Faruqi|title=Muslim Identity and the Balkan State|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=lQqHjwW6XzcC&amp;pg=PA117|access-date=13 July 2013|date=January 1997|publisher=C. Hurst &amp; Co. Publishers|isbn=978-1-85065-276-2|page=117|quote= the two ethnic sub-groups to which Albanians actually belong: the Ghegs in the north and the Tosks in the south... The Ghegs and Tosks differ from each other in linguistic, historical-cultural and socio-religious character.}}&lt;/ref&gt; == Territory == ''Tosk'' may refer to the Tosk-speaking [[Albanians|Albanian]] population of southern Albania and internal subgroups include the Myzeqars of [[Myzeqe]]. The Labs of [[Labëria]] (name version in {{lang-sq|sing: Lab, pl. Lebër, also dial. sing.: Lap}}) and [[Cham Albanians|Chams]] of [[Chameria|Çamëria]] are separate southern Albanian subgroups&lt;ref name=&quot;Hammond31&quot;&gt;{{cite book|last=Hammond|first=Nicholas Geoffrey Lemprière|title=Epirus: the Geography, the Ancient Remains, the History and Topography of Epirus and Adjacent Areas|year=1967|location=Oxford|publisher=Clarendon Press|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=gI5QjgEACAAJ&amp;q=In+fact+the+Liaps+and+Tsams+claimed+to+be+autonomous+tribes%2C+distinct+and+separate+from+the+Gegs+and+Tosks|isbn=9780198142539|pages=31}} &quot;In fact the Liaps and Tsams claimed to be autonomous tribes, distinct and separate from the Gegs and Tosks&quot;&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;Stojarova96&quot;&gt;{{cite book|last=Stojarová|first=Vera|title=The far right in the Balkans|year=2016|location=Oxford|publisher=Oxford University Press|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=vcTXDQAAQBAJ&amp;q=Tosks+Labs&amp;pg=PA96|isbn=9781526117021|pages=96}} &quot;The Albanians are divided into two subgroups: southerners (Tosks, Labs and Chams) and northerners (Gegs), with a border formed by the river Shkumbin.&quot;&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name = Kretsi173&gt;{{cite journal|last=Kretsi|first=Georgia|title=The Secret Past of the Greek-Albanian Borderlands. Cham Muslim Albanians: Perspectives on a Conflict over Historical Accountability and Current Rights|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=-ebpDLhkVWcC&amp;q=Tosks+Labs+Chams&amp;pg=PA173|journal=Ethnologia Balkanica|issue=6|year=2002|pages=173}} &quot;In historical literature the Chams are thought to form one of the four Albanian tribes (the Labs, Tosks and Gegs are the other three).&quot;&lt;/ref&gt; which at times are also included in the category of Tosks due to ethno-cultural and dialectal similarities. The [[Arvanites]] of [[Greece]] and [[Arbëreshë people|Arbëreshë]] of [[Italy]] are, mainly, descendants of Tosk-speaking settlers, as are the original inhabitants of the village of [[Mandritsa]] in [[Bulgaria]]. The name Toskëria itself is often used to name entire Tosk-speaking parts of Albania, in contrast to northern Gegëria. The Tosks in [[Albania]] live indicatively south of the [[Shkumbin]] river.&lt;ref name=&quot;Gawrych2123&quot;/&gt; This region is widely referred to by Albanians as Toskëri&lt;ref name=&quot;Gawrych2123&quot;/&gt; and by foreigners as Toskeria.&lt;ref name=&quot;Elsie2010&quot;&gt;{{cite book|last=Elsie|first=Robert|author-link=Robert Elsie|title=Historical Dictionary of Albania|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=haFlGXIg8uoC&amp;pg=PA450|date=19 March 2010|publisher=Scarecrow Press|isbn=978-0-8108-7380-3|page=450|quote=The territory of the Tosks is poetically referred to as Toskeria.}}&lt;/ref&gt; The Ottoman Turkish term, used during the times when Albania was included in the empire, was ''Toskalık''&lt;ref name=&quot;Blumi2013&quot;&gt;{{cite book|last=Blumi|first=Isa|title=Ottoman Refugees, 1878-1939: Migration in a Post-Imperial World|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=nTKaAAAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PA33|date=12 September 2013|publisher=A&amp;C Black|isbn=978-1-4725-1538-4|page=33|quote=... the region of southern Albania—Toskalik...}}&lt;/ref&gt; meaning land of the Tosks.&lt;ref name=&quot;Gawrych2123&quot;/&gt; During the late Ottoman period apart from the term Arnavudluk (Albania) being used for Albanian regions, the designation Toskalık was also used in documents by Ottomans.&lt;ref name=&quot;Gawrych22&quot;&gt;{{harvnb|Gawrych|2006|p=22.}}&lt;/ref&gt; In the 1880s, Albanians defined the wider region of Toskalık (Toskland) as encompassing the Ottoman administrative units of Ergiri (Gjirokastër), [[Sanjak of Preveza|Preveza]], [[Sanjak of Avlona|Berat]] and [[Sanjak of Ioannina|Yanya]] (Ioannina) sanjaks part of [[Janina vilayet|Yanya vilayet]] (province) with Görice (Korçë), [[Sanjak of Monastir|Monastir]] (Bitola) and [[Sanjak of Elbasan|Elbasan]] sanjaks of [[Manastir vilayet|Monastir vilayet]].&lt;ref name=&quot;Gawrych23&quot;/&gt; The wider area of Toskalık was divided into three distinct regions.&lt;ref name=&quot;Gawrych23&quot;/&gt; The first was Toskalık, the second Laplık (Labëria) being composed of the areas of [[Sanjak of Delvina|Delvine]] (Delvinë), [[Sanjak of Avlona|Avlonya]] (Vlorë), Tepdelen (Tepelenë), Kurules (Kurvelesh) and Ergiri (Gjirokastër).&lt;ref name=&quot;Gawrych23&quot;/&gt; The third Camlık ([[Chameria]]) encompassed the areas of Margalic (Margariti), Aydonat (Paramithi) and Filat (Filiates).&lt;ref name=&quot;Gawrych23&quot;/&gt; == Language == {{Main|Tosk Albanian}} [[File:Albanian dialects.svg|thumb|right|250px|A map showing Tosk speakers in crimson and orange]] The Tosks speak Tosk Albanian, one of the two main Albanian dialects. In the late Ottoman period, the upper and middle classes of Tosk society, apart from speaking Albanian, knew Greek and some Ottoman Turkish.&lt;ref name=&quot;Gawrych26&quot;/&gt; As Albanian and Greek cultures dominated in Yanya vilayet, at home they would speak Albanian, at school in Greek and outside resort to either Albanian or Greek and much less in Ottoman Turkish due to the small number of government officials in the area.&lt;ref name=&quot;Gawrych26&quot;&gt;{{harvnb|Gawrych|2006|p=26.}}&lt;/ref&gt; The Albanian peasantry of the countryside spoke mainly the Albanian language as a mother tongue, especially if they were Muslim.&lt;ref name=&quot;Gawrych27&quot;/&gt; As Albanians were employed in all levels of government in Yanya vilayet, of the local population who had knowledge in the Albanian language could speak it during their interactions with the Ottoman authorities.&lt;ref name=&quot;Gawrych27&quot;&gt;{{harvnb|Gawrych|2006|p=27.}}&lt;/ref&gt; Over time Greek words have also been incorporated into the lexicon of the Tosk dialect.&lt;ref name=&quot;Gawrych2123&quot;/&gt; Gheg and Tosk Albanians are able to understand each other.&lt;ref name=&quot;Gawrych2123&quot;&gt;{{harvnb|Gawrych|2006|pp=21, 23.}}&lt;/ref&gt; Within an independent Albania, the Albanian communist regime based the standard Albanian language mostly on Tosk Albanian. This practice has been criticized, notably by [[Arshi Pipa]], who claimed that this decision deprived the Albanian language of its richness at the expense of the Ghegs,&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book|title=Canadian review of studies in nationalism: Revue canadienne des études sur le nationalisme, Volume 19|year=1992|publisher=University of Prince Edward Island|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=5DnzAAAAMAAJ&amp;q=%22leading+critic%22|access-date=10 January 2012|page=206}}&lt;/ref&gt; and referred to the literary Albanian language as a &quot;monstrosity&quot; produced by the Tosk communist leadership which conquered anti-Communist north Albania militarily, and imposed their Tosk Albanian dialect on the Ghegs.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book|title=Canadian review of studies in nationalism: Revue canadienne des études sur le nationalisme, Volume 19|year=1992|publisher=University of Prince Edward Island|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=5DnzAAAAMAAJ&amp;q=%22leading+critic%22|access-date=10 January 2012|page=207}}&lt;/ref&gt; Although Albanian writers in former [[Yugoslavia]] were almost all Ghegs, they chose to write in Tosk for political reasons.&lt;ref name=&quot;Pipa1978&quot;&gt;{{cite book|author=Arshi Pipa|title=Albanian literature: social perspectives|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=pECAAAAAIAAJ|access-date=15 July 2013|year=1978|publisher=R. Trofenik|isbn=978-3-87828-106-1|page=173|quote=Although the Albanian population in Yugoslavia is almost exclusively Gheg, the Albanian writers there have chosen, for sheer political reasons, to write in Tosk}}&lt;/ref&gt; This change of literary language has significant political and cultural consequences because the language is the main criterion for self-identification of the Albanians.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book|title=Telos|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ioA4AAAAIAAJ|access-date=16 July 2013|year=1989|publisher=Telos Press|page=1|quote=The political-cultural relevance of the abolition of literary Gheg with literary Tosk....Albanians identify themselves with language...}}&lt;/ref&gt; Despite all efforts to unify Albanian language in some cases Ghegs from remote northern regions can not have conversation with Tosks from the further south.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book|last=Lear|first=Aaron|title=Albania|url=https://archive.org/details/albania00lear_0|url-access=registration|date=1 January 1987|publisher=Chelsea House|isbn=978-1-55546-166-9|page=[https://archive.org/details/albania00lear_0/page/52 52]|quote=... some Ghegs from the most remote regions of the north cannot converse with Tosks from the extreme south.}}&lt;/ref&gt; == Religion == Initially the population of Albania was Orthodox Christian, but in the middle of the 13th century the Ghegs converted to [[Catholicism]].&lt;ref name=&quot;Stavrianos2000 2&quot;&gt;{{cite book|author=Leften Stavros Stavrianos|title=The Balkans Since 1453|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=xcp7OXQE0FMC&amp;pg=PA497|access-date=17 July 2013|date=January 2000|publisher=C. Hurst &amp; Co. Publishers|isbn=978-1-85065-551-0|page=498 |quote=Religious differences also existed before the coming of the Turks. Originally, all Albanians had belonged to the Eastern Orthodox Church... Then the Ghegs in the North adopted in order to better resist the pressure of Orthodox Serbs.}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;Chisholm1910&quot;&gt;{{cite EB1911|wstitle= Albania (Balkans) |volume= 01 | pages = 481&amp;ndash;487; see page 485 |last1= Bourchier |first1= James David |author-link= James David Bourchier }}&lt;/ref&gt; Although many Tosks remained Orthodox Christians, the sense of strong division between Catholic Albanians and Orthodox Albanians did not evolve until the middle of the 18th century.&lt;ref name=&quot;Ramet1998&quot;&gt;{{cite book|last=Ramet|first=Sabrina P.|title=Nihil Obstat: Religion, Politics, and Social Change in East-Central Europe and Russia|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ZvMi6paTOlcC&amp;pg=PA202|year=1998|publisher=Duke University Press|isbn=0-8223-2070-3|page=202|quote=....the sense of true separation between Catholic Albanians and Orthodox Ablanians dates only from the mid-eighteenth century.}}&lt;/ref&gt; Most Tosks are either [[Eastern Orthodox|Orthodox Christians]] or [[Bektashi Order|Bektashis]] in background.&lt;ref name=&quot;Merdjanova2013&quot;&gt;{{cite book |last=Merdjanova|first=Ina|title=Rediscovering the Umma: Muslims in the Balkans Between Nationalism and Transnationalism |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=AA6ZsZhwU5oC&amp;pg=PA149|date=21 March 2013|publisher=Oxford University Press|isbn=978-0-19-996403-1|page=150 |quote=... Ghegs are mostly Sunni Muslims,..., while Tosks are predominantly Bektashis and Orthodox Christians....}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;Gawrych22&quot;&gt;{{harvnb|Gawrych|2006|p=22.}}&lt;/ref&gt; The Orthodox are more predominant in the regions around Gjirokastër, around Leskovik, and in the Myzeqe region (which includes the areas around Fier, Kuçova and Lushnja) and in the Dangëllia region (around Përmet) while Bektashis and are more heavily concentrated around Vlora, Tepelena, Mallakastra, Pogradec and in Skrapar, Erseka and Gramsh. Other sects of Islam are present too, with Sunnis present mostly in cities and in far eastern regions (especially in Macedonia and Devoll) while there are also Halvetis in Berat. In almost all these areas, however, Christians, Bektashis and sometimes other sects of Muslims live side by side. Christians and Muslims were historically (around the time of the fall of the Ottoman Empire) almost evenly distributed in the Korça District and the area in and around the cities of Berat and Lushnja. The [[Arbëreshë people|Arbëreshë of Italy]], who are of Tosk descent, kept their Byzantine worship but reconciled with the Catholic Church, and today have their own rite, the [[Italo-Albanian Catholic Church]]. Many Tosks are irreligious due to communist rule and a largely irreligious and secular population remains prevalent in much of Southern Albania. == Culture and social organization == [[File:Tosk Albanians.jpg|thumbnail|right|Tosks in their traditional costumes]] The Tosks maintained substantial contacts with outside world and were more influenced by it.&lt;ref name=&quot;Biberaj1998&quot;&gt;{{cite book|last=Biberaj|first=Elez|title=Albania in transition: the rocky road to democracy|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=L0OOAAAAMAAJ|year=1998|publisher=Westview Press|isbn=978-0-8133-3502-5|page=16|quote= The Tosks live in southern Albania and parts of northern Greece. Because their territories were easily accessible, the Tosks developed substantial contacts with the outside world, and as a result, foreign influences were more pronounced }}&lt;/ref&gt; Some authors believe Tosks are more progressive and open than Ghegs.&lt;ref name=&quot;Roselli2006&quot;&gt;{{cite book|last=Roselli|first=Alessandro|title=Italy and Albania: Financial Relations in the Fascist Period|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Iv-iW3WGDvIC&amp;pg=PA1|date=22 August 2006|publisher=I.B.Tauris|isbn=978-1-84511-254-7|page=1|quote= The peoples to the south of the River Shkumbin (the 'Tosks', more sober and refined in nature) were more open and progressive.}}&lt;/ref&gt; Tosks intermarried with non-Albanians more than Ghegs.&lt;ref name=&quot;Minahan2000&quot;&gt;{{cite book|last=Minahan|first=James|title=One Europe, Many Nations: A Historical Dictionary of European National Groups|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=NwvoM-ZFoAgC&amp;pg=PA29|date=1 January 2000|publisher=Greenwood Publishing Group|isbn=978-0-313-30984-7|page=29|quote= The Ghegs, who make up about two-thirds of the total, are less intermarried with non-Albanians than the Tosks, }}&lt;/ref&gt; Nineteenth century Albanian views of the Tosks as expressed by [[Sami Frashëri]] was that unity existed with the Ghegs along with few differences of dialect and pronunciation, while in warfare Tosks were better at perseverance and resistance than Ghegs who were skilled in attack.&lt;ref name=&quot;Gawrych100&quot;&gt;{{harvnb|Gawrych|2006|p=100.}}&lt;/ref&gt; Tosks abandoned the tribal social organization by the end of 14th century and Ottoman conquest of the territory they lived.&lt;ref name=&quot;KingMai2013&quot;&gt;{{cite book|last1=King|first1=Russell|author-link1=Russell King (geographer)|last2=Mai|first2=Nicola|title=Out Of Albania: From Crisis Migration to Social Inclusion in Italy|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=_PUaNmz4Uc4C&amp;pg=PA62|date=15 January 2013|publisher=Berghahn Books|isbn=978-0-85745-390-7|page=62|quote= ...Tosks, who had abandoned the tribal system by the time of the Ottoman conquest...}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;Gawrych23&quot;/&gt; During the Ottoman period society in Toskëria was composed of a few rich wealthy Muslim Albanian landowning families that rose through the course of centuries within the imperial system owning large parts of the countryside and big estates.&lt;ref name=&quot;Gawrych23&quot;/&gt; Tosk Albanians supplied the Ottoman empire with elites who served in high positions within the bureaucracy and military.&lt;ref name=&quot;Gawrych28&quot;&gt;{{harvnb|Gawrych|2006|p=28.}}&lt;/ref&gt; The landowning notables were referred to as [[Bey|beys]] and formed the foundation of Ottoman control within southern Albania.&lt;ref name=&quot;Gawrych23&quot;/&gt; Prominent families included the Vrioni and Vlora based in the fertile Myzeqe plain within the [[Sanjak of Berat]] who sold their agricultural produce to Italy and apart from their economic power also exercised powerful influence upon the local Ottoman administration.&lt;ref name=&quot;Gawrych23&quot;/&gt; The wealthy landowning class derived their income from lumbering, mining, farming and other smaller industries and were similar to the nobility of Europe, though on a smaller scale.&lt;ref name=&quot;Gawrych23&quot;/&gt; Ruling as feudal lords over the peasantry, the landowning class would at times settle legal issues without resorting to usual government channels and the beys viewed themselves as patriarchs that defended and counseled their peasants.&lt;ref name=&quot;Gawrych24&quot;/&gt; Members from the landowning class would represent a peasant to Ottoman authorities while settling small disputes among the peasants in their own way.&lt;ref name=&quot;Gawrych24&quot;/&gt; In some statistics the landowner received 50-60 percent of earnings by the peasantry of whom also had to pay tax to Ottoman authorities.&lt;ref name=&quot;Gawrych24&quot;/&gt; Peasants often had little to live on and households were poor, with up to seven families at a time residing in a two or three room dwelling.&lt;ref name=&quot;Gawrych24&quot;/&gt; Ottomans outside the area viewed Tosk society as split between the classes of [[Zulm|zalim]] (oppressor) and mazlum (oppressed).&lt;ref name=&quot;Gawrych24&quot;/&gt; During the Hamidian period, Tosk towns underwent slow growth of the Albanian middle class that was composed of government officials, lawyers, physicians, teachers, merchants and artisans.&lt;ref name=&quot;Gawrych24&quot;/&gt; Some middle class Albanians over time joined the beys to generate an intellectual class that worked toward a cultural and linguistic [[Albanian National Awakening|Albanian awakening]].&lt;ref name=&quot;Gawrych24&quot;&gt;{{harvnb|Gawrych|2006|p=24.}}&lt;/ref&gt; At the end of 19th and beginning of 20th century many Albanians migrated to [[United States]] and almost all of them were Tosks. There was also substantial migration of Tosks to [[Greece]], particularly its northern part.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book|last=Lear|first=Aaron|title=Albania|url=https://archive.org/details/albania00lear_0|url-access=registration|date=1 January 1987|publisher=Chelsea House|isbn=978-1-55546-166-9|page=[https://archive.org/details/albania00lear_0/page/51 51]|quote=Almost all of the Albanians who immigrated to the United States in the late 19th and early 20th centuries were Tosk peasants in search of a better life. Many Tosks also immigrated to northern Greece.}}&lt;/ref&gt; == Physical anthropology == The Tosks have often been described as shorter, less slender and described as being of a darker Mediterranean type to the Ghegs.&lt;ref name=&quot;Hanbury-Tenison2009&quot;&gt;{{cite book|author=Robin Hanbury-Tenison|title=Land of eagles: riding through Europe's forgotten country|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=JHUtAQAAIAAJ|access-date=17 July 2013|date=15 July 2009|publisher=I. B. Tauris|isbn=978-1-84511-855-6|page=128|quote=Ghegs, who are often described as fair, are taller than Tosks, who are darker and more Mediterranean.}}&lt;/ref&gt; The Tosks have smaller noses and rounder faces than Ghegs.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book|last=Lear|first=Aaron|title=Albania|url=https://archive.org/details/albania00lear_0|url-access=registration|date=1 January 1987|publisher=Chelsea House|isbn=978-1-55546-166-9|page=[https://archive.org/details/albania00lear_0/page/50 50]|quote=The Tosk people are shorter and have rounder faces and smaller noses than the Ghegs.}}&lt;/ref&gt; Some claim that this difference has been reduced due to population movement in post-Communist period.&lt;ref name=&quot;Vickers2007&quot;&gt;{{cite book|author=Miranda Vickers|title=The Albanian Question: Reshaping the Balkans|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=yuh2NebIN3oC&amp;pg=PA270|access-date=17 July 2013|year=2007|publisher=I.B.Tauris|isbn=978-1-86064-974-5|page=270|quote=... Ghegs speak a slightly different dialect of the language, and are often taller and thinner than Tosks, but these traditional differences (often exaggerated in vulgar anthropology) have been much diminished by population movement in the post-communist period}}&lt;/ref&gt; == History == === Pre-Ottoman and Ottoman period === There was a distinction between Ghegs and Tosks before the Ottomans appeared in Albania at the end of the 14th century.&lt;ref name=&quot;Stavrianos2000&quot;&gt;{{cite book|author=Leften Stavros Stavrianos|title=The Balkans Since 1453|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=xcp7OXQE0FMC&amp;pg=PA497 |access-date=17 July 2013|date=January 2000|publisher=C. Hurst &amp; Co. Publishers|isbn=978-1-85065-551-0|page=497|quote=These differences existed before appearance of Turks. Traditionally there has been the division between the Ghegs in the north and the Tosks in the south, the Shkumbi River being the line}}&lt;/ref&gt; In the Ottoman Empire this division was additionally solidified because Tosks established strong cultural and intellectual connection with Istanbul and generally, the rest of the world.&lt;ref name=&quot;Blumi2003&quot;&gt;{{cite book|last=Blumi|first=Isa|title=Rethinking the late Ottoman Empire: a comparative social and political history of Albania and Yemen, 1878-1918|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=rWAMAQAAMAAJ|year=2003|publisher=Isis Press|isbn=978-975-428-242-9|page=29|quote=This dichotomy intensified through time as Tosks developed strong intellectual and cultural links with Istanbul,...}}&lt;/ref&gt; During the Ottoman period, of the thirty [[Grand Viziers]] of Albanian ethnicity to serve the empire, most of them were Tosks such as [[Mehmed Ferid Pasha]] (1851-1914) of the Vlora family.&lt;ref name=&quot;Gawrych23&quot;&gt;{{harvnb|Gawrych|2006|p=23.}}&lt;/ref&gt; By the middle of the nineteenth century Toskëria was considerably better integrated within the Ottoman system and had better connections with the wider world than its northern regional counterpart of Gegënia.&lt;ref name=&quot;Gawrych2328&quot;&gt;{{harvnb|Gawrych|2006|pp=23, 28.}}&lt;/ref&gt; Despite Toskëria being integrated within the Ottoman system, the area still showed levels of regionalism.&lt;ref name=&quot;Gawrych28&quot;&gt;{{harvnb|Gawrych|2006|p=28.}}&lt;/ref&gt; [[File:Ismail Qemali (portrait).jpg|thumb|right|170px|Ismail Qemali, first president and prime minister of an independent Albania]] The [[Great Eastern Crisis]] resulted in Albanian resistance to partition by neighbouring powers with the formation of the [[Prizren League]] which issued a [[Kararname (League of Prizren)|Kararname]] (memorandum) that declared both Tosks and Ghegs had made an oath to defend the state and homeland in the name of Islam.&lt;ref name=&quot;Gawrych4647&quot;&gt;{{harvnb|Gawrych|2006|pp=46-47.}}&lt;/ref&gt; Tosk Albanians living in Yanya vilayet had to deal with land claims by Greece based on the [[Megali Idea]] to areas of Toskëria that they lived in.&lt;ref name=&quot;Gawrych2535&quot;&gt;{{harvnb|Gawrych|2006|pp=25, 35.}}&lt;/ref&gt; During the crisis Tosks and Ghegs made [[Besa (Albanian culture)|besas]] (pledges of honor) to arm themselves and shed blood to defend their rights.&lt;ref name=&quot;Gawrych48&quot;&gt;{{harvnb|Gawrych|2006|p=48.}}&lt;/ref&gt; Other Albanians, mostly Tosks developed ideological arguments and led the information campaign for autonomy by sending petitions in 1878 to the [[Berlin Congress]] that were against the territorial ambitions of its neighbors and for the creation of a unitary Albanian province.&lt;ref name=&quot;Gawrych4860&quot;&gt;{{harvnb|Gawrych|2006|pp=48, 60.}}&lt;/ref&gt; Lacking a tribal network of the Ghegs, Tosk society instead relied on the Bektashi network to spread information and mobilise Albanians to resist any annexation by Greece of the Yanya vilayet in 1880.&lt;ref name=&quot;Gawrych64&quot;&gt;{{harvnb|Gawrych|2006|p=64.}}&lt;/ref&gt; During this time Tosks led the way in articulating Albanianism based on a national program demanding Albanian sociopolitical rights.&lt;ref name=&quot;Gawrych70&quot;&gt;{{harvnb|Gawrych|2006|p=70.}}&lt;/ref&gt; Tosk Albanians in July 1906 were unable to have their request to sultan [[Abdul Hamid II]] granted for permission to establish schools in Shkodër, Monastir and Yanya to teach the Albanian language.&lt;ref name=&quot;Gawrych138&quot;&gt;{{harvnb|Gawrych|2006|p=138.}}&lt;/ref&gt; During the [[Young Turk Revolution]] (1908) Tosks, with some being [[Committee of Union and Progress]] (CUP) members were one group in Albanian society that gave its support for the restoration of the [[Ottoman constitution of 1876]] with some fighting in guerilla bands to end the Hamidian regime.&lt;ref name=&quot;Gawrych3141150151169&quot;&gt;{{harvnb|Gawrych|2006|pp=3, 141, 150-151, 169.}}&lt;/ref&gt; The revolution had raised hopes among Albanians and the new [[Young Turk]] (CUP) government which had relied on Tosk and Gheg support promised them to better governance.&lt;ref name=&quot;Gawrych205&quot;&gt;{{harvnb|Gawrych|2006|p=205.}}&lt;/ref&gt; The [[Albanian revolt of 1911]] and the subsequent [[Greçë Memorandum]] calling for sociopolitical rights received support from Tosk leaders who sent telegrams to Istanbul demanding autonomy and unification of four provinces: Shkodër, Kosovo, Monastir and Yanya into one province of Albania.&lt;ref name=&quot;Gawrych189&quot;&gt;{{harvnb|Gawrych|2006|p=189.}}&lt;/ref&gt; The Ottoman government seeking to quell unrest decided to negotiate with Tosk Albanians at Tepelenë on 18 August 1911 for a solution and a deal was struck promising Albanian education, linguistic and a few sociopolitical rights.&lt;ref name=&quot;Gawrych190201&quot;&gt;{{cite book|last=Gawrych|first=George|title=The Crescent and the Eagle: Ottoman rule, Islam and the Albanians, 1874–1913|year=2006|location=London|publisher=IB Tauris|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=wPOtzk-unJgC&amp;q=Tosks|isbn=9781845112875|pages=190, 201}}&lt;/ref&gt; === Albania === In the 1920s many Tosks were poverty-stricken [[serfs]].&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book|last=Fischer|first=Bernd Jürgen|author-link=Bernd Jürgen Fischer|title=Albania at War, 1939-1945|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=P-MiG9ngCp8C&amp;pg=PA34|date=January 1999|publisher=C. Hurst &amp; Co. Publishers|isbn=978-1-85065-531-2|page=34|quote= In the south, home of the Tosks, impoverished peasants were still treated essentially as serfs by their feudal Moslem landlords.}}&lt;/ref&gt; As a result, Tosk Albanians made up around three quarters of the membership of the [[Albanian Communist Party]].&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book|last1=King|first1=Russell|author-link1=Russell King (geographer)|last2=Mai|first2=Nicola|title=Out Of Albania: From Crisis Migration to Social Inclusion in Italy|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=_PUaNmz4Uc4C&amp;pg=PA33|date=15 January 2013|publisher=Berghahn Books|isbn=978-0-85745-390-7|page=33|quote= The ACP was largely a creation of southern or Tosk Albanians. }}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book|author=Miranda Vickers|title=The Albanians: A Modern History|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=IzI0uOZ2j6gC&amp;pg=PA164|year=1999|publisher=I.B.Tauris|isbn=978-1-86064-541-9|page=164|quote=The Communist victory had realized the transference of political power from the Ghegs to the Tosks, and as around three-quarters of the membership of the ACP were Tosks, }}&lt;/ref&gt; == Notable Tosks == * [[Ahmed Niyazi Bey]] * [[Ali Demi]] * [[Ali Pasha Tepelena]] * [[Dhimitër Beratti]] * [[Mehdi Frashëri]] * [[Mid'hat Frashëri|Midhat Frashëri]] * [[Enver Hoxha]] * [[Ismail Qemali]] * [[Kostandin Kristoforidhi]] * [[Lütfi Pasha]] * [[Mehmet Shehu]] * [[Muhammad Ali of Egypt]] * [[Naum Veqilharxhi]] * [[Spiridon Ilo]] * [[Çerçiz Topulli]] * [[Foto Strakosha]], Former Albanian national team goalkeeper. * [[Thomas Strakosha]], Albanian national team goalkeeper who currently plays for [[Brentford F.C.|Brentford F.C]]. * [[Giovanni Paramithiotti]], Founder of [[Inter Milan]] football club. His family is from [[Chameria|Çamëria]] [[Paramythia]]. * [[Donika Kastrioti]], The wife of [[Skanderbeg]] and mother of their child [[Gjon Kastrioti II]], born into the [[Arianiti family]] of nobles. Born in [[Kaninë]] a village in [[Vlorë|Vlore]]. * [[Gregory IV of Athens|Grigor Gjirokastriti]], (died 1828) was an [[Albanians|Albanian]] scholar and cleric who became [[Metropolitan of Athens]] in 1827–1828 and translated the [[New Testament]] into [[Albanian language|Albanian]] using the [[Greek alphabet]]. * [[Kolë Idromeno]], (15 August 1860 – 12 December 1939),was an [[Albanians|Albanian]] painter, sculptor, architect, photographer, [[cinematographer]], composer and engineer during the [[Albanian Renaissance]] in the nineteenth century. He is widely regarded as a precursor of both [[Realism (arts)|realism]] and [[landscape art]] in [[Albania]]. == References == {{Reflist|2}} == Further reading == *{{cite book|last=Sugarman|first=Jane|title=Engendering song: Singing and subjectivity at Prespa Albanian weddings|year=1997|publisher=University of Chicago Press|isbn=9780226779720|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=x41vWj_ESu8C&amp;q=Engendering+Song%3A+Singing+and+Subjectivity+at+Prespa+Albanian+Weddings}} [[Category:Albanian ethnographic regions]]</div></summary> <author><name>Βατο</name></author> </entry> <entry> <id>https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Wikipedia:Requests_for_page_protection/Increase&diff=1255254368</id> <title>Wikipedia:Requests for page protection/Increase</title> <link rel="alternate" type="text/html" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Wikipedia:Requests_for_page_protection/Increase&diff=1255254368"/> <updated>2024-11-03T23:27:43Z</updated> <summary type="html">Βατο: <hr /> <div>{{no admin backlog}} {{Shortcut|WP:RPPI|WP:RPP/I}} {{Wikipedia:Requests for page protection/PRheading}} &lt;noinclude&gt;{{/Header}}&lt;/noinclude&gt; === [[:Eskerê Boyîk]] === * {{pagelinks|1=Eskerê Boyîk}} '''Temporary semi-protection:''' Persistent addition of [[WP:INTREF|unsourced or poorly sourced content]] – Contentious topic that is victim of unsourced additions by sock accounts (three accounts, maybe four). [[User:Semsûrî|Semsûrî]] ([[User talk:Semsûrî|talk]]) 10:23, 3 November 2024 (UTC) :[[File:Pictogram voting support.svg|20px|link=|alt=]] '''[[Wikipedia:Protection policy#Extended confirmed protection|Extended confirmed protected]]'''&amp;#32;for a period of '''6 months''', after which the page will be automatically unprotected.&lt;!-- Template:RFPP#excp --&gt; [[User:Ymblanter|Ymblanter]] ([[User talk:Ymblanter|talk]]) 22:22, 3 November 2024 (UTC) === [[Hurry Up Tomorrow]] === * {{pagelinks|Hurry Up Tomorrow}} '''Semi-protection:''' Persistent vandalism and addition of unsourced content by unconfirmed users. [[User:M48SKY|M48SKY]] ([[User talk:M48SKY|talk]]) 11:05, 3 November 2024 (UTC) === [[Crimean Tatars]] === * {{pagelinks|Crimean Tatars}} '''Reason:''' There is a consistent pattern of POV pushing and a biased agenda from this IP. IP user claims that Crimean Tatars are descended from Anglo-Saxon settlers during the Byzantine era. He is using a non-reliable news source about Anglo-Saxon settlers, but the source does not mention any connection between Crimean Tatars and Anglo-Saxons. In fact, last citation does not even contain word &quot;Crimean Tatar&quot; It'd be great if an advanced editor or administrator can shorten the Tatarization section of the article. He also doing a similar thing to Crimean Goths. I attempted to discuss this issue with the editor on the talk page of Crimean Tatars 9 months ago, but they have continued to engage in edit warring in different time periods. Some of their IP addresses were blocked earlier this year. This is straight vandalism at this point. I request a page protection for few months. [[User:Auzandil|Auzandil]] ([[User talk:Auzandil|talk]]) 11:06, 3 November 2024 (UTC) === [[After Hours til Dawn Tour]] === * {{pagelinks|After Hours til Dawn Tour}} '''Semi-protection:''' Persistent levels of vandalism, poor adherence to WP policy throughout the page from unconfirmed users. [[User:M48SKY|M48SKY]] ([[User talk:M48SKY|talk]]) 11:13, 3 November 2024 (UTC) === [[:Camel urine]] === * {{pagelinks|1=Camel urine}} '''Full protection:''' There seems to be a persistent battle between different parties that want to remove content because they do not like it One party seems to be Muslim and the other Hindu and there appears to be a lot sock pupery involved. [[User:Hardyplants|Hardyplants]] ([[User talk:Hardyplants|talk]]) 11:14, 3 November 2024 (UTC) === [[:Paw Patrol: The Mighty Movie]] === * {{pagelinks|1=Paw Patrol: The Mighty Movie}} '''Semi-protection:''' Persistent [[Wikipedia:Disruptive editing|disruptive editing]] – Same person multiple IPs falsifying credits. Range too large to block. [[User:Geraldo Perez|Geraldo Perez]] ([[User talk:Geraldo Perez|talk]]) 17:11, 3 November 2024 (UTC) === [[Averroes International School, Dhaka]] === * {{pagelinks|Averroes International School, Dhaka}} '''Reason:''' Persistent disruptive editing by IP socks. [[User:Johnj1995|Johnj1995]] ([[User talk:Johnj1995|talk]]) 17:12, 3 November 2024 (UTC) === [[:Egusi]] === * {{pagelinks|1=Egusi}} '''Temporary extended confirmed protection:''' Edit warring by newish users. [[User:McClenon mobile|McClenon mobile]] ([[User talk:McClenon mobile|talk]]) 17:28, 3 November 2024 (UTC) === [[2024 United Kingdom riots]] === * {{pagelinks|2024 United Kingdom riots}} '''Reason:''' The IP addresses are back, has been semi-protected quite a few times previously. [[User:CommunityNotesContributor|CNC]] ([[User talk:CommunityNotesContributor|talk]]) 18:18, 3 November 2024 (UTC) === [[Natalya Naryshkina]] === * {{pagelinks|Natalya Naryshkina}} '''Reason:''' High vandalism to the Origins section. [[User:125AB|125AB]] ([[User talk:125AB|talk]]) 18:30, 3 November 2024 (UTC) === [[Russians ]] === * {{pagelinks|Russians }} '''Reason:''' Vandalism to the Unity and Distinction section. [[User:125AB|125AB]] ([[User talk:125AB|talk]]) 18:45, 3 November 2024 (UTC) === [[:List of programs broadcast by ARY Digital]] === * {{pagelinks|1=List of programs broadcast by ARY Digital}} '''Temporary semi-protection:''' Persistent [[WP:VAND|vandalism]] – Previously protected and now that its not, the same persistence from IPs adding unsourced programs has returend. Have reverted numerous times with warnings since last protection to no avail. [[User:CNMall41|CNMall41]] ([[User talk:CNMall41|talk]]) 18:55, 3 November 2024 (UTC) === [[List of Maggie Smith performances]] === * {{pagelinks|List of Maggie Smith performances}} '''Semi-protection:''' High level of IP edit warring. Warnings have been left on their talk page asking them to discuss the matter (and a talk page thread has been open), but they have continued to edit war. There is more than one IP address being used, but it’s clear they are the same person. Page protection would be appreciated. - [[User:SchroCat|SchroCat]] ([[User talk:SchroCat|talk]]) 19:10, 3 November 2024 (UTC) === [[:Nancy Marchand]] === * {{pagelinks|1=Nancy Marchand}} '''Semi-protection:''' Persistent [[WP:VAND|vandalism]] – Vandalism has resumed after expiration of previous protection. [[User:AntiDionysius|&lt;span style=&quot;color:green&quot;&gt;AntiDionysius&lt;/span&gt;]] (&lt;span style=&quot;font-variant:small-caps&quot;&gt;[[User talk:AntiDionysius|talk]]&lt;/span&gt;) 19:14, 3 November 2024 (UTC) === [[Nissan Cherry]] === * {{pagelinks|Nissan Cherry}} '''Reason:''' High level of vandalism. [[Special:Contributions/2A02:C7C:ACD6:1C00:A595:C942:21E4:DAFE|2A02:C7C:ACD6:1C00:A595:C942:21E4:DAFE]] ([[User talk:2A02:C7C:ACD6:1C00:A595:C942:21E4:DAFE|talk]]) 20:08, 3 November 2024 (UTC) === [[:Pratihar (Rajput clan)]] === * {{pagelinks|1=Pratihar (Rajput clan)}} '''Extended confirmed protection:''' Persistent [[WP:SOCK|sockpuppetry]] – [[WP:GS/CASTE]] Persistent [[WP:Disruptive| disruptive editin]] by multiple [[WP:Sock|sock]] hoppers. [[User:Rasteem|'''&lt;span style=&quot;color:#FF1493&quot;&gt;®&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color:#FF6347&quot;&gt;as&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color:#FF69B4&quot;&gt;t&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color:#DB7093&quot;&gt;ee&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color:#C71585&quot;&gt;&lt;u&gt;m&lt;/u&gt;&lt;/span&gt;''']] [[User talk:Rasteem|Talk]] 20:41, 3 November 2024 (UTC) === [[The Bloodline (professional wrestling)]] === * {{pagelinks|The Bloodline (professional wrestling)}} '''Reason:''' Hello, I would like to request [[WP:BLUELOCK|Extended confirmed protection]] for the The Bloodline article. There are too many accounts making too many changes against [[WP:POL|Wikipedia's policy and guidelines]] such as [[WP:OR|No original research]], [[WP:FANCRUFT|Fancruft]] as well as straight up [[WP:VANDAL|vandalism]] by editors with no regard or little knowledge of how Wikipedia works and due to the popularity of the article there is simply no way to control it and it is slowly descending into chaos. This is why I request this and I hope this issue can be fixed. Here a few diffs that were previously asked for that can show my point further [//en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=The_Bloodline_(professional_wrestling)&amp;diff=1255218712&amp;oldid=1254867496] [//en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=The_Bloodline_(professional_wrestling)&amp;diff=1255218712&amp;oldid=1254069756] (Most of this had to be reverted by another editor) [//en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=The_Bloodline_(professional_wrestling)&amp;diff=1255218712&amp;oldid=1253740429] These are just a couple of examples but these editors edit the page against the template set out and provide unecessary details and unverified claims and it needs to be put right otherwise it's just going to continue, and just for referencing purposes [//en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=The_Bloodline_(professional_wrestling)&amp;diff=1255218712&amp;oldid=1249845840] this is how it should be set out and this was before most of the [[WP:DIS|disruptive editing]] occured. If you need any more diffs to prove what I'm saying is true or if there is any need for further proof, please let me know in the reply. [[User:Lemonademan22|Lemonademan22]] ([[User talk:Lemonademan22|talk]]) 21:52, 3 November 2024 (UTC) === [[:Pawari]] === * {{pagelinks|1=Pawari}} '''Indefinite extended confirmed protection:''' Persistent [[WP:SOCK|sockpuppetry]] – [[WP:GS/CASTE]] Persistent [[WP: Disruptive|disruptive editing]] by multiple [[WP:Sock|sock]] hoppers. [[User:Rasteem|'''&lt;span style=&quot;color:#FF1493&quot;&gt;®&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color:#FF6347&quot;&gt;as&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color:#FF69B4&quot;&gt;t&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color:#DB7093&quot;&gt;ee&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color:#C71585&quot;&gt;&lt;u&gt;m&lt;/u&gt;&lt;/span&gt;''']] [[User talk:Rasteem|Talk]] 22:01, 3 November 2024 (UTC) :[[File:Pictogram voting support.svg|20px|link=|alt=]] '''[[Wikipedia:Protection policy#Semi-protection|Semi-protected]]'''&amp;#32;for a period of '''1 week''', after which the page will be automatically unprotected.&lt;!-- Template:RFPP#semi --&gt; [[User:Ymblanter|Ymblanter]] ([[User talk:Ymblanter|talk]]) 22:20, 3 November 2024 (UTC) === [[Talk:Baalbek]] === * {{pagelinks|Talk:Baalbek}} '''Reason:''' IPs starting to make unconstructive comments again on an [[WP:ECR]] talk page, right after the protection ran out. Please semi-protect for a longer period. [[User:Hypnôs|Hypnôs]] ([[User talk:Hypnôs|talk]]) 23:04, 3 November 2024 (UTC) === [[:Do Not Track]] === * {{pagelinks|1=Do Not Track}} '''Temporary semi-protection:''' Persistent [[WP:VAND|vandalism]] – Most of the last hundred edits to this article are either vandalism or reverting vandalism. As far as I can tell, no new editors have made constructive edits in that time (with the exception of a few editors reverting vandalism). The vandalism has come from many different IPs, so blocks would be ineffective. [[User:Jlwoodwa|jlwoodwa]] ([[User talk:Jlwoodwa|talk]]) 23:23, 3 November 2024 (UTC) === [[Albanian language]] === * {{pagelinks|Albanian language}} '''Reason:''' High level of IP vandalism. – [[User:Βατο|Βατο]] ([[User talk:Βατο|talk]]) 23:26, 3 November 2024 (UTC)</div></summary> <author><name>Βατο</name></author> </entry> <entry> <id>https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Wikipedia:Requests_for_page_protection/Increase&diff=1255254195</id> <title>Wikipedia:Requests for page protection/Increase</title> <link rel="alternate" type="text/html" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Wikipedia:Requests_for_page_protection/Increase&diff=1255254195"/> <updated>2024-11-03T23:26:10Z</updated> <summary type="html">Βατο: Requesting protection for Albanian language <hr /> <div>{{no admin backlog}} {{Shortcut|WP:RPPI|WP:RPP/I}} {{Wikipedia:Requests for page protection/PRheading}} &lt;noinclude&gt;{{/Header}}&lt;/noinclude&gt; === [[:Eskerê Boyîk]] === * {{pagelinks|1=Eskerê Boyîk}} '''Temporary semi-protection:''' Persistent addition of [[WP:INTREF|unsourced or poorly sourced content]] – Contentious topic that is victim of unsourced additions by sock accounts (three accounts, maybe four). [[User:Semsûrî|Semsûrî]] ([[User talk:Semsûrî|talk]]) 10:23, 3 November 2024 (UTC) :[[File:Pictogram voting support.svg|20px|link=|alt=]] '''[[Wikipedia:Protection policy#Extended confirmed protection|Extended confirmed protected]]'''&amp;#32;for a period of '''6 months''', after which the page will be automatically unprotected.&lt;!-- Template:RFPP#excp --&gt; [[User:Ymblanter|Ymblanter]] ([[User talk:Ymblanter|talk]]) 22:22, 3 November 2024 (UTC) === [[Hurry Up Tomorrow]] === * {{pagelinks|Hurry Up Tomorrow}} '''Semi-protection:''' Persistent vandalism and addition of unsourced content by unconfirmed users. [[User:M48SKY|M48SKY]] ([[User talk:M48SKY|talk]]) 11:05, 3 November 2024 (UTC) === [[Crimean Tatars]] === * {{pagelinks|Crimean Tatars}} '''Reason:''' There is a consistent pattern of POV pushing and a biased agenda from this IP. IP user claims that Crimean Tatars are descended from Anglo-Saxon settlers during the Byzantine era. He is using a non-reliable news source about Anglo-Saxon settlers, but the source does not mention any connection between Crimean Tatars and Anglo-Saxons. In fact, last citation does not even contain word &quot;Crimean Tatar&quot; It'd be great if an advanced editor or administrator can shorten the Tatarization section of the article. He also doing a similar thing to Crimean Goths. I attempted to discuss this issue with the editor on the talk page of Crimean Tatars 9 months ago, but they have continued to engage in edit warring in different time periods. Some of their IP addresses were blocked earlier this year. This is straight vandalism at this point. I request a page protection for few months. [[User:Auzandil|Auzandil]] ([[User talk:Auzandil|talk]]) 11:06, 3 November 2024 (UTC) === [[After Hours til Dawn Tour]] === * {{pagelinks|After Hours til Dawn Tour}} '''Semi-protection:''' Persistent levels of vandalism, poor adherence to WP policy throughout the page from unconfirmed users. [[User:M48SKY|M48SKY]] ([[User talk:M48SKY|talk]]) 11:13, 3 November 2024 (UTC) === [[:Camel urine]] === * {{pagelinks|1=Camel urine}} '''Full protection:''' There seems to be a persistent battle between different parties that want to remove content because they do not like it One party seems to be Muslim and the other Hindu and there appears to be a lot sock pupery involved. [[User:Hardyplants|Hardyplants]] ([[User talk:Hardyplants|talk]]) 11:14, 3 November 2024 (UTC) === [[:Paw Patrol: The Mighty Movie]] === * {{pagelinks|1=Paw Patrol: The Mighty Movie}} '''Semi-protection:''' Persistent [[Wikipedia:Disruptive editing|disruptive editing]] – Same person multiple IPs falsifying credits. Range too large to block. [[User:Geraldo Perez|Geraldo Perez]] ([[User talk:Geraldo Perez|talk]]) 17:11, 3 November 2024 (UTC) === [[Averroes International School, Dhaka]] === * {{pagelinks|Averroes International School, Dhaka}} '''Reason:''' Persistent disruptive editing by IP socks. [[User:Johnj1995|Johnj1995]] ([[User talk:Johnj1995|talk]]) 17:12, 3 November 2024 (UTC) === [[:Egusi]] === * {{pagelinks|1=Egusi}} '''Temporary extended confirmed protection:''' Edit warring by newish users. [[User:McClenon mobile|McClenon mobile]] ([[User talk:McClenon mobile|talk]]) 17:28, 3 November 2024 (UTC) === [[2024 United Kingdom riots]] === * {{pagelinks|2024 United Kingdom riots}} '''Reason:''' The IP addresses are back, has been semi-protected quite a few times previously. [[User:CommunityNotesContributor|CNC]] ([[User talk:CommunityNotesContributor|talk]]) 18:18, 3 November 2024 (UTC) === [[Natalya Naryshkina]] === * {{pagelinks|Natalya Naryshkina}} '''Reason:''' High vandalism to the Origins section. [[User:125AB|125AB]] ([[User talk:125AB|talk]]) 18:30, 3 November 2024 (UTC) === [[Russians ]] === * {{pagelinks|Russians }} '''Reason:''' Vandalism to the Unity and Distinction section. [[User:125AB|125AB]] ([[User talk:125AB|talk]]) 18:45, 3 November 2024 (UTC) === [[:List of programs broadcast by ARY Digital]] === * {{pagelinks|1=List of programs broadcast by ARY Digital}} '''Temporary semi-protection:''' Persistent [[WP:VAND|vandalism]] – Previously protected and now that its not, the same persistence from IPs adding unsourced programs has returend. Have reverted numerous times with warnings since last protection to no avail. [[User:CNMall41|CNMall41]] ([[User talk:CNMall41|talk]]) 18:55, 3 November 2024 (UTC) === [[List of Maggie Smith performances]] === * {{pagelinks|List of Maggie Smith performances}} '''Semi-protection:''' High level of IP edit warring. Warnings have been left on their talk page asking them to discuss the matter (and a talk page thread has been open), but they have continued to edit war. There is more than one IP address being used, but it’s clear they are the same person. Page protection would be appreciated. - [[User:SchroCat|SchroCat]] ([[User talk:SchroCat|talk]]) 19:10, 3 November 2024 (UTC) === [[:Nancy Marchand]] === * {{pagelinks|1=Nancy Marchand}} '''Semi-protection:''' Persistent [[WP:VAND|vandalism]] – Vandalism has resumed after expiration of previous protection. [[User:AntiDionysius|&lt;span style=&quot;color:green&quot;&gt;AntiDionysius&lt;/span&gt;]] (&lt;span style=&quot;font-variant:small-caps&quot;&gt;[[User talk:AntiDionysius|talk]]&lt;/span&gt;) 19:14, 3 November 2024 (UTC) === [[Nissan Cherry]] === * {{pagelinks|Nissan Cherry}} '''Reason:''' High level of vandalism. [[Special:Contributions/2A02:C7C:ACD6:1C00:A595:C942:21E4:DAFE|2A02:C7C:ACD6:1C00:A595:C942:21E4:DAFE]] ([[User talk:2A02:C7C:ACD6:1C00:A595:C942:21E4:DAFE|talk]]) 20:08, 3 November 2024 (UTC) === [[:Pratihar (Rajput clan)]] === * {{pagelinks|1=Pratihar (Rajput clan)}} '''Extended confirmed protection:''' Persistent [[WP:SOCK|sockpuppetry]] – [[WP:GS/CASTE]] Persistent [[WP:Disruptive| disruptive editin]] by multiple [[WP:Sock|sock]] hoppers. [[User:Rasteem|'''&lt;span style=&quot;color:#FF1493&quot;&gt;®&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color:#FF6347&quot;&gt;as&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color:#FF69B4&quot;&gt;t&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color:#DB7093&quot;&gt;ee&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color:#C71585&quot;&gt;&lt;u&gt;m&lt;/u&gt;&lt;/span&gt;''']] [[User talk:Rasteem|Talk]] 20:41, 3 November 2024 (UTC) === [[The Bloodline (professional wrestling)]] === * {{pagelinks|The Bloodline (professional wrestling)}} '''Reason:''' Hello, I would like to request [[WP:BLUELOCK|Extended confirmed protection]] for the The Bloodline article. There are too many accounts making too many changes against [[WP:POL|Wikipedia's policy and guidelines]] such as [[WP:OR|No original research]], [[WP:FANCRUFT|Fancruft]] as well as straight up [[WP:VANDAL|vandalism]] by editors with no regard or little knowledge of how Wikipedia works and due to the popularity of the article there is simply no way to control it and it is slowly descending into chaos. This is why I request this and I hope this issue can be fixed. Here a few diffs that were previously asked for that can show my point further [//en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=The_Bloodline_(professional_wrestling)&amp;diff=1255218712&amp;oldid=1254867496] [//en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=The_Bloodline_(professional_wrestling)&amp;diff=1255218712&amp;oldid=1254069756] (Most of this had to be reverted by another editor) [//en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=The_Bloodline_(professional_wrestling)&amp;diff=1255218712&amp;oldid=1253740429] These are just a couple of examples but these editors edit the page against the template set out and provide unecessary details and unverified claims and it needs to be put right otherwise it's just going to continue, and just for referencing purposes [//en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=The_Bloodline_(professional_wrestling)&amp;diff=1255218712&amp;oldid=1249845840] this is how it should be set out and this was before most of the [[WP:DIS|disruptive editing]] occured. If you need any more diffs to prove what I'm saying is true or if there is any need for further proof, please let me know in the reply. [[User:Lemonademan22|Lemonademan22]] ([[User talk:Lemonademan22|talk]]) 21:52, 3 November 2024 (UTC) === [[:Pawari]] === * {{pagelinks|1=Pawari}} '''Indefinite extended confirmed protection:''' Persistent [[WP:SOCK|sockpuppetry]] – [[WP:GS/CASTE]] Persistent [[WP: Disruptive|disruptive editing]] by multiple [[WP:Sock|sock]] hoppers. [[User:Rasteem|'''&lt;span style=&quot;color:#FF1493&quot;&gt;®&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color:#FF6347&quot;&gt;as&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color:#FF69B4&quot;&gt;t&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color:#DB7093&quot;&gt;ee&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color:#C71585&quot;&gt;&lt;u&gt;m&lt;/u&gt;&lt;/span&gt;''']] [[User talk:Rasteem|Talk]] 22:01, 3 November 2024 (UTC) :[[File:Pictogram voting support.svg|20px|link=|alt=]] '''[[Wikipedia:Protection policy#Semi-protection|Semi-protected]]'''&amp;#32;for a period of '''1 week''', after which the page will be automatically unprotected.&lt;!-- Template:RFPP#semi --&gt; [[User:Ymblanter|Ymblanter]] ([[User talk:Ymblanter|talk]]) 22:20, 3 November 2024 (UTC) === [[Talk:Baalbek]] === * {{pagelinks|Talk:Baalbek}} '''Reason:''' IPs starting to make unconstructive comments again on an [[WP:ECR]] talk page, right after the protection ran out. Please semi-protect for a longer period. [[User:Hypnôs|Hypnôs]] ([[User talk:Hypnôs|talk]]) 23:04, 3 November 2024 (UTC) === [[:Do Not Track]] === * {{pagelinks|1=Do Not Track}} '''Temporary semi-protection:''' Persistent [[WP:VAND|vandalism]] – Most of the last hundred edits to this article are either vandalism or reverting vandalism. As far as I can tell, no new editors have made constructive edits in that time (with the exception of a few editors reverting vandalism). The vandalism has come from many different IPs, so blocks would be ineffective. [[User:Jlwoodwa|jlwoodwa]] ([[User talk:Jlwoodwa|talk]]) 23:23, 3 November 2024 (UTC) === [[Albanian language]] === * {{pagelinks|Albanian language}} '''Reason:''' High level of IP vandalism [[User:Βατο|Βατο]] ([[User talk:Βατο|talk]]) 23:26, 3 November 2024 (UTC)</div></summary> <author><name>Βατο</name></author> </entry> <entry> <id>https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Albanian_language&diff=1255253712</id> <title>Albanian language</title> <link rel="alternate" type="text/html" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Albanian_language&diff=1255253712"/> <updated>2024-11-03T23:22:03Z</updated> <summary type="html">Βατο: rv IP vandalism <hr /> <div>{{Short description|Indo-European language}} {{Redirect2|Arbënisht|Arbërisht|other uses|Arbërisht (disambiguation)}} {{Use dmy dates|date=July 2020}} {{Infobox language | name = Albanian | nativename = {{lang|sq|Shqip}}&lt;br/&gt;{{lang|sq|Arbërisht}} | pronunciation = {{IPA-sq|ʃcip||sq-shqip.oga}}&lt;br /&gt;{{IPA-sq|ˈɟuha ˈʃcipɛ|}}&lt;br /&gt;{{IPA-sq|aɾbəˈɾiʃt|}} | states = {{Plainlist| * [[Languages of Albania|Albania]] * [[Languages of Kosovo|Kosovo]] * [[Languages of Greece|Greece]] * [[Languages of Italy|Italy]] * [[Languages of Montenegro|Montenegro]] * [[Languages of North Macedonia|North Macedonia]] * [[Languages of Serbia|Serbia]] }} | ethnicity = [[Albanians]] | speakers = 7.5 million | date = 2017 | ref = {{sfn|Rusakov|2017|p=552}}&lt;ref name=&quot;KlBrFr1800&quot;/&gt; | familycolor = Indo-European | fam2 = [[Albanoid]] | ancestor = [[Proto-Indo-European language|Proto-Indo-European]] | ancestor2 = [[Proto-Albanian language|Proto-Albanian]] | dia1 = [[Gheg Albanian|Gheg]] (&lt;small&gt;[[Arbanasi dialect|Arbanasi]] · [[Istrian Albanian|Istrian]]{{extinct}} · [[Upper Reka dialect|Upper Reka]] · [[Gheg Albanian#Malsia Albanian|Malsia e Madhe]]&lt;/small&gt;) | dia2 = [[Tosk Albanian|Tosk]] (&lt;small&gt;[[Arbëresh language|Arbëresh]] · [[Arvanitika]] · [[Cham Albanian dialect|Cham]] · [[Lab Albanian dialect|Lab]]&lt;/small&gt;) | listclass = flatlist | script = {{ubl|[[Latin script|Latin]] ([[Albanian alphabet]])|[[Albanian Braille]]}} | nation = {{ubl|{{flag|Albania}}|{{flag|Kosovo}}|{{flag|North Macedonia}} &lt;small&gt;(co-official)&lt;/small&gt;|{{flag|Montenegro}} &lt;small&gt;(co-official)&lt;/small&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book|url=http://www.wipo.int/wipolex/en/text.jsp?file_id=187544|title=Constitution of Montenegro|chapter-url=http://www.wipo.int/wipolex/en/text.jsp?file_id=187544#LinkTarget_1506|chapter=Language and alphabet Article 13|publisher=[[WIPO]]|date=19 October 2007|quote=Serbian, Bosnian, Albanian and Croatian shall also be in the official use.}}&lt;/ref&gt;}} | minority = {{ubl|{{flag|Italy}}&lt;ref name=&quot;Franceschini533534&quot;&gt;{{harvnb|Franceschini|2014|pp=533–534 [https://books.google.com/books?id=wKnnBQAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PT536]}}&lt;/ref&gt;|{{flag|Serbia}}&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|url=http://www.coe.int/t/dg4/education/minlang/Report/EvaluationReports/SerbiaECRML2_en.pdf|title=Application of the Charter in Serbia|publisher=European Charter for Regional or Minority Languages|date=11 June 2013|pages=4–5, 9}}&lt;/ref&gt;|{{flag|Croatia}}&lt;ref name=&quot;Franceschini546&quot;&gt;{{cite book|last=Franceschini|first=Rita|chapter=Italy and the Italian-Speaking Regions|editor-last=Fäcke|editor-first=Christiane|title=Manual of Language Acquisition|year=2014|publisher=Walter de Gruyter GmbH|isbn=9783110394146|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=zM_mBQAAQBAJ&amp;q=Manual+of+Language+Acquisition&amp;pg=PA1|pages=546}}&lt;/ref&gt;|{{flag|Romania}}&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|title=Reservations and Declarations for Treaty No.148 – European Charter for Regional or Minority Languages|url=http://www.coe.int/en/web/conventions/full-list/-/conventions/treaty/148/declarations?p_auth=63PpH3zN|website=Council of Europe|access-date=3 December 2015|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151208122308/http://www.coe.int/en/web/conventions/full-list/-/conventions/treaty/148/declarations?p_auth=63PpH3zN|archive-date=8 December 2015}}&lt;/ref&gt;}} | agency = [[Academy of Sciences of Albania]]&lt;br&gt;[[Academy of Sciences and Arts of Kosovo]] | iso1 = sq | iso2b = alb | iso2t = sqi | lingua = 55-AAA-aaa to 55-AAA-ahe (25 varieties) | iso3 = sqi | lc1 = aae | ld1 = [[Arbëresh language|Arbëresh]] | lc2 = aat | ld2 = [[Arvanitika]] | lc3 = aln | ld3 = [[Gheg Albanian|Gheg]] | lc4 = als | ld4 = [[Tosk Albanian|Tosk]] | glotto = alba1267 | glottorefname = Albanian | map = Albanian language map en.svg | mapcaption = The [[Albanian dialects|dialects]] of the Albanian language in Southern Europe.&lt;ref name=&quot;Northern Tosk Albanian&quot;&gt;{{Cite journal|last1=Coretta|first1=Stefano|title=Northern Tosk Albanian|last2=Riverin-Coutlée|first2=Josiane|last3=Kapia|first3=Enkeleida|last4=Nichols|first4=Stephen|journal=Journal of the International Phonetic Association|year=2022|volume=53|issue=3|location=Illustration of the IPA|pages=1–23|doi=10.1017/S0025100322000044|doi-access=free|hdl=20.500.11820/ebce2ea3-f955-4fa5-9178-e1626fbae15f|hdl-access=free}}&lt;/ref&gt;{{NoteTag|The map does not indicate where the language is majority or minority.}} | notice = IPA }} '''Albanian''' ([[Endonym and exonym|endonym]]: {{lang|sq|shqip}} {{IPA-sq|ʃcip||sq-shqip.oga}}, {{lang|sq|gjuha shqipe}} {{IPA-sq|ˈɟuha ˈʃcipɛ|}}, or {{lang|sq|arbërisht}} {{IPA-sq|aɾbəˈɾiʃt|}}) is an [[Indo-European languages|Indo-European]] language and the only surviving representative of the [[Albanoid|Albanoid branch]], which belongs to the [[Paleo-Balkan languages|Paleo-Balkan group]].&lt;ref&gt;{{harvnb|Orel|2000|p=12}}; {{harvnb|Matzinger|2018|p=1790}}; {{harvnb|Matasović|2019|p=39}}; {{harvnb|Hamp|1963|p=104}}; {{harvnb|Katicic|2012|p=184|ps=: &quot;And yet we know that it is the continuation of a language spoken in the Balkans already in ancient times. This has been proved by the fact that there are Ancient Greek loan words in Albanian&quot;.}}&lt;/ref&gt; It is the native language of the [[Albanian people]]. Standard Albanian is the [[official language]] of [[Albania]] and [[Kosovo]], and a co-official language in [[North Macedonia]] and [[Montenegro]], as well as a recognized [[minority language]] of [[Italy]], [[Croatia]], [[Romania]] and [[Serbia]]. It is also spoken in [[Greece]] and by the [[Albanian diaspora]], which is generally concentrated in the [[Americas]], [[Europe]] and [[Oceania]].&lt;ref name=&quot;KlBrFr1800&quot;/&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|author=Fatjona Mejdini|url=http://www.balkaninsight.com/en/article/albania-registers-diaspora-after-more-than-two-decade-12-14-2015|title=Albania Aims to Register its Huge Diaspora|publisher=Balkan Insight|date=3 May 2013|access-date=17 January 2017}}&lt;/ref&gt; Albanian is estimated to have as many as 7.5 million native speakers.{{sfn|Rusakov|2017|p=552}}&lt;ref name=&quot;KlBrFr1800&quot;/&gt; Albanian and other [[Paleo-Balkan languages]] had their formative core in the [[Balkans]] after the [[Indo-European migrations]] in the region.&lt;ref name=Friedman&gt;{{cite book|last=Friedman|first=Victor|title=The Cambridge Handbook of Language Contact: Volume 1: Population Movement and Language Change|series=Cambridge Handbooks in Language and Linguistics|chapter=The Balkans|editor=Salikoko Mufwene, Anna Maria Escobar|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2022|isbn=9781009115773|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=jWB2EAAAQBAJ}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=Lazaridis_et_al.&gt;{{cite journal|author-last1= Lazaridis|author-first1= Iosif|author-last2= Alpaslan-Roodenberg|author-first2=Songül|display-authors=et al.|title=The genetic history of the Southern Arc: A bridge between West Asia and Europe|journal=Science|volume=377|issue=6609|date=26 August 2022|pages=eabm4247|pmid=36007055|pmc=10064553| doi=10.1126/science.abm4247|bibcode=|s2cid=251843620}}&lt;/ref&gt; Albanian in antiquity is often thought to have been an [[Illyrian languages|Illyrian language]] for obvious geographic and historical reasons,&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Coretta|first1=Stefano|last2=Riverin-Coutlée|first2=Josiane|last3=Kapia|first3=Enkeleida|last4=Nichols|first4=Stephen|title=Northern Tosk Albanian|journal=Journal of the International Phonetic Association|date=16 August 2022|volume=53|issue=3|pages=1122–1144|doi=10.1017/S0025100322000044|url=https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/journal-of-the-international-phonetic-association/article/northern-tosk-albanian/D27484BD90369B3BC0FBA9479074ED88|quote=Though the origin of the language has been debated, the prevailing opinion in the literature is that it is a descendant of Illyrian (Hetzer 1995).|hdl=20.500.11820/ebce2ea3-f955-4fa5-9178-e1626fbae15f|hdl-access=free}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{harvnb|Matasović|2019|p=5|ps=: &quot;Much has been written about the origin of the Albanian language. The most probable predecessor of Albanian was Illyrian, since much of the present-day Albania was inhabited by the Illyrians during the Antiquity, but the comparison of the two languages is impossible because almost nothing is known about Illyrian, despite the fact that two handbooks of that language have been published (by Hans Krahe and Anton Mayer)... examination of personal names and toponyms from Illyricum shows that several onomastic areas can be distinguished, and these onomastic areas just might correspond to different languages spoken in ancient Illyricum. If Illyrians actually spoke several different languages, the question arises -from which 'Illyrian' language did Albanian develop, and that question cannot be answered until new data are discovered. The single &quot;Illyrian&quot; gloss preserved in Greek (rhínon 'fog') may have the reflex in Alb. (Gheg) re͂ 'cloud' (Tosk re)&lt; PAlb. *ren-.&quot;}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;:1&quot;&gt;{{harvnb|Beekes|2011|p=25}}: &quot;It is often thought (for obvious geographic reasons) that Albanian descends from ancient Illyrian (see above), but this cannot be ascertained as we know next to nothing about Illyrian itself.&quot;&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{harvnb|Fortson|2010|p=446}}: &quot;Albanian forms its own separate branch of Indo-European; it is the last branch to appear in written records. This is one of the reasons why its origins are shrouded in mystery and controversy. The widespread assertion that it is the modern–day descendant of Illyrian, spoken in much the same region during classical times ([...]), makes geographic and historical sense but is linguistically untestable since we know so little about Illyrian.&quot;&lt;/ref&gt;{{sfn|Mallory|Adams|1997|p=11|ps=: &quot;Although there are some lexical items that appear to be shared between Romanian (and by extension Dacian) and Albanian, by far the strongest connections can be argued between Albanian and Illyrian. The latter was at least attested in what is historically regarded as Albanian territory and there is no evidence of any major migration into Albanian territory since our records of Illyrian occupation. The loan words from Greek and Latin date back to before the Christian era and suggest that the ancestors of the Albanians must have occupied Albania by then to have absorbed such loans from their histori-cal neighbors. As the Illyrians occupied Albanian territory at this time, they are the most likely recipients of such loans.&quot;}}&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book|last=Villar|first=Francisco|title=Los indoeuropeos y los orígenes de Europa|language=es|publisher=Gredos|place=Madrid|year=1996|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=d5NbPAAACAAJ|isbn=84-249-1787-1|pages=313–314, 316}}&lt;/ref&gt; or otherwise an unmentioned Balkan Indo-European language that was closely related to Illyrian and [[Messapic language|Messapic]].{{sfn|Friedman|2020|p=388}}{{sfn|Matzinger|2018|p=1790}}{{sfn|Ismajli|2015|p=45}}{{sfn|Hamp|Adams|2013|p=8}} The Indo-European subfamily that gave rise to Albanian is called [[Albanoid]] in reference to a specific ethnolinguistically pertinent and historically compact language group.{{sfn|Trumper|2018|p=385}} Whether descendants or sisters of what was called '[[Illyrian language|Illyrian]]' by classical sources, Albanian and [[Messapic language|Messapic]], on the basis of shared features and innovations, are grouped together in a common branch in the current phylogenetic classification of the Indo-European language family.{{sfn|Hyllested|Joseph|2022|p=235}}{{sfn|Friedman|2020|p=388}}{{sfn|Trumper|2018|p=385}}{{sfn|Ismajli|2015|p=45}}{{sfn|Hamp|Adams|2013|p=8}} The first written mention of Albanian was in 1284 in a witness testimony from the [[Republic of Ragusa]], while a letter written by Dominican Friar Gulielmus Adea in 1332 mentions the Albanians using the Latin alphabet in their writings. The oldest surviving attestation of modern Albanian is from 1462.{{sfn|Matasović|2019|p=39}} The two main [[Albanian dialects|Albanian dialect groups]] (or [[Variety (linguistics)|varieties]]), [[Gheg Albanian|Gheg]] and [[Tosk Albanian|Tosk]], are primarily distinguished by [[Phonology|phonological]] differences and are [[Mutual intelligibility|mutually intelligible]] in their standard varieties,&lt;ref&gt;{{harvnb|Demiraj|Esposito|2009|p=[https://archive.org/details/conciseencyclope00brow_869/page/n59 23]}}: {{blockquote|&quot;...these innovations, as those that are also evident in different varieties of Gheg, are not such as to impede communication between speakers of the two dialects. Furthermore, the major part of the Albanian lexicon is common to the two dialects.&quot;}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{harvnb|Fortson|2010|p=446}}: &quot;The two dialects are mutually intelligible in their standard varieties, although numerous subdialects exist that show considerable variation, especially in the north and northeast of the Geg–speaking area.&quot;&lt;/ref&gt; with Gheg spoken to the north and Tosk spoken to the south of the [[Shkumbin|Shkumbin river]].&lt;ref&gt;{{harvnb|Demiraj|Esposito|2009|p=[https://archive.org/details/conciseencyclope00brow_869/page/n59 23]}}: {{blockquote|&quot;The river Shkumbin in central Albania historically forms the boundary between those two dialects, with the population on the north speaking varieties of Geg and the population on the south varieties of Tosk.&quot;}}&lt;/ref&gt; Their characteristics&lt;ref&gt;{{harvnb|Demiraj|2006|p=102}}: {{blockquote|&quot;It is the case of the evolution of stressed /a-/ and partly stressed /e-/ in front of a nasal consonant to /ë-/ in thee southern dialect. While the evolution /a-/ &gt; /ë/ in front of a nasal consonant has involved the southern dialect, the evolution /e-/ &gt; /-ë/ in the same phonetic conditions has not taken place in the northern part and partly in the eastern part of that dialect (...). This phonetic phenomenon has appeared earlier than rhotacism, as it is clearly evidenced in such examples as ''llanë'' &gt; ''llërë'', ''ranë'' &gt; ''rërë'' etc., in which the evolution /a-/ &gt; /ë-/ could not take place before /-r-/. Since this phonetic change has not appeared in the Slavic loanwords of Albanian, but has involved mainly the I.E. inherited words as well as the loans from Old Greek (compare ''mokënë'' &gt; ''mokërë'' &lt; ''māk&lt;sup&gt;h&lt;/sup&gt;anāʼ'' etc.) and from Latin (compare ''ranë'' &gt; ''rërë'' &gt; ''arena'' etc.), it has generally been acknowledged that it has taken place in the pre-Slavic period of Albanian. Its sporadic appearance in a very reduced number of Slavic loanwords is due to the action of analogy with similar cases of inherited or more ancient loans of Albanian.&quot;}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{harvnb|Demiraj|Esposito|2009|p=[https://archive.org/details/conciseencyclope00brow_869/page/n59 23]}}: {{blockquote|&quot;In Tosk /a/ before a nasal has become a central vowel (shwa), and intervocalic /n/ has become /r/. These two sound changes have affected only the pre-Slav stratum of the Albanian lexicon, that is the native words and loanwords from Greek and Latin.&quot;}}&lt;/ref&gt; in the treatment of both native words and loanwords provide evidence that the split into the northern and the southern dialects occurred after [[Christianisation]] of the region (4th century AD),&lt;ref name=&quot;Adams1997&quot;&gt;{{cite book|author=Douglas Q. Adams|title=Encyclopedia of Indo-European Culture|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=tzU3RIV2BWIC&amp;pg=PA11|date=January 1997|publisher=Taylor &amp; Francis|isbn=978-1-884964-98-5|pages=9, 11|quote=The Greek and Latin loans have undergone most of the far-reaching phonological changes which have so altered the shape of inherited IE words while Slavic and Turkish words do not show these changes. Thus Albanian must have acquired much of its present form by the time Slavs entered into the Balkans in the fifth and sixth centuries AD [middle of p. 11] [...] The loan words from Greek and Latin date back to before the Christian era [p. 9] [...] Even very common words such as ''mik'' ʻfriendʼ (&lt; Lat ''amicus'') or ''këndoj'' ʻI sing; readʼ (&lt; Lat ''cantāre'') come from Latin and attest to a widespread intermingling of pre-Albanian and Balkan Latin speakers during the Roman period, roughly from the second century BC to the fifth century AD. [before middle of p. 11]}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;Fortson2010–448&quot;&gt;{{harvnb|Fortson|2010|p=448}}: &quot;The dialectal split into Geg and Tosk happened sometime after the region became Christianized in the fourth century AD: Christian Latin loanwords show Tosk rhotacism, such as Tosk ''murgu'' 'monk' (Geg ''mungu'') from Lat. ''monachus''.&quot;&lt;/ref&gt; and most likely not later than the 6th century AD,&lt;ref&gt;{{harvnb|Demiraj|2010|pp=77–78}}&lt;/ref&gt;{{sfn|Rusakov|2017|p=559}}&lt;ref&gt;{{harvnb|Demiraj|2006|pp=102–103}}: {{blockquote|&quot;...such sporadic analogical cases do not reverse the generally acknowledged conclusion that this dialectal peculiarity as a phonetic process has appeared in pre-Slavic period of Albanian and is relatively more ancient than the rhotacism. It has most probably appeared not later than the V-VI centuries A.D.&quot;}}&lt;/ref&gt; hence possibly occupying roughly their present area divided by the Shkumbin river since the Post-Roman and Pre-Slavic period, straddling the [[Jireček Line]].&lt;ref&gt;See also Hamp 1963 ''The isogloss is clear in all dialects I have studied, which embrace nearly all types possible. It must be relatively old, that is, dating back into the post-Roman first millennium. As a guess, it seems possible that this isogloss reflects a spread of the speech area, after the settlement of the Albanians in roughly their present location, so that the speech area straddled the Jireček Line.''&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{harvnb|Demiraj|2006|p=103}}: {{blockquote|&quot;And, as it was pointed out in §3, since the dialectal differentiations have appeared in a certain geographical area, one is entitled to draw the conclusion that the speakers of the northern and southern dialects have been present in their actual areas in the Post-Roman and Pre-Slavic period of Albanian.&quot;}}&lt;/ref&gt; Centuries-old communities speaking Albanian dialects can be found scattered in [[Greece]] (the [[Arvanites]] and some communities in [[Epirus (region)|Epirus]], [[Western Macedonia]] and [[Albanian-speakers of Western Thrace|Western Thrace]]),&lt;ref name=Euromosaic&gt;{{cite web|url=http://www.uoc.edu/euromosaic/web/document/albanes/fr/i2/i2.html|title=L'arvanite/albanais en Grèce|access-date=5 December 2016|author=Euromosaic project|year=2006|publisher=[[European Commission]]|location=Brussels|language=fr}}&lt;/ref&gt; [[Croatia]] (the [[Arbanasi people|Arbanasi]]), [[Italy]] (the [[Arbëreshë people|Arbëreshë]])&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|url=http://www.minorityrights.org/1617/italy/albanians.html|title=Albanians in Italy|access-date=2 January 2012|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120121173237/http://www.minorityrights.org/1617/italy/albanians.html|archive-date=21 January 2012}}&lt;/ref&gt; as well as in [[Albanians of Romania|Romania]], [[Albanians of Turkey|Turkey]] and [[Albanians in Ukraine|Ukraine]].&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|url=http://www.albanianlanguage.net/|title=Robert Elsie|publisher=The Albanian Language|date=25 November 1972|access-date=17 January 2017}}&lt;/ref&gt; The [[Gheg Albanian#Malsia Albanian|Malsia e Madhe Gheg Albanian]]&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Dedvukaj|first1=Lindon|last2=Ndoci|first2=Rexhina|title=Linguistic variation within the Northwestern Gheg Albanian dialect|journal=Proceedings of the Linguistic Society of America|publisher=[[Linguistic Society of America]]|doi=10.3765/plsa.v8i1.5501|volume=8|number=1|year=2023|page=5501 |doi-access=free}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Dedvukaj|first1=Lindon|last2=Gehringer|first2=Patrick|title=Morphological and phonological origins of Albanian nasals and its parallels with other laws|journal=Proceedings of the Linguistic Society of America|publisher=[[Linguistic Society of America]]|doi=10.3765/plsa.v8i1.5508|volume=8|number=1|year=2023|page=5508 |doi-access=free}}&lt;/ref&gt; and two varieties of the Tosk dialect, [[Arvanitika]] in Greece and [[Arbëresh language|Arbëresh]] in southern Italy, have preserved archaic elements of the language.&lt;ref&gt;{{harvnb|Demiraj|Esposito|2009|p=[https://archive.org/details/conciseencyclope00brow_869/page/n59 23]}}.&lt;/ref&gt; [[Ethnic Albanians]] constitute a large [[diaspora]], with many having long assimilated in different cultures and communities. Consequently, Albanian-speakers do not correspond to the total ethnic Albanian population, as many ethnic Albanians may identify as Albanian but are unable to speak the language.&lt;ref&gt;Mai, Nicola. &quot;The Albanian diaspora-in-the-making: media, migration and social exclusion.&quot; Journal of Ethnic and Migration Studies 31, no. 3 (2005): 543–561.&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;de Rapper, Gilles. &quot;Albanians facing the Ottoman past: the case of the Albanian diaspora in Turkey.&quot; (2005).&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;Gkaintartzi, Anastasia, Aspasia Chatzidaki, and Roula Tsokalidou. &quot;Albanian parents and the Greek educational context: Who is willing to fight for the home language?.&quot; International Multilingual Research Journal 8, no. 4 (2014): 291–308.&lt;/ref&gt; [[Standard Albanian]] is a standardised form of spoken Albanian based on [[Tosk Albanian|Tosk]]. ==Geographic distribution== {{Main|Albanians}} [[File:Recognized Albanian Language Map.png|thumb|Map of countries where Albanian holds official status: {{legend|#ff0000|Official language}} {{legend|#ff8080|Recognised minority language}}]] The language is spoken by approximately 6 million people in the Balkans, primarily in Albania, [[Kosovo]], [[North Macedonia]], [[Serbia]], [[Montenegro]] and [[Greece]].{{sfn|Rusakov|2017|p=552}} However, due to old communities in [[Italy]] and the large [[Albanian diaspora]], the worldwide total of speakers is much higher than in [[Southern Europe]] and numbers approximately 7.5 million.{{sfn|Rusakov|2017|p=552}}&lt;ref name=&quot;KlBrFr1800&quot;&gt;{{cite book|last1=Klein|first1=Jared|last2=Brian|first2=Joseph|last3=Fritz|first3=Matthias|title=Handbook of Comparative and Historical Indo-European Linguistics|year=2018|publisher=Walter de Gruyter|isbn=9783110542431|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=SuR8DwAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PA1800|pages=1800}}&lt;/ref&gt; ===Europe=== The Albanian language is the official language of [[Albania]] and [[Kosovo]] and a co-official language in [[North Macedonia]] and [[Montenegro]].&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|orig-date=September 2020|title=Constitution of the Republic of Kosovo (with amendments I-XXVI)|url=https://guides.loc.gov/law-kosovo/constitution|website=[[Library of Congress]]|quote=Article 5 [Languages] 1. The official languages in the Republic of Kosovo are Albanian and Serbian.{{nbsp}}...}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite book|last1=Trandafili|first1=Evis|last2=Meçe|first2=Elinda Kajo|last3=Duka|first3=Enea|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=li3KDwAAQBAJ|title=Complex Pattern Mining: New Challenges, Methods and Applications|date=2020|publisher=[[Springer Nature]]|isbn=978-3-030-36617-9|page=89|language=en|quote=It [Albanian] is the official language of Albania, the co-official language of Kosovo, and the co-official language of many western municipalities of the Republic of Macedonia. Albanian is also spoken widely in some areas in Greece, southern Montenegro, southern Serbia, and in some towns in southern Italy and Sicily.|editor-last=Appice|editor-first=Annalisa|editor-last2=Ceci|editor-first2=Michelangelo|editor-last3=Loglisci|editor-first3=Corrado|editor-last4=Manco|editor-first4=Giuseppe|editor-last5=Masciari|editor-first5=Elio|editor-last6=Ras|editor-first6=Zbigniew W.}}&lt;/ref&gt; Albanian is a recognised minority language in [[Croatia]], [[Italy]], [[Romania]] and in [[Serbia]]. Albanian is also spoken by a [[Albanian communities in Greece|minority in Greece]], specifically in the [[Thesprotia]] and [[Preveza (regional unit)|Preveza]] regional units and in a few villages in [[Ioannina (regional unit)|Ioannina]] and [[Florina (regional unit)|Florina]] regional units in Greece.&lt;ref name=&quot;Euromosaic&quot; /&gt; It is also spoken by 450,000 Albanian immigrants in Greece, making it one of the commonly spoken languages in the country after Greek. Albanian is the third most common mother tongue among foreign residents in [[Italy]].&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|title=Linguistic diversity among foreign citizens in Italy|url=http://www.istat.it/en/archive/129304|publisher=Statistics of Italy|access-date=1 April 2015|date=25 July 2014}}&lt;/ref&gt; This is due to a substantial Albanian immigration to Italy. Italy has a historical Albanian minority of about 500,000, scattered across southern Italy, known as [[Arbëreshë people|Arbëreshë]]. Approximately 1 million Albanians from Kosovo are dispersed throughout [[Albanians in Germany|Germany]], [[Albanians in Switzerland|Switzerland]] and [[Austria]]. These are mainly immigrants from Kosovo who migrated during the 1990s. In [[Albanians in Switzerland|Switzerland]], the Albanian language is the [[Languages of Switzerland#Other languages|sixth most spoken language]] with 176,293 native speakers. Albanian became an official language in North Macedonia on 15 January 2019.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite news|url=https://www.rferl.org/a/macedonia-s-albanian-language-bill-becomes-law/29711502.html|title=Macedonia's Albanian-Language Bill Becomes Law| newspaper=Radio Free Europe/Radio Liberty| date=15 January 2019}}&lt;/ref&gt; ===Americas=== There are large numbers of Albanian speakers in the United States, Argentina, Chile, Uruguay, and [[Albanian Canadians|Canada]]. Some of the first ethnic Albanians to arrive in the United States were the Arbëreshë. The Arbëreshë have a strong sense of identity and are unique in that they speak an archaic dialect of [[Tosk Albanian]] called [[Arbëresh language|Arbëresh]]. In the United States and Canada, there are approximately 250,000 [[Albanian Americans|Albanian]] speakers. It is primarily spoken on the East Coast of the United States, in cities like New York City, Boston, Chicago, Philadelphia, and Detroit, as well as in parts of the states of New Jersey, Ohio, and Connecticut.{{citation needed|date=July 2015}} In Argentina, there are nearly [[Argentina#Languages|40,000 Albanian speakers]], mostly in Buenos Aires.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|url=http://edoc.bibliothek.uni-halle.de/servlets/MCRFileNodeServlet/HALCoRe_derivate_00003672/Albanianmigration.pdf|title=Albanian migration|access-date=9 July 2016|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160916221528/http://edoc.bibliothek.uni-halle.de/servlets/MCRFileNodeServlet/HALCoRe_derivate_00003672/Albanianmigration.pdf|archive-date=16 September 2016}}&lt;/ref&gt;{{request quotation|date=April 2022}} ===Asia and Africa=== Approximately 1.3 million people of Albanian ancestry live in [[Turkey]], with more than 500,000 recognizing their ancestry, language and [[Culture of Albania|culture]]. There are other estimates, however, that place the number of people in Turkey with Albanian ancestry and or background upward to 5 million. However, the vast majority of this population is [[Language shift|assimilated]] and no longer possesses fluency in the Albanian language, though a vibrant Albanian community maintains its distinct identity in [[Istanbul]] to this day. [[Egypt]] also lays claim to about 18,000 Albanians, mostly [[Tosk]] speakers.&lt;ref name=&quot;Saunders98&quot;&gt;{{cite book|last=Saunders|first=Robert A.|title=Ethnopolitics in Cyberspace: The Internet, Minority Nationalism, and the Web of Identity|year=2011|location=Lanham|publisher=Lexington Books|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=vM5hZEsdz94C&amp;pg=PA98|isbn=9780739141946|page=98|quote= &quot;In addition to the recent emigrants, there are older diasporic communities around the world. There are upwards of 5 million ethnic Albanians in the Turkish Republic; however, the vast majority of this population is assimilated and no longer possesses fluency in the language, though a vibrant Albanian community maintains its distinct identity in Istanbul to this day. Egypt also lays claim to some 18,000 Albanians, supposedly lingering remnants of Mohammad Ali's army.&quot;}}&lt;/ref&gt; Many are descendants of the [[Janissary]] of [[Muhammad Ali of Egypt|Muhammad Ali Pasha]], an Albanian who became [[Wāli]], and self-declared [[Khedive]] of Egypt and [[Sudan]]. In addition to the [[Muhammad Ali dynasty|dynasty]] that he established, a large part of the former Egyptian and Sudanese [[aristocracy]] was of Albanian origin. In addition to the recent emigrants, there are older diasporic communities around the world. ===Oceania=== Albanian is also spoken by Albanian diaspora communities residing in [[Australia]] and [[New Zealand]]. == Dialects == {{Main|Albanian dialects}}[[File:Albanian-dialects.svg|thumb|The dialects of the Albanian language|574x574px]]{{tree list}} * '''Albanian''' ** [[Tosk Albanian|Tosk]] *** Northern Tosk *** [[Labërisht]] *** [[Cham Albanian dialect|Cham]] *** [[Arvanitika]] *** [[Arbëresh language|Arbëresh]] ** [[Gheg Albanian|Gheg]] *** Northwest Gheg *** Northeast Gheg *** Central Gheg *** Southern Gheg {{tree list/end|style=}} The Albanian language has two distinct dialects, [[Tosk Albanian|Tosk]] which is spoken in the south, and [[Gheg Albanian|Gheg]] spoken in the north.&lt;ref&gt;Gjinari, Jorgji. Dialektologjia shqiptare&lt;/ref&gt; Standard Albanian is based on the Tosk dialect. The [[Shkumbin River]] is the rough dividing line between the two dialects.&lt;ref name=brown23&gt;''The river Shkumbin in central Albania historically forms the boundary between those two dialects, with the population on the north speaking varieties of Geg and the population on the south varieties of Tosk.'' (page 23) [https://books.google.com/books?id=F2SRqDzB50wC&amp;pg=PA23 Concise Encyclopedia of Languages of the World] By Keith Brown, Sarah Ogilvie Contributor Keith Brown, Sarah Ogilvie Edition: illustrated Published by Elsevier, 2008 {{ISBN|0-08-087774-5}}, {{ISBN|978-0-08-087774-7}}&lt;/ref&gt; [[Gheg Albanian|Gheg]] is divided into four sub-dialects: Northwest Gheg, Northeast Gheg, Central Gheg and Southern Gheg. It is primarily spoken in northern Albania, [[Kosovo]], and throughout [[Albanians in Montenegro|Montenegro]] and northwestern [[Albanians in Macedonia|North Macedonia]]. One fairly divergent dialect is the [[Upper Reka Albanian dialect|Upper Reka dialect]], which is however classified as Central Gheg. There is also a diaspora dialect in [[Croatia]], the [[Arbanasi dialect]]. [[Tosk Albanian|Tosk]] is divided into five sub-dialects, including Northern Tosk (the most numerous in speakers), [[Labërisht]], [[Cham Albanian dialect|Cham]], [[Arvanitika]], and [[Arbëresh language|Arbëresh]]. Tosk is spoken in southern Albania, southwestern North Macedonia and northern and southern Greece. Cham Albanian is spoken in North-western Greece,&lt;ref name=&quot;Prendergast 2017 87&quot;&gt;{{cite thesis|last=Prendergast|first=Eric|date=2017|title=The Origin and Spread of Locative Determiner Omission in the Balkan Linguistic Area|type=Ph.D|publisher=University of California Berkeley|url=https://escholarship.org/uc/item/7nk454x6|page=87}}&lt;/ref&gt; while [[Arvanitika language|Arvanitika]] is spoken by the [[Arvanites]] in southern Greece. In addition, [[Arbëresh language|Arbëresh]] is spoken by the [[Arbëreshë people|Arbëreshë]] people, descendants of 15th and 16th century migrants who settled in southeastern Italy, in small communities in the regions of [[Sicily]] and [[Calabria]].&lt;ref&gt;The Italo-Albanian villages of southern Italy Issue 25 of Foreign field research program, report, National Research Council (U.S.) Division of Earth Sciences Volume 1149 of Publication (National Research Council (U.S.)) Foreign field research program, sponsored by Office of Naval research, report; no.25 Issue 25 of Report, National Research Council (U.S.). Division of Earth Sciences Volume 1149 of (National Academy of Sciences. National Research Council. Publication) Author George Nicholas Nasse Publisher National Academy of Sciences-National Research Council, 1964 page 24-25 link&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=VjArAAAAYAAJ&amp;dq=reres+demetrio&amp;pg=PA24|title=The Italo-Albanian Villages of Southern Italy|isbn=9780598204004|last1=Nasse|first1=George Nicholas|year=1964| publisher=National Academy of Sciences-National Research Council}}&lt;/ref&gt; These settlements originated from the (Arvanites) communities probably of Peloponnese known as Morea in the Middle Ages. Among them the Arvanites call themselves Arbëror and sometime Arbëresh. The Arbëresh dialect is closely related to the Arvanites dialect with more Italian vocabulary absorbed during different periods of time. == Orthography == {{Main|Albanian alphabet|Albanian braille}} [[File:Albanian keyboard layout.jpg|thumb|upright=0.9|Albanian [[keyboard layout]].]] The Albanian language has been written using many alphabets since the earliest records from the 15th century. The history of Albanian language orthography is closely related to the cultural orientation and knowledge of certain foreign languages among Albanian writers.{{sfn|Lloshi|2008|p=12}} The earliest written Albanian records come from the Gheg area in makeshift spellings based on Italian or Greek. Originally, the Tosk dialect was written in the [[Greek alphabet]] and the Gheg dialect was written in the [[Latin script]]. Both dialects had also been written in the [[Ottoman Turkish language|Ottoman Turkish]] version of the [[Arabic script]], [[Cyrillic script|Cyrillic]], and some local alphabets ([[Elbasan alphabet|Elbasan]], [[Vithkuqi alphabet|Vithkuqi]], [[Todhri alphabet|Todhri]], Veso Bey, Jan Vellara and others, see [[Albanian alphabet#Original alphabets|original Albanian alphabets]]). More specifically, the writers from northern Albania and under the influence of the Catholic Church used Latin letters, those in southern Albania and under the influence of the Greek Orthodox church used Greek letters, while others throughout Albania and under the influence of Islam used Arabic letters. There were initial attempts to create an original Albanian alphabet during the 1750–1850 period. These attempts intensified after the [[League of Prizren]] and culminated with the [[Congress of Manastir]] held by Albanian intellectuals from 14 to 22 November 1908, in Manastir (present day [[Bitola]]), which decided on which alphabet to use, and what the standardised spelling would be for standard Albanian. This is how the literary language remains. The alphabet is the Latin alphabet with the addition of the letters {{angbr|{{lang|sq|[[ë]]}}}}, {{angbr|{{lang|sq|[[ç]]}}}}, and ten [[Digraph (orthography)|digraphs]]: {{lang|sq|dh}}, {{lang|sq|th}}, {{lang|sq|xh}}, {{lang|sq|gj}}, {{lang|sq|nj}}, {{lang|sq|ng}}, {{lang|sq|ll}}, {{lang|sq|rr}}, {{lang|sq|zh}} and {{lang|sq|sh}}. According to [[Robert Elsie]]:&lt;ref name=Elsie2017&gt;Elsie, Robert. (2017). ''Albanian Alphabets: Borrowed and Invented''. London, UK: CreateSpace Independent Publishing Platform. {{ISBN|9781544294094}}.&lt;/ref&gt; {{blockquote|The hundred years between 1750 and 1850 were an age of astounding orthographic diversity in Albania. In this period, the Albanian language was put to writing in at least ten different alphabets – most certainly a record for European languages. ... the diverse forms in which this old Balkan language was recorded, from the earliest documents to the beginning of the twentieth century ... consist of adaptations of the Latin, Greek, Arabic, and Cyrillic alphabets and (what is even more interesting) a number of locally invented writing systems. Most of the latter alphabets have now been forgotten and are unknown, even to the Albanians themselves.}} == Classification == [[File:IndoEuropeanLanguageFamilyRelationsChart.jpg|thumb|upright=1.8|Albanian within Indo-European language family tree based on &quot;Ancestry-constrained phylogenetic analysis of Indo-European languages&quot; by Chang et al. (January 2015).&lt;ref name=chang&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Chang|first1=Will|last2=Chundra|first2=Cathcart|date=January 2015|title=Ancestry-constrained phylogenetic analysis supports the Indo-European steppe hypothesis|url=https://www.linguisticsociety.org/sites/default/files/news/ChangEtAlPreprint.pdf|journal=Language|volume=91|issue=1|pages=194–244|doi=10.1353/lan.2015.0005|s2cid=143978664|access-date=30 September 2020}}&lt;/ref&gt;]] Albanian constitutes one of the eleven major branches of the [[Indo-European language family]],&lt;ref name=&quot;Schumacher2020&quot;/&gt; within which it occupies an independent position.&lt;ref&gt;{{harvnb|Fortson|2010|p=446}}: &quot;Albanian forms its own separate branch of Indo-European; it is the last branch to appear in written records.&quot;&lt;/ref&gt; In 1854, Albanian was demonstrated to be an [[Indo-European languages|Indo-European language]] by the [[Comparative linguistics|philologist]] [[Franz Bopp]]. Albanian was formerly compared by a few Indo-European linguists with [[Germanic languages|Germanic]] and [[Balto-Slavic languages|Balto-Slavic]], all of which share a number of [[isogloss]]es with Albanian.&lt;ref&gt;Watkins, Calvert. &quot;Proto-Indo-European: Comparison and Reconstruction&quot;, in The Indo-European Languages, [[Anna Giacalone Ramat]] and Paolo Ramat, eds. London: Routledge, 1998.&lt;/ref&gt; Other linguists linked the Albanian language with [[Latin Language|Latin]], [[Greek language|Greek]] and [[Armenian language|Armenian]], while placing Germanic and Balto-Slavic in another branch of Indo-European.&lt;ref name=mallory&gt;[https://books.google.com/books?id=yfZZX1qjpvkC Google Books], [[J. P. Mallory|Mallory, J. P.]] and Adams, D. Q.: The Oxford Introduction to Proto-Indo-European and the Proto-Indo-European World&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=holm&gt;[http://www.hjholm.de/SLRD.pdf JHholm.de] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171011121308/http://www.hjholm.de/SLRD.pdf|date=11 October 2017}}, Holm, Hans J.: The Distribution of Data in Word Lists and its Impact on the Subgrouping of Languages. In: Christine Preisach, Hans Burkhardt, Lars Schmidt-Thieme, Reinhold Decker (eds.): Data Analysis, Machine Learning, and Applications. Proc. of the 31st Annual Conference of the German Classification Society (GfKl), University of Freiburg, 7–9 March 2007. Springer-Verlag, Heidelberg-Berlin&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=holm2&gt;[http://www.hjholm.de/ HJholm.de] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190905220636/http://www.hjholm.de/|date=5 September 2019}} A possible Homeland of the Indo-European Languages And their Migrations in the Light of the Separation Level Recovery (SLRD) Method&amp;nbsp;– Hans J. Holm&lt;/ref&gt; In current scholarship there is evidence that Albanian is closely related to Greek and Armenian, while the fact that it is a [[satem language|satem]] language is less significant.&lt;ref name=&quot;Schumacher2020&quot;/&gt; {{cladogram |caption = Albanian in the Palaeo-Balkanic Indo-European branch based on the chapters &quot;Albanian&quot; ({{harvnb|Hyllested|Joseph|2022}}) and &quot;Armenian&quot; ({{harvnb|Olsen|Thorsø|2022}}) in Olander (ed.) ''The Indo-European Language Family'' |cladogram = {{clade | label1 = [[Paleo-Balkan languages#Balkanic Indo-european|Balkanic]] | 1 = {{clade | 1 = [[Armenian language|Armenian]] | label2 = [[Graeco-Albanian]] | 2 = {{clade | label1 = [[Graeco-Phrygian]] | 1 = {{clade | 1 = [[Greek language|Greek]] | 2 = [[Phrygian language|Phrygian]]&lt;br&gt;&lt;small&gt;(extinct)&lt;/small&gt; }} | label2 = [[Albanoid|Illyric]] | 2 = {{clade | 1 = [[Messapic language|Messapic]]&lt;br&gt;&lt;small&gt;(extinct)&lt;/small&gt; | label2 = '''Albanian''' | 2 = {{clade | 1 = [[Gheg Albanian|Gheg]] | 2 = [[Tosk Albanian|Tosk]] }} }} }} }} }} }} [[Messapic language|Messapic]] is considered the closest language to Albanian,{{sfn|Hyllested|Joseph|2022|p=235}}{{sfn|Trumper|2018|p=385}}{{sfn|Friedman|2020|p=388}} grouped in a common branch titled ''Illyric'' in Hyllested &amp; Joseph (2022).{{sfn|Hyllested|Joseph|2022|p=235}} Hyllested &amp; Joseph (2022) in agreement with recent bibliography identify Greco-Phrygian as the IE branch closest to the Albanian-Messapic one. These two branches form an areal grouping – which is often called &quot;Balkan IE&quot; – with Armenian. The hypothesis of the &quot;[[Paleo-Balkan languages|Balkan Indo-European]]&quot; continuum posits a common period of prehistoric coexistence of several Indo-European dialects in the [[Balkans]] prior to 2000 BC. To this group would belong Albanian, [[Ancient Greek]], [[Armenian language|Armenian]], [[Phrygian language|Phrygian]], fragmentary attested languages such as [[Ancient Macedonian language|Macedonian]], [[Thracian language|Thracian]], or [[Illyrian language|Illyrian]], and the relatively well-attested [[Messapic language|Messapic]] in Southern Italy. The common features of this group appear at the phonological, morphological, and lexical levels, presumably resulting from the contact between the various languages. The concept of this linguistic group is explained as a kind of language league of the [[Bronze Age]] (a specific [[Sprachbund|areal-linguistics]] phenomenon), although it also consisted of languages that were related to each other.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal|last=Sowa|first=Wojciech|title=Thracian ''Tracio''|journal=Palaeohispanica|issn=1578-5386|doi=10.36707/palaeohispanica.v0i20.377|year=2020|pages=810–811|doi-access=free}}&lt;/ref&gt; A common prestage posterior to [[Proto-Indo-European language|PIE]] comprising Albanian, Greek, and Armenian, is considered as a possible scenario. In this light, due to the larger number of possible shared innovations between Greek and Armenian, it appears reasonable to assume, at least tentatively, that Albanian was the first Balkan IE language to branch off. This split and the following ones were perhaps very close in time, allowing only a narrow time frame for shared innovations.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book|last=Thorsø|first=Rasmus|chapter=Two Balkan Indo-European Loanwords|title=Dispersals and Diversification: Linguistic and Archaeological Perspectives on the Early Stages of Indo-European|editor1=Matilde Serangeli|editor2=Thomas Olander|volume=19|series=Brill's Studies in Indo-European Languages &amp; Linguistics|publisher=Brill|year=2019|isbn=9789004416192|pages=251–262|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=DHnEDwAAQBAJ}}&lt;/ref&gt; Albanian represents one of the core languages of the [[Balkan sprachbund|Balkan ''Sprachbund'']].&lt;ref name=&quot;Schumacher2020&quot;&gt;{{cite book|first=Stefan|last=Schumacher|title=Perfects in Indo-European Languages and Beyond|date=2020|publisher=John Benjamins Publishing Company|isbn=978-90-272-6090-1|language=en|chapter=The perfect system of Old Albanian (Geg variety)|editor1=Robert Crellin|editor2=Thomas Jügel|volume=352|series=Current Issues in Linguistic Theory|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=2Zz6DwAAQBAJ}}&lt;/ref&gt; Glottolog and Ethnologue recognize four Albanian languages. They are classified as follows:&lt;ref&gt;{{glottolog|alba1267|Albanian}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://www.ethnologue.com/subgroups/albanian|title=Albanian|website=[[Ethnologue]]|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220408170013/https://www.ethnologue.com/subgroups/albanian|archive-date=2022-04-08|url-status=live|publisher=[[SIL International]]|year=2022|editor-last=Eberhard|editor-first=David M.|editor2-last=Simons|editor2-first=Gary F.|editor3-last=Fennig|editor3-first=Charles D.|edition=25th|url-access=subscription}}&lt;/ref&gt; {{Tree list}} * Indo-European ** Albanian *** Tosk **** '''Northern Tosk Albanian''' **** Southern Tosk ***** '''Arbëreshë Albanian''' ***** '''Arvanitika Albanian''' *** '''Gheg Albanian''' {{Tree list/end}} == History == {{Further|Proto-Albanian language|Albanoid|Paleo-Balkan languages|l1=Proto-Albanian|l2=Albanoid|l3=Palaeo Balkan languages}} === Historical documentation === The first attested written mention of the Albanian language was on 14 July 1284 in [[Republic of Ragusa|Ragusa]] in modern [[Croatia]] ([[Dubrovnik]]) when a crime witness named Matthew testified: &quot;I heard a voice crying on the mountain in the Albanian language&quot; ({{langx|la|Audivi unam vocem, clamantem in monte in lingua albanesca}}).&lt;ref name=&quot;Hammond1976&quot;&gt;{{cite book|author=Nicholas Geoffrey Lemprière Hammond|title=Migrations and invasions in Greece and adjacent areas|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=O9saAAAAYAAJ|year=1976|publisher=Noyes Press|isbn=978-0-8155-5047-1|page=57}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;Zeitschrift für Balkanologie&quot;&gt;{{cite book|title=Zeitschrift für Balkanologie|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=iLkWAQAAMAAJ|year=1990|publisher=R. Trofenik|page=102}}&lt;/ref&gt; The Albanian language is also mentioned in the ''[[Descriptio Europae Orientalis]]''&lt;ref&gt;Tibor Živković, Vladeta Petrović, Aleksandar Uzelac, Dragana Kunčer: Anonymi Descriptio Europae Orientalis : Anonimov opis istočne Evrope. January 2013. Edition: Izvori za srpsku istoriju. Publisher: Istorijski institut. Editor: Srđan Rudić. {{ISBN|978-86-7743-102-0}}&lt;/ref&gt; dated in 1308:&lt;blockquote&gt;''{{lang|la|Habent enim Albani prefati linguam distinctam a Latinis, Grecis et Sclauis ita quod in nullo se intelligunt cum aliis nationibus.}}'' (Namely, the above-mentioned Albanians have a language that is different from the languages of Latins, Greeks and Slavs, so that they do not understand each other at all.)&lt;/blockquote&gt;The oldest attested document written in Albanian dates to 1462,&lt;ref name=&quot;Fortson2010–446&quot;&gt;{{harvnb|Fortson|2010|p=446}}&lt;/ref&gt; while the first audio recording in the language was made by [[Norbert Jokl]] on 4 April 1914 in [[Vienna]].&lt;ref name=&quot;Elsie2010&quot;&gt;{{cite book|author =Robert Elsie|author-link=Robert Elsie|title=Historical Dictionary of Albania|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=6inIiCF_930C&amp;pg=PA216|year=2010|publisher=Rowman &amp; Littlefield|isbn=978-0-8108-6188-6|page=216}}&lt;/ref&gt; However, as Fortson notes, Albanian written works existed before this point; they have simply been lost. The existence of written Albanian is explicitly mentioned in a letter attested from 1332, and the first preserved books, including both those in Gheg and in Tosk, share orthographic features that indicate that some form of common literary language had developed.&lt;ref&gt;{{harvnb|Fortson|2010|pp=447–448}}: &quot;But it is likely that there were earlier works which have vanished. The earliest preserved books both in Geg and in Tosk share features of spelling that point to some kind of common literary language having already developed, and a letter written by a Dominican friar named Gulielmus Adea in 1332 says that the inhabitants of Albania had a language very different from Latin but used the Latin alphabet in their writings, suggesting (if not proving) an already–existing written Albanian tradition.&quot;&lt;/ref&gt; By the [[Late Middle Ages]], during the period of [[Humanism]] and the [[European Renaissance]], the term {{lang|it|lingua epirotica}} {{gloss|Epirotan language}} was preferred in the intellectual, literary, and clerical circles of the time, and used as a synonym for the Albanian language.{{sfn|Demiraj|2012|pp=132–133}} Published in Rome in 1635, by the Albanian bishop and writer Frang Bardhi, the first dictionary of the Albanian language was titled {{langx|la|Dictionarium latino-epiroticum}} {{gloss|Latin-Epirotan dictionary}}.{{sfn|Bihiku|1980|pp=14–15}}&lt;ref name=&quot;Bartl&quot;&gt;{{Cite book|last=Bartl|first=Peter|title=Albanien: vom Mittelalter bis zur Gegenwart|publisher=Pustet|year=1995|isbn=9783791714516|location=Michigan|pages=86|language=De}}&lt;/ref&gt; During the five-century period of the [[Ottoman Albania|Ottoman presence]] in [[Albania]], the language was not officially recognised until 1909, when the [[Congress of Dibra]] decided that Albanian schools would finally be allowed.{{Citation needed|date=January 2024|reason=The previous footnote here was about a celebration of the Congress of Dibra, but didn't say anything about what happened at the Congress; also, it's not really a WP:RS.}} === Linguistic affinities === {{See also|Illyrian language}} Albanian is an [[language isolate|isolate]] within the Indo-European language family; no other language has been conclusively linked to its [[language family#Subdivision|branch]]. The only other languages that are the sole surviving members of a branch of Indo-European are [[Armenian language|Armenian]] and Greek.&lt;ref name=Prltsvg-2012&gt;{{cite book|last=Pereltsvaig|first=Asya|author-link=Asya Pereltsvaig|year=2012|chapter=Indo-European languages|title=Languages of the World: An introduction|publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]]|isbn=978-1-107-37791-2|pages=30–31|language=en|chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=R5ogAwAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PA31}}&lt;/ref&gt;{{efn| &quot;... in Figure&amp;nbsp;2.1 are listed three subfamilies which contain only one language each: the Albanian, Hellenic, and Armenian subfamilies. These three languages – Albanian, Greek, and Armenian – are isolates within the Indo-European family showing no closer connection to any other Indo-European languages or to each other.&quot; — Pereltsvaig (2012) pp. 30–31&lt;ref name=Prltsvg-2012/&gt; }} The Albanian language is part of the [[Indo-European languages|Indo-European]] [[language family]] and the only surviving representative of [[Albanoid|its own branch]], which belongs to the [[Paleo-Balkan languages|Paleo-Balkan group]].{{sfn|Sowa|2020|pp=810–811}}{{sfn|Hyllested|Joseph|2022|p=235}}&lt;ref name=fine10-11&gt;{{cite book|last=Fine|first=J.A.|year=1991|title=The Early Medieval Balkans|publisher=University of Michigan Press|pages=10–11|isbn=9780472081493|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=YbS9QmwDC58C|via=Google Books}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;In his latest book, [[Eric Hamp]] supports the thesis that the Illyrian language belongs to the Northwestern group, that the Albanian language is descended from Illyrian, and that Albanian is related to Messapic which is an earlier Illyrian dialect (''Comparative Studies on Albanian'', 2007).&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book|first=Roger D.|last=Woodard|year=2008|title=The Ancient Languages of Europe|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=9780521684958|url=https://archive.org/details/ancientlanguages00roge|url-access=registration|quote=The modern Albanian language, it has been conjectured, is descendent directly from ancient Illyrian&amp;nbsp;...}}&lt;/ref&gt; Although it is still uncertain which ancient mentioned language of the Balkans it continues, or where in the region its speakers lived.{{efn| &quot;It is generally accepted that Albanians continue one of the ancient languages of the Balkans, although scholars disagree on which language they spoke and what area of the Balkans they occupied before the Slavs' migration to the Balkans.&quot; — Curtis (2011) p. 16&lt;ref name=Curtis-2011&gt; {{cite book|last1=Curtis|first1=Matthew Cowan|date=30 November 2011|title=Slavic-Albanian Language Contact, Convergence, and Coexistence|isbn=9781267580337|url=https://eric.ed.gov/?id=ED546136|access-date=31 March 2017|language=en}} &lt;/ref&gt;{{rp|style=ama|p= 16}} }} In general, there is insufficient evidence to connect Albanian with one of those languages, whether [[Illyrian language|Illyrian]], [[Thracian language|Thracian]], or [[Dacian language|Dacian]].{{efn| &quot;So while linguists may debate about the ties between Albanian and older languages of the Balkans, and while most Albanians may take the genealogical connection to Illyrian as incontrovertible, the fact remains that there is simply insufficient evidence to connect Illyrian, Thracian, or Dacian with any language, including Albanian.&quot; — Curtis (2011) p. 18&lt;ref name=Curtis-2011/&gt;{{rp|style=ama|p= 18}} }}Among these possibilities, Illyrian is the most probable.{{efn| &quot;The most probable predecessor of Albanian was Illyrian since much of present-day Albania was inhabited by the Illyrians during the Antiquity, but the comparison of the two languages is impossible because almost nothing is known about Illyrian ... It is a-priori less probable to assume that a single language was spoken in the whole Illyricum, from the river Arsia in Istria, to Epirus in Greece, when such a linguistic uniformity is found nowhere else in Europe before the Roman conquest. Moreover, the examination of personal names and toponyms from Illyricum shows that several onomastic areas can be distinguished, and these onomastic areas just might correspond to different languages spoken in ancient Illyricum. If Illyrians actually spoke several different languages, the question arises: From which ''Illyrian'' language did Albanian develop? – and that question cannot be answered until new data are discovered.&quot; — Ranko (2012)&lt;ref&gt; {{cite news|first=Ranko|last=Matasovic|year=2012|title=A grammatical sketch of Albanian for students of Indo-European}}&lt;/ref&gt;{{page needed|date=July 2023}}{{full citation needed|date=July 2023|reason=Publisher, ISBN, medium (book/magazine/journal/webpage ...) &quot;cite news&quot; seems wrong.}} }} Although Albanian shares lexical [[isogloss]]es with [[Greek language|Greek]], [[Germanic languages|Germanic]], and to a lesser extent [[Balto-Slavic languages|Balto-Slavic]], the vocabulary of Albanian is quite distinct.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|title=Introduction to Albanian|website=lrc.la.utexas.edu|url=https://lrc.la.utexas.edu/eieol/albol|access-date=2023-06-09}}&lt;/ref&gt; In 1995, Taylor, [[Donald Ringe|Ringe]], and [[Tandy Warnow|Warnow]] used [[quantitative comparative linguistics|quantitative linguistic]] techniques that appeared to obtain an Albanian subgrouping with Germanic, a result which the authors had already reasonably downplayed.{{Clarify|reason=What does &quot;reasonably downplayed&quot; mean??|date=January 2024}}&lt;ref name=&quot;TRW&quot;&gt;{{cite conference|first1=Ann|last1=Taylor|first2=Donald|last2=Ringe|author2-link=Donald Ringe|first3=Tandy|last3=Warnow|author3-link=Tandy Warnow|date=August 1995|chapter=Character based reconstruction of a linguistic cladogram|editor1-last=Smith|editor1-first=John Charles|editor2-last=Bentley|editor2-first=Delia|publication-date=2000|conference=12th International Conference on Historical Linguistics|place=Manchester, UK|book-title=Historical Linguistics 1995: Selected papers.|volume=1 – General issues and non-Germanic Languages|publication-place=Amsterdam, NL|publisher=John Benjamins Publishing|page=400|isbn=9027236666|chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=RtsLKLhCZ0EC&amp;q=Character+Based+Reconstruction+of+a+Linguistic+Cladogram+Albanian&amp;pg=PA392}}&lt;/ref&gt;{{sfn|Hyllested|Joseph|2022|p=225}} Indeed, the Albanian and Germanic branches share a relatively moderate number of lexical cognates. Many shared grammatical elements or features of these two branches do not corroborate the lexical isoglosses.{{sfn|Hyllested|Joseph|2022|p=225}} Albanian also shares [[Lexicon|lexical]] linguistic affinity with Latin and Romance languages.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal|last=Vermeer|first=Willem|year=2008|title=The prehistory of the Albanian vowel system: A preliminary exploration|journal=Studies in Slavic and General Linguistics|volume=32|pages=591–608|jstor=40997529 |issn=0169-0124}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal|last=Sampson|first=Rodney|year=1997|title=Rebecca Posner, ''The Romance Languages''. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1996, xvi + 376&amp;nbsp;pp. {{nobr|0 521 28139 3}}|type=book review|journal=Journal of French Language Studies|volume=7|issue=2|pages=227–229|language=en|doi=10.1017/S0959269500003793|s2cid=230472704|issn=1474-0079|url=https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/journal-of-french-language-studies/article/abs/rebecca-posner-the-romance-languages-cambridge-cambridge-university-press-1996-xvi-376-pp-0-521-28139-3/745EC424E67AB30625B74A023ABB9326}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book|last=Posner|first=Rebecca|year=1966|title=The Romance Languages: A linguistic introduction|edition=1st|publisher=Anchor Books|isbn=084460853X|location=United States of America|pages=3|language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt; Sharing linguistic features unique to the [[languages of the Balkans]], Albanian also forms a part of the [[Balkan sprachbund|Balkan linguistic area or ''sprachbund'']].&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal|last=Friedman|first=Victor A.|year=2011|title=The Balkan languages and Balkan linguistics|journal=Annual Review of Anthropology|volume=40|pages=275–291|doi=10.1146/annurev-anthro-081309-145932|jstor=41287733|issn=0084-6570}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal|last=Lindstedt|first=Jouko|year=2000|title=Linguistic balkanization: Contact-induced change by mutual reinforcement|journal=Studies in Slavic and General Linguistics|volume=28|pages=231–246|issn=0169-0124|jstor=40997168}}&lt;/ref&gt; === Historical presence and location === {{Main|Origin of the Albanians}} The place and the time that the Albanian language was formed are uncertain.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal|title=Mythifying the Albanians: A Historiographical Discussion on Vasa Efendi's &quot;Albania and the Albanians&quot;|volume=XIII|issue=1–2|url=https://balkanologie.revues.org/2272|journal=Balkanologie. Revue d'Études Pluridisciplinaires|date=15 December 2011|last1=Bayraktar|first1=Uğur Bahadır|doi=10.4000/balkanologie.2272|doi-access=free}}&lt;/ref&gt; The American linguist [[Eric P. Hamp|Eric Hamp]] has said that during an unknown chronological period a pre-Albanian population (termed as &quot;Albanoid&quot; by Hamp) inhabited areas stretching from [[Poland]] to the southwestern Balkans.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book|last1=Curtis|first1=Matthew Cowan|title=Slavic-Albanian Language Contact, Convergence, and Coexistence|url=https://eric.ed.gov/?id=ED546136|page=17|language=en|quote=...&amp;nbsp;for example, argues that from some indeterminate time a pre-Albanian (in Hamp's terms, Albanoid) population inhabited areas stretching from Poland to the current area|isbn=9781267580337|date=30 November 2011}}&lt;/ref&gt; Further analysis has suggested that it was in a mountainous region rather than on a plain or seacoast. The words for plants and animals characteristic of mountainous regions are entirely original, but the names for fish and for agricultural activities (such as [[plough]]ing) are borrowed from other languages.&lt;ref name=fine10-11/&gt;&lt;ref name=hamp1963&gt;[http://members.tripod.com/~Groznijat/balkan/ehamp.html Tripod.co], Eric Hamp, &quot;The position of Albanian, Ancient IE dialects, Proceedings of the Conference on IE linguistics held at the University of California, Los Angeles, April 25–27, 1963, ed. By Henrik Birnbaum and Jaan Puhvel. &quot;It is clear that in the Middle Ages the Albanians extended farther north (Jokl, Albaner §2); that there are persuasive arguments which have been advanced against their having extended as far as the Adriatic coast—the fact that Scodra 'Scutari' (Shkodër) shows un-Albanian development (see §6 below), that there is no demonstrated old maritime vocabulary (see above), and that there are few ancient Greek loans (Jokl, Albaner §5; but see §5 below)&lt;/ref&gt; A deeper analysis of the vocabulary, however, shows that could be a consequence of a prolonged [[Latin]] domination of the coastal and plain areas of the country, rather than evidence of the original environment in which the Albanian language was formed. For example, the word for 'fish' is borrowed from Latin, but not the word for 'gills' which is native. Indigenous are also the words for 'ship', 'raft', 'navigation', 'sea shelves' and a few names of fish kinds, but not the words for 'sail', 'row' and 'harbor'; objects pertaining to navigation itself and a large part of sea fauna. This rather shows that Proto-Albanians were pushed away from coastal areas in early times (probably after the Latin conquest of the region) and thus lost a large amount (or the majority) of their sea environment lexicon. A similar phenomenon could be observed with agricultural terms. While the words for 'arable land', 'wheat', 'cereals', 'vineyard', 'yoke', 'harvesting', 'cattle breeding', etc. are native, the words for 'ploughing', 'farm' and 'farmer', agricultural practices, and some harvesting tools are foreign. This, again, points to intense contact with other languages and people, rather than providing evidence of a possible [[linguistic homeland]] (also known as a ''Urheimat'').{{citation needed|date=October 2017}} [[File:Revista Albania.jpg|upright=0.95|thumb|1905 issue of the magazine ''Albania'', the most important Albanian periodical of the early 20th century]] The centre of Albanian settlement remained the [[Mat (river)|Mat]] River. In 1079, the Albanians were recorded farther south in the valley of the [[Shkumbin]] River.&lt;ref&gt;Kazhdan, Alexander (Ed.) (1991). Oxford Dictionary of Byzantium. Oxford University Press. pp. 52–53. {{ISBN|978-0-19-504652-6}}.&lt;/ref&gt; The Shkumbin, a 181&amp;nbsp;km long river that lies near the old [[Via Egnatia]], is approximately the boundary of the primary dialect division for Albanian, [[Tosk Albanian|Tosk]] and [[Gheg Albanian|Gheg]]. The characteristics of Tosk and Gheg in the treatment of the native words and loanwords from other languages are evidence that the dialectal split preceded the [[Slavic migrations to the Balkans]],&lt;ref name=&quot;brown23&quot;/&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;Fortson2010–448&quot; /&gt;{{sfn|Mallory|Adams|1997|p=9}} which means that in that period (the 5th to 6th centuries AD), Albanians were occupying nearly the same area around the Shkumbin river, which straddled the [[Jireček Line]].&lt;ref&gt;Demiraj, Shaban. Prejardhja e shqiptarëve në dritën e dëshmive të gjuhës shqipe.(Origin of Albanians through the testimonies of the Albanian language) Shkenca (Tirane) 1999&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=hamp1963/&gt; References to the existence of Albanian as a distinct language survive from the 14th century, but they failed to cite specific words. The oldest surviving documents written in Albanian are the &quot;{{lang|sq|[[formula e pagëzimit]]}}&quot; (Baptismal formula), ''{{lang|sq|Un'te paghesont' pr'emenit t'Atit e t'Birit e t'Spertit Senit}}''. (&quot;I baptize thee in [[Trinitarian formula|the name of the Father, and the Son, and the Holy Spirit]]&quot;) recorded by Pal Engjelli, Bishop of Durrës in 1462 in the Gheg dialect, and some [[New Testament]] verses from that period. The linguists Stefan Schumacher and Joachim Matzinger (University of Vienna) assert that the first literary records of Albanian date from the 16th century.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite book|chapter-url=https://www.academia.edu/32361769|chapter=The development of the PIE middle in Albanian|editor1=Bjarne Simmelkjær Sandgaard Hansen|editor2=Benedicte Nielsen Whitehead|editor3=Thomas Olander|editor4=Birgit Anette Olsen|title=Etymology and the European Lexicon: Proceedings of the 14th Fachtagung der Indogermanischen Gesellschaft, 17–22 September 2012, Copenhagen|location=Wiesbaden|publisher=Reichert|date=2016|first=Stefan|last=Schumacher|via=Academia.edu}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite book|chapter-url=https://www.academia.edu/25120826|title=Word-Formation: An International Handbook of the Languages of Europe|date=2016|publisher=De Gruyter|editor-last=Müller|editor-first=Peter O.|volume=5|location=Berlin, Boston|pages=3124|chapter=171. Albanian|doi=10.1515/9783110424942|editor2-last=Ohnheiser|editor2-first=Ingeborg|editor3-last=Olsen|editor3-first=Susan|editor4-last=Rainer|editor4-first=Franz|isbn=9783110424942}}&lt;/ref&gt; The oldest known Albanian printed book, ''[[Meshari]]'', or &quot;missal&quot;, was written in 1555 by [[Gjon Buzuku]], a [[Roman Catholic]] cleric. In 1635, [[Frang Bardhi]] wrote the first Latin–Albanian dictionary. The first Albanian school is believed to have been opened by [[Franciscans]] in 1638 in {{lang|sq|[[Pdhanë]]}}. One of the earliest Albanian dictionaries was written in 1693; it was the [[Italian language|Italian]] manuscript ''Pratichae Schrivaneschae'' authored by the Montenegrin sea captain [[Julije Balović]] and includes a multilingual dictionary of hundreds of the most frequently used words in everyday life in Italian, Slavic, Greek, Albanian, and [[Turkish language|Turkish]].&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book|last=Pantić|first=Miroslav|title=Književnost na tlu Crne Gore i Boke Kotorske od XVI do XVIII veka|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=G5FiAAAAMAAJ|year=1990|publisher=[[Serbian Literary Guild]]|page=98|isbn=9788637901907}}&lt;/ref&gt; ===Pre-Indo-European substratum=== Pre-Indo-European (PreIE) sites are found throughout the territory of Albania. Such PreIE sites existed in [[Maliq (Albania)|Maliq]], [[Vashtëmi]], [[Burimas]], [[Barç]], [[Dërsnik]] in the [[Korçë District]], [[Kamnik]] in [[Kolonja]], Kolsh in the [[Kukës District]], Rashtan in [[Librazhd]], and Nezir in the [[Mat District]].{{Sfn|Demiraj|2006|pp=42–43}} As in other parts of Europe, these PreIE people joined the migratory Indo-European tribes that entered the Balkans and contributed to the formation of the historical Paleo-Balkan tribes. In terms of linguistics, the pre-Indo-European substrate language spoken in the southern Balkans probably influenced [[Proto-Albanian language|pre-Proto-Albanian]], the ancestor idiom of Albanian.{{Sfn|Demiraj|2006|pp=42–43}} The extent of this linguistic impact cannot be determined with precision due to the uncertain position of Albanian among [[Paleo-Balkan languages]] and their scarce attestation.{{Sfn|Demiraj|2006|pp=44–45}} Some loanwords, however, have been proposed, such as {{lang|sq|shegë}} '[[pomegranate]]' or {{lang|sq|lëpjetë}} '[[Atriplex|orach]]'; compare Pre-Greek {{lang|el|λάπαθον}}, ''lápathon'' '[[Rumex alpinus|monk's rhubarb]]'.{{Sfn|Orel|1998|pp=225, 409}}{{Sfn|Demiraj|2006|pp=42–43}} == Literary tradition == [[File:Buzuku meshari.jpg|thumb|[[Meshari]] of [[Gjon Buzuku]] 1554–1555|334x334px]] === Earliest undisputed texts === The earliest known texts in Albanian: * the {{lang|sq|[[formula e pagëzimit]]}} (Baptismal Formula), which dates back to 1462 and was authored by [[Pal Engjëlli]] (or Paulus Angelus) ({{Circa|1417}}&amp;nbsp;– 1470), Archbishop of [[Durrës]]. Engjëlli was a close friend and counsellor of [[Skanderbeg]].&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book |last1=Newmark |first1=Leonard |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=hqlYbhnII3QC&amp;q=Pal+Engj%C3%ABlli&amp;pg=PA3 |title=Standard Albanian: a reference grammar for students |last2=Hubbard |first2=Philip |last3=Prifti |first3=Peter R. |publisher=Andrew Mellon Foundation |year=1982 |isbn=9780804711296 |page=3 |access-date=2010-05-28}}&lt;/ref&gt; It was written in a pastoral letter for a synod at the Holy Trinity in Mat and read in Latin characters as follows: {{lang|sq|Unte paghesont premenit Atit et Birit et Spertit Senit}} (standard Albanian: {{lang|sq|Unë të pagëzoj në emër të Atit, të Birit e të Shpirtit të Shenjtë}}; English: &quot;I baptise you in the name of the Father and the Son and the Holy Spirit&quot;). It was discovered and published in 1915 by [[Nicolae Iorga]].&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal |author=Francisc Pall |year=1971 |title=Di nuovo sulle biografie scanderbegiane del XVI secolo |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=uvAXAAAAIAAJ&amp;q=paolo+angeli+iorga |journal=Revue des études sud-est européennes |language=fr |publisher=Academia Republicii Socialiste România, Academia Republicii Populare Romîne |volume=9 |issue=1 |page=102 |access-date=2010-05-28}}&lt;/ref&gt; * the {{lang|sq|[[Fjalori i Arnold von Harfit]]}} ([[Arnold Ritter von Harff's lexicon]]), a short list of Albanian phrases with German glosses, dated 1496.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book |last=Anamali |first=Skënder |title=Historia e popullit shqiptar në katër vëllime |publisher=Botimet Toena |year=2002 |volume=I |page=311 |language=sq |oclc=52411919}}&lt;/ref&gt; * a song, recorded in the Greek alphabet, retrieved from an old [[codex]] that was written in Greek. The document is also called {{lang|sq|Perikopeja e Ungjillit të Pashkëve}} or {{lang|sq|Perikopeja e Ungjillit të Shën Mateut}} (&quot;The Song of the Easter Gospel, or &quot;The Song of Saint Matthew's Gospel&quot;). Although the codex is dated to during the 14th century, the song, written in Albanian by an anonymous writer, seems to be a 16th-century writing. The document was found by [[Arbëreshë people|Arbëreshë]] people who had emigrated to Italy in the 15th century.{{sfn|Lloshi|2008|p=97}} * [[File:Perikopi evangjelik.jpg|thumb|243x243px|Perikopeja e Ungjillit të Shën Mateut]][[File:Oldest Surviving Albanian Text.jpg|thumb|Possibly the oldest surviving Albanian text, highlighted in red, from the Bellifortis manuscript, written by Konrad Kyeser around 1402–1405.]]The first book in Albanian is the [[Meshari]] (&quot;The Missal&quot;), written by [[Gjon Buzuku]] between 20 March 1554 and 5 January 1555. The book was written in the [[Gheg]] dialect in the [[Latin script]] with some Slavic letters adapted for Albanian vowels. The book was discovered in 1740 by [[Gjon Nikollë Kazazi]], the Albanian [[archbishop]] of [[Skopje]]. It contains the liturgies of the main [[holiday]]s. There are also texts of prayers and rituals and [[catechism|catechetical]] texts. The grammar and the vocabulary are more archaic than those in the Gheg texts from the 17th century. The 188 pages of the book comprise about 154,000 words with a total vocabulary of c. 1,500 different words. The text is archaic yet easily interpreted because it is mainly a translation of known texts, in particular portions of the [[Bible]]. The book also contains passages from the [[Psalm]]s, the [[Book of Isaiah]], the [[Book of Jeremiah]], the [[First Epistle to the Corinthians|Letters to the Corinthians]], and many illustrations. The uniformity of spelling seems to indicate an earlier tradition of writing. The only known copy of the Meshari is held by the [[Vatican Library|Apostolic Library]].&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |title=Meshari |url=http://www.bksh.al/gsdl/cgi-bin/library.exe?e=d-01000-00---off-0antikuar--00-1--0-10-0---0---0prompt-10---4-------0-1l--11-en-50---20-about---00-3-1-00-0-0-11-1-0utfZz-8-00&amp;a=d&amp;c=antikuar&amp;cl=CL2.3 |access-date=14 May 2010 |publisher=[[National Library of Albania]]}}&lt;/ref&gt; In 1968 the book was published with transliterations and comments by linguists. * The first printed work in Tosk Albanian is the ''Mbsuame e krështerë'' (in Italian: ''Dottrina cristiana'') by Lekë Matrënga or (in Italian) [[Luca Matranga]]. It was published in 1592 and is written in an early form of the [[Arbëresh language]] (also known as Italo-Albanian). Albanian scripts were produced earlier than the first attested document, {{lang|sq|formula e pagëzimit}}, but none yet have been discovered. We know of their existence by earlier references. For example, a French monk signed as &quot;Broccardus&quot; notes, in 1332, that &quot;Although the Albanians have another language totally different from Latin, ''they still use Latin letters in all their books''&quot;.&lt;ref&gt;Demiraj, Shaban. &quot;Albanian&quot;. In Ramat and Ramat (2006), ''The Indo-European Languages''. Page 480&lt;/ref&gt; === Disputed earlier texts === In 1967 two scholars claimed to have found a Letter text in Albanian inserted into the [[Bellifortis]] text, a book written in Latin dating to 1402–1405.&lt;ref&gt;Dumitru Todericiu, ''An Albanian text older than the &quot;Christening Formula&quot; of 1462'', in &quot;Magazin Istoric&quot;, nr. 8, Bucharest, November 1967.&lt;/ref&gt; {{blockquote|&quot;A star has fallen in a place in the woods, distinguish the star, distinguish it.&lt;br /&gt; Distinguish the star from the others, they are ours, they are.&lt;br /&gt; Do you see where the great voice has resounded? Stand beside it&lt;br /&gt; That thunder. It did not fall. It did not fall for you, the one which would do it.&lt;br /&gt; ...&lt;br /&gt; Like the ears, you should not believe ... that the moon fell when ...&lt;br /&gt; Try to encompass that which spurts far ...&lt;br /&gt; Call the light when the moon falls and no longer exists ...&quot;}} [[Robert Elsie]], a specialist in Albanian studies, considers that &quot;The Todericiu/Polena Romanian translation of the non-Latin lines, although it may offer some clues if the text is indeed Albanian, is fanciful and based, among other things, on a false reading of the manuscript, including the exclusion of a whole line.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;Robert Elsie, ''[http://www.elsie.de/pdf/articles/A1986Bellifortis.pdf The Bellifortis text and early Albanian]'' in &quot;Zeitschrift für Balkanologie&quot;, Berlin, 22 February 1986, p. 158-162.&lt;/ref&gt; === Ottoman period === In 1635, [[Frang Bardhi]] (1606–1643) published in [[Rome]] his {{lang|la|Dictionarum latinum-epiroticum}}, the first known Latin-Albanian dictionary. Other scholars who studied the language during the 17th century include [[Andrea Bogdani]] (1600–1685), author of the first Latin-Albanian grammar book, [[Nilo Katalanos]] (1637–1694) and others.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book |last=Marmullaku |first=Ramadan |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=v3S4AAAAIAAJ&amp;q=Andre+Bogdani |title=Albania and the Albanians |publisher=C. Hurst |year=1975 |isbn=0903983133 |pages=17}}&lt;/ref&gt; == Indo-European features == {{Indo-European topics}} === Indo-European vocabulary === {{Main|Indo-European vocabulary}} === PIE phonological correspondences === Phonologically, Albanian is not so conservative. Like many IE stocks, it has merged the two series of voiced stops (e.g. both PIE {{lang|ine-x-proto|d}} and {{lang|ine-x-proto|dʰ}} became {{langx|sq|d}}). In addition, voiced stops tend to disappear in between vowels. There is almost complete loss of final syllables and very widespread loss of other unstressed syllables (e.g. {{lang|sq|mik}} 'friend' from Lat. {{lang|la|amicus}}). PIE {{lang|ine-x-proto|o}} appears as {{lang|sq|a}} (also as {{lang|sq|e}} if a high front vowel {{lang|sq|i}} follows), while PIE {{lang|ine-x-proto|ē}} and {{lang|ine-x-proto|ā}} become {{lang|sq|o}}, and PIE {{lang|ine-x-proto|ō}} appears as {{lang|sq|e}}. The palatals, velars, and labiovelars show distinct developments, with Albanian showing the three-way distinction also found in [[Luwian language|Luwian]].&lt;ref name=&quot;OrelVelars&quot;&gt;{{harvnb|Orel|2000|pages=[https://archive.org/details/concisehistorica00orel/page/n88 66], 70–71}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;NeitherCentumNorSatem&quot;&gt;{{cite book|author1=Bardhyl Demiraj|editor1-last=Fritz|editor1-first=Matthias|editor2-last=Joseph|editor2-first=Brian|editor3-last=Klein|editor3-first=Jared|title=Handbook of Comparative and Historical Indo-European Linguistics|date=2018|publisher=De Gruyter Mouton|isbn=978-3-11-054036-9|chapter=100. The evolution of Albanian|quote=&quot;and the outcomes of the three dorsal series suggest that Albanian, like Luwian, may have origi- nally retained this three-way opposition intact and therefore is neither centum nor satem, despite the clear satem-like outcome of its palatal dorsals in most instances&quot;}}&lt;/ref&gt; Labiovelars are for the most part differentiated from all other Indo-European velar series before front vowels, but they merge with the &quot;pure&quot; (back) velars elsewhere.&lt;ref name=&quot;OrelVelars&quot; /&gt; The palatal velar series, consisting of Proto-Indo-European {{lang|ine-x-proto|ḱ}} and the merged {{lang|ine-x-proto|ģ}} and {{lang|ine-x-proto|ģʰ}}, usually developed into {{lang|ine-x-proto|th}} and {{lang|ine-x-proto|dh}}, but were depalatalised to merge with the back velars when in contact with [[sonorant]]s.&lt;ref name=&quot;OrelVelars&quot; /&gt; Because the original Proto-Indo-European tripartite distinction between dorsals is preserved in such reflexes, Albanian is therefore neither [[Centum-satem|centum nor satem]], despite having a &quot;satem-like&quot; realization of the palatal dorsals in most cases.&lt;ref name=&quot;NeitherCentumNorSatem&quot; /&gt; Thus PIE {{lang|ine-x-proto|ḱ}}, {{lang|ine-x-proto|k}}, and {{lang|ine-x-proto|kʷ}} become {{lang|sq|th}}, {{lang|sq|q}}, and {{lang|sq|s}}, respectively (before back vowels PIE {{lang|ine-x-proto|ḱ}} becomes {{lang|sq|th}}, while {{lang|ine-x-proto|k}} and {{lang|ine-x-proto|kʷ}} merge as {{lang|sq|k}}). A minority of scholars reconstruct a fourth [[Laryngeal theory|laryngeal]] {{lang|ine-x-proto|h₄}} allegedly surfacing as Alb. {{lang|sq|h}} word-initially, e.g. Alb. {{lang|sq|herdhe}} 'testicles' presumably from PIE {{lang|ine-x-proto|h₄órǵʰi-}}&lt;ref name=&quot;ReferenceA&quot;&gt;{{cite book|title=Encyclopedia of Indo-European culture|author1=J. P. Mallory|author2=Douglas Q. Adams|publisher=[[Taylor &amp; Francis]]|year=1997|isbn=978-1-884964-98-5}} {{ISBN|1-884964-98-2}}, {{ISBN|978-1-884964-98-5}}&lt;/ref&gt; (rather than the usual reconstruction {{lang|ine-x-proto|h₃erǵʰi-}}), but this is generally not followed elsewhere, as {{lang|sq|h-}} has arisen elsewhere idiosyncratically (for example Alb. {{lang|sq|hark}} &lt; Lat. {{lang|la|arcus}}).&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite book|last=de Vaan|first=Michiel|title=Handbook of Comparative and Historical Indo-European Linguistics|date=2018|publisher=Walter de Gruyter|volume=3|editor-last=Klein|editor-first=Jared|pages=1757|language=en|chapter=The phonology of Albanian|editor2-last=Joseph|editor2-first=Brian|editor3-last=Fritz|editor3-first=Matthias|quote=but ''h-'' has arisen secondarily in words such as ''hark'' 'curve' ← Latin ''arcus'', which renders ''h-'' non-probative}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;Schumacher/Matzinger 2013, p. 267.&lt;/ref&gt; {| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; |+ Reflexes of PIE bilabial plosives in Albanian !PIE !! Albanian !! PIE !! Albanian |- | *p || p || {{lang|ine-x-proto|'''p'''ékʷ-}} 'to cook' || {{lang|sq|'''p'''jek}} 'to bake' |- | *bʰ / b || b || {{lang|ine-x-proto|sro'''bʰ'''-éi̯e-}} 'to sip, gulp' || {{lang|sq|gjer'''b'''}} 'to sip' |} {| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; |+ Reflexes of PIE coronal plosives in Albanian !PIE !! Albanian !! PIE !! Albanian |- | *t || t || {{lang|ine-x-proto|'''t'''úh&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;}} 'thou' || '''''t'''i'' 'you (singular)' |- | *d || d || {{lang|ine-x-proto|'''d'''ih&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;tis}} 'light' || '''''d'''itë'' 'day' |- | || dh&lt;ref group=&quot;*&quot; name=&quot;ivcr&quot;&gt;Between vowels or after ''r''&lt;/ref&gt; || ''*pér'''d'''-'' 'to fart' || ''pjer'''dh''''' 'to fart' |- | || g || {{lang|ine-x-proto|'''d'''l̥h&lt;sub&gt;1&lt;/sub&gt;-tó-}} 'long' || {{lang|sq|'''g'''jatë}} 'long' (Tosk dial. ''glatë'') |- | *dʰ || d || {{lang|ine-x-proto|'''dʰ'''égʷʰ-}} 'burn' || {{lang|sq|'''d'''jeg}} 'to burn' |- | || dh&lt;ref group=&quot;*&quot; name=&quot;ivcr&quot; /&gt; || {{lang|ine-x-proto|gʰór'''dʰ'''os}} 'enclosure' || {{lang|sq|gar'''dh'''}} 'fence' |} {{reflist|group=*}} {| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; |+ Reflexes of PIE palatal plosives in Albanian !PIE !! Albanian !! PIE !! Albanian |- | *ḱ || th || {{lang|ine-x-proto|*'''ḱ'''éh&lt;sub&gt;1&lt;/sub&gt;smi}} 'I say' || {{lang|sq|'''th'''em}} 'I say' |- | || s&lt;ref group=&quot;*&quot;&gt;Before ''u̯/u'' or ''i̯/i''&lt;/ref&gt; || {{lang|ine-x-proto|'''ḱ'''upo-}} 'shoulder' || {{lang|sq|'''s'''up}} 'shoulder' |- | || k&lt;ref group=&quot;*&quot;&gt;Before [[sonorant]]&lt;/ref&gt; || {{lang|ine-x-proto|sme'''ḱ'''-r̥}} 'chin' || {{lang|sq|mje'''k'''ër}} 'chin; beard' |- | || ç/c&lt;ref group=&quot;*&quot;&gt;Archaic relic&lt;/ref&gt; || {{lang|ine-x-proto|'''ḱ'''entro-}} 'to stick' || {{lang|sq|'''ç'''andër}} 'prop' |- | *ǵ || dh || {{lang|ine-x-proto|'''ǵ'''ómbʰos}} 'tooth, peg' || {{lang|sq|'''dh'''ëmb}} 'tooth' |- | *ǵʰ || dh || {{lang|ine-x-proto|'''ǵʰ'''ed-ioH}} 'I defecate' || {{lang|sq|'''dh'''jes}} 'I defecate' |- | || d&lt;ref group=&quot;*&quot;&gt;Syllable-initial and followed by [[sibilant]]&lt;/ref&gt; || {{lang|ine-x-proto|'''ǵʰ'''r̥sdʰi}} 'grain, barley' || {{lang|sq|'''d'''rithë}} 'grain' |} {{reflist|group=*}} {| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; |+ Reflexes of PIE velar plosives in Albanian !PIE !! Albanian !! PIE !! Albanian |- | *k || k || {{lang|ine-x-proto|'''k'''ágʰmi}} 'I catch, grasp' || {{lang|sq|'''k'''am}} 'I have' |- | || q || {{lang|ine-x-proto|'''k'''luH-i̯o-}} 'to weep' || {{lang|sq|'''q'''aj}} 'to weep, cry' (dial. ''kla(n)j'') |- | *g || g || {{lang|ine-x-proto|h&lt;sub&gt;3&lt;/sub&gt;lí'''g'''os}} 'sick' || {{lang|sq|li'''g'''ë}} 'bad' |- | || gj || {{lang|ine-x-proto|h&lt;sub&gt;1&lt;/sub&gt;reu'''g'''-}} 'to retch' || {{lang|sq|re'''gj'''}} 'to tan hides' |- | *gʰ || g || {{lang|ine-x-proto|'''gʰ'''órdʰos}} 'enclosure' || {{lang|sq|'''g'''ardh}} 'fence' |- | || gj || {{lang|ine-x-proto|'''gʰ'''édn-i̯e/o-}} 'to get' || {{lang|sq|'''gj'''ej}} 'to find' (Old Alb. ''gjãnj'') |} {| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; |+ Reflexes of PIE labiovelar plosives in Albanian !PIE !! Albanian !! PIE !! Albanian |- | *kʷ || k || {{lang|ine-x-proto|'''kʷ'''eh&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;sleh&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;}} 'cough' || {{lang|sq|'''k'''ollë}} 'cough' |- | || s || {{lang|ine-x-proto|'''kʷ'''élH-}} 'to turn' || {{lang|sq|'''s'''jell}} 'to fetch, bring' |- | || q || {{lang|ine-x-proto|'''kʷ'''ṓd}} || {{lang|sq|'''q'''ë}} 'that, which' |- | *gʷ || g || {{lang|ine-x-proto|'''gʷ'''r̥H}} 'stone' || {{lang|sq|'''g'''ur}} 'stone' |- | *gʷʰ || g || {{lang|ine-x-proto|dʰé'''gʷʰ'''-}} 'to burn' || {{lang|sq|dje'''g'''}} 'to burn' |- | || z || {{lang|ine-x-proto|dʰo'''gʷʰ'''éi̯e-}} 'to ignite' || {{lang|sq|nde'''z'''}} 'to kindle, light a fire' |} {| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; |+ Reflexes of PIE {{lang|ine-x-proto|s}} in Albanian !PIE !! Albanian !! PIE !! Albanian |- | *s || gj&lt;ref group=&quot;*&quot;&gt;Initial&lt;/ref&gt; || {{lang|ine-x-proto|'''s'''éḱstis}} 'six' || '''''gj'''ashtë'' 'six' |- | || h&lt;ref group=&quot;*&quot; name=&quot;*&quot;&gt;Between vowels&lt;/ref&gt; || {{lang|ine-x-proto|no'''s'''ōm}} 'us' (gen.) || ''na'''h'''e'' 'us' (dat.) |- | || sh&lt;ref group=&quot;*&quot;&gt;Between ''u/i'' and another vowel ([[ruki sound law|ruki]] law)&lt;/ref&gt; || {{lang|ine-x-proto|bʰreu'''s'''os}} 'broken' || ''bre'''sh'''ër'' 'hail' |- | || th&lt;ref group=&quot;*&quot;&gt;Dissimilation with following s&lt;/ref&gt; || {{lang|ine-x-proto|'''s'''uh&lt;sub&gt;1&lt;/sub&gt;s}} 'swine' || '''''th'''i'' 'pig' |- | || ∅ || {{lang|ine-x-proto|h&lt;sub&gt;1&lt;/sub&gt;é'''s'''mi}} 'I am' || {{lang|sq|jam}} 'I am' |- | *-sd-|| th || {{lang|ine-x-proto|gʷé'''sd'''os}} 'leaf' || {{lang|sq|gje'''th'''}} 'leaf' |- | *-sḱ-|| h || {{lang|ine-x-proto|'''sḱ'''i-eh&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;}} 'shadow' || {{lang|sq|'''h'''ije}} 'shadow' |- | *-sp-|| f || {{lang|ine-x-proto|'''sp'''élnom}} 'speech' || {{lang|sq|'''f'''jalë}} 'word' |- | *-st-|| sht || {{lang|ine-x-proto|h&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;o'''st'''i}} 'bone' || {{lang|sq|a'''sht'''}} 'bone' |- | *-su̯-|| d || {{lang|ine-x-proto|'''su̯'''eíd-r̥-}} 'sweat' || {{lang|sq|'''d'''irsë}} 'sweat' |} {{reflist|group=*}} {| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; |+ Reflexes of PIE sonorants in Albanian !PIE !! Albanian !! PIE !! Albanian |- | *i̯ || gj&lt;ref group=&quot;*&quot;&gt;Before i, e, a&lt;/ref&gt; || {{lang|ine-x-proto|'''i̯'''éh&lt;sub&gt;3&lt;/sub&gt;s-}} 'to gird' || {{lang|sq|(n)'''gj'''esh}} 'I gird; squeeze, knead' |- | || j&lt;ref group=&quot;*&quot;&gt;Before back vowels&lt;/ref&gt; || {{lang|ine-x-proto|'''i̯'''uH}} 'you' (nom.) || {{lang|sq|'''j'''u}} 'you (plural)' |- | || ∅&lt;ref group=&quot;*&quot; name=&quot;*&quot;&gt;Between vowels&lt;/ref&gt; || {{lang|ine-x-proto|tre'''i̯'''es}} 'three' (masc.) || {{lang|sq|tre}} 'three' |- | *u̯ || v || {{lang|ine-x-proto|'''u̯'''os-éi̯e-}} 'to dress' || {{lang|sq|'''v'''esh}} 'to wear, dress' |- | *m || m || {{lang|ine-x-proto|'''m'''eh&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;tr-eh&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;}} 'maternal' || {{lang|sq|'''m'''otër}} 'sister' |- | *n || n || {{lang|ine-x-proto|'''n'''ōs}} 'we' (acc.) || {{lang|sq|'''n'''e}} 'we' |- | || nj || {{lang|ine-x-proto|e'''n'''i-h&lt;sub&gt;1&lt;/sub&gt;ói-no}} 'that one' || {{lang|sq|'''nj'''ë}} 'one' (Gheg {{lang|aln|'''nj'''â}}, {{lang|aln|'''nj'''o}}, {{lang|sq|'''nj'''i}}) |- | || ∅ (Tosk) ~ nasal vowel (Gheg) || {{lang|ine-x-proto|pé'''n'''kʷe}} 'five' || {{lang|sq|p'''e'''së}} 'five' (vs. Gheg {{lang|aln|p'''ê'''s}}) |- | || r (Tosk only) || {{lang|ine-x-proto|ǵʰeime'''n'''}} 'winter' || {{lang|sq|dimë'''r'''}} 'winter' (vs. Gheg {{lang|aln|dimë'''n'''}}) |- | *l || l || {{lang|ine-x-proto|h&lt;sub&gt;3&lt;/sub&gt;'''l'''ígos}} 'sick' || {{lang|sq|'''l'''igë}} 'bad' |- | || ll || {{lang|ine-x-proto|kʷé'''l'''H-}} 'turn' || {{lang|sq|sje'''ll'''}} 'to fetch, bring' |- | *r || r || {{lang|ine-x-proto|'''r'''epe/o}} 'take' || {{lang|sq|'''r'''jep}} 'peel' |- | || rr || {{lang|ine-x-proto|u̯'''r'''h&lt;sub&gt;1&lt;/sub&gt;ḗn}} 'sheep' || {{lang|sq|'''rr'''unjë}} 'yearling lamb' |- | *n̥ || e || {{lang|ine-x-proto|h&lt;sub&gt;1&lt;/sub&gt;'''n̥'''men}} 'name' || {{lang|sq|'''e'''mër}} 'name' |- | *m̥ || e || {{lang|ine-x-proto|u̯iḱ'''m̥'''ti}} 'twenty' || {{lang|sq|(një)z'''e'''t}} 'twenty' |- | *l̥ || li, il&lt;ref group=&quot;*&quot; name=&quot;reson&quot;&gt;Before C clusters, i, j&lt;/ref&gt; / lu, ul || {{lang|ine-x-proto|u̯'''ĺ̥'''kʷos}} 'wolf' || {{lang|sq|u'''j'''k}} 'wolf' (dialectal {{lang|sq|u'''l'''k}}) |- | *r̥ || ri, ir&lt;ref group=&quot;*&quot; name=&quot;reson&quot; /&gt; / ru, ur || {{lang|ine-x-proto|ǵʰ'''r̥'''sdom}} 'grain, barley' || {{lang|sq|d'''ri'''thë}} 'grain' |} {{reflist|group=*}} {| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; |+ Reflexes of PIE laryngeals in Albanian !PIE !! Albanian !! PIE !! Albanian |- | *h&lt;sub&gt;1&lt;/sub&gt; || ∅ || {{lang|ine-x-proto|'''h&lt;sub&gt;1&lt;/sub&gt;'''ésmi}} 'I am' || {{lang|sq|jam}} 'to be' |- | *h&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt; || ∅ || {{lang|ine-x-proto|'''h&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;'''r̥tḱos}} 'bear' || {{lang|sq|ari}} 'bear' |- | *h&lt;sub&gt;3&lt;/sub&gt; || ∅ || {{lang|ine-x-proto|'''h&lt;sub&gt;3&lt;/sub&gt;'''ónr̥}} 'dream' || {{lang|sq|ëndërr}} 'dream' |- | *h&lt;sub&gt;4&lt;/sub&gt;{{efn|disputed}} || h || {{lang|ine-x-proto|'''h&lt;sub&gt;4&lt;/sub&gt;'''órǵʰi}} 'testicles' || {{lang|sq|'''h'''erdhe}} 'testicles' |} {| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; |+ Reflexes of PIE vowels in Albanian !PIE !! Albanian !! PIE !! Albanian |- | *i || i || {{lang|ine-x-proto|s'''í'''nos}} 'bosom' || {{lang|sq|gj'''i'''}} 'bosom, breast' |- | || e || {{lang|ine-x-proto|dw'''i'''gʰeh&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;}} 'twig' || {{lang|sq|d'''e'''gë}} 'branch' |- | *ī &lt; *iH || i || {{lang|ine-x-proto|d'''ih&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;'''tis}} 'light' || {{lang|sq|d'''i'''të}} 'day' |- | *e || e || {{lang|ine-x-proto|p'''é'''nkʷe}} 'five' || {{lang|sq|p'''e'''së}} 'five' (Gheg ''pês'') |- | || je || {{lang|ine-x-proto|w'''é'''tos}} 'year' (loc.) || {{lang|sq|v'''je'''t}} 'last year' |- | *ē || o || {{lang|ine-x-proto|ǵʰ'''ē'''sreh&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;}} 'hand' || {{lang|sq|d'''o'''rë}} 'hand' |- | *a || a || {{lang|ine-x-proto|bʰ'''a'''ḱeh&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;}} 'bean' || {{lang|sq|b'''a'''thë}} 'bean' |- | || e || {{lang|ine-x-proto|h&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;'''é'''lbʰit}} 'barley' || {{lang|sq|'''e'''lb}} 'barley' |- | *o || a || {{lang|ine-x-proto|gʰ'''ó'''rdʰos}} 'enclosure' || {{lang|sq|g'''a'''rdh}} 'fence' |- | *ō || e || {{lang|ine-x-proto|h&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;oḱt'''ō'''tis}} 'eight' || {{lang|sq|t'''e'''të}} 'eight' |- | *u || u || {{lang|ine-x-proto|s'''ú'''pnom}} 'sleep' || {{lang|sq|gj'''u'''më}} 'sleep' |- | *ū &lt; *uH || y || {{lang|ine-x-proto|s'''uH'''sos}} 'grandfather' || {{lang|sq|gj'''y'''sh}} 'grandfather' |- | || i || {{lang|ine-x-proto|m'''uh&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;'''s}} 'mouse' || {{lang|sq|m'''i'''}} 'mouse' |} {| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; |+Reflexes of PIE diphthongs in Albanian{{sfn|Matasović|2019|p=11}} !PIE !Albanian !PIE !Albanian |- |*ey, *h1ey |i |{{lang|ine-x-proto|g'heymōn}} |{{lang|sq|dimër}} |- |*ay, *h2ey |e | | |- |*oy, *h3ey |e |{{lang|ine-x-proto|stoygho-}} |{{lang|sq|shteg}} |- |*ew, *h1ew |a | | |- |*aw, *h2ew |a |{{lang|ine-x-proto|h2ewg-}} |{{lang|sq|agim}} |- |*ow, *h3ew |a, ve- | | |} == Standard Albanian == Since [[World War II]], standard Albanian used in Albania has been based on the Tosk dialect. Kosovo and other areas where Albanian is official adopted the Tosk standard in 1969. === Elbasan-based standard === Until the early 20th century, Albanian writing developed in three main literary traditions: [[Gheg]], [[Tosk]], and [[Arbëreshë language|Arbëreshë]]. Throughout this time, a Gheg subdialect spoken around [[Elbasan]] served as ''lingua franca'' among the Albanians, but was less prevalent in writing. The [[Congress of Manastir]] of Albanian writers held in 1908 recommended the use of the Elbasan subdialect for literary purposes and as a basis of a unified national language. While technically classified as a southern Gheg variety, the Elbasan speech is closer to Tosk in phonology and practically a hybrid between other Gheg subdialects and literary Tosk. Between 1916 and 1918, the [[Albanian Literary Commission]] met in Shkodër under the leadership of [[Luigj Gurakuqi]] with the purpose of establishing a unified orthography for the language. The commission, made up of representatives from the north and south of Albania, reaffirmed the Elbasan subdialect as the basis of a national tongue. The rules published in 1917 defined spelling for the Elbasan variety for official purposes. The commission did not, however, discourage publications in one of the dialects, but rather laid a foundation for Gheg and Tosk to gradually converge into one. When the Congress of Lushnje met in the aftermath of World War I to form a new Albanian government, the 1917 decisions of the Literary Commission were upheld. The Elbasan subdialect remained in use for administrative purposes and many new writers embraced it for creative writing. Gheg and Tosk continued to develop freely and interaction between the two dialects increased. === Tosk standard === {{further|Albanian Orthography Congress}}At the end of World War II, however, the new communist regime radically imposed the use of the Tosk dialect in all facets of life in Albania: administration, education, and literature. Most Communist leaders were Tosks from the south. Standardisation was directed by the [[Albanian Institute of Linguistics and Literature]] of the [[Academy of Sciences of Albania]].{{sfn|Lloshi|2008|p=10}} Two dictionaries were published in 1954: an Albanian language dictionary and a Russian–Albanian dictionary. New orthography rules were eventually published in 1967{{sfn|Lloshi|2008|p=10}} and in 1973 with the ''Drejtshkrimi i gjuhës shqipe'' (Orthography of the Albanian Language).&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book|title=Drejtshkrimi i gjuhës shqipe|last=Kostallari|first=Androkli|year=1973|publisher=&quot;Instituti i Gjuhësisë dhe i Letërsisë&quot; ( in &quot;Akademia e Shkencave e RPS të Shqipërisë&quot;, today &quot;Akademia e Shkencave e Republikës së Shqipërisë&quot;)|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=M4LLPwAACAAJ&amp;q=Drejtshkrimi+i+gjuh%C3%ABs+shqipe|ref=Drejtshkrimi i gjuhës shqipe}}&lt;/ref&gt; Until 1968, Kosovo and other Albanian-speaking areas in Yugoslavia followed the 1917 standard based on the Elbasan dialect, though it was gradually infused with Gheg elements in an effort to develop a Kosovan language separate from communist Albania's Tosk-based standard.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Kamusella|first=Tomasz|s2cid=55005555|year=2016|title=The idea of a Kosovan language in Yugoslavia's language politics|url=https://research-repository.st-andrews.ac.uk/bitstream/handle/10023/11804/Kamusella_2016_IJSL_KosovanLanguage_VoR.pdf |via=St Andrews Research Repository |s2cid-access=free |journal=International Journal of the Sociology of Language|issue=242|pages=217–237|doi=10.1515/ijsl-2016-0040|hdl=10023/11804|hdl-access=free |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240106061914/https://research-repository.st-andrews.ac.uk/bitstream/handle/10023/11804/Kamusella_2016_IJSL_KosovanLanguage_VoR.pdf |archive-date= Jan 6, 2024 }}&lt;/ref&gt; Albanian intellectuals in the former Yugoslavia consolidated the 1917 standard twice in the 1950s, culminating with a thorough codification of orthographic rules in 1964.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://wikisource.org/wiki/Drejtshkrimi_Prishtin%C3%AB_1964|title=Drejtshkrimi Prishtinë 1964 |website=Wikisource |language=en|access-date=26 May 2018}}&lt;/ref&gt; The rules already provided for a balanced variety that accounted for both Gheg and Tosk dialects, but only lasted through 1968. Viewing divergences with Albania as a threat to their identity, Kosovars arbitrarily adopted the Tosk project that Tirana had published the year before. Although it was never intended to serve outside of Albania, the project became the &quot;unified literary language&quot; in 1972, when approved by a rubberstamp [[Albanian Orthography Congress|Orthography Congress]]. Only about 1 in 9 participants were from Kosovo. The Congress, held at Tirana, authorized the orthography rules that came out the following year, in 1973. More recent dictionaries from the Albanian government are {{lang|sq|Fjalori Drejtshkrimor i Gjuhës Shqipe}} (1976) (Orthographic Dictionary of the Albanian Language)&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book|title=Fjalori drejtshkrimor i gjuhës shqipe|last=Kostallari|first=Androkli|year=1976|publisher=&quot;Instituti i Gjuhësisë dhe i Letërsisë&quot; (in &quot;Akademia e Shkencave e RPS të Shqipërisë&quot;, today &quot;Akademia e Shkencave e Republikës së Shqipërisë&quot;)|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=3MilQQAACAAJ&amp;q=Fjalori+drejtshkrimor+i+gjuh%C3%ABs+shqipe|ref=Fjalori Drejtshkrimor i Gjuhës Shqipe}}{{dead link|date=August 2019}}&lt;/ref&gt; and ''Dictionary of Today's Albanian language'' ({{lang|sq|Fjalori i Gjuhës së Sotme Shqipe}}) (1980).{{sfn|Lloshi|2008|p=10}}&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book|title=Fjalori i Gjuhës së Sotme Shqipe|author=Akademia e Shkencave e RPS të Shqipërisë|year=1980|publisher=[[Academy of Sciences of Albania]]|location=Tirana|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=IrsAGwAACAAJ&amp;q=Fjalor+i+gjuhes+se+sotme+shqipe}}&lt;/ref&gt; Prior to World War II, dictionaries consulted by developers of the standard have included {{transliteration|el|Lexikon tis Alvanikis glossis}} (Albanian: {{lang|sq|Fjalori i Gjuhës Shqipe}} ([[Kostandin Kristoforidhi]], 1904),{{sfn|Lloshi|2008|p=9}} {{lang|sq|Fjalori i Bashkimit}} (1908),{{sfn|Lloshi|2008|p=9}} and {{lang|sq|Fjalori i Gazullit}} (1941).{{sfn|Lloshi|2008|p=12}} === Calls for reform === Since the fall of the communist regime, Albanian orthography has stirred heated debate among scholars, writers, and public opinion in Albania and Kosovo, with hardliners opposed to any changes in the orthography, moderates supporting varying degrees of reform, and radicals calling for a return to the Elbasan dialect. Criticism of Standard Albanian has centred on the exclusion of the 'me + participle' infinitive and the Gheg lexicon. Critics say that Standard Albanian disenfranchises and stigmatises Gheg speakers, affecting the quality of writing and impairing effective public communication. Supporters of the Tosk standard view the [[Albanian Orthography Congress|1972 Congress]] as a milestone achievement in Albanian history and dismiss calls for reform as efforts to &quot;divide the nation&quot; or &quot;create two languages.&quot; Moderates, who are especially prevalent in Kosovo, generally stress the need for a unified Albanian language, but believe that the 'me + participle' infinitive and Gheg words should be included. Proponents of the Elbasan dialect have been vocal, but have gathered little support in the public opinion. In general, those involved in the language debate come from diverse backgrounds and there is no significant correlation between one's political views, geographic origin, and position on Standard Albanian. Many writers continue to write in the Elbasan dialect but other Gheg variants have found much more limited use in literature. Most publications adhere to a strict policy of not accepting submissions that are not written in Tosk. Some print media even translate direct speech, replacing the 'me + participle' infinitive with other verb forms and making other changes in grammar and word choice. Even authors who have published in the Elbasan dialect will frequently write in the Tosk standard. In 2013, a group of academics for Albania and Kosovo proposed minor changes to the orthography. Hardline academics boycotted the initiative,&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://sot.com.al/kultura-intervista/emil-lafe-k%c3%abshilli-nd%c3%abrakademik-p%c3%abr-gjuh%c3%abn-shqipe-ec%c3%abn-pa-busull-ende-pa-nj%c3%ab|title=Emil Lafe: Këshilli Ndërakademik për Gjuhën Shqipe ecën pa busull, ende pa një platformë shkencore të miratuar njëzëri|last=Vrapi|first=Julia|date=27 April 2013|website=Sot.com.al}}&lt;/ref&gt; while other reformers have viewed it as well-intentioned but flawed and superficial. === Education === Albanian is the medium of instruction in most Albanian schools. The literacy rate in Albania for the total population, age 9 or older, is about 99%. Elementary education is compulsory (grades 1–9), but most students continue at least until a secondary education. Students must pass graduation exams at the end of the 9th grade and at the end of the 12th grade in order to continue their education. == Phonology == Standard Albanian has seven [[vowel]]s and 29 [[consonant]]s. Like English, Albanian has dental fricatives {{IPA|/θ/}} (like the ''th'' in ''thin'') and {{IPA|/ð/}} (like the ''th'' in ''this''), written as {{Angle bracket|th}} and {{Angle bracket|dh}}, which are rare cross-linguistically. [[Gheg Albanian|Gheg]] uses [[long vowel|long]] and [[nasal vowel]]s, which are absent in [[Tosk Albanian|Tosk]], and the mid-central vowel {{lang|sq|ë}} is lost at the end of the word. The stress is fixed mainly on the last syllable. Gheg {{lang|aln|n}} ({{lang|aln|femën}}: compare English ''feminine'') changes to {{lang|als|r}} by [[Rhotacism (sound change)|rhotacism]] in Tosk ({{lang|als|femër}}). === Consonants === {| class=&quot;wikitable plainrowheaders&quot; style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot; |+Albanian consonants ! colspan=&quot;2&quot; rowspan=&quot;2&quot; scope=&quot;col&quot; | ! rowspan=&quot;2&quot; scope=&quot;col&quot; | [[Labial consonant|Labial]] ! rowspan=&quot;2&quot; scope=&quot;col&quot; | [[Interdental consonant|Dental]] ! colspan=&quot;2&quot; scope=&quot;col&quot; | [[Alveolar consonant|Alveolar]] ! rowspan=&quot;2&quot; scope=&quot;col&quot; | [[Postalveolar consonant|Post-&lt;br /&gt;alveolar]] ! rowspan=&quot;2&quot; scope=&quot;col&quot; | [[Palatal consonant|Palatal]] ! rowspan=&quot;2&quot; scope=&quot;col&quot; | [[Velar consonant|Velar]] ! rowspan=&quot;2&quot; scope=&quot;col&quot; | [[Glottal consonant|Glottal]] |- ! scope=&quot;col&quot; | {{small|plain}} ! scope=&quot;col&quot; | {{small|[[Velarization|velar.]]}} |- ! colspan=&quot;2&quot; | [[Nasal consonant|Nasal]] | {{IPA link|m}} | | {{IPA link|n}} | || | {{IPA link|ɲ}} | ({{IPA link|ŋ}}) | |- ! rowspan=&quot;2&quot; | [[Stop consonant|Plosive]] ! {{small|[[voicelessness|voiceless]]}} | {{IPA link|p}} | | {{IPA link|t}} | || ||{{IPA link|c}} | {{IPA link|k}} | |- ! {{small|[[voice (phonetics)|voiced]]}} | {{IPA link|b}} | | {{IPA link|d}} | || ||{{IPA link|ɟ}} | {{IPA link|ɡ}} | |- ! rowspan=&quot;2&quot; | [[Affricate consonant|Affricate]] ! {{small|[[voicelessness|voiceless]]}} | || | {{IPA link|t͡s}} | | {{IPA link|t͡ʃ}} | || || |- ! {{small|[[voice (phonetics)|voiced]]}} | || | {{IPA link|d͡z}} | | {{IPA link|d͡ʒ}} | || || |- ! rowspan=&quot;2&quot; | [[Fricative consonant|Fricative]] ! {{small|[[voicelessness|voiceless]]}} | {{IPA link|f}} | {{IPA link|θ}} | {{IPA link|s}} | | {{IPA link|ʃ}} | || | {{IPA link|h}} |- ! {{small|[[voice (phonetics)|voiced]]}} | {{IPA link|v}} | {{IPA link|ð}} | {{IPA link|z}} | | {{IPA link|ʒ}} | || || |- ! colspan=&quot;2&quot; | [[Approximant consonant|Approximant]] | || | {{IPA link|l}} | {{IPA link|ɫ}} | | {{IPA link|j}} | || |- ! colspan=&quot;2&quot; | [[Flap consonant|Flap]] | || | {{IPA link|ɾ}} | || || || || |- ! colspan=&quot;2&quot; | [[Trill consonant|Trill]] | || | {{IPA link|r}} | || || || || |} {| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; ! [[help:IPA|IPA]] !! Description !! Written as !! English approximation |- | style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot; | {{IPA|m}} || [[Bilabial nasal]] || m || '''m'''an |- | style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot; | {{IPA|n}} || [[Alveolar nasal]] || n || '''n'''ot |- | style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot; | {{IPA|ɲ}} || [[Palatal nasal]] || nj || ~ca'''ny'''on |- | style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot; | {{IPA|ŋ}} || [[Velar nasal]] || ng || ba'''ng''' |- | style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot; | {{IPA|p}} || [[Voiceless bilabial plosive]] || p || s'''p'''in |- | style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot; | {{IPA|b}} || [[Voiced bilabial plosive]] || b || '''b'''at |- | style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot; | {{IPA|t}} || [[Voiceless alveolar plosive]] || t || s'''t'''and |- | style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot; | {{IPA|d}} || [[Voiced alveolar plosive]] || d || '''d'''ebt |- | style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot; | {{IPA|k}} || [[Voiceless velar plosive]] || k || s'''c'''ar |- | style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot; | {{IPA|ɡ}} || [[Voiced velar plosive]] || g || '''g'''o |- | style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot; | {{IPA|t͡s}} || [[Voiceless alveolar affricate]] || c || ha'''ts''' |- | style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot; | {{IPA|d͡z}} || [[Voiced alveolar affricate]] || x || goo'''ds''' |- | style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot; | {{IPA|t͡ʃ}} || [[Voiceless postalveolar affricate]] || ç || '''ch'''in |- | style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot; | {{IPA|d͡ʒ}} || [[Voiced postalveolar affricate]] || xh || '''j'''et |- | style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot; | {{IPA|c}} || [[Voiceless palatal plosive]] || q || Latvian {{lang|lv|'''ķ'''irbis}} |- | style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot; | {{IPA|ɟ}} || [[Voiced palatal plosive]] || gj || Latvian {{lang|lv|'''ģ'''imene}} |- | style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot; | {{IPA|f}} || [[Voiceless labiodental fricative]] || f || '''f'''ar |- | style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot; | {{IPA|v}} || [[Voiced labiodental fricative]] || v || '''v'''an |- | style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot; | {{IPA|θ}} || [[Voiceless dental fricative]] || th || '''th'''in |- | style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot; | {{IPA|ð}} || [[Voiced dental fricative]] || dh || '''th'''en |- | style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot; | {{IPA|s}} || [[Voiceless alveolar fricative]] || s || '''s'''on |- | style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot; | {{IPA|z}} || [[Voiced alveolar fricative]] || z || '''z'''ip |- | style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot; | {{IPA|ʃ}} || [[Voiceless postalveolar fricative]] || sh || '''sh'''ow |- | style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot; | {{IPA|ʒ}} || [[Voiced postalveolar fricative]] || zh || vi'''s'''ion |- | style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot; | {{IPA|h}} || [[Voiceless glottal fricative]] || h || '''h'''at |- | style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot; | {{IPA|r}} || [[Alveolar trill]] || rr || Spanish pe'''rr'''o |- | style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot; | {{IPA|ɾ}} || [[Alveolar tap]] || r || Spanish pe'''r'''o |- | style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot; | {{IPA|l}} || [[Alveolar lateral approximant]] || l || '''l'''ean |- | style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot; | {{IPA|ɫ}} || [[Velarized alveolar lateral approximant]] || ll || ba'''ll''' |- | style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot; | {{IPA|j}} || [[Palatal approximant]] || j || '''y'''es |} '''Notes:''' * The contrast between flapped {{lang|sq|r}} and trilled {{lang|sq|rr}} is the almost the same as in Spanish or [[Armenian language|Armenian]]. However, in most of the dialects, as also in standard Albanian, the single {{lang|sq|r}} changes from an alveolar flap {{IPA|/ɾ/}} to an alveolar approximant {{IPA|[ɹ]}}. * The palatal nasal {{IPA|/ɲ/}} corresponds to the Spanish {{lang|es|ñ}} and the French and Italian ''gn''. It is pronounced as one sound, not a nasal plus a glide. * The {{lang|sq|ll}} sound is a velarised lateral, close to English [[dark l|dark ''l'']]. * The letter {{lang|sq|ç}} is sometimes written ''ch'' due to technical limitations, in analogy to the other digraphs {{lang|sq|xh}}, {{lang|sq|sh}}, and {{lang|sq|zh}}. Usually it is written simply {{lang|sq|c}} or more rarely {{lang|sq|q}} with context resolving any ambiguities. * The sounds spelled with {{lang|sq|q}} and {{lang|sq|gj}} show variation. They may range between occurring as palatal affricates {{IPA|[c͡ç, ɟ͡ʝ]}} or as palatal stops {{IPA|[c, ɟ]}} among dialects. Some speakers merge them into the palatoalveolar sounds {{lang|sq|ç}} and {{lang|sq|xh}}. This is especially common in Northern Gheg, but is increasingly the case in Tosk as well.&lt;ref&gt;Kolgjini, Julie M. (2004). ''Palatalisation in Albanian : an acoustic investigation of stops and affricates.'' PhD Dissertation, University of Texas at Arlington. {{ISBN|0496859366}}.&lt;/ref&gt; Other speakers reduced them into {{IPA|/j/}} in consonant clusters, such as in the word {{lang|sq|fjollë}}, which before standardisation was written as {{lang|sq|fqollë}} ( &lt; Medieval Greek {{lang|el|φακιολης}}). * The {{lang|sq|ng}} can be pronounced as {{IPA|/ŋ/}} in final position, otherwise it is an allophone of {{lang|sq|n}} before {{lang|sq|k}} and {{lang|sq|g}}. * Before {{lang|sq|q}} and {{lang|sq|gj}}, {{lang|sq|n}} is always pronounced {{IPA|/ɲ/}} but this is not reflected in the orthography. === Vowels === {| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot; |- ! ! [[Front vowel|Front]] !! [[Central vowel|Central]] !! [[Back vowel|Back]] |- ! [[Close vowel|Close]] | {{IPA link|i}} {{IPA link|y}} || || {{IPA link|u}} |- ! [[Close-mid vowel|Close-mid]] / [[Mid vowel|Mid]] | {{IPA link|e}} || {{IPA link|ə}} || {{IPA link|o}} |- ![[Open vowel|Open]] | || {{IPA link|ä|a}} || |} {| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; ! [[help:IPA|IPA]] !! Description !! Written as !! English approximation |- | style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot; | {{IPA|i}} || [[Close front unrounded vowel]] || i || s'''ee'''d |- | style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot; | {{IPA|y}} || [[Close front rounded vowel]] || y || French t'''u''', German L'''ü'''ge |- | style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot; | {{IPA|e}}|| [[Close-mid front unrounded vowel]] || e || b'''e'''ar |- | style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot; | {{IPA|a}} || [[Open central unrounded vowel]] || a || c'''ar''' |- | style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot; | {{IPA|ə}} || [[Schwa]] || ë || '''a'''bout |- | style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot; | {{IPA|o}} || [[Close-mid back rounded vowel]] || o || m'''o'''re |- | style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot; | {{IPA|u}} || [[Close back rounded vowel]] || u || p'''oo'''l |} ==== Notes ==== * {{lang|sq|ë}} can also range to an open-mid sound {{IPA|[ɜ]}} in the Northern Tosk dialect.&lt;ref name=&quot;Northern Tosk Albanian&quot;&gt;{{Cite journal|last1=Coretta|first1=Stefano|title=Northern Tosk Albanian|last2=Riverin-Coutlée|first2=Josiane|last3=Kapia|first3=Enkeleida|last4=Nichols|first4=Stephen|journal=Journal of the International Phonetic Association|year=2022|volume=53|issue=3|location=Illustration of the IPA|pages=1–23|doi=10.1017/S0025100322000044|doi-access=free|hdl=20.500.11820/ebce2ea3-f955-4fa5-9178-e1626fbae15f|hdl-access=free}}&lt;/ref&gt; * Mid sounds {{IPA|/e, o/}} can also be heard as more open-mid sounds {{IPA|[ɛ, ɔ]}}, in free variation.{{Sfn|Buchholz|Fiedler|1987|p=28-31}} ==== Schwa ==== The schwa in Albanian has a great degree of variability from extreme back to extreme front articulation.&lt;ref name=&quot;schwa&quot;&gt;{{cite web|url=http://www.kfs.oeaw.ac.at/publications/2001_granser_moosmueller_the_schwa_in_albanian.pdf|title=The schwa in Albanian|last1=Granser|first1=Thedor|last2=Moosmüller|first2=Sylvia|publisher=Institute of Acoustics of the Austrian Academy of Sciences|access-date=15 December 2010}}&lt;/ref&gt; Although the Indo-European [[schwa]] ({{lang|ine-x-proto|ə}} or {{lang|ine-x-proto|-h₂-}}) was preserved in Albanian, in some cases it was lost, possibly when a [[stressed syllable]] preceded it.{{sfn|Orel|2000|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=xvKH56aT5mEC&amp;dq=schwa+proto-Albanian&amp;pg=PA3 3]}} Until the standardisation of the modern [[Albanian alphabet]], in which the schwa is spelled as {{angbr|ë}}, as in the work of [[Gjon Buzuku]] in the 16th century, various vowel letters and digraphs were employed, including {{angbr|ae}} by [[Lekë Matrënga]] and {{angbr|é}} by [[Pjetër Bogdani]] in the late 16th and early 17th century.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|url=https://openaccess.leidenuniv.nl/bitstream/1887/14920/2/de+Vaan+-+PIE+e+in+Albanian.pdf|title=PIE *e in Albanian|last=de Vaan|first=Michiel|page=72|access-date=16 December 2010}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;Elsie(London2005&quot;&gt;{{cite book|last1=Elsie|first1=Robert|last2=London Centre for Albanian Studies|title=Albanian literature: a short history|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ox3Wx1Nl_2MC&amp;q=schwa+albanian&amp;pg=PA16|year=2005|publisher=I.B.Tauris|isbn=978-1-84511-031-4|page=16}}&lt;/ref&gt; Within the borders of Albania, the phoneme is pronounced about the same in both the Tosk and the Gheg dialect due to the influence of standard Albanian. However, in the Gheg dialects spoken in the neighbouring Albanian-speaking areas of Kosovo and North Macedonia, the phoneme is still{{clarify|date=June 2023}} pronounced as back and rounded.&lt;ref name=&quot;schwa&quot; /&gt; == Grammar == {{see also|Albanian morphology}} Albanian has a canonical word order of [[subject–verb–object|SVO]] (subject–verb–object) like English and many other Indo-European languages.&lt;ref&gt;Maxwell, Daniel Newhall. (1979). A Crosslinguistic Correlation between Word Order and Casemarking institution. Bloomington: Indiana University Pub.&lt;/ref&gt; Albanian [[noun]]s are categorised by [[Grammatical gender|gender]] (masculine, feminine and neuter) and [[Albanian morphology|inflected]] for [[Grammatical number|number]] (singular and plural) and [[grammatical case|case]]. There are five [[declension]]s and six cases ([[nominative]], [[accusative]], [[genitive]], [[dative case|dative]], [[ablative]], and [[vocative]]), although the vocative only occurs with a limited number of words (such as '{{lang|sq|bir}}' (&quot;son&quot;), vocative case: {{lang|sq|biro}}, {{lang|sq|zog}} (&quot;bird&quot;) vocative case: {{lang|sq|zogo}}&lt;ref name=&quot;:2&quot;&gt;Breu, W. (2021) Italo-Albanian: Balkan Inheritance and Romance Influence p. 154&lt;/ref&gt;), and the forms of the genitive and dative are identical (a genitive construction employs the prepositions {{lang|sq|i/e/të/së}} alongside dative morphemes). Some dialects also retain a locative case, which is not present in standard Albanian (e.g. &quot;{{lang|sq|në malt}}&quot; loc.sg.def&lt;ref name=&quot;:2&quot; /&gt;). The cases apply to both definite and indefinite nouns, and there are numerous cases of [[syncretism (linguistics)|syncretism]]. The following shows the declension of {{lang|sq|mal}} (mountain), a noun in the masculine class which takes &quot;i&quot; in the definite singular: {| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; |- ! rowspan=&quot;2&quot; | ! colspan=&quot;2&quot; | Indefinite ! colspan=&quot;2&quot; | Definite |- ! singular || plural ! singular || plural |- ! [[Nominative]] | {{lang|sq|një mal}} (a mountain) || {{lang|sq|male}} (several mountains) ||{{lang|sq|mali}} (the mountain) || {{lang|sq|malet}} (the mountains) |- ! [[Accusative]] | {{lang|sq|një mal}} || {{lang|sq|male}} || {{lang|sq|malin}} || {{lang|sq|malet}} |- ! [[Genitive]] | {{lang|sq|i/e/të/së një mali}} || {{lang|sq|i/e/të/së maleve}} || {{lang|sq|i/e/të/së malit}} || {{lang|sq|i/e/të/së maleve}} |- ! [[Dative]] | {{lang|sq|një mali}} || {{lang|sq|maleve}} || {{lang|sq|malit}} || {{lang|sq|maleve}} |- ! [[Ablative]] | {{lang|sq|(prej) një mali}} || {{lang|sq|(prej) malesh}} || {{lang|sq|(prej) malit}} || {{lang|sq|(prej) maleve}} |} The following shows the declension of the noun {{lang|sq|zog}} (bird), a noun in the masculine class which takes &quot;u&quot; in the definite singular: {| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; |- ! rowspan=&quot;2&quot; | ! colspan=&quot;2&quot; | Indefinite ! colspan=&quot;2&quot; | Definite |- ! singular || plural ! singular || plural |- ! [[Nominative]] | {{lang|sq|një zog}} (a bird) || {{lang|sq|zogj}} (birds) || {{lang|sq|zogu}} (the bird) || {{lang|sq|zogjtë}} (the birds) |- ! [[Accusative]] | {{lang|sq|një zog}} || {{lang|sq|zogj}} || {{lang|sq|zogun}} || {{lang|sq|zogjtë}} |- ! [[Genitive]] | {{lang|sq|i/e/të/së një zogu}} || {{lang|sq|i/e/të/së zogjve}} || {{lang|sq|i/e/të/së zogut}} || {{lang|sq|i/e/të/së zogjve}} |- ! [[Dative]] | {{lang|sq|një zogu}} || {{lang|sq|zogjve}} || {{lang|sq|zogut}} || {{lang|sq|zogjve}} |- ! [[Ablative]] | {{lang|sq|(prej) një zogu}} || {{lang|sq|(prej) zogjsh}} || {{lang|sq|(prej) zogut}} || {{lang|sq|(prej) zogjve}} |} The following table shows the declension of the noun {{lang|sq|vajzë}} (girl) in the feminine class: {| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; |- ! rowspan=&quot;2&quot; | ! colspan=&quot;2&quot; | Indefinite ! colspan=&quot;2&quot; | Definite |- ! singular || plural ! singular || plural |- ! [[Nominative]] | {{lang|sq|një vajzë}} (a girl) || {{lang|sq|vajza}} (girls) || {{lang|sq|vajza}} (the girl) || {{lang|sq|vajzat}} (the girls) |- ! [[Accusative]] | {{lang|sq|një vajzë}} || {{lang|sq|vajza}} || {{lang|sq|vajzën}} || {{lang|sq|vajzat}} |- ! [[Genitive]] | {{lang|sq|i/e/të/së një vajze}} || {{lang|sq|i/e/të/së vajzave}} || {{lang|sq|i/e/të/së vajzës}} || {{lang|sq|i/e/të/së vajzave}} |- ! [[Dative]] | {{lang|sq|një vajze}} || {{lang|sq|vajzave}} || {{lang|sq|vajzës}} || {{lang|sq|vajzave}} |- ! [[Ablative]] | {{lang|sq|(prej) një vajze}} || {{lang|sq|(prej) vajzash}} || {{lang|sq|(prej) vajzës}} || {{lang|sq|(prej) vajzave}} |} The definite article is placed after the noun as in many other [[Balkan languages]], like in [[Romanian language|Romanian]], [[Macedonian language|Macedonian]] and [[Bulgarian language|Bulgarian]]. * The definite article can be in the form of noun suffixes, which vary with gender and case. ** For example, in singular nominative, masculine nouns add {{lang|sq|-i}}, or those ending in {{lang|sq|-g}}/{{lang|sq|-k}}/{{lang|sq|-h}} take {{lang|sq|-u}} (to avoid palatalization): *** {{lang|sq|mal}} (mountain) / {{lang|sq|mali}} (the mountain); *** {{lang|sq|libër}} (book) / {{lang|sq|libri}} (the book); *** {{lang|sq|zog}} (bird) / {{lang|sq|zogu}} (the bird). ** Nouns in the feminine class take the suffix {{lang|sq|-(i/j)a}}: *** {{lang|sq|veturë}} (car) / {{lang|sq|vetura}} (the car); *** {{lang|sq|shtëpi}} (house) / {{lang|sq|shtëpia}} (the house); *** {{lang|sq|lule}} (flower) / {{lang|sq|lulja}} (the flower). * Nouns in the neuter class take {{lang|sq|-t}}. Albanian has developed an analytical [[verb]]al structure in place of the earlier synthetic system, inherited from [[Proto-Indo-European language|Proto-Indo-European]]. Its complex system of [[Grammatical mood|mood]]s (six types) and [[Grammatical tense|tense]]s (three simple and five complex constructions) is distinctive among [[Balkan languages]]. There are two general types of [[Grammatical conjugation|conjugations]]. Albanian has a series of [[verb form]]s called miratives or [[admirative]]s. These may express surprise on the part of the speaker, but may also have other functions, such as expressing [[irony]], [[doubt]], or [[reportedness]].&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book|first=Victor A.|last=Friedman|chapter=Evidentiality in the Balkans: Bulgarian, Macedonian and Albanian|pages=168–187|title=Evidentiality: The Linguistic Coding of Epistemology|editor-first1=Wallace L.|editor-last1=Chafe|editor-first2=Johanna|editor-last2=Nichols|publisher=Ablex|year=1986|isbn=978-0-89391-203-1|chapter-url=http://mahimahi.uchicago.edu/media/faculty/vfriedm/040Friedman86.pdf|access-date=12 May 2023|archive-date=29 March 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180329121918/http://mahimahi.uchicago.edu/media/faculty/vfriedm/040Friedman86.pdf|url-status=dead}} p. 180.&lt;/ref&gt; The Albanian use of admirative forms is unique in the [[Balkan sprachbund|Balkan context]]. In English, the expression of surprise can be rendered by 'oh, look!' or 'lookee there!'; the expression of doubt can be rendered by 'indeed!'; the expression of neutral reportedness can be rendered by 'apparently'.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book|last=Friedman|first=Victor|author-link=Victor Friedman|editor-last=Scaldaferri|editor-first=Nicola|title=Wild Songs, Sweet Songs: The Albanian Epic in the Collections of Milman Parry and Albert B. Lord|chapter=The Epic Admirative in Albanian|volume=5|series=Publications of the Milman Parry Collection of Oral Literature Series|others=In collaboration with Victor Friedman, John Kolsti, Zymer U. Neziri|publisher=Harvard University, Center for Hellenic Studies|year=2021|isbn=9780674271333|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=WF-azgEACAAJ}}&lt;/ref&gt; * {{lang|sq|Ti '''flet''' shqip.}} &quot;You '''speak''' Albanian.&quot; (indicative) * {{lang|sq|Ti '''folke''' shqip!}} &quot;You '''(surprisingly) speak''' Albanian!&quot; (admirative) * {{lang|sq|Rruga '''është''' e mbyllur.}} &quot;The street '''is''' closed.&quot; (indicative) * {{lang|sq|Rruga '''qenka''' e mbyllur.}} &quot;'''(Apparently,)''' The street '''is''' closed.&quot; (admirative) For more information on verb conjugation and on inflection of other parts of speech, see [[Albanian morphology]]. === Word order === Albanian word order is relatively free.{{citation needed|date=November 2019}} To say '{{lang|sq|Agim ate all the oranges}}' in Albanian, one may use any of the following orders, with slight pragmatic differences: * [[subject–verb–object|SVO]]: {{lang|sq|Agimi i hëngri të gjithë portokallët.}} * [[subject–object–verb|SOV]]: {{lang|sq|Agimi të gjithë portokallët i hëngri.}} * [[Object–verb–subject|OVS]]: {{lang|sq|Të gjithë portokallët i hëngri Agimi.}} * [[Object–subject–verb|OSV]]: {{lang|sq|Të gjithë portokallët Agimi i hëngri.}} * [[Verb–subject–object|VSO]]: {{lang|sq|I hëngri Agimi të gjithë portokallët.}} * [[Verb–object–subject|VOS]]: {{lang|sq|I hëngri të gjithë portokallët Agimi.}} However, the most common order is [[subject–verb–object]]. The verb can optionally occur in sentence-initial position, especially with verbs in the passive form (''{{lang|sq|forma joveprore}}''): * '''{{lang|sq|Parashikohet}}''' {{lang|sq|një ndërprerje}} &quot;An interruption '''is anticipated'''&quot;. === Negation === Verbal negation in Albanian is mood-dependent, a trait shared with some fellow [[Indo-European languages]] such as [[Greek language|Greek]]. In indicative, conditional, or admirative sentences, negation is expressed by the particles {{lang|sq|nuk}} or ''s''' in front of the verb, for example: * ''{{lang|sq|Toni nuk flet anglisht}}'' &quot;Tony does not speak English&quot;; * ''{{lang|sq|Toni s'flet anglisht}}'' &quot;Tony doesn't speak English&quot;; * ''{{lang|sq|Nuk e di}}'' &quot;I do not know&quot;; * ''{{lang|sq|S'e di}}'' &quot;I don't know&quot;. Subjunctive, imperative, optative, or non-finite forms of verbs are negated with the particle ''mos'': * ''{{lang|sq|Mos harro}}'' &quot;Do not forget!&quot;. == Numerals == {| |- | valign=&quot;top&quot; | {| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; |- | një—one | tetëmbëdhjetë—eighteen |- | dy—two | nëntëmbëdhjetë—nineteen |- | tri/tre—three | '''njëzet'''—twenty |- | katër—four | njëzet e një—twenty-one |- | pesë—five | njëzet e dy—twenty-two |- | gjashtë—six | tridhjetë—thirty |- | shtatë—seven | '''dyzet'''/katërdhjetë—forty |- | tetë—eight | pesëdhjetë—fifty |- | nëntë—nine | gjashtëdhjetë—sixty |- | dhjetë—ten | shtatëdhjetë—seventy |- | njëmbëdhjetë—eleven | tetëdhjetë—eighty |- | dymbëdhjetë—twelve | nëntëdhjetë—ninety |- | trembëdhjetë—thirteen | njëqind—one hundred |- | katërmbëdhjetë—fourteen | pesëqind—five hundred |- | pesëmbëdhjetë—fifteen | një mijë—one thousand |- | gjashtëmbëdhjetë—sixteen | një milion—one million |- | shtatëmbëdhjetë—seventeen | një miliard—one billion |} |} === Notes === * In certain dialects, numerals with an extra syllable may undergo metrical syncope. For example, {{lang|sq|pesëmbëdhjetë}} becomes {{lang|sq|pesëmet}}.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book |last1=Hamp |first1=Eric Pratt |editor1-last=Gvozdanovic |editor1-first=Jadranka |title=Indo-European Numerals |date=3 June 2011 |publisher=Walter de Gruyter |isbn=978-3-11-085846-4 |page=869 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=HmbWRnaridAC |language=en |chapter=Albanian}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal |title=Vëzhgime rreth të folmëve të banorëve të Bregut të Matës, ishullit të Lezhës dhe ishullit të Shëngjinit |first=Gjovalin |last=Shkurtaj |date=1972 |journal=Studime Filologjike |issue=2 |publisher=Akademia e Shkencave e RPSSH, Instituti i Gjuhësisë dhe i Letërsisë |page=96 |language=sq}}&lt;/ref&gt; === Vigesimal system === Beside the Indo-European decimal numeration, there are also remnants of the [[Vigesimal|vigesimal system]], as {{lang|sq|njëzet}} {{gloss|twenty}} and {{lang|sq|dyzet}} {{gloss|forty}}. The [[Arbëreshë people|Arbëreshë]] in Italy and [[Arvanites]] in Greece may still use {{lang|sq|trezet}} {{gloss|sixty}} and {{lang|sq|katërzet}} {{gloss|eighty}}. Albanian is the only Balkan language that has preserved the [[Pre-Indo-European languages|Pre-Indo-European]] vigesimal system.{{sfn|Demiraj|2006|p=43}} == Lexicon == {{Cleanup lang|section|date=April 2020}} Albanian is known within historical linguistics as a case of a language which, although surviving through many periods of foreign rule and multilingualism, saw a &quot;disproportionately high&quot; influx of [[Loanword|loans]] from other languages augmenting and replacing much of its original [[vocabulary]].&lt;ref name=Matasovic6/&gt;{{clarify|date=September 2022}} Of all the foreign influences in Albanian, the deepest reaching and most impactful was the absorption of loans from Latin in the Classical period and its Romance successors afterward. Scholars have estimated a great number of Latin loanwords in Albanian, some even claiming 60% of the Albanian vocabulary.&lt;ref name=&quot;Sawicka&quot;&gt;[[Irena Natalia Sawicka|Sawicka, Irena]]. [https://ispan.waw.pl/journals/index.php/ch/article/view/ch.2013.006/117 &quot;A Crossroad Between West, East and Orient–The Case of Albanian Culture.&quot;] Colloquia Humanistica. No. 2. Instytut Slawistyki Polskiej Akademii Nauk, 2013. Page 97: &quot;Even according to Albanian linguists, Albanian vocabulary is composed in 60 percent of Latin words from different periods... When albanological studies were just emerging, it happened that Albanian was classified as a Romance language. Already there exists the idea of a common origin of both Albanian and Rumanian languages. The Rumanian grammar is almost identical to that of Albanian, but it may be as well the effect of later convergence within the Balkan Sprachbund..&quot;&lt;/ref&gt; Major work in reconstructing Proto-Albanian has been done with the help of knowledge of the original forms of loans from Ancient Greek, Latin and Slavic, while Ancient Greek loanwords are scarce the Latin loanwords are of extreme importance in [[phonology]].{{sfn|Orel|2000|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=xvKH56aT5mEC&amp;pg=PA23 23]}} The presence of loanwords from more well-studied languages from time periods before Albanian was attested, reaching deep back into the Classical Era, has been of great use in phonological reconstructions for earlier ancient and medieval forms of Albanian.&lt;ref name=Matasovic6&gt;Matasovic, Ranko (2018). [http://mudrac.ffzg.unizg.hr/~rmatasov/Albanian.pdf ''A Grammatical Sketch of Albanian for students of Indo-European'']. p. 6.&lt;/ref&gt; Some words in the core vocabulary of Albanian have no known etymology linking them to Proto-Indo-European or any known source language, and as of 2018 are thus tentatively attributed to an unknown, unattested, pre-Indo-European substrate language; some words among these include {{lang|sq|zemër}} (heart) and {{lang|sq|hekur}} (iron).&lt;ref&gt;Matasovic, Ranko (2018). Page 35.&lt;/ref&gt; Some among these putative pre-IE words are thought to be related to putative pre-IE substrate words in neighboring Indo-European languages, such as {{lang|sq|lule}} (flower), which has been tentatively linked to Latin {{lang|sq|lilia}} and Greek {{lang|el-Latn|leirion}}.{{sfn|Orel|2000|p=191}} Lexical distance of Albanian to other languages in a [[Lexicostatistics|lexicostatistical]] analysis by Ukrainian linguist Tyshchenko shows the following results (the lower figure, the higher similarity): 49% [[Slovenian language|Slovenian]], 53% [[Romanian language|Romanian]], 56% [[Greek language|Greek]], 82% [[French language|French]], 86% [[Macedonian language|Macedonian]], 86% [[Bulgarian language|Bulgarian]].&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |title=Excel File_Lexical-Distance-Matrix |url=https://alternativetransport.wordpress.com/lexical-distance-matrix/ |website=Alternative Transport |date=19 November 2016}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |title=How much does language change when it travels? |url=https://alternativetransport.wordpress.com/2015/05/04/how-much-does-language-change-when-it-travels/ |website=Alternative Transport |date=4 May 2015}}&lt;/ref&gt; === Cognates with Illyrian === {{See also|Proposed Illyrian vocabulary}} {| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; |+ !Illyrian term !description !Corresponding Albanian term |- |{{lang|xil|Andena}}, {{lang|xil|Andes}}, {{lang|xil|Andio}}, {{lang|xil|Antis}} |Personal Illyrian names based on a root-word {{lang|sq|and-}} or {{lang|sq|ant-}}, found in both the southern and the Dalmatian-Pannonian (including modern Bosnia and Herzegovina) onomastic provinces |Alb. {{lang|sq|andë}} (northern Albanian dialect, or Gheg) and {{lang|sq|ëndë}} (southern Albanian dialect or Tosk) &quot;appetite, pleasure, desire, wish&quot;&lt;ref name=&quot;balkancenter.org&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |last1=Adzanela |first1=Ardian |date=1 January 1970 |title=Cultural Treasure of Bosnia and Herzegovina edition-Prehistoric and Ancient Period- Book 2- Illyrian Bosnia and Herzegovina-an Overview of a Cultural Legacy/ Ancient Illyrians of Bosnia and Herzegovina {{pipe}} Ardian Adžanela Adzanela Axhanela |url=https://www.academia.edu/2490281 |website=Academia.edu}}&lt;/ref&gt; |- |{{lang|xil|aran}} |&quot;field&quot; |Alb. {{lang|sq|arë}}; plural {{lang|sq|ara}}&lt;ref name=&quot;Mann1977&quot;&gt;{{cite book |author=Suart E. Mann |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=3LJiAAAAMAAJ&amp;q=aran+%2B+Illyrian |title=An Albanian Historical Grammar |publisher=Buske |year=1977 |isbn=978-3-87118-262-4}}&lt;/ref&gt; |- |{{lang|xil|Ardiaioi/Ardiaei}} |name of an Illyrian people |connected to {{lang|sq|hardhi}} &quot;vine-branch, grape-vine&quot;, with a sense development similar to Germanic *stamniz, meaning both {{lang|sq|stem, tree stalk}} and {{lang|sq|tribe, lineage}}.&lt;!-- Do not add &quot;ardhja&quot;, insufficient linguistical evidence --&gt;{{citation needed|date=September 2011}} |- |{{lang|xil|Bilia}} |&quot;daughter&quot; |Alb. {{lang|sq|bijë}}, dial. {{lang|sq|bilë}}&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=8D5mAAAAMAAJ&amp;q=bilia+Illyrian+albanian |title=Sborník prací Filozofické fakulty brněnské univerzity : Řada klasická |date=3 June 2008}}&lt;/ref&gt; |- |{{lang|xil|Bindo/[[Bindus (Illyrian god)|Bindus]]}} |an Illyrian deity, cf. [[Bihać]], [[Bosnia and Herzegovina]] |Alb. {{lang|sq|bind}} &quot;to convince&quot; or &quot;to make believe&quot;, {{lang|sq|përbindësh}} &quot;monster&quot;&lt;ref&gt;Ushaku, Ruzhdi, Hulumtime etnoliguistike, chapter: The continuation of Illyrian Bind in Albanian Mythology and Language, Fakulteti filologjise, Prishtine, 2000, p. 46-48&lt;/ref&gt; |- |''*''{{lang|xil|bounon}} |&quot;hut, cottage&quot; |Alb {{lang|sq|bun}}&lt;ref name=&quot;Mayani 1962&quot;&gt;{{cite book |last=Mayani |first=Zĕchariă |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=MMMkAAAAMAAJ&amp;q=drenis+%2B+Illyrian |title=The Etruscans begin to speak |publisher=Souvenir Press |year=1962}}&lt;/ref&gt; |- |''*''{{lang|xil|brisa}} |&quot;husk of grapes&quot; |Alb {{lang|sq|bërsí}} &quot;lees, dregs; mash&quot; ( &lt; PA *{{lang|sq|brutiā}})&lt;ref name=&quot;IG&quot;&gt;{{cite web |title=Illyrian Glossary |url=http://indoeuro.bizland.com/project/glossary/illy.html |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110617033012/http://indoeuro.bizland.com/project/glossary/illy.html |archive-date=17 June 2011 |publisher=bizland.com}}&lt;/ref&gt; |- |{{lang|xil|Barba-}} |&quot;swamp&quot;, toponym from {{lang|sq|Metubarbis}} |Alb. {{lang|sq|bërrakë}} &quot;swampy soil&quot;&lt;ref name=&quot;IG&quot; /&gt; |- |{{lang|xil|Daesitiates}} |name of an Illyrian people |Alb. {{lang|sq|dash}} &quot;ram&quot;, corresponding contextually with south Slavonic {{lang|sq|dasa}} &quot;ace&quot;, which might represent a borrowing and adaptation from Illyrian or even Proto-Albanian&lt;!-- Do not remove, that is what the source says --&gt;.&lt;ref name=&quot;balkancenter.org&quot; /&gt; |- |''*{{lang|xil|mal}}'' |&quot;mountain&quot; |Alb {{lang|sq|mal}} &quot;mountain&quot;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book |last=Stipčević |first=Aleksandar |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=NLcWAQAAIAAJ&amp;q=mal+%2B+Illyrian |title=The Illyrians: history and culture |publisher=Noyes Press |year=1977 |isbn=9780815550525}}&lt;/ref&gt; |- |''*''{{lang|xil|bardi}} |&quot;white&quot; |Alb {{lang|sq|bardhë}} &quot;white&quot;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book |author=Linguistic Society of America |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=9_04AAAAMAAJ&amp;q=bardi+%2B+Illyrian |title=Language, Volumes 1–3 |publisher=Linguistic Society of America |year=1964}}&lt;/ref&gt; |- |''*''{{lang|xil|drakoina}} |&quot;supper&quot; |Alb. {{lang|sq|darke}}, {{lang|sq|dreke}} &quot;supper, dinner&quot;{{sfn|Orel|1998}}{{page needed|date=December 2023}} |- |''*''{{lang|xil|drenis}} |&quot;deer&quot; |Alb. indef. {{Lang|sq|dre}}, def. {{Lang|sq|dreni}} &quot;deer&quot;&lt;ref name=&quot;Mayani 1962&quot; /&gt; |- |''*''{{lang|xil|delme}} |&quot;sheep&quot; |Alb. {{Lang|sq|dele}}, Gheg {{Lang|sq|delme}} &quot;sheep&quot;&lt;ref name=&quot;Millennium Studies&quot;&gt;{{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=dSrxcnuJn44C&amp;q=delme+%2B+Illyrian&amp;pg=PA152 |title=Diokletian und die Tetrarchie: Aspekte einer Zeitenwende |publisher=Millennium Studies |year=2004 |isbn=9783110182309}}&lt;/ref&gt; |- |''*''{{lang|xil|dard}} |&quot;pear&quot; |Alb. {{lang|sq|dardhë}} &quot;pear&quot;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book |last1=Price |first1=Roberto Salinas |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=G4sYfFuSfekC&amp;q=dardhe+%2B+illyrian&amp;pg=PA72 |title=Homeric whispers: intimations of orthodoxy in the Iliad and Odyssey |year=2006 |isbn=9780910865111 |page=72|publisher=Scylax Press}}&lt;/ref&gt; |- |{{lang|xil|sīca}} |&quot;dagger&quot; |Alb indef. {{lang|sq|thikë}} or def. {{lang|sq|thika}} &quot;knife&quot;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book |last1=Eggebrecht |first1=Arne |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=MyOFAAAAIAAJ&amp;q=sica+thika |title=Albanien: Schätze aus dem Land der Skipetaren |author2=Roemer-Museum |author3=Pelizaeus-Museum |year=1988 |publisher=P. von Zabern |isbn=9783805309783}}&lt;/ref&gt; |- |{{lang|xil|Ulc-}} |&quot;wolf&quot; (pln. {{lang|sq|Ulcinium}}) |Alb {{lang|sq|ujk}} &quot;wolf&quot;, {{lang|sq|ulk}} (Northern Dialect)&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=0c9CAAAAIAAJ&amp;q=%22ulk%22+%2B+Illyrian |title=Ancient Indo-European dialects: proceedings, Volume 1963 |publisher=Millennium Studies |year=1966}}&lt;/ref&gt; |- |''*''{{lang|xil|loúgeon}} |&quot;pool&quot; |Alb {{lang|sq|lag}}, {{lang|sq|legen}} &quot;to wet, soak, bathe, wash&quot; ( &lt; PA * {{lang|sq|lauga}}), {{lang|sq|lëgatë}} &quot;pool&quot; ( &lt; PA *{{lang|sq|leugatâ}}), {{lang|sq|lakshte}} &quot;dew&quot; ( &lt; PA {{lang|sq|laugista}})&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite book |last=Suart E. |first=Mann |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=3LJiAAAAMAAJ&amp;q=lo%C3%BAgeon+%2B+Illyrian |title=An Albanian Historical Grammar |publisher=Buske |year=1977 |isbn=9783871182624 |location=Hamburg}}&lt;/ref&gt; |- |''*''{{lang|xil|mag-}} |&quot;great&quot; |Alb. {{lang|sq|madh}} &quot;big, great&quot;&lt;ref name=&quot;IG&quot; /&gt; |- |''*''{{lang|xil|mantía}} |&quot;bramblebush&quot; |Old and dial. Alb {{lang|sq|mandë}} &quot;berry, mulberry&quot; (mod. Alb {{lang|sq|mën, man}}){{citation needed|date=September 2011}} |- |{{lang|xil|rhinos}} |&quot;fog, mist&quot; |Old Alb {{lang|sq|ren}} &quot;cloud&quot; (mod. Alb {{lang|sq|re, rê}}) ( &lt; PA *{{lang|sq|rina}})&lt;ref&gt;{{harvnb|Fortson|2010|p=465}}&lt;/ref&gt; |- |{{lang|xil|Vendum}} |&quot;place&quot; |Proto-Alb. wen-ta (Mod. Alb. vend){{sfn|Orel|1998}}{{page needed|date=December 2023}} |} === Early linguistic influences === The earliest [[loanword]]s attested in Albanian come from [[Doric Greek]],&lt;ref name=&quot;huld&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |author=Huld, Martin E. |title=Accentual Stratification of Ancient Greek Loanwords in Albanian |journal=Zeitschrift für vergleichende Sprachforschung |volume=99 |issue=2 |year=1986 |pages=245–253}}&lt;/ref&gt; whereas the strongest influence came from [[Latin]].&lt;ref&gt;{{harvnb|Orel|2000|p=23 |ps=: &quot;Latin loanwords are of extreme importance for the history of Albanian phonology, especially its vocalism. The duration of the borrowing was so long that loanwords reflect several distinct chronological stages.&quot;}}&lt;/ref&gt; Some scholars argue that Albanian originated from an area located east of its present geographic spread due to the several [[Albanian–Romanian linguistic relationship|common lexical items]] found between the Albanian and [[Romanian language|Romanian]] languages. However it does not necessarily define the genealogical history of Albanian language, and it does not exclude the possibility of [[Proto-Albanian language|Proto-Albanian]] presence in both [[Illyrians|Illyrian]] and [[Thracians|Thracian]] territory.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book |last1=Curtis |first1=Matthew Cowan |title=Slavic-Albanian language contact, convergence, and coexistence |url=https://eric.ed.gov/?id=ED546136 |pages=17–18 |language=en |quote=One other point that some scholars make is the fact that Albanian and Romanian share many lexical items; this has led some to believe that Albanian originated east of its present geographical spread (Georgiev 1957; Hamp 1994)...it does not necessarily determine the genealogical history of the language, nor does it rule out the possibility of Proto-Albanian being present in both Illyrian and Thracian territory.|isbn=9781267580337 |date=30 November 2011}}&lt;/ref&gt; The period during which Proto-Albanian and Latin interacted was protracted, lasting from the 2nd century&amp;nbsp;BC to the 5th century&amp;nbsp;AD.{{sfn|Mallory|Adams|1997|p=9}} Over this period, the lexical borrowings can be roughly divided into three layers, the second of which is the largest. The first and smallest occurred at the time of less significant interaction. The final period, probably preceding the [[Migration Period|Slavic or Germanic invasions]], also has a notably smaller number of borrowings. Each layer is characterised by a different treatment of most vowels: the first layer follows the evolution of Early Proto-Albanian into Albanian; while later layers reflect vowel changes endemic to Late Latin (and presumably [[Proto-Romance language|Proto-Romance]]). Other formative changes include the syncretism of several noun case endings, especially in the plural, as well as a large-scale palatalisation. A brief period followed, between the 7th and the 9th centuries, that was marked by heavy borrowings from [[South Slavic languages|South Slavic]], some of which predate the &quot;o-a&quot; shift common to the modern forms of this language group. ==== Early Greek loans ==== There are some 30 [[Ancient Greek]] loanwords in [[Proto-Albanian language|Proto-Albanian]].&lt;ref name=&quot;Linguistics p.412&quot;/&gt; Many of these reflect a dialect which voiced its aspirants, as did the Macedonian dialect. Other loanwords are Doric; these words mainly refer to commodity items and trade goods and probably came through trade with a now-extinct intermediary.&lt;ref name=&quot;huld&quot;/&gt; * {{lang|sq|drapër}}; &quot;sickle&quot; &lt; ([[Northwest Greek]]) {{lang|grc|drápanon}}&lt;ref name=&quot;Ancient Indo-European Dialects p.102&quot;&gt;Ancient Indo-European dialects: proceedings, Volume 1963 Ancient Indo-European Dialects: Proceedings, University of California, Los Angeles. Center for Research in Languages and Linguistics Authors Henrik Birnbaum, Jaan Puhvel, University of California, Los Angeles. Center for Research in Languages and Linguistics Editors Henrik Birnbaum, Jaan Puhvel Publisher University of California Press, 1966 p.102&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;huld&quot;/&gt; * {{lang|sq|bletë}}; &quot;hive, bee&quot; &lt; Attic {{lang|grc|mélitta}} &quot;bee&quot; (vs. Ionic {{lang|grc|mélissa}}).&lt;ref&gt;{{harvnb|Orel|2000}} postulates a Vulgar Latin intermediary for no good reason. Mallory &amp; Adams (1997) erroneously give the word as native, from *{{lang|grc|melítiā}}, the protoform underlying Greek {{lang|grc|mélissa}}; however, this protoform gave Albanian {{lang|sq|mjalcë}} &quot;bee&quot;, which is a natural derivative of Proto-Albanian * {{lang|sq|melita}}; &quot;honey&quot; (mod. {{lang|sq|mjaltë}}).&lt;/ref&gt; * {{lang|sq|kumbull}}; &quot;plum&quot; &lt; {{lang|grc|kokkúmelon}}&lt;ref name=&quot;Ancient Indo-European Dialects p.102&quot;/&gt; * {{lang|sq|lakër}}; &quot;cabbage, green vegetables&quot; &lt; {{lang|grc|lákhanon}} &quot;green; vegetable&quot;{{sfn|Orel|2000|p=23}} * {{lang|sq|lëpjetë}}; &quot;orach, dock&quot; &lt; {{lang|grc|lápathon}}{{sfn|Orel|2000|p=102}} * {{lang|sq|lyej}}; &quot;to smear, to oil&quot;&lt; Proto-Albanian *elaiwanja &lt; *elaiwa (olive oil) &lt; Greek elaion {{sfn|Orel|1998|p=236}} * {{lang|sq|mokër}}; &quot;millstone&quot; &lt; (Northwest) {{lang|grc|mākhaná}} &quot;device, instrument&quot;&lt;ref name=&quot;Linguistics p.412&quot;&gt;The Field of Linguistics, Volume 2 Volume 1 of World of linguistics Authors Bernd Kortmann, Johan Van Der Auwera Editors Bernd Kortmann, Johan Van Der Auwera Publisher Walter de Gruyter, 2010 {{ISBN|3-11-022025-3}}, {{ISBN|978-3-11-022025-4}} p.412&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;huld&quot;/&gt; * {{lang|sq|mollë}}; &quot;apple&quot; &lt; {{lang|grc|mēlon}} &quot;fruit&quot;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite book |title=Les mots latins de l'albanais |last=Bonnet |first=Guillaum |publisher=L'Harmattan |year=1998 |location=Paris |pages=324}}&lt;/ref&gt; * {{lang|sq|pëllëmbë}}; &quot;palm of the hand&quot; &lt; {{lang|grc|palámā}}{{sfn|Orel|1998|p=318}} * {{lang|sq|pjepër}}; &quot;melon&quot; &lt; {{lang|grc|pépōn}}&lt;ref name=&quot;huld&quot;/&gt; * {{lang|sq|presh}}; &quot;leek&quot; &lt; {{lang|grc|práson}}{{sfn|Orel|2000|p=23}} * {{lang|sq|trumzë}}; &quot;thyme&quot; &lt; (Northwest) {{lang|grc|thýmbrā}}, {{lang|grc|thrýmbrē}}&lt;ref name=&quot;Ancient Indo-European Dialects p.102&quot;/&gt; * {{lang|sq|pellg}}; &quot;pond, pool&quot; &lt; {{lang|grc|pélagos}} &quot;high sea&quot;{{sfn|Orel|2000|p=264}} According to Huld (1986), the following come from a Greek dialect without any significant attestation called &quot;Makedonian&quot; because it was akin to the native idiom of the Greek-speaking population in the Argead kingdom:&lt;ref name=&quot;huld&quot;/&gt; * {{lang|sq|llërë}}; &quot;elbow&quot; &lt; *{{lang|grc|ὠlénā}}&lt;ref name=&quot;huld&quot;/&gt; * {{lang|sq|brukë}}; &quot;tamarisk&quot; &lt; *{{lang|grc|mīrýkhā}}&lt;ref name=&quot;huld&quot;/&gt; * {{lang|sq|mëllagë}}; 'mallow' &lt; *{{lang|grc|malákhā}} (with the reflex of /ɡ/ for Greek &lt;χ&gt; indicating a dialectal voicing of the what came as an aspirate stop from Greek)&lt;ref name=&quot;huld&quot;/&gt; * {{lang|sq|maraj}} &quot;fennel&quot; &lt; *{{lang|grc|márathrion}} (cf Romanian {{lang|ro|mărar(iu)}}, Ionic {{lang|grc|márathron}}; with the Albanian simplification of -dri̯- to -j- reflecting that of earlier *{{lang|grc|udri̯om}} to {{lang|sq|ujë}} &quot;water&quot;)&lt;ref name=&quot;huld&quot;/&gt; ==== Latin influence ==== {{See also|Albanian–Romanian linguistic relationship}} Scholars have estimated a great number of Latin loanwords in Albanian, some even claiming 60% of the Albanian vocabulary.&lt;ref name=Sawicka/&gt; They include many frequently used core vocabulary items, including {{lang|sq|shumë}} (&quot;very&quot;, from Latin {{lang|la|summus}}), {{lang|sq|pak}} (&quot;few&quot;, Latin {{lang|la|paucus}}), {{lang|sq|ngushtë}} (&quot;narrow&quot;, Latin {{lang|la|angustus}}), {{lang|sq|pemë}} (&quot;tree&quot;, Latin {{lang|la|poma}}), {{lang|sq|vij}} (&quot;to come&quot;, Latin {{lang|la|veniō}}), {{lang|sq|rërë}} (&quot;sand&quot;, Latin {{lang|la|arena}}), {{lang|sq|drejt}} (&quot;straight&quot;, Latin {{lang|la|directus}}), {{lang|sq|kafshë}} (&quot;beast&quot;, Latin {{lang|la|causa}}, meaning &quot;thing&quot;), and {{lang|sq|larg}} (&quot;far away&quot;, Latin {{lang|la|largus}}). [[Jernej Kopitar]] (1780–1844) was the first to note Latin's influence on Albanian and claimed &quot;the Latin loanwords in the Albanian language had the pronunciation of the time of Emperor Augustus&quot;.{{sfn|Kopitar|1829|p=254}} Kopitar gave examples such as Albanian {{lang|sq|qiqer}} 'chickpea' from Latin {{lang|la|cicer}}, {{lang|sq|qytet}} 'city, town' from {{lang|la|civitas}}, {{lang|sq|peshk}} 'fish' from {{lang|la|piscis}}, and {{lang|sq|shigjetë}} 'arrow' from {{lang|la|sagitta}}. The hard pronunciations of Latin {{angle bracket|c}} and {{angle bracket|g}} are retained as palatal and velar stops in the Albanian loanwords. Gustav Meyer (1888)&lt;ref&gt;Meyer, Gustav. Die lateinischen Elemente im Albanesischen. (In: Grцbers Grundriss, I; I.Auflage) (1888), p. 805&lt;/ref&gt; and [[Wilhelm Meyer-Lübke]] (1914)&lt;ref&gt;Meyer-Lübke, Wilhelm. Rumanisch, romanisch, albanesisch. (Mitteilungen des Romanischen Instituts an der Universitet Wien. I. Heilderberg 1914), p. 32&lt;/ref&gt; later corroborated this. Meyer noted the similarity between the Albanian verbs {{lang|sq|shqipoj}} &quot;to speak clearly, enunciate&quot; and {{lang|sq|shqiptoj}} &quot;to pronounce, articulate&quot; and the Latin word {{lang|la|excipiō}} (meaning &quot;to welcome&quot;). Therefore, he believed that the word ''Shqiptar'' &quot;Albanian person&quot; was derived from {{lang|sq|shqipoj}}, which in turn was derived from the Latin word {{lang|la|excipere}}. [[Johann Georg von Hahn]], an Austrian linguist, had proposed the same hypothesis in 1854.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book |title=Wir sind die Deinen. Studien zur albanischen Sprache, Literatur und Kulturgeschichte, dem Gedenken an Martin Camaj (1925–1992) gewidmet |author =Bardhyl Demiraj |publisher=Harrassowitz Verlag |isbn=978-3-447-06221-3 |date=2010}}&lt;/ref&gt; [[Eqrem Çabej]] also noticed, among other things, the archaic Latin elements in Albanian:&lt;ref&gt;Çabej, Eqrem. Karakteristikat e huazimeve latine të gjuhës shqipe. SF 1974/2 (In German RL 1962/1) pp. 13-51&lt;/ref&gt; # Latin /au/ becomes Albanian /a/ in the earliest loanwords: {{lang|la|aurum}} → {{lang|sq|ar}} 'gold'; {{lang|la|gaudium}} → {{lang|sq|gaz}} 'joy'; {{lang|la|laurus}} → {{lang|sq|lar}} 'laurel'. Latin /au/ is retained in later loans, but is altered in a way similar to [[Greek orthography|Greek]]: {{lang|la|causa}} 'thing' → {{lang|sq|kafshë}} 'thing; beast, brute'; {{lang|la|laud}} → {{lang|sq|lavd}}. # Latin /oː/ becomes Albanian /e/ in the oldest Latin loans: {{lang|la|pōmus}} → {{lang|sq|pemë}} 'fruit tree'; {{lang|la|hōra}} → {{lang|sq|herë}} 'time, instance'. An analogous mutation occurred from Proto-Indo-European to Albanian; PIE {{lang|ine-x-proto|nōs}} became Albanian {{lang|sq|ne}} 'we', PIE {{lang|ine-x-proto|*oḱtṓw}} + suffix -ti- became Albanian {{lang|sq|tetë}} 'eight', etc. # Latin unstressed internal and initial syllables become lost in Albanian: {{lang|la|cubitus}} → {{lang|sq|kub}} 'elbow'; {{lang|la|medicus}} → {{lang|sq|mjek}} 'physician'; {{lang|la|palūdem}} 'swamp' → [[Vulgar Latin]] {{lang|la|*padūle}} → {{lang|sq|pyll}} 'forest'. An analogous mutation occurred from Proto-Indo-European to Albanian. In contrast, in later Latin loanwords, the internal syllable is retained: {{lang|la|paganus}} → {{lang|sq|pagan}}; {{lang|la|plaga}} → {{lang|sq|plagë}} 'wound', etc. # Latin /tj/, /dj/, /kj/ palatalized to Albanian /s/, /z/, /c/: {{lang|la|vitium}} → {{lang|sq|ves}} 'vice; worries'; {{lang|la|ratiōnem}} → {{lang|sq|arsye}} 'reason'; {{lang|la|radius}} → {{lang|sq|rreze}} 'ray; spoke'; {{lang|la|faciēs}} → {{lang|sq|faqe}} 'face, cheek'; {{lang|la|socius}} → {{lang|sq|shok}} 'mate, comrade', {{lang|sq|shoq}} 'husband', etc. In turn, Latin /s/ was altered to /ʃ/ in Albanian. Haralambie Mihăescu demonstrated that: * Some 85 Latin words have survived in Albanian but not (as inherited) in any [[Romance language]]. A few examples include Late Latin {{lang|la|celsydri}} → dial. {{lang|sq|kulshedër}} → {{lang|sq|kuçedër}} 'hydra', {{lang|la|hībernus}} → {{lang|sq|vërri}} 'winter pasture', {{lang|la|sarcinārius}} 'used for packing, loading' → {{lang|sq|shelqëror}} 'forked peg, grapnel, forked hanger', {{lang|la|sōlānum}} 'nightshade', lit. 'sun plant' → ''{{lang|sq|shullë(r)}}'' 'sunny place out of the wind, sunbathed area', {{lang|la|splēnēticus}} → {{lang|sq|shpretkë}} 'spleen', {{lang|la|trifurcus}} → {{lang|sq|tërfurk}} 'pitchfork'.{{sfn|Mihăescu|1966|pp=1, 30}} * 151 Albanian words of Latin origin were not inherited in Romanian. A few examples include Latin {{lang|la|amīcus}} → Albanian {{lang|sq|mik}} 'friend', {{lang|la|inimīcus}} → {{lang|sq|armik}} 'foe, enemy', {{lang|la|ratiōnem}} → {{lang|sq|arsye}}, {{lang|la|benedīcere}} → {{lang|sq|bekoj}}, {{lang|la|bubulcus}} 'ploughman, herdsman' → {{lang|sq|bulk}}, {{lang|sq|bujk}} 'peasant', {{lang|la|calicis}} → {{lang|sq|qelq}} 'drinking glass', {{lang|la|castellum}} → {{lang|sq|kështjellë}} 'castle', {{lang|la|centum}} → {{lang|sq|qind}} 'hundred', {{lang|la|gallus}} → {{lang|sq|gjel}} 'rooster', {{lang|la|iunctūra}} → {{lang|sq|gjymtyrë}} 'limb; joint', {{lang|la|medicus}} → {{lang|sq|mjek}} 'doctor', {{lang|la|retem}} → {{lang|sq|rrjetë}} 'net', {{lang|la|spērāre}} → dial. ''{{lang|sq|shp(ë)rej}}'', {{lang|sq|shpresoj}} 'to hope', {{lang|sq|pres}} 'to await', {{lang|la|voluntās}} ({{lang|la|voluntātis}}) → {{lang|sq|vullnet}} 'will; volunteer'.{{sfn|Mihăescu|1966|pp=1, 21}} * Some Albanian church terminology has phonetic features which demonstrate their very early borrowing from Latin. A few examples include Albanian {{lang|sq|bekoj}} 'to bless' from {{lang|la|benedīcere}}, {{lang|sq|engjëll}} 'angel' from {{lang|la|angelus}}, {{lang|sq|kishë}} 'church' from {{lang|la|ecclēsia}}, ''{{lang|sq|i krishterë}}'' 'Christian' from {{lang|la|christiānus}}, {{lang|sq|kryq}} 'cross' from {{lang|la|crux}} ({{lang|la|crucis}}), (obsolete) {{lang|sq|lter}} 'altar' from Latin {{lang|la|altārium}}, {{lang|sq|mallkoj}} 'to curse' from {{lang|la|maledīcere}}, {{lang|sq|meshë}} 'mass' from {{lang|la|missa}}, {{lang|sq|murg}} 'monk' from {{lang|la|monachus}}, {{lang|sq|peshkëp}} 'bishop' from {{lang|la|episcopus}}, and {{lang|sq|ungjill}} 'gospel' from {{lang|la|ēvangelium}}.{{sfn|Mihăescu|1966|pp=1–2}} Other authors&lt;ref&gt;A. Rosetti, Istoria limbii române, 1986, pp. 195–197&lt;/ref&gt; have detected Latin loanwords in Albanian with an ancient sound pattern from the 1st century&amp;nbsp;BC,{{clarify|reason=What in particular suggests the phonological system of 1st-century-BC Latin?|date=January 2017}}&lt;!-- presumably the fact that */ɪ/ remains i-colored and has not merged with */eː/, and that */k/ remains unpalatalised before it, as opposed to every Romance language except Sardinian --&gt; for example, Albanian ''{{lang|sq|qingël(ë)}}'' 'saddle girth; dwarf elder' from Latin {{lang|la|cingula}} and Albanian ''{{lang|sq|e vjetër}}'' 'old, aged; former' from {{lang|sq|vjet}} but influenced by Latin {{lang|la|veteris}}. The [[Romance languages]] inherited these words from Vulgar Latin: {{lang|la|cingula}} became (via *''clinga'') Romanian {{lang|ro|chingă}} 'girdle; saddle girth', and ''[[Veteranus|veterānus]]'' became Romanian {{lang|ro|bătrân}} 'old'. Albanian, [[Basque language|Basque]], and the surviving [[Celtic languages]] such as [[Breton language|Breton]] and [[Welsh language|Welsh]] are the non-Romance languages today that have this sort of extensive Latin element dating from ancient Roman times, which has undergone the sound changes associated with the languages. Other languages in or near the former Roman area either came on the scene later (Turkish, the Slavic languages, Arabic) or borrowed little from Latin despite coexisting with it (Greek, German), although German does have a few such ancient Latin loanwords ({{lang|de|Fenster}} 'window', {{lang|de|Käse}} 'cheese'). Romanian scholars such as Vatasescu and Mihaescu, using lexical analysis of the Albanian language, have concluded that Albanian was heavily influenced by an extinct Romance language that was distinct from both Romanian and [[Dalmatian language|Dalmatian]]. Because the Latin words common to only Romanian and Albanian are significantly fewer in number than those that are common to only Albanian and Western Romance, Mihaescu argues that the Albanian language evolved in a region with much greater contact with Western Romance regions than with Romanian-speaking regions, and located this region in present-day Albania, Kosovo and Western Macedonia, spanning east to [[Bitola]] and [[Pristina]].&lt;ref name=&quot;MadgearuAlbanianRomans&quot;&gt;{{cite book |author1=Madgearu, Alexandru |author2=Gordon, Martin |title=The Wars of the Balkan Peninsula: Their Medieval Origins |pages=146–147}}&lt;/ref&gt; ==== Slavic influence ==== After the [[Slavs]] arrived in the Balkans, the [[Slavic languages]] became an additional source of loanwords. Contact between Albanian with the Slavic languages lasted very intensively for almost four centuries, and continued even in the late Middle Ages. Slavic loanwords in Albanian constitute a less studied area in literature. Per [[Vladimir Orel]] (1998),{{sfn|Orel|1998}}{{Page needed|date=August 2024}} there are about 556 Slavic loanwords in Albanian. ==== Turkish influence ==== The rise of the [[Ottoman Empire]] meant an influx of [[Turkish language|Turkish]] words; this also entailed the borrowing of Persian and Arabic words through Turkish. Some Turkish personal names, such as ''Altin'', are common. There are some loanwords from Modern Greek, especially in the south of Albania. Many borrowed words have been replaced by words with Albanian roots or modern Latinised (international) words. According to calculations mentioned by [[w:it:Emanuele Banfi|Emanuele Banfi]] (1985),&lt;ref&gt;Banfi, Emanuele (1985). &quot;Linguistica balcanica&quot;. Bologna: 162.&lt;/ref&gt; the total number of Turkish loanwords in Albanian is about two thousand. However, when taking into account obsolete and rare words, and restricted dialectalisms, their number is considerably larger. =====Gothic===== Albanian is also known to possess a small set of loans from [[Gothic language|Gothic]], with early inquiry into the matter done by [[Norbert Jokl]]&lt;ref&gt;Jokl, Norbert (1929). &quot;Balkangermanisches und Germanisches in Albanischen&quot;. ''Festschrift der 57. Versammlung deutscher Philologen und Schulmänner in Salzberg''. Baden bei Wien: 105–137.&lt;/ref&gt; and [[Sigmund Feist]],&lt;ref&gt;Feist, Sigmund (1939). ''Vergleichendes Wörterbuch der gotischen Sprafche''. Leiden: Brill.&lt;/ref&gt; though such loans had been claimed earlier in the 19th century by early linguists such as [[Gustav Meyer]]. Many words claimed as Gothic have now been attributed to other origins by later linguists of Albanian (''fat'' and ''tufë'', though used for major claims by Huld in 1994, are now attributed to Latin, for example),{{sfn|Orel|1998|pp=456-457, 468}} or may instead be native to Albanian, inherited from Proto-Indo-European.&lt;ref name=&quot;auto&quot;&gt;Matasovic, Ranko (2019). ''[https://mudrac.ffzg.hr/~rmatasov/Albanian A Grammatical Sketch of Albanian for Students of Indo-European]''. Zagreb. Page 39&lt;/ref&gt; Today, it is accepted that there are a few words from Gothic in Albanian, but for the most part they are scanty because the Goths had few contacts with Balkan peoples.&lt;ref name=Curtis19&gt;Curtis, M.C., 2012. [https://etd.ohiolink.edu/apexprod/rws_etd/send_file/send?accession=osu1338406907 Slavic-Albanian language contact, convergence, and coexistence] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230207075619/https://etd.ohiolink.edu/apexprod/rws_etd/send_file/send?accession=osu1338406907 |date=7 February 2023 }}. Page 19&lt;/ref&gt; Martin Huld&lt;ref name=Huld168&gt;Huld, M.E., 1994. [https://www.jstor.org/stable/pdf/40849126.pdf?refreqid=excelsior%3A7cdb9c3fc6b55e552953881eed1aa2a2 Albanian zverk – Gothic *swairhs]. ''Historische Sprachforschung/Historical Linguistics'', 107(1. H), pp.165–171. Pages 167–8.&lt;/ref&gt; defends the significance of the admittedly sparse Gothic loans for Albanian studies, however, arguing that Gothic is the only clearly post-Roman and &quot;pre-Ottoman&quot; language after Latin with a notable influence on the Albanian lexicon (the influence of Slavic languages is both pre-Ottoman and Ottoman).&lt;ref name=Huld168/&gt; He argues that Gothic words in Albanian are attributable to the late fourth and early fifth centuries during the invasions of various Gothic speaking groups of the Balkans under [[Alaric I|Alaric]], [[Odoacer]], and [[Theodoric]]. He argues that Albanian Gothicisms bear evidence for the ordering of developments within Proto-Albanian at this time: for example, he argues Proto-Albanian at this stage had already shifted {{IPA|/uː/}} to {{IPA|/y/}} as Gothic words with {{IPA|/uː/}} reflect with {{IPA|/u/}} in Albanian, not {{IPA|/y/}} as seen in most Latin and ancient Greek loans, but had not yet experienced the shift of {{IPA|/t͡s/}} to {{IPA|/θ/}}, since loans from Gothic words with {{IPA|/θ/}} replace {{IPA|/θ/}} with {{IPA|/t/}} or another close sound.&lt;ref name=Huld168/&gt; Notable words that continue to be attributed to Gothic in Albanian by multiple modern sources include: * {{lang|sq|tirk}} &quot;felt gaiters, white felt&quot; (cf Romanian {{lang|ro|tureac}} &quot;top of boot&quot;) &lt; Gothic {{lang|got|*θiuh-brōks-}}&lt;ref name=Curtis19/&gt;{{sfn|Orel|1998|pp=456-457}} or {{lang|got|*θiuhbrōkeis}},&lt;ref name=Huld168/&gt; cf Old High German {{lang|de|theobrach}} &quot;gaiters&quot;{{sfn|Orel|1998|pp=456-457}} * {{lang|sq|shkumë}} &quot;foam&quot;&lt;ref name=&quot;auto&quot;/&gt; &lt; Gothic {{lang|got|*skūm-}},&lt;ref name=Huld168/&gt; perhaps via an intermediary in a Romance {{lang|roa|*scuma}}{{sfn|Orel|1998|p=424}} (cf. Romanian {{lang|ro|spumă}}) * {{lang|sq|gardh}} &quot;fence, garden&quot;&lt;ref name=&quot;auto&quot;/&gt; is either considered a native Albanian word&lt;ref&gt;Curtis, M.C., 2012. [https://etd.ohiolink.edu/apexprod/rws_etd/send_file/send?accession=osu1338406907 Slavic-Albanian language contact, convergence, and coexistence] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230207075619/https://etd.ohiolink.edu/apexprod/rws_etd/send_file/send?accession=osu1338406907 |date=7 February 2023 }}. Page 107&lt;/ref&gt; that was loaned into Romanian as {{lang|ro|gard}}{{sfn|Orel|1998|p=110}}&lt;ref&gt;{{harvnb|Fortson|2010|p=449}}&lt;/ref&gt; * {{lang|sq|zverk}} &quot;nape, back of neck&quot; &lt; Gothic {{lang|got|*swairhs}};&lt;ref&gt;Huld, M.E., 1994. [https://www.jstor.org/stable/pdf/40849126.pdf?refreqid=excelsior%3A7cdb9c3fc6b55e552953881eed1aa2a2 Albanian zverk – Gothic *swairhs]. ''Historische Sprachforschung/Historical Linguistics'', 107(1. H), pp.165–171.&lt;/ref&gt; the &quot;difficult&quot; word having various otherwise been attributed (with phonological issues) to Celtic, Greek or native development.{{sfn|Orel|1998|pp=526-527}} * {{lang|sq|horr}} &quot;villain, scoundrel&quot; and {{lang|sq|horre}} &quot;whore&quot; &lt; Gothic {{lang|got|*hors}} &quot;adulterer, cf Old Norse {{lang|non|hóra}} &quot;whore&quot;{{sfn|Orel|1998|pp=150-151}} * {{lang|sq|punjashë}} &quot;purse&quot;, diminutive of {{lang|sq|punjë}} &lt; Gothic {{lang|got|puggs}} &quot;purse&quot;{{sfn|Orel|1998|p=350}} (cf. Romanian {{lang|ro|pungă}}) ==== Patterns in loaning ==== Although Albanian is characterised by the absorption of many loans, even, in the case of Latin, reaching deep into the core vocabulary, certain [[semantic field]]s nevertheless remained more resistant. Terms pertaining to social organisation are often preserved, though not those pertaining to political organisation, while those pertaining to trade are all loaned or innovated.{{sfn|Orel|2000|p=263}} Hydronyms present a complicated picture; the term for &quot;sea&quot; ({{lang|sq|det}}) is native and an &quot;Albano-Germanic&quot; innovation referring to the concept of depth, but a large amount of maritime vocabulary is loaned. Words referring to large streams and their banks tend to be loans, but {{lang|sq|lumë}} (&quot;river&quot;) is native, as is {{lang|sq|rrymë}} (the flow of water). Words for smaller streams and stagnant pools of water are more often native, but the word for &quot;pond&quot;, {{lang|sq|pellg}} is in fact a semantically shifted descendant of the old Greek word for &quot;high sea&quot;, suggesting a change in location after Greek contact. Albanian has maintained since Proto-Indo-European a specific term referring to a riverside forest ({{lang|sq|gjazë}}), as well as its words for marshes. Albanian has maintained native terms for &quot;whirlpool&quot;, &quot;water pit&quot; and (aquatic) &quot;deep place&quot;, leading Orel to speculate that the Albanian [[Urheimat]] likely had an excess of dangerous whirlpools and depths.{{sfn|Orel|2000|pp=264–265}} Regarding forests, words for most conifers and shrubs are native, as are the terms for &quot;alder&quot;, &quot;elm&quot;, &quot;oak&quot;, &quot;beech&quot;, and &quot;linden&quot;, while &quot;ash&quot;, &quot;chestnut&quot;, &quot;birch&quot;, &quot;maple&quot;, &quot;poplar&quot;, and &quot;willow&quot; are loans.{{sfn|Orel|2000|pp=266–267}} The original kinship terminology of Indo-European was radically reshaped; changes included a shift from &quot;mother&quot; to &quot;sister&quot;, and were so thorough that only three terms retained their original function, the words for &quot;son-in-law&quot;, &quot;mother-in-law&quot; and &quot;father-in-law&quot;. All the words for second-degree blood kinship, including &quot;aunt&quot;, &quot;uncle&quot;, &quot;nephew&quot;, &quot;niece&quot;, and terms for grandchildren, are ancient loans from Latin.{{sfn|Orel|2000|p=262}} The Proto-Albanians appear to have been cattle breeders given the vastness of preserved native vocabulary pertaining to cow breeding, milking and so forth, while words pertaining to dogs tend to be loaned. Many words concerning horses are preserved, but the word for horse itself is a Latin loan.{{sfn|Orel|2000|pp=267–268}} == See also == {{Portal|Languages}} {{div col begin|colwidth=10em}} * [[Abetare]] * [[Arbëresh language]] * [[Arvanitika]] * [[Gheg Albanian]] * [[Illyrian language]] * [[Help:IPA/Albanian|IPA/Albanian]] * [[Messapic language]] * [[Thraco-Illyrian]] * [[Tosk Albanian]] {{div col end}} == Notes == &lt;references group=&quot;note&quot; /&gt; {{notelist}} == References == {{Reflist}} == Bibliography == {{Refbegin|colwidth=30em}} * {{cite journal |last=Ajeti |first=Idriz |title=La présence de l'albanais dans les parlers des populations slaves de la Péninsule balkanique à la lumière de la langue et de la toponymie |journal=[[Studia Albanica]] |volume=2 |year=1968 |pages=131–136}} * {{cite journal |last=Ajeti |first=Idriz |title=Për historinë e marrëdhënieve të hershme gjuhësore shqiptare-sllave |journal=[[Studime Filologjike]] |volume=4 |year=1972 |pages=83–94}} (reprint in ''Gjurmime albanologjike – Seria e shkencave filologjike II – 1972''. 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Vienna: Österreichische Akademie der Wissenschaften, 1957/1959. * {{cite book |last=Mann |first=Stuart E. |title=An Albanian Historical Grammar |location=Hamburg |publisher=Helmut Buske |year=1977}} * [[Gustav Meyer|Meyer, Gustav]]. &quot;[https://books.google.com/books?id=E-IGAAAAQAAJ&amp;q=Albanesische+Studien Albanesische Studien I. Die Pluralbildungen der albanesischen Nomina]&quot;, in ''Sitzungsberichte der philosophisch-historischen Classe der Kaiserlichen Akademie der Wissenschaften'' 104 (1883): 257–362. * [[Franz Miklosich|Miklosich, Franz]]. ''Albanische Forschungen''. 2 vols., vol. 1: ''Die slavischen Elemente im Albanischen''; vol. 2: ''Die romanischen Elemente im Albanischen''. Vienna: Karl Gerold's Sohn, 1870. * {{cite journal |last=Mihăescu |first=Haralambie |title=Les éléments latins de la langue albanaise |journal=Révue des études sud-est européennes |volume=4 |year=1966 |pages=5–33, 323–53}} * {{cite book |last=Mihăescu |first=Haralambie |title=La langue latine dans le sud-est de l'Europe |location=Bucharest and Paris |publisher=Editura Academiei and Les Belles Lettres |year=1978}} * {{cite book |last1=Newmark |first1=Leonard |last2=Hubbard |first2=Philip |last3=Prifti |first3=Peter |title=Standard Albanian: A Reference Grammar for Students |location=Stanford |publisher=Stanford University Press |year=1982}} * {{cite book |last=Ölberg |first=Hermann |chapter=Einige Uberlegungen zur Autochtonie der Albaner auf der Balkanhalbinsel |title=Akten der internationalen albanologischen Kolloquiums, Innsbruck, 1972, zum Gedächtnis an Norbert Jokl |editor-first=Hermann M. |editor-last=Ölberg |location=Innsbruck |publisher=Institut für Sprachwissenschaft der Universität Innsbruck |year=1977}} * {{cite journal |last=Ölberg |first=Hermann |title=Kontributi i gjuhësisë për çështjen e atdheut ballkanik të shqiptarëve |journal=Studime Filologjike |volume=3 |year=1982}} * {{cite book|last1=Olsen|first1=Birgit Anette|last2=Thorsø|first2=Rasmus|editor1-last=Olander|editor1-first=Thomas|title=The Indo-European Language Family : A Phylogenetic Perspective|year=2022|doi=10.1017/9781108758666.012|doi-access=free|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=9781108758666|chapter=Armenian|chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=xzKAEAAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PA202|pages=202–222}} * {{cite book |last=Pedersen |first=Holger |chapter=Bidrag til den albanesiske Sproghistorie |title=Festskrift til Vilhelm Tomsen |location=Kopenhagen |publisher=Gyldendal |year=1894 |pages=246–257}} * {{cite journal |last=Pedersen |first=Holger |title=Albanesisch |journal=Kritischer Jahrbericht |volume=9 |issue=1 |year=1905 |pages=206–217}} Erlangen (1909) * {{cite journal |last=Pellegrini |first=Giovan Battista |title=I rapporti linguistici interadriatici e l'elemento latino dell'albanese |journal=Abruzzo |volume=19 |year=1980 |pages=31–71}} * Pellegrini, Giovan Battista. &quot;Disa vëzhgime mbi elementin Latin të shqipes&quot; [Some observations on the Latin element of the Albanian language], ''Studime Filologjike'' 3 (1982); (in Italian) &quot;Alcune osservazioni sull'elemento latino dell'albanese&quot;, ''Studia Albanica'' 1983: 63–83. * Pellegrini, Giovan Battista. ''Avviamento alla linguistica albanese''. Edizione rinnovata. Rende: Università degli studi della Calabria, Centro editoriale e librario, 1997. * {{cite book |last=Pisani |first=Vittore |chapter=L'albanais et les autres langues indo-européennes |title=Mélanges Henri Grégoire II |location=Brussels |year=1950 |pages=519–538}} reprint in ''Saggi di linguistica storica: Scritti scelti''. Torino: Rosenberg &amp; Sellier, 1959, pp.&amp;nbsp;96–114. * {{cite journal |last=Pisani |first=Vittore |title=Les origines de la langue albanaise, questions de principe et de méthode |journal=Studia Albanica |volume=1 |year=1964 |pages=61–68}} * {{cite book |last=Pisani |first=Vittore |chapter=Sulla genesi dell'albanese |title=Akten der internationalen albanologischen Kolloquiums, Innsbruck, 1972, zum Gedächtnis an Norbert Jokl |editor-first=Hermann M. |editor-last=Ölberg |location=Innsbruck |publisher=Institut für Sprachwissenschaft der Universität Innsbruck |year=1977 |pages=345–366}} * {{cite book |last1=Plasari |first1=Aurel |last2=Nadin |first2=Lucia |title=Barleti i hershëm sipas një dorëshkrimi të panjohur [The early Barleti – according to an unknown text] |date=2022 |publisher=Albanian Academy of Sciences/Onufri |isbn=978-9928-354-88-4}} * {{cite book |author-link=Vladimir Orel |last=Orel |first=Vladimir |title=Albanian Etymological Dictionary |location=Leiden |publisher=Brill |year=1998}} * {{cite book |last=Orel |first=Vladimir |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=xvKH56aT5mEC |title=A Concise Historical Grammar of the Albanian Language: Reconstruction of Proto-Albanian |location=Leiden |publisher=Brill |year=2000 |isbn=9004116478}} * {{cite book |last=Riza |first=Selman |title=Studime albanistike |location=Pristina |year=1979}} * {{cite book |title=The Indo-European Languages |last=Rusakov |first=Alexander |publisher=Routledge |year=2017 |isbn=9781317391531 |editor1-last=Kapović |editor1-first=Mate |chapter=Albanian |editor2-last=Giacalone Ramat |editor2-first=Anna |editor3-last=Ramat |editor3-first=Paolo |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=8i0lDwAAQBAJ}} * {{cite book |last1=Schumacher |first1=Stefan |last2=Matzinger |first2=Joachim |title=Die Verben des Altalbanischen: Belegwörterbuch, Vorgeschichte und Etymologie |location=Wiesbaden |publisher=Otto Harrassowitz |year=2013}} * {{cite book |last=Svane |first=Gunnar |title=Slavische Lehnwörter im Albanischen |location=Århus |publisher=Aarhus University Press |year=1992}} * {{cite book |last=Tagliavini |first=Carlo |title=La stratificazione del lessico albanese: Elementi indoeuropei |location=Bologna |publisher=Casa editrice Prof. Riccardo Pàtron |year=1965}} * {{cite journal |last=Thumb |first=Albert |title=Altgriechische Elemente des Albanesischen |journal=[[Indogermanische Forschungen]] |volume=26 |year=1909 |pages=1–20}} * {{cite book|last=Trumper|first=John|chapter=Some Celto-Albanian isoglosses and their implications|editor1-last=Grimaldi|editor1-first=Mirko|editor2-last=Lai|editor2-first=Rosangela|editor3-last=Franco|editor3-first=Ludovico|editor4-last=Baldi|editor4-first=Benedetta|title=Structuring Variation in Romance Linguistics and Beyond: In Honour of Leonardo M. Savoia|year=2018|publisher=John Benjamins Publishing Company|isbn=9789027263179|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=kAR-DwAAQBAJ}} * von Hahn, Johann Georg. ''Albanesische Studien''. 3 vols. Jena: F. Mauko, 1854. * [[Calvert Watkins|Watkins, Calvert]]. &quot;Proto-Indo-European: Comparison and Reconstruction&quot;, in ''The Indo-European Languages''. Edited by Anna Giacalone Ramat &amp; Paolo Ramat. London-NY: Routledge, 1998, pp.&amp;nbsp;25–73. * Ylli, Xhelal. ''Das slawische Lehngut im Albanischen''. 2 vols., vol. 1: ''Lehnwörter''; vol. 2: ''Ortsnamen''. Munich: Verlag Otto Sagner, 1997/2000. * {{cite book |last1=Ylli |first1=Xhelal |last2=Sobolev |first2=Andrej N. |title=Albanskii gegskii govor sela Muhurr |location=Munich |publisher=Biblion Verlag |year=2003 |isbn=3-932331-36-2}} {{Refend}} == External links == {{InterWiki|code=sq}} {{Wikibooks}} {{Wiktionary category}} {{Commons category|Albanian language}} {{Wikivoyage|Albanian phrasebook|Albanian|a phrasebook}} * [https://lrc.la.utexas.edu/eieol/albol Albanian Online] by Brian Joseph, Angelo Costanzo, and Jonathan Slocum, free online lessons at the [https://liberalarts.utexas.edu/lrc Linguistics Research Center] at the [[University of Texas at Austin]] * [https://spw.uni-goettingen.de/projects/aig/lng-sqi.html glottothèque – Ancient Indo-European Grammars online], an online collection of introductory videos to Ancient Indo-European languages produced by the University of Göttingen {{Indo-European languages}} {{Navboxes |title = Articles related to the Albanian language |state = autocollapse |list = {{Albanian language}} {{Albania topics}} {{Languages of Albania}} {{Languages of Italy}} {{Languages of Kosovo}} {{Languages of Macedonia}} {{Languages of Montenegro}} {{Languages of Romania}} {{Languages of Serbia}} }} {{Authority control}} [[Category:Albanian language| ]] [[Category:Languages attested from the 15th century]] [[Category:Indo-European languages]] [[Category:Illyrian languages]] [[Category:Languages of Albania]] [[Category:Languages of Greece]] [[Category:Languages of Italy]] [[Category:Languages of Kosovo]] [[Category:Languages of North Macedonia]] [[Category:Languages of Romania]] [[Category:Languages of Montenegro]] [[Category:Languages of Serbia]] [[Category:Languages of Sicily]] [[Category:Languages of Turkey]] [[Category:Subject–verb–object languages]]</div></summary> <author><name>Βατο</name></author> </entry> <entry> <id>https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Anti-Albanian_sentiment&diff=1255253657</id> <title>Anti-Albanian sentiment</title> <link rel="alternate" type="text/html" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Anti-Albanian_sentiment&diff=1255253657"/> <updated>2024-11-03T23:21:34Z</updated> <summary type="html">Βατο: rv IP vandalism <hr /> <div>{{Short description|Racism towards Albanians as an ethnic group}} {{Use dmy dates|date=October 2020}} &lt;!-- Deleted image removed: [[File:Ethnic Macedonians burning the Albanian flag.jpg|thumb|right|250px|A mob of [[ethnic Macedonians]] burning the Albanian flag]] --&gt; {{Discrimination sidebar|expand-ethnic=yes}} '''Anti-Albanian sentiment''' or '''Albanophobia''' is discrimination and prejudice towards [[Albanians]] as an ethnic group, described primarily in countries with a large Albanian population as immigrants, seen throughout Europe. A similar term used with the same denotation is '''anti-albanianism&lt;ref&gt;Michael Mandelbaum (2000) ''[https://archive.org/details/neweuropeandiasp00mich/page/234 &lt;!-- quote=anti-albanianism. --&gt; The new European diasporas: national minorities and conflict in Eastern Europe]'', Council on Foreign Relations Press p. 234&lt;/ref&gt;''' used in many sources similarly with '''albanophobia''', although its similarities and/or differences are not defined. The opposite for Albanophobia is [[Albanophilia]]. ==History== ===Albanophobia in the 19th century=== {{Main|The Expulsion of the Albanians|Massacre of the Albanian Beys}} In 1889, [[Spiridon Gopčević]] published an ethnographic study titled ''Old Serbia and Macedonia'' that was a Serbian nationalist book on Kosovo and Macedonia and contained a pro-Serbian ethnographic map of Macedonia.&lt;ref name=&quot;Yosmaolgu168&quot;&gt;{{cite book|last=Yosmaolğu|first=Ipek K.|chapter=Constructing national identity in Ottoman Macedonia|editor1-last=Zartman|editor1-first=I. William|title=Understanding life in the borderlands: Boundaries in depth and in motion|year=2010|publisher=[[University of Georgia Press]]|isbn=9780820336145|chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=kEyinJwjWIgC&amp;q=Spiridon+Gop%C4%8Devi%C4%87&amp;pg=PA168|page=168}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;Promitzer204205&quot; /&gt; Gopčević's biographer argues that he did not actually go to Kosovo and the study is not based on authentic experiences.&lt;ref name=&quot;Promitzer204205&quot; /&gt; Within scholarship, Gopčević's study has been noted for its plagiarisms, manipulations and misrepresentations, especially overstressing the Serbian character of Macedonia.&lt;ref name=&quot;Promitzer204205&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;Elsie117&quot; /&gt; Gopčević's views on Serbian and Albanian populations in Kosovo and also the issue of the ''Arnautaš'' theory or Albanians of alleged Serbian (descent) have only been partially examined by some authors.&lt;ref name=&quot;Promitzer204205&quot;&gt;{{harvnb|Promitzer|2015|pp=204–205}}.&quot;In 1889 the journalist Spiridon Gopčević (1855-1936) published an allegedly scientific, but for all intents and purposes Serbian nationalist monograph on Macedonia and &quot;Old Serbia&quot; (i.e. Kosovo). Gopčević’s biographer nevertheless argues that the monograph is not the result of authentic experiences and that he was never in Kosovo. While his manipulations with respect to the allegedly Serbian character of Macedonia have already been the topic of exhaustive research, his views on the mutual relations between the Serbian and Albanian populations of Kosovo, in particular with respect to the contested notion of so-called Arnautaš&quot; (Albanians of alleged Serbian (descent), have been only addressed superficially by various authors. Whatever the final judgment might be, Gopčević’s monograph represents a singular attempt to combine sympathies for the cultural development of the Serbian nation with the aspirations of Austria-Hungary as a Great Power in the Balkans.&quot;&lt;/ref&gt; Noted for being an ardent Serbian nationalist, his book ''Old Serbia and Macedonia'' is seen as a work that opened the path for unprecedented Serbian territorial claims in the region.&lt;ref name=&quot;Elsie117&quot;&gt;{{cite book|last=Elsie|first=Robert|title=A biographical Dictionary of Albanian history|year=2012|publisher=IB Tauris|isbn=9781780764313|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=pgf6GWJxuZgC&amp;q=Gop%C4%8Devi%C4%87&amp;pg=PA177|page=117}}&lt;/ref&gt; ''The Expulsion of the Albanians'' was a lecture presented by the Yugoslav historian [[Vaso Čubrilović]] (1897–1990) on 7 March 1937.&lt;ref name=&quot;Petersen2011&quot;&gt;{{cite book|author=Roger D. Petersen|title=Western Intervention in the Balkans: The Strategic Use of Emotion in Conflict|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=fKom-fspjGQC&amp;pg=PA159|date=30 September 2011|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=978-1-139-50330-3|page=159| quote=The colonisation program, despite the emigration of tens of thousands, failed to significantly change the ethnic imbalance in Kosovo. The idea, however, persisted. Vaso Čubrilović, a respected historian, wrote in a 7 March 1937, government memorandum entitled &quot;The Expulsion of the Albanians&quot;, &quot;It is impossible to repel the Albanians just by gradual colonization...The only possibility and method is the brutal power of a well-organized state... We have already stressed that for us the only efficient way is the mass deportation of the Albanians out of their triangle&quot;.}}{{dubious|date=October 2016}}&lt;/ref&gt; ===20th century=== {{Main|Massacres of Albanians in the Balkan Wars}} A series of '''massacres of Albanians in the [[Balkan Wars]]''' were committed by the [[Montenegrin Army]], [[Serbian Army]] and [[Chetniks|paramilitaries]], according to international reports.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book |author=United States Department of State |title=Papers Relating to the Foreign Relations of the United States |date=1943 |publisher=U.S. Government Printing Office |page=115 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ADhGAQAAMAAJ&amp;q=Serbian+troops+atrocities+1913&amp;pg=PA115 |access-date=2 January 2020 |language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;Report&quot;&gt;{{cite web|url=https://archive.org/details/reportofinternat00inteuoft|title=Report of the International Commission to Inquire into the Causes and Conduct of the Balkan War|last1=International Commission to Inquire into the Causes and Conduct of the Balkan Wars|last2=Carnegie Endowment for International Peace. Division of Intercourse and Education|date=1 January 1914|publisher=Washington, D.C.: The Endowment|access-date=6 September 2016|via=Internet Archive}}&lt;/ref&gt; During the [[First Balkan War]] of 1912–13, [[Kingdom of Serbia|Serbia]] and [[Kingdom of Montenegro|Montenegro]] during the war with the [[Ottoman Empire|Ottoman]] forces (many Albanians were among the Ottoman forces) and after expelling the official Ottoman Empire's forces in present-day [[Albania]] and [[Kosovo]] - committed numerous [[war crime]]s against the Albanian population, which were reported by the European, American and Serbian opposition press.&lt;ref name=&quot;Golgotha&quot;&gt;[http://www.albanianhistory.net/texts20_1/AH1913_1.html Leo Freundlich: Albania's Golgotha] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120531131757/http://www.albanianhistory.net/texts20_1/AH1913_1.html |date=31 May 2012 }}&lt;/ref&gt; Most of the crimes happened between October 1912 and summer of 1913. The goal of the forced expulsions and massacres of ethnic Albanians was statistic manipulation before the London Ambassadors Conference which was to decide on the new Balkan borders.&lt;ref name=&quot;Golgotha&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|url=http://www.danas.rs/dodaci/vikend/otpor_okupaciji_i_modernizaciji.26.html?news_id=105029|title=Otpor okupaciji i modernizaciji|access-date=6 September 2016|date=9 March 2007}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;Hudson128&quot; /&gt; According to contemporary accounts, between 20,000 and 25,000 Albanians were killed during the first two to four months of the Balkan Wars.&lt;ref name=&quot;Golgotha&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;Hudson128&quot;&gt;{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=W4zndspbem4C|title=Justice, Intervention, and Force in International Relations: Reassessing Just War Theory in the 21st Century|first=Kimberly A.|last=Hudson|date=5 March 2009|publisher=Taylor &amp; Francis|page=128|access-date=6 September 2016|via=Google Books|isbn=9780203879351}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;Archbishop&quot;&gt;[http://www.albanianhistory.net/texts20_1/AH1913_6.html Archbishop Lazër Mjeda: Report on the Serb Invasion of Kosova and Macedonia] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160303195950/http://www.albanianhistory.net/texts20_1/AH1913_6.html |date=3 March 2016 }}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;Rama&quot;&gt;{{cite book |last1=Rama |first1=Shinasi |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=oJaDDwAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PA72 |title=Nation Failure, Ethnic Elites, and Balance of Power: The International Administration of Kosova |date=2019 |publisher=Springer |isbn=978-3030051921 |pages=72–73 |ref=Rama |access-date=27 March 2020}}&lt;/ref&gt; Many of the victims were children, women and old people and were part of a warfare of extermination.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book |last1=Bessel |first1=Richard | author-link = Richard Bessel |title=No Man's Land of Violence: Extreme Wars in the 20th Century |date=2006 |publisher=Wallstein Verlag |isbn=978-3-89244-825-9 |page=226 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Wr-j5ibVgXsC&amp;q=atrocities+against+Albanians+1912&amp;pg=PA229 |access-date=24 December 2019 |language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt; Aside from massacres, civilians had their lips and noses severed.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book |last1=Tatum |first1=Dale C. |title=Genocide at the Dawn of the Twenty-First Century: Rwanda, Bosnia, Kosovo, and Darfur |date=2010 |publisher=Palgrave Macmillan |isbn=978-0-230-62189-3 |page=113 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=nWsbAQAAMAAJ&amp;q=massacred |access-date=3 January 2020|language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt; After the [[Second World War]], thousands of [[Cham Albanians]] in [[Thesprotia]], [[Greece]] were victims of forced migration and ethnic cleansing by the [[EDES|National Republican Greek League (EDES)]] from 1944 to 1945.&lt;ref&gt;Evergeti, Venetia; Hatziprokopiou, Panos and Nicolas Prevelakis {{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=82Y3BQAAQBAJ&amp;dq=The+Oxford+Handbook+of+European+Islam+Chams&amp;pg=PA352 |title=The Oxford Handbook of European Islam |isbn=978-0-19-102641-6 |last1=Cesari |first1=Jocelyne |date=30 October 2014|page=352|publisher=OUP Oxford }} Oxford University Press.&lt;/ref&gt;{{sfn|Tsoutsoumpis|2015|p=137}} ===Origins and forms=== The term &quot;Albanophobia&quot; was coined by [[Anna Triandafyllidou]] in a report analysis called ''Racism and Cultural Diversity in the Mass Media'' published in 2002.&lt;ref name=&quot;books.google.com&quot;&gt;By Russell King, Nicola Mai, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=nNHCqrp1IP4C&amp;pg=PA114 Out of Albania: from crisis migration to social inclusion in Italy]'', pp 114&lt;/ref&gt; Although, the first recorded usage of the term comes from 1982 in ''The South Slav journal, Volume 8'' by Albanian author [[Arshi Pipa]].&lt;ref&gt;[https://books.google.com/books?id=axoWAQAAMAAJ&amp;q=Albanophobia The South Slav journal, Volume 8] page 21, [[Arshi Pipa]] (1982).&lt;/ref&gt; The report by Triandafyllidou represented Albanian migrants in Greece.&lt;ref&gt;By Anna Triandafyllidou, ''[http://fra.europa.eu/fraWebsite/attachments/MR-CH4-4-Greece.pdf Racism and Cultural Diversity In the Mass Media] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120227161126/http://fra.europa.eu/fraWebsite/attachments/MR-CH4-4-Greece.pdf |date=27 February 2012 }}'', Robert Schuman Centre, European University Institute, pp. 149&lt;/ref&gt; == In countries == === Greece === In Greece, the sentiment has existed mainly post-1990s, when many immigrants escaped from Albania to [[Greece]].&lt;ref name=&quot;books.google.com&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref&gt;Georgios Karyotis, [http://www.lse.ac.uk/collections/hellenicObservatory/pdf/2nd_Symposium/Georgios_Karyotis_paper.pdf ''Irregular Migration in Greece''], pp. 9&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;By Russell King, Nicola Mai, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=nNHCqrp1IP4C&amp;pg=PA114 Out of Albania: from crisis migration to social inclusion in Italy]'', pp 21&lt;/ref&gt; The stereotype by some in Greece of Albanians as criminal and poor has been subject of a 2001 study by the [[International Helsinki Federation for Human Rights]] (IHFHR) and by the [[Fundamental Rights Agency|European Monitoring Centre on Racism and Xenophobia]] (EUMC).&lt;ref name=&quot;unhcr.org&quot;&gt;{{cite web |author=United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees |date=2003 |title=Refworld - Greece: Treatment of ethnic Albanians |url=http://www.unhcr.org/refworld/docid/403dd1f50.html |archive-url=https://archive.today/20130416030620/http://www.refworld.org/cgi-bin/texis/vtx/rwmain?docid=403dd1f50 |archive-date=16 April 2013 |access-date=9 May 2015 |work=Refworld}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;EUMC Nov. 2001, 25, 38 n. 85&quot;&gt;(EUMC Nov. 2001, 25, 38 n. 85)&lt;/ref&gt; As of 2003, it was considered that prejudices and mistreatment of Albanians are still present in Greece,&lt;ref name=&quot;unhcr.org&quot; /&gt; but as of 2007 it was observed that such sentiments are gradually receding.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal |last=Triandafyllidou |first=Anna |date=2007-03-01 |title=Mediterranean Migrations: Problems and Prospects for Greece and Italy in the Twenty-first Century |url=https://doi.org/10.1080/13629390601136855 |journal=Mediterranean Politics |volume=12 |issue=1 |pages=77–84 |doi=10.1080/13629390601136855 |s2cid=154311926 |issn=1362-9395}}&lt;/ref&gt; According to a 2002 statement of the IHFUR, the Albanians are more likely to be killed by law enforcement officials than [[Romani people]].&lt;ref name=&quot;unhcr.org&quot; /&gt; In addition, the EUMC singles out ethnic Albanians as principal targets of racism. Furthermore, the EUMC found that undocumented Albanian migrants &quot;experience serious discrimination in employment, particularly with respect to the payment of wages and social security contributions&quot;.&lt;ref name=&quot;unhcr.org&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;EUMC Nov. 2001, 25, 38 n. 85&quot; /&gt; Albanians are often pejoratively named and or called by Greeks as &quot;Turks&quot;, represented in the expression ''&quot;[[Turco-Albanians|Turkalvanoi]]&quot;''.&lt;ref name=&quot;Millas&quot;&gt;Millas, Iraklis (2006). &quot;Tourkokratia: History and the image of Turks in Greek literature.&quot; South European Society &amp; Politics. '''11'''. (1): 50. &quot;The 'timeless' existence of the Other (and the interrelation of the Self with this Other) is secured by the name used to define him or her. Greeks often name as 'Turks' various states and groups—such as the Seljuks, the Ottomans, even the Albanians (''Turkalvanoi'')&quot;.&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;Megalommatis&quot;&gt;Megalommatis, M. Cosmas (1994). ''Turkish-Greek Relations and the Balkans: A Historian's Evaluation of Today's Problems''. Cyprus Foundation. p. 28. &quot;Muslim Albanians have been called &quot;''Turkalvanoi''&quot; in Greek, and this is pejorative.&quot;&lt;/ref&gt; Albanians in Greece are also classified in terms as &quot;savage&quot;, while the Greeks view themselves as &quot;civilized&quot;.&lt;ref&gt;Nitsiakos, Vassilis (2010). ''On the border: Transborder mobility, ethnic groups and boundaries along the Albanian-Greek frontier''. LIT Verlag. p. 65. &quot;The few exchanges also bear the imprint of the above structural asymmetry and reflect the level of development of the two countries. While mainly agricultural and dairy products (drugs and weapons are a separate chapter) flow in from Albania, mostly uncontrollably, from Greece to Albania we have, in addition to money, a flow of a great gamut of material goods and products, from simple items of everyday use and consumption to electrical equipment and cars. One may say that, whereas Albanian products represent &quot;nature&quot;, Greek ones represent &quot;civilization&quot;, a dichotomy that characterizes the differences between the two groups from the point of view of the Greeks: Albanians are classified as &quot;savage&quot;, while Greeks as &quot;civilized&quot;, a fact that expresses, of course, the general racist attitude of the Greeks.&quot;&lt;/ref&gt; Prejudicial representations of Albanians and Albanian criminality by the Greek media is largely responsible for the social construction of negative stereotypes, in contrast to the commonly held belief that Greek society is neither [[xenophobic]] nor racist.&lt;ref&gt;[http://fra.europa.eu/fraWebsite/attachments/AR00_p2_EN.pdf Diversity and equality for Europe Annual Report 2000] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111001191803/http://fra.europa.eu/fraWebsite/attachments/AR00_p2_EN.pdf |date=1 October 2011 }}. European Monitoring Centre of Racism and Xenophobia, p. 38&lt;/ref&gt; Anti-Albanian sentiment in Greece is more of a Greek media product, rather than a reflection of social and political attitudes.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite book |last=Genov |first=Nikolai |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=1TUcAQAAIAAJ |title=Ethnicity and Mass Media in South Eastern Europe |date=2006 |publisher=Lit |isbn=978-3-8258-9348-4 |location=Münster |pages=36 |language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt; Although the Greek media have largely abandoned their negative stereotyping of Albanian immigrants (since c. 2000), public perception had already been negatively influenced.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite book |last=Gogonas |first=Nikos |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=rlUaBwAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PA77 |title=Bilingualism and Multiculturalism in Greek Education: Investigating Ethnic Language Maintenance among Pupils of Albanian and Egyptian Origin in Athens |date=2010-04-16 |publisher=Cambridge Scholars Publishing |isbn=978-1-4438-2214-5 |language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt; In March 2010, during an official military parade in [[Athens]], [[Greek people|Greek]] soldiers chanted &quot;They are [[Macedonians (ethnic group)|Skopians]], they are Albanians, they are Turks we will make new clothes out of their skins&quot;. The Civil Protection Ministry of Greece reacted to this by suspending the coast guard officer who was in charge of the parade unit, and pledged to take tough action against the unit's members.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|url=http://www.worldbulletin.net/index.php?aType=haber&amp;ArticleID=56122|title=Greek soldiers chant anti-Turkish-Albanian slogans at military parade - Balkans - Worldbulletin News|work=World Bulletin|access-date=9 May 2015}}&lt;/ref&gt; Albanophobia in Greece is primarily due to post-communist migration as well as the fact that until the mid 2000s, Albanians formed the primary immigrant population.&lt;ref&gt;Lazaridis, Gabriella, and Maria Koumandraki. &quot;Albanian migration to Greece: patterns and processes of inclusion and exclusion in the labour market.&quot; European Societies 9, no. 1 (2007): 91-111.&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;Lazaridis, Gabriella, and Iordanis Psimmenos. &quot;Migrant flows from Albania to Greece: economic, social and spatial exclusion.&quot; In Eldorado or Fortress? Migration in Southern Europe, pp. 170-185. Palgrave Macmillan, London, 2000.&lt;/ref&gt; === Italy === Albanophobia in [[Italy]] is primarily related to the Albanian immigrants mainly young adults who are stereotypically seen as criminals, drug dealers and rapists.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|title=Italophilia meets Albanophobia: Paradoxes of asymmetric assimilation and identity processes among Albanian immigrants in Italy|journal=Ethnic and Racial Studies|volume=32|pages=117–138|doi=10.1080/01419870802245034|year = 2009|last1 = King|first1 = Russell|last2=Mai|first2=Nicola|s2cid=55552400|url=http://www.ssoar.info/ssoar/handle/document/13201|type=Submitted manuscript}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |url=http://www.wantedinrome.com/articles/complete_articles.php?id_art=262 |title=Breaking the Albanian stereotype |access-date=28 March 2010 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110728145805/http://www.wantedinrome.com/articles/complete_articles.php?id_art=262 |archive-date=28 July 2011 |url-status=dead}}&lt;/ref&gt; Italian media provide a lot of space and attention to crimes committed by ethnic Albanians, even those just presumed.&lt;ref name=&quot;Italy&quot;&gt;{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=nNHCqrp1IP4C&amp;q=Albanophobia+-forum&amp;pg=PA114|title=Out of Albania|access-date=9 May 2015|isbn=9781845455446|last1=King|first1=Russell|last2=Mai|first2=Nicola|year=2008|publisher=Berghahn Books }}&lt;/ref&gt; After the [[Albanian Civil War|Albanian crisis]] and subsequent Albanian [[mass migration]] to Italy, it was observed that Italian public opinion was &quot;solidly and remarkably&quot; anti-Albanian.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal |last=Perlmutter |first=Ted |date=1998 |title=The Politics of Proximity: The Italian Response to the Albanian Crisis |url=http://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1177/019791839803200109 |journal=International Migration Review |language=en |volume=32 |issue=1 |pages=203–222 |doi=10.1177/019791839803200109 |s2cid=145184372 |issn=0197-9183}}&lt;/ref&gt; In the 21st century, anti-Albanian sentiment remains widespread and prevalent in Italian society.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite thesis |last=Stanley |first=Flavia |date=2015-03-17 |title=On Belonging, Difference and Whiteness: Italy's Problem with Immigration |url=https://scholarworks.umass.edu/dissertations_2/327 |journal=Doctoral Dissertations |pages=66–67 |doi=10.7275/6466436.0 |via=[[University of Massachusetts Amherst]]}}&lt;/ref&gt; Some authors have noted the contrast Italians' general ''Albanophobia'' with Albanians' general ''[[Italophilia]]''.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal |last1=King |first1=Russell |last2=Mai |first2=Nicola |date=2009-01-01 |title=Italophilia meets Albanophobia: paradoxes of asymmetric assimilation and identity processes among Albanian immigrants in Italy |url=https://doi.org/10.1080/01419870802245034 |journal=Ethnic and Racial Studies |volume=32 |issue=1 |pages=117–138 |doi=10.1080/01419870802245034 |s2cid=55552400 |issn=0141-9870}}&lt;/ref&gt; === Switzerland === Not infrequently, the [[Albanian diaspora]] in [[Switzerland]] is affected by [[xenophobia]] and [[racism]]. Integration difficulties and some criminal offences of some Albanians caused many [[Switzerland|Swiss]] to be prejudiced against Albanians, which has led to fear, hatred and insecurity.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|url=https://blog.tagesanzeiger.ch/politblog/index.php/2558/es-gibt-keine-guten-oder-schlechten-auslander/|title=Die Albaner werden dereinst so integriert sein, wie die Italiener|date=2011-05-27|access-date=2018-12-03|archive-date=9 December 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211209195118/https://blog.tagesanzeiger.ch/politblog/index.php/2558/es-gibt-keine-guten-oder-schlechten-auslander/|url-status=dead}}&lt;/ref&gt; Political parties that publicly oppose excessive immigration and the conservatism of traditional Swiss culture - in particular the [[Swiss People's Party]] (SVP) - strengthen this negative attitude among many party supporters.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|url=https://www.20min.ch/schweiz/news/story/SVP-mit-Auslaenderpolitik-auf-dem-Vormarsch-21202085|title=SVP mit Ausländerpolitik auf dem Vormarsch|date=2009-12-08|access-date=2018-12-03}}&lt;/ref&gt; These parties have already launched a number of popular initiatives, which were referred to by the [[Albanians]] as discriminatory.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|url=http://www.el-hikmeh.net/de/9-aktivitaeten/37-stellungnahme-zur-minarett-initiative|title=Stellungnahme zur Minarett-Initiative |date=2013-11-02|access-date=2018-12-03}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|url=https://www.20min.ch/schweiz/news/story/Zentralrat-will-Minarettverbot-kippen-27158269|title=Zentralrat will Minarettverbot kippen|date=2010-11-29|access-date=2018-12-03}}&lt;/ref&gt; In 1998, the Zurich [[Swiss People's Party|SVP]] created an election poster with the words &quot;[[Kosovo Albanians]]&quot; and &quot;No&quot; in large letters when it came to financing an integration project for [[Albanians]].&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|url=http://www.swissinfo.ch/ger/svp-plakat--freispruch/2418730|title=SVP-Plakat: Freispruch |date=2001-12-07|access-date=2018-12-03}}&lt;/ref&gt; In 2009, the Swiss People's Initiative &quot;Against the Construction of Minarets&quot; was adopted by the [[Swiss people]]. Many Muslim [[Albanians]] were outraged by this result and expressed their rejection. In 2010, the so-called &quot;expulsion initiative&quot; followed, which was also adopted by the voters. According to the law, foreigners who have committed serious crimes should be expelled from the country. The initiative on foreigners crime should thus reduce the crime rate and make the naturalization of foreigners more difficult. The &quot;Sheep's Poster&quot; designed by the [[Swiss People's Party|SVP]] attracted international attention and was again described by many immigrant organisations in [[Switzerland]] as discriminatory.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|url=https://www.albinfo.ch/node/13878/|title= Misioni i albinfo.ch|date=2009-08-21|access-date=2018-12-03}}&lt;/ref&gt; Economic integration continues to present difficulties for [[Albanians]] in [[Switzerland]]. In October 2018, [[Kosovo]]'s unemployment rate was 7.0% and in [[North Macedonia|Macedonia]] population 5.3%, well above the figure for the rest of the permanent resident population. A study by the Federal Office for Migration justifies this with in part low vocational qualifications among the older generation and the reservations that Albanian youth are exposed to when entering the world of work. In the 1990s, many well-qualified Albanians, because of unrecognized diplomas, with jobs such as in construction or in the catering trade, in which the unemployment is generally higher. This also has implications for the social assistance rate, which is higher for ethnic [[Albanians]], with significant differences depending on the country of origin. The most affected are people from [[Albania]]. In contrast, the number of students of Albanian descent is increasing today. In 2008, only 67 people were enrolled at Swiss universities, there are already 460 in 2017. Albanologists and migration researchers today assume that the integration and assimilation of [[Albanians]] are slowly increasing. In its annual report, Amnesty International stated in 2010 that the &quot;anti-minaret initiative&quot; stigmatized Albanian Muslims in [[Switzerland]] and increased racism in Switzerland in general. ===United Kingdom=== In recent years, there has been a significant increase in the number of Albanians arriving in the [[United Kingdom|UK]], many of them via small boat crossings from [[France]]. In 2022, Albanians made up around 35-45% of all migrants arriving by boat.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite news |last1=Jones |first1=Ian |title=Albanians make up just over a third of small boat arrivals in 2022 so far |url=https://www.independent.co.uk/news/uk/home-office-english-channel-suella-braverman-iraq-afghanistan-b2232373.html |work=The Independent |date=24 November 2022}}&lt;/ref&gt; The trend raised concerns among some politicians and the public, with Albanian migrants being scrutinized.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |title=The vilification of Albanian migrants: is there more than meets the eye? |url=https://www.openaccessgovernment.org/vilification-albanian-migrants-refugee-asylum-crime-trafficking/147925/ |website=openaccessgovernment.org |date=23 November 2022}}&lt;/ref&gt; Since September 2022, British media has focused on Albanian migrants, portraying them negatively using xenophobic terms.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |last1=Malaj |first1=Alexia |title=Navigating the UK's asylum landscape amidst the surge of Albanian migration |url=https://unipd-centrodirittiumani.it/en/schede/Navigating-the-UKs-asylum-landscape-amidst-the-surge-of-Albanian-migration/524 |website=unipd-centrodirittiumani.it |date=2024}}&lt;/ref&gt; Right-wing politicians have capitalized on public fears regarding immigration, often using inflammatory language that paints migrants as criminals or &quot;invaders.&quot; Home Secretary [[Suella Braverman]] has been a prominent figure in this discourse.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |last1=O'Callaghan |first1=Laura |title=Albanians in UK hit by 'wave of discrimination' amid migrant crisis blame game |url=https://www.thenationalnews.com/world/uk-news/2022/12/07/albanians-in-uk-hit-by-wave-of-discrimination-over-migrant-crisis-blame-game/ |website=The National |date=7 December 2022}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite news |last1=Ypi |first1=Lea |title=We Albanians are just the latest scapegoats for Britain’s failing ideological project |url=https://www.theguardian.com/commentisfree/2022/nov/04/albanians-scapegoats-britain-failing-ideological-project-invaders |work=The Guardian |date=4 November 2022}}&lt;/ref&gt; Albanians are significantly overrepresented in the [[United Kingdom prison population|UK prison population]]. In 2020, Albanians made up over 1,500 inmates, representing roughly 10% of the foreign prison population, rising from 2% in 2013.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite news|last=Ford|first=Richard|title=Albanians become largest foreign group in prisons|newspaper=[[The Times]] |language=en|url=https://www.thetimes.co.uk/article/albanians-become-largest-foreign-group-in-prisons-tw7d5rtt6|access-date=2021-09-01}}&lt;/ref&gt; By June 2022, the number of Albanian inmates had fallen to 1,336, but their proportion rose to 14%, maintaining the highest percentage of the foreign prison population in the UK. On a proportional basis, Albanians are 10 times more likely than the general public to be incarcerated.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite news |title=Not all migrants are good for Britain. We should only let in the ones who are |url=https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/2023/11/26/not-all-migrants-are-good-for-britain-we-should-only-let-in/ |work=The Telegraph |date=26 November 2023}}&lt;/ref&gt; Albanians make up 1.6% of all prisoners despite representing fewer than 0.05% of the UK population. Convictions range from serious offenses such as [[murder]], [[manslaughter]], [[rape]], and firearms offenses to drug-related crimes like producing cannabis in gang-run farms.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite news |last1=Hymas |first1=Charles |title=Scale of Albanian Channel migrants crime wave in the UK revealed |url=https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/2023/05/29/channel-migrants-albania-crime-wave-numbers-jailed/ |work=The Telegraph |date=29 May 2023}}&lt;/ref&gt; This overrepresentation has contributed to negative perceptions and stereotypes about Albanians and their involvement in criminal activities. === Montenegro=== {{see also|Bar massacre}} By 1942, the city of [[Bar, Montenegro|Bar]] became a home to many Serbians. Many of these joined the Partisan forces and participated in their activities at Bar.&lt;ref name=&quot;ZM&quot;&gt;{{cite web |url=http://www.montenegrina.net/pages/pages1/istorija/dokumenti/pristan5_grupa_autora.htm |title= Željko Milović-DRUGI SVJETSKI RAT|publisher=Montenengrina Digitalna Biblioteka }}&lt;/ref&gt; The '''Bar massacre''' ({{lang-sq|Masakra e Tivarit}}) was the killings of an unknown number of mostly [[Albanians|ethnic Albanian]]s from [[Kosovo]]{{ref label|status|a|}} [[Yugoslav Partisans]] in late March or early April 1945 in [[Bar, Montenegro|Bar]], a municipality in Montenegro, at the end of [[World War II]]. The victims were [[Albanians in Kosovo|Albanian recruits from Kosovo]], who had been pressed by the Yugoslav Partisans into service. These men were then assembled in Prizren and marched on foot in three columns to Bar where they were supposed to receive short training and then sent off to the front.&lt;ref name=&quot;ZM&quot; /&gt; The march took the rugged mountain ranges of Kosovo and Montenegro to reach its destination. Upon arrival locals reported that these men, who had marched a considerable distance, were &quot;exhausted&quot; and &quot;distressed&quot;. The column of men which stretched a few kilometres was then gathered on the Barsko Polje. At one point, in Polje, one of the Albanians from the column attacked and killed one of the Yugoslav officers, Božo Dabanović.&lt;ref name=&quot;ZM&quot; /&gt; Very soon after that somebody from the column threw a smuggled bomb at the commander of the brigade.&lt;ref name=&quot;ZM&quot; /&gt; This created a panic among the Partisans. The guards watching over the recruits then fired into the crowd killing many and prompting the survivors to flee into the surrounding mountains.&lt;ref name=&quot;ZM&quot; /&gt; In another case, several hundred Albanians were herded into a tunnel, near Bar, which was subsequently sealed off so that all of those trapped within the tunnel were [[asphyxia]]ted.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book|author=Miranda Vickers|title=The Albanians: A Modern History|date=28 January 2011|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=vtQABAAAQBAJ&amp;q=tivar|publisher=I.B.Tauris|isbn=9780857736550}}&lt;/ref&gt; Yugoslav sources put the number of victims at 400&lt;ref name=&quot;ZM&quot; /&gt; while Albanian sources put the figure at 2,000 killed in Bar alone.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |url=http://www.hri.org/news/balkans/ata/1996/96-09-19.ata.html#03 |title=Massive Grave of Albanian Victims of Tivari Massacre uncovered |date=19 September 1996|publisher=Albanian Telegraphic Agency |access-date=31 August 2012}}&lt;/ref&gt; According to Croatian historian [[Ljubica Štefan]], the Partisans killed 1,600 Albanians in Bar on 1 April after an incident at a fountain.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book|author=Ljubica Štefan|title=Mitovi i zatajena povijest|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=qPqfAAAAMAAJ|year=1999|publisher=K. Krešimir|isbn=978-953-6264-85-8|quote=&lt;!--U Baru ubijeno 1.600 Albanaca Najveći masakr bio je u Baru 1 . travnja 1 945., kojemu je povod bio incident kod česme. Stražar zabranjuje Albancu pristup vodi, nastaje svađa, jedan časnik puca u Albanca, on se uspijeva sakriti među svoje ...--&gt;}}&lt;/ref&gt; There are also accounts claiming that the victims included young boys.&lt;ref name=&quot;NATO Diplomacy&quot;&gt;{{Cite book|title=Coercive Diplomacy of NATO in Kosovo|last=Bytyci|first=Enver|publisher=Cambridge Scholars Publishing|year=2015|isbn=9781443872720|location=Newcastle upon Tyne|page=12}}&lt;/ref&gt; Other sources cited that the killing started en route for no apparent reason and this was supported by the testimony of [[:sq:Zoi Themeli|Zoi Themeli]] in his 1949 trial.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=79AJDAAAQBAJ&amp;q=bar+massacre+albanian&amp;pg=PT145|title=Enver Hoxha: The Iron Fist of Albania|last=Fevziu|first=Blendi|date=2016-02-01|publisher=I.B.Tauris|isbn=9780857729088|location=London|language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt; Themeli was a collaborator who worked as an important official of the [[Sigurimi]], the Communist Albanian secret police.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite book|title=Albania in the Twentieth Century, A History: Volume III: Albania as Dictatorship and Democracy, 1945-99|last=Pearson|first=Owen|publisher=I.B.Tauris|year=2004|isbn=1845111052|location=London|page=343}}&lt;/ref&gt; After the massacre, the site was immediately covered in concrete by the Yugoslav communist regime and built an airport on top of the mass grave.&lt;ref name=&quot;NATO Diplomacy&quot; /&gt; === North Macedonia === [[File:Anti-Albanian Inscription.png|thumb|306x306px|Anti-Albanian inscription written in Macedonian on a mosque, meaning &quot;Death for [[Albanians]]&quot;|left]] Ethnic tensions have simmered in [[North Macedonia]] since the end of an [[Insurgency in the Republic of Macedonia|armed conflict in 2001]], where the ethnic Albanian [[National Liberation Army (Albanians of Macedonia)|National Liberation Army]] attacked the security forces of North Macedonia with the goal of securing equal rights and autonomy for the ethnic Albanian minority. The [[Macedonian Academy of Sciences and Arts]] was accused of Albanophobia in 2009 after it published [[Macedonian Encyclopedia|its first encyclopedia]] in which was claimed that the Albanian [[endonym]], [[Siptar|Shqiptar]], means &quot;highlander&quot; and is primarily used by other Balkan peoples to describe Albanians if used in South Slavic languages the endonym is considered derogatory by the Albanian community. The encyclopedia also claimed that the Albanians settled in the region in the 16th century.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|url=http://www.b92.net/eng/news/region-article.php?yyyy=2009&amp;mm=10&amp;dd=01&amp;nav_id=62079 |title=B92 - News - Macedonian encyclopedia pulled from shelves |work=B92 |access-date=9 May 2015 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131213040201/http://www.b92.net/eng/news/region-article.php?yyyy=2009&amp;mm=10&amp;dd=01&amp;nav_id=62079 |archive-date=13 December 2013 }}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;BBC Alb&quot;&gt;{{cite web | url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/albanian/regionalnews/2009/09/090921_nayi_enciklopedia.shtml | title=Dënohet Enciklopedia maqedonase | publisher=BBC | access-date=28 November 2012 | author=Rashidi, Nazim}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|url=http://www.rferl.org/content/Macedonian_Encyclopedia_Sparks_Balkan_Ethnic_Row/1830215.html|title=Macedonian Encyclopedia Sparks Balkan Ethnic Row|work=RadioFreeEurope/RadioLiberty|access-date=9 May 2015}}&lt;/ref&gt; Distribution of the encyclopedia was ceased after a series of public protests. In a terrorist act known as the [[Smilkovci lake killings]], on 12 April 2012, five young [[ethnic Macedonian]] teenagers were shot dead by persons of [[Albanians in the Republic of Macedonia|ethnic Albanian]] origin. They were later found guilty and sentenced to life.&lt;ref name=&quot;BRIN&quot;&gt;{{cite web | url=https://balkaninsight.com/2021/02/22/ethnic-discord-covert-tapes-animate-north-macedonia-murder-trial/ | title= Murder Trial| publisher=BI | access-date=22 February 2021 | author=BRIN| date= 22 February 2021}}&lt;/ref&gt; This provoked anti-Albanian sentiment. On 16 April 2012, a protest against these attacks and demanding justice was held in Skopje. Some of the participants in the protests were chanting anti-Albanian slogans.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite AV media|url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=RF2LprmkK4M&amp;feature=player_embedded |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/varchive/youtube/20211220/RF2LprmkK4M |archive-date=2021-12-20 |url-status=live|title=Përleshje mes policisë dhe protestuesve në Shkup|date=16 April 2012|work=YouTube|access-date=9 May 2015}}{{cbignore}}&lt;/ref&gt; On 1 March 2013 in [[Skopje]], a mob of ethnic Macedonians protested against the decision to appoint [[Talat Xhaferi]], an ethnic Albanian politician, as [[Minister of Defense (North Macedonia)|Minister of Defence]].&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web | url=http://puls24.mk/makedonija/vesti/-privedeni-nekolkumina-ucesnici-vo-incidentot-pred-vlada | title=Приведени неколкумина учесници во инцидентот пред Влада | publisher=Puls 24 | access-date=2 March 2013 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130302102850/http://puls24.mk/makedonija/vesti/-privedeni-nekolkumina-ucesnici-vo-incidentot-pred-vlada | archive-date=2 March 2013 | url-status=dead}}&lt;/ref&gt; The protest turned violent when the mob started hurling stones and also attacking Albanian bystanders and police officers alike. The police reported 3 injured civilians, five injured police officers and much damage to private property. Although the city hospital reported treating five heavily injured Albanian men, two of which are on [[Intensive-care unit]]. During this protest part of the mob burned the Albanian flag. A mob of [[Macedonian nationalism|Macedonian nationalists]] also [[2017 storming of Macedonian Parliament|stormed]] the [[Macedonian Parliament]] on 27 April 2017 in reaction to the election of Talat Xhaferi as Speaker of the Assembly, numerous were injured during the riot. On the 108th anniversary of the [[Congress of Manastir]] the museum of the Albanian alphabet in [[Bitola]] was vandalized, and the windows and doors were broken. A poster with the words &quot;Death to Albanians&quot; and with the drawing of a lion cutting the heads of the Albanian double-headed eagle was placed on the front doors of the museum.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web | url=http://tv21.tv/mk/?p=109732 | title=ХУЛИГАНИ ГО ДЕМОЛИРАА МУЗЕЈОТ НА АЛБАНСКАТА АЗБУКА | date=18 March 2016 | publisher=21TV | access-date=22 November 2016 | archive-date=23 November 2016 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161123053054/http://tv21.tv/mk/?p=109732 | url-status=dead }}&lt;/ref&gt; One week after this incident, on the day of the [[Albanian Declaration of Independence]] graffiti with the same messages, as those of the previous week, were placed on the directorate of [[Pelister National Park]].&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web | url=http://tv21.tv/web/?p=109822 | title=KËRCËNIM NË FESTËN E FLAMURIT 'VDEKJE SHQIPTARËVE' | publisher=TV-21 | access-date=28 November 2016 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161128200311/http://tv21.tv/web/?p=109822 | archive-date=28 November 2016 | url-status=dead }}&lt;/ref&gt; Amongst the unemployed, Albanians are overrepresented. In public institutions as well as many private sectors they are underrepresented. They also face hidden discrimination by public officials.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|url=http://minorityrights.org/minorities/albanians-3/|title=Albanians - Minority Rights Group|date=19 June 2015 }}&lt;/ref&gt; According to the [[United States' Country Reports on Human Rights Practices|United States' Country Report on Human Rights 2012 for Macedonia]] &quot;certain ministries declined to share information about ethnic makeup of employees&quot;. The same report also added: {{blockquote|&quot;...ethnic Albanians and other national minorities, with the exception of [[Serbs of North Macedonia|ethnic Serbs]] and Vlachs, were underrepresented in the civil service and other state institutions, including the military, the police force, and the intelligence services, as well as the courts, the national bank, customs, and public enterprises, in spite of efforts to recruit qualified candidates from these communities. Ethnic Albanians constituted 18 percent of army personnel, while minority communities as a whole accounted for 25 percent of the population according to statistics provided by the government.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web | url=https://2009-2017.state.gov/j/drl/rls/hrrpt/humanrightsreport/index.htm#wrapper | title=Country Reports on Human Rights Practices for 2012, Macedonia | publisher=Bureau of Democracy, Human Rights and Labor | access-date=2013-04-26 | archive-date=21 May 2018 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180521170415/https://2009-2017.state.gov/j/drl/rls/hrrpt/humanrightsreport/index.htm#wrapper | url-status=dead }}&lt;/ref&gt;}} === Serbia === {{Main|Expulsion of the Albanians 1877–1878|Yugoslav colonization of Kosovo}} [[File:Cubrilovic Expulsion of the Albanians.png|thumb|[[The Expulsion of the Albanians]] by [[Vaso Čubrilović]]]] [[File:Albanians in Belgrade prison.jpg|left|thumb|266x266px|Albanians in Belgrade Prison, 1912. After the invasion of Kosovo by Serbia in 1912, thousands of Albanians were captured and sent to prison in Nis and Belgrade. Most of them were killed.]] The origins of anti-Albanian [[propaganda]] in Serbia started in the 19th century with claims made by Serbian state on territories that were about to be controlled by Albanians after the collapse of the Ottoman Empire.&lt;ref name=&quot;Banac&quot;&gt;By [[Ivo Banac]], [https://books.google.com/books?id=KfqbujXqQBkC&amp;q=anti-albanian&amp;pg=PT1 The national question in Yugoslavia - origins, history, politics], page 293&lt;/ref&gt; By the late nineteenth century, Albanians were being characterized by Serbian government officials as a &quot;wild tribe&quot; with &quot;cruel instincts&quot;.&lt;ref name = Stefanović/&gt; Others from Serbia's intelligentsia such as the geographer [[Jovan Cvijić]] referred to Albanians as being &quot;the most barbarous tribes of Europe&quot;.&lt;ref name = Stefanović&gt;Stefanović, Djordje (2005). &quot;Seeing the Albanians through Serbian eyes: The Inventors of the Tradition of Intolerance and their Critics, 1804-1939.&quot; ''European History Quarterly''. '''35'''. (3): 472. &quot;Officials of the Serbian Ministry of Foreign affairs described Albanians as a 'wild tribe' with 'cruel instincts'... A number of Serbian intellectuals and journalists added to the angry hate propaganda that seemed to culminate during the preparations for the Balkan Wars. Cvijić argued that 'there is a general consensus that the Albanians are the most barbarous tribes of Europe'. Another intellectual described the Albanians as 'European Indians' and 'lazy savages'&quot;,&lt;/ref&gt; whereas politician [[Vladan Đorđević]] described Albanians as &quot;modern [[Troglodytae|Troglodytes]]&quot; and &quot;prehumans who slept in the trees&quot;, still having &quot;tails&quot; in the nineteenth century.&lt;ref&gt;Gay, Peter (1993). ''The Cultivation of Hatred: The Bourgeois Experience: Victoria to Freud (The Bourgeois Experience: Victoria to Freud''). WW Norton &amp; Company. p. 82. &quot;In 1913, Dr. Vladan Djordjević, a Serbian politician and expert in public health, characterized Albanians as bloodthirsty, stunted, animal-like, so invincibly ignorant that they could not tell sugar from snow. These &quot;modern Troglodytes&quot; reminded him of &quot;prehumans, who slept in the trees, to which they were fastened by their tails.&quot; True, through the millennia, the human rail had withered away, but &quot;among the Albanians there seem to have been humans with tails as late as the nineteenth century.&quot;&quot;&lt;/ref&gt; Throughout the 1930s, a strong anti-Albanian sentiment existed in the country and solutions for the &quot;Kosovo question&quot; were put forward, and it involved large-scale deportation.&lt;ref name=&quot;DragovicSoso128&quot;/&gt; These included [[Kingdom of Yugoslavia|Yugoslav]]-Turkish negotiations (1938) that outlined the removal of 40,000 Albanian families from the state to Turkey and another was a memorandum (1937) entitled ''[[The Expulsion of the Albanians]]'' written by a Serbian scholar [[Vaso Čubrilović]] (1897–1990).&lt;ref name=&quot;DragovicSoso128&quot;/&gt; The document proposed methods for expelling Albanians&lt;ref name=&quot;DragovicSoso128&quot;&gt;{{cite book|last=Dragović-Soso|first=Jasna|title=Saviours of the nation: Serbia's intellectual opposition and the revival of nationalism|year=2002|publisher=Hurst &amp; co.|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=H8hrpBYWGywC&amp;q=agrarian|isbn=9780773570924|page=128}}&lt;/ref&gt; that included creating a &quot;psychosis&quot; by bribing clergymen to encourage the Albanians to leave the country, enforcing the law to the letter, secretly razing Albanian inhabited villages, ruthless application of all police regulations, ruthless collection of taxes and the payment of all private and public debts, the requisitioning of all public and municipal pasture land, the cancellation of concessions, the withdrawal of permits to exercise an occupation, dismissal from government, the demolition of Albanian cemeteries and many other methods.&lt;ref&gt;Ćubrilović, Vaso, [http://www.trepca.net/english/2006/the_expulsion_of_the_albanians_by_vaso_cubrilovic_memorandum_in_1937.html The Expulsion of the Albanians: Memorandum] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130329133232/http://www.trepca.net/english/2006/the_expulsion_of_the_albanians_by_vaso_cubrilovic_memorandum_in_1937.html |date=29 March 2013 }} 1937&lt;/ref&gt; [[Aleksandar Ranković]], the Yugoslav security chief, had a strong dislike of Albanians.&lt;ref name=&quot;Petersen142&quot;/&gt; Following the Second World War and until 1966, Ranković upheld Serbian control of Kosovo through repressive anti-Albanian policies.&lt;ref name=&quot;Mertus98&quot;&gt;{{cite book|last=Mertus|first=Julie|title=Kosovo: How myths and truths started a war|year=1999|publisher=University of California Press|isbn=9780520218659|url=https://archive.org/details/kosovo00juli|url-access=registration|quote=anti-Albanian Rankovic.|pages=[https://archive.org/details/kosovo00juli/page/98 98]}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;Petersen142&quot;&gt;{{cite book|last=Petersen|first=Roger D.|title=Western intervention in the Balkans: The strategic use of emotion in conflict|year=2011|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=9781139503303|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=fKom-fspjGQC&amp;q=Aleksandar+Rankovic+Albanians&amp;pg=PA142|page=142}}&lt;/ref&gt; According to historian [[:sr:Olivera Milosavljević|Olivera Milosavljević]], part of the modern intellectuals in Serbia wrote about Albanians mainly within the framework of stereotypes, regarding their &quot;innate&quot; hatred and desire for the destruction of Serbs, which was a product of their dominant characteristic of &quot;primitivism&quot; and &quot;robbery&quot;. Beginning in the mid-1980s, words such as &quot;genocide&quot;, &quot;oppression&quot;, &quot;robbery&quot;, and &quot;rape&quot; were used when referring to Albanians in speeches, so that any mention of Albanians as a national minority contained negative connotations.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |last=Milosavljević |first=Olivera |title=Ogledi broj 1: U tradiciji nacionalizma ili stereotipi srpskih intelektualaca XX veka o &quot;nama&quot; i &quot;drugima&quot;|trans-title=Experiment Number One: In the Tradition of Nationalism or Stereotypes of Serbian Intellectuals of the 20th century about &quot;Us&quot; and &quot;Others&quot; |url=https://www.helsinki.org.rs/serbian/doc/Ogledi01.pdf |publisher=Helsinki Committee for Human Rights in Serbia |pages=218–219 |language=sh |date=2002}}&lt;/ref&gt; During the end of the 1980s and the beginning of the 1990s, activities undertaken by Serbian officials in Kosovo have been described as albanophobic.&lt;ref&gt;By Nebojša Popov, Drinka Gojković, [https://books.google.com/books?id=GkBmdCwHuDsC&amp;dq=albanophobia&amp;pg=PA222 The road to war in Serbia: trauma and catharsis], pp. 222&lt;/ref&gt; The [[Propaganda during the Yugoslav Wars#Milošević's reign and control of Serbian media|Serbian media during Milošević's era]] was known to espouse [[Serbian nationalism|Serb nationalism]] while promoting [[xenophobia]] toward the other ethnicities in [[Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia|Yugoslavia]]. Ethnic Albanians were commonly characterized in the media as anti-Yugoslav counter-revolutionaries, rapists, and a threat to the Serb nation.&lt;ref&gt;International Centre Against Censorship. &quot;Forging War: The Media in Serbia, Croatia and Bosnia-Herzegovina&quot;. ''International Centre Against Censorship, Article 19''. Avon, United Kingdom: Bath Press, May 1994. P55&lt;/ref&gt; During the [[Kosovo War]], Serbian forces continually discriminated [[Kosovo Albanians]]: {{blockquote|Throughout [[Autonomous Province of Kosovo and Metohija|Kosovo]], the forces of the [[Serbia and Montenegro|FRY]] and [[Republic of Serbia (1992–2006)|Serbia]] have harassed, humiliated, and degraded Kosovo Albanian civilians through physical and verbal abuse. Policemen, soldiers, and military officers have persistently subjected Kosovo Albanians to insults, racial slurs, degrading acts, beatings, and other forms of physical mistreatment based on their racial, religious, and political identification.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|url=http://americanradioworks.publicradio.org/features/kosovo/more2.htm|title=Justice for Kosovo|author=American Public Media|access-date=9 May 2015}}&lt;/ref&gt;|War Crimes Indictment against Milosevic and others}} A 2011 survey in Serbia showed that 40% of the Serbian population would not like Albanians to live in Serbia, while 70% would not enter into a marriage with an Albanian individual.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|url=http://www.politika.rs/rubrike/Drustvo/Raste-etnicka-distanca-medju-gradjanima-Srbije.lt.html|title=Raste etnička distanca među građanima Srbije|access-date=9 May 2015}}&lt;/ref&gt; In 2012, [[Vuk Jeremić]], Serbian Minister of Foreign Affairs, while commenting on [[Twitter]] about the Kosovo dispute, compared Albanians to the &quot;evil [[Orc]]s&quot; from the movie ''[[The Hobbit (film series)|The Hobbit]]''.&lt;ref&gt;Barlovac, Bojana (19 December 2012). &quot;[http://www.balkaninsight.com/en/article/jeremic-compares-kosovo-issue-with-hobbit-movie Jeremic Likens Kosovars to 'Hobbit's' Evil Orcs]&quot;. ''Balkan Insight''. Retrieved 16 May 2015.&lt;/ref&gt; During 2017, amidst a background of political tension between Serbia and [[Kosovo]], Serbian media engaged in warmongering and anti-Albanian sentiment by using ethnic slurs such as &quot;[[Šiptar]]&quot; in their coverage.&lt;ref name=&quot;Rudic&quot;&gt;{{cite web|last=Rudic|first=Filip|title=Rabid Anti-Albanian Sentiment Grips Serbian Media|url=https://balkaninsight.com/2017/05/16/rabid-anti-albanian-sentiments-grip-serbian-media-05-16-2017/|date=16 May 2017|access-date=25 October 2019}}&lt;/ref&gt; In 2018, the Belgrade Supreme Court acknowledged that the word &quot;Šiptar&quot; is racist and discriminatory towards Albanians. According to the court, &quot;Šiptar&quot; is a term that defines Albanians as [[Untermensch|racially inferior]] to Serbs.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url = https://www.albanianews.it/notizie/serbia/alta-corte-belgrado-siptar|title = Serbia: l'Alta corte emette sentenza storica. &quot;Šiptar&quot;, un termine offensivo|date = 22 October 2018|access-date = 24 December 2020|archive-date = 19 April 2021|archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20210419174700/https://www.albanianews.it/notizie/serbia/alta-corte-belgrado-siptar|url-status = dead}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://prishtinainsight.com/serbian-court-deems-siptar-as-offensive/|title=Serbian court deems 'siptar' as offensive|date=22 October 2018}}&lt;/ref&gt; However, some Serbian politicians still claim that the word is just an [[Albanian language|Albanian]] word for Albanians.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url = https://exit.al/en/2021/02/09/belgrade-court-decides-in-favor-of-vulin-using-pejorative-word-for-albanians/|title = Belgrade Court Decides in Favor of Vulin Using Pejorative Word for Albanians|date = 9 February 2021|access-date = 15 June 2021|archive-date = 9 February 2021|archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20210209143513/https://exit.al/en/2021/02/09/belgrade-court-decides-in-favor-of-vulin-using-pejorative-word-for-albanians/|url-status = dead}}&lt;/ref&gt; ==Derogatory terms== * German terms: ** [[Germany]] *** '''Bergtürken''' ('mountain Turks') – used by German&amp;nbsp;chancellor&amp;nbsp;[[Otto von Bismarck]]&amp;nbsp;in 1878, 10 June (three days before the&amp;nbsp;[[Berlin Congress]]). Bismarck denied the existence of an Albanian people.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |last1=Schleicher |first1=Roland |title=&quot;Die Stämme da unten&quot; |url=https://www.spiegel.de/spiegel/print/d-11616901.html |publisher=Der Spiegel |date=12 April 1999}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book |last1=Feyrer |first1=Georg |title=Zur historischen und aktuellen Erfahrung ethnischer Konflikte: Ethnischer Nationalismus und ethnische Minderheiten |url=https://m.grin.com/document/101804 |date=1999 |publisher=GRIN Verlag |isbn=9783640002177 |quote=At the end of the Wars of Liberation, in the late 19th century, the Serbs conquered large parts of Albanian territory and committed massacres on the muslim population. The Albanian resistance cannot receive attention and support at the international level, quite the opposite, the Albanians are not even accorded the status of their own people. In this context, the German Chancellor Bismarck speaks derogatorily of 'Bergtürken' (german for 'mountain Turks')}}&lt;/ref&gt; *** '''Turkalbaner''' ('[[Turco-Albanian]]', borrowed from Greek 'Turkoalvanós')&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book|author=Walter Puchner|title=Die Folklore Südosteuropas: Eine komparative Übersicht|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=hZpVDAAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PA289|date= 2016|publisher=Böhlau Verlag Wien|location=Vienna, Austria|isbn=978-3-205-20312-4|page=289}}&lt;/ref&gt; *** The neutral terms are ''Albaner'' (m.) and ''Albanerin'' (f.). ** [[Switzerland]] ([[German-speaking Community of Switzerland|german-speaking region]]) *** '''Viereckchopf''', '''Kantechopf''' ('Squarehead, Boxhead')&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |title=Squarehead |url=http://www.rsdb.org/search?q=Squarehead |publisher=The Racial Slur Database}}&lt;/ref&gt; – slang, a derogatory term which is used in reference to Albanian immigrants, particularly [[Kosovo Albanians]] (or [[Ghegs]]). The term is associated with the allegedly square-shaped heads of Albanians. This ethnic slur was previously used (during World War II) in reference to the [[Nazi Party|Nazis]] and their square-shaped heads.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |title=Boxhead |url=http://www.rsdb.org/search?q=Boxhead |publisher=The Racial Slur Database}}&lt;/ref&gt; *** The neutral terms are ''Albaner'' (m.) and ''Albanerin'' (f.). * Greek terms: ** '''Turkoalvanós/Tourkalvanoí/Τουρκαλβανοί''' (&quot;[[Turco-Albanian]]&quot;).&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |last1=Aarbakke |first1=Vemund |title=The Muslim Minority of Greek Thrace: Volume 1 |url=https://www.scribd.com/doc/169457078/The-Muslim-Minority-of-Greek-Thrace |publisher=University of Bergen |page=48}}&lt;/ref&gt; Derogatory term for Albanian. ** The neutral terms are ''Αλβανός/Alvanós'' (m.), ''Αλβανή/Alvaní'' (f.) and ''Αλβανίδα/Alvanída'' (f.). ** '''Tourkotsámides'''/'''Τουρκοτσάμηδες''' ('Turco-Chams')&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book|last1=Chidiroglou|first1=Paulos|title=Symvolē stēn Hellēnikē Tourkologia|date=1990|publisher=Hērodotos|location=Athēna|isbn=9789607290182|page=127|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=9kIvAAAAMAAJ&amp;q=turkalbaner|language=de|quote=Hiermit nicht zu verwechseln sind die zusammengesetzen Volksnamen, die sich auf Herkunft oder Religion beziehen, wie z.B. Τουρκαλβανός (Turkalbaner), Τουρκοκρήτες (Turkkreter), Τουρκοκύπριοι (Turkzyprioten). [Hereby does not to be confused the composite national name, they were referred to by origin or religion, such as Τουρκαλβανός (Turco-Albanian) Τουρκοκρήτες (Turco-Cretans), Τουρκοκύπριοι (Turko-Cypriots).]&quot;}}&lt;/ref&gt; – derogatory term for [[Cham Albanian]] (an Albanian from [[Chameria]]). ** The neutral term is ''Tsámides/Τσάμηδες'' ([[Cham Albanians|Chams]]). * South-Slavic terms: ** [[Former Yugoslavia]] (most notably [[Serbia]], [[North Macedonia]] and [[Montenegro]]) *** '''Šiptar/Шиптар''' (derogatory) (m.)&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |title=šȉptar |url=http://hjp.znanje.hr/index.php?show=search_by_id&amp;id=d1hhXBE%3D |website=Hrvatski jezični portal |language=hr}}&lt;/ref&gt; and '''Šiptarka/Шиптарка''' (f.) – are derogatory terms for Albanians. Formed from their endonym ''Shqiptar'' which is used by Balkan Slavic ethnicities such as the Serbs and Macedonians and it carries pejorative meanings which classify a person as being somewhat backward or aggressive.&lt;ref name = Guzina&gt;Guzina, Dejan (2003). &quot;Kosovo or Kosova – Could it be both? The Case of Interlocking Serbian and Albanian Nationalisms&quot;. In Florian Bieber and Židas Daskalovski (eds.). ''Understanding the war in Kosovo''. Psychology Press. p.30.&lt;/ref&gt; The Albanian term 'Shqiptar' was originally borrowed into south-Slavic as ''Šćìpetār/Шћѝпета̄р&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |title=Šćìpetār (arh. jez. knjiž/archaic form) |url=http://hjp.znanje.hr/index.php?show=search |website=Hrvatski jezični portal}}&lt;/ref&gt; (with a 'ć', now archaic form)'' and it wasn't considered offensive - unlike the term without 'ć' (Šiptar). Albanian terms for south-slavs are ''shqa, shkja''; which were borrowed from Late [[Latin]] ''sclavus''&amp;nbsp;or&amp;nbsp;''Sclavus''.&lt;ref&gt;&amp;nbsp;alb. &quot;shqa&quot;, in&amp;nbsp;''Albanian Etymological Dictionary'' - by Vladimir Orel, Leiden, Boston, Cologne: Brill, Year 1998, page 432&lt;/ref&gt; *** The neutral terms are ''Albanac/Албaнац'' (m., srb-cro); ''Albanec/Албанец'' (m., mac.) and ''Albanka/Албанка'' (f.). ==See also== * [[Turco-Albanians]] * [[Discrimination]] * [[Racism]] * [[Xenophobia]] * [[Islamophobia]] ==References== {{reflist|colwidth=30em}} ==Sources== *{{cite book|last=Promitzer|first=Christian|chapter=Austria and the Balkans: Exploring the role of travelogues in the construction of an area|pages=189–206|editor1-last=Kaser|editor1-first=Karl|title=Southeast European Studies in a Globalizing World|year=2015|location=Münster|publisher=Lit Verlag|isbn=9781443842839}} * {{cite journal |last1=Tsoutsoumpis |first1=Spyros |title=Violence, resistance and collaboration in a Greek borderland: the case of the Muslim Chams of Epirus |journal=Qualestoria |number=2 |date=December 2015 |pages=119–138 |url=https://www.academia.edu/24269752 |access-date=14 June 2016}} ==External links== * [http://www.unhcr.org/refworld/country,,IRBC,,GRC,4562d8b62,403dd1f50,0.html Treatment of ethnic Albanians in Greece] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121009132121/http://www.unhcr.org/refworld/country,,IRBC,,GRC,4562d8b62,403dd1f50,0.html |date=9 October 2012 }} (UNHCR) * [http://www.drustvo-antropologov.si/AN/PDF/2008_2/Anthropological_Notebooks_XIV_2_Sievers.pdf Stephanie Schwandner-Sievers: Albanians, Albanianism and the strategic subversion of stereotypes] * [http://ccat.sas.upenn.edu/italians/resources/Amiciprize/1998/Lamerica.html Italy's Conflicted Responses to Albanian Immigration and Lamerica's Transitive Historical Consciousness] * [https://www.researchgate.net/publication/46119016_Italophilia_meets_Albanophobia_Paradoxes_of_asymmetric_assimilation_and_identity_processes_among_Albanian_immigrants_in_Italy Italophilia Meets Albanophobia] * [https://www.usatoday.com/sports/soccer/world/2004-09-09-greece-albania-march_x.htm USA Today - Anti-racism rally held after deadly soccer game] * [https://web.archive.org/web/20090928040332/http://www.pescanik.net/content/view/125/105 Olivera Milosavljević: Stereotipi srpskih intelektualaca XX veka o Albancima] (Serbian) *[http://www.trepca.net/english/2006/the_expulsion_of_the_albanians_by_vaso_cubrilovic_memorandum_in_1937.html The Expulsion of the Albanians: Memorandum] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130329133232/http://www.trepca.net/english/2006/the_expulsion_of_the_albanians_by_vaso_cubrilovic_memorandum_in_1937.html |date=29 March 2013 }} {{Discrimination}} [[Category:Anti-Albanian sentiment| ]] [[Category:Discrimination in Italy|Albanophobia]] [[Category:Discrimination in Greece]] [[Category:Anti-national sentiment]]</div></summary> <author><name>Βατο</name></author> </entry> <entry> <id>https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Albanian_language&diff=1255156014</id> <title>Albanian language</title> <link rel="alternate" type="text/html" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Albanian_language&diff=1255156014"/> <updated>2024-11-03T12:50:55Z</updated> <summary type="html">Βατο: rv IP disruption <hr /> <div>{{Short description|Indo-European language}} {{Redirect2|Arbënisht|Arbërisht|other uses|Arbërisht (disambiguation)}} {{Use dmy dates|date=July 2020}} {{Infobox language | name = Albanian | nativename = {{lang|sq|Shqip}}&lt;br/&gt;{{lang|sq|Arbërisht}} | pronunciation = {{IPA-sq|ʃcip||sq-shqip.oga}}&lt;br /&gt;{{IPA-sq|ˈɟuha ˈʃcipɛ|}}&lt;br /&gt;{{IPA-sq|aɾbəˈɾiʃt|}} | states = {{Plainlist| * [[Languages of Albania|Albania]] * [[Languages of Kosovo|Kosovo]] * [[Languages of Greece|Greece]] * [[Languages of Italy|Italy]] * [[Languages of Montenegro|Montenegro]] * [[Languages of North Macedonia|North Macedonia]] * [[Languages of Serbia|Serbia]] }} | ethnicity = [[Albanians]] | speakers = 7.5 million | date = 2017 | ref = {{sfn|Rusakov|2017|p=552}}&lt;ref name=&quot;KlBrFr1800&quot;/&gt; | familycolor = Indo-European | fam2 = [[Albanoid]] | ancestor = [[Proto-Indo-European language|Proto-Indo-European]] | ancestor2 = [[Proto-Albanian language|Proto-Albanian]] | dia1 = [[Gheg Albanian|Gheg]] (&lt;small&gt;[[Arbanasi dialect|Arbanasi]] · [[Istrian Albanian|Istrian]]{{extinct}} · [[Upper Reka dialect|Upper Reka]] · [[Gheg Albanian#Malsia Albanian|Malsia e Madhe]]&lt;/small&gt;) | dia2 = [[Tosk Albanian|Tosk]] (&lt;small&gt;[[Arbëresh language|Arbëresh]] · [[Arvanitika]] · [[Cham Albanian dialect|Cham]] · [[Lab Albanian dialect|Lab]]&lt;/small&gt;) | listclass = flatlist | script = {{ubl|[[Latin script|Latin]] ([[Albanian alphabet]])|[[Albanian Braille]]}} | nation = {{ubl|{{flag|Albania}}|{{flag|Kosovo}}|{{flag|North Macedonia}} &lt;small&gt;(co-official)&lt;/small&gt;|{{flag|Montenegro}} &lt;small&gt;(co-official)&lt;/small&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book|url=http://www.wipo.int/wipolex/en/text.jsp?file_id=187544|title=Constitution of Montenegro|chapter-url=http://www.wipo.int/wipolex/en/text.jsp?file_id=187544#LinkTarget_1506|chapter=Language and alphabet Article 13|publisher=[[WIPO]]|date=19 October 2007|quote=Serbian, Bosnian, Albanian and Croatian shall also be in the official use.}}&lt;/ref&gt;}} | minority = {{ubl|{{flag|Italy}}&lt;ref name=&quot;Franceschini533534&quot;&gt;{{harvnb|Franceschini|2014|pp=533–534 [https://books.google.com/books?id=wKnnBQAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PT536]}}&lt;/ref&gt;|{{flag|Serbia}}&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|url=http://www.coe.int/t/dg4/education/minlang/Report/EvaluationReports/SerbiaECRML2_en.pdf|title=Application of the Charter in Serbia|publisher=European Charter for Regional or Minority Languages|date=11 June 2013|pages=4–5, 9}}&lt;/ref&gt;|{{flag|Croatia}}&lt;ref name=&quot;Franceschini546&quot;&gt;{{cite book|last=Franceschini|first=Rita|chapter=Italy and the Italian-Speaking Regions|editor-last=Fäcke|editor-first=Christiane|title=Manual of Language Acquisition|year=2014|publisher=Walter de Gruyter GmbH|isbn=9783110394146|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=zM_mBQAAQBAJ&amp;q=Manual+of+Language+Acquisition&amp;pg=PA1|pages=546}}&lt;/ref&gt;|{{flag|Romania}}&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|title=Reservations and Declarations for Treaty No.148 – European Charter for Regional or Minority Languages|url=http://www.coe.int/en/web/conventions/full-list/-/conventions/treaty/148/declarations?p_auth=63PpH3zN|website=Council of Europe|access-date=3 December 2015|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151208122308/http://www.coe.int/en/web/conventions/full-list/-/conventions/treaty/148/declarations?p_auth=63PpH3zN|archive-date=8 December 2015}}&lt;/ref&gt;}} | agency = [[Academy of Sciences of Albania]]&lt;br&gt;[[Academy of Sciences and Arts of Kosovo]] | iso1 = sq | iso2b = alb | iso2t = sqi | lingua = 55-AAA-aaa to 55-AAA-ahe (25 varieties) | iso3 = sqi | lc1 = aae | ld1 = [[Arbëresh language|Arbëresh]] | lc2 = aat | ld2 = [[Arvanitika]] | lc3 = aln | ld3 = [[Gheg Albanian|Gheg]] | lc4 = als | ld4 = [[Tosk Albanian|Tosk]] | glotto = alba1267 | glottorefname = Albanian | map = Albanian language map en.svg | mapcaption = The [[Albanian dialects|dialects]] of the Albanian language in Southern Europe.&lt;ref name=&quot;Northern Tosk Albanian&quot;&gt;{{Cite journal|last1=Coretta|first1=Stefano|title=Northern Tosk Albanian|last2=Riverin-Coutlée|first2=Josiane|last3=Kapia|first3=Enkeleida|last4=Nichols|first4=Stephen|journal=Journal of the International Phonetic Association|year=2022|volume=53|issue=3|location=Illustration of the IPA|pages=1–23|doi=10.1017/S0025100322000044|doi-access=free|hdl=20.500.11820/ebce2ea3-f955-4fa5-9178-e1626fbae15f|hdl-access=free}}&lt;/ref&gt;{{NoteTag|The map does not indicate where the language is majority or minority.}} | notice = IPA }} '''Albanian''' ([[Endonym and exonym|endonym]]: {{lang|sq|shqip}} {{IPA-sq|ʃcip||sq-shqip.oga}}, {{lang|sq|gjuha shqipe}} {{IPA-sq|ˈɟuha ˈʃcipɛ|}}, or {{lang|sq|arbërisht}} {{IPA-sq|aɾbəˈɾiʃt|}}) is an [[Indo-European languages|Indo-European]] language and the only surviving representative of the [[Albanoid|Albanoid branch]], which belongs to the [[Paleo-Balkan languages|Paleo-Balkan group]].&lt;ref&gt;{{harvnb|Orel|2000|p=12}}; {{harvnb|Matzinger|2018|p=1790}}; {{harvnb|Matasović|2019|p=39}}; {{harvnb|Hamp|1963|p=104}}; {{harvnb|Katicic|2012|p=184|ps=: &quot;And yet we know that it is the continuation of a language spoken in the Balkans already in ancient times. This has been proved by the fact that there are Ancient Greek loan words in Albanian&quot;.}}&lt;/ref&gt; It is the native language of the [[Albanian people]]. Standard Albanian is the [[official language]] of [[Albania]] and [[Kosovo]], and a co-official language in [[North Macedonia]] and [[Montenegro]], as well as a recognized [[minority language]] of [[Italy]], [[Croatia]], [[Romania]] and [[Serbia]]. It is also spoken in [[Greece]] and by the [[Albanian diaspora]], which is generally concentrated in the [[Americas]], [[Europe]] and [[Oceania]].&lt;ref name=&quot;KlBrFr1800&quot;/&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|author=Fatjona Mejdini|url=http://www.balkaninsight.com/en/article/albania-registers-diaspora-after-more-than-two-decade-12-14-2015|title=Albania Aims to Register its Huge Diaspora|publisher=Balkan Insight|date=3 May 2013|access-date=17 January 2017}}&lt;/ref&gt; Albanian is estimated to have as many as 7.5 million native speakers.{{sfn|Rusakov|2017|p=552}}&lt;ref name=&quot;KlBrFr1800&quot;/&gt; Albanian and other [[Paleo-Balkan languages]] had their formative core in the [[Balkans]] after the [[Indo-European migrations]] in the region.&lt;ref name=Friedman&gt;{{cite book|last=Friedman|first=Victor|title=The Cambridge Handbook of Language Contact: Volume 1: Population Movement and Language Change|series=Cambridge Handbooks in Language and Linguistics|chapter=The Balkans|editor=Salikoko Mufwene, Anna Maria Escobar|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2022|isbn=9781009115773|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=jWB2EAAAQBAJ}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=Lazaridis_et_al.&gt;{{cite journal|author-last1= Lazaridis|author-first1= Iosif|author-last2= Alpaslan-Roodenberg|author-first2=Songül|display-authors=et al.|title=The genetic history of the Southern Arc: A bridge between West Asia and Europe|journal=Science|volume=377|issue=6609|date=26 August 2022|pages=eabm4247|pmid=36007055|pmc=10064553| doi=10.1126/science.abm4247|bibcode=|s2cid=251843620}}&lt;/ref&gt; Albanian in antiquity is often thought to have been an [[Illyrian languages|Illyrian language]] for obvious geographic and historical reasons,&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Coretta|first1=Stefano|last2=Riverin-Coutlée|first2=Josiane|last3=Kapia|first3=Enkeleida|last4=Nichols|first4=Stephen|title=Northern Tosk Albanian|journal=Journal of the International Phonetic Association|date=16 August 2022|volume=53|issue=3|pages=1122–1144|doi=10.1017/S0025100322000044|url=https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/journal-of-the-international-phonetic-association/article/northern-tosk-albanian/D27484BD90369B3BC0FBA9479074ED88|quote=Though the origin of the language has been debated, the prevailing opinion in the literature is that it is a descendant of Illyrian (Hetzer 1995).|hdl=20.500.11820/ebce2ea3-f955-4fa5-9178-e1626fbae15f|hdl-access=free}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{harvnb|Matasović|2019|p=5|ps=: &quot;Much has been written about the origin of the Albanian language. The most probable predecessor of Albanian was Illyrian, since much of the present-day Albania was inhabited by the Illyrians during the Antiquity, but the comparison of the two languages is impossible because almost nothing is known about Illyrian, despite the fact that two handbooks of that language have been published (by Hans Krahe and Anton Mayer)... examination of personal names and toponyms from Illyricum shows that several onomastic areas can be distinguished, and these onomastic areas just might correspond to different languages spoken in ancient Illyricum. If Illyrians actually spoke several different languages, the question arises -from which 'Illyrian' language did Albanian develop, and that question cannot be answered until new data are discovered. The single &quot;Illyrian&quot; gloss preserved in Greek (rhínon 'fog') may have the reflex in Alb. (Gheg) re͂ 'cloud' (Tosk re)&lt; PAlb. *ren-.&quot;}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;:1&quot;&gt;{{harvnb|Beekes|2011|p=25}}: &quot;It is often thought (for obvious geographic reasons) that Albanian descends from ancient Illyrian (see above), but this cannot be ascertained as we know next to nothing about Illyrian itself.&quot;&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{harvnb|Fortson|2010|p=446}}: &quot;Albanian forms its own separate branch of Indo-European; it is the last branch to appear in written records. This is one of the reasons why its origins are shrouded in mystery and controversy. The widespread assertion that it is the modern–day descendant of Illyrian, spoken in much the same region during classical times ([...]), makes geographic and historical sense but is linguistically untestable since we know so little about Illyrian.&quot;&lt;/ref&gt;{{sfn|Mallory|Adams|1997|p=11|ps=: &quot;Although there are some lexical items that appear to be shared between Romanian (and by extension Dacian) and Albanian, by far the strongest connections can be argued between Albanian and Illyrian. The latter was at least attested in what is historically regarded as Albanian territory and there is no evidence of any major migration into Albanian territory since our records of Illyrian occupation. The loan words from Greek and Latin date back to before the Christian era and suggest that the ancestors of the Albanians must have occupied Albania by then to have absorbed such loans from their histori-cal neighbors. As the Illyrians occupied Albanian territory at this time, they are the most likely recipients of such loans.&quot;}}&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book|last=Villar|first=Francisco|title=Los indoeuropeos y los orígenes de Europa|language=es|publisher=Gredos|place=Madrid|year=1996|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=d5NbPAAACAAJ|isbn=84-249-1787-1|pages=313–314, 316}}&lt;/ref&gt; or otherwise an unmentioned Balkan Indo-European language that was closely related to Illyrian and [[Messapic language|Messapic]].{{sfn|Friedman|2020|p=388}}{{sfn|Matzinger|2018|p=1790}}{{sfn|Ismajli|2015|p=45}}{{sfn|Hamp|Adams|2013|p=8}} The Indo-European subfamily that gave rise to Albanian is called [[Albanoid]] in reference to a specific ethnolinguistically pertinent and historically compact language group.{{sfn|Trumper|2018|p=385}} Whether descendants or sisters of what was called '[[Illyrian language|Illyrian]]' by classical sources, Albanian and [[Messapic language|Messapic]], on the basis of shared features and innovations, are grouped together in a common branch in the current phylogenetic classification of the Indo-European language family.{{sfn|Hyllested|Joseph|2022|p=235}}{{sfn|Friedman|2020|p=388}}{{sfn|Trumper|2018|p=385}}{{sfn|Ismajli|2015|p=45}}{{sfn|Hamp|Adams|2013|p=8}} The first written mention of Albanian was in 1284 in a witness testimony from the [[Republic of Ragusa]], while a letter written by Dominican Friar Gulielmus Adea in 1332 mentions the Albanians using the Latin alphabet in their writings. The oldest surviving attestation of modern Albanian is from 1462.{{sfn|Matasović|2019|p=39}} The two main [[Albanian dialects|Albanian dialect groups]] (or [[Variety (linguistics)|varieties]]), [[Gheg Albanian|Gheg]] and [[Tosk Albanian|Tosk]], are primarily distinguished by [[Phonology|phonological]] differences and are [[Mutual intelligibility|mutually intelligible]] in their standard varieties,&lt;ref&gt;{{harvnb|Demiraj|Esposito|2009|p=[https://archive.org/details/conciseencyclope00brow_869/page/n59 23]}}: {{blockquote|&quot;...these innovations, as those that are also evident in different varieties of Gheg, are not such as to impede communication between speakers of the two dialects. Furthermore, the major part of the Albanian lexicon is common to the two dialects.&quot;}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{harvnb|Fortson|2010|p=446}}: &quot;The two dialects are mutually intelligible in their standard varieties, although numerous subdialects exist that show considerable variation, especially in the north and northeast of the Geg–speaking area.&quot;&lt;/ref&gt; with Gheg spoken to the north and Tosk spoken to the south of the [[Shkumbin|Shkumbin river]].&lt;ref&gt;{{harvnb|Demiraj|Esposito|2009|p=[https://archive.org/details/conciseencyclope00brow_869/page/n59 23]}}: {{blockquote|&quot;The river Shkumbin in central Albania historically forms the boundary between those two dialects, with the population on the north speaking varieties of Geg and the population on the south varieties of Tosk.&quot;}}&lt;/ref&gt; Their characteristics&lt;ref&gt;{{harvnb|Demiraj|2006|p=102}}: {{blockquote|&quot;It is the case of the evolution of stressed /a-/ and partly stressed /e-/ in front of a nasal consonant to /ë-/ in thee southern dialect. While the evolution /a-/ &gt; /ë/ in front of a nasal consonant has involved the southern dialect, the evolution /e-/ &gt; /-ë/ in the same phonetic conditions has not taken place in the northern part and partly in the eastern part of that dialect (...). This phonetic phenomenon has appeared earlier than rhotacism, as it is clearly evidenced in such examples as ''llanë'' &gt; ''llërë'', ''ranë'' &gt; ''rërë'' etc., in which the evolution /a-/ &gt; /ë-/ could not take place before /-r-/. Since this phonetic change has not appeared in the Slavic loanwords of Albanian, but has involved mainly the I.E. inherited words as well as the loans from Old Greek (compare ''mokënë'' &gt; ''mokërë'' &lt; ''māk&lt;sup&gt;h&lt;/sup&gt;anāʼ'' etc.) and from Latin (compare ''ranë'' &gt; ''rërë'' &gt; ''arena'' etc.), it has generally been acknowledged that it has taken place in the pre-Slavic period of Albanian. Its sporadic appearance in a very reduced number of Slavic loanwords is due to the action of analogy with similar cases of inherited or more ancient loans of Albanian.&quot;}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{harvnb|Demiraj|Esposito|2009|p=[https://archive.org/details/conciseencyclope00brow_869/page/n59 23]}}: {{blockquote|&quot;In Tosk /a/ before a nasal has become a central vowel (shwa), and intervocalic /n/ has become /r/. These two sound changes have affected only the pre-Slav stratum of the Albanian lexicon, that is the native words and loanwords from Greek and Latin.&quot;}}&lt;/ref&gt; in the treatment of both native words and loanwords provide evidence that the split into the northern and the southern dialects occurred after [[Christianisation]] of the region (4th century AD),&lt;ref name=&quot;Adams1997&quot;&gt;{{cite book|author=Douglas Q. Adams|title=Encyclopedia of Indo-European Culture|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=tzU3RIV2BWIC&amp;pg=PA11|date=January 1997|publisher=Taylor &amp; Francis|isbn=978-1-884964-98-5|pages=9, 11|quote=The Greek and Latin loans have undergone most of the far-reaching phonological changes which have so altered the shape of inherited IE words while Slavic and Turkish words do not show these changes. Thus Albanian must have acquired much of its present form by the time Slavs entered into the Balkans in the fifth and sixth centuries AD [middle of p. 11] [...] The loan words from Greek and Latin date back to before the Christian era [p. 9] [...] Even very common words such as ''mik'' ʻfriendʼ (&lt; Lat ''amicus'') or ''këndoj'' ʻI sing; readʼ (&lt; Lat ''cantāre'') come from Latin and attest to a widespread intermingling of pre-Albanian and Balkan Latin speakers during the Roman period, roughly from the second century BC to the fifth century AD. [before middle of p. 11]}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;Fortson2010–448&quot;&gt;{{harvnb|Fortson|2010|p=448}}: &quot;The dialectal split into Geg and Tosk happened sometime after the region became Christianized in the fourth century AD: Christian Latin loanwords show Tosk rhotacism, such as Tosk ''murgu'' 'monk' (Geg ''mungu'') from Lat. ''monachus''.&quot;&lt;/ref&gt; and most likely not later than the 6th century AD,&lt;ref&gt;{{harvnb|Demiraj|2010|pp=77–78}}&lt;/ref&gt;{{sfn|Rusakov|2017|p=559}}&lt;ref&gt;{{harvnb|Demiraj|2006|pp=102–103}}: {{blockquote|&quot;...such sporadic analogical cases do not reverse the generally acknowledged conclusion that this dialectal peculiarity as a phonetic process has appeared in pre-Slavic period of Albanian and is relatively more ancient than the rhotacism. It has most probably appeared not later than the V-VI centuries A.D.&quot;}}&lt;/ref&gt; hence possibly occupying roughly their present area divided by the Shkumbin river since the Post-Roman and Pre-Slavic period, straddling the [[Jireček Line]].&lt;ref&gt;See also Hamp 1963 ''The isogloss is clear in all dialects I have studied, which embrace nearly all types possible. It must be relatively old, that is, dating back into the post-Roman first millennium. As a guess, it seems possible that this isogloss reflects a spread of the speech area, after the settlement of the Albanians in roughly their present location, so that the speech area straddled the Jireček Line.''&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{harvnb|Demiraj|2006|p=103}}: {{blockquote|&quot;And, as it was pointed out in §3, since the dialectal differentiations have appeared in a certain geographical area, one is entitled to draw the conclusion that the speakers of the northern and southern dialects have been present in their actual areas in the Post-Roman and Pre-Slavic period of Albanian.&quot;}}&lt;/ref&gt; Centuries-old communities speaking Albanian dialects can be found scattered in [[Greece]] (the [[Arvanites]] and some communities in [[Epirus (region)|Epirus]], [[Western Macedonia]] and [[Albanian-speakers of Western Thrace|Western Thrace]]),&lt;ref name=Euromosaic&gt;{{cite web|url=http://www.uoc.edu/euromosaic/web/document/albanes/fr/i2/i2.html|title=L'arvanite/albanais en Grèce|access-date=5 December 2016|author=Euromosaic project|year=2006|publisher=[[European Commission]]|location=Brussels|language=fr}}&lt;/ref&gt; [[Croatia]] (the [[Arbanasi people|Arbanasi]]), [[Italy]] (the [[Arbëreshë people|Arbëreshë]])&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|url=http://www.minorityrights.org/1617/italy/albanians.html|title=Albanians in Italy|access-date=2 January 2012|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120121173237/http://www.minorityrights.org/1617/italy/albanians.html|archive-date=21 January 2012}}&lt;/ref&gt; as well as in [[Albanians of Romania|Romania]], [[Albanians of Turkey|Turkey]] and [[Albanians in Ukraine|Ukraine]].&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|url=http://www.albanianlanguage.net/|title=Robert Elsie|publisher=The Albanian Language|date=25 November 1972|access-date=17 January 2017}}&lt;/ref&gt; The [[Gheg Albanian#Malsia Albanian|Malsia e Madhe Gheg Albanian]]&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Dedvukaj|first1=Lindon|last2=Ndoci|first2=Rexhina|title=Linguistic variation within the Northwestern Gheg Albanian dialect|journal=Proceedings of the Linguistic Society of America|publisher=[[Linguistic Society of America]]|doi=10.3765/plsa.v8i1.5501|volume=8|number=1|year=2023|page=5501 |doi-access=free}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Dedvukaj|first1=Lindon|last2=Gehringer|first2=Patrick|title=Morphological and phonological origins of Albanian nasals and its parallels with other laws|journal=Proceedings of the Linguistic Society of America|publisher=[[Linguistic Society of America]]|doi=10.3765/plsa.v8i1.5508|volume=8|number=1|year=2023|page=5508 |doi-access=free}}&lt;/ref&gt; and two varieties of the Tosk dialect, [[Arvanitika]] in Greece and [[Arbëresh language|Arbëresh]] in southern Italy, have preserved archaic elements of the language.&lt;ref&gt;{{harvnb|Demiraj|Esposito|2009|p=[https://archive.org/details/conciseencyclope00brow_869/page/n59 23]}}.&lt;/ref&gt; [[Ethnic Albanians]] constitute a large [[diaspora]], with many having long assimilated in different cultures and communities. Consequently, Albanian-speakers do not correspond to the total ethnic Albanian population, as many ethnic Albanians may identify as Albanian but are unable to speak the language.&lt;ref&gt;Mai, Nicola. &quot;The Albanian diaspora-in-the-making: media, migration and social exclusion.&quot; Journal of Ethnic and Migration Studies 31, no. 3 (2005): 543–561.&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;de Rapper, Gilles. &quot;Albanians facing the Ottoman past: the case of the Albanian diaspora in Turkey.&quot; (2005).&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;Gkaintartzi, Anastasia, Aspasia Chatzidaki, and Roula Tsokalidou. &quot;Albanian parents and the Greek educational context: Who is willing to fight for the home language?.&quot; International Multilingual Research Journal 8, no. 4 (2014): 291–308.&lt;/ref&gt; [[Standard Albanian]] is a standardised form of spoken Albanian based on [[Tosk Albanian|Tosk]]. ==Geographic distribution== {{Main|Albanians}} [[File:Recognized Albanian Language Map.png|thumb|Map of countries where Albanian holds official status: {{legend|#ff0000|Official language}} {{legend|#ff8080|Recognised minority language}}]] The language is spoken by approximately 6 million people in the Balkans, primarily in Albania, [[Kosovo]], [[North Macedonia]], [[Serbia]], [[Montenegro]] and [[Greece]].{{sfn|Rusakov|2017|p=552}} However, due to old communities in [[Italy]] and the large [[Albanian diaspora]], the worldwide total of speakers is much higher than in [[Southern Europe]] and numbers approximately 7.5 million.{{sfn|Rusakov|2017|p=552}}&lt;ref name=&quot;KlBrFr1800&quot;&gt;{{cite book|last1=Klein|first1=Jared|last2=Brian|first2=Joseph|last3=Fritz|first3=Matthias|title=Handbook of Comparative and Historical Indo-European Linguistics|year=2018|publisher=Walter de Gruyter|isbn=9783110542431|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=SuR8DwAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PA1800|pages=1800}}&lt;/ref&gt; ===Europe=== The Albanian language is the official language of [[Albania]] and [[Kosovo]] and a co-official language in [[North Macedonia]] and [[Montenegro]].&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|orig-date=September 2020|title=Constitution of the Republic of Kosovo (with amendments I-XXVI)|url=https://guides.loc.gov/law-kosovo/constitution|website=[[Library of Congress]]|quote=Article 5 [Languages] 1. The official languages in the Republic of Kosovo are Albanian and Serbian.{{nbsp}}...}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite book|last1=Trandafili|first1=Evis|last2=Meçe|first2=Elinda Kajo|last3=Duka|first3=Enea|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=li3KDwAAQBAJ|title=Complex Pattern Mining: New Challenges, Methods and Applications|date=2020|publisher=[[Springer Nature]]|isbn=978-3-030-36617-9|page=89|language=en|quote=It [Albanian] is the official language of Albania, the co-official language of Kosovo, and the co-official language of many western municipalities of the Republic of Macedonia. Albanian is also spoken widely in some areas in Greece, southern Montenegro, southern Serbia, and in some towns in southern Italy and Sicily.|editor-last=Appice|editor-first=Annalisa|editor-last2=Ceci|editor-first2=Michelangelo|editor-last3=Loglisci|editor-first3=Corrado|editor-last4=Manco|editor-first4=Giuseppe|editor-last5=Masciari|editor-first5=Elio|editor-last6=Ras|editor-first6=Zbigniew W.}}&lt;/ref&gt; Albanian is a recognised minority language in [[Croatia]], [[Italy]], [[Romania]] and in [[Serbia]]. Albanian is also spoken by a [[Albanian communities in Greece|minority in Greece]], specifically in the [[Thesprotia]] and [[Preveza (regional unit)|Preveza]] regional units and in a few villages in [[Ioannina (regional unit)|Ioannina]] and [[Florina (regional unit)|Florina]] regional units in Greece.&lt;ref name=&quot;Euromosaic&quot; /&gt; It is also spoken by 450,000 Albanian immigrants in Greece, making it one of the commonly spoken languages in the country after Greek. Albanian is the third most common mother tongue among foreign residents in [[Italy]].&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|title=Linguistic diversity among foreign citizens in Italy|url=http://www.istat.it/en/archive/129304|publisher=Statistics of Italy|access-date=1 April 2015|date=25 July 2014}}&lt;/ref&gt; This is due to a substantial Albanian immigration to Italy. Italy has a historical Albanian minority of about 500,000, scattered across southern Italy, known as [[Arbëreshë people|Arbëreshë]]. Approximately 1 million Albanians from Kosovo are dispersed throughout [[Albanians in Germany|Germany]], [[Albanians in Switzerland|Switzerland]] and [[Austria]]. These are mainly immigrants from Kosovo who migrated during the 1990s. In [[Albanians in Switzerland|Switzerland]], the Albanian language is the [[Languages of Switzerland#Other languages|sixth most spoken language]] with 176,293 native speakers. Albanian became an official language in North Macedonia on 15 January 2019.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite news|url=https://www.rferl.org/a/macedonia-s-albanian-language-bill-becomes-law/29711502.html|title=Macedonia's Albanian-Language Bill Becomes Law| newspaper=Radio Free Europe/Radio Liberty| date=15 January 2019}}&lt;/ref&gt; ===Americas=== There are large numbers of Albanian speakers in the United States, Argentina, Chile, Uruguay, and [[Albanian Canadians|Canada]]. Some of the first ethnic Albanians to arrive in the United States were the Arbëreshë. The Arbëreshë have a strong sense of identity and are unique in that they speak an archaic dialect of [[Tosk Albanian]] called [[Arbëresh language|Arbëresh]]. In the United States and Canada, there are approximately 250,000 [[Albanian Americans|Albanian]] speakers. It is primarily spoken on the East Coast of the United States, in cities like New York City, Boston, Chicago, Philadelphia, and Detroit, as well as in parts of the states of New Jersey, Ohio, and Connecticut.{{citation needed|date=July 2015}} In Argentina, there are nearly [[Argentina#Languages|40,000 Albanian speakers]], mostly in Buenos Aires.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|url=http://edoc.bibliothek.uni-halle.de/servlets/MCRFileNodeServlet/HALCoRe_derivate_00003672/Albanianmigration.pdf|title=Albanian migration|access-date=9 July 2016|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160916221528/http://edoc.bibliothek.uni-halle.de/servlets/MCRFileNodeServlet/HALCoRe_derivate_00003672/Albanianmigration.pdf|archive-date=16 September 2016}}&lt;/ref&gt;{{request quotation|date=April 2022}} ===Asia and Africa=== Approximately 1.3 million people of Albanian ancestry live in [[Turkey]], with more than 500,000 recognizing their ancestry, language and [[Culture of Albania|culture]]. There are other estimates, however, that place the number of people in Turkey with Albanian ancestry and or background upward to 5 million. However, the vast majority of this population is [[Language shift|assimilated]] and no longer possesses fluency in the Albanian language, though a vibrant Albanian community maintains its distinct identity in [[Istanbul]] to this day. [[Egypt]] also lays claim to about 18,000 Albanians, mostly [[Tosk]] speakers.&lt;ref name=&quot;Saunders98&quot;&gt;{{cite book|last=Saunders|first=Robert A.|title=Ethnopolitics in Cyberspace: The Internet, Minority Nationalism, and the Web of Identity|year=2011|location=Lanham|publisher=Lexington Books|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=vM5hZEsdz94C&amp;pg=PA98|isbn=9780739141946|page=98|quote= &quot;In addition to the recent emigrants, there are older diasporic communities around the world. There are upwards of 5 million ethnic Albanians in the Turkish Republic; however, the vast majority of this population is assimilated and no longer possesses fluency in the language, though a vibrant Albanian community maintains its distinct identity in Istanbul to this day. Egypt also lays claim to some 18,000 Albanians, supposedly lingering remnants of Mohammad Ali's army.&quot;}}&lt;/ref&gt; Many are descendants of the [[Janissary]] of [[Muhammad Ali of Egypt|Muhammad Ali Pasha]], an Albanian who became [[Wāli]], and self-declared [[Khedive]] of Egypt and [[Sudan]]. In addition to the [[Muhammad Ali dynasty|dynasty]] that he established, a large part of the former Egyptian and Sudanese [[aristocracy]] was of Albanian origin. In addition to the recent emigrants, there are older diasporic communities around the world. ===Oceania=== Albanian is also spoken by Albanian diaspora communities residing in [[Australia]] and [[New Zealand]]. == Dialects == {{Main|Albanian dialects}}[[File:Albanian-dialects.svg|thumb|The dialects of the Albanian language|574x574px]]{{tree list}} * '''Albanian''' ** [[Tosk Albanian|Tosk]] *** Northern Tosk *** [[Labërisht]] *** [[Cham Albanian dialect|Cham]] *** [[Arvanitika]] *** [[Arbëresh language|Arbëresh]] ** [[Gheg Albanian|Gheg]] *** Northwest Gheg *** Northeast Gheg *** Central Gheg *** Southern Gheg {{tree list/end|style=}} The Albanian language has two distinct dialects, [[Tosk Albanian|Tosk]] which is spoken in the south, and [[Gheg Albanian|Gheg]] spoken in the north.&lt;ref&gt;Gjinari, Jorgji. Dialektologjia shqiptare&lt;/ref&gt; Standard Albanian is based on the Tosk dialect. The [[Shkumbin River]] is the rough dividing line between the two dialects.&lt;ref name=brown23&gt;''The river Shkumbin in central Albania historically forms the boundary between those two dialects, with the population on the north speaking varieties of Geg and the population on the south varieties of Tosk.'' (page 23) [https://books.google.com/books?id=F2SRqDzB50wC&amp;pg=PA23 Concise Encyclopedia of Languages of the World] By Keith Brown, Sarah Ogilvie Contributor Keith Brown, Sarah Ogilvie Edition: illustrated Published by Elsevier, 2008 {{ISBN|0-08-087774-5}}, {{ISBN|978-0-08-087774-7}}&lt;/ref&gt; [[Gheg Albanian|Gheg]] is divided into four sub-dialects: Northwest Gheg, Northeast Gheg, Central Gheg and Southern Gheg. It is primarily spoken in northern Albania, [[Kosovo]], and throughout [[Albanians in Montenegro|Montenegro]] and northwestern [[Albanians in Macedonia|North Macedonia]]. One fairly divergent dialect is the [[Upper Reka Albanian dialect|Upper Reka dialect]], which is however classified as Central Gheg. There is also a diaspora dialect in [[Croatia]], the [[Arbanasi dialect]]. [[Tosk Albanian|Tosk]] is divided into five sub-dialects, including Northern Tosk (the most numerous in speakers), [[Labërisht]], [[Cham Albanian dialect|Cham]], [[Arvanitika]], and [[Arbëresh language|Arbëresh]]. Tosk is spoken in southern Albania, southwestern North Macedonia and northern and southern Greece. Cham Albanian is spoken in North-western Greece,&lt;ref name=&quot;Prendergast 2017 87&quot;&gt;{{cite thesis|last=Prendergast|first=Eric|date=2017|title=The Origin and Spread of Locative Determiner Omission in the Balkan Linguistic Area|type=Ph.D|publisher=University of California Berkeley|url=https://escholarship.org/uc/item/7nk454x6|page=87}}&lt;/ref&gt; while [[Arvanitika language|Arvanitika]] is spoken by the [[Arvanites]] in southern Greece. In addition, [[Arbëresh language|Arbëresh]] is spoken by the [[Arbëreshë people|Arbëreshë]] people, descendants of 15th and 16th century migrants who settled in southeastern Italy, in small communities in the regions of [[Sicily]] and [[Calabria]].&lt;ref&gt;The Italo-Albanian villages of southern Italy Issue 25 of Foreign field research program, report, National Research Council (U.S.) Division of Earth Sciences Volume 1149 of Publication (National Research Council (U.S.)) Foreign field research program, sponsored by Office of Naval research, report; no.25 Issue 25 of Report, National Research Council (U.S.). Division of Earth Sciences Volume 1149 of (National Academy of Sciences. National Research Council. Publication) Author George Nicholas Nasse Publisher National Academy of Sciences-National Research Council, 1964 page 24-25 link&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=VjArAAAAYAAJ&amp;dq=reres+demetrio&amp;pg=PA24|title=The Italo-Albanian Villages of Southern Italy|isbn=9780598204004|last1=Nasse|first1=George Nicholas|year=1964| publisher=National Academy of Sciences-National Research Council}}&lt;/ref&gt; These settlements originated from the (Arvanites) communities probably of Peloponnese known as Morea in the Middle Ages. Among them the Arvanites call themselves Arbëror and sometime Arbëresh. The Arbëresh dialect is closely related to the Arvanites dialect with more Italian vocabulary absorbed during different periods of time. == Orthography == {{Main|Albanian alphabet|Albanian braille}} [[File:Albanian keyboard layout.jpg|thumb|upright=0.9|Albanian [[keyboard layout]].]] The Albanian language has been written using many alphabets since the earliest records from the 15th century. The history of Albanian language orthography is closely related to the cultural orientation and knowledge of certain foreign languages among Albanian writers.{{sfn|Lloshi|2008|p=12}} The earliest written Albanian records come from the Gheg area in makeshift spellings based on Italian or Greek. Originally, the Tosk dialect was written in the [[Greek alphabet]] and the Gheg dialect was written in the [[Latin script]]. Both dialects had also been written in the [[Ottoman Turkish language|Ottoman Turkish]] version of the [[Arabic script]], [[Cyrillic script|Cyrillic]], and some local alphabets ([[Elbasan alphabet|Elbasan]], [[Vithkuqi alphabet|Vithkuqi]], [[Todhri alphabet|Todhri]], Veso Bey, Jan Vellara and others, see [[Albanian alphabet#Original alphabets|original Albanian alphabets]]). More specifically, the writers from northern Albania and under the influence of the Catholic Church used Latin letters, those in southern Albania and under the influence of the Greek Orthodox church used Greek letters, while others throughout Albania and under the influence of Islam used Arabic letters. There were initial attempts to create an original Albanian alphabet during the 1750–1850 period. These attempts intensified after the [[League of Prizren]] and culminated with the [[Congress of Manastir]] held by Albanian intellectuals from 14 to 22 November 1908, in Manastir (present day [[Bitola]]), which decided on which alphabet to use, and what the standardised spelling would be for standard Albanian. This is how the literary language remains. The alphabet is the Latin alphabet with the addition of the letters {{angbr|{{lang|sq|[[ë]]}}}}, {{angbr|{{lang|sq|[[ç]]}}}}, and ten [[Digraph (orthography)|digraphs]]: {{lang|sq|dh}}, {{lang|sq|th}}, {{lang|sq|xh}}, {{lang|sq|gj}}, {{lang|sq|nj}}, {{lang|sq|ng}}, {{lang|sq|ll}}, {{lang|sq|rr}}, {{lang|sq|zh}} and {{lang|sq|sh}}. According to [[Robert Elsie]]:&lt;ref name=Elsie2017&gt;Elsie, Robert. (2017). ''Albanian Alphabets: Borrowed and Invented''. London, UK: CreateSpace Independent Publishing Platform. {{ISBN|9781544294094}}.&lt;/ref&gt; {{blockquote|The hundred years between 1750 and 1850 were an age of astounding orthographic diversity in Albania. In this period, the Albanian language was put to writing in at least ten different alphabets – most certainly a record for European languages. ... the diverse forms in which this old Balkan language was recorded, from the earliest documents to the beginning of the twentieth century ... consist of adaptations of the Latin, Greek, Arabic, and Cyrillic alphabets and (what is even more interesting) a number of locally invented writing systems. Most of the latter alphabets have now been forgotten and are unknown, even to the Albanians themselves.}} == Classification == [[File:IndoEuropeanLanguageFamilyRelationsChart.jpg|thumb|upright=1.8|Albanian within Indo-European language family tree based on &quot;Ancestry-constrained phylogenetic analysis of Indo-European languages&quot; by Chang et al. (January 2015).&lt;ref name=chang&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Chang|first1=Will|last2=Chundra|first2=Cathcart|date=January 2015|title=Ancestry-constrained phylogenetic analysis supports the Indo-European steppe hypothesis|url=https://www.linguisticsociety.org/sites/default/files/news/ChangEtAlPreprint.pdf|journal=Language|volume=91|issue=1|pages=194–244|doi=10.1353/lan.2015.0005|s2cid=143978664|access-date=30 September 2020}}&lt;/ref&gt;]] Albanian constitutes one of the eleven major branches of the [[Indo-European language family]],&lt;ref name=&quot;Schumacher2020&quot;/&gt; within which it occupies an independent position.&lt;ref&gt;{{harvnb|Fortson|2010|p=446}}: &quot;Albanian forms its own separate branch of Indo-European; it is the last branch to appear in written records.&quot;&lt;/ref&gt; In 1854, Albanian was demonstrated to be an [[Indo-European languages|Indo-European language]] by the [[Comparative linguistics|philologist]] [[Franz Bopp]]. Albanian was formerly compared by a few Indo-European linguists with [[Germanic languages|Germanic]] and [[Balto-Slavic languages|Balto-Slavic]], all of which share a number of [[isogloss]]es with Albanian.&lt;ref&gt;Watkins, Calvert. &quot;Proto-Indo-European: Comparison and Reconstruction&quot;, in The Indo-European Languages, [[Anna Giacalone Ramat]] and Paolo Ramat, eds. London: Routledge, 1998.&lt;/ref&gt; Other linguists linked the Albanian language with [[Latin Language|Latin]], [[Greek language|Greek]] and [[Armenian language|Armenian]], while placing Germanic and Balto-Slavic in another branch of Indo-European.&lt;ref name=mallory&gt;[https://books.google.com/books?id=yfZZX1qjpvkC Google Books], [[J. P. Mallory|Mallory, J. P.]] and Adams, D. Q.: The Oxford Introduction to Proto-Indo-European and the Proto-Indo-European World&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=holm&gt;[http://www.hjholm.de/SLRD.pdf JHholm.de] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171011121308/http://www.hjholm.de/SLRD.pdf|date=11 October 2017}}, Holm, Hans J.: The Distribution of Data in Word Lists and its Impact on the Subgrouping of Languages. In: Christine Preisach, Hans Burkhardt, Lars Schmidt-Thieme, Reinhold Decker (eds.): Data Analysis, Machine Learning, and Applications. Proc. of the 31st Annual Conference of the German Classification Society (GfKl), University of Freiburg, 7–9 March 2007. Springer-Verlag, Heidelberg-Berlin&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=holm2&gt;[http://www.hjholm.de/ HJholm.de] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190905220636/http://www.hjholm.de/|date=5 September 2019}} A possible Homeland of the Indo-European Languages And their Migrations in the Light of the Separation Level Recovery (SLRD) Method&amp;nbsp;– Hans J. Holm&lt;/ref&gt; In current scholarship there is evidence that Albanian is closely related to Greek and Armenian, while the fact that it is a [[satem language|satem]] language is less significant.&lt;ref name=&quot;Schumacher2020&quot;/&gt; {{cladogram |caption = Albanian in the Palaeo-Balkanic Indo-European branch based on the chapters &quot;Albanian&quot; ({{harvnb|Hyllested|Joseph|2022}}) and &quot;Armenian&quot; ({{harvnb|Olsen|Thorsø|2022}}) in Olander (ed.) ''The Indo-European Language Family'' |cladogram = {{clade | label1 = [[Paleo-Balkan languages#Balkanic Indo-european|Balkanic]] | 1 = {{clade | 1 = [[Armenian language|Armenian]] | label2 = [[Graeco-Albanian]] | 2 = {{clade | label1 = [[Graeco-Phrygian]] | 1 = {{clade | 1 = [[Greek language|Greek]] | 2 = [[Phrygian language|Phrygian]]&lt;br&gt;&lt;small&gt;(extinct)&lt;/small&gt; }} | label2 = [[Albanoid|Illyric]] | 2 = {{clade | 1 = [[Messapic language|Messapic]]&lt;br&gt;&lt;small&gt;(extinct)&lt;/small&gt; | label2 = '''Albanian''' | 2 = {{clade | 1 = [[Gheg Albanian|Gheg]] | 2 = [[Tosk Albanian|Tosk]] }} }} }} }} }} }} [[Messapic language|Messapic]] is considered the closest language to Albanian,{{sfn|Hyllested|Joseph|2022|p=235}}{{sfn|Trumper|2018|p=385}}{{sfn|Friedman|2020|p=388}} grouped in a common branch titled ''Illyric'' in Hyllested &amp; Joseph (2022).{{sfn|Hyllested|Joseph|2022|p=235}} Hyllested &amp; Joseph (2022) in agreement with recent bibliography identify Greco-Phrygian as the IE branch closest to the Albanian-Messapic one. These two branches form an areal grouping – which is often called &quot;Balkan IE&quot; – with Armenian. The hypothesis of the &quot;[[Paleo-Balkan languages|Balkan Indo-European]]&quot; continuum posits a common period of prehistoric coexistence of several Indo-European dialects in the [[Balkans]] prior to 2000 BC. To this group would belong Albanian, [[Ancient Greek]], [[Armenian language|Armenian]], [[Phrygian language|Phrygian]], fragmentary attested languages such as [[Ancient Macedonian language|Macedonian]], [[Thracian language|Thracian]], or [[Illyrian language|Illyrian]], and the relatively well-attested [[Messapic language|Messapic]] in Southern Italy. The common features of this group appear at the phonological, morphological, and lexical levels, presumably resulting from the contact between the various languages. The concept of this linguistic group is explained as a kind of language league of the [[Bronze Age]] (a specific [[Sprachbund|areal-linguistics]] phenomenon), although it also consisted of languages that were related to each other.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal|last=Sowa|first=Wojciech|title=Thracian ''Tracio''|journal=Palaeohispanica|issn=1578-5386|doi=10.36707/palaeohispanica.v0i20.377|year=2020|pages=810–811|doi-access=free}}&lt;/ref&gt; A common prestage posterior to [[Proto-Indo-European language|PIE]] comprising Albanian, Greek, and Armenian, is considered as a possible scenario. In this light, due to the larger number of possible shared innovations between Greek and Armenian, it appears reasonable to assume, at least tentatively, that Albanian was the first Balkan IE language to branch off. This split and the following ones were perhaps very close in time, allowing only a narrow time frame for shared innovations.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book|last=Thorsø|first=Rasmus|chapter=Two Balkan Indo-European Loanwords|title=Dispersals and Diversification: Linguistic and Archaeological Perspectives on the Early Stages of Indo-European|editor1=Matilde Serangeli|editor2=Thomas Olander|volume=19|series=Brill's Studies in Indo-European Languages &amp; Linguistics|publisher=Brill|year=2019|isbn=9789004416192|pages=251–262|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=DHnEDwAAQBAJ}}&lt;/ref&gt; Albanian represents one of the core languages of the [[Balkan sprachbund|Balkan ''Sprachbund'']].&lt;ref name=&quot;Schumacher2020&quot;&gt;{{cite book|first=Stefan|last=Schumacher|title=Perfects in Indo-European Languages and Beyond|date=2020|publisher=John Benjamins Publishing Company|isbn=978-90-272-6090-1|language=en|chapter=The perfect system of Old Albanian (Geg variety)|editor1=Robert Crellin|editor2=Thomas Jügel|volume=352|series=Current Issues in Linguistic Theory|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=2Zz6DwAAQBAJ}}&lt;/ref&gt; Glottolog and Ethnologue recognize four Albanian languages. They are classified as follows:&lt;ref&gt;{{glottolog|alba1267|Albanian}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://www.ethnologue.com/subgroups/albanian|title=Albanian|website=[[Ethnologue]]|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220408170013/https://www.ethnologue.com/subgroups/albanian|archive-date=2022-04-08|url-status=live|publisher=[[SIL International]]|year=2022|editor-last=Eberhard|editor-first=David M.|editor2-last=Simons|editor2-first=Gary F.|editor3-last=Fennig|editor3-first=Charles D.|edition=25th|url-access=subscription}}&lt;/ref&gt; {{Tree list}} * Indo-European ** Albanian *** Tosk **** '''Northern Tosk Albanian''' **** Southern Tosk ***** '''Arbëreshë Albanian''' ***** '''Arvanitika Albanian''' *** '''Gheg Albanian''' {{Tree list/end}} == History == {{Further|Proto-Albanian language|Albanoid|Paleo-Balkan languages|l1=Proto-Albanian|l2=Albanoid|l3=Palaeo Balkan languages}} === Historical documentation === The first attested written mention of the Albanian language was on 14 July 1284 in [[Republic of Ragusa|Ragusa]] in modern [[Croatia]] ([[Dubrovnik]]) when a crime witness named Matthew testified: &quot;I heard a voice crying on the mountain in the Albanian language&quot; ({{langx|la|Audivi unam vocem, clamantem in monte in lingua albanesca}}).&lt;ref name=&quot;Hammond1976&quot;&gt;{{cite book|author=Nicholas Geoffrey Lemprière Hammond|title=Migrations and invasions in Greece and adjacent areas|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=O9saAAAAYAAJ|year=1976|publisher=Noyes Press|isbn=978-0-8155-5047-1|page=57}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;Zeitschrift für Balkanologie&quot;&gt;{{cite book|title=Zeitschrift für Balkanologie|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=iLkWAQAAMAAJ|year=1990|publisher=R. Trofenik|page=102}}&lt;/ref&gt; The Albanian language is also mentioned in the ''[[Descriptio Europae Orientalis]]''&lt;ref&gt;Tibor Živković, Vladeta Petrović, Aleksandar Uzelac, Dragana Kunčer: Anonymi Descriptio Europae Orientalis : Anonimov opis istočne Evrope. January 2013. Edition: Izvori za srpsku istoriju. Publisher: Istorijski institut. Editor: Srđan Rudić. {{ISBN|978-86-7743-102-0}}&lt;/ref&gt; dated in 1308:&lt;blockquote&gt;''{{lang|la|Habent enim Albani prefati linguam distinctam a Latinis, Grecis et Sclauis ita quod in nullo se intelligunt cum aliis nationibus.}}'' (Namely, the above-mentioned Albanians have a language that is different from the languages of Latins, Greeks and Slavs, so that they do not understand each other at all.)&lt;/blockquote&gt;The oldest attested document written in Albanian dates to 1462,&lt;ref name=&quot;Fortson2010–446&quot;&gt;{{harvnb|Fortson|2010|p=446}}&lt;/ref&gt; while the first audio recording in the language was made by [[Norbert Jokl]] on 4 April 1914 in [[Vienna]].&lt;ref name=&quot;Elsie2010&quot;&gt;{{cite book|author =Robert Elsie|author-link=Robert Elsie|title=Historical Dictionary of Albania|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=6inIiCF_930C&amp;pg=PA216|year=2010|publisher=Rowman &amp; Littlefield|isbn=978-0-8108-6188-6|page=216}}&lt;/ref&gt; However, as Fortson notes, Albanian written works existed before this point; they have simply been lost. The existence of written Albanian is explicitly mentioned in a letter attested from 1332, and the first preserved books, including both those in Gheg and in Tosk, share orthographic features that indicate that some form of common literary language had developed.&lt;ref&gt;{{harvnb|Fortson|2010|pp=447–448}}: &quot;But it is likely that there were earlier works which have vanished. The earliest preserved books both in Geg and in Tosk share features of spelling that point to some kind of common literary language having already developed, and a letter written by a Dominican friar named Gulielmus Adea in 1332 says that the inhabitants of Albania had a language very different from Latin but used the Latin alphabet in their writings, suggesting (if not proving) an already–existing written Albanian tradition.&quot;&lt;/ref&gt; By the [[Late Middle Ages]], during the period of [[Humanism]] and the [[European Renaissance]], the term {{lang|it|lingua epirotica}} {{gloss|Epirotan language}} was preferred in the intellectual, literary, and clerical circles of the time, and used as a synonym for the Albanian language.{{sfn|Demiraj|2012|pp=132–133}} Published in Rome in 1635, by the Albanian bishop and writer Frang Bardhi, the first dictionary of the Albanian language was titled {{langx|la|Dictionarium latino-epiroticum}} {{gloss|Latin-Epirotan dictionary}}.{{sfn|Bihiku|1980|pp=14–15}}&lt;ref name=&quot;Bartl&quot;&gt;{{Cite book|last=Bartl|first=Peter|title=Albanien: vom Mittelalter bis zur Gegenwart|publisher=Pustet|year=1995|isbn=9783791714516|location=Michigan|pages=86|language=De}}&lt;/ref&gt; During the five-century period of the [[Ottoman Albania|Ottoman presence]] in [[Albania]], the language was not officially recognised until 1909, when the [[Congress of Dibra]] decided that Albanian schools would finally be allowed.{{Citation needed|date=January 2024|reason=The previous footnote here was about a celebration of the Congress of Dibra, but didn't say anything about what happened at the Congress; also, it's not really a WP:RS.}} === Linguistic affinities === {{See also|Illyrian language}} Albanian is an [[language isolate|isolate]] within the Indo-European language family; no other language has been conclusively linked to its [[language family#Subdivision|branch]]. The only other languages that are the sole surviving members of a branch of Indo-European are [[Armenian language|Armenian]] and Greek.&lt;ref name=Prltsvg-2012&gt;{{cite book|last=Pereltsvaig|first=Asya|author-link=Asya Pereltsvaig|year=2012|chapter=Indo-European languages|title=Languages of the World: An introduction|publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]]|isbn=978-1-107-37791-2|pages=30–31|language=en|chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=R5ogAwAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PA31}}&lt;/ref&gt;{{efn| &quot;... in Figure&amp;nbsp;2.1 are listed three subfamilies which contain only one language each: the Albanian, Hellenic, and Armenian subfamilies. These three languages – Albanian, Greek, and Armenian – are isolates within the Indo-European family showing no closer connection to any other Indo-European languages or to each other.&quot; — Pereltsvaig (2012) pp. 30–31&lt;ref name=Prltsvg-2012/&gt; }} The Albanian language is part of the [[Indo-European languages|Indo-European]] [[language family]] and the only surviving representative of [[Albanoid|its own branch]], which belongs to the [[Paleo-Balkan languages|Paleo-Balkan group]].{{sfn|Sowa|2020|pp=810–811}}{{sfn|Hyllested|Joseph|2022|p=235}}&lt;ref name=fine10-11&gt;{{cite book|last=Fine|first=J.A.|year=1991|title=The Early Medieval Balkans|publisher=University of Michigan Press|pages=10–11|isbn=9780472081493|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=YbS9QmwDC58C|via=Google Books}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;In his latest book, [[Eric Hamp]] supports the thesis that the Illyrian language belongs to the Northwestern group, that the Albanian language is descended from Illyrian, and that Albanian is related to Messapic which is an earlier Illyrian dialect (''Comparative Studies on Albanian'', 2007).&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book|first=Roger D.|last=Woodard|year=2008|title=The Ancient Languages of Europe|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=9780521684958|url=https://archive.org/details/ancientlanguages00roge|url-access=registration|quote=The modern Albanian language, it has been conjectured, is descendent directly from ancient Illyrian&amp;nbsp;...}}&lt;/ref&gt; Although it is still uncertain which ancient mentioned language of the Balkans it continues, or where in the region its speakers lived.{{efn| &quot;It is generally accepted that Albanians continue one of the ancient languages of the Balkans, although scholars disagree on which language they spoke and what area of the Balkans they occupied before the Slavs' migration to the Balkans.&quot; — Curtis (2011) p. 16&lt;ref name=Curtis-2011&gt; {{cite book|last1=Curtis|first1=Matthew Cowan|date=30 November 2011|title=Slavic-Albanian Language Contact, Convergence, and Coexistence|isbn=9781267580337|url=https://eric.ed.gov/?id=ED546136|access-date=31 March 2017|language=en}} &lt;/ref&gt;{{rp|style=ama|p= 16}} }} In general, there is insufficient evidence to connect Albanian with one of those languages, whether [[Illyrian language|Illyrian]], [[Thracian language|Thracian]], or [[Dacian language|Dacian]].{{efn| &quot;So while linguists may debate about the ties between Albanian and older languages of the Balkans, and while most Albanians may take the genealogical connection to Illyrian as incontrovertible, the fact remains that there is simply insufficient evidence to connect Illyrian, Thracian, or Dacian with any language, including Albanian.&quot; — Curtis (2011) p. 18&lt;ref name=Curtis-2011/&gt;{{rp|style=ama|p= 18}} }}Among these possibilities, Illyrian is the most probable.{{efn| &quot;The most probable predecessor of Albanian was Illyrian since much of present-day Albania was inhabited by the Illyrians during the Antiquity, but the comparison of the two languages is impossible because almost nothing is known about Illyrian ... It is a-priori less probable to assume that a single language was spoken in the whole Illyricum, from the river Arsia in Istria, to Epirus in Greece, when such a linguistic uniformity is found nowhere else in Europe before the Roman conquest. Moreover, the examination of personal names and toponyms from Illyricum shows that several onomastic areas can be distinguished, and these onomastic areas just might correspond to different languages spoken in ancient Illyricum. If Illyrians actually spoke several different languages, the question arises: From which ''Illyrian'' language did Albanian develop? – and that question cannot be answered until new data are discovered.&quot; — Ranko (2012)&lt;ref&gt; {{cite news|first=Ranko|last=Matasovic|year=2012|title=A grammatical sketch of Albanian for students of Indo-European}}&lt;/ref&gt;{{page needed|date=July 2023}}{{full citation needed|date=July 2023|reason=Publisher, ISBN, medium (book/magazine/journal/webpage ...) &quot;cite news&quot; seems wrong.}} }} Although Albanian shares lexical [[isogloss]]es with [[Greek language|Greek]], [[Germanic languages|Germanic]], and to a lesser extent [[Balto-Slavic languages|Balto-Slavic]], the vocabulary of Albanian is quite distinct.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|title=Introduction to Albanian|website=lrc.la.utexas.edu|url=https://lrc.la.utexas.edu/eieol/albol|access-date=2023-06-09}}&lt;/ref&gt; In 1995, Taylor, [[Donald Ringe|Ringe]], and [[Tandy Warnow|Warnow]] used [[quantitative comparative linguistics|quantitative linguistic]] techniques that appeared to obtain an Albanian subgrouping with Germanic, a result which the authors had already reasonably downplayed.{{Clarify|reason=What does &quot;reasonably downplayed&quot; mean??|date=January 2024}}&lt;ref name=&quot;TRW&quot;&gt;{{cite conference|first1=Ann|last1=Taylor|first2=Donald|last2=Ringe|author2-link=Donald Ringe|first3=Tandy|last3=Warnow|author3-link=Tandy Warnow|date=August 1995|chapter=Character based reconstruction of a linguistic cladogram|editor1-last=Smith|editor1-first=John Charles|editor2-last=Bentley|editor2-first=Delia|publication-date=2000|conference=12th International Conference on Historical Linguistics|place=Manchester, UK|book-title=Historical Linguistics 1995: Selected papers.|volume=1 – General issues and non-Germanic Languages|publication-place=Amsterdam, NL|publisher=John Benjamins Publishing|page=400|isbn=9027236666|chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=RtsLKLhCZ0EC&amp;q=Character+Based+Reconstruction+of+a+Linguistic+Cladogram+Albanian&amp;pg=PA392}}&lt;/ref&gt;{{sfn|Hyllested|Joseph|2022|p=225}} Indeed, the Albanian and Germanic branches share a relatively moderate number of lexical cognates. Many shared grammatical elements or features of these two branches do not corroborate the lexical isoglosses.{{sfn|Hyllested|Joseph|2022|p=225}} Albanian also shares [[Lexicon|lexical]] linguistic affinity with Latin and Romance languages.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal|last=Vermeer|first=Willem|year=2008|title=The prehistory of the Albanian vowel system: A preliminary exploration|journal=Studies in Slavic and General Linguistics|volume=32|pages=591–608|jstor=40997529 |issn=0169-0124}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal|last=Sampson|first=Rodney|year=1997|title=Rebecca Posner, ''The Romance Languages''. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1996, xvi + 376&amp;nbsp;pp. {{nobr|0 521 28139 3}}|type=book review|journal=Journal of French Language Studies|volume=7|issue=2|pages=227–229|language=en|doi=10.1017/S0959269500003793|s2cid=230472704|issn=1474-0079|url=https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/journal-of-french-language-studies/article/abs/rebecca-posner-the-romance-languages-cambridge-cambridge-university-press-1996-xvi-376-pp-0-521-28139-3/745EC424E67AB30625B74A023ABB9326}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book|last=Posner|first=Rebecca|year=1966|title=The Romance Languages: A linguistic introduction|edition=1st|publisher=Anchor Books|isbn=084460853X|location=United States of America|pages=3|language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt; Sharing linguistic features unique to the [[languages of the Balkans]], Albanian also forms a part of the [[Balkan sprachbund|Balkan linguistic area or ''sprachbund'']].&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal|last=Friedman|first=Victor A.|year=2011|title=The Balkan languages and Balkan linguistics|journal=Annual Review of Anthropology|volume=40|pages=275–291|doi=10.1146/annurev-anthro-081309-145932|jstor=41287733|issn=0084-6570}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal|last=Lindstedt|first=Jouko|year=2000|title=Linguistic balkanization: Contact-induced change by mutual reinforcement|journal=Studies in Slavic and General Linguistics|volume=28|pages=231–246|issn=0169-0124|jstor=40997168}}&lt;/ref&gt; === Historical presence and location === {{Main|Origin of the Albanians}} The place and the time that the Albanian language was formed are uncertain.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal|title=Mythifying the Albanians: A Historiographical Discussion on Vasa Efendi's &quot;Albania and the Albanians&quot;|volume=XIII|issue=1–2|url=https://balkanologie.revues.org/2272|journal=Balkanologie. Revue d'Études Pluridisciplinaires|date=15 December 2011|last1=Bayraktar|first1=Uğur Bahadır|doi=10.4000/balkanologie.2272|doi-access=free}}&lt;/ref&gt; The American linguist [[Eric P. Hamp|Eric Hamp]] has said that during an unknown chronological period a pre-Albanian population (termed as &quot;Albanoid&quot; by Hamp) inhabited areas stretching from [[Poland]] to the southwestern Balkans.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book|last1=Curtis|first1=Matthew Cowan|title=Slavic-Albanian Language Contact, Convergence, and Coexistence|url=https://eric.ed.gov/?id=ED546136|page=17|language=en|quote=...&amp;nbsp;for example, argues that from some indeterminate time a pre-Albanian (in Hamp's terms, Albanoid) population inhabited areas stretching from Poland to the current area|isbn=9781267580337|date=30 November 2011}}&lt;/ref&gt; Further analysis has suggested that it was in a mountainous region rather than on a plain or seacoast. The words for plants and animals characteristic of mountainous regions are entirely original, but the names for fish and for agricultural activities (such as [[plough]]ing) are borrowed from other languages.&lt;ref name=fine10-11/&gt;&lt;ref name=hamp1963&gt;[http://members.tripod.com/~Groznijat/balkan/ehamp.html Tripod.co], Eric Hamp, &quot;The position of Albanian, Ancient IE dialects, Proceedings of the Conference on IE linguistics held at the University of California, Los Angeles, April 25–27, 1963, ed. By Henrik Birnbaum and Jaan Puhvel. &quot;It is clear that in the Middle Ages the Albanians extended farther north (Jokl, Albaner §2); that there are persuasive arguments which have been advanced against their having extended as far as the Adriatic coast—the fact that Scodra 'Scutari' (Shkodër) shows un-Albanian development (see §6 below), that there is no demonstrated old maritime vocabulary (see above), and that there are few ancient Greek loans (Jokl, Albaner §5; but see §5 below)&lt;/ref&gt; A deeper analysis of the vocabulary, however, shows that could be a consequence of a prolonged [[Latin]] domination of the coastal and plain areas of the country, rather than evidence of the original environment in which the Albanian language was formed. For example, the word for 'fish' is borrowed from Latin, but not the word for 'gills' which is native. Indigenous are also the words for 'ship', 'raft', 'navigation', 'sea shelves' and a few names of fish kinds, but not the words for 'sail', 'row' and 'harbor'; objects pertaining to navigation itself and a large part of sea fauna. This rather shows that Proto-Albanians were pushed away from coastal areas in early times (probably after the Latin conquest of the region) and thus lost a large amount (or the majority) of their sea environment lexicon. A similar phenomenon could be observed with agricultural terms. While the words for 'arable land', 'wheat', 'cereals', 'vineyard', 'yoke', 'harvesting', 'cattle breeding', etc. are native, the words for 'ploughing', 'farm' and 'farmer', agricultural practices, and some harvesting tools are foreign. This, again, points to intense contact with other languages and people, rather than providing evidence of a possible [[linguistic homeland]] (also known as a ''Urheimat'').{{citation needed|date=October 2017}} [[File:Revista Albania.jpg|upright=0.95|thumb|1905 issue of the magazine ''Albania'', the most important Albanian periodical of the early 20th century]] The centre of Albanian settlement remained the [[Mat (river)|Mat]] River. In 1079, the Albanians were recorded farther south in the valley of the [[Shkumbin]] River.&lt;ref&gt;Kazhdan, Alexander (Ed.) (1991). Oxford Dictionary of Byzantium. Oxford University Press. pp. 52–53. {{ISBN|978-0-19-504652-6}}.&lt;/ref&gt; The Shkumbin, a 181&amp;nbsp;km long river that lies near the old [[Via Egnatia]], is approximately the boundary of the primary dialect division for Albanian, [[Tosk Albanian|Tosk]] and [[Gheg Albanian|Gheg]]. The characteristics of Tosk and Gheg in the treatment of the native words and loanwords from other languages are evidence that the dialectal split preceded the [[Slavic migrations to the Balkans]],&lt;ref name=&quot;brown23&quot;/&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;Fortson2010–448&quot; /&gt;{{sfn|Mallory|Adams|1997|p=9}} which means that in that period (the 5th to 6th centuries AD), Albanians were occupying nearly the same area around the Shkumbin river, which straddled the [[Jireček Line]].&lt;ref&gt;Demiraj, Shaban. Prejardhja e shqiptarëve në dritën e dëshmive të gjuhës shqipe.(Origin of Albanians through the testimonies of the Albanian language) Shkenca (Tirane) 1999&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=hamp1963/&gt; References to the existence of Albanian as a distinct language survive from the 14th century, but they failed to cite specific words. The oldest surviving documents written in Albanian are the &quot;{{lang|sq|[[formula e pagëzimit]]}}&quot; (Baptismal formula), ''{{lang|sq|Un'te paghesont' pr'emenit t'Atit e t'Birit e t'Spertit Senit}}''. (&quot;I baptize thee in [[Trinitarian formula|the name of the Father, and the Son, and the Holy Spirit]]&quot;) recorded by Pal Engjelli, Bishop of Durrës in 1462 in the Gheg dialect, and some [[New Testament]] verses from that period. The linguists Stefan Schumacher and Joachim Matzinger (University of Vienna) assert that the first literary records of Albanian date from the 16th century.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite book|chapter-url=https://www.academia.edu/32361769|chapter=The development of the PIE middle in Albanian|editor1=Bjarne Simmelkjær Sandgaard Hansen|editor2=Benedicte Nielsen Whitehead|editor3=Thomas Olander|editor4=Birgit Anette Olsen|title=Etymology and the European Lexicon: Proceedings of the 14th Fachtagung der Indogermanischen Gesellschaft, 17–22 September 2012, Copenhagen|location=Wiesbaden|publisher=Reichert|date=2016|first=Stefan|last=Schumacher|via=Academia.edu}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite book|chapter-url=https://www.academia.edu/25120826|title=Word-Formation: An International Handbook of the Languages of Europe|date=2016|publisher=De Gruyter|editor-last=Müller|editor-first=Peter O.|volume=5|location=Berlin, Boston|pages=3124|chapter=171. Albanian|doi=10.1515/9783110424942|editor2-last=Ohnheiser|editor2-first=Ingeborg|editor3-last=Olsen|editor3-first=Susan|editor4-last=Rainer|editor4-first=Franz|isbn=9783110424942}}&lt;/ref&gt; The oldest known Albanian printed book, ''[[Meshari]]'', or &quot;missal&quot;, was written in 1555 by [[Gjon Buzuku]], a [[Roman Catholic]] cleric. In 1635, [[Frang Bardhi]] wrote the first Latin–Albanian dictionary. The first Albanian school is believed to have been opened by [[Franciscans]] in 1638 in {{lang|sq|[[Pdhanë]]}}. One of the earliest Albanian dictionaries was written in 1693; it was the [[Italian language|Italian]] manuscript ''Pratichae Schrivaneschae'' authored by the Montenegrin sea captain [[Julije Balović]] and includes a multilingual dictionary of hundreds of the most frequently used words in everyday life in Italian, Slavic, Greek, Albanian, and [[Turkish language|Turkish]].&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book|last=Pantić|first=Miroslav|title=Književnost na tlu Crne Gore i Boke Kotorske od XVI do XVIII veka|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=G5FiAAAAMAAJ|year=1990|publisher=[[Serbian Literary Guild]]|page=98|isbn=9788637901907}}&lt;/ref&gt; ===Pre-Indo-European substratum=== Pre-Indo-European (PreIE) sites are found throughout the territory of Albania. Such PreIE sites existed in [[Maliq (Albania)|Maliq]], [[Vashtëmi]], [[Burimas]], [[Barç]], [[Dërsnik]] in the [[Korçë District]], [[Kamnik]] in [[Kolonja]], Kolsh in the [[Kukës District]], Rashtan in [[Librazhd]], and Nezir in the [[Mat District]].{{Sfn|Demiraj|2006|pp=42–43}} As in other parts of Europe, these PreIE people joined the migratory Indo-European tribes that entered the Balkans and contributed to the formation of the historical Paleo-Balkan tribes. In terms of linguistics, the pre-Indo-European substrate language spoken in the southern Balkans probably influenced [[Proto-Albanian language|pre-Proto-Albanian]], the ancestor idiom of Albanian.{{Sfn|Demiraj|2006|pp=42–43}} The extent of this linguistic impact cannot be determined with precision due to the uncertain position of Albanian among [[Paleo-Balkan languages]] and their scarce attestation.{{Sfn|Demiraj|2006|pp=44–45}} Some loanwords, however, have been proposed, such as {{lang|sq|shegë}} '[[pomegranate]]' or {{lang|sq|lëpjetë}} '[[Atriplex|orach]]'; compare Pre-Greek {{lang|el|λάπαθον}}, ''lápathon'' '[[Rumex alpinus|monk's rhubarb]]'.{{Sfn|Orel|1998|pp=225, 409}}{{Sfn|Demiraj|2006|pp=42–43}} == Literary tradition == [[File:Buzuku meshari.jpg|thumb|[[Meshari]] of [[Gjon Buzuku]] 1554–1555|334x334px]] === Earliest undisputed texts === The earliest known texts in Albanian: * the {{lang|sq|[[formula e pagëzimit]]}} (Baptismal Formula), which dates back to 1462 and was authored by [[Pal Engjëlli]] (or Paulus Angelus) ({{Circa|1417}}&amp;nbsp;– 1470), Archbishop of [[Durrës]]. Engjëlli was a close friend and counsellor of [[Skanderbeg]].&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book |last1=Newmark |first1=Leonard |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=hqlYbhnII3QC&amp;q=Pal+Engj%C3%ABlli&amp;pg=PA3 |title=Standard Albanian: a reference grammar for students |last2=Hubbard |first2=Philip |last3=Prifti |first3=Peter R. |publisher=Andrew Mellon Foundation |year=1982 |isbn=9780804711296 |page=3 |access-date=2010-05-28}}&lt;/ref&gt; It was written in a pastoral letter for a synod at the Holy Trinity in Mat and read in Latin characters as follows: {{lang|sq|Unte paghesont premenit Atit et Birit et Spertit Senit}} (standard Albanian: {{lang|sq|Unë të pagëzoj në emër të Atit, të Birit e të Shpirtit të Shenjtë}}; English: &quot;I baptise you in the name of the Father and the Son and the Holy Spirit&quot;). It was discovered and published in 1915 by [[Nicolae Iorga]].&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal |author=Francisc Pall |year=1971 |title=Di nuovo sulle biografie scanderbegiane del XVI secolo |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=uvAXAAAAIAAJ&amp;q=paolo+angeli+iorga |journal=Revue des études sud-est européennes |language=fr |publisher=Academia Republicii Socialiste România, Academia Republicii Populare Romîne |volume=9 |issue=1 |page=102 |access-date=2010-05-28}}&lt;/ref&gt; * the {{lang|sq|[[Fjalori i Arnold von Harfit]]}} ([[Arnold Ritter von Harff's lexicon]]), a short list of Albanian phrases with German glosses, dated 1496.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book |last=Anamali |first=Skënder |title=Historia e popullit shqiptar në katër vëllime |publisher=Botimet Toena |year=2002 |volume=I |page=311 |language=sq |oclc=52411919}}&lt;/ref&gt; * a song, recorded in the Greek alphabet, retrieved from an old [[codex]] that was written in Greek. The document is also called {{lang|sq|Perikopeja e Ungjillit të Pashkëve}} or {{lang|sq|Perikopeja e Ungjillit të Shën Mateut}} (&quot;The Song of the Easter Gospel, or &quot;The Song of Saint Matthew's Gospel&quot;). Although the codex is dated to during the 14th century, the song, written in Albanian by an anonymous writer, seems to be a 16th-century writing. The document was found by [[Arbëreshë people|Arbëreshë]] people who had emigrated to Italy in the 15th century.{{sfn|Lloshi|2008|p=97}} * [[File:Perikopi evangjelik.jpg|thumb|243x243px|Perikopeja e Ungjillit të Shën Mateut]][[File:Oldest Surviving Albanian Text.jpg|thumb|Possibly the oldest surviving Albanian text, highlighted in red, from the Bellifortis manuscript, written by Konrad Kyeser around 1402–1405.]]The first book in Albanian is the [[Meshari]] (&quot;The Missal&quot;), written by [[Gjon Buzuku]] between 20 March 1554 and 5 January 1555. The book was written in the [[Gheg]] dialect in the [[Latin script]] with some Slavic letters adapted for Albanian vowels. The book was discovered in 1740 by [[Gjon Nikollë Kazazi]], the Albanian [[archbishop]] of [[Skopje]]. It contains the liturgies of the main [[holiday]]s. There are also texts of prayers and rituals and [[catechism|catechetical]] texts. The grammar and the vocabulary are more archaic than those in the Gheg texts from the 17th century. The 188 pages of the book comprise about 154,000 words with a total vocabulary of c. 1,500 different words. The text is archaic yet easily interpreted because it is mainly a translation of known texts, in particular portions of the [[Bible]]. The book also contains passages from the [[Psalm]]s, the [[Book of Isaiah]], the [[Book of Jeremiah]], the [[First Epistle to the Corinthians|Letters to the Corinthians]], and many illustrations. The uniformity of spelling seems to indicate an earlier tradition of writing. The only known copy of the Meshari is held by the [[Vatican Library|Apostolic Library]].&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |title=Meshari |url=http://www.bksh.al/gsdl/cgi-bin/library.exe?e=d-01000-00---off-0antikuar--00-1--0-10-0---0---0prompt-10---4-------0-1l--11-en-50---20-about---00-3-1-00-0-0-11-1-0utfZz-8-00&amp;a=d&amp;c=antikuar&amp;cl=CL2.3 |access-date=14 May 2010 |publisher=[[National Library of Albania]]}}&lt;/ref&gt; In 1968 the book was published with transliterations and comments by linguists. * The first printed work in Tosk Albanian is the ''Mbsuame e krështerë'' (in Italian: ''Dottrina cristiana'') by Lekë Matrënga or (in Italian) [[Luca Matranga]]. It was published in 1592 and is written in an early form of the [[Arbëresh language]] (also known as Italo-Albanian). Albanian scripts were produced earlier than the first attested document, {{lang|sq|formula e pagëzimit}}, but none yet have been discovered. We know of their existence by earlier references. For example, a French monk signed as &quot;Broccardus&quot; notes, in 1332, that &quot;Although the Albanians have another language totally different from Latin, ''they still use Latin letters in all their books''&quot;.&lt;ref&gt;Demiraj, Shaban. &quot;Albanian&quot;. In Ramat and Ramat (2006), ''The Indo-European Languages''. Page 480&lt;/ref&gt; === Disputed earlier texts === In 1967 two scholars claimed to have found a Letter text in Albanian inserted into the [[Bellifortis]] text, a book written in Latin dating to 1402–1405.&lt;ref&gt;Dumitru Todericiu, ''An Albanian text older than the &quot;Christening Formula&quot; of 1462'', in &quot;Magazin Istoric&quot;, nr. 8, Bucharest, November 1967.&lt;/ref&gt; {{blockquote|&quot;A star has fallen in a place in the woods, distinguish the star, distinguish it.&lt;br /&gt; Distinguish the star from the others, they are ours, they are.&lt;br /&gt; Do you see where the great voice has resounded? Stand beside it&lt;br /&gt; That thunder. It did not fall. It did not fall for you, the one which would do it.&lt;br /&gt; ...&lt;br /&gt; Like the ears, you should not believe ... that the moon fell when ...&lt;br /&gt; Try to encompass that which spurts far ...&lt;br /&gt; Call the light when the moon falls and no longer exists ...&quot;}} [[Robert Elsie]], a specialist in Albanian studies, considers that &quot;The Todericiu/Polena Romanian translation of the non-Latin lines, although it may offer some clues if the text is indeed Albanian, is fanciful and based, among other things, on a false reading of the manuscript, including the exclusion of a whole line.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;Robert Elsie, ''[http://www.elsie.de/pdf/articles/A1986Bellifortis.pdf The Bellifortis text and early Albanian]'' in &quot;Zeitschrift für Balkanologie&quot;, Berlin, 22 February 1986, p. 158-162.&lt;/ref&gt; === Ottoman period === In 1635, [[Frang Bardhi]] (1606–1643) published in [[Rome]] his {{lang|la|Dictionarum latinum-epiroticum}}, the first known Latin-Albanian dictionary. Other scholars who studied the language during the 17th century include [[Andrea Bogdani]] (1600–1685), author of the first Latin-Albanian grammar book, [[Nilo Katalanos]] (1637–1694) and others.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book |last=Marmullaku |first=Ramadan |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=v3S4AAAAIAAJ&amp;q=Andre+Bogdani |title=Albania and the Albanians |publisher=C. Hurst |year=1975 |isbn=0903983133 |pages=17}}&lt;/ref&gt; == Indo-European features == {{Indo-European topics}} === Indo-European vocabulary === {{Main|Indo-European vocabulary}} === PIE phonological correspondences === Phonologically, Albanian is not so conservative. Like many IE stocks, it has merged the two series of voiced stops (e.g. both PIE {{lang|ine-x-proto|d}} and {{lang|ine-x-proto|dʰ}} became {{langx|sq|d}}). In addition, voiced stops tend to disappear in between vowels. There is almost complete loss of final syllables and very widespread loss of other unstressed syllables (e.g. {{lang|sq|mik}} 'friend' from Lat. {{lang|la|amicus}}). PIE {{lang|ine-x-proto|o}} appears as {{lang|sq|a}} (also as {{lang|sq|e}} if a high front vowel {{lang|sq|i}} follows), while PIE {{lang|ine-x-proto|ē}} and {{lang|ine-x-proto|ā}} become {{lang|sq|o}}, and PIE {{lang|ine-x-proto|ō}} appears as {{lang|sq|e}}. The palatals, velars, and labiovelars show distinct developments, with Albanian showing the three-way distinction also found in [[Luwian language|Luwian]].&lt;ref name=&quot;OrelVelars&quot;&gt;{{harvnb|Orel|2000|pages=[https://archive.org/details/concisehistorica00orel/page/n88 66], 70–71}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;NeitherCentumNorSatem&quot;&gt;{{cite book|author1=Bardhyl Demiraj|editor1-last=Fritz|editor1-first=Matthias|editor2-last=Joseph|editor2-first=Brian|editor3-last=Klein|editor3-first=Jared|title=Handbook of Comparative and Historical Indo-European Linguistics|date=2018|publisher=De Gruyter Mouton|isbn=978-3-11-054036-9|chapter=100. The evolution of Albanian|quote=&quot;and the outcomes of the three dorsal series suggest that Albanian, like Luwian, may have origi- nally retained this three-way opposition intact and therefore is neither centum nor satem, despite the clear satem-like outcome of its palatal dorsals in most instances&quot;}}&lt;/ref&gt; Labiovelars are for the most part differentiated from all other Indo-European velar series before front vowels, but they merge with the &quot;pure&quot; (back) velars elsewhere.&lt;ref name=&quot;OrelVelars&quot; /&gt; The palatal velar series, consisting of Proto-Indo-European {{lang|ine-x-proto|ḱ}} and the merged {{lang|ine-x-proto|ģ}} and {{lang|ine-x-proto|ģʰ}}, usually developed into {{lang|ine-x-proto|th}} and {{lang|ine-x-proto|dh}}, but were depalatalised to merge with the back velars when in contact with [[sonorant]]s.&lt;ref name=&quot;OrelVelars&quot; /&gt; Because the original Proto-Indo-European tripartite distinction between dorsals is preserved in such reflexes, Albanian is therefore neither [[Centum-satem|centum nor satem]], despite having a &quot;satem-like&quot; realization of the palatal dorsals in most cases.&lt;ref name=&quot;NeitherCentumNorSatem&quot; /&gt; Thus PIE {{lang|ine-x-proto|ḱ}}, {{lang|ine-x-proto|k}}, and {{lang|ine-x-proto|kʷ}} become {{lang|sq|th}}, {{lang|sq|q}}, and {{lang|sq|s}}, respectively (before back vowels PIE {{lang|ine-x-proto|ḱ}} becomes {{lang|sq|th}}, while {{lang|ine-x-proto|k}} and {{lang|ine-x-proto|kʷ}} merge as {{lang|sq|k}}). A minority of scholars reconstruct a fourth [[Laryngeal theory|laryngeal]] {{lang|ine-x-proto|h₄}} allegedly surfacing as Alb. {{lang|sq|h}} word-initially, e.g. Alb. {{lang|sq|herdhe}} 'testicles' presumably from PIE {{lang|ine-x-proto|h₄órǵʰi-}}&lt;ref name=&quot;ReferenceA&quot;&gt;{{cite book|title=Encyclopedia of Indo-European culture|author1=J. P. Mallory|author2=Douglas Q. Adams|publisher=[[Taylor &amp; Francis]]|year=1997|isbn=978-1-884964-98-5}} {{ISBN|1-884964-98-2}}, {{ISBN|978-1-884964-98-5}}&lt;/ref&gt; (rather than the usual reconstruction {{lang|ine-x-proto|h₃erǵʰi-}}), but this is generally not followed elsewhere, as {{lang|sq|h-}} has arisen elsewhere idiosyncratically (for example Alb. {{lang|sq|hark}} &lt; Lat. {{lang|la|arcus}}).&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite book|last=de Vaan|first=Michiel|title=Handbook of Comparative and Historical Indo-European Linguistics|date=2018|publisher=Walter de Gruyter|volume=3|editor-last=Klein|editor-first=Jared|pages=1757|language=en|chapter=The phonology of Albanian|editor2-last=Joseph|editor2-first=Brian|editor3-last=Fritz|editor3-first=Matthias|quote=but ''h-'' has arisen secondarily in words such as ''hark'' 'curve' ← Latin ''arcus'', which renders ''h-'' non-probative}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;Schumacher/Matzinger 2013, p. 267.&lt;/ref&gt; {| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; |+ Reflexes of PIE bilabial plosives in Albanian !PIE !! Albanian !! PIE !! Albanian |- | *p || p || {{lang|ine-x-proto|'''p'''ékʷ-}} 'to cook' || {{lang|sq|'''p'''jek}} 'to bake' |- | *bʰ / b || b || {{lang|ine-x-proto|sro'''bʰ'''-éi̯e-}} 'to sip, gulp' || {{lang|sq|gjer'''b'''}} 'to sip' |} {| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; |+ Reflexes of PIE coronal plosives in Albanian !PIE !! Albanian !! PIE !! Albanian |- | *t || t || {{lang|ine-x-proto|'''t'''úh&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;}} 'thou' || '''''t'''i'' 'you (singular)' |- | *d || d || {{lang|ine-x-proto|'''d'''ih&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;tis}} 'light' || '''''d'''itë'' 'day' |- | || dh&lt;ref group=&quot;*&quot; name=&quot;ivcr&quot;&gt;Between vowels or after ''r''&lt;/ref&gt; || ''*pér'''d'''-'' 'to fart' || ''pjer'''dh''''' 'to fart' |- | || g || {{lang|ine-x-proto|'''d'''l̥h&lt;sub&gt;1&lt;/sub&gt;-tó-}} 'long' || {{lang|sq|'''g'''jatë}} 'long' (Tosk dial. ''glatë'') |- | *dʰ || d || {{lang|ine-x-proto|'''dʰ'''égʷʰ-}} 'burn' || {{lang|sq|'''d'''jeg}} 'to burn' |- | || dh&lt;ref group=&quot;*&quot; name=&quot;ivcr&quot; /&gt; || {{lang|ine-x-proto|gʰór'''dʰ'''os}} 'enclosure' || {{lang|sq|gar'''dh'''}} 'fence' |} {{reflist|group=*}} {| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; |+ Reflexes of PIE palatal plosives in Albanian !PIE !! Albanian !! PIE !! Albanian |- | *ḱ || th || {{lang|ine-x-proto|*'''ḱ'''éh&lt;sub&gt;1&lt;/sub&gt;smi}} 'I say' || {{lang|sq|'''th'''em}} 'I say' |- | || s&lt;ref group=&quot;*&quot;&gt;Before ''u̯/u'' or ''i̯/i''&lt;/ref&gt; || {{lang|ine-x-proto|'''ḱ'''upo-}} 'shoulder' || {{lang|sq|'''s'''up}} 'shoulder' |- | || k&lt;ref group=&quot;*&quot;&gt;Before [[sonorant]]&lt;/ref&gt; || {{lang|ine-x-proto|sme'''ḱ'''-r̥}} 'chin' || {{lang|sq|mje'''k'''ër}} 'chin; beard' |- | || ç/c&lt;ref group=&quot;*&quot;&gt;Archaic relic&lt;/ref&gt; || {{lang|ine-x-proto|'''ḱ'''entro-}} 'to stick' || {{lang|sq|'''ç'''andër}} 'prop' |- | *ǵ || dh || {{lang|ine-x-proto|'''ǵ'''ómbʰos}} 'tooth, peg' || {{lang|sq|'''dh'''ëmb}} 'tooth' |- | *ǵʰ || dh || {{lang|ine-x-proto|'''ǵʰ'''ed-ioH}} 'I defecate' || {{lang|sq|'''dh'''jes}} 'I defecate' |- | || d&lt;ref group=&quot;*&quot;&gt;Syllable-initial and followed by [[sibilant]]&lt;/ref&gt; || {{lang|ine-x-proto|'''ǵʰ'''r̥sdʰi}} 'grain, barley' || {{lang|sq|'''d'''rithë}} 'grain' |} {{reflist|group=*}} {| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; |+ Reflexes of PIE velar plosives in Albanian !PIE !! Albanian !! PIE !! Albanian |- | *k || k || {{lang|ine-x-proto|'''k'''ágʰmi}} 'I catch, grasp' || {{lang|sq|'''k'''am}} 'I have' |- | || q || {{lang|ine-x-proto|'''k'''luH-i̯o-}} 'to weep' || {{lang|sq|'''q'''aj}} 'to weep, cry' (dial. ''kla(n)j'') |- | *g || g || {{lang|ine-x-proto|h&lt;sub&gt;3&lt;/sub&gt;lí'''g'''os}} 'sick' || {{lang|sq|li'''g'''ë}} 'bad' |- | || gj || {{lang|ine-x-proto|h&lt;sub&gt;1&lt;/sub&gt;reu'''g'''-}} 'to retch' || {{lang|sq|re'''gj'''}} 'to tan hides' |- | *gʰ || g || {{lang|ine-x-proto|'''gʰ'''órdʰos}} 'enclosure' || {{lang|sq|'''g'''ardh}} 'fence' |- | || gj || {{lang|ine-x-proto|'''gʰ'''édn-i̯e/o-}} 'to get' || {{lang|sq|'''gj'''ej}} 'to find' (Old Alb. ''gjãnj'') |} {| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; |+ Reflexes of PIE labiovelar plosives in Albanian !PIE !! Albanian !! PIE !! Albanian |- | *kʷ || k || {{lang|ine-x-proto|'''kʷ'''eh&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;sleh&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;}} 'cough' || {{lang|sq|'''k'''ollë}} 'cough' |- | || s || {{lang|ine-x-proto|'''kʷ'''élH-}} 'to turn' || {{lang|sq|'''s'''jell}} 'to fetch, bring' |- | || q || {{lang|ine-x-proto|'''kʷ'''ṓd}} || {{lang|sq|'''q'''ë}} 'that, which' |- | *gʷ || g || {{lang|ine-x-proto|'''gʷ'''r̥H}} 'stone' || {{lang|sq|'''g'''ur}} 'stone' |- | *gʷʰ || g || {{lang|ine-x-proto|dʰé'''gʷʰ'''-}} 'to burn' || {{lang|sq|dje'''g'''}} 'to burn' |- | || z || {{lang|ine-x-proto|dʰo'''gʷʰ'''éi̯e-}} 'to ignite' || {{lang|sq|nde'''z'''}} 'to kindle, light a fire' |} {| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; |+ Reflexes of PIE {{lang|ine-x-proto|s}} in Albanian !PIE !! Albanian !! PIE !! Albanian |- | *s || gj&lt;ref group=&quot;*&quot;&gt;Initial&lt;/ref&gt; || {{lang|ine-x-proto|'''s'''éḱstis}} 'six' || '''''gj'''ashtë'' 'six' |- | || h&lt;ref group=&quot;*&quot; name=&quot;*&quot;&gt;Between vowels&lt;/ref&gt; || {{lang|ine-x-proto|no'''s'''ōm}} 'us' (gen.) || ''na'''h'''e'' 'us' (dat.) |- | || sh&lt;ref group=&quot;*&quot;&gt;Between ''u/i'' and another vowel ([[ruki sound law|ruki]] law)&lt;/ref&gt; || {{lang|ine-x-proto|bʰreu'''s'''os}} 'broken' || ''bre'''sh'''ër'' 'hail' |- | || th&lt;ref group=&quot;*&quot;&gt;Dissimilation with following s&lt;/ref&gt; || {{lang|ine-x-proto|'''s'''uh&lt;sub&gt;1&lt;/sub&gt;s}} 'swine' || '''''th'''i'' 'pig' |- | || ∅ || {{lang|ine-x-proto|h&lt;sub&gt;1&lt;/sub&gt;é'''s'''mi}} 'I am' || {{lang|sq|jam}} 'I am' |- | *-sd-|| th || {{lang|ine-x-proto|gʷé'''sd'''os}} 'leaf' || {{lang|sq|gje'''th'''}} 'leaf' |- | *-sḱ-|| h || {{lang|ine-x-proto|'''sḱ'''i-eh&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;}} 'shadow' || {{lang|sq|'''h'''ije}} 'shadow' |- | *-sp-|| f || {{lang|ine-x-proto|'''sp'''élnom}} 'speech' || {{lang|sq|'''f'''jalë}} 'word' |- | *-st-|| sht || {{lang|ine-x-proto|h&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;o'''st'''i}} 'bone' || {{lang|sq|a'''sht'''}} 'bone' |- | *-su̯-|| d || {{lang|ine-x-proto|'''su̯'''eíd-r̥-}} 'sweat' || {{lang|sq|'''d'''irsë}} 'sweat' |} {{reflist|group=*}} {| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; |+ Reflexes of PIE sonorants in Albanian !PIE !! Albanian !! PIE !! Albanian |- | *i̯ || gj&lt;ref group=&quot;*&quot;&gt;Before i, e, a&lt;/ref&gt; || {{lang|ine-x-proto|'''i̯'''éh&lt;sub&gt;3&lt;/sub&gt;s-}} 'to gird' || {{lang|sq|(n)'''gj'''esh}} 'I gird; squeeze, knead' |- | || j&lt;ref group=&quot;*&quot;&gt;Before back vowels&lt;/ref&gt; || {{lang|ine-x-proto|'''i̯'''uH}} 'you' (nom.) || {{lang|sq|'''j'''u}} 'you (plural)' |- | || ∅&lt;ref group=&quot;*&quot; name=&quot;*&quot;&gt;Between vowels&lt;/ref&gt; || {{lang|ine-x-proto|tre'''i̯'''es}} 'three' (masc.) || {{lang|sq|tre}} 'three' |- | *u̯ || v || {{lang|ine-x-proto|'''u̯'''os-éi̯e-}} 'to dress' || {{lang|sq|'''v'''esh}} 'to wear, dress' |- | *m || m || {{lang|ine-x-proto|'''m'''eh&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;tr-eh&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;}} 'maternal' || {{lang|sq|'''m'''otër}} 'sister' |- | *n || n || {{lang|ine-x-proto|'''n'''ōs}} 'we' (acc.) || {{lang|sq|'''n'''e}} 'we' |- | || nj || {{lang|ine-x-proto|e'''n'''i-h&lt;sub&gt;1&lt;/sub&gt;ói-no}} 'that one' || {{lang|sq|'''nj'''ë}} 'one' (Gheg {{lang|aln|'''nj'''â}}, {{lang|aln|'''nj'''o}}, {{lang|sq|'''nj'''i}}) |- | || ∅ (Tosk) ~ nasal vowel (Gheg) || {{lang|ine-x-proto|pé'''n'''kʷe}} 'five' || {{lang|sq|p'''e'''së}} 'five' (vs. Gheg {{lang|aln|p'''ê'''s}}) |- | || r (Tosk only) || {{lang|ine-x-proto|ǵʰeime'''n'''}} 'winter' || {{lang|sq|dimë'''r'''}} 'winter' (vs. Gheg {{lang|aln|dimë'''n'''}}) |- | *l || l || {{lang|ine-x-proto|h&lt;sub&gt;3&lt;/sub&gt;'''l'''ígos}} 'sick' || {{lang|sq|'''l'''igë}} 'bad' |- | || ll || {{lang|ine-x-proto|kʷé'''l'''H-}} 'turn' || {{lang|sq|sje'''ll'''}} 'to fetch, bring' |- | *r || r || {{lang|ine-x-proto|'''r'''epe/o}} 'take' || {{lang|sq|'''r'''jep}} 'peel' |- | || rr || {{lang|ine-x-proto|u̯'''r'''h&lt;sub&gt;1&lt;/sub&gt;ḗn}} 'sheep' || {{lang|sq|'''rr'''unjë}} 'yearling lamb' |- | *n̥ || e || {{lang|ine-x-proto|h&lt;sub&gt;1&lt;/sub&gt;'''n̥'''men}} 'name' || {{lang|sq|'''e'''mër}} 'name' |- | *m̥ || e || {{lang|ine-x-proto|u̯iḱ'''m̥'''ti}} 'twenty' || {{lang|sq|(një)z'''e'''t}} 'twenty' |- | *l̥ || li, il&lt;ref group=&quot;*&quot; name=&quot;reson&quot;&gt;Before C clusters, i, j&lt;/ref&gt; / lu, ul || {{lang|ine-x-proto|u̯'''ĺ̥'''kʷos}} 'wolf' || {{lang|sq|u'''j'''k}} 'wolf' (dialectal {{lang|sq|u'''l'''k}}) |- | *r̥ || ri, ir&lt;ref group=&quot;*&quot; name=&quot;reson&quot; /&gt; / ru, ur || {{lang|ine-x-proto|ǵʰ'''r̥'''sdom}} 'grain, barley' || {{lang|sq|d'''ri'''thë}} 'grain' |} {{reflist|group=*}} {| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; |+ Reflexes of PIE laryngeals in Albanian !PIE !! Albanian !! PIE !! Albanian |- | *h&lt;sub&gt;1&lt;/sub&gt; || ∅ || {{lang|ine-x-proto|'''h&lt;sub&gt;1&lt;/sub&gt;'''ésmi}} 'I am' || {{lang|sq|jam}} 'to be' |- | *h&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt; || ∅ || {{lang|ine-x-proto|'''h&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;'''r̥tḱos}} 'bear' || {{lang|sq|ari}} 'bear' |- | *h&lt;sub&gt;3&lt;/sub&gt; || ∅ || {{lang|ine-x-proto|'''h&lt;sub&gt;3&lt;/sub&gt;'''ónr̥}} 'dream' || {{lang|sq|ëndërr}} 'dream' |- | *h&lt;sub&gt;4&lt;/sub&gt;{{efn|disputed}} || h || {{lang|ine-x-proto|'''h&lt;sub&gt;4&lt;/sub&gt;'''órǵʰi}} 'testicles' || {{lang|sq|'''h'''erdhe}} 'testicles' |} {| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; |+ Reflexes of PIE vowels in Albanian !PIE !! Albanian !! PIE !! Albanian |- | *i || i || {{lang|ine-x-proto|s'''í'''nos}} 'bosom' || {{lang|sq|gj'''i'''}} 'bosom, breast' |- | || e || {{lang|ine-x-proto|dw'''i'''gʰeh&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;}} 'twig' || {{lang|sq|d'''e'''gë}} 'branch' |- | *ī &lt; *iH || i || {{lang|ine-x-proto|d'''ih&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;'''tis}} 'light' || {{lang|sq|d'''i'''të}} 'day' |- | *e || e || {{lang|ine-x-proto|p'''é'''nkʷe}} 'five' || {{lang|sq|p'''e'''së}} 'five' (Gheg ''pês'') |- | || je || {{lang|ine-x-proto|w'''é'''tos}} 'year' (loc.) || {{lang|sq|v'''je'''t}} 'last year' |- | *ē || o || {{lang|ine-x-proto|ǵʰ'''ē'''sreh&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;}} 'hand' || {{lang|sq|d'''o'''rë}} 'hand' |- | *a || a || {{lang|ine-x-proto|bʰ'''a'''ḱeh&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;}} 'bean' || {{lang|sq|b'''a'''thë}} 'bean' |- | || e || {{lang|ine-x-proto|h&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;'''é'''lbʰit}} 'barley' || {{lang|sq|'''e'''lb}} 'barley' |- | *o || a || {{lang|ine-x-proto|gʰ'''ó'''rdʰos}} 'enclosure' || {{lang|sq|g'''a'''rdh}} 'fence' |- | *ō || e || {{lang|ine-x-proto|h&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;oḱt'''ō'''tis}} 'eight' || {{lang|sq|t'''e'''të}} 'eight' |- | *u || u || {{lang|ine-x-proto|s'''ú'''pnom}} 'sleep' || {{lang|sq|gj'''u'''më}} 'sleep' |- | *ū &lt; *uH || y || {{lang|ine-x-proto|s'''uH'''sos}} 'grandfather' || {{lang|sq|gj'''y'''sh}} 'grandfather' |- | || i || {{lang|ine-x-proto|m'''uh&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;'''s}} 'mouse' || {{lang|sq|m'''i'''}} 'mouse' |} {| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; |+Reflexes of PIE diphthongs in Albanian{{sfn|Matasović|2019|p=11}} !PIE !Albanian !PIE !Albanian |- |*ey, *h1ey |i |{{lang|ine-x-proto|g'heymōn}} |{{lang|sq|dimër}} |- |*ay, *h2ey |e | | |- |*oy, *h3ey |e |{{lang|ine-x-proto|stoygho-}} |{{lang|sq|shteg}} |- |*ew, *h1ew |a | | |- |*aw, *h2ew |a |{{lang|ine-x-proto|h2ewg-}} |{{lang|sq|agim}} |- |*ow, *h3ew |a, ve- | | |} == Standard Albanian == Since [[World War II]], standard Albanian used in Albania has been based on the Tosk dialect. Kosovo and other areas where Albanian is official adopted the Tosk standard in 1969. === Elbasan-based standard === Until the early 20th century, Albanian writing developed in three main literary traditions: [[Gheg]], [[Tosk]], and [[Arbëreshë language|Arbëreshë]]. Throughout this time, a Gheg subdialect spoken around [[Elbasan]] served as ''lingua franca'' among the Albanians, but was less prevalent in writing. The [[Congress of Manastir]] of Albanian writers held in 1908 recommended the use of the Elbasan subdialect for literary purposes and as a basis of a unified national language. While technically classified as a southern Gheg variety, the Elbasan speech is closer to Tosk in phonology and practically a hybrid between other Gheg subdialects and literary Tosk. Between 1916 and 1918, the [[Albanian Literary Commission]] met in Shkodër under the leadership of [[Luigj Gurakuqi]] with the purpose of establishing a unified orthography for the language. The commission, made up of representatives from the north and south of Albania, reaffirmed the Elbasan subdialect as the basis of a national tongue. The rules published in 1917 defined spelling for the Elbasan variety for official purposes. The commission did not, however, discourage publications in one of the dialects, but rather laid a foundation for Gheg and Tosk to gradually converge into one. When the Congress of Lushnje met in the aftermath of World War I to form a new Albanian government, the 1917 decisions of the Literary Commission were upheld. The Elbasan subdialect remained in use for administrative purposes and many new writers embraced it for creative writing. Gheg and Tosk continued to develop freely and interaction between the two dialects increased. === Tosk standard === {{further|Albanian Orthography Congress}}At the end of World War II, however, the new communist regime radically imposed the use of the Tosk dialect in all facets of life in Albania: administration, education, and literature. Most Communist leaders were Tosks from the south. Standardisation was directed by the [[Albanian Institute of Linguistics and Literature]] of the [[Academy of Sciences of Albania]].{{sfn|Lloshi|2008|p=10}} Two dictionaries were published in 1954: an Albanian language dictionary and a Russian–Albanian dictionary. New orthography rules were eventually published in 1967{{sfn|Lloshi|2008|p=10}} and in 1973 with the ''Drejtshkrimi i gjuhës shqipe'' (Orthography of the Albanian Language).&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book|title=Drejtshkrimi i gjuhës shqipe|last=Kostallari|first=Androkli|year=1973|publisher=&quot;Instituti i Gjuhësisë dhe i Letërsisë&quot; ( in &quot;Akademia e Shkencave e RPS të Shqipërisë&quot;, today &quot;Akademia e Shkencave e Republikës së Shqipërisë&quot;)|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=M4LLPwAACAAJ&amp;q=Drejtshkrimi+i+gjuh%C3%ABs+shqipe|ref=Drejtshkrimi i gjuhës shqipe}}&lt;/ref&gt; Until 1968, Kosovo and other Albanian-speaking areas in Yugoslavia followed the 1917 standard based on the Elbasan dialect, though it was gradually infused with Gheg elements in an effort to develop a Kosovan language separate from communist Albania's Tosk-based standard.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Kamusella|first=Tomasz|s2cid=55005555|year=2016|title=The idea of a Kosovan language in Yugoslavia's language politics|url=https://research-repository.st-andrews.ac.uk/bitstream/handle/10023/11804/Kamusella_2016_IJSL_KosovanLanguage_VoR.pdf |via=St Andrews Research Repository |s2cid-access=free |journal=International Journal of the Sociology of Language|issue=242|pages=217–237|doi=10.1515/ijsl-2016-0040|hdl=10023/11804|hdl-access=free |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240106061914/https://research-repository.st-andrews.ac.uk/bitstream/handle/10023/11804/Kamusella_2016_IJSL_KosovanLanguage_VoR.pdf |archive-date= Jan 6, 2024 }}&lt;/ref&gt; Albanian intellectuals in the former Yugoslavia consolidated the 1917 standard twice in the 1950s, culminating with a thorough codification of orthographic rules in 1964.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://wikisource.org/wiki/Drejtshkrimi_Prishtin%C3%AB_1964|title=Drejtshkrimi Prishtinë 1964 |website=Wikisource |language=en|access-date=26 May 2018}}&lt;/ref&gt; The rules already provided for a balanced variety that accounted for both Gheg and Tosk dialects, but only lasted through 1968. Viewing divergences with Albania as a threat to their identity, Kosovars arbitrarily adopted the Tosk project that Tirana had published the year before. Although it was never intended to serve outside of Albania, the project became the &quot;unified literary language&quot; in 1972, when approved by a rubberstamp [[Albanian Orthography Congress|Orthography Congress]]. Only about 1 in 9 participants were from Kosovo. The Congress, held at Tirana, authorized the orthography rules that came out the following year, in 1973. More recent dictionaries from the Albanian government are {{lang|sq|Fjalori Drejtshkrimor i Gjuhës Shqipe}} (1976) (Orthographic Dictionary of the Albanian Language)&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book|title=Fjalori drejtshkrimor i gjuhës shqipe|last=Kostallari|first=Androkli|year=1976|publisher=&quot;Instituti i Gjuhësisë dhe i Letërsisë&quot; (in &quot;Akademia e Shkencave e RPS të Shqipërisë&quot;, today &quot;Akademia e Shkencave e Republikës së Shqipërisë&quot;)|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=3MilQQAACAAJ&amp;q=Fjalori+drejtshkrimor+i+gjuh%C3%ABs+shqipe|ref=Fjalori Drejtshkrimor i Gjuhës Shqipe}}{{dead link|date=August 2019}}&lt;/ref&gt; and ''Dictionary of Today's Albanian language'' ({{lang|sq|Fjalori i Gjuhës së Sotme Shqipe}}) (1980).{{sfn|Lloshi|2008|p=10}}&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book|title=Fjalori i Gjuhës së Sotme Shqipe|author=Akademia e Shkencave e RPS të Shqipërisë|year=1980|publisher=[[Academy of Sciences of Albania]]|location=Tirana|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=IrsAGwAACAAJ&amp;q=Fjalor+i+gjuhes+se+sotme+shqipe}}&lt;/ref&gt; Prior to World War II, dictionaries consulted by developers of the standard have included {{transliteration|el|Lexikon tis Alvanikis glossis}} (Albanian: {{lang|sq|Fjalori i Gjuhës Shqipe}} ([[Kostandin Kristoforidhi]], 1904),{{sfn|Lloshi|2008|p=9}} {{lang|sq|Fjalori i Bashkimit}} (1908),{{sfn|Lloshi|2008|p=9}} and {{lang|sq|Fjalori i Gazullit}} (1941).{{sfn|Lloshi|2008|p=12}} === Calls for reform === Since the fall of the communist regime, Albanian orthography has stirred heated debate among scholars, writers, and public opinion in Albania and Kosovo, with hardliners opposed to any changes in the orthography, moderates supporting varying degrees of reform, and radicals calling for a return to the Elbasan dialect. Criticism of Standard Albanian has centred on the exclusion of the 'me + participle' infinitive and the Gheg lexicon. Critics say that Standard Albanian disenfranchises and stigmatises Gheg speakers, affecting the quality of writing and impairing effective public communication. Supporters of the Tosk standard view the [[Albanian Orthography Congress|1972 Congress]] as a milestone achievement in Albanian history and dismiss calls for reform as efforts to &quot;divide the nation&quot; or &quot;create two languages.&quot; Moderates, who are especially prevalent in Kosovo, generally stress the need for a unified Albanian language, but believe that the 'me + participle' infinitive and Gheg words should be included. Proponents of the Elbasan dialect have been vocal, but have gathered little support in the public opinion. In general, those involved in the language debate come from diverse backgrounds and there is no significant correlation between one's political views, geographic origin, and position on Standard Albanian. Many writers continue to write in the Elbasan dialect but other Gheg variants have found much more limited use in literature. Most publications adhere to a strict policy of not accepting submissions that are not written in Tosk. Some print media even translate direct speech, replacing the 'me + participle' infinitive with other verb forms and making other changes in grammar and word choice. Even authors who have published in the Elbasan dialect will frequently write in the Tosk standard. In 2013, a group of academics for Albania and Kosovo proposed minor changes to the orthography. Hardline academics boycotted the initiative,&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://sot.com.al/kultura-intervista/emil-lafe-k%c3%abshilli-nd%c3%abrakademik-p%c3%abr-gjuh%c3%abn-shqipe-ec%c3%abn-pa-busull-ende-pa-nj%c3%ab|title=Emil Lafe: Këshilli Ndërakademik për Gjuhën Shqipe ecën pa busull, ende pa një platformë shkencore të miratuar njëzëri|last=Vrapi|first=Julia|date=27 April 2013|website=Sot.com.al}}&lt;/ref&gt; while other reformers have viewed it as well-intentioned but flawed and superficial. === Education === Albanian is the medium of instruction in most Albanian schools. The literacy rate in Albania for the total population, age 9 or older, is about 99%. Elementary education is compulsory (grades 1–9), but most students continue at least until a secondary education. Students must pass graduation exams at the end of the 9th grade and at the end of the 12th grade in order to continue their education. == Phonology == Standard Albanian has seven [[vowel]]s and 29 [[consonant]]s. Like English, Albanian has dental fricatives {{IPA|/θ/}} (like the ''th'' in ''thin'') and {{IPA|/ð/}} (like the ''th'' in ''this''), written as {{Angle bracket|th}} and {{Angle bracket|dh}}, which are rare cross-linguistically. [[Gheg Albanian|Gheg]] uses [[long vowel|long]] and [[nasal vowel]]s, which are absent in [[Tosk Albanian|Tosk]], and the mid-central vowel {{lang|sq|ë}} is lost at the end of the word. The stress is fixed mainly on the last syllable. Gheg {{lang|aln|n}} ({{lang|aln|femën}}: compare English ''feminine'') changes to {{lang|als|r}} by [[Rhotacism (sound change)|rhotacism]] in Tosk ({{lang|als|femër}}). === Consonants === {| class=&quot;wikitable plainrowheaders&quot; style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot; |+Albanian consonants ! colspan=&quot;2&quot; rowspan=&quot;2&quot; scope=&quot;col&quot; | ! rowspan=&quot;2&quot; scope=&quot;col&quot; | [[Labial consonant|Labial]] ! rowspan=&quot;2&quot; scope=&quot;col&quot; | [[Interdental consonant|Dental]] ! colspan=&quot;2&quot; scope=&quot;col&quot; | [[Alveolar consonant|Alveolar]] ! rowspan=&quot;2&quot; scope=&quot;col&quot; | [[Postalveolar consonant|Post-&lt;br /&gt;alveolar]] ! rowspan=&quot;2&quot; scope=&quot;col&quot; | [[Palatal consonant|Palatal]] ! rowspan=&quot;2&quot; scope=&quot;col&quot; | [[Velar consonant|Velar]] ! rowspan=&quot;2&quot; scope=&quot;col&quot; | [[Glottal consonant|Glottal]] |- ! scope=&quot;col&quot; | {{small|plain}} ! scope=&quot;col&quot; | {{small|[[Velarization|velar.]]}} |- ! colspan=&quot;2&quot; | [[Nasal consonant|Nasal]] | {{IPA link|m}} | | {{IPA link|n}} | || | {{IPA link|ɲ}} | ({{IPA link|ŋ}}) | |- ! rowspan=&quot;2&quot; | [[Stop consonant|Plosive]] ! {{small|[[voicelessness|voiceless]]}} | {{IPA link|p}} | | {{IPA link|t}} | || ||{{IPA link|c}} | {{IPA link|k}} | |- ! {{small|[[voice (phonetics)|voiced]]}} | {{IPA link|b}} | | {{IPA link|d}} | || ||{{IPA link|ɟ}} | {{IPA link|ɡ}} | |- ! rowspan=&quot;2&quot; | [[Affricate consonant|Affricate]] ! {{small|[[voicelessness|voiceless]]}} | || | {{IPA link|t͡s}} | | {{IPA link|t͡ʃ}} | || || |- ! {{small|[[voice (phonetics)|voiced]]}} | || | {{IPA link|d͡z}} | | {{IPA link|d͡ʒ}} | || || |- ! rowspan=&quot;2&quot; | [[Fricative consonant|Fricative]] ! {{small|[[voicelessness|voiceless]]}} | {{IPA link|f}} | {{IPA link|θ}} | {{IPA link|s}} | | {{IPA link|ʃ}} | || | {{IPA link|h}} |- ! {{small|[[voice (phonetics)|voiced]]}} | {{IPA link|v}} | {{IPA link|ð}} | {{IPA link|z}} | | {{IPA link|ʒ}} | || || |- ! colspan=&quot;2&quot; | [[Approximant consonant|Approximant]] | || | {{IPA link|l}} | {{IPA link|ɫ}} | | {{IPA link|j}} | || |- ! colspan=&quot;2&quot; | [[Flap consonant|Flap]] | || | {{IPA link|ɾ}} | || || || || |- ! colspan=&quot;2&quot; | [[Trill consonant|Trill]] | || | {{IPA link|r}} | || || || || |} {| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; ! [[help:IPA|IPA]] !! Description !! Written as !! English approximation |- | style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot; | {{IPA|m}} || [[Bilabial nasal]] || m || '''m'''an |- | style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot; | {{IPA|n}} || [[Alveolar nasal]] || n || '''n'''ot |- | style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot; | {{IPA|ɲ}} || [[Palatal nasal]] || nj || ~ca'''ny'''on |- | style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot; | {{IPA|ŋ}} || [[Velar nasal]] || ng || ba'''ng''' |- | style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot; | {{IPA|p}} || [[Voiceless bilabial plosive]] || p || s'''p'''in |- | style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot; | {{IPA|b}} || [[Voiced bilabial plosive]] || b || '''b'''at |- | style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot; | {{IPA|t}} || [[Voiceless alveolar plosive]] || t || s'''t'''and |- | style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot; | {{IPA|d}} || [[Voiced alveolar plosive]] || d || '''d'''ebt |- | style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot; | {{IPA|k}} || [[Voiceless velar plosive]] || k || s'''c'''ar |- | style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot; | {{IPA|ɡ}} || [[Voiced velar plosive]] || g || '''g'''o |- | style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot; | {{IPA|t͡s}} || [[Voiceless alveolar affricate]] || c || ha'''ts''' |- | style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot; | {{IPA|d͡z}} || [[Voiced alveolar affricate]] || x || goo'''ds''' |- | style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot; | {{IPA|t͡ʃ}} || [[Voiceless postalveolar affricate]] || ç || '''ch'''in |- | style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot; | {{IPA|d͡ʒ}} || [[Voiced postalveolar affricate]] || xh || '''j'''et |- | style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot; | {{IPA|c}} || [[Voiceless palatal plosive]] || q || Latvian {{lang|lv|'''ķ'''irbis}} |- | style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot; | {{IPA|ɟ}} || [[Voiced palatal plosive]] || gj || Latvian {{lang|lv|'''ģ'''imene}} |- | style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot; | {{IPA|f}} || [[Voiceless labiodental fricative]] || f || '''f'''ar |- | style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot; | {{IPA|v}} || [[Voiced labiodental fricative]] || v || '''v'''an |- | style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot; | {{IPA|θ}} || [[Voiceless dental fricative]] || th || '''th'''in |- | style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot; | {{IPA|ð}} || [[Voiced dental fricative]] || dh || '''th'''en |- | style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot; | {{IPA|s}} || [[Voiceless alveolar fricative]] || s || '''s'''on |- | style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot; | {{IPA|z}} || [[Voiced alveolar fricative]] || z || '''z'''ip |- | style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot; | {{IPA|ʃ}} || [[Voiceless postalveolar fricative]] || sh || '''sh'''ow |- | style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot; | {{IPA|ʒ}} || [[Voiced postalveolar fricative]] || zh || vi'''s'''ion |- | style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot; | {{IPA|h}} || [[Voiceless glottal fricative]] || h || '''h'''at |- | style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot; | {{IPA|r}} || [[Alveolar trill]] || rr || Spanish pe'''rr'''o |- | style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot; | {{IPA|ɾ}} || [[Alveolar tap]] || r || Spanish pe'''r'''o |- | style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot; | {{IPA|l}} || [[Alveolar lateral approximant]] || l || '''l'''ean |- | style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot; | {{IPA|ɫ}} || [[Velarized alveolar lateral approximant]] || ll || ba'''ll''' |- | style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot; | {{IPA|j}} || [[Palatal approximant]] || j || '''y'''es |} '''Notes:''' * The contrast between flapped {{lang|sq|r}} and trilled {{lang|sq|rr}} is the almost the same as in Spanish or [[Armenian language|Armenian]]. However, in most of the dialects, as also in standard Albanian, the single {{lang|sq|r}} changes from an alveolar flap {{IPA|/ɾ/}} to an alveolar approximant {{IPA|[ɹ]}}. * The palatal nasal {{IPA|/ɲ/}} corresponds to the Spanish {{lang|es|ñ}} and the French and Italian ''gn''. It is pronounced as one sound, not a nasal plus a glide. * The {{lang|sq|ll}} sound is a velarised lateral, close to English [[dark l|dark ''l'']]. * The letter {{lang|sq|ç}} is sometimes written ''ch'' due to technical limitations, in analogy to the other digraphs {{lang|sq|xh}}, {{lang|sq|sh}}, and {{lang|sq|zh}}. Usually it is written simply {{lang|sq|c}} or more rarely {{lang|sq|q}} with context resolving any ambiguities. * The sounds spelled with {{lang|sq|q}} and {{lang|sq|gj}} show variation. They may range between occurring as palatal affricates {{IPA|[c͡ç, ɟ͡ʝ]}} or as palatal stops {{IPA|[c, ɟ]}} among dialects. Some speakers merge them into the palatoalveolar sounds {{lang|sq|ç}} and {{lang|sq|xh}}. This is especially common in Northern Gheg, but is increasingly the case in Tosk as well.&lt;ref&gt;Kolgjini, Julie M. (2004). ''Palatalisation in Albanian : an acoustic investigation of stops and affricates.'' PhD Dissertation, University of Texas at Arlington. {{ISBN|0496859366}}.&lt;/ref&gt; Other speakers reduced them into {{IPA|/j/}} in consonant clusters, such as in the word {{lang|sq|fjollë}}, which before standardisation was written as {{lang|sq|fqollë}} ( &lt; Medieval Greek {{lang|el|φακιολης}}). * The {{lang|sq|ng}} can be pronounced as {{IPA|/ŋ/}} in final position, otherwise it is an allophone of {{lang|sq|n}} before {{lang|sq|k}} and {{lang|sq|g}}. * Before {{lang|sq|q}} and {{lang|sq|gj}}, {{lang|sq|n}} is always pronounced {{IPA|/ɲ/}} but this is not reflected in the orthography. === Vowels === {| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot; |- ! ! [[Front vowel|Front]] !! [[Central vowel|Central]] !! [[Back vowel|Back]] |- ! [[Close vowel|Close]] | {{IPA link|i}} {{IPA link|y}} || || {{IPA link|u}} |- ! [[Close-mid vowel|Close-mid]] / [[Mid vowel|Mid]] | {{IPA link|e}} || {{IPA link|ə}} || {{IPA link|o}} |- ![[Open vowel|Open]] | || {{IPA link|ä|a}} || |} {| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; ! [[help:IPA|IPA]] !! Description !! Written as !! English approximation |- | style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot; | {{IPA|i}} || [[Close front unrounded vowel]] || i || s'''ee'''d |- | style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot; | {{IPA|y}} || [[Close front rounded vowel]] || y || French t'''u''', German L'''ü'''ge |- | style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot; | {{IPA|e}}|| [[Close-mid front unrounded vowel]] || e || b'''e'''ar |- | style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot; | {{IPA|a}} || [[Open central unrounded vowel]] || a || c'''ar''' |- | style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot; | {{IPA|ə}} || [[Schwa]] || ë || '''a'''bout |- | style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot; | {{IPA|o}} || [[Close-mid back rounded vowel]] || o || m'''o'''re |- | style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot; | {{IPA|u}} || [[Close back rounded vowel]] || u || p'''oo'''l |} ==== Notes ==== * {{lang|sq|ë}} can also range to an open-mid sound {{IPA|[ɜ]}} in the Northern Tosk dialect.&lt;ref name=&quot;Northern Tosk Albanian&quot;&gt;{{Cite journal|last1=Coretta|first1=Stefano|title=Northern Tosk Albanian|last2=Riverin-Coutlée|first2=Josiane|last3=Kapia|first3=Enkeleida|last4=Nichols|first4=Stephen|journal=Journal of the International Phonetic Association|year=2022|volume=53|issue=3|location=Illustration of the IPA|pages=1–23|doi=10.1017/S0025100322000044|doi-access=free|hdl=20.500.11820/ebce2ea3-f955-4fa5-9178-e1626fbae15f|hdl-access=free}}&lt;/ref&gt; * Mid sounds {{IPA|/e, o/}} can also be heard as more open-mid sounds {{IPA|[ɛ, ɔ]}}, in free variation.{{Sfn|Buchholz|Fiedler|1987|p=28-31}} ==== Schwa ==== The schwa in Albanian has a great degree of variability from extreme back to extreme front articulation.&lt;ref name=&quot;schwa&quot;&gt;{{cite web|url=http://www.kfs.oeaw.ac.at/publications/2001_granser_moosmueller_the_schwa_in_albanian.pdf|title=The schwa in Albanian|last1=Granser|first1=Thedor|last2=Moosmüller|first2=Sylvia|publisher=Institute of Acoustics of the Austrian Academy of Sciences|access-date=15 December 2010}}&lt;/ref&gt; Although the Indo-European [[schwa]] ({{lang|ine-x-proto|ə}} or {{lang|ine-x-proto|-h₂-}}) was preserved in Albanian, in some cases it was lost, possibly when a [[stressed syllable]] preceded it.{{sfn|Orel|2000|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=xvKH56aT5mEC&amp;dq=schwa+proto-Albanian&amp;pg=PA3 3]}} Until the standardisation of the modern [[Albanian alphabet]], in which the schwa is spelled as {{angbr|ë}}, as in the work of [[Gjon Buzuku]] in the 16th century, various vowel letters and digraphs were employed, including {{angbr|ae}} by [[Lekë Matrënga]] and {{angbr|é}} by [[Pjetër Bogdani]] in the late 16th and early 17th century.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|url=https://openaccess.leidenuniv.nl/bitstream/1887/14920/2/de+Vaan+-+PIE+e+in+Albanian.pdf|title=PIE *e in Albanian|last=de Vaan|first=Michiel|page=72|access-date=16 December 2010}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;Elsie(London2005&quot;&gt;{{cite book|last1=Elsie|first1=Robert|last2=London Centre for Albanian Studies|title=Albanian literature: a short history|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ox3Wx1Nl_2MC&amp;q=schwa+albanian&amp;pg=PA16|year=2005|publisher=I.B.Tauris|isbn=978-1-84511-031-4|page=16}}&lt;/ref&gt; Within the borders of Albania, the phoneme is pronounced about the same in both the Tosk and the Gheg dialect due to the influence of standard Albanian. However, in the Gheg dialects spoken in the neighbouring Albanian-speaking areas of Kosovo and North Macedonia, the phoneme is still{{clarify|date=June 2023}} pronounced as back and rounded.&lt;ref name=&quot;schwa&quot; /&gt; == Grammar == {{see also|Albanian morphology}} Albanian has a canonical word order of [[subject–verb–object|SVO]] (subject–verb–object) like English and many other Indo-European languages.&lt;ref&gt;Maxwell, Daniel Newhall. (1979). A Crosslinguistic Correlation between Word Order and Casemarking institution. Bloomington: Indiana University Pub.&lt;/ref&gt; Albanian [[noun]]s are categorised by [[Grammatical gender|gender]] (masculine, feminine and neuter) and [[Albanian morphology|inflected]] for [[Grammatical number|number]] (singular and plural) and [[grammatical case|case]]. There are five [[declension]]s and six cases ([[nominative]], [[accusative]], [[genitive]], [[dative case|dative]], [[ablative]], and [[vocative]]), although the vocative only occurs with a limited number of words (such as '{{lang|sq|bir}}' (&quot;son&quot;), vocative case: {{lang|sq|biro}}, {{lang|sq|zog}} (&quot;bird&quot;) vocative case: {{lang|sq|zogo}}&lt;ref name=&quot;:2&quot;&gt;Breu, W. (2021) Italo-Albanian: Balkan Inheritance and Romance Influence p. 154&lt;/ref&gt;), and the forms of the genitive and dative are identical (a genitive construction employs the prepositions {{lang|sq|i/e/të/së}} alongside dative morphemes). Some dialects also retain a locative case, which is not present in standard Albanian (e.g. &quot;{{lang|sq|në malt}}&quot; loc.sg.def&lt;ref name=&quot;:2&quot; /&gt;). The cases apply to both definite and indefinite nouns, and there are numerous cases of [[syncretism (linguistics)|syncretism]]. The following shows the declension of {{lang|sq|mal}} (mountain), a noun in the masculine class which takes &quot;i&quot; in the definite singular: {| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; |- ! rowspan=&quot;2&quot; | ! colspan=&quot;2&quot; | Indefinite ! colspan=&quot;2&quot; | Definite |- ! singular || plural ! singular || plural |- ! [[Nominative]] | {{lang|sq|një mal}} (a mountain) || {{lang|sq|male}} (several mountains) ||{{lang|sq|mali}} (the mountain) || {{lang|sq|malet}} (the mountains) |- ! [[Accusative]] | {{lang|sq|një mal}} || {{lang|sq|male}} || {{lang|sq|malin}} || {{lang|sq|malet}} |- ! [[Genitive]] | {{lang|sq|i/e/të/së një mali}} || {{lang|sq|i/e/të/së maleve}} || {{lang|sq|i/e/të/së malit}} || {{lang|sq|i/e/të/së maleve}} |- ! [[Dative]] | {{lang|sq|një mali}} || {{lang|sq|maleve}} || {{lang|sq|malit}} || {{lang|sq|maleve}} |- ! [[Ablative]] | {{lang|sq|(prej) një mali}} || {{lang|sq|(prej) malesh}} || {{lang|sq|(prej) malit}} || {{lang|sq|(prej) maleve}} |} The following shows the declension of the noun {{lang|sq|zog}} (bird), a noun in the masculine class which takes &quot;u&quot; in the definite singular: {| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; |- ! rowspan=&quot;2&quot; | ! colspan=&quot;2&quot; | Indefinite ! colspan=&quot;2&quot; | Definite |- ! singular || plural ! singular || plural |- ! [[Nominative]] | {{lang|sq|një zog}} (a bird) || {{lang|sq|zogj}} (birds) || {{lang|sq|zogu}} (the bird) || {{lang|sq|zogjtë}} (the birds) |- ! [[Accusative]] | {{lang|sq|një zog}} || {{lang|sq|zogj}} || {{lang|sq|zogun}} || {{lang|sq|zogjtë}} |- ! [[Genitive]] | {{lang|sq|i/e/të/së një zogu}} || {{lang|sq|i/e/të/së zogjve}} || {{lang|sq|i/e/të/së zogut}} || {{lang|sq|i/e/të/së zogjve}} |- ! [[Dative]] | {{lang|sq|një zogu}} || {{lang|sq|zogjve}} || {{lang|sq|zogut}} || {{lang|sq|zogjve}} |- ! [[Ablative]] | {{lang|sq|(prej) një zogu}} || {{lang|sq|(prej) zogjsh}} || {{lang|sq|(prej) zogut}} || {{lang|sq|(prej) zogjve}} |} The following table shows the declension of the noun {{lang|sq|vajzë}} (girl) in the feminine class: {| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; |- ! rowspan=&quot;2&quot; | ! colspan=&quot;2&quot; | Indefinite ! colspan=&quot;2&quot; | Definite |- ! singular || plural ! singular || plural |- ! [[Nominative]] | {{lang|sq|një vajzë}} (a girl) || {{lang|sq|vajza}} (girls) || {{lang|sq|vajza}} (the girl) || {{lang|sq|vajzat}} (the girls) |- ! [[Accusative]] | {{lang|sq|një vajzë}} || {{lang|sq|vajza}} || {{lang|sq|vajzën}} || {{lang|sq|vajzat}} |- ! [[Genitive]] | {{lang|sq|i/e/të/së një vajze}} || {{lang|sq|i/e/të/së vajzave}} || {{lang|sq|i/e/të/së vajzës}} || {{lang|sq|i/e/të/së vajzave}} |- ! [[Dative]] | {{lang|sq|një vajze}} || {{lang|sq|vajzave}} || {{lang|sq|vajzës}} || {{lang|sq|vajzave}} |- ! [[Ablative]] | {{lang|sq|(prej) një vajze}} || {{lang|sq|(prej) vajzash}} || {{lang|sq|(prej) vajzës}} || {{lang|sq|(prej) vajzave}} |} The definite article is placed after the noun as in many other [[Balkan languages]], like in [[Romanian language|Romanian]], [[Macedonian language|Macedonian]] and [[Bulgarian language|Bulgarian]]. * The definite article can be in the form of noun suffixes, which vary with gender and case. ** For example, in singular nominative, masculine nouns add {{lang|sq|-i}}, or those ending in {{lang|sq|-g}}/{{lang|sq|-k}}/{{lang|sq|-h}} take {{lang|sq|-u}} (to avoid palatalization): *** {{lang|sq|mal}} (mountain) / {{lang|sq|mali}} (the mountain); *** {{lang|sq|libër}} (book) / {{lang|sq|libri}} (the book); *** {{lang|sq|zog}} (bird) / {{lang|sq|zogu}} (the bird). ** Nouns in the feminine class take the suffix {{lang|sq|-(i/j)a}}: *** {{lang|sq|veturë}} (car) / {{lang|sq|vetura}} (the car); *** {{lang|sq|shtëpi}} (house) / {{lang|sq|shtëpia}} (the house); *** {{lang|sq|lule}} (flower) / {{lang|sq|lulja}} (the flower). * Nouns in the neuter class take {{lang|sq|-t}}. Albanian has developed an analytical [[verb]]al structure in place of the earlier synthetic system, inherited from [[Proto-Indo-European language|Proto-Indo-European]]. Its complex system of [[Grammatical mood|mood]]s (six types) and [[Grammatical tense|tense]]s (three simple and five complex constructions) is distinctive among [[Balkan languages]]. There are two general types of [[Grammatical conjugation|conjugations]]. Albanian has a series of [[verb form]]s called miratives or [[admirative]]s. These may express surprise on the part of the speaker, but may also have other functions, such as expressing [[irony]], [[doubt]], or [[reportedness]].&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book|first=Victor A.|last=Friedman|chapter=Evidentiality in the Balkans: Bulgarian, Macedonian and Albanian|pages=168–187|title=Evidentiality: The Linguistic Coding of Epistemology|editor-first1=Wallace L.|editor-last1=Chafe|editor-first2=Johanna|editor-last2=Nichols|publisher=Ablex|year=1986|isbn=978-0-89391-203-1|chapter-url=http://mahimahi.uchicago.edu/media/faculty/vfriedm/040Friedman86.pdf|access-date=12 May 2023|archive-date=29 March 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180329121918/http://mahimahi.uchicago.edu/media/faculty/vfriedm/040Friedman86.pdf|url-status=dead}} p. 180.&lt;/ref&gt; The Albanian use of admirative forms is unique in the [[Balkan sprachbund|Balkan context]]. In English, the expression of surprise can be rendered by 'oh, look!' or 'lookee there!'; the expression of doubt can be rendered by 'indeed!'; the expression of neutral reportedness can be rendered by 'apparently'.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book|last=Friedman|first=Victor|author-link=Victor Friedman|editor-last=Scaldaferri|editor-first=Nicola|title=Wild Songs, Sweet Songs: The Albanian Epic in the Collections of Milman Parry and Albert B. Lord|chapter=The Epic Admirative in Albanian|volume=5|series=Publications of the Milman Parry Collection of Oral Literature Series|others=In collaboration with Victor Friedman, John Kolsti, Zymer U. Neziri|publisher=Harvard University, Center for Hellenic Studies|year=2021|isbn=9780674271333|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=WF-azgEACAAJ}}&lt;/ref&gt; * {{lang|sq|Ti '''flet''' shqip.}} &quot;You '''speak''' Albanian.&quot; (indicative) * {{lang|sq|Ti '''folke''' shqip!}} &quot;You '''(surprisingly) speak''' Albanian!&quot; (admirative) * {{lang|sq|Rruga '''është''' e mbyllur.}} &quot;The street '''is''' closed.&quot; (indicative) * {{lang|sq|Rruga '''qenka''' e mbyllur.}} &quot;'''(Apparently,)''' The street '''is''' closed.&quot; (admirative) For more information on verb conjugation and on inflection of other parts of speech, see [[Albanian morphology]]. === Word order === Albanian word order is relatively free.{{citation needed|date=November 2019}} To say '{{lang|sq|Agim ate all the oranges}}' in Albanian, one may use any of the following orders, with slight pragmatic differences: * [[subject–verb–object|SVO]]: {{lang|sq|Agimi i hëngri të gjithë portokallët.}} * [[subject–object–verb|SOV]]: {{lang|sq|Agimi të gjithë portokallët i hëngri.}} * [[Object–verb–subject|OVS]]: {{lang|sq|Të gjithë portokallët i hëngri Agimi.}} * [[Object–subject–verb|OSV]]: {{lang|sq|Të gjithë portokallët Agimi i hëngri.}} * [[Verb–subject–object|VSO]]: {{lang|sq|I hëngri Agimi të gjithë portokallët.}} * [[Verb–object–subject|VOS]]: {{lang|sq|I hëngri të gjithë portokallët Agimi.}} However, the most common order is [[subject–verb–object]]. The verb can optionally occur in sentence-initial position, especially with verbs in the passive form (''{{lang|sq|forma joveprore}}''): * '''{{lang|sq|Parashikohet}}''' {{lang|sq|një ndërprerje}} &quot;An interruption '''is anticipated'''&quot;. === Negation === Verbal negation in Albanian is mood-dependent, a trait shared with some fellow [[Indo-European languages]] such as [[Greek language|Greek]]. In indicative, conditional, or admirative sentences, negation is expressed by the particles {{lang|sq|nuk}} or ''s''' in front of the verb, for example: * ''{{lang|sq|Toni nuk flet anglisht}}'' &quot;Tony does not speak English&quot;; * ''{{lang|sq|Toni s'flet anglisht}}'' &quot;Tony doesn't speak English&quot;; * ''{{lang|sq|Nuk e di}}'' &quot;I do not know&quot;; * ''{{lang|sq|S'e di}}'' &quot;I don't know&quot;. Subjunctive, imperative, optative, or non-finite forms of verbs are negated with the particle ''mos'': * ''{{lang|sq|Mos harro}}'' &quot;Do not forget!&quot;. == Numerals == {| |- | valign=&quot;top&quot; | {| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; |- | një—one | tetëmbëdhjetë—eighteen |- | dy—two | nëntëmbëdhjetë—nineteen |- | tri/tre—three | '''njëzet'''—twenty |- | katër—four | njëzet e një—twenty-one |- | pesë—five | njëzet e dy—twenty-two |- | gjashtë—six | tridhjetë—thirty |- | shtatë—seven | '''dyzet'''/katërdhjetë—forty |- | tetë—eight | pesëdhjetë—fifty |- | nëntë—nine | gjashtëdhjetë—sixty |- | dhjetë—ten | shtatëdhjetë—seventy |- | njëmbëdhjetë—eleven | tetëdhjetë—eighty |- | dymbëdhjetë—twelve | nëntëdhjetë—ninety |- | trembëdhjetë—thirteen | njëqind—one hundred |- | katërmbëdhjetë—fourteen | pesëqind—five hundred |- | pesëmbëdhjetë—fifteen | një mijë—one thousand |- | gjashtëmbëdhjetë—sixteen | një milion—one million |- | shtatëmbëdhjetë—seventeen | një miliard—one billion |} |} === Notes === * In certain dialects, numerals with an extra syllable may undergo metrical syncope. For example, {{lang|sq|pesëmbëdhjetë}} becomes {{lang|sq|pesëmet}}.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book |last1=Hamp |first1=Eric Pratt |editor1-last=Gvozdanovic |editor1-first=Jadranka |title=Indo-European Numerals |date=3 June 2011 |publisher=Walter de Gruyter |isbn=978-3-11-085846-4 |page=869 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=HmbWRnaridAC |language=en |chapter=Albanian}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal |title=Vëzhgime rreth të folmëve të banorëve të Bregut të Matës, ishullit të Lezhës dhe ishullit të Shëngjinit |first=Gjovalin |last=Shkurtaj |date=1972 |journal=Studime Filologjike |issue=2 |publisher=Akademia e Shkencave e RPSSH, Instituti i Gjuhësisë dhe i Letërsisë |page=96 |language=sq}}&lt;/ref&gt; === Vigesimal system === Beside the Indo-European decimal numeration, there are also remnants of the [[Vigesimal|vigesimal system]], as {{lang|sq|njëzet}} {{gloss|twenty}} and {{lang|sq|dyzet}} {{gloss|forty}}. The [[Arbëreshë people|Arbëreshë]] in Italy and [[Arvanites]] in Greece may still use {{lang|sq|trezet}} {{gloss|sixty}} and {{lang|sq|katërzet}} {{gloss|eighty}}. Albanian is the only Balkan language that has preserved the [[Pre-Indo-European languages|Pre-Indo-European]] vigesimal system.{{sfn|Demiraj|2006|p=43}} == Lexicon == {{Cleanup lang|section|date=April 2020}} Albanian is known within historical linguistics as a case of a language which, although surviving through many periods of foreign rule and multilingualism, saw a &quot;disproportionately high&quot; influx of [[Loanword|loans]] from other languages augmenting and replacing much of its original [[vocabulary]].&lt;ref name=Matasovic6/&gt;{{clarify|date=September 2022}} Of all the foreign influences in Albanian, the deepest reaching and most impactful was the absorption of loans from Latin in the Classical period and its Romance successors afterward. Scholars have estimated a great number of Latin loanwords in Albanian, some even claiming 60% of the Albanian vocabulary.&lt;ref name=&quot;Sawicka&quot;&gt;[[Irena Natalia Sawicka|Sawicka, Irena]]. [https://ispan.waw.pl/journals/index.php/ch/article/view/ch.2013.006/117 &quot;A Crossroad Between West, East and Orient–The Case of Albanian Culture.&quot;] Colloquia Humanistica. No. 2. Instytut Slawistyki Polskiej Akademii Nauk, 2013. Page 97: &quot;Even according to Albanian linguists, Albanian vocabulary is composed in 60 percent of Latin words from different periods... When albanological studies were just emerging, it happened that Albanian was classified as a Romance language. Already there exists the idea of a common origin of both Albanian and Rumanian languages. The Rumanian grammar is almost identical to that of Albanian, but it may be as well the effect of later convergence within the Balkan Sprachbund..&quot;&lt;/ref&gt; Major work in reconstructing Proto-Albanian has been done with the help of knowledge of the original forms of loans from Ancient Greek, Latin and Slavic, while Ancient Greek loanwords are scarce the Latin loanwords are of extreme importance in [[phonology]].{{sfn|Orel|2000|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=xvKH56aT5mEC&amp;pg=PA23 23]}} The presence of loanwords from more well-studied languages from time periods before Albanian was attested, reaching deep back into the Classical Era, has been of great use in phonological reconstructions for earlier ancient and medieval forms of Albanian.&lt;ref name=Matasovic6&gt;Matasovic, Ranko (2018). [http://mudrac.ffzg.unizg.hr/~rmatasov/Albanian.pdf ''A Grammatical Sketch of Albanian for students of Indo-European'']. p. 6.&lt;/ref&gt; Some words in the core vocabulary of Albanian have no known etymology linking them to Proto-Indo-European or any known source language, and as of 2018 are thus tentatively attributed to an unknown, unattested, pre-Indo-European substrate language; some words among these include {{lang|sq|zemër}} (heart) and {{lang|sq|hekur}} (iron).&lt;ref&gt;Matasovic, Ranko (2018). Page 35.&lt;/ref&gt; Some among these putative pre-IE words are thought to be related to putative pre-IE substrate words in neighboring Indo-European languages, such as {{lang|sq|lule}} (flower), which has been tentatively linked to Latin {{lang|sq|lilia}} and Greek {{lang|el-Latn|leirion}}.{{sfn|Orel|2000|p=191}} Lexical distance of Albanian to other languages in a [[Lexicostatistics|lexicostatistical]] analysis by Ukrainian linguist Tyshchenko shows the following results (the lower figure, the higher similarity): 49% [[Slovenian language|Slovenian]], 53% [[Romanian language|Romanian]], 56% [[Greek language|Greek]], 82% [[French language|French]], 86% [[Macedonian language|Macedonian]], 86% [[Bulgarian language|Bulgarian]].&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |title=Excel File_Lexical-Distance-Matrix |url=https://alternativetransport.wordpress.com/lexical-distance-matrix/ |website=Alternative Transport |date=19 November 2016}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |title=How much does language change when it travels? |url=https://alternativetransport.wordpress.com/2015/05/04/how-much-does-language-change-when-it-travels/ |website=Alternative Transport |date=4 May 2015}}&lt;/ref&gt; === Cognates with Illyrian === {{See also|Proposed Illyrian vocabulary}} {| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; |+ !Illyrian term !description !Corresponding Albanian term |- |{{lang|xil|Andena}}, {{lang|xil|Andes}}, {{lang|xil|Andio}}, {{lang|xil|Antis}} |Personal Illyrian names based on a root-word {{lang|sq|and-}} or {{lang|sq|ant-}}, found in both the southern and the Dalmatian-Pannonian (including modern Bosnia and Herzegovina) onomastic provinces |Alb. {{lang|sq|andë}} (northern Albanian dialect, or Gheg) and {{lang|sq|ëndë}} (southern Albanian dialect or Tosk) &quot;appetite, pleasure, desire, wish&quot;&lt;ref name=&quot;balkancenter.org&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |last1=Adzanela |first1=Ardian |date=1 January 1970 |title=Cultural Treasure of Bosnia and Herzegovina edition-Prehistoric and Ancient Period- Book 2- Illyrian Bosnia and Herzegovina-an Overview of a Cultural Legacy/ Ancient Illyrians of Bosnia and Herzegovina {{pipe}} Ardian Adžanela Adzanela Axhanela |url=https://www.academia.edu/2490281 |website=Academia.edu}}&lt;/ref&gt; |- |{{lang|xil|aran}} |&quot;field&quot; |Alb. {{lang|sq|arë}}; plural {{lang|sq|ara}}&lt;ref name=&quot;Mann1977&quot;&gt;{{cite book |author=Suart E. Mann |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=3LJiAAAAMAAJ&amp;q=aran+%2B+Illyrian |title=An Albanian Historical Grammar |publisher=Buske |year=1977 |isbn=978-3-87118-262-4}}&lt;/ref&gt; |- |{{lang|xil|Ardiaioi/Ardiaei}} |name of an Illyrian people |connected to {{lang|sq|hardhi}} &quot;vine-branch, grape-vine&quot;, with a sense development similar to Germanic *stamniz, meaning both {{lang|sq|stem, tree stalk}} and {{lang|sq|tribe, lineage}}.&lt;!-- Do not add &quot;ardhja&quot;, insufficient linguistical evidence --&gt;{{citation needed|date=September 2011}} |- |{{lang|xil|Bilia}} |&quot;daughter&quot; |Alb. {{lang|sq|bijë}}, dial. {{lang|sq|bilë}}&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=8D5mAAAAMAAJ&amp;q=bilia+Illyrian+albanian |title=Sborník prací Filozofické fakulty brněnské univerzity : Řada klasická |date=3 June 2008}}&lt;/ref&gt; |- |{{lang|xil|Bindo/[[Bindus (Illyrian god)|Bindus]]}} |an Illyrian deity, cf. [[Bihać]], [[Bosnia and Herzegovina]] |Alb. {{lang|sq|bind}} &quot;to convince&quot; or &quot;to make believe&quot;, {{lang|sq|përbindësh}} &quot;monster&quot;&lt;ref&gt;Ushaku, Ruzhdi, Hulumtime etnoliguistike, chapter: The continuation of Illyrian Bind in Albanian Mythology and Language, Fakulteti filologjise, Prishtine, 2000, p. 46-48&lt;/ref&gt; |- |''*''{{lang|xil|bounon}} |&quot;hut, cottage&quot; |Alb {{lang|sq|bun}}&lt;ref name=&quot;Mayani 1962&quot;&gt;{{cite book |last=Mayani |first=Zĕchariă |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=MMMkAAAAMAAJ&amp;q=drenis+%2B+Illyrian |title=The Etruscans begin to speak |publisher=Souvenir Press |year=1962}}&lt;/ref&gt; |- |''*''{{lang|xil|brisa}} |&quot;husk of grapes&quot; |Alb {{lang|sq|bërsí}} &quot;lees, dregs; mash&quot; ( &lt; PA *{{lang|sq|brutiā}})&lt;ref name=&quot;IG&quot;&gt;{{cite web |title=Illyrian Glossary |url=http://indoeuro.bizland.com/project/glossary/illy.html |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110617033012/http://indoeuro.bizland.com/project/glossary/illy.html |archive-date=17 June 2011 |publisher=bizland.com}}&lt;/ref&gt; |- |{{lang|xil|Barba-}} |&quot;swamp&quot;, toponym from {{lang|sq|Metubarbis}} |Alb. {{lang|sq|bërrakë}} &quot;swampy soil&quot;&lt;ref name=&quot;IG&quot; /&gt; |- |{{lang|xil|Daesitiates}} |name of an Illyrian people |Alb. {{lang|sq|dash}} &quot;ram&quot;, corresponding contextually with south Slavonic {{lang|sq|dasa}} &quot;ace&quot;, which might represent a borrowing and adaptation from Illyrian or even Proto-Albanian&lt;!-- Do not remove, that is what the source says --&gt;.&lt;ref name=&quot;balkancenter.org&quot; /&gt; |- |''*{{lang|xil|mal}}'' |&quot;mountain&quot; |Alb {{lang|sq|mal}} &quot;mountain&quot;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book |last=Stipčević |first=Aleksandar |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=NLcWAQAAIAAJ&amp;q=mal+%2B+Illyrian |title=The Illyrians: history and culture |publisher=Noyes Press |year=1977 |isbn=9780815550525}}&lt;/ref&gt; |- |''*''{{lang|xil|bardi}} |&quot;white&quot; |Alb {{lang|sq|bardhë}} &quot;white&quot;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book |author=Linguistic Society of America |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=9_04AAAAMAAJ&amp;q=bardi+%2B+Illyrian |title=Language, Volumes 1–3 |publisher=Linguistic Society of America |year=1964}}&lt;/ref&gt; |- |''*''{{lang|xil|drakoina}} |&quot;supper&quot; |Alb. {{lang|sq|darke}}, {{lang|sq|dreke}} &quot;supper, dinner&quot;{{sfn|Orel|1998}}{{page needed|date=December 2023}} |- |''*''{{lang|xil|drenis}} |&quot;deer&quot; |Alb. indef. {{Lang|sq|dre}}, def. {{Lang|sq|dreni}} &quot;deer&quot;&lt;ref name=&quot;Mayani 1962&quot; /&gt; |- |''*''{{lang|xil|delme}} |&quot;sheep&quot; |Alb. {{Lang|sq|dele}}, Gheg {{Lang|sq|delme}} &quot;sheep&quot;&lt;ref name=&quot;Millennium Studies&quot;&gt;{{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=dSrxcnuJn44C&amp;q=delme+%2B+Illyrian&amp;pg=PA152 |title=Diokletian und die Tetrarchie: Aspekte einer Zeitenwende |publisher=Millennium Studies |year=2004 |isbn=9783110182309}}&lt;/ref&gt; |- |''*''{{lang|xil|dard}} |&quot;pear&quot; |Alb. {{lang|sq|dardhë}} &quot;pear&quot;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book |last1=Price |first1=Roberto Salinas |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=G4sYfFuSfekC&amp;q=dardhe+%2B+illyrian&amp;pg=PA72 |title=Homeric whispers: intimations of orthodoxy in the Iliad and Odyssey |year=2006 |isbn=9780910865111 |page=72|publisher=Scylax Press}}&lt;/ref&gt; |- |{{lang|xil|sīca}} |&quot;dagger&quot; |Alb indef. {{lang|sq|thikë}} or def. {{lang|sq|thika}} &quot;knife&quot;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book |last1=Eggebrecht |first1=Arne |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=MyOFAAAAIAAJ&amp;q=sica+thika |title=Albanien: Schätze aus dem Land der Skipetaren |author2=Roemer-Museum |author3=Pelizaeus-Museum |year=1988 |publisher=P. von Zabern |isbn=9783805309783}}&lt;/ref&gt; |- |{{lang|xil|Ulc-}} |&quot;wolf&quot; (pln. {{lang|sq|Ulcinium}}) |Alb {{lang|sq|ujk}} &quot;wolf&quot;, {{lang|sq|ulk}} (Northern Dialect)&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=0c9CAAAAIAAJ&amp;q=%22ulk%22+%2B+Illyrian |title=Ancient Indo-European dialects: proceedings, Volume 1963 |publisher=Millennium Studies |year=1966}}&lt;/ref&gt; |- |''*''{{lang|xil|loúgeon}} |&quot;pool&quot; |Alb {{lang|sq|lag}}, {{lang|sq|legen}} &quot;to wet, soak, bathe, wash&quot; ( &lt; PA * {{lang|sq|lauga}}), {{lang|sq|lëgatë}} &quot;pool&quot; ( &lt; PA *{{lang|sq|leugatâ}}), {{lang|sq|lakshte}} &quot;dew&quot; ( &lt; PA {{lang|sq|laugista}})&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite book |last=Suart E. |first=Mann |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=3LJiAAAAMAAJ&amp;q=lo%C3%BAgeon+%2B+Illyrian |title=An Albanian Historical Grammar |publisher=Buske |year=1977 |isbn=9783871182624 |location=Hamburg}}&lt;/ref&gt; |- |''*''{{lang|xil|mag-}} |&quot;great&quot; |Alb. {{lang|sq|madh}} &quot;big, great&quot;&lt;ref name=&quot;IG&quot; /&gt; |- |''*''{{lang|xil|mantía}} |&quot;bramblebush&quot; |Old and dial. Alb {{lang|sq|mandë}} &quot;berry, mulberry&quot; (mod. Alb {{lang|sq|mën, man}}){{citation needed|date=September 2011}} |- |{{lang|xil|rhinos}} |&quot;fog, mist&quot; |Old Alb {{lang|sq|ren}} &quot;cloud&quot; (mod. Alb {{lang|sq|re, rê}}) ( &lt; PA *{{lang|sq|rina}})&lt;ref&gt;{{harvnb|Fortson|2010|p=465}}&lt;/ref&gt; |- |{{lang|xil|Vendum}} |&quot;place&quot; |Proto-Alb. wen-ta (Mod. Alb. vend){{sfn|Orel|1998}}{{page needed|date=December 2023}} |} === Early linguistic influences === The earliest [[loanword]]s attested in Albanian come from [[Doric Greek]],&lt;ref name=&quot;huld&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |author=Huld, Martin E. |title=Accentual Stratification of Ancient Greek Loanwords in Albanian |journal=Zeitschrift für vergleichende Sprachforschung |volume=99 |issue=2 |year=1986 |pages=245–253}}&lt;/ref&gt; whereas the strongest influence came from [[Latin]].&lt;ref&gt;{{harvnb|Orel|2000|p=23 |ps=: &quot;Latin loanwords are of extreme importance for the history of Albanian phonology, especially its vocalism. The duration of the borrowing was so long that loanwords reflect several distinct chronological stages.&quot;}}&lt;/ref&gt; Some scholars argue that Albanian originated from an area located east of its present geographic spread due to the several [[Albanian–Romanian linguistic relationship|common lexical items]] found between the Albanian and [[Romanian language|Romanian]] languages. However it does not necessarily define the genealogical history of Albanian language, and it does not exclude the possibility of [[Proto-Albanian language|Proto-Albanian]] presence in both [[Illyrians|Illyrian]] and [[Thracians|Thracian]] territory.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book |last1=Curtis |first1=Matthew Cowan |title=Slavic-Albanian language contact, convergence, and coexistence |url=https://eric.ed.gov/?id=ED546136 |pages=17–18 |language=en |quote=One other point that some scholars make is the fact that Albanian and Romanian share many lexical items; this has led some to believe that Albanian originated east of its present geographical spread (Georgiev 1957; Hamp 1994)...it does not necessarily determine the genealogical history of the language, nor does it rule out the possibility of Proto-Albanian being present in both Illyrian and Thracian territory.|isbn=9781267580337 |date=30 November 2011}}&lt;/ref&gt; The period during which Proto-Albanian and Latin interacted was protracted, lasting from the 2nd century&amp;nbsp;BC to the 5th century&amp;nbsp;AD.{{sfn|Mallory|Adams|1997|p=9}} Over this period, the lexical borrowings can be roughly divided into three layers, the second of which is the largest. The first and smallest occurred at the time of less significant interaction. The final period, probably preceding the [[Migration Period|Slavic or Germanic invasions]], also has a notably smaller number of borrowings. Each layer is characterised by a different treatment of most vowels: the first layer follows the evolution of Early Proto-Albanian into Albanian; while later layers reflect vowel changes endemic to Late Latin (and presumably [[Proto-Romance language|Proto-Romance]]). Other formative changes include the syncretism of several noun case endings, especially in the plural, as well as a large-scale palatalisation. A brief period followed, between the 7th and the 9th centuries, that was marked by heavy borrowings from [[South Slavic languages|South Slavic]], some of which predate the &quot;o-a&quot; shift common to the modern forms of this language group. ==== Early Greek loans ==== There are some 30 [[Ancient Greek]] loanwords in [[Proto-Albanian language|Proto-Albanian]].&lt;ref name=&quot;Linguistics p.412&quot;/&gt; Many of these reflect a dialect which voiced its aspirants, as did the Macedonian dialect. Other loanwords are Doric; these words mainly refer to commodity items and trade goods and probably came through trade with a now-extinct intermediary.&lt;ref name=&quot;huld&quot;/&gt; * {{lang|sq|drapër}}; &quot;sickle&quot; &lt; ([[Northwest Greek]]) {{lang|grc|drápanon}}&lt;ref name=&quot;Ancient Indo-European Dialects p.102&quot;&gt;Ancient Indo-European dialects: proceedings, Volume 1963 Ancient Indo-European Dialects: Proceedings, University of California, Los Angeles. Center for Research in Languages and Linguistics Authors Henrik Birnbaum, Jaan Puhvel, University of California, Los Angeles. Center for Research in Languages and Linguistics Editors Henrik Birnbaum, Jaan Puhvel Publisher University of California Press, 1966 p.102&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;huld&quot;/&gt; * {{lang|sq|bletë}}; &quot;hive, bee&quot; &lt; Attic {{lang|grc|mélitta}} &quot;bee&quot; (vs. Ionic {{lang|grc|mélissa}}).&lt;ref&gt;{{harvnb|Orel|2000}} postulates a Vulgar Latin intermediary for no good reason. Mallory &amp; Adams (1997) erroneously give the word as native, from *{{lang|grc|melítiā}}, the protoform underlying Greek {{lang|grc|mélissa}}; however, this protoform gave Albanian {{lang|sq|mjalcë}} &quot;bee&quot;, which is a natural derivative of Proto-Albanian * {{lang|sq|melita}}; &quot;honey&quot; (mod. {{lang|sq|mjaltë}}).&lt;/ref&gt; * {{lang|sq|kumbull}}; &quot;plum&quot; &lt; {{lang|grc|kokkúmelon}}&lt;ref name=&quot;Ancient Indo-European Dialects p.102&quot;/&gt; * {{lang|sq|lakër}}; &quot;cabbage, green vegetables&quot; &lt; {{lang|grc|lákhanon}} &quot;green; vegetable&quot;{{sfn|Orel|2000|p=23}} * {{lang|sq|lëpjetë}}; &quot;orach, dock&quot; &lt; {{lang|grc|lápathon}}{{sfn|Orel|2000|p=102}} * {{lang|sq|lyej}}; &quot;to smear, to oil&quot;&lt; Proto-Albanian *elaiwanja &lt; *elaiwa (olive oil) &lt; Greek elaion {{sfn|Orel|1998|p=236}} * {{lang|sq|mokër}}; &quot;millstone&quot; &lt; (Northwest) {{lang|grc|mākhaná}} &quot;device, instrument&quot;&lt;ref name=&quot;Linguistics p.412&quot;&gt;The Field of Linguistics, Volume 2 Volume 1 of World of linguistics Authors Bernd Kortmann, Johan Van Der Auwera Editors Bernd Kortmann, Johan Van Der Auwera Publisher Walter de Gruyter, 2010 {{ISBN|3-11-022025-3}}, {{ISBN|978-3-11-022025-4}} p.412&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;huld&quot;/&gt; * {{lang|sq|mollë}}; &quot;apple&quot; &lt; {{lang|grc|mēlon}} &quot;fruit&quot;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite book |title=Les mots latins de l'albanais |last=Bonnet |first=Guillaum |publisher=L'Harmattan |year=1998 |location=Paris |pages=324}}&lt;/ref&gt; * {{lang|sq|pëllëmbë}}; &quot;palm of the hand&quot; &lt; {{lang|grc|palámā}}{{sfn|Orel|1998|p=318}} * {{lang|sq|pjepër}}; &quot;melon&quot; &lt; {{lang|grc|pépōn}}&lt;ref name=&quot;huld&quot;/&gt; * {{lang|sq|presh}}; &quot;leek&quot; &lt; {{lang|grc|práson}}{{sfn|Orel|2000|p=23}} * {{lang|sq|trumzë}}; &quot;thyme&quot; &lt; (Northwest) {{lang|grc|thýmbrā}}, {{lang|grc|thrýmbrē}}&lt;ref name=&quot;Ancient Indo-European Dialects p.102&quot;/&gt; * {{lang|sq|pellg}}; &quot;pond, pool&quot; &lt; {{lang|grc|pélagos}} &quot;high sea&quot;{{sfn|Orel|2000|p=264}} According to Huld (1986), the following come from a Greek dialect without any significant attestation called &quot;Makedonian&quot; because it was akin to the native idiom of the Greek-speaking population in the Argead kingdom:&lt;ref name=&quot;huld&quot;/&gt; * {{lang|sq|llërë}}; &quot;elbow&quot; &lt; *{{lang|grc|ὠlénā}}&lt;ref name=&quot;huld&quot;/&gt; * {{lang|sq|brukë}}; &quot;tamarisk&quot; &lt; *{{lang|grc|mīrýkhā}}&lt;ref name=&quot;huld&quot;/&gt; * {{lang|sq|mëllagë}}; 'mallow' &lt; *{{lang|grc|malákhā}} (with the reflex of /ɡ/ for Greek &lt;χ&gt; indicating a dialectal voicing of the what came as an aspirate stop from Greek)&lt;ref name=&quot;huld&quot;/&gt; * {{lang|sq|maraj}} &quot;fennel&quot; &lt; *{{lang|grc|márathrion}} (cf Romanian {{lang|ro|mărar(iu)}}, Ionic {{lang|grc|márathron}}; with the Albanian simplification of -dri̯- to -j- reflecting that of earlier *{{lang|grc|udri̯om}} to {{lang|sq|ujë}} &quot;water&quot;)&lt;ref name=&quot;huld&quot;/&gt; ==== Latin influence ==== {{See also|Albanian–Romanian linguistic relationship}} Scholars have estimated a great number of Latin loanwords in Albanian, some even claiming 60% of the Albanian vocabulary.&lt;ref name=Sawicka/&gt; They include many frequently used core vocabulary items, including {{lang|sq|shumë}} (&quot;very&quot;, from Latin {{lang|la|summus}}), {{lang|sq|pak}} (&quot;few&quot;, Latin {{lang|la|paucus}}), {{lang|sq|ngushtë}} (&quot;narrow&quot;, Latin {{lang|la|angustus}}), {{lang|sq|pemë}} (&quot;tree&quot;, Latin {{lang|la|poma}}), {{lang|sq|vij}} (&quot;to come&quot;, Latin {{lang|la|veniō}}), {{lang|sq|rërë}} (&quot;sand&quot;, Latin {{lang|la|arena}}), {{lang|sq|drejt}} (&quot;straight&quot;, Latin {{lang|la|directus}}), {{lang|sq|kafshë}} (&quot;beast&quot;, Latin {{lang|la|causa}}, meaning &quot;thing&quot;), and {{lang|sq|larg}} (&quot;far away&quot;, Latin {{lang|la|largus}}). [[Jernej Kopitar]] (1780–1844) was the first to note Latin's influence on Albanian and claimed &quot;the Latin loanwords in the Albanian language had the pronunciation of the time of Emperor Augustus&quot;.{{sfn|Kopitar|1829|p=254}} Kopitar gave examples such as Albanian {{lang|sq|qiqer}} 'chickpea' from Latin {{lang|la|cicer}}, {{lang|sq|qytet}} 'city, town' from {{lang|la|civitas}}, {{lang|sq|peshk}} 'fish' from {{lang|la|piscis}}, and {{lang|sq|shigjetë}} 'arrow' from {{lang|la|sagitta}}. The hard pronunciations of Latin {{angle bracket|c}} and {{angle bracket|g}} are retained as palatal and velar stops in the Albanian loanwords. Gustav Meyer (1888)&lt;ref&gt;Meyer, Gustav. Die lateinischen Elemente im Albanesischen. (In: Grцbers Grundriss, I; I.Auflage) (1888), p. 805&lt;/ref&gt; and [[Wilhelm Meyer-Lübke]] (1914)&lt;ref&gt;Meyer-Lübke, Wilhelm. Rumanisch, romanisch, albanesisch. (Mitteilungen des Romanischen Instituts an der Universitet Wien. I. Heilderberg 1914), p. 32&lt;/ref&gt; later corroborated this. Meyer noted the similarity between the Albanian verbs {{lang|sq|shqipoj}} &quot;to speak clearly, enunciate&quot; and {{lang|sq|shqiptoj}} &quot;to pronounce, articulate&quot; and the Latin word {{lang|la|excipiō}} (meaning &quot;to welcome&quot;). Therefore, he believed that the word ''Shqiptar'' &quot;Albanian person&quot; was derived from {{lang|sq|shqipoj}}, which in turn was derived from the Latin word {{lang|la|excipere}}. [[Johann Georg von Hahn]], an Austrian linguist, had proposed the same hypothesis in 1854.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book |title=Wir sind die Deinen. Studien zur albanischen Sprache, Literatur und Kulturgeschichte, dem Gedenken an Martin Camaj (1925–1992) gewidmet |author =Bardhyl Demiraj |publisher=Harrassowitz Verlag |isbn=978-3-447-06221-3 |date=2010}}&lt;/ref&gt; [[Eqrem Çabej]] also noticed, among other things, the archaic Latin elements in Albanian:&lt;ref&gt;Çabej, Eqrem. Karakteristikat e huazimeve latine të gjuhës shqipe. SF 1974/2 (In German RL 1962/1) pp. 13-51&lt;/ref&gt; # Latin /au/ becomes Albanian /a/ in the earliest loanwords: {{lang|la|aurum}} → {{lang|sq|ar}} 'gold'; {{lang|la|gaudium}} → {{lang|sq|gaz}} 'joy'; {{lang|la|laurus}} → {{lang|sq|lar}} 'laurel'. Latin /au/ is retained in later loans, but is altered in a way similar to [[Greek orthography|Greek]]: {{lang|la|causa}} 'thing' → {{lang|sq|kafshë}} 'thing; beast, brute'; {{lang|la|laud}} → {{lang|sq|lavd}}. # Latin /oː/ becomes Albanian /e/ in the oldest Latin loans: {{lang|la|pōmus}} → {{lang|sq|pemë}} 'fruit tree'; {{lang|la|hōra}} → {{lang|sq|herë}} 'time, instance'. An analogous mutation occurred from Proto-Indo-European to Albanian; PIE {{lang|ine-x-proto|nōs}} became Albanian {{lang|sq|ne}} 'we', PIE {{lang|ine-x-proto|*oḱtṓw}} + suffix -ti- became Albanian {{lang|sq|tetë}} 'eight', etc. # Latin unstressed internal and initial syllables become lost in Albanian: {{lang|la|cubitus}} → {{lang|sq|kub}} 'elbow'; {{lang|la|medicus}} → {{lang|sq|mjek}} 'physician'; {{lang|la|palūdem}} 'swamp' → [[Vulgar Latin]] {{lang|la|*padūle}} → {{lang|sq|pyll}} 'forest'. An analogous mutation occurred from Proto-Indo-European to Albanian. In contrast, in later Latin loanwords, the internal syllable is retained: {{lang|la|paganus}} → {{lang|sq|pagan}}; {{lang|la|plaga}} → {{lang|sq|plagë}} 'wound', etc. # Latin /tj/, /dj/, /kj/ palatalized to Albanian /s/, /z/, /c/: {{lang|la|vitium}} → {{lang|sq|ves}} 'vice; worries'; {{lang|la|ratiōnem}} → {{lang|sq|arsye}} 'reason'; {{lang|la|radius}} → {{lang|sq|rreze}} 'ray; spoke'; {{lang|la|faciēs}} → {{lang|sq|faqe}} 'face, cheek'; {{lang|la|socius}} → {{lang|sq|shok}} 'mate, comrade', {{lang|sq|shoq}} 'husband', etc. In turn, Latin /s/ was altered to /ʃ/ in Albanian. Haralambie Mihăescu demonstrated that: * Some 85 Latin words have survived in Albanian but not (as inherited) in any [[Romance language]]. A few examples include Late Latin {{lang|la|celsydri}} → dial. {{lang|sq|kulshedër}} → {{lang|sq|kuçedër}} 'hydra', {{lang|la|hībernus}} → {{lang|sq|vërri}} 'winter pasture', {{lang|la|sarcinārius}} 'used for packing, loading' → {{lang|sq|shelqëror}} 'forked peg, grapnel, forked hanger', {{lang|la|sōlānum}} 'nightshade', lit. 'sun plant' → ''{{lang|sq|shullë(r)}}'' 'sunny place out of the wind, sunbathed area', {{lang|la|splēnēticus}} → {{lang|sq|shpretkë}} 'spleen', {{lang|la|trifurcus}} → {{lang|sq|tërfurk}} 'pitchfork'.{{sfn|Mihăescu|1966|pp=1, 30}} * 151 Albanian words of Latin origin were not inherited in Romanian. A few examples include Latin {{lang|la|amīcus}} → Albanian {{lang|sq|mik}} 'friend', {{lang|la|inimīcus}} → {{lang|sq|armik}} 'foe, enemy', {{lang|la|ratiōnem}} → {{lang|sq|arsye}}, {{lang|la|benedīcere}} → {{lang|sq|bekoj}}, {{lang|la|bubulcus}} 'ploughman, herdsman' → {{lang|sq|bulk}}, {{lang|sq|bujk}} 'peasant', {{lang|la|calicis}} → {{lang|sq|qelq}} 'drinking glass', {{lang|la|castellum}} → {{lang|sq|kështjellë}} 'castle', {{lang|la|centum}} → {{lang|sq|qind}} 'hundred', {{lang|la|gallus}} → {{lang|sq|gjel}} 'rooster', {{lang|la|iunctūra}} → {{lang|sq|gjymtyrë}} 'limb; joint', {{lang|la|medicus}} → {{lang|sq|mjek}} 'doctor', {{lang|la|retem}} → {{lang|sq|rrjetë}} 'net', {{lang|la|spērāre}} → dial. ''{{lang|sq|shp(ë)rej}}'', {{lang|sq|shpresoj}} 'to hope', {{lang|sq|pres}} 'to await', {{lang|la|voluntās}} ({{lang|la|voluntātis}}) → {{lang|sq|vullnet}} 'will; volunteer'.{{sfn|Mihăescu|1966|pp=1, 21}} * Some Albanian church terminology has phonetic features which demonstrate their very early borrowing from Latin. A few examples include Albanian {{lang|sq|bekoj}} 'to bless' from {{lang|la|benedīcere}}, {{lang|sq|engjëll}} 'angel' from {{lang|la|angelus}}, {{lang|sq|kishë}} 'church' from {{lang|la|ecclēsia}}, ''{{lang|sq|i krishterë}}'' 'Christian' from {{lang|la|christiānus}}, {{lang|sq|kryq}} 'cross' from {{lang|la|crux}} ({{lang|la|crucis}}), (obsolete) {{lang|sq|lter}} 'altar' from Latin {{lang|la|altārium}}, {{lang|sq|mallkoj}} 'to curse' from {{lang|la|maledīcere}}, {{lang|sq|meshë}} 'mass' from {{lang|la|missa}}, {{lang|sq|murg}} 'monk' from {{lang|la|monachus}}, {{lang|sq|peshkëp}} 'bishop' from {{lang|la|episcopus}}, and {{lang|sq|ungjill}} 'gospel' from {{lang|la|ēvangelium}}.{{sfn|Mihăescu|1966|pp=1–2}} Other authors&lt;ref&gt;A. Rosetti, Istoria limbii române, 1986, pp. 195–197&lt;/ref&gt; have detected Latin loanwords in Albanian with an ancient sound pattern from the 1st century&amp;nbsp;BC,{{clarify|reason=What in particular suggests the phonological system of 1st-century-BC Latin?|date=January 2017}}&lt;!-- presumably the fact that */ɪ/ remains i-colored and has not merged with */eː/, and that */k/ remains unpalatalised before it, as opposed to every Romance language except Sardinian --&gt; for example, Albanian ''{{lang|sq|qingël(ë)}}'' 'saddle girth; dwarf elder' from Latin {{lang|la|cingula}} and Albanian ''{{lang|sq|e vjetër}}'' 'old, aged; former' from {{lang|sq|vjet}} but influenced by Latin {{lang|la|veteris}}. The [[Romance languages]] inherited these words from Vulgar Latin: {{lang|la|cingula}} became (via *''clinga'') Romanian {{lang|ro|chingă}} 'girdle; saddle girth', and ''[[Veteranus|veterānus]]'' became Romanian {{lang|ro|bătrân}} 'old'. Albanian, [[Basque language|Basque]], and the surviving [[Celtic languages]] such as [[Breton language|Breton]] and [[Welsh language|Welsh]] are the non-Romance languages today that have this sort of extensive Latin element dating from ancient Roman times, which has undergone the sound changes associated with the languages. Other languages in or near the former Roman area either came on the scene later (Turkish, the Slavic languages, Arabic) or borrowed little from Latin despite coexisting with it (Greek, German), although German does have a few such ancient Latin loanwords ({{lang|de|Fenster}} 'window', {{lang|de|Käse}} 'cheese'). Romanian scholars such as Vatasescu and Mihaescu, using lexical analysis of the Albanian language, have concluded that Albanian was heavily influenced by an extinct Romance language that was distinct from both Romanian and [[Dalmatian language|Dalmatian]]. Because the Latin words common to only Romanian and Albanian are significantly fewer in number than those that are common to only Albanian and Western Romance, Mihaescu argues that the Albanian language evolved in a region with much greater contact with Western Romance regions than with Romanian-speaking regions, and located this region in present-day Albania, Kosovo and Western Macedonia, spanning east to [[Bitola]] and [[Pristina]].&lt;ref name=&quot;MadgearuAlbanianRomans&quot;&gt;{{cite book |author1=Madgearu, Alexandru |author2=Gordon, Martin |title=The Wars of the Balkan Peninsula: Their Medieval Origins |pages=146–147}}&lt;/ref&gt; ==== Slavic influence ==== After the [[Slavs]] arrived in the Balkans, the [[Slavic languages]] became an additional source of loanwords. Contact between Albanian with the Slavic languages lasted very intensively for almost four centuries, and continued even in the late Middle Ages. Slavic loanwords in Albanian constitute a less studied area in literature. Per [[Vladimir Orel]] (1998),{{sfn|Orel|1998}}{{Page needed|date=August 2024}} there are about 556 Slavic loanwords in Albanian. Taking into account obsolete and restricted dialectalisms in areas that had more intensive and prolonged contacts with Slavic, their number is considerably larger; up to 1000 words in those dialects.&lt;ref&gt;Curtis, M.C., 2012. [https://etd.ohiolink.edu/apexprod/rws_etd/send_file/send?accession=osu1338406907 Slavic-Albanian language contact, convergence, and coexistence] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230207075619/https://etd.ohiolink.edu/apexprod/rws_etd/send_file/send?accession=osu1338406907 |date=7 February 2023 }}. Page 98&lt;/ref&gt; ==== Turkish influence ==== The rise of the [[Ottoman Empire]] meant an influx of [[Turkish language|Turkish]] words; this also entailed the borrowing of Persian and Arabic words through Turkish. Some Turkish personal names, such as ''Altin'', are common. There are some loanwords from Modern Greek, especially in the south of Albania. Many borrowed words have been replaced by words with Albanian roots or modern Latinised (international) words. According to calculations mentioned by [[w:it:Emanuele Banfi|Emanuele Banfi]] (1985),&lt;ref&gt;Banfi, Emanuele (1985). &quot;Linguistica balcanica&quot;. Bologna: 162.&lt;/ref&gt; the total number of Turkish loanwords in Albanian is about two thousand. However, when taking into account obsolete and rare words, and restricted dialectalisms, their number is considerably larger. =====Gothic===== Albanian is also known to possess a small set of loans from [[Gothic language|Gothic]], with early inquiry into the matter done by [[Norbert Jokl]]&lt;ref&gt;Jokl, Norbert (1929). &quot;Balkangermanisches und Germanisches in Albanischen&quot;. ''Festschrift der 57. Versammlung deutscher Philologen und Schulmänner in Salzberg''. Baden bei Wien: 105–137.&lt;/ref&gt; and [[Sigmund Feist]],&lt;ref&gt;Feist, Sigmund (1939). ''Vergleichendes Wörterbuch der gotischen Sprafche''. Leiden: Brill.&lt;/ref&gt; though such loans had been claimed earlier in the 19th century by early linguists such as [[Gustav Meyer]]. Many words claimed as Gothic have now been attributed to other origins by later linguists of Albanian (''fat'' and ''tufë'', though used for major claims by Huld in 1994, are now attributed to Latin, for example),{{sfn|Orel|1998|pp=456-457, 468}} or may instead be native to Albanian, inherited from Proto-Indo-European.&lt;ref name=&quot;auto&quot;&gt;Matasovic, Ranko (2019). ''[https://mudrac.ffzg.hr/~rmatasov/Albanian A Grammatical Sketch of Albanian for Students of Indo-European]''. Zagreb. Page 39&lt;/ref&gt; Today, it is accepted that there are a few words from Gothic in Albanian, but for the most part they are scanty because the Goths had few contacts with Balkan peoples.&lt;ref name=Curtis19&gt;Curtis, M.C., 2012. [https://etd.ohiolink.edu/apexprod/rws_etd/send_file/send?accession=osu1338406907 Slavic-Albanian language contact, convergence, and coexistence] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230207075619/https://etd.ohiolink.edu/apexprod/rws_etd/send_file/send?accession=osu1338406907 |date=7 February 2023 }}. Page 19&lt;/ref&gt; Martin Huld&lt;ref name=Huld168&gt;Huld, M.E., 1994. [https://www.jstor.org/stable/pdf/40849126.pdf?refreqid=excelsior%3A7cdb9c3fc6b55e552953881eed1aa2a2 Albanian zverk – Gothic *swairhs]. ''Historische Sprachforschung/Historical Linguistics'', 107(1. H), pp.165–171. Pages 167–8.&lt;/ref&gt; defends the significance of the admittedly sparse Gothic loans for Albanian studies, however, arguing that Gothic is the only clearly post-Roman and &quot;pre-Ottoman&quot; language after Latin with a notable influence on the Albanian lexicon (the influence of Slavic languages is both pre-Ottoman and Ottoman).&lt;ref name=Huld168/&gt; He argues that Gothic words in Albanian are attributable to the late fourth and early fifth centuries during the invasions of various Gothic speaking groups of the Balkans under [[Alaric I|Alaric]], [[Odoacer]], and [[Theodoric]]. He argues that Albanian Gothicisms bear evidence for the ordering of developments within Proto-Albanian at this time: for example, he argues Proto-Albanian at this stage had already shifted {{IPA|/uː/}} to {{IPA|/y/}} as Gothic words with {{IPA|/uː/}} reflect with {{IPA|/u/}} in Albanian, not {{IPA|/y/}} as seen in most Latin and ancient Greek loans, but had not yet experienced the shift of {{IPA|/t͡s/}} to {{IPA|/θ/}}, since loans from Gothic words with {{IPA|/θ/}} replace {{IPA|/θ/}} with {{IPA|/t/}} or another close sound.&lt;ref name=Huld168/&gt; Notable words that continue to be attributed to Gothic in Albanian by multiple modern sources include: * {{lang|sq|tirk}} &quot;felt gaiters, white felt&quot; (cf Romanian {{lang|ro|tureac}} &quot;top of boot&quot;) &lt; Gothic {{lang|got|*θiuh-brōks-}}&lt;ref name=Curtis19/&gt;{{sfn|Orel|1998|pp=456-457}} or {{lang|got|*θiuhbrōkeis}},&lt;ref name=Huld168/&gt; cf Old High German {{lang|de|theobrach}} &quot;gaiters&quot;{{sfn|Orel|1998|pp=456-457}} * {{lang|sq|shkumë}} &quot;foam&quot;&lt;ref name=&quot;auto&quot;/&gt; &lt; Gothic {{lang|got|*skūm-}},&lt;ref name=Huld168/&gt; perhaps via an intermediary in a Romance {{lang|roa|*scuma}}{{sfn|Orel|1998|p=424}} (cf. Romanian {{lang|ro|spumă}}) * {{lang|sq|gardh}} &quot;fence, garden&quot;&lt;ref name=&quot;auto&quot;/&gt; is either considered a native Albanian word&lt;ref&gt;Curtis, M.C., 2012. [https://etd.ohiolink.edu/apexprod/rws_etd/send_file/send?accession=osu1338406907 Slavic-Albanian language contact, convergence, and coexistence] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230207075619/https://etd.ohiolink.edu/apexprod/rws_etd/send_file/send?accession=osu1338406907 |date=7 February 2023 }}. Page 107&lt;/ref&gt; that was loaned into Romanian as {{lang|ro|gard}}{{sfn|Orel|1998|p=110}}&lt;ref&gt;{{harvnb|Fortson|2010|p=449}}&lt;/ref&gt; * {{lang|sq|zverk}} &quot;nape, back of neck&quot; &lt; Gothic {{lang|got|*swairhs}};&lt;ref&gt;Huld, M.E., 1994. [https://www.jstor.org/stable/pdf/40849126.pdf?refreqid=excelsior%3A7cdb9c3fc6b55e552953881eed1aa2a2 Albanian zverk – Gothic *swairhs]. ''Historische Sprachforschung/Historical Linguistics'', 107(1. H), pp.165–171.&lt;/ref&gt; the &quot;difficult&quot; word having various otherwise been attributed (with phonological issues) to Celtic, Greek or native development.{{sfn|Orel|1998|pp=526-527}} * {{lang|sq|horr}} &quot;villain, scoundrel&quot; and {{lang|sq|horre}} &quot;whore&quot; &lt; Gothic {{lang|got|*hors}} &quot;adulterer, cf Old Norse {{lang|non|hóra}} &quot;whore&quot;{{sfn|Orel|1998|pp=150-151}} * {{lang|sq|punjashë}} &quot;purse&quot;, diminutive of {{lang|sq|punjë}} &lt; Gothic {{lang|got|puggs}} &quot;purse&quot;{{sfn|Orel|1998|p=350}} (cf. Romanian {{lang|ro|pungă}}) ==== Patterns in loaning ==== Although Albanian is characterised by the absorption of many loans, even, in the case of Latin, reaching deep into the core vocabulary, certain [[semantic field]]s nevertheless remained more resistant. Terms pertaining to social organisation are often preserved, though not those pertaining to political organisation, while those pertaining to trade are all loaned or innovated.{{sfn|Orel|2000|p=263}} Hydronyms present a complicated picture; the term for &quot;sea&quot; ({{lang|sq|det}}) is native and an &quot;Albano-Germanic&quot; innovation referring to the concept of depth, but a large amount of maritime vocabulary is loaned. Words referring to large streams and their banks tend to be loans, but {{lang|sq|lumë}} (&quot;river&quot;) is native, as is {{lang|sq|rrymë}} (the flow of water). Words for smaller streams and stagnant pools of water are more often native, but the word for &quot;pond&quot;, {{lang|sq|pellg}} is in fact a semantically shifted descendant of the old Greek word for &quot;high sea&quot;, suggesting a change in location after Greek contact. Albanian has maintained since Proto-Indo-European a specific term referring to a riverside forest ({{lang|sq|gjazë}}), as well as its words for marshes. Albanian has maintained native terms for &quot;whirlpool&quot;, &quot;water pit&quot; and (aquatic) &quot;deep place&quot;, leading Orel to speculate that the Albanian [[Urheimat]] likely had an excess of dangerous whirlpools and depths.{{sfn|Orel|2000|pp=264–265}} Regarding forests, words for most conifers and shrubs are native, as are the terms for &quot;alder&quot;, &quot;elm&quot;, &quot;oak&quot;, &quot;beech&quot;, and &quot;linden&quot;, while &quot;ash&quot;, &quot;chestnut&quot;, &quot;birch&quot;, &quot;maple&quot;, &quot;poplar&quot;, and &quot;willow&quot; are loans.{{sfn|Orel|2000|pp=266–267}} The original kinship terminology of Indo-European was radically reshaped; changes included a shift from &quot;mother&quot; to &quot;sister&quot;, and were so thorough that only three terms retained their original function, the words for &quot;son-in-law&quot;, &quot;mother-in-law&quot; and &quot;father-in-law&quot;. All the words for second-degree blood kinship, including &quot;aunt&quot;, &quot;uncle&quot;, &quot;nephew&quot;, &quot;niece&quot;, and terms for grandchildren, are ancient loans from Latin.{{sfn|Orel|2000|p=262}} The Proto-Albanians appear to have been cattle breeders given the vastness of preserved native vocabulary pertaining to cow breeding, milking and so forth, while words pertaining to dogs tend to be loaned. Many words concerning horses are preserved, but the word for horse itself is a Latin loan.{{sfn|Orel|2000|pp=267–268}} == See also == {{Portal|Languages}} {{div col begin|colwidth=10em}} * [[Abetare]] * [[Arbëresh language]] * [[Arvanitika]] * [[Gheg Albanian]] * [[Illyrian language]] * [[Help:IPA/Albanian|IPA/Albanian]] * [[Messapic language]] * [[Thraco-Illyrian]] * [[Tosk Albanian]] {{div col end}} == Notes == &lt;references group=&quot;note&quot; /&gt; {{notelist}} == References == {{Reflist}} == Bibliography == {{Refbegin|colwidth=30em}} * {{cite journal |last=Ajeti |first=Idriz |title=La présence de l'albanais dans les parlers des populations slaves de la Péninsule balkanique à la lumière de la langue et de la toponymie |journal=[[Studia Albanica]] |volume=2 |year=1968 |pages=131–136}} * {{cite journal |last=Ajeti |first=Idriz |title=Për historinë e marrëdhënieve të hershme gjuhësore shqiptare-sllave |journal=[[Studime Filologjike]] |volume=4 |year=1972 |pages=83–94}} (reprint in ''Gjurmime albanologjike – Seria e shkencave filologjike II – 1972''. Pristina: 1974, pp.&amp;nbsp;33–44). * {{cite book |last=Arapi |first=Inna |title=Der Gebrauch von Infinitiv nagger und Konjunktiv im Altalbanischen mit Ausblick auf das Rumänische |location=Hamburg |publisher=Kovač |year=2010}} * {{cite book |last=Banfi |first=Emanuele |title=Linguistica balcanica |location=Bologna |publisher=Zanichelli |year=1985}} * {{cite book |last=Banfi |first=Emanuele |title=Storia linguistica del sud-est europeo: Crisi della Romània balcanica tra alto e basso medioevo |location=Milan |publisher=Franco Angeli |year=1991}} * {{Cite book |last=Beekes |first=Robert Stephen Paul |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=i_JwBsKzgeAC |title=Comparative Indo-European Linguistics: An Introduction |date=2011 |publisher=[[John Benjamins Publishing Company]] |isbn=978-90-272-1185-9 |editor-last=de Vaan |editor-first=Michiel |editor-link=Michiel de Vaan |edition=2nd |language=en |author-link=Robert S. P. Beekes}} * {{cite book |last=Bihiku |first=Koço |title=A history of Albanian literature |location=Tirana |year=1980 |publisher=[[8 Nëntori Publishing House]] |oclc=9133663}} * {{cite book |last=Bonnet |first=Guillaume |title=Les mots latins de l'albanais |location=Paris |publisher=L'Harmattan |year=1998 |isbn=9782738460349}} * {{cite book |author-link=Franz Bopp |last=Bopp |first=Franz |title=Über das Albanesische in seinen verwandtschaftlichen Beziehungen |location=Berlin |publisher=J. A. 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Vienna: Karl Gerold's Sohn, 1870. * {{cite journal |last=Mihăescu |first=Haralambie |title=Les éléments latins de la langue albanaise |journal=Révue des études sud-est européennes |volume=4 |year=1966 |pages=5–33, 323–53}} * {{cite book |last=Mihăescu |first=Haralambie |title=La langue latine dans le sud-est de l'Europe |location=Bucharest and Paris |publisher=Editura Academiei and Les Belles Lettres |year=1978}} * {{cite book |last1=Newmark |first1=Leonard |last2=Hubbard |first2=Philip |last3=Prifti |first3=Peter |title=Standard Albanian: A Reference Grammar for Students |location=Stanford |publisher=Stanford University Press |year=1982}} * {{cite book |last=Ölberg |first=Hermann |chapter=Einige Uberlegungen zur Autochtonie der Albaner auf der Balkanhalbinsel |title=Akten der internationalen albanologischen Kolloquiums, Innsbruck, 1972, zum Gedächtnis an Norbert Jokl |editor-first=Hermann M. |editor-last=Ölberg |location=Innsbruck |publisher=Institut für Sprachwissenschaft der Universität Innsbruck |year=1977}} * {{cite journal |last=Ölberg |first=Hermann |title=Kontributi i gjuhësisë për çështjen e atdheut ballkanik të shqiptarëve |journal=Studime Filologjike |volume=3 |year=1982}} * {{cite book|last1=Olsen|first1=Birgit Anette|last2=Thorsø|first2=Rasmus|editor1-last=Olander|editor1-first=Thomas|title=The Indo-European Language Family : A Phylogenetic Perspective|year=2022|doi=10.1017/9781108758666.012|doi-access=free|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=9781108758666|chapter=Armenian|chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=xzKAEAAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PA202|pages=202–222}} * {{cite book |last=Pedersen |first=Holger |chapter=Bidrag til den albanesiske Sproghistorie |title=Festskrift til Vilhelm Tomsen |location=Kopenhagen |publisher=Gyldendal |year=1894 |pages=246–257}} * {{cite journal |last=Pedersen |first=Holger |title=Albanesisch |journal=Kritischer Jahrbericht |volume=9 |issue=1 |year=1905 |pages=206–217}} Erlangen (1909) * {{cite journal |last=Pellegrini |first=Giovan Battista |title=I rapporti linguistici interadriatici e l'elemento latino dell'albanese |journal=Abruzzo |volume=19 |year=1980 |pages=31–71}} * Pellegrini, Giovan Battista. &quot;Disa vëzhgime mbi elementin Latin të shqipes&quot; [Some observations on the Latin element of the Albanian language], ''Studime Filologjike'' 3 (1982); (in Italian) &quot;Alcune osservazioni sull'elemento latino dell'albanese&quot;, ''Studia Albanica'' 1983: 63–83. * Pellegrini, Giovan Battista. ''Avviamento alla linguistica albanese''. Edizione rinnovata. Rende: Università degli studi della Calabria, Centro editoriale e librario, 1997. * {{cite book |last=Pisani |first=Vittore |chapter=L'albanais et les autres langues indo-européennes |title=Mélanges Henri Grégoire II |location=Brussels |year=1950 |pages=519–538}} reprint in ''Saggi di linguistica storica: Scritti scelti''. Torino: Rosenberg &amp; Sellier, 1959, pp.&amp;nbsp;96–114. * {{cite journal |last=Pisani |first=Vittore |title=Les origines de la langue albanaise, questions de principe et de méthode |journal=Studia Albanica |volume=1 |year=1964 |pages=61–68}} * {{cite book |last=Pisani |first=Vittore |chapter=Sulla genesi dell'albanese |title=Akten der internationalen albanologischen Kolloquiums, Innsbruck, 1972, zum Gedächtnis an Norbert Jokl |editor-first=Hermann M. |editor-last=Ölberg |location=Innsbruck |publisher=Institut für Sprachwissenschaft der Universität Innsbruck |year=1977 |pages=345–366}} * {{cite book |last1=Plasari |first1=Aurel |last2=Nadin |first2=Lucia |title=Barleti i hershëm sipas një dorëshkrimi të panjohur [The early Barleti – according to an unknown text] |date=2022 |publisher=Albanian Academy of Sciences/Onufri |isbn=978-9928-354-88-4}} * {{cite book |author-link=Vladimir Orel |last=Orel |first=Vladimir |title=Albanian Etymological Dictionary |location=Leiden |publisher=Brill |year=1998}} * {{cite book |last=Orel |first=Vladimir |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=xvKH56aT5mEC |title=A Concise Historical Grammar of the Albanian Language: Reconstruction of Proto-Albanian |location=Leiden |publisher=Brill |year=2000 |isbn=9004116478}} * {{cite book |last=Riza |first=Selman |title=Studime albanistike |location=Pristina |year=1979}} * {{cite book |title=The Indo-European Languages |last=Rusakov |first=Alexander |publisher=Routledge |year=2017 |isbn=9781317391531 |editor1-last=Kapović |editor1-first=Mate |chapter=Albanian |editor2-last=Giacalone Ramat |editor2-first=Anna |editor3-last=Ramat |editor3-first=Paolo |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=8i0lDwAAQBAJ}} * {{cite book |last1=Schumacher |first1=Stefan |last2=Matzinger |first2=Joachim |title=Die Verben des Altalbanischen: Belegwörterbuch, Vorgeschichte und Etymologie |location=Wiesbaden |publisher=Otto Harrassowitz |year=2013}} * {{cite book |last=Svane |first=Gunnar |title=Slavische Lehnwörter im Albanischen |location=Århus |publisher=Aarhus University Press |year=1992}} * {{cite book |last=Tagliavini |first=Carlo |title=La stratificazione del lessico albanese: Elementi indoeuropei |location=Bologna |publisher=Casa editrice Prof. Riccardo Pàtron |year=1965}} * {{cite journal |last=Thumb |first=Albert |title=Altgriechische Elemente des Albanesischen |journal=[[Indogermanische Forschungen]] |volume=26 |year=1909 |pages=1–20}} * {{cite book|last=Trumper|first=John|chapter=Some Celto-Albanian isoglosses and their implications|editor1-last=Grimaldi|editor1-first=Mirko|editor2-last=Lai|editor2-first=Rosangela|editor3-last=Franco|editor3-first=Ludovico|editor4-last=Baldi|editor4-first=Benedetta|title=Structuring Variation in Romance Linguistics and Beyond: In Honour of Leonardo M. Savoia|year=2018|publisher=John Benjamins Publishing Company|isbn=9789027263179|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=kAR-DwAAQBAJ}} * von Hahn, Johann Georg. ''Albanesische Studien''. 3 vols. Jena: F. Mauko, 1854. * [[Calvert Watkins|Watkins, Calvert]]. &quot;Proto-Indo-European: Comparison and Reconstruction&quot;, in ''The Indo-European Languages''. Edited by Anna Giacalone Ramat &amp; Paolo Ramat. London-NY: Routledge, 1998, pp.&amp;nbsp;25–73. * Ylli, Xhelal. ''Das slawische Lehngut im Albanischen''. 2 vols., vol. 1: ''Lehnwörter''; vol. 2: ''Ortsnamen''. Munich: Verlag Otto Sagner, 1997/2000. * {{cite book |last1=Ylli |first1=Xhelal |last2=Sobolev |first2=Andrej N. |title=Albanskii gegskii govor sela Muhurr |location=Munich |publisher=Biblion Verlag |year=2003 |isbn=3-932331-36-2}} {{Refend}} == External links == {{InterWiki|code=sq}} {{Wikibooks}} {{Wiktionary category}} {{Commons category|Albanian language}} {{Wikivoyage|Albanian phrasebook|Albanian|a phrasebook}} * [https://lrc.la.utexas.edu/eieol/albol Albanian Online] by Brian Joseph, Angelo Costanzo, and Jonathan Slocum, free online lessons at the [https://liberalarts.utexas.edu/lrc Linguistics Research Center] at the [[University of Texas at Austin]] * [https://spw.uni-goettingen.de/projects/aig/lng-sqi.html glottothèque – Ancient Indo-European Grammars online], an online collection of introductory videos to Ancient Indo-European languages produced by the University of Göttingen {{Indo-European languages}} {{Navboxes |title = Articles related to the Albanian language |state = autocollapse |list = {{Albanian language}} {{Albania topics}} {{Languages of Albania}} {{Languages of Italy}} {{Languages of Kosovo}} {{Languages of Macedonia}} {{Languages of Montenegro}} {{Languages of Romania}} {{Languages of Serbia}} }} {{Authority control}} [[Category:Albanian language| ]] [[Category:Languages attested from the 15th century]] [[Category:Indo-European languages]] [[Category:Illyrian languages]] [[Category:Languages of Albania]] [[Category:Languages of Greece]] [[Category:Languages of Italy]] [[Category:Languages of Kosovo]] [[Category:Languages of North Macedonia]] [[Category:Languages of Romania]] [[Category:Languages of Montenegro]] [[Category:Languages of Serbia]] [[Category:Languages of Sicily]] [[Category:Languages of Turkey]] [[Category:Subject–verb–object languages]]</div></summary> <author><name>Βατο</name></author> </entry> <entry> <id>https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Talk:Macedonia_(region)&diff=1255135413</id> <title>Talk:Macedonia (region)</title> <link rel="alternate" type="text/html" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Talk:Macedonia_(region)&diff=1255135413"/> <updated>2024-11-03T09:34:56Z</updated> <summary type="html">Βατο: <hr /> <div>{{Talk header}} {{WikiProject banner shell|class=B|1= {{WikiProject Greece|importance=High|topic=Geo|byzantine-task-force=yes}} {{WikiProject North Macedonia|importance=High|1=}} {{WikiProject Bulgaria|importance=High}} {{WikiProject Albania|importance=Mid}} {{WikiProject Kosovo|importance=Low}} {{WikiProject Geography|importance=Low}} {{WikiProject Classical Greece and Rome|importance=mid}} {{WikiProject European history|importance=Low}} {{WikiProject Serbia |importance=Low}} }} {{old move|date=14 June 2021|destination=Macedonia|result=not moved|link=Special:Permalink/1028877835#Requested move 14 June 2021}} {{User:ClueBot III/ArchiveThis |archiveprefix=Talk:Macedonia (region)/Archive |format= %%i |age=2160|&lt;!--90 days--&gt; |header={{automatic archive navigator}} |maxarchsize=100000 |minkeepthreads=4 |numberstart=4 |archivebox=yes |box-advert=yes }} == Semi-protected edit request on 5 March 2022 == {{edit semi-protected|Macedonia (region)|answered=yes}} [[File:Region of Macedonia.png|thumb|Political Map of the Region of Macedonia]] [[User:Nikola0505|Nikola0505]] ([[User talk:Nikola0505|talk]]) 00:48, 5 March 2022 (UTC) :[[File:Red question icon with gradient background.svg|20px|link=|alt=]] '''Not done:''' it's not clear what changes you want to be made. Please mention the specific changes in a &quot;change X to Y&quot; format and provide a [[Wikipedia:Reliable sources|reliable source]] if appropriate.&lt;!-- Template:ESp --&gt; '''&lt;span style=&quot;color:#f535aa&quot;&gt;—&lt;/span&gt; [[User:Paper9oll|&lt;span style=&quot;background:#f535aa;color:#fff;padding:2px;border-radius:5px&quot;&gt;Paper9oll&lt;/span&gt;]] &lt;span style=&quot;color:#f535aa&quot;&gt;([[User talk:Paper9oll|🔔]] • [[Special:Contributions/Paper9oll|📝]])&lt;/span&gt;''' 09:45, 5 March 2022 (UTC) == there's no such country as republic of macedonia == there's no such country as republic of macedonia &lt;!-- Template:Unsigned IP --&gt;&lt;small class=&quot;autosigned&quot;&gt;—&amp;nbsp;Preceding [[Wikipedia:Signatures|unsigned]] comment added by [[Special:Contributions/46.176.141.43|46.176.141.43]] ([[User talk:46.176.141.43#top|talk]]) 02:55, 26 June 2022 (UTC)&lt;/small&gt; &lt;!--Autosigned by SineBot--&gt; == Semi-protected edit request on 4 August 2022 == {{Edit semi-protected|Macedonia (region)|answered=yes}} [[Special:Contributions/89.19.89.11|89.19.89.11]] ([[User talk:89.19.89.11|talk]]) 16:49, 4 August 2022 (UTC) Philip II was an impressive military man in his own right. He turned Macedonia (a region on the northern part of the Greek peninsula) into a force to be reckoned with, and he fantasized about conquering the massive Persian Empire. There are no Byzantine records of &quot;Sklaviniai&quot; after 836/837 as they were absorbed into the expanding First Bulgarian Empire. Slavic influence in the region strengthened along with the rise of this state, which incorporated parts of the region to its domain in 837. In the early 860s Saints Cyril and Methodius, two Byzantine Greek brothers from Thessaloniki, created the first Slavic Glagolitic alphabet in which the Old Church Slavonic language was first transcribed, and are thus commonly referred to as the apostles of the Slavic world. Their cultural heritage was acquired and developed in medieval Bulgaria, where after 885 the region of Ohrid (present-day Republic of North Macedonia) became a significant ecclesiastical center with the nomination of the Saint Clement of Ohrid for &quot;first archbishop in Bulgarian language&quot; with residence in this region. In conjunction with another disciple of Saints Cyril and Methodius, Saint Naum, Clement created a flourishing Slavic cultural center around Ohrid, where pupils were taught theology in the Old Church Slavonic language and the Glagolitic and Cyrillic script at what is now called Ohrid Literary School. The Bulgarian-Byzantine boundary in the beginning of 10th century passed approximately 20 km (12 mi) north of Thessaloniki according to the inscription of Narash. According to the Byzantine author John Kaminiates, at that time the neighbouring settlements around Thessaloniki were inhabited by &quot;Scythians&quot; (Bulgarians) and the Slavic tribes of Drugubites and Sagudates, in addition to Greeks. At the end of the 10th century, what is now the Republic of North Macedonia became the political and cultural heartland of the First Bulgarian Empire, after Byzantine emperors John I Tzimiskes conquered the eastern part of the Bulgarian state during the Rus'–Byzantine War of 970–971. The Bulgarian capital Preslav and the Bulgarian Tsar Boris II were captured, and with the deposition of the Bulgarian regalia in the Hagia Sophia, Bulgaria was officially annexed to Byzantium. A new capital was established at Ohrid, which also became the seat of the Bulgarian Patriarchate. A new dynasty, that of the Comitopuli under Tsar Samuil and his successors, continued resistance against the Byzantines for several more decades, before also succumbing in 1018. The western part of Bulgaria including Macedonia was incorporated into the Byzantine Empire as the province of Bulgaria (Theme of Bulgaria) and the Bulgarian Patriarchate was reduced in rank to an Archbishopric. Intermittent Bulgarian uprisings continued to occur, often with the support of the Serbian princedoms to the north. Any temporary independence that might have been gained was usually crushed swiftly by the Byzantines. It was also marked by periods of war between the Normans and Byzantium. The Normans launched offensives from their lands acquired in southern Italy, and temporarily gained rule over small areas in the northwestern coast. At the end of the 12th century, some northern parts of Macedonia were temporarily conquered by Stefan Nemanja of Serbia. In the 13th century, following the Fourth Crusade, Macedonia was disputed among Byzantine Greeks, Latin crusaders of the short-lived Kingdom of Thessalonica, and the revived Bulgarian state. Most of southern Macedonia was secured by the Despotate of Epirus and then by the Empire of Nicaea, while the north was ruled by Bulgaria :[[File:Red question icon with gradient background.svg|20px|link=|alt=]] '''Not done:''' it's not clear what changes you want to be made. Please mention the specific changes in a [[WP:EDITXY|&quot;change X to Y&quot; format]] and provide a [[Wikipedia:Reliable sources|reliable source]] if appropriate.&lt;!-- Template:ESp --&gt; [[User:ScottishFinnishRadish|ScottishFinnishRadish]] ([[User talk:ScottishFinnishRadish|talk]]) 16:53, 4 August 2022 (UTC) == Semi-protected edit request on 2 February 2023 == {{edit semi-protected|Macedonia (region)|answered=yes}} Hello, Wikipedia. I want to correct some facts in this article, that are not true. That's why i request for an Edit allowance [[User:Mr3xc|Mr3xc]] ([[User talk:Mr3xc|talk]]) 17:58, 2 February 2023 (UTC) :{{ping|Mr3xc}} You have misunderstood article protection. You will get [[wp:autoconfirmed|autoconfirmed]] rights after 4 days on your account if you have made at least 10 edits. This will allow you to edit [[wp:semi-protected|semi-protected]] articles such as this one. In the meantime, please describe the errors you have seen in the article so that another user can correct them. [[User:SmallJarsWithGreenLabels|small jars]] &lt;small&gt;&lt;code&gt;[[User talk:SmallJarsWithGreenLabels|&lt;b style=&quot;color:#270&quot;&gt;t&lt;/b&gt;]][[special:contributions/SmallJarsWithGreenLabels|&lt;b style=&quot;color:#270&quot;&gt;c&lt;/b&gt;]]&lt;/code&gt;&lt;/small&gt; 23:03, 2 February 2023 (UTC) :[[File:Red question icon with gradient background.svg|20px|link=|alt=]] '''Not done:''' it's not clear what changes you want to be made. Please mention the specific changes in a [[WP:EDITXY|&quot;change X to Y&quot; format]] and provide a [[Wikipedia:Reliable sources|reliable source]] if appropriate.&lt;!-- Template:ESp --&gt; [[User:Lemonaka|Lemonaka]] ([[User talk:Lemonaka|talk]]) 10:37, 3 February 2023 (UTC) == Wrong name on map == [[User:StephenMacky1]] [https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Macedonia_(region)&amp;diff=prev&amp;oldid=1254747442 the map here] is of Konstantinos Paparigopoulos not of Kiepert. See here [https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Ethnic_map_of_Balkans_Kiepert.1878.png summary] [[Special:Contributions/77.49.98.69|77.49.98.69]] ([[User talk:77.49.98.69|talk]]) 01:57, 3 November 2024 (UTC) :All right. Tagging [[User:Βατο|Βατο]] as the one who made the changes on Commons and [[User:Greek Rebel|Greek Rebel]], who added the map in this article. If you all can, discuss the issue here. [[User:StephenMacky1|StephenMacky1]] ([[User talk:StephenMacky1|talk]]) 08:54, 3 November 2024 (UTC) ::{{reply|StephenMacky1}} thanks for the tag, [[User:Greek Rebel]] just made an inaccurate POV addition: it is not by Kiepert, and it is a hugely erroneous and problematic old map produced by the [[Ethnographic cartography of the Balkans in the late 19th and early 20th century|19th century 'map mania']]. – [[User:Βατο|Βατο]] ([[User talk:Βατο|talk]]) 09:34, 3 November 2024 (UTC)</div></summary> <author><name>Βατο</name></author> </entry> <entry> <id>https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Macedonia_(region)&diff=1255134581</id> <title>Macedonia (region)</title> <link rel="alternate" type="text/html" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Macedonia_(region)&diff=1255134581"/> <updated>2024-11-03T09:27:43Z</updated> <summary type="html">Βατο: rv inaccurate POV addition <hr /> <div> {{short description|Geographical and historical region in Europe}} {{About|the supra-national region||Macedonia (disambiguation){{!}}Macedonia}} {{pp-semi-indef}} {{Use dmy dates|date=August 2021}} {{Update|date=February 2023}} {{Infobox settlement | name = Macedonia |native_name = {{collapsible list |titlestyle = background: transparent; text-align: center; font-size: 0.8em; |liststyle = text-align: center; |title = {{resize|1.0em|Expand for local names}} | {{native name|sq|Maqedonia}} | {{native name|bg|Македония|italics=off}} | {{native name|el|Μακεδονία|italics=off}} | {{native name|mk|Македонија|italics=off}} | {{native name|sr|Македонија}}/{{lang|sr-Latn|Makedonija}} | {{native name|rup|Machedonia}} | {{native name|ruq|Machedonia}} }} |image_map = Macedonia topography-en.svg |map_caption = 2009 topographical map of the geographical region of Macedonia | subdivision_type = [[List of sovereign states|Country]] | subdivision_name = {{flag|Greece}}&lt;br /&gt;{{flag|North Macedonia}}&lt;br /&gt;{{flag|Bulgaria}}&lt;br /&gt;{{flag|Albania}}&lt;br /&gt;{{flag|Serbia}}&lt;br /&gt;{{flag|Kosovo}} | area_total_km2 = 67,000 | area_footnotes = | population_blank1_title = Estimate | population_blank1 = over 4,760,000 | population_as_of = | population_density_km2 = |currency = |currency_code = |time_zone = |utc_offset = | footnotes = }} '''Macedonia''' ({{IPAc-en|audio=en-us-Macedonia.ogg|ˌ|m|æ|s|ɪ|ˈ|d|oʊ|n|i|ə}} {{respell|MASS|ih|DOH|nee|ə}}) is a [[geographical]] and [[historical]] [[region]] of the [[Balkan Peninsula]] in [[Southeast Europe]]. Its boundaries have changed considerably over time; however, it came to be defined as the modern geographical region by the mid-19th century. Today the region is considered to include parts of six Balkan countries: all of [[North Macedonia]], large parts of [[Greece]] and [[Bulgaria]], and smaller parts of [[Albania]], [[Serbia]], and [[Kosovo]]. It covers approximately {{convert|67000|km2|mi2|0}} and has a population of around five million. [[Macedonia (Greece)|Greek Macedonia]] comprises about half of Macedonia's area and population. Its oldest known settlements date back approximately to 7,000 BC. From the middle of the 4th century BC, the [[Kingdom of Macedon]] became the dominant power on the Balkan Peninsula; since then Macedonia has had a diverse history. ==Etymology== {{main|Makedon (mythology)#Etymology}} Both [[proper noun]]s ''Makedṓn'' and ''Makednós'' are morphologically derived from the Ancient Greek adjective ''makednós'' meaning &quot;tall, slim&quot;, and are related to the term [[Macedonia (terminology)|Macedonia]].&lt;ref&gt;[[Robert S. P. Beekes|Beekes, Robert S. P.]] (2010), &quot;μακεδνός&quot;, in Etymological Dictionary of Greek (Leiden Indo-European Etymological Dictionary Series; 10), volume I, with the assistance of Lucien van Beek, Leiden, Boston: Brill, page 894&lt;/ref&gt; ==Boundaries and definitions== {{further|History of Macedonia (ancient kingdom)}} ===Ancient times=== [[File:Macedonian Kingdom.jpg|thumb|upright=1.2|The kingdom of Macedon with its provinces]] [[File:Borders of Macedonia according authors (1843-1927).png|thumb|upright=1.2|Borders of Macedonia, based on the Roman province, according to different authors (1843–1927)]] The definition of Macedonia has changed several times throughout history. Prior to its expansion under [[Alexander the Great]], the ancient kingdom of [[Macedonia (ancient kingdom)|Macedonia]], to which the modern region owes its name, lay entirely within the central and western parts of the current Greek province of [[Macedonia (Greece)|Macedonia]] and consisted of 17 provinces/districts or eparchies ([[Ancient Greek]]: επαρχία).&lt;ref&gt;The Ancient Greeks: New Perspectives, Stephanie Lynn Budin, ABC-CLIO, 2004, {{ISBN|1576078140}}, [https://books.google.com/books?id=u-Py1QbavoQC&amp;dq=borders+of+ancient+macedon&amp;pg=PA12 p. 12.]&lt;/ref&gt; Expansion of Kingdom of Macedon: # Kingdom of [[Perdiccas I]]: Macedonian Kingdom of Emathia consisting of six provinces [[Emathia]], [[Pieria (regional unit)|Pieria]], [[Bottiaea]], [[Mygdonia]], [[Eordaea]] and [[Almopia]]. # Kingdom of [[Alexander I of Macedon|Alexander I]]: All the above provinces plus the eastern annexations [[Crestonia]], [[Bisaltia]] and the western annexations [[Elimiotis]], [[Orestis (region)|Orestis]] and [[Lynkestis]]. # Kingdom of [[Philip II of Macedon|Philip II]]: All the above provinces plus the appendages of [[Pelagonia]] and [[Paeonia (kingdom)|Macedonian Paeonia]] to the north, [[Sintike]], [[Odomantis]] and [[Edonis (region)|Edonis]] to the east and the [[Chalkidike]] to the south. ===Roman era=== In the 2nd century, Macedonia covered approximately the area where it is considered to be today, but the northern regions of today Republic of North Macedonia were not identified as Macedonian lands.&lt;ref&gt;Entangled Histories of the Balkans: Volume One, Roumen Daskalov, Tchavdar Marinov, BRILL, 2013, {{ISBN|900425076X}}, pp. 278–279.&lt;/ref&gt; For reasons that are still unclear, over the next eleven centuries Macedonia's location was changed significantly. The [[Macedonia (Roman province)|Roman province of Macedonia]] consisted of what is today Northern and Central Greece, much of the geographical area of the Republic of North Macedonia and southeast Albania. Simply put, the Romans created a much larger administrative area under that name than the original ancient [[Macedon]]. In late Roman times, the provincial boundaries were reorganized to form the [[Diocese of Macedonia]], consisting of most of modern mainland Greece right across the Aegean to include [[Crete]], southern Albania, [[Blagoevgrad province|southwest Bulgaria]], and most of Republic of North Macedonia. [[File:Greater Macedonia.png|thumb|right|upright=1.2|The maximum range of modern geographical region of Macedonia shown in blue (not generally accepted). The region is [[Macedonia (terminology)#Subregions|divided]] by the national boundaries of [[Greece]] ([[Macedonia (Greece)|Greek Macedonia]]), the [[North Macedonia|Republic of North Macedonia]], [[Bulgaria]] ([[Blagoevgrad Province]]), [[Albania]] ([[Mala Prespa]] and [[Golloborda|Golo Brdo]]), [[Serbia]] ([[Prohor Pčinjski Monastery|Prohor Pčinjski]]), and [[Kosovo]] ([[Gora (region)|Gora]]).]] ===Byzantine era=== In the Byzantine Empire, a [[Theme of Macedonia|province under the name of Macedonia]] was carved out of the original [[Theme of Thrace]], which was well east of the Struma River.&lt;ref&gt;''The migrations during the early Byzantine centuries also changed the meaning of the geographical term Macedonia, which seems to have moved to the east together with some of the non-Slavic population of the old Roman province. In the early 9th century an administrative unit (theme) of Makedonikon was established in what is now Thrace (split among Bulgaria, Greece, and Turkey) with Adrianopleas its capital. It was the birthplace of Emperor Basil I (867–886), the founder of the so-called Macedonian dynasty in Byzantinum.'' Historical Dictionary of the Republic of Macedonia, Dimitar Bechev, Scarecrow Press, 2009, {{ISBN|0810862956}}, p. [https://books.google.com/books?id=ilGfCIF4Ao4C&amp;dq=in+the+early+9th+century+an+administrative+unit+macedonia+it+was+the+birthplace&amp;pg=PR52 Iii].&lt;/ref&gt; This ''[[Theme (Byzantine district)|thema]]'' variously included parts of [[Thrace]] and gave its name to the [[Macedonian dynasty]].&lt;ref&gt;''By the beginning of the 9th century, the theme of Macedonia, with its capital at Adrianople consisted not of Macedonian but of Thracian territories. During the Byzantine period the Macedonia proper corresponded to the themes of Thessalonica and Strymon. The Ottoman administration ignored the name of Macedonia. It was only revived during the Renaissance, when western scholars rediscovered the ancient Greek geographical terminology.'' Brill's Companion to Ancient Macedon: Studies in the Archaeology and History of Macedon, 650 BC – 300 AD, Robin J. Fox, Robin Lane Fox, BRILL, 2011, {{ISBN|9004206507}}, [https://books.google.com/books?id=kjLPBsB2dIkC&amp;dq=Macedonia+adrianople+capital&amp;pg=PA35 p. 35].&lt;/ref&gt; Hence, Byzantine documents of this era that mention Macedonia are most probably referring to the Macedonian thema. The region of Macedonia, on the other hand, which was ruled by the [[First Bulgarian Empire]] throughout the 9th and the 10th century, was incorporated into the Byzantine Empire in 1018 as the [[Bulgaria (theme)|Themе of Bulgaria]].&lt;ref&gt;''When the barbarian invasions started in the fourth through seventh centuries AD in the Balkans, the remnants of the Hellenes who lived in Macedonia were pushed to eastern Thrace, the area between Adrianople (presently the Turkish city of Edirne) and Constantinople. This area would be called theme of Macedonia by the Byzantines... whereas the modern territory of R. of Macedonia was included in the theme of Bulgaria after the destruction of Samuels Bulgarian Empire in 1018.'' Contested Ethnic Identity: The Case of Macedonian Immigrants in Toronto, 1900–1996, Chris Kostov, Peter Lang, 2010, {{ISBN|3034301960}}, [https://books.google.com/books?id=P-1m1FLtrvsC&amp;dq=the+area+between+Adrianople+(presently+the+Turkish+city+of+Edirne)+and+macedonia&amp;pg=PA48 p. 48.]&lt;/ref&gt; ===Ottoman era=== With the gradual conquest of southeastern Europe by the [[Ottoman Turks|Ottomans]] in the late 14th century, the name of Macedonia disappeared as an administrative designation for several centuries and was rarely displayed on maps. The name was again revived to mean a distinct geographical region in the 19th century,&lt;ref&gt;''The ancient name 'Macedonia' disappeared during the period of Ottoman rule and was only restored in the nineteenth century originally as geographical term.'' The Oxford Handbook of the History of Nationalism, John Breuilly, Oxford University Press, 2013, {{ISBN|0199209197}}, [https://books.google.com/books?id=-pI25h1bHPIC&amp;dq=name+of+macedonia+historical+region+ottoman&amp;pg=PA192 p. 192.]&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book|last1=Jelavich|first1=Barbara|title=History of the Balkans, Vol. 2: Twentieth Century|date=1983|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=0521274591|page=[https://archive.org/details/historyofbalkans0000jela/page/91 91]|quote=However, in the nineteenth century the term Macedonian was used almost exclusively to refer to the geographic region|url=https://archive.org/details/historyofbalkans0000jela/page/91}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |url=http://www.zeno.org/nid/20007065957 |publisher=Zeno.org |title=Mazedonien |work=[[Meyers Großes Konversations-Lexikon]] |date=1905 |volume=13 |location=Leipzig |publication-date=1905 |pages=488–491 |language=de |trans-title=Macedonia |quote=Neuerdings hat man sich wiederum gewöhnt, den Namen M. im Sinne der Alten, d. h. für das jetzige Wilajet Saloniki und den Süden des Wilajets Monastir, zu gebrauchen.}}&lt;/ref&gt; defining the region bounded by [[Mount Olympus]], the [[Pindus]] range, mounts [[Šar Mountains|Shar]] and [[Osogovo]], the western [[Rhodope Mountains|Rhodopes]], the lower course of the river Mesta (Greek [[Nestos (river)|Nestos]]) and the [[Aegean Sea]],&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book|editor1-last=Brown|editor1-first=Keith|editor2-last=Ogilvie|editor2-first=Sarah|title=Concise Encyclopedia of Languages of the World|url=https://archive.org/details/conciseencyclope00brow|url-access=limited|date=2008|publisher=Elsevier Science|isbn=978-0080877747|page=[https://archive.org/details/conciseencyclope00brow/page/n699 663]}}&lt;/ref&gt; developing roughly the same borders that it has today.&lt;ref&gt;''The region was not called &quot;Macedonia&quot; by the Ottomans, and the name &quot;Macedonia&quot; gained currency together with the ascendance of rival nationalism.'' Collective Memory, National Identity, and Ethnic Conflict: Greece, Bulgaria, and the Macedonian Question, Victor Roudometof, Greenwood Publishing Group, 2002, {{ISBN|0275976483}}, [https://books.google.com/books?id=Xoww453NVQMC&amp;dq=name+of+macedonia+ottoman+was+lost&amp;pg=PA89 p. 89].&lt;/ref&gt; ==Demographics== {{Main|Demographic history of Macedonia}} During medieval and modern times, Macedonia has been known as a Balkan region inhabited by many ethnic groups.&lt;ref&gt;&quot;Macedonia Redux&quot;, Eugene N. Borza, The Eye Expanded: Life and the Arts in Greco-Roman Antiquity&lt;/ref&gt; Today, as a frontier region where several very different cultures meet, Macedonia has an extremely diverse demographic profile. The current demographics of Macedonia include: * [[Macedonians (Greek)|Macedonian Greeks]] self-identify culturally and regionally as &quot;Macedonians&quot; (Greek: Μακεδόνες, ''Makedónes''). They form the majority of the region's population (~51%). They number approximately 2,500,000 and, today, they live almost entirely in [[Macedonia (Greece)|Greek Macedonia]]. The Greek Macedonian population is mixed, with other indigenous groups and with a large influx of Greek refugees descending from [[Asia Minor]], [[Pontians|Pontic Greeks]], and [[Eastern Thrace|East Thracian Greeks]] in the early 20th century. This is due to the [[population exchange between Greece and Turkey]], during which over 1.2 million Orthodox Christian refugees from Turkey were settled in Greece, 638,000 of whom were settled in the Greek province of Macedonia.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|url=http://www.greek-language.gr/greekLang/modern_greek/tools/corpora/pi/content.html?c=9&amp;t=3,3997|title=Διδακτικά Βιβλία του Παιδαγωγικού Ινστιτούτου|website=www.greek-language.gr}}&lt;/ref&gt; Smaller Greek minorities exist in Bulgaria and the Republic of North Macedonia, although their numbers are difficult to ascertain. In official census results, only 86 persons declared themselves Greeks in Bulgarian Macedonia (Blagoevgrad Province) in 2011, out of a total of 1,379 in all of Bulgaria; while only 294 persons described themselves as Greeks in the 2021 census in the Republic of North Macedonia.&lt;ref name=census-mk&gt;{{cite web |url=https://www.stat.gov.mk/publikacii/2022/POPIS_DZS_web_EN.pdf |title=Total resident population, households and dwellings in the Republic of North Macedonia, census 2021 |website=State Statistical Office of the Republic of North Macedonia |pages=32–33}}&lt;/ref&gt; * [[Macedonians (ethnic group)|Ethnic Macedonians]] self-identify as &quot;Macedonians&quot; (Macedonian: Македонци, ''Makedonci'') in an ethnic sense as well as in the regional sense. They are the second largest ethnic group in the region. Being a [[South Slavs|South Slavic]] [[ethnic group]] they are also known as &quot;Macedonian Slavs&quot; and &quot;Slav Macedonians&quot; (Greek: Σλαβομακεδόνες, &quot;Slavomakedones&quot;) in Greece, though this term can be viewed as derogatory by ethnic Macedonians, including those in [[Macedonia (Greece)|Greek Macedonia]].&lt;ref&gt;Although acceptable in the past, current use of this name in reference to both the ethnic group and the language can be considered [[pejorative]] and offensive by ethnic Macedonians. In the past, the Macedonian Slavs in Greece seemed relieved to be acknowledged as ''Slavomacedonians''. Pavlos Koufis, a native of Greek Macedonia, pioneer of ethnic Macedonian schools in the region and local historian, says in ''Laografika Florinas kai Kastorias'' (Folklore of Florina and Kastoria), Athens 1996: &lt;blockquote&gt;&quot;[During its Panhellenic Meeting in September 1942, the KKE mentioned that it recognises the equality of the ethnic minorities in Greece] the KKE recognised that the Slavophone population was ethnic minority of Slavomacedonians. This was a term, which the inhabitants of the region accepted with relief. [Because] Slavomacedonians = Slavs+Macedonians. The first section of the term determined their origin and classified them in the great family of the Slav peoples.&quot;&lt;/blockquote&gt; The [[Greek Helsinki Monitor]] reports: &lt;blockquote&gt;&quot;... the term Slavomacedonian was introduced and was accepted by the community itself, which at the time had a much more widespread non-Greek Macedonian ethnic consciousness. Unfortunately, according to members of the community, this term was later used by the Greek authorities in a pejorative, discriminatory way; hence the reluctance if not hostility of modern-day Macedonians of Greece (i.e. people with a Macedonian national identity) to accept it.&quot;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&lt;/ref&gt; They form the majority of the population in the [[North Macedonia|Republic of North Macedonia]] where according to the 2021 census, approximately 1,100,000 people declared themselves as Macedonians.&lt;ref name=&quot;census-mk&quot; /&gt; In 1999, the [[International Helsinki Federation for Human Rights|Greek Helsinki Monitor]] estimated a significant minority of ethnic Macedonians ranging from 10,000 to 30,000 that exist among the [[Slavic-speakers of Greek Macedonia]].&lt;ref&gt;[http://dev.eurac.edu:8085/mugs2/do/blob.html?type=html&amp;serial=1044526702223 Report about Compliance with the Principles of the Framework Convention for the Protection of National Minorities (Greece) – GREEK HELSINKI MONITOR (GHM)] {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20030523145306/http://dev.eurac.edu:8085/mugs2/do/blob.html?type=html&amp;serial=1044526702223 |date=23 May 2003 }}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=tD3TZJy5HagC&amp;q=number+of+macedonians+&amp;pg=PA152|title=Culture and Rights|access-date=18 March 2015|isbn=9780521797351|last1=Cowan|first1=Jane K.|last2=Dembour|first2=Marie-Bénédicte|last3=Wilson|first3=Richard A.|date=29 November 2001|publisher=Cambridge University Press }}&lt;/ref&gt; There has not been a census in Greece on the question of mother tongue since 1951, when the census recorded 41,017 [[Slavic language (Greece)|Slavic-speakers]], mostly in the [[West Macedonia]] periphery of Greece. The linguistic classification of the [[Slavic dialects of Greece|Slavic dialects]] spoken by these people are nowadays typically classified as [[Macedonian language|Macedonian]]&lt;!--Trudgill--&gt;, with the exception of some eastern dialects which can also be classified as [[Bulgarian language|Bulgarian]], although the people themselves call their native language a variety of terms, including ''makedonski'', ''makedoniski'' (&quot;Macedonian&quot;),&lt;ref&gt;Lois Whitman (1994): ''Denying ethnic identity: The Macedonians of Greece'' Helsinki Human Rights Watch. p. 39 {{Google books |plainurl= |id=JxCnAHCCuxYC |title= }}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book|url={{Google books |plainurl=yes |id=ZmesOn_HhfEC |page=33 }} |title=The Macedonian Conflict: Ethnic Nationalism in a Transnational World|first= Loring M.|last= Danforth| page=62 |access-date=2014-08-07}}&lt;/ref&gt; ''slaviká'' ({{langx|el|σλαβικά}}, &quot;Slavic&quot;)&lt;!--Sotiriou--&gt;, ''dópia'' or ''entópia'' ({{langx|el|εντόπια}}, &quot;local/indigenous [language]&quot;),&lt;ref name=&quot;eurac&quot;&gt;{{cite web|url=http://dev.eurac.edu:8085/mugs2/do/blob.html?type=html&amp;serial=1044526702223 |title=Greek Helsinki Monitor – Report about Compliance with the Principles of the Framework Convention for the Protection of National Minorities |access-date=2009-01-12 |url-status=bot: unknown |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20030523145306/http://dev.eurac.edu:8085/mugs2/do/blob.html?type=html&amp;serial=1044526702223 |archive-date=2003-05-23 }}&lt;/ref&gt; ''balgàrtzki'', ''bògartski'' (&quot;Bulgarian&quot;)&lt;ref&gt;[http://www.promacedonia.org/shklifovi/shklifovi_000_100.pdf Шклифов, Благой and Екатерина Шклифова, Български диалектни текстове от Егейска Македония, София 2003, с. 28–36, 172] – Shkifov, Blagoy and Ekaterina Shklifova. Bulgarian dialect texts from Aegean Macedonia, Sofia 2003, pp. 28–36, 172&lt;/ref&gt; along with ''naši'' (&quot;our own&quot;) and ''stariski'' (&quot;old&quot;).&lt;ref&gt;Lois Whitman (1994): ''Denying ethnic identity: The Macedonians of Greece'' Helsinki Human Rights Watch. p. 37 {{Google books |plainurl= |id=JxCnAHCCuxYC |title= }}&lt;/ref&gt; Most Slavic-speakers declare themselves as ethnic Greeks ([[Slavic speaking minority in northern Greece|Slavophone Greeks]]), although there are small groups espousing ethnic Macedonian&lt;ref name=&quot;USCountryReport&quot;&gt;&quot;Northwestern Greece is home to an indeterminate number of citizens who speak a Slavic dialect at home, particularly in Florina province. Estimates ranged widely, from under 10,000 to 50,000. A small number identified themselves as belonging to a distinct ethnic group and asserted their right to &quot;Macedonian&quot; minority status&quot; {{cite web|title=2002 U.S. Country Reports on Human Rights Practices – Greece|url=https://2001-2009.state.gov/g/drl/rls/hrrpt/2002/18368.htm|date=31 March 2003}}&lt;/ref&gt; and Bulgarian national identities, however some groups reject all these ethnic designations and prefer terms such as ''&quot;natives&quot;'' instead.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|url=https://2001-2009.state.gov/g/drl/rls/hrrpt/2005/61651.htm|title=Greece|publisher=Bureau of Democracy, Human Rights, and Labor|access-date=27 October 2016}}&lt;/ref&gt; The [[Macedonians in Albania|Macedonian minority in Albania]] are an officially recognised minority in Albania and are primarily concentrated around the [[Pustec|Prespa]] region&lt;ref&gt;{{cite news|url=http://balkans.courriers.info/article24081.html|title=Minorités en Albanie : les Macédoniens craignent la réorganisation territoriale du pays|last=Naumovski|first=Jaklina|date=25 January 2014|publisher=Balkan Courriers|access-date=16 May 2014}}&lt;/ref&gt; and [[Gollobordë|Golo Brdo]] and are primarily [[Eastern Orthodox Christian]] with the exception of the later region where Macedonians are predominantly Muslim.&lt;ref&gt;[http://minorityrights.org/minorities/macedonians/ minorityrights.org]&lt;/ref&gt; In the 2011 Albanian census, 5,870 Albanian citizens declared themselves Macedonians.&lt;ref&gt;[http://makfax.com.mk/298566/samo_0_2_otsto_makedonci_zhiveat_vo_albanija_spored_podatocite_na_tamoshnite_vlasti Only 0.2 % Macedonians live in Albania according to the Albanian authorities] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140518101534/http://makfax.com.mk/298566/samo_0_2_otsto_makedonci_zhiveat_vo_albanija_spored_podatocite_na_tamoshnite_vlasti |date=18 May 2014 }} makfax.com.mk&lt;/ref&gt; According to the latest Bulgarian census held in 2011, there are 561 people declaring themselves ethnic Macedonians in the [[Blagoevgrad Province]] of Bulgaria ([[Pirin Macedonia]]). The official number of [[ethnic Macedonians in Bulgaria]] is 1,654. * [[Macedonian Bulgarians]] are ethnic Bulgarians who self-identify regionally as &quot;Macedonians&quot; (Bulgarian: Mакедонци, ''Makedontsi''). They represent the bulk of the population of [[Bulgarian Macedonia]] (also known as &quot;[[Pirin Macedonia]]&quot;). They number approximately 250,000 in the [[Blagoevgrad Province]] where they are mainly situated. There are small Bulgarian-identifying groups in Albania, Greece and the Republic of North Macedonia. In the Republic of North Macedonia, 3,504 people claimed a Bulgarian ethnic identity in the 2021 census.&lt;ref name=&quot;census-mk&quot; /&gt; * [[Albanians]] are another major ethnic group in the region. Ethnic Albanians make up the majority in certain northern and western parts of the Republic of North Macedonia, and account for 24.3% of the total population of the Republic of North Macedonia, according to the 2021 census.&lt;ref name=&quot;census-mk&quot; /&gt; * Smaller numbers of [[Turkish people|Turks]], [[Bosniaks]], [[Romani people|Roma]], [[Serbs]], [[Aromanians]], [[Megleno-Romanians]], [[Egyptians (Balkans)|Egyptians]], [[Armenians]] and [[Jews]] ([[Sephardi Jews|Sephardim]] and [[Romaniotes]]) can also be found in Macedonia. &lt;gallery class=&quot;center&quot;&gt; File:Ethnographische Karte von Makedonien (1899).jpg|Distribution of ethnic groups in Macedonia in 1892 (''Deutsche Rundschau für Geographie und Statistik'' – ''German Bevieiofor Geography and Statistics'') File:Ethnographic map of the central Balkans, ca. 1900.png|Ethnographic map of the vilayets of Kosovo, Saloniki, Scutari, Janina and Monastir, ca. 1900 (''Institute and Museum of Military History'') File:Distribution of races in the Balkans c.1910.jpg|Distribution of ethnic groups in the Balkan Peninsula and Asia Minor in 1910 (''Historical Atlas'' by William R. Shepherd, New York) File:Distribution Of Races 1918 National Geographic.jpg|Distribution of ethnic groups in the Balkan Peninsula and Asia Minor in 1918 (''National Geographic'') &lt;/gallery&gt; ===Religion=== [[File:Thessaloniki Saint Gregory Palamas.jpg|thumb|right|200px|Saint Gregory Palamas Cathedral in [[Thessaloniki]]]] [[File:Karta Athos.PNG|thumb|right|200px|Monasteries of the [[Mount Athos]] in [[Macedonia (Greece)]]]] {{see also|Religion in Macedonia (Greece)|Religion in North Macedonia|Religion in Pirin Macedonia}} Most present-day inhabitants of the region are [[Eastern Orthodox Church|Eastern Orthodox]] [[Christians]], principally of the [[Bulgarian Orthodox]], [[Church of Greece|Greek Orthodox]], [[Macedonian Orthodox Church|Macedonian Orthodox]] and [[Serbian Orthodox]] Churches. Notable [[Muslim]] minorities are present among the Albanian, [[Bulgarian Muslims|Bulgarian]] ([[Pomaks]]), [[Macedonian Muslims|Macedonian]] ([[Torbeš]]), [[Bosniak]], and [[Turkish people|Turkish]] populations. During the period of [[classical antiquity]], main religion in the region of Macedonia was the [[Ancient Greek religion]]. After the Roman conquest of Macedonia, the [[Ancient Roman religion]] was also introduced. Many ancient religious monuments, dedicated to Greek and Roman deities are preserved in this region. During the period of [[Early Christianity]], ecclesiastical structure was established in the region of Macedonia, and the [[Metropolis of Thessaloniki|see of Thessaloniki]] became the [[metropolitan diocese]] of the Roman province of [[Macedonia (Roman province)|Macedonia]].{{sfn|Nesbitt|Oikonomides|1991|p=51}} The [[Metropolis of Thessaloniki|archbishop of Thessaloniki]] also became the senior ecclesiastical primate of the entire [[Eastern Illyricum]], and in 535 his jurisdiction was reduced to the administrative territory of the [[Diocese of Macedonia]].{{sfn|Meyendorff|1989|p=}} Later it came under the jurisdiction of the [[Ecumenical Patriarch of Constantinople]]. During the Middle Ages and up to 1767, western and northern regions of Macedonia were under the jurisdiction of the [[Archbishopric of Ohrid]]. Northern fringes of the region (areas surrounding [[Skopje]] and [[Tetovo]]) had temporary jurisdiction under the [[Serbian Patriarchate of Peć]]. Both the Archbishopric of Ohrid and the Patriarchate of Peć became abolished and absorbed into the [[Ecumenical Patriarch of Constantinople]] in the middle of the 18th century.{{sfn|Runciman|1968|p=}} During the period of [[Ottoman Bulgaria|Ottoman]] rule, a partial [[islamization]] was also recorded. In spite of that, the [[Eastern Orthodox Christianity]] remained the dominant religion of local population. During the 19th century, religious life in the region was strongly influenced by rising national movements. Several major [[ethnoreligious]] disputes arose in the region of Macedonia, main of them being schisms between the [[Ecumenical Patriarch of Constantinople]] and the newly created [[Bulgarian Exarchate]] (1872), and later between the [[Serbian Orthodox Church]] and the newly created [[Macedonian Orthodox Church]] (1967). ==History== {{see also|History of Macedonia (ancient kingdom)|History of modern Macedonia (Greece)|History of the Republic of North Macedonia}} ===Early Neolithic=== While Macedonia shows signs of human habitation as old as the [[paleolithic]] period (among which is the [[Petralona cave]] with the oldest European humanoid), the earliest known settlements, such as [[Nea Nikomedeia]] in [[Imathia]] (today's Greek Macedonia), date back 9,000 years.&lt;ref&gt;R.J. Rodden and K.A. Wardle, Nea Nikomedia: The Excavation of an Early Neolithic Village in Northern Greece 1961–1964, Vol I, The Excavation and the Ceramic Assemblage, British School at Athens Supplementary Volume 25, 1996&lt;/ref&gt; The houses at Nea Nikomedeia were constructed—as were most structures throughout the Neolithic in northern Greece—of [[wattle and daub]] on a timber frame. The cultural assemblage includes well-made pottery in simple shapes with occasional decoration in white on a red background, clay female figurines of the 'rod-headed' type known from [[Thessaly]] to the [[Danube Valley]], stone axes and adzes, chert blades, and ornaments of stone including curious 'nose plugs' of uncertain function. The assemblage of associated objects differs from one house to the next, suggesting some degree of craft specialisation had already been established from the beginning of the site's history. The farming economy was based on the cultivation of cereal crops such as wheat and barley and [[pulse (legume)|pulses]] and on the herding of sheep and goats, with some cattle and pigs. Hunting played a relatively minor role in the economy. Surviving from 7000 to 5500 BCE, this Early Neolithic settlement was occupied for over a thousand years. ===Middle Neolithic=== The Middle Neolithic period ({{circa|5500}} to 4500 BCE) is at present best represented at [[Servia, Greece|Servia]] in the [[Haliacmon]] Valley in western Macedonia, where the typical red-on-cream pottery in the [[Sesklo]] style emphasises the settlement's southern orientation. Pottery of this date has been found at a number of sites in Central and Eastern Macedonia but so far none has been extensively excavated. ===Late Neolithic=== The Late Neolithic period ({{circa|4500}} to 3500 BCE) is well represented by both excavated and unexcavated sites throughout the region (though in Eastern Macedonia levels of this period are still called Middle Neolithic according to the terminology used in the Balkans). Rapid changes in pottery styles, and the discovery of fragments of pottery showing trade with quite distant regions, indicate that society, economy and technology were all changing rapidly. Among the most important of these changes were the start of copper working, convincingly demonstrated by Renfrew to have been learnt from the cultural groups of Bulgaria and Roumania to the North.&lt;ref&gt;A.C. Renfrew, The autonomy of the south-east European Copper Age, Proceedings of the Prehistoric Society 35 1969: 12–47.&lt;/ref&gt; Principal excavated settlements of this period include Makryialos&lt;ref&gt;Stella G. Souvatzi, A Social Archaeology of Households in Neolithic Greece: An Anthropological Approach Series: Cambridge Studies in Archaeology, 2008, 166–178&lt;/ref&gt; and Paliambela near the western shore of the Thermaic gulf, Thermi to the south of [[Thessaloniki]] and [[Sitagroi]]&lt;ref&gt;Colin Renfrew, Marija Gimbutas and Ernestine S. Elster 1986. Excavations at Sitagroi, a prehistoric village in northeast Greece. Vol. 1. Los Angeles : Institute of Archaeology, University of California, 1986, Monumenta archaeologica 13; E. Elster and C. Renfrew, Prehistoric Sitagroi: Excavations in Northeast Greece, 1968–1970, vol. 2: The Final Report, Monumenta Archaeologica 20 (Los Angeles: Cotsen Institute of Archaeology at UCLA, 2003), {{ISBN|1-931745-03-X}}&lt;/ref&gt; and Dikili Tas in the Drama plain. Some of these sites were densely occupied and formed large mounds (known to the local inhabitants of the region today as 'toumbas'). Others were much less densely occupied and spread for as much as a kilometer (Makryialos). Both types are found at the same time in the same districts and it is presumed that differences in social organisation are reflected by these differences in settlement organisation. Some communities were clearly concerned to protect themselves with different kinds of defensive arrangements: ditches at Makryialos and concentric walls at Paliambela. The best preserved buildings were discovered at Dikili Tas, where long timber-framed structures had been organised in rows and some had been decorated with bulls' skulls fastened to the outside of the walls and plastered over with clay. Remarkable evidence for cult activity has been found at [[Promachonas]]-Topolnica, which straddles the Greek Bulgarian border to the north of [[Serres]]. Here a deep pit appeared to have been roofed to make a subterranean room; in it were successive layers of debris including large numbers of figurines, bulls' skulls, and pottery, including several rare and unusual shapes.&lt;ref&gt;Stella G. Souvatzi, A Social Archaeology of Households in Neolithic Greece: An Anthropological Approach Series: Cambridge Studies in Archaeology, 2008, 217–220&lt;/ref&gt; The farming economy of this period continued the practices established at the beginning of the Neolithic, although sheep and goats were less dominant among the animals than they had previously been, and the cultivation of vines (''[[Vitis vinifera]]'') is well attested. Only a few burials have been discovered from the whole of the Neolithic period in northern Greece and no clear pattern can be deduced. Grave offerings, however, seem to have been very limited. ===Ancient Macedonia (500 to 146 BCE)=== {{main|Macedonia (ancient kingdom)}} [[File:ExpansionOfMacedon.jpg|thumb|upright=1.2|Expansion of Macedon into a kingdom]] In classical times, the region of Macedonia comprised parts of what at the time was known as Macedonia, Illyria and Thrace. Among others, in its lands were located the kingdoms of Paeonia, Dardania, Macedonia and Pelagonia, historical tribes like the Agrianes, and colonies of southern Greek city states. Prior to the Macedonian ascendancy, parts of southern Macedonia were populated by the [[Bryges]],&lt;ref&gt;Thucydides. ''The Peloponnesian War'',[https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/cgi-bin/ptext?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.01.0200;query=chapter%3D%23245;layout=;loc=2.98.1 2.99].&lt;/ref&gt; while western, (i.&amp;nbsp;e., [[Upper Macedonia|Upper]]) Macedonia, was inhabited by Macedonian and [[Illyrians|Illyrian tribes]]. Whilst numerous wars are later recorded between the Illyrian and Macedonian Kingdoms, the Bryges might have co-existed peacefully with the Macedonians.&lt;ref&gt;Borza, Eugene N. ''In the Shadow of Olympus: the Emergence of Macedon''. Princeton, New Jersey: Princeton University Press, 1990, {{ISBN|0-691-00880-9}}, p. 65. &quot;There is no record of conflict between the Bryges and the local population; they are described as ''synoikoi'' (&quot;fellow inhabitant&quot; or neighbors) of the Macedonians.&quot;&lt;/ref&gt; In the time of [[Classical Greece]], [[Paionia]], whose exact boundaries are obscure, originally included the whole [[Vardar|Axius]] River valley and the surrounding areas, in what is now the northern part of the Greek region of [[Macedonia (Greece)|Macedonia]], most of the [[North Macedonia|Republic of North Macedonia]], and a small part of western Bulgaria.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|url=https://www.britannica.com/eb/article-9057963/Paeonia|title=Paeonia – historical region}}&lt;/ref&gt; By 500 BCE, the ancient kingdom of [[Macedon]] was centered somewhere between the southern slopes of Lower Olympus and the lowest reach of the Haliakmon River.&lt;ref&gt;N.G.L. Hammond, &quot;Connotations of 'Macedonia' and of 'Macedones' Until 323 B. C.&quot;, ''The Classical Quarterly'', New Series, Vol. 45, No. 1, (1995), p. 122&lt;/ref&gt; Since 512/511 BCE, the kingdom of Macedonia was [[Achaemenid Macedonia|subject]] to the [[Achaemenid Empire|Persians]], but after the [[Battle of Plataea|battle of Plataia]] it regained its independence.{{sfn|Roisman|Worthington|2010|pp=135–138, 342–345}} Under Philip II and Alexander the Great, the kingdom of Macedonia forcefully expanded, placing the whole of the region of Macedonia under their rule. Alexander's conquests produced a lasting extension of Hellenistic culture and thought across the ancient [[Near East]], but his empire broke up on his death. His generals divided the empire between them, founding their own states and dynasties. The kingdom of Macedon was taken by [[Cassander]], who ruled it until his death in 297 BC. At the time, Macedonian control over the Thracoillyrian states of the region slowly waned, although the kingdom of Macedonia remained the most potent regional power. This period also saw several Celtic invasions into Macedonia. However, the [[Gallic invasion of the Balkans|Celts]] were each time successfully repelled by Cassander, and later Antigonus, leaving little overall influence on the region.&lt;ref&gt;The Celts. A history. Daithi O Hogain. Boydell Press. {{ISBN|0-85115-923-0}}&lt;/ref&gt; ===Roman Macedonia=== {{Main|Macedonia (province)}} [[File:Balkans 200AD.png|thumb|Roman provinces in the Balkans including Macedonia, {{Circa|200 AD}}]] [[File:Macedonia ad400.png|thumb|upright=1.2|The late Roman [[Diocese of Macedonia]], including the provinces of [[Macedonia Prima]], [[Macedonia Salutaris|Macedonia Secunda or Salutaris]] (periodically abolished), [[Thessaly|Thessalia]], [[Epirus vetus]], [[Epirus nova]], [[Achaea (Roman province)|Achaea]], and [[History of Crete#Classical, Hellenistic, Roman and Byzantine Crete|Crete]].]] [[Macedon]]ian sovereignty in the region was brought to an end at the hands of the rising power of Rome in the 2nd century BC. [[Philip V of Macedon]] took his kingdom to war against the Romans in two wars during his reign (221–179 BC). The [[First Macedonian War]] (215–205 BC) was fairly successful for the Macedonians but Philip was decisively defeated in the [[Second Macedonian War]] in (200–197 BC). Although he survived war with Rome, his successor [[Perseus of Macedon]] (reigned 179–168 BC) did not; having taken Macedon into the [[Third Macedonian War]] in (171–168 BC), he lost his kingdom when he was defeated. Macedonia was initially divided into four republics subject to Rome before finally being annexed in 146 BC as a [[Roman province]]. Around this time, vulgar Latin was introduced in the Balkans by Latin-speaking colonists and military personnel. With the division of the [[Roman Empire]] into west and east in 298 AD, Macedonia came under the rule of Rome's [[Byzantine Empire|Byzantine]] successors. The population of the entire region was, however, depleted by destructive invasions of various [[Goths|Gothic]] and [[Huns|Hun tribes]] c. 300 – 5th century AD. Despite this, other parts of the Byzantine empire continued to flourish, in particular some coastal cities such as [[Thessaloniki]] became important trade and cultural centres. Despite the empire's power, from the beginning of the 6th century the Byzantine dominions were subject to frequent raids by various [[Early Slavs|Slavic tribes]] which, in the course of centuries, eventually resulted in drastic demographic and cultural changes in the Empire's Balkan provinces. Although traditional scholarship attributes these changes to large-scale colonizations by Slavic-speaking groups, it has been proposed that a generalized dissipation of Roman identity might have commenced in the 3rd century, especially among rural provincials who were crippled by harsh taxation and famines. Given this background, penetrations carried by successive waves of relatively small numbers of Slavic warriors and their families might have been capable of assimilating large numbers of indigenes into their cultural model, which was sometimes seen as a more attractive alternative{{citation needed|date=December 2021}}. In this way and in the course of time, great parts of Macedonia came to be controlled by Slavic-speaking communities. Despite numerous attacks on Thessaloniki, the city held out, and Byzantine-Roman culture continued to flourish, although Slavic cultural influence steadily increased. The Slavic settlements organized themselves along tribal and territorially based lines which were referred to by Byzantine Greek historians as &quot;Sklaviniai&quot;. The Sklaviniai continued to intermittently assault the Byzantine Empire, either independently, or aided by [[Bulgars|Bulgar]] or [[Pannonian Avars|Avar]] contingents. Around 680 AD a &quot;Bulgar&quot; group (which was largely composed of the descendants of former Roman Christians taken captive by the Avars), led by Khan [[Kuber]] (theorized to have belonged to the same [[Dulo clan|clan]] as the Danubian Bulgarian khan [[Asparukh]]), settled in the [[Pelagonia|Pelagonian plain]], and launched campaigns to the region of Thessaloniki. When the Empire could spare imperial troops, it attempted to regain control of its lost Balkan territories. By the time of [[Constans II]] a significant number of the Slavs of Macedonia were captured and transferred to central Asia Minor where they were forced to recognize the authority of the Byzantine emperor and serve in his ranks. In the late 7th century, [[Justinian II]] again organized a massive expedition against the Sklaviniai and Bulgars of Macedonia. Launching from Constantinople, he subdued many Slavic tribes and established the ''Theme of Thrace'' in the hinterland of the Great City, and pushed on into Thessaloniki. However, on his return he was ambushed by the Slavo-Bulgars of Kuber, losing a great part of his army, booty, and subsequently his throne.&lt;ref&gt;The Early Medieval Balkans. John Fine. Page 71: &quot;In 688/89 the emperor Justinian II marched through Thrace where at least enough Byzantine rule had been restored for a theme administration to be established.... The purpose of the campaign was to punish the Bulgars and Slavs. Justinian successfully subdued many Slavs (taking many captives) and reached Thessaloniki. On his return toward Constantinople in 689 he was ambushed by the Bulgars who wiped out most of his army&quot;&lt;/ref&gt; Despite these temporary successes, rule in the region was far from stable since not all of the Sklaviniae were pacified, and those that were often rebelled. The emperors rather resorted to withdrawing their defensive line south along the Aegean coast, until the late 8th century. Although a new theme—that of &quot;Macedonia&quot;—was subsequently created, it did not correspond to today's geographic territory, but one farther east (centred on Adrianople), carved out of the already existing Thracian and Helladic themes. ===Medieval Macedonia=== {{Further|Byzantine Empire|Bulgaria (theme)|Macedonia (theme)|Strymon (theme)|Thessalonica (theme)}} There are no Byzantine records of &quot;Sklaviniai&quot; after 836/837 as they were absorbed into the expanding [[First Bulgarian Empire]]. Slavic influence in the region strengthened along with the rise of this state, which incorporated parts of the region to its domain in 837. In the early 860s [[Saints Cyril and Methodius]], two [[Byzantine Greek]] brothers from Thessaloniki, created the first Slavic [[Glagolitic alphabet]] in which the [[Old Church Slavonic]] language was first transcribed, and are thus commonly referred to as the apostles of the Slavic world. Their cultural heritage was acquired and developed in medieval Bulgaria, where after 885 the region of [[Ohrid]] (present-day Republic of North Macedonia) became a significant ecclesiastical center with the nomination of the Saint [[Clement of Ohrid]] for &quot;first archbishop in Bulgarian language&quot; with residence in this region. In conjunction with another disciple of Saints Cyril and Methodius, [[Saint Naum]], Clement created a flourishing Slavic cultural center around Ohrid, where pupils were taught theology in the [[Old Church Slavonic]] language and the Glagolitic and [[Cyrillic script]] at what is now called [[Ohrid Literary School]]. The Bulgarian-Byzantine boundary in the beginning of 10th century passed approximately {{convert|20|km|0|abbr=on}} north of Thessaloniki according to the inscription of Narash. According to the Byzantine author [[John Kaminiates]], at that time the neighbouring settlements around Thessaloniki were inhabited by &quot;Scythians&quot; (Bulgarians) and the Slavic tribes of [[Drugubites]] and [[Sagudates]], in addition to Greeks. At the end of the 10th century, what is now the Republic of North Macedonia became the political and cultural heartland of the [[First Bulgarian Empire]], after Byzantine emperors [[John I Tzimiskes]] conquered the eastern part of the Bulgarian state during the [[Rus'–Byzantine War (970–971)|Rus'–Byzantine War of 970–971]]. The Bulgarian capital [[Preslav]] and the Bulgarian Tsar Boris II were captured, and with the deposition of the Bulgarian regalia in the [[Hagia Sophia]], Bulgaria was officially annexed to Byzantium. A new capital was established at Ohrid, which also became the seat of the [[Bulgarian Patriarchate]]. A new dynasty, that of the [[Comitopuli]] under Tsar [[Samuil of Bulgaria|Samuil]] and his successors, continued resistance against the Byzantines for several more decades, before also [[Byzantine conquest of Bulgaria|succumbing]] in 1018. The western part of Bulgaria including Macedonia was incorporated into the Byzantine Empire as the province of Bulgaria ([[Theme of Bulgaria]]) and the Bulgarian Patriarchate was reduced in rank to an [[Bulgarian Archbishopric of Ohrid|Archbishopric]]. Intermittent Bulgarian uprisings continued to occur, often with the support of the Serbian princedoms to the north. Any temporary independence that might have been gained was usually crushed swiftly by the Byzantines. It was also marked by [[Byzantine-Norman Wars|periods of war]] between the [[Normans]] and Byzantium. The Normans launched offensives from their lands acquired in southern Italy, and temporarily gained rule over small areas in the northwestern coast. At the end of the 12th century, some northern parts of Macedonia were temporarily conquered by [[Stefan Nemanja]] of [[Grand Principality of Serbia|Serbia]]. In the 13th century, following the [[Fourth Crusade]], Macedonia was disputed among [[Byzantine Greeks]], [[Latin Empire|Latin]] crusaders of the short-lived [[Kingdom of Thessalonica]], and the [[Second Bulgarian Empire|revived Bulgarian state]]. Most of southern Macedonia was secured by the [[Despotate of Epirus]] and then by the [[Empire of Nicaea]], while the north was ruled by Bulgaria. After 1261 however, all of Macedonia returned to Byzantine rule, where it largely remained until the [[Byzantine civil war of 1341–1347]]. Taking advantage of this conflict, the Serb ruler [[Stefan Dushan]] expanded his realm and founded the [[Serbian Empire]], which included all of Macedonia, northern and central Greece – excluding Thessaloniki, Athens and the Peloponnese. Dushan's empire however broke up shortly after his death in 1355. After his death local rulers in the regions of Macedonia were despot [[Jovan Uglješa]] in eastern Macedonia, and kings [[Vukašin Mrnjavčević]] and his son [[Marko Mrnjavčević]] in western regions of Macedonia. ===Ottoman Macedonia=== [[File:Vilaet Solunski.jpg|thumb|right|270px|Contemporary Ottoman map or the [[Salonica Vilayet]]]] [[File:Map of Macedonia, Lapie 1826.jpg|thumb|right|270px| Map of ''Part'' of Macedonia (Carte d'une partie de la Macedoine) by Piere Lapie (1826).&lt;ref&gt;[https://media.public.gr/Books-PDF/flippingTool/deploy/public.html?file=//media.public.gr/Books-PDF/9789604564071-0823314.pdf From E. Livieratos &amp; Chrys. Paliadeli, &quot;European chartography and politics ...&quot; (Ευρωπαϊκή χαρτογραφία και πολιτική. ...&quot;,) Thessaloniki, 2013, p. 141. In Greek]&lt;/ref&gt; ]] {{Further|Greek Macedonia under the Ottoman Empire|Vardar Macedonia under the Ottoman Empire|Demographic history of Ottoman Macedonia}} Since the middle of the 14th century, the Ottoman threat was looming in the Balkans, as the Ottomans defeated the various Christian principalities, whether Serb, Bulgarian or Greek. After the Ottoman victory in the [[Battle of Maritsa]] in 1371, most of Macedonia accepted vassalage to the Ottomans and by the end of the 14th century the Ottoman Empire gradually annexed the region. The final Ottoman capture of [[Thessalonica]] (1430) was seen as the prelude to the fall of [[Constantinople]] itself. Macedonia remained a part of the [[Ottoman Empire]] for nearly 500 years, during which time it gained a substantial [[Turkic peoples|Turkish]] minority. Thessaloniki later become the home of a large [[Sephardi|Sephardi Jewish]] population following the expulsions of Jews after 1492 from [[Spain]]. ===Birth of nationalism and of Macedonian identities=== {{More citations needed|date=February 2008|section}} Over the centuries Macedonia had become a multicultural region. The historical references mention Greeks, Bulgarians, Turks, Albanians, Gypsies, Jews, Aromanians and Megleno-Romanians.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|url=http://www.kroraina.com/knigi/en/jf/jf_1.html|title=J. Fraser – Pictures from the Balkans – 1|first=Vassil|last=Karloukovski|website=www.kroraina.com}}&lt;/ref&gt; It is often{{who|date=April 2012}} claimed that [[Macedonia (food)|macédoine]], the fruit or vegetable salad, was named after the area's very mixed population, as it could be witnessed at the end of the 19th century. From the Middle Ages to the early 20th century the [[Slavic speakers in Ottoman Macedonia|Slavic-speaking population in Macedonia]] was identified mostly as Bulgarian.&lt;ref&gt;[http://etd.lib.metu.edu.tr/upload/12606837/index.pdf Engin Deniz Tanir, The Mid-Nineteenth century Ottoman Bulgaria from the viewpoints of the French Travelers, A Thesis Submitted to the Graduate School of Social Sciences of Middle East Technical University, 2005, pp. 99, 142]&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;[http://promacedonia.org/en/ban/nr1.html#4 Kaloudova, Yordanka. Documents on the situation of the population in the southwestern Bulgarian lands under Turkish rule, Военно-исторически сборник, 4, 1970, p. 72]&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;Pulcherius, ''Recueil des historiens des Croisades. Historiens orientaux''. III, p. 331 – a passage in English – [http://promacedonia.org/en/ban/ma1.html#13, http://promacedonia.org/en/ban/nr1.html#4]&lt;/ref&gt; During the period of [[Bulgarian National Revival]] many Bulgarians from these regions supported the struggle for creation of Bulgarian cultural educational and religious institutions, including [[Bulgarian Exarchate]].&lt;ref&gt;Journal Bulgarski knizhitsi, Constantinople, No. 10 May 1858, p. 19, in English – [http://promacedonia.org/en/ban/nr1.html#23], [http://www.kroraina.com/knigi/en/ban/nr2.html#53 From a letter of Georgi Gogov, Voden, to G.S. Rakovski, Belgrade, regarding the abuses perpetrated by the Greek bishop Nikodim and his persecution of Bulgarian patriots], [http://promacedonia.org/en/ban/nr2.html#87 Newspaper Makedonia, Constantinople, No. 26, May 27th, 1867], Vacalopulos, Konstandinos A. Modern history of Macedonia, Thessaloniki 1988, pp. 52, 57, 64&lt;/ref&gt; Eventually, in the 20th century, 'Bulgarians' came to be understood as synonymous with 'Macedonian Slavs' and, eventually, 'ethnic Macedonians'. [[Krste Misirkov]], a philologist and publicist, wrote his work &quot;[[On the Macedonian Matters]]&quot; (1903), for which he is heralded by [[Macedonians (ethnic group)|Macedonians]] as one of the founders of the Macedonian nation. After the revival of Greek, Serbian, and Bulgarian statehood in the 19th century, the Ottoman lands in Europe that became identified as &quot;Macedonia&quot;, were contested by all three governments, leading to the creation in the 1890s and 1900s of rival armed groups who divided their efforts between fighting the Turks and one another. The most important of these was the [[Internal Macedonian Revolutionary Organization]], which organized the so-called [[Ilinden-Preobrazhenie Uprising]] in 1903, fighting for an autonomous or independent Macedonian state, and the Greek efforts from 1904 until 1908 ([[Greek Struggle for Macedonia]]). Diplomatic intervention by the European powers led to plans for an autonomous Macedonia under Ottoman rule. [[File:Greekhistory.GIF|thumb|left|Evolution of the territory of Greece. The 'Macedonia' shown is the Greek province.]] The restricted borders of the modern Greek state at its inception in 1830 disappointed the inhabitants of northern Greece (Epirus and Macedonia).{{Citation needed|date=February 2007}} Addressing these concerns in 1844, the Greek Prime Minister Kolettis addressed the constitutional assembly in Athens that &quot;the [[Kingdom of Greece (Wittelsbach)|Kingdom of Greece]] is not Greece; it is only a part, the smallest and poorest, of Greece. The Greek is not only he who inhabits the kingdom, but also he who lives in Ioannina, or Thessaloniki, or Serres, or Odrin&quot; . He mentions cities and islands that were under Ottoman possession as composing the [[Great Idea]] (Greek: Μεγάλη Ιδέα, ''Megáli Idéa'') which meant the reconstruction of the [[Ancient Greece|classical Greek world]] or the revival of the [[Byzantine Empire]]. The important idea here is that for Greece, Macedonia was a region with large Greek populations expecting annexation to the new Greek state. [[File:Contested regions.jpg|thumb|left|Map of the region contested by Serbia and Bulgaria and subject to the arbitration of the Russian Tsar]] The 1878 [[Treaty of Berlin, 1878|Congress of Berlin]] changed the Balkan map again. The treaty restored Macedonia and Thrace to the Ottoman Empire. Serbia, Romania and Montenegro were granted full independence, and some territorial expansion at the expense of the Ottoman Empire. Russia would maintain military advisors in Bulgaria and Eastern Rumelia until May 1879. Austria-Hungary was permitted to occupy Bosnia, Herzegovina and the Sanjak of Novi Pazar. The Congress of Berlin also forced Bulgaria, newly given autonomy by the 1878 [[Treaty of San Stefano]], to return over half of its newly gained territory to the Ottoman Empire. This included Macedonia, a large part of which was given to Bulgaria, due to Russian pressure and the presence of significant numbers of Bulgarians and adherents to the [[Bulgarian Exarchate]]. The territorial losses dissatisfied Bulgaria; this fuelled the ambitions of many Bulgarian politicians for the following seventy years, who wanted to review the treaty – by peaceful or military means and to reunite all lands which they claimed had a Bulgarian majority. Besides, Serbia was now interested in the Macedonian lands, until then only Greece was Bulgaria's main contender, which after the addition of Thessaly to Greece in (1881) was bordering Macedonia. Thus, the Berlin Congress renewed the struggle for Turkey in Europe, including the so-called Macedonia region, rather than setting up a permanent regime. In the following years, all of the neighboring states struggled over Turkey in Europe; they were only kept at bay by their own restraints, the Ottoman Army and the territorial ambitions of the Great Powers in the region. Serbian policy had a distinct anti-Bulgarian flavor, attempting to prevent the Bulgarian influencing the inhabitants of Macedonia. On the other hand, Bulgaria was using the power of its religious institutions (Bulgarian Exarchate established in 1870) to promote its language and make more people identify with Bulgaria. Greece, in addition, was in an advantageous position for protecting its interests through the influence of Patriarchate of Constantinople which traditionally sponsored Greek-language and Greek-culture schools also in villages with few Greeks. This put the Patriarchate in dispute with the Exarchate, which established schools with Bulgarian education. Indeed, belonging to one or another institution could define a person's national identity. Simply, if a person supported the Patriarchate they were regarded as Greek, whereas if they supported the Exarchate they were regarded as Bulgarian. Locally, however, villagers were not always able to express freely their association with one or the other institution as there were numerous armed groups trying to defend and/or expand the territory of each. Some were locally recruited and self-organized while others were sent and armed by the protecting states. The aim of the adversaries, however, was not primarily to extend their influence over Macedonia but merely to prevent Macedonia succumbing to the influence of the other. This often violent attempt to persuade the people that they belonged to one ethnic group or another pushed some people to reject both. The severe pressure on the peaceful peasants of Macedonia worked against the plans of the Serbians and Bulgarians to make them adopt their ethnic idea and eventually a social divide became apparent. The British Ambassador in Belgrade in 1927 said: &quot;At present the unfortunate Macedonian peasant is between the hammer and the anvil. One day 'comitadjis' come to his house and demand under threat lodging, food and money and the next day the gendarm hales him off to prison for having given them; the Macedonian is really a peaceable, fairly industrious agriculturist and if the (Serbian) government give him adequate protection, education, freedom from malaria and decent communications, there seems no reason why he should not become just as Serbian in sentiment as he was Bulgarian 10 years ago&quot;. As a result of this game of tug-of-war, the development of a distinct Macedonian national identity was impeded and delayed. Moreover, when the imperialistic plans of the surrounding states made possible the division of Macedonia, some Macedonian intellectuals such as Misirkov mentioned the necessity of creating a Macedonian national identity which would distinguish the Macedonian Slavs from Bulgarians, Serbians or Greeks. [[File:Balkans-ethnique.JPG|left|thumb|upright=1.2|Ethnic composition of the Balkans according to ''Atlas Général Vidal-Lablanche'', Paris 1890–1894. Henry Robert Wilkinson stated that this ethnic map, as most ethnic maps of that time, contained a pro-Bulgarian ethnographic view of Macedonia.&lt;ref name=&quot;Wilkinson&quot;&gt;Henry Robert Wilkinson: ''Maps and Politics: A Review of the Ethnographic Cartography of Macedonia''. Liverpool University Press, Liverpool 1951, pp. 73–74.&lt;/ref&gt;]] Baptizing Macedonian Slavs as Serbian or Bulgarian aimed therefore to justify these countries' territorial claims over Macedonia. The Greek side, with the assistance of the Patriarchate that was responsible for the schools, could more easily maintain control, because they were spreading Greek identity. For the very same reason the Bulgarians, when preparing the Exarchate's government (1871) included Macedonians in the assembly as &quot;brothers&quot; to prevent any ethnic diversification. On the other hand, the Serbs, unable to establish Serbian-speaking schools, used propaganda. Their main concern was to prevent the [[Slavic speakers in Ottoman Macedonia|Slavic-speaking Macedonians]] from acquiring Bulgarian identity through concentrating on the myth of the ancient origins of the Macedonians and simultaneously by the classification of Bulgarians as Tatars and not as Slavs, emphasizing their 'Macedonian' characteristics as an intermediate stage between Serbs and Bulgarians. To sum up the Serbian propaganda attempted to inspire the Macedonians with a separate ethnic identity to diminish the Bulgarian influence. This choice was the 'Macedonian ethnicity'. The Bulgarians never accepted an ethnic diversity from the Slav Macedonians, giving geographic meaning to the term. In 1893 they established the [[Internal Macedonian Revolutionary Organization]] (VMRO) aiming to confront the Serbian and Greek action in Macedonia. VMRO hoped to answer the [[Macedonian question]] through a revolutionary movement, and so they instigated the [[Ilinden–Preobrazhenie Uprising|Ilinden Uprising]] (1903) to release some Ottoman territory. Bulgaria used this to internationalize the Macedonian question. Ilinden changed Greece's stance which decided to take Para-military action. In order to protect the Greek Macedonians and Greek interests, Greece sent officers to train guerrillas and organize militias ([[Macedonian Struggle]]), known as ''makedonomahi'' (Macedonian fighters), essentially to fight the Bulgarians. After that it was obvious that the Macedonian question could be answered only with a war. [[File:Balkan Wars Boundaries.jpg|thumb|upright=1.2|Boundaries on the Balkans after the First and the Second Balkan War (1912–1913)]] The rise of the Albanian and the Turkish nationalism after 1908, however, prompted Greece, Serbia and Bulgaria to bury their differences with regard to Macedonia and to form a joint coalition against the [[Ottoman Empire]] in 1912. Disregarding public opinion in Bulgaria, which was in support of the establishment of an autonomous Macedonian province under a Christian governor, the Bulgarian government entered a pre-war treaty with Serbia which divided the region into two parts.{{Citation needed|date=February 2007}} The part of Macedonia west and north of the line of partition was contested by both Serbia and Bulgaria and was subject to the arbitration of the Russian Tsar after the war. Serbia formally renounced any claims to the part of Macedonia south and east of the line, which was declared to be within the Bulgarian sphere of interest. The pre-treaty between Greece and Bulgaria, however, did not include any agreement on the division of the conquered territories – evidently both countries hoped to occupy as much territory as possible having their sights primarily set on Thessaloniki. In the [[First Balkan War]], Bulgaria, Serbia, Greece and Montenegro occupied almost all Ottoman-held territories in Europe. Bulgaria bore the brunt of the war fighting on the Thracian front against the main Ottoman forces. Both her war expenditures and casualties in the First Balkan War were higher than those of Serbia, Greece and Montenegro combined. Macedonia itself was occupied by Greek, Serbian and Bulgarian forces. The Ottoman Empire in the [[Treaty of London (1913)|Treaty of London]] in May 1913 assigned the whole of Macedonia to the [[Balkan League]], without, specifying the division of the region, to promote problems between the allies. Dissatisfied with the creation of an autonomous Albanian state, which denied her access to the [[Adriatic]], Serbia asked for the suspension of the pre-war division treaty and demanded from Bulgaria greater territorial concessions in Macedonia. Later in May the same year, Greece and Serbia signed a secret treaty in Thessaloniki stipulating the division of Macedonia according to the existing lines of control. Both Serbia and Greece, as well as Bulgaria, started to prepare for a final war of partition. [[File:Macedonia 1913 map.png|left|thumb|Macedonia's division in 1913]] In June 1913, Bulgarian Tsar [[Ferdinand I of Bulgaria|Ferdinand]], without consulting the government, and without any declaration of war, ordered Bulgarian troops to attack the Greek and Serbian troops in Macedonia, initiating the [[Second Balkan War]]. The Bulgarian army was in full retreat in all fronts. The Serbian army chose to stop its operations when achieved all its territorial goals and only then the Bulgarian army took a breath. During the last two days the Bulgarians managed to achieve a defensive victory against the advancing Greek army in the [[Kresna Gorge]]. However at the same time the Romanian army crossed the undefended northern border and easily advanced towards [[Sofia]]. Romania interfered in the war, in order to satisfy its territorial claims against Bulgaria. The [[Ottoman Empire]] also interfered, easily reassuming control of Eastern Thrace with [[Edirne]]. The Second Balkan War, also known as Inter-Ally War, left Bulgaria only with the Struma valley and a small part of Thrace with minor ports at the Aegean sea. Vardar Macedonia was incorporated into Serbia and thereafter referred to as South Serbia. Southern (Aegean) Macedonia was incorporated into Greece and thereafter was referred to as northern Greece. The region suffered heavily during the Second Balkan War. During its advance at the end of June, the Greek army set fire to the Bulgarian quarter of the town of [[Kilkis]] and over 160 villages around Kilkis and Serres driving some 50,000 refugees into Bulgaria proper. The Bulgarian army retaliated by burning the Greek quarter of [[Serres, Greece|Serres]] and by arming Muslims from the region of [[Drama]] which led to a [[massacre]] of Greek civilians.{{Citation needed|date=February 2007}} In September 1915, the Greek government authorized the landing of the troops in Thessaloniki. In 1916 the pro-German King of Greece agreed with the Germans to allow military forces of the Central Powers to enter Greek Macedonia to attack Bulgarian forces in Thessaloniki. As a result, Bulgarian troops occupied the eastern part of Greek Macedonia, including the port of [[Kavala]]. The region was, however, restored to Greece following the victory of the [[Allies of World War I|Allies]] in 1918. After the destruction of the Greek Army in Asia Minor in 1922 Greece and Turkey exchanged most of Macedonia's Turkish minority and the Greek inhabitants of Thrace and [[Anatolia]], as a result of which Aegean Macedonia experienced a large addition to its population and became overwhelmingly Greek in ethnic composition. Serbian-ruled Macedonia was incorporated into the [[Kingdom of Serbs, Croats and Slovenes]] (later the [[Kingdom of Yugoslavia]]) in 1918. Yugoslav Macedonia was subsequently subjected to an intense process of &quot;[[Serbianization]]&quot; during the 1920s and 1930s. During [[World War II]] the boundaries of the region shifted yet again. When the German forces occupied the area, most of Yugoslav Macedonia and part of Aegean Macedonia were transferred for administration to Bulgaria. During the Bulgarian administration of Eastern Greek Macedonia, some 100,000 Bulgarian refugees from the region were resettled there and perhaps as many Greeks were deported or fled to other parts of Greece. Western Aegean Macedonia was occupied by [[Italy]], with the western parts of Yugoslav Macedonia being annexed to Italian-occupied Albania. The remainder of Greek Macedonia (including all of the coast) was occupied by [[Nazi Germany]]. One of the worst episodes of [[the Holocaust]] happened here when 60,000 Jews from Thessaloniki were deported to [[extermination camps]] in occupied [[Poland]]. Only a few thousand survived. Macedonia was liberated in 1944, when the Red Army's advance in the Balkan Peninsula forced the German forces to retreat. The pre-war borders were restored under U.S. and British pressure because the Bulgarian government was insisting to keep its military units on Greek soil. The Bulgarian Macedonia returned fairly rapidly to normality, but the Bulgarian patriots in Yugoslav Macedonia underwent a process of ethnic cleansing by the Belgrade authorities, and Greek Macedonia was ravaged by the [[Greek Civil War]], which broke out in December 1944 and did not end until October 1949. After this civil war, a large number of former ELAS fighters who took refuge in communist Bulgaria and Yugoslavia and described themselves as &quot;ethnic Macedonians&quot; were prohibited from reestablishing to their former estates by the Greek authorities. Most of them were accused in Greece for crimes committed during the period of the German occupation. ===Macedonia in the Balkan Wars, World War I and II=== {{More citations needed section|date=January 2020}} ====Balkan Wars==== {{see also|First Balkan War}} The imminent [[dissolution of the Ottoman Empire|collapse of the Ottoman Empire]] was welcomed by the Balkan states, as it promised to restore their European territory. The [[Young Turk Revolution]] of 1908 proved a nationalistic movement thwarting the peoples' expectations of the empire's modernization and hastened the end of the Ottoman occupation of the Balkans. To this end, an alliance was struck among the Balkan states in Spring 1913. The First Balkan War, which lasted six weeks, commenced in August 1912, when Montenegro declared war on the Ottoman Empire, whose forces ultimately engaged four different wars in Thrace, Macedonia, Northern and Southern Albania and Kosovo. The Macedonian campaign was fought in atrocious conditions. The retreat of the Ottoman army from Macedonia succeeded the desperate effort of the Greek and Bulgarian forces to reach the city of [[Thessalonica]], the &quot;single prize of the first Balkan War&quot; for whose status no prior agreements were done. In this case possession would be equal to acquisition. The Greek forces entered the city first liberating officially, a progress only positive for them. Glenny says: &quot;for the Greeks it was a good war&quot;. The first Balkan War managed to liberate Balkans from Turks and settled the major issues except Macedonia. In the spring 1913 the Serbs and Greeks begun the '[[Serbianization]]' and the '[[Hellenization]]' of the parts in Macedonia they already controlled, while Bulgarians faced some difficulties against the Jews {{Citation needed|date=August 2008}} and the Turkish populations. Moreover, the possession of Thessalonica was a living dream for the Bulgarians that were preparing for a new war. For this, the Bulgarian troops had a secret order in June 1913 to launch surprise attacks on the Serbs. Greece and Serbia signed a previous bilateral defensive agreement (May 1913). Consequently, Bulgaria decided to attack Greece and Serbia. After some initial gains the Bulgarians were forced to retreat back to Bulgaria proper and lose nearly all of the land they had conquered during the first war. The Treaty of Bucharest (August 1913) took off most of the Bulgarian conquests of the previous years. A large part of Macedonia became southern Serbia, including the territory of what today is the Republic of North Macedonia, and southern Macedonia became [[Macedonia (Greece)|northern Greece]]. Greece almost doubled its territory and population size and its northern frontiers remain today, more or less the same since the Balkan Wars. However, when Serbia acquired 'Vardarska Banovina' (the present-day Republic of North Macedonia), it launched having expansionist views aiming to descend to the Aegean, with Thessalonica as the highest ambition. However, Greece after the population exchange with Bulgaria, soon after its victory in the Balkan wars, managed to give national homogeneity in the Aegean and any remaining Slavic-speakers were absorbed. Many volunteers from Macedonia joined Bulgarian army and participated in the battles against Bulgarian enemies in these wars—on the strength of the [[Macedonian-Adrianopolitan Volunteer Corps]] and other units. ====World War I==== {{see also|World War I}} After World War I [[Macedonian front (World War I)|Macedonian Campaign]] the status quo of Macedonia remained the same. The establishment of the 'Kingdom of Serbians, Croats and Slovenes' in 1918, which in 1929 was renamed 'Yugoslavia' (South Slavia) predicted no special regime for Skopje neither recognized any Macedonian national identity. In fact, the claims to Macedonian identity remained silent at a propaganda level because, eventually, North Macedonia had been a Serbian conquest. The situation in Serbian Macedonia changed after the Communist Revolution in Russia (1918–1919). According to Sfetas, Comintern was handling Macedonia as a matter of tactics, depending on the political circumstances. In the early 1920s it supported the position for a single and independent Macedonia in a Balkan Soviet Democracy. Actually, the Soviets desired a common front of the Bulgarian communist agriculturists and the Bulgarian-Macedonian societies to destabilize the Balkan Peninsula. The [[Internal Macedonian Revolutionary Organization]] (IMRO), under the protection of Comintern, promoted the idea of an independent Macedonia in a Federation of Balkan states, unifying all Macedonians. However, the possible participation of Bulgaria in a new war, on the [[Axis powers of World War II|Axis]] side, ended the Soviet support some years later. ====World War II==== {{see also|World War II}} Bulgaria joined the [[Axis powers]] in 1941, when German troops prepared to invade Greece from Romania reached the Bulgarian borders and demanded permission to pass through Bulgarian territory. Threatened by direct military confrontation, [[Tsar Boris III]] had no choice but to join the [[Tripartite pact]], which officially happened on 1 March 1941. There was little popular opposition, since the Soviet Union was in a non-aggression pact with Germany. On 6 April 1941, despite having officially joined the Axis Powers, the Bulgarian government maintained a course of military passivity during the initial stages of the [[invasion of Yugoslavia]] and the [[Battle of Greece]]. As German, Italian, and Hungarian troops crushed Yugoslavia and Greece, the Bulgarians remained on the sidelines. The Yugoslav government surrendered on 17 April. The Greek government was to hold out until 30 April. On 20 April, the period of Bulgarian passivity ended. The Bulgarian Army entered the Aegean region. The goal was to gain an [[Aegean Sea]] outlet in Thrace and Eastern Macedonia and much of eastern Serbia. The so-called [[Vardar Banovina]] was divided between Bulgaria and Italians which occupied West Macedonia. The Bulgarian occupation of Macedonia was technically viewed as interim administration in anticipation of a conclusive internationally recognized settlement of the legal status of the so-called &quot;New Lands&quot; after the end of the Second World War. Bulgarian administration greatly contributed to economic rebirth of the region – the poorest one in the former [[Kingdom of Yugoslavia]] – through introducing measures such as allotment of arable lands to local landless peasantry and by establishing plenty of new elementary and secondary schools. Local population with Bulgarian ethnic origins was given full Bulgarian citizenship. In general, Bulgarians themselves regarded the incorporation of former Yugoslav [[Vardar Banovina]] as a way to achieve national unity. Two new oblasts (provinces) were formed and most public vacancies were filled up with representatives of the local population. During the German occupation of Greece (1941–1944), the Greek Communist Party-KKE was the main resistance factor with its military branch [[Ethniko Apeleftherotiko Metopo|EAM]]-[[Ethnikos Laikos Apeleftherotikos Stratos|ELAS]] (National Liberation Front). Although many members of EAM were Slavic-speaking, they had either Bulgarian, Greek or distinct Macedonian conscience. To take advantage of the situation KKE established [[SNOF]] with the cooperation of the Yugoslav leader Tito, who was ambitious enough to make plans for Greek Macedonia. For this he established the Anti-Fascistic Assembly for the National Liberation of Macedonia (ASNOM) giving an actual liberating character to the whole region of Macedonia. Besides, KKE was very positive to the option of a greater Macedonia, including the Greek region, since it realized that a victory in the Greek Civil War was utopic. Later EAM and SNOF disagreed in issues of policy and they finally crashed and the latter was expelled from Greece (1944). ====Post–World War II==== The end of the War did not bring peace to Greece and a strenuous civil war between the Government forces and EAM broke out with about 50,000 casualties for both sides. The defeat of the Communists in 1949 forced their Slav-speaking members to either leave Greece or fully adopt Greek language and surnames. The Slav minorities were discriminated against, and not even recognised as a minority. Since 1923 the only internationally recognized minority in Greece are the Muslims in Western Thrace. Yugoslav Macedonia was the only region where Yugoslav communist leader [[Josip Broz Tito]] had not developed a Partisan movement because of the Bulgarian occupation of a large part of that area. To improve the situation, in 1943 the Communist Party of Macedonia was established in [[Tetovo]] with the prospect that it would support the resistance against the Axis. In the meantime, the Bulgarians' violent repression led to loss of moral support from the civilian population. By the end of the war &quot;a Macedonian national consciousness hardly existed beyond a general conviction, gained from bitter experience, that rule from Sofia was as unpalatable as that from Belgrade. But if there were no Macedonian nation there was a Communist Party of Macedonia, around which the People's Republic of Macedonia was built&quot;. Tito thus separated Yugoslav Macedonia from Serbia after the war. It became a republic of the new federal Yugoslavia (as the Socialist Republic of Macedonia) in 1946, with its capital at [[Skopje]]. Tito also promoted the concept of a separate Macedonian nation, as a means of severing the ties of the [[Macedonian Slav|Slav population of Yugoslav Macedonia]] with Bulgaria. A separate [[Macedonian Orthodox Church]] was established, splitting off from the [[Serbian Orthodox Church]]. The Communist Party sought to deter pro-Bulgarian sentiment, which was punished severely. Across the border in Greece, [[Slavic speaking minority in northern Greece|Slavophones]] were seen as a potentially disloyal &quot;[[fifth column]]&quot; within the Greek state by both the US and Greece, and their existence as a minority was officially denied. Greeks were resettled in the region many of whom emigrated (especially to [[Australia]]) along with many Greek-speaking natives, because of the hard economic conditions after the Second World War and the Greek Civil War. Although there was some liberalization between 1959 and 1967, the Greek military dictatorship re-imposed harsh restrictions. The situation gradually eased after Greece's return to democracy, although even as recently as the 1990s Greece has been criticised by international human rights activists for &quot;harassing&quot; Macedonian Slav political activists, who, nonetheless, are free to maintain their own political party ([[Rainbow (political party)|Rainbow]]). Elsewhere in Greek Macedonia, economic development after the war was brisk and the area rapidly became the most prosperous part of the region. The coast was heavily developed for tourism, particularly on the [[Halkidiki]] peninsula. Under [[Georgi Dimitrov]], [[Soviet Union|Soviet]] loyalist and head of the [[Comintern]], Bulgaria initially accepted the existence of a distinctive Macedonian identity. It had been agreed that [[Pirin Macedonia]] would join Yugoslav Macedonia and for this reason the population was forced to declare itself &quot;Macedonian&quot; in the 1946 census.{{Citation needed|date=February 2007}} This caused resentment and many people were imprisoned or interned in rural areas outside Pirin Macedonia. After Tito's split from the [[Soviet bloc]] this position was abandoned and the existence of a Macedonian ethnicity or language was denied. ==See also== {{Portal|Greece|North Macedonia|Bulgaria}} * [[Macedonia (terminology)]] * [[Demographic history of Macedonia]] * [[Macedonia (Greece)]] * [[North Macedonia|Republic of North Macedonia]] * [[Blagoevgrad Province]] * [[History of Albania]] * [[History of the Balkans]] * [[History of Bulgaria]] * [[History of Greece]] * [[History of modern Macedonia (Greece)|History of Greek Macedonia]] * [[History of North Macedonia|History of the Republic of North Macedonia]] * [[History of Serbia]] * [[Macedonian nationalism]] * [[Irredentism]] * [[List of homonymous states and regions]] ==References== {{Reflist|30em}} ==Sources== {{refbegin|30em}} * {{Southeastern Europe in the Middle Ages, 500–1250}} * {{The Early Medieval Balkans}} * {{The Late Medieval Balkans}} * {{Cite book|last=Meyendorff|first=John|author-link=John Meyendorff|year=1989|title=Imperial unity and Christian divisions: The Church 450–680 A.D.|location=Crestwood, NY|publisher=St. Vladimir's Seminary Press|isbn=9780881410563|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=6J_YAAAAMAAJ}} * {{Catalogue of Byzantine Seals at Dumbarton Oaks and in the Fogg Museum of Art|volume=1}} * {{The Last Centuries of Byzantium, 1261–1453}} * {{Cite book|last=Obolensky|first=Dimitri|author-link=Dimitri Obolensky|title=The Byzantine Commonwealth: Eastern Europe, 500–1453|year=1974|orig-year=1971|location=London|publisher=Cardinal|isbn=9780351176449|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=RlBoAAAAMAAJ}} * {{Cite book|last=Ostrogorsky|first=George|author-link=George Ostrogorsky|year=1956|title=History of the Byzantine State|location=Oxford|publisher=Basil Blackwell|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Bt0_AAAAYAAJ}} * {{Cite book|last=Popović|first=Radomir V.|title=Le Christianisme sur le sol de l'Illyricum oriental jusqu'à l'arrivée des Slaves|year=1996|location=Thessaloniki|publisher=Institute for Balkan Studies|isbn=9789607387103|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=YwsQAQAAIAAJ}} * {{Cite book|last1=Roisman|first1=Joseph|last2=Worthington|first2=Ian|title=A Companion to Ancient Macedonia|year=2010|location=Malden, MA|publisher=Wiley-Blackwell|isbn=9781444351637|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=QsJ183uUDkMC}} * {{Cite book|last=Runciman|first=Steven|author-link=Steven Runciman|title=The Great Church in Captivity: A Study of the Patriarchate of Constantinople from the Eve of the Turkish Conquest to the Greek War of Independence|year=1968|edition=1.|location=Cambridge|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=9780521071888|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=WxsrAAAAIAAJ}} * {{Cite book|last=Slijepčević|first=Đoko M.|title=The Macedonian Question: The Struggle for Southern Serbia|year=1958|location=Chicago|publisher=The American Institute for Balkan Affairs|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=pi0xAAAAIAAJ}} * {{Cite book|last=Soulis|first=George Christos|title=The Serbs and Byzantium during the reign of Tsar Stephen Dušan (1331–1355) and his successors|year=1984|location=Washington|publisher=Dumbarton Oaks Library and Collection|isbn=9780884021377|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=NXFpAAAAMAAJ}} * {{Cite book|editor-last=Stanković|editor-first=Vlada|title=The Balkans and the Byzantine World before and after the Captures of Constantinople, 1204 and 1453|year=2016|location=Lanham, Maryland|publisher=Lexington Books|isbn=9781498513265|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=avTADAAAQBAJ}} {{refend}} ==External links== {{Commons category|Macedonia (region)}} {{wikiquote|Macedonia}} {{coord|41|N|22|E|source:wikidata|display=title}} {{Authority control}} {{DEFAULTSORT:Macedonia (region)}} [[Category:Macedonia (region)| ]] [[Category:Historical regions]] [[Category:Geography of Europe]] [[Category:Historical regions in Albania]] [[Category:Historical regions in Bulgaria]] [[Category:Historical regions in Greece]] [[Category:Historical regions in Serbia]]</div></summary> <author><name>Βατο</name></author> </entry> <entry> <id>https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Slavic_migrations_to_the_Balkans&diff=1255078807</id> <title>Slavic migrations to the Balkans</title> <link rel="alternate" type="text/html" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Slavic_migrations_to_the_Balkans&diff=1255078807"/> <updated>2024-11-03T01:02:56Z</updated> <summary type="html">Βατο: add <hr /> <div>{{Short description|Overview of Slavic migrations to Southeast Europe}} [[File:Migration_of_Early_Slavs.png|right|thumb|Slavic migrations to Southeast Europe.]] [[Slavs]] began [[human migration|migrating]] to [[Southeastern Europe]] in the mid-6th century and first decades of the 7th century in the [[Early Middle Ages]]. The rapid demographic spread of the Slavs was followed by a population exchange, mixing and [[language shift]] to and from [[Common Slavic|Slavic]]. The settlement was facilitated by the substantial decrease of the Southeastern European population during the [[Plague of Justinian]]. Another reason was the [[Late Antique Little Ice Age]] from 536 to around 660 CE and the series of wars between the [[Sasanian Empire]] and the [[Avar Khaganate]] against the [[Eastern Roman Empire]]. The backbone of the Avar Khaganate consisted of [[Early Slavs|Slavic tribes]]. After the failed [[Siege of Constantinople (626)|siege of Constantinople]] in the summer of 626, they remained in the wider Southeast Europe area after they had settled the [[Byzantine]] provinces south of the [[Sava (river)|Sava]] and [[Danube]] rivers, from the [[Adriatic]] towards the [[Aegean Sea|Aegean]] up to the [[Black Sea]]. Exhausted by several factors and reduced to the coastal parts of the [[Balkans]], Byzantium was not able to wage war on two fronts and regain its lost territories, so it reconciled with the establishment of ''[[Sklavinias]]'' influence and created an alliance with them against the Avar and [[First Bulgarian Empire|Bulgar Khaganate]]s. ==Background== Before the [[Migration Period|great migration period]], the population of the Southeast Europe was composed of Ancient Greeks, [[Illyrians]] and [[Thracians]] who had been [[Romanization (cultural)|Romanized]] and [[Hellenization|Hellenized]], as well as of [[Roman Empire|Roman Imperial]] subjects. There may have also been small communities of [[Heruli]], [[Bastarnae]], [[Langobards]] and [[Sciri]]. After the destructive campaigns of [[Attila the Hun]] and the [[Goths]], who were previously ''[[foederati]]'', which resulted in the fall of the [[Western Roman Empire]], Eastern Roman Emperor [[Justinian I]] began the reconstruction of fortresses, cities, and Christianity. However, the [[Plague of Justinian]] (from 541–549 until the mid-8th century{{sfn|Koder|2020|p=84}}) decimated the native population, resulting in the weakening of the [[Pannonian Limes|Pannonian]] and [[Danubian Limes]]. Various factors, including the Late Antique Little Ice Age and [[population pressure]], pushed the migration of the [[Early Slavs]], who were also led by the [[Pannonian Avars]].{{sfn|Sedov|2013|p=206–207}}&lt;ref name=&quot;Little2007&quot;&gt;{{cite book|editor=Lester K. Little|title=Plague and the End of Antiquity: The Pandemic of 541-750|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=DKhLOd6gGlAC|year=2007|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=978-0-521-84639-4|pages=15, 24, 116, 118, 125, 286–287}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;Wright, David Curtis (1997). &quot;The Hsiung-Nu-Hun Equation Revisited&quot;. ''Eurasian Studies Yearbook''. 69: 77–112.&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=bü&gt;{{cite journal |author1=Ulf Büntgen |author2=Vladimir S. Myglan |author3=Fredrik Charpentier Ljungqvist |author4=Michael McCormick |author5=Nicola Di Cosmo |author6=Michael Sigl |author7=Johann Jungclaus |author8=Sebastian Wagner |author9=Paul J. Krusic |author10=Jan Esper |author11=Jed O. Kaplan |author12=Michiel A. C. de Vaan |author13=Jürg Luterbacher |author14=Lukas Wacker |author15=Willy Tegel |author26=Alexander V. Kirdyanov |title=Cooling and societal change during the Late Antique Little Ice Age from 536 to around 660 AD |journal=Nature Geoscience |date=2016 |volume=9 |issue=3 |pages=231–236 |doi=10.1038/ngeo2652 |bibcode=2016NatGe...9..231B |url=http://elib.sfu-kras.ru/handle/2311/27894 }}&lt;/ref&gt; Early Slavs could have been sporadically present in the [[Carpathian Basin]] during the time of [[Sarmatian]] [[Iazyges]] (and related to [[Limigantes]]).{{sfn|Dvornik|1956|p=29}} They possibly also participated in the campaigns of the [[Huns]] and of various Germanic tribes from the end of the 5th century CE (evidence being recorded words &quot;[[Hunnic language#Corpus|medos, kamos, strava]]&quot; in a Hunnic camp{{sfn|Dvornik|1956|p=30}}).{{sfn|Dvornik|1962|p=113}}{{sfn|Sedov|2013|p=207}} ==History== {{main|Antae|Sclaveni}} [[File:Location of White Croatia and White Serbia in 560.jpg|thumb|right|Historical situation in cca. 560 AD before the invasion of the [[Pannonian Avars]], according to [[Francis Dvornik]] (1949-56).]] The Slavs who settled in Southeast Europe comprised two groups: the [[Antae]] and the [[Sclaveni]]. The first certain Slavic raids date to the early 6th century during the time of the Eastern Roman Emperor [[Justin I]] ({{reign | 518 | 527}}), coinciding with the end of the [[Vitalian (consul)|Vitalian revolt]] of 511–518.{{sfn|Sedov|2013|p=207–208}} [[Procopius]] recorded that in 518 a large army of the Antae, &quot;who dwell close to the Sclaveni&quot;, crossed the Danube River into Roman territory. Raids continued with ever-faster and stronger incursions during the time of [[Justinian I]] ({{reign | 527 | 565}}),{{sfn|Koder|2020|p=82}} with Procopius recording that the whole of [[Illyria|Illyricum]] and [[Thrace]] was pillaged almost every year by Huns,{{refn|group=&quot;nb&quot;|The ethnonym of the Huns, like those of Scythians and Türks, became a generic term for steppe-people (nomads) and invading enemies from the East, no matter their actual origin and identity.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book |last= Beckwith |first= Christopher I. |author-link= Christopher I. Beckwith |date= 2009 |title= Empires of the Silk Road: A History of Central Eurasia from the Bronze Age to the Present |url= https://books.google.com/books?id=-Ue8BxLEMt4C |publisher=Princeton University Press |pages=99 |isbn=9781400829941 |quote= Like the name Scythian up to the early medieval period, the name Hun became a generic (usually pejorative) term in subsequent history for any steppe-warrior people, or even any enemy people, regardless of their actual identity.}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book |last= Dickens |first= Mark |date= 2004 |title= Medieval Syriac Historians' Perceptions of the Turks |url= https://www.academia.edu/436106 |publisher= University of Cambridge |pages= 19 |quote= Syriac chroniclers (along with their Arab, Byzantine, Latin, Armenian, and Georgian counterparts) did not use ethnonyms as specifically as modern scholars do. As K. Czeglédy notes, &quot;some sources... use the ethnonyms of the various steppe peoples, in particular those of the Scythians, Huns and Turkic tribes, in the generic sense of 'nomads'&quot;.}}&lt;/ref&gt;}} Sclaveni, and Antae, who did enormous damage to the native Roman population, making the region a &quot;Scythian desert&quot;.{{sfn|Sedov|2013|p=208}} As the [[Danubian Limes]] lacked garrisons, in 545 Justinian I made an alliance with the Antae to stop [[Barbarians|barbarian]] intrusions from Antae territory in the [[Lower Danube (Euroregion)|Lower Danube]] area. This caused more Sclaveni intrusions from the region of [[Podunavlje]],{{sfn|Kazanski|2020|p=12}} with the intruders spending in 551 their time in Dalmatia &quot;as if in their own land&quot;,{{sfn|Curta|2001|p=86}} but also occasioned peaceful permanent settlement on Byzantine territory, which began around the same time.{{sfn|Sedov|2013|p=208–209}} Things changed with the arrival of the [[Pannonian Avars]] (after [[Lombard–Gepid War (567)|fall of Gepids (567)]] and departure of [[Lombards]] in 568), who fought against the Antae and subjugated masses of both Antae (562, but maintained independence as Byzantine allies until 602) and Sclaveni (Pannonian Slavs lost independence to Avars between 571-578, while Lower Danube/Wallachian Slavs were never conquered and active on their own but were Avar allies since 585).{{sfn|Živković|2008|pp=7–13, 18–26}} After the death of Justinian I, the new Roman Emperor [[Justin II]] ({{reign | 565 | 574}}) halted the payment of subsidies to the Avars, thus sparking an [[Avar–Byzantine wars | almost century-long war]] (568-626). With the Byzantines preoccupied with the [[Byzantine–Sasanian War of 572–591|572–591]] and [[Byzantine–Sasanian War of 602–628|602–628]] wars with the [[Sasanian Empire]], Avars and Slavs made devastating intrusions along the Byzantine borders from Northern Italy to Southern Greece, and by the mid-7th century, the Slavs had settled in all the [[Balkans]] and [[Peloponnese]].{{sfn|Kazanski|2020|p=12}} The Byzantine Emperor [[Maurice (emperor)|Maurice]] ({{reign | 582 | 602}}) in his [[Maurice's Balkan campaigns|Balkan campaigns]] (582–602) did not manage to stop the successful siege of [[Siege of Sirmium|Sirmium]] (580 to 582), though his generals triumphed at [[Battles of Viminacium|Viminacium]] (599). Subsequently the [[Siege of Thessalonica (617)| siege of Thessalonica]] (617), and the destruction of various cities including [[Justiniana Prima]] and [[Salona]], culminated with the unsuccessful [[Siege of Constantinople (626)]].{{sfn|Sedov|2013|p=209–212, 215}}{{sfn|Koder|2020|p=83}} After the siege, somewhere between 628–629, the Slavs and Avars were fighting, and the Pannonian Slavs managed to liberate themselves from the Avar rule.{{sfn|Živković|2008|pp=7–13, 18–26}} According to Procopius, Slavic social and political organization was a kind of ''[[demokratia]]'' in which a council of nobles ruled the tribal community. This allowed Slav tribes to stay together regardless of environmental factors, but according to [[:de:Johannes Koder|Johannes Koder]], &quot;impeded coordinated military resistance against the enemy&quot;, which put them in a situation of being under foreign political leadership.{{sfn|Koder|2020|p=83}}{{sfn|Sedov|2013|p=229}} When the Slavs and later the Avars entered the southeast of Europe they lacked advanced siege-warfare tactics, but around 587 they acquired this knowledge from contact with Byzantine culture, and because of this no urban settlement or fort could oppose them any more.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last= Vryonis|first= Speros|author-link= Speros Vryonis|title= The Evolution of Slavic Society and the Slavic Invasions in Greece. The First Major Slavic Attack on Thessaloniki, A. D. 597|journal= Hesperia: The Journal of the American School of Classical Studies at Athens|year= 1981|volume= 50|issue= 4|pages= 378–390 |doi=10.2307/147879|jstor= 147879}}&lt;/ref&gt; With the destruction of Roman fortifications came a loss of Byzantine military and administrative power in Roman provinces. The native population was often decimated, and smaller or larger groups of Slavs settled in the devastated lands. Settlement among the natives, often replacing them, happened in the autumn, when winter supplies were secured for the people and animals. After mixing with the natives who survived in smaller communities, depending on the region, the Slavic tribes mostly had names of [[toponym]]ic origin.{{sfn|Sedov|2013|p=212, 215}} [[File:Early medieval South Slavic tribes.png|thumb|right|Approximate location of South Slavic tribes, per V. V. Sedov 1995.]] Slavs established dense settlements in Southeast Europe, more precisely in the [[Praetorian prefecture of Illyricum]]: * In the late Roman province of [[Noricum]] was the [[Slavic settlement of the Eastern Alps]] (including [[Carantanians]]). * In [[Pannonia]] were the [[Pannonian Slavs]] (with [[Dulebes|Pannonian Dulebes]]). * The province of [[Dalmatia (Roman province)|Dalmatia]] was settled by the [[White Croats]] (and [[Guduscani]]), [[Sorbs (tribe)|Serbs]], [[Narentines]], [[Zachlumians]], [[Travunija]]ns, and [[Kanalites]]. * [[Praevalitana]] was settled by [[Duklja|Diocleans]]. * The provinces of [[Moesia]] and [[Dardania (Roman province)|Dardania]] were inhabited by [[Merehani]], [[Braničevci]], [[Timočani]] and [[Praedenecenti]]. * The provinces of [[Dacia Ripensis]] and Moesia Secunda were inhabited by [[Seven Slavic tribes]] and [[Severians]]. * In part of the [[Diocese of Thrace]] were [[Smolyani]] and [[Strymonites]]. * In all of the [[Diocese of Macedonia]] were numerous tribes of [[Drougoubitai]], [[Berziti]], [[Sagudates]], [[Rhynchinoi]], [[Baiounitai]], [[Belegezites]], [[Melingoi]] and [[Ezeritai]]. * Some Slavs in Thrace were also relocated to [[Anatolia]], and later became known as [[Asia Minor Slavs]].{{sfn|Sedov|2013|p=212–218, 382, 413, 444, 458}} Eventually the Slavs settled in the former Roman provinces of Pannonia and Dalmatia reached a substantial amount of autonomy or independence, establishing ''[[Sklavinias]]'' influenced both by [[Francia]] and by the Byzantine Empire. In most parts of the former dioceses of [[Diocese of Dacia | Dacia]] and [[Diocese of Thrace | Thracia]] the ''Sklavinias'' fell under the rule of the [[First Bulgarian Empire]], while in the [[diocese of Macedonia]] they lacked political organization, because of which the Byzantine Empire regained control there, and after 200 years the Slavs in the southern Balkans became assimilated by the Greek-speaking majority. In the territory of present-day [[Albania]] the Albanian-speaking majority assimilated the local Slavic settlers.{{sfn|Sedov|2013|p=229–232}}{{sfn|Vedriš|2015|p=581–603}}{{sfn|Koder|2020|p=91–95}} ===Christianization=== After the settlement of the Slavs, Church administration – which was controlled by a thick network of Roman bishoprics – collapsed,&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book|first1=Bernd J.|last1=Fischer|first2=Oliver Jens|last2=Schmitt|title=A Concise History of Albania|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2022|isbn=9781009254908|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=KbqVEAAAQBAJ|page=25}}&lt;/ref&gt; and most of Southeast Europe turned to [[paganism]] and entered the [[Byzantine Dark Ages|Dark Ages]], alongside most of post-Roman Europe. Many Slavs soon began to accept the cultural customs of the highly civilized Roman provinces,{{sfn|Sedov|2013|p=207}} and in order to expand their cultural and state influence on the South Slavs, the [[Holy See|Roman Church]] and [[Ecumenical Patriarchate of Constantinople]] began the process of [[Christianization of the Slavs]].&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last= Živković|first= Tibor|author-link= Tibor Živković|title= On the Baptism of the Serbs and Croats in the Time of Basil I (867–886)|journal=Studia Slavica et Balcanica Petropolitana|year= 2013|issue= 1|pages= 33–53|url= http://slavica-petropolitana.spbu.ru/files/2013_1/Zivkovic.pdf}}&lt;/ref&gt; [[Martin of Braga]] already in 558 listed Slavs among baptized barbarians, possibly a reference to the Pannonian Slavs.{{sfn|Kazanski|2023|pp=84–85}} [[Pope Agatho]] in a letter to Byzantine emperor [[Constantine IV]] regarding the [[Third Council of Constantinople]] mentioned that many Roman Church bishops are active &quot;in the middle of the barbarians - the Lombards and Slavs, as well as the Franks, Goths and Britons&quot;.{{sfn|Komatina|2015|p=713}} A mid-8th century episcopal notitia mentions Slavs among many others as part of the territorial jurisdiction of the Roman Church.{{sfn|Komatina|2015|p=713}} ==Archaeology== Very soon after their arrival the typical Slavic archaeological culture was changed by the influence of native Byzantine cultures.{{sfn|Sedov|2013|p=217}} According to the archaeological data the main movement of the Slavs was from the Middle and Lower Danube valley.{{sfn|Sedov|2013|p=218, 220–221}}{{sfn|Kazanski|2020|p=8}} The [[Ipotesti–Candesti culture]] was composed of a mixture of Sclaveni [[Prague-Korchak culture|Prague-Korchak]] and Antae [[Penkovka culture]] with some elements of the so-called Martinovka culture.{{sfn|Sedov|2013|p=219, 221–222}}{{sfn|Kazanski|2020|p=7–9}} V. V. Sedov considered that the majority of the Slavic population in Southeast Europe was descending from Antae,{{sfn|Sedov|2013|p=221}} while [[Michel Kazanski]] and Andrej Pleterski gave more emphasis on the Sclaveni as immigration started in Western Ukraine (river Dniester) and South(-eastern) Poland (around river Vistula).{{sfn|Kazanski|2020|p=7–8, 10}}{{sfn|Pleterski|1990|pp=34, 50}} For now archaeologically the earliest Slavic sites and [[Artifact (archaeology)|artifacts]] in Moldova are dated to the 5th century, in Romania since 6th century, from there to Transylvania in mid-6th century (with [[Gepids]] assimilation and additional Slavic waves since mid-7th century).{{sfn|Kazanski|2020|p=8–12}} In Southwestern Hungary (southwest of [[Lake Balaton]]) near the border with Slovenia and Croatia, specifically in Northeastern Slovenia, are radiocarbon dated to the first-third of the 6th century.{{sfn|Kazanski|2020|p=13}}{{sfn|Kazanski|2023|pp=84–85}} In Bulgaria and countries of former [[Yugoslavia]] since late 6th and 7th century, while Greece surely only since the 7th century (although military invasions could be argued since mid-6th century).{{sfn|Kazanski|2020|p=8–12}} The distribution of the cremation burials and archaic Prague-pottery associated with the early Slavs shows higher density at the periphery, especially western, of the Avar Khaganate in the Central Danube region.{{sfn|König|2022|pp=46–52}} The region north of Sava river was in the 6th century settled from there, and then in the 7th century another group of Slavs with pottery made on a tournette settled the Sava river region (including Dalmatia and other parts of Western Balkans).{{sfn|König|2022|pp=46–52}} In the central-eastern part of the Carpathian Basin, the early Slavic and Avar settlements were separated by the [[Devil's Dykes]] (''limes sarmaticus'').{{sfn|Vida|2021|pp=182}} Avars also constructed a new dyke system in eastern Transylvania against the Slavs, but considering the amount of Slavic cultural remains in the Transylvanian Basin, that dyke didn't manage to serve its purpose.{{sfn|Vida|2021|pp=183}} The grave artifacts of the Slavic community and its tribal leaders of [[Nușfalău]]-[[Someșeni]] group in northwestern Romania showed close relations with the Avars. That community was identified by scholars with the West Slavs, White Croats and most probably East Slavs in general.{{sfn|Cosma|2022|pp=344–355}} ===Lifestyle=== According to archaeological data and historical sources, the Slavs mostly travelled along the river valleys, but in the Southern Balkans, they travelled where they encountered greater resistance by the native [[Byzantine Greeks|Byzantine Greek]] forces, along the mountain ranges.{{sfn|Sedov|2013|p=216}}{{sfn|Koder|2020|p=88–89}} They mostly were engaged in [[agriculture]], cultivating [[proso millet]], which they introduced,{{sfn|Koder|2020|p=84}} [[wheat]], but also [[flax]].{{sfn|Sedov|2013|p=225–227}} They grew various fruits and vegetables, and learned [[viticulture]].{{sfn|Sedov|2013|p=225–226}} They were actively engaged in [[animal husbandry]], using [[horse]]s for military and agricultural purposes, and raising [[oxen]] and [[goats]].{{sfn|Sedov|2013|p=226}} Those living in hilly terrain mostly lived as [[shepherds]].{{sfn|Sedov|2013|p=226}} Those living near lakes, rivers, and seas also used various hooks and nets for fishing.{{sfn|Sedov|2013|p=227}} They were known to be especially skilled in woodworking and shipbuilding, but also knew about metalworking and pottery.{{sfn|Sedov|2013|p=227–228}} ==Genetics== [[File:Plos.Balkans.2.png|thumb|Admixture analysis of autosomal SNPs of the Southeast Europe in a global context on the resolution level of 7 assumed ancestral populations: the African (brown), South/West European (light blue), Asian (yellow), Middle Eastern (orange), South Asian (green), North/East European (dark blue) and beige Caucasus component.&lt;ref name=&quot;Kovacevic2014&quot;/&gt;]] According to the 2013 [[Autosome|autosomal]] [[Identity by descent|IBD]] survey &quot;of recent genealogical ancestry over the past 3,000 years at a continental scale&quot;, the speakers of [[Serbo-Croatian language]] share a very high number of common ancestors dated to the [[migration period]] approximately 1,500 years ago with [[Poland]] and [[Romania]]-[[Bulgaria]] cluster among others in [[Eastern Europe]]. It is concluded to be caused by the [[Huns|Hunnic]] and Slavic expansion, which was a &quot;relatively small population that expanded over a large geographic area&quot;, particularly &quot;the expansion of the Slavic populations into regions of low population density beginning in the sixth century&quot; and that it is &quot;highly coincident with the modern distribution of Slavic languages&quot;.&lt;ref name=&quot;Ralph2013&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |author=P. Ralph |title=The Geography of Recent Genetic Ancestry across Europe |journal=[[PLOS Biology]] |volume=11 |issue=5 |year=2013 |doi=10.1371/journal.pbio.1001555 |pages=e105090 |pmid=23667324 |pmc=3646727 |display-authors=etal |doi-access=free }}&lt;/ref&gt; According to Kushniarevich et al. 2015, the Hellenthal et al. 2014 IBD analysis,&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |work=A genetic atlas of human admixture history |title=Companion website for &quot;A genetic atlas of human admixture history&quot;, Hellenthal et al, Science (2014) |url=http://admixturemap.paintmychromosomes.com/}}&lt;br&gt; {{cite journal |last1=Hellenthal |first1=Garrett |last2=Busby |first2=George B.J. |last3=Band |first3=Gavin |last4=Wilson |first4=James F. |last5=Capelli |first5=Cristian |last6=Falush |first6=Daniel |last7=Myers |first7=Simon |title=A Genetic Atlas of Human Admixture History |journal=[[Science (journal)|Science]] |date=14 February 2014 |volume=343 |issue=6172 |pages=747–751 |doi=10.1126/science.1243518 |pmid=24531965 |issn=0036-8075|pmc=4209567 |bibcode=2014Sci...343..747H }}&lt;br&gt; {{cite journal |title=Supplementary Material for &quot;A genetic atlas of human admixture history&quot; |journal = Science|volume = 343|issue = 6172|pages=747–751 |quote=S7.6 &quot;East Europe&quot;: The difference between the 'East Europe I' and 'East Europe II' analyses is that the latter analysis included the Polish as a potential donor population. The Polish were included in this analysis to reflect a Slavic language speaking source group.&quot; &quot;We speculate that the second event seen in our six Eastern Europe populations between northern European and southern European ancestral sources may correspond to the expansion of Slavic language speaking groups (commonly referred to as the Slavic expansion) across this region at a similar time, perhaps related to displacement caused by the Eurasian steppe invaders (38; 58). Under this scenario, the northerly source in the second event might represent DNA from Slavic-speaking migrants (sampled Slavic-speaking groups are excluded from being donors in the EastEurope I analysis). To test consistency with this, we repainted these populations adding the Polish as a single Slavic-speaking donor group (“East Europe II” analysis; see Note S7.6) and, in doing so, they largely replaced the original North European component (Figure S21), although we note that two nearby populations, Belarus and Lithuania, are equally often inferred as sources in our original analysis (Table S12). Outside these six populations, an admixture event at the same time (910CE, 95% CI:720-1140CE) is seen in the southerly neighboring Greeks, between sources represented by multiple neighboring Mediterranean peoples (63%) and the Polish (37%), suggesting a strong and early impact of the Slavic expansions in Greece, a subject of recent debate (37). These shared signals we find across East European groups could explain a recent observation of an excess of IBD sharing among similar groups, including Greece, that was dated to a wide range between 1,000 and 2,000 years ago (37)|pmc = 4209567|year = 2014|last1 = Hellenthal|first1 = G.|last2 = Busby|first2 = G. B.|last3 = Band|first3 = G.|last4 = Wilson|first4 = J. F.|last5 = Capelli|first5 = C.|last6 = Falush|first6 = D.|last7 = Myers|first7 = S.|pmid = 24531965|doi = 10.1126/science.1243518| bibcode=2014Sci...343..747H }}&lt;/ref&gt; also found &quot;multi-directional admixture events among East Europeans (both Slavic and non-Slavic), dated to around 1,000–1,600 YBP&quot; which coincides with &quot;the proposed time-frame for the Slavic expansion&quot;.&lt;ref name=&quot;Kushniarevich2015&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |author=A. Kushniarevich |display-authors=etal |year=2015 |title=Genetic Heritage of the Balto-Slavic Speaking Populations: A Synthesis of Autosomal, Mitochondrial and Y-Chromosomal Data |journal=[[PLOS One]] |volume=10 |issue=9 |pages=6, 7 |bibcode=2015PLoSO..1035820K |doi=10.1371/journal.pone.0135820 |pmc=4558026 |pmid=26332464 |doi-access=free}}&lt;/ref&gt; The Slavic influence is &quot;dated to 500-900 CE or a bit later with over 40-50% among [[Bulgarians]], [[Romanians]], and [[Hungarians]]&quot;.&lt;ref name=&quot;Ralph2013&quot;/&gt; The 2015 IBD analysis found that the [[South Slavs]] have lower proximity to [[Greeks]] than with [[East Slavs]] and [[West Slavs]] and that there's an &quot;even patterns of IBD sharing among East-West Slavs–'inter-Slavic' populations (Hungarians, Romanians and [[Gagauz people|Gagauz]])–and South Slavs, i.e. across an area of assumed historic movements of people including Slavs&quot;. The slight peak of shared IBD segments between South and East-West Slavs suggests a shared &quot;Slavonic-time ancestry&quot;.&lt;ref name=&quot;Kushniarevich2015&quot;/&gt; According to a recent [[Genetic admixture|admixture]] analysis, the South Slavs show a genetic uniformity,&lt;ref name=&quot;Kovacevic2014&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|author=L. Kovačević|title=Standing at the Gateway to Europe - The Genetic Structure of Western Balkan Populations Based on Autosomal and Haploid Markers|journal=[[PLOS One]] |volume=9|issue=8|year=2014|doi=10.1371/journal.pone.0105090|pages=e105090|pmid=25148043|pmc=4141785 |bibcode=2014PLoSO...9j5090K|display-authors=etal |doi-access=free}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;Delser2018&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |author=P. M. Delser |title=Genetic Landscape of Slovenians: Past Admixture and Natural Selection Pattern|journal=Frontiers in Genetics |volume=9 |pages=551 |year=2018 |doi=10.3389/fgene.2018.00551 |pmid=30510563 |pmc=6252347 |display-authors=etal|doi-access=free}}&lt;/ref&gt; with a modeled ancestral genetic component in the study peaking in Baltic speakers, being high in East Slavs (80-95%) as well as Western and North-Western Europeans (Germans, Orcadians, Swedes), and between 55-70% among South Slavs.&lt;ref name=&quot;Kushniarevich2015&quot;/&gt; According to 2017 admixture study of Peloponnesian Greek population, &quot;the Slavic ancestry of Peloponnesean subpopulations ranges from 0.2 to 14.4%&quot;.&lt;ref name=&quot;Stamatoyannopoulos2017&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |author=G. Stamatoyannopoulos|title=Genetics of the peloponnesean populations and the theory of extinction of the medieval peloponnesean Greeks|journal=[[European Journal of Human Genetics]]|volume=25|year=2017|issue=5 |doi=10.1038/ejhg.2017.18|pages=637–645|pmid=28272534|pmc=5437898|display-authors=etal|doi-access=free}}&lt;/ref&gt; The 2006 Y-DNA study results &quot;suggest that the Slavic expansion started from the territory of present-day Ukraine, thus supporting the hypothesis that places the earliest known homeland of Slavs in the basin of the middle [[Dnieper]]&quot;.&lt;ref name=&quot;Rębała ''et al.'' 2007&quot;&gt;{{cite journal | pmid = 17364156 | year = 2007 | last1 = Rebała | first1 = K | last2 = Mikulich | first2 = AI | last3 = Tsybovsky | first3 = IS | last4 = Siváková | first4 = D | last5 = Dzupinková | first5 = Z | last6 = Szczerkowska-Dobosz | first6 = A | last7 = Szczerkowska | first7 = Z | title = Y-STR variation among Slavs: Evidence for the Slavic homeland in the middle Dnieper basin | volume = 52 | issue = 5 | pages = 406–14 | doi = 10.1007/s10038-007-0125-6 | journal = Journal of Human Genetics | doi-access = free }}&lt;/ref&gt; According to genetic studies until 2020, the distribution, variance and frequency of the [[Human Y-chromosome DNA haplogroup|Y-DNA haplogroups]] [[Haplogroup R1a|R1a]] and [[Haplogroup I-M438#I2a-L621|I2]] and their subclades R-M558, R-M458 and I-CTS10228 among South Slavs are in correlation with the spreading of Slavic languages during the medieval Slavic expansion from Eastern Europe, most probably from the territory of present-day [[Ukraine]] and [[Lesser Poland|Southeastern Poland]].&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal|author=A. Zupan|title=The paternal perspective of the Slovenian population and its relationship with other populations|url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/251567977|journal=[[Annals of Human Biology]]|volume=40|issue=6|date=2013|doi=10.3109/03014460.2013.813584|pmid=23879710 |display-authors=etal|pages=515–526 |s2cid=34621779|quote=However, a study by Battaglia et al. (2009) showed a variance peak for I2a1 in the Ukraine and, based on the observed pattern of variation, it could be suggested that at least part of the I2a1 haplogroup could have arrived in the Balkans and Slovenia with the Slavic migrations from a homeland in present-day Ukraine... The calculated age of this specific haplogroup together with the variation peak detected in the suggested Slavic homeland could represent a signal of Slavic migration arising from medieval Slavic expansions. However, the strong genetic barrier around the area of Bosnia and Herzegovina, associated with the high frequency of the I2a1b-M423 haplogroup, could also be a consequence of a Paleolithic genetic signal of a Balkan refuge area, followed by mixing with a medieval Slavic signal from modern-day Ukraine.}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{Citation |last1=Underhill |first1=Peter A. |year=2015 |title=The phylogenetic and geographic structure of Y-chromosome haplogroup R1a |journal=[[European Journal of Human Genetics]] |volume=23 |issue=1 |pages=124–131 |doi=10.1038/ejhg.2014.50 |pmid=24667786 |pmc=4266736 |quote=R1a-M458 exceeds 20% in the Czech Republic, Slovakia, Poland, and Western Belarus. The lineage averages 11–15% across Russia and Ukraine and occurs at 7% or less elsewhere (Figure 2d). Unlike hg R1a-M458, the R1a-M558 clade is also common in the Volga-Uralic populations. R1a-M558 occurs at 10–33% in parts of Russia, exceeds 26% in Poland and Western Belarus, and varies between 10 and 23% in the Ukraine, whereas it drops 10-fold lower in Western Europe. In general, both R1a-M458 and R1a-M558 occur at low but informative frequencies in Balkan populations with known Slavonic heritage.}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;Utevska&quot;&gt;{{cite thesis |type=PhD |author=O.M. Utevska |date=2017 |title=Генофонд українців за різними системами генетичних маркерів: походження і місце на європейському генетичному просторі |trans-title=The gene pool of Ukrainians revealed by different systems of genetic markers: the origin and statement in Europe |publisher=National Research Center for Radiation Medicine of [[National Academy of Sciences of Ukraine]] |url=http://nrcrm.gov.ua/science/councils/dissertation/ |language=uk|pages=219–226, 302}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;Neparaczki&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |last1=Neparáczki |first1=Endre |last2=Maróti |first2=Zoltán |display-authors=1 |date=2019 |title=Y-chromosome haplogroups from Hun, Avar and conquering Hungarian period nomadic people of the Carpathian Basin |journal=[[Scientific Reports]] |publisher=[[Nature Research]] |volume=9 |issue=16569 |page=16569 |doi=10.1038/s41598-019-53105-5 |pmc=6851379 |pmid=31719606 |bibcode=2019NatSR...916569N |quote=Hg I2a1a2b-L621 was present in 5 Conqueror samples, and a 6th sample form Magyarhomorog (MH/9) most likely also belongs here, as MH/9 is a likely kin of MH/16 (see below). This Hg of European origin is most prominent in the Balkans and Eastern Europe, especially among Slavic speaking groups.}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;HorolmaTibor2019&quot;&gt;{{cite book|first1=Horolma |last1=Pamjav|first2=Tibor |last2=Fehér|first3=Endre|last3=Németh|first4=László|last4=Koppány Csáji|title=Genetika és őstörténet |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=xq2xDwAAQBAJ|year=2019|publisher=Napkút Kiadó|language=hu |isbn=978-963-263-855-3|pages=58|quote=Az I2-CTS10228 (köznevén „dinári-kárpáti&quot;) alcsoport legkorábbi közös őse 2200 évvel ezelőttre tehető, így esetében nem arról van szó, hogy a mezolit népesség Kelet-Európában ilyen mértékben fennmaradt volna, hanem arról, hogy egy, a mezolit csoportoktól származó szűk család az európai vaskorban sikeresen integrálódott egy olyan társadalomba, amely hamarosan erőteljes demográfiai expanzióba kezdett. Ez is mutatja, hogy nem feltétlenül népek, mintsem családok sikerével, nemzetségek elterjedésével is számolnunk kell, és ezt a jelenlegi etnikai identitással összefüggésbe hozni lehetetlen. A csoport elterjedése alapján valószínűsíthető, hogy a szláv népek migrációjában vett részt, így válva az R1a-t követően a második legdominánsabb csoporttá a mai Kelet-Európában. Nyugat-Európából viszont teljes mértékben hiányzik, kivéve a kora középkorban szláv nyelvet beszélő keletnémet területeket.}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;Fóthi&quot;&gt;{{Citation |last1=Fóthi |first1=E. |last2=Gonzalez |first2=A. |last3=Fehér |first3=T. |display-authors=etal |title=Genetic analysis of male Hungarian Conquerors: European and Asian paternal lineages of the conquering Hungarian tribes |journal=Archaeological and Anthropological Sciences |volume=12 |issue=1 |date=2020 |doi=10.1007/s12520-019-00996-0|doi-access=free|quote=Based on SNP analysis, the CTS10228 group is 2200 ± 300 years old. The group’s demographic expansion may have begun in Southeast Poland around that time, as carriers of the oldest subgroup are found there today. The group cannot solely be tied to the Slavs, because the proto-Slavic period was later, around 300–500 CE... The SNP-based age of the Eastern European CTS10228 branch is 2200 ± 300 years old. The carriers of the most ancient subgroup live in Southeast Poland, and it is likely that the rapid demographic expansion which brought the marker to other regions in Europe began there. The largest demographic explosion occurred in the Balkans, where the subgroup is dominant in 50.5% of Croatians, 30.1% of Serbs, 31.4% of Montenegrins, and in about 20% of Albanians and Greeks. As a result, this subgroup is often called Dinaric. It is interesting that while it is dominant among modern Balkan peoples, this subgroup has not been present yet during the Roman period, as it is almost absent in Italy as well (see Online Resource 5; ESM_5).}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;Kassian2020&quot;&gt;{{citation |last1=Kushniarevich |first1=Alena |last2=Kassian |first2=Alexei |editor=Marc L. Greenberg |date=2020 |title=Encyclopedia of Slavic Languages and Linguistics Online |chapter=Genetics and Slavic languages |publisher=Brill |doi=10.1163/2589-6229_ESLO_COM_032367 |access-date=10 December 2020 |chapter-url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/341945550 |quote=The geographic distributions of the major eastern European NRY haplogroups (R1a-Z282, I2a-P37) overlap with the area occupied by the present-day Slavs to a great extent, and it might be tempting to consider both haplogroups as Slavic-specic patrilineal lineages}}&lt;/ref&gt; A 2022 [[archaeogenetic]] study published in ''[[Science (journal)|Science]]'' compared ancient, medieval and modern population samples and found that the medieval Slavic migrations &quot;profoundly affected the region&quot;, resulting in the reduction of [[Early European Farmers|Anatolian Neolithic ancestry]] in Southeastern Europe. Pre-Slavic Southeast European populations have the most Anatolian Neolithic component of ancestry, whereas present-day Slavs outside the Southeast Europe have the least, &quot;with present-day people from Southeastern Europe intermediate between the two extremes&quot;. Among present-day populations &quot;Greeks and Albanians have more Anatolian Neolithic ancestry than their South Slavic neighbors&quot;.&lt;ref name=&quot;Lazaridis2022&quot;&gt;{{cite journal | author1= Iosif Lazaridis |author2= Songül Alpaslan-Roodenberg |author3= Ayşe Acar |author4= Ayşen Açıkkol |author5= Anagnostis Agelarakis |author6= Levon Aghikyan |author7= Uğur Akyüz |author8= Desislava Andreeva |author9= Gojko Andrijašević |author10= David Reich | display-authors = et al. | title = A genetic probe into the ancient and medieval history of Southern Europe and West Asia | journal = Science | volume = 377 | issue = 6609 | pages = 940–951 | date = 26 August 2022 | pmid = 36007020 | doi = 10.1126/science.abq0755|pmc= 10019558 |s2cid= 251844202 |url= https://centaur.reading.ac.uk/107194/1/abq0755_HistoricalPeriod_Manuscript_July21.pdf }}&lt;/ref&gt; A 2023 archaeogenetic study published in ''[[Cell (journal)|Cell]]'', based on 146 samples, confirmed that the spread of Slavic language and identity was because of large movements of people of both males and females with specific Eastern European ancestry and that &quot;more than half of the ancestry of most peoples in the Balkans today comes from the Slavic migrations, with around a third Slavic ancestry even in countries like Greece where no Slavic languages are spoken today&quot;.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |url=https://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2023/12/231207161343.htm |title=Ancient DNA analysis reveals how the rise and fall of the Roman Empire shifted populations in the Balkans |date=December 7, 2023 |website=[[ScienceDaily]] |access-date=December 8, 2023}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;Olalde2023&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |last1=Olalde |first1=Iñigo |last2=Carrión |first2=Pablo |date=December 7, 2023 |title=A genetic history of the Balkans from Roman frontier to Slavic migrations |url=https://www.cell.com/cell/fulltext/S0092-8674(23)01135-2 |journal=[[Cell (journal)|Cell]] |volume=186 |issue=25 |pages=P5472-5485.E9 |doi=10.1016/j.cell.2023.10.018 |access-date=December 8, 2023|doi-access=free |pmc=10752003 }}&lt;/ref&gt; The big data set also showed that the Y-DNA haplogroups I2a-L621 and R1a-Z282 are absent in the antiquity and appear only since the Early Middle Ages &quot;always associated with Eastern European related ancestry in the autosomal genome, which supports that these lineages were introduced in the Balkans by Eastern European migrants during the Early Medieval period&quot;.&lt;ref name=&quot;Olalde2023&quot;/&gt; ==See also== * [[Extreme weather events of 535–536]] * [[Bulgars]] * [[Outline of Slavic history and culture]] * [[Pre-modern human migration]] ==Notes== {{Reflist|group=&quot;nb&quot;}} ==References== {{Reflist|2}} ==Sources== * {{cite book |last=Cosma |first=Călin |chapter=Avar Artifacts in Slavic Barrow Cremation Cemeteries From Transylvania and Northwestern Romania |date=2022 |editor=Papeša, Anita Rapan; Dugonjić, Anita |title=Avars and Slavs: Two Sides of the Belt Strap End - Avars on the North and the South of the Khaganate, proceedings of the international scientific conference held in Vinkovci 2020 |chapter-url=https://www.academia.edu/98359007 |location=Zagreb, Vinkovci |publisher=Arheološki muzej u Zagrebu, Gradski muzej Vinkovci |page=344–355 |isbn=9789538143588}} * {{Cite book|last=Crawford|first=Peter|title=The War of the Three Gods: Romans, Persians and the Rise of Islam|year=2013|publisher=Pen and Sword|isbn=9781848846128|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ZPAHBAAAQBAJ}} * {{Cite book|last=Curta|first=Florin|author-link=Florin Curta|title=The Making of the Slavs: History and Archaeology of the Lower Danube Region, c.500–700|year=2001|publisher=Cembridge University|isbn=9781139428880|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=rcFGhCVs0sYC}} * {{Cite book|author=Dodgeon, Michael H. |author2=Lieu, Samuel N. C.|title=The Roman Eastern Frontier and the Persian Wars AD 363-628|year=1991|publisher=Psychology Press|isbn=9780415465304|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=zoZIxpQ8A2IC}} *{{cite book |last=Dvornik |first=Francis |author-link=Francis Dvornik |date=1956 |title=The Slavs: Their Early History and Civilization |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=DEoLAQAAIAAJ |location=Boston |publisher=[[American Academy of Arts and Sciences]]}}&lt;/ref&gt; * {{cite book |editor1-last=Jenkins|editor1-first=Romilly|editor1-link=Romilly Jenkins|author1=[[Francis Dvornik]]|author2=[[Romilly Jenkins]]|author3=[[Bernard Lewis]]|author4=[[Gyula Moravcsik]]|author5=[[Dimitri Obolensky]]|author6=[[Steven Runciman]]|ref={{harvid|Dvornik|1962}}|year=1962|publisher=[[The Athlone Press]], [[University of London]]|title=De Administrando Imperio: Volume II Commentary|url=https://archive.org/details/dli.ernet.168258|location=London|isbn=9780884020219}} * {{The Early Medieval Balkans}} * {{Cite book|last=Kardaras|first=Georgios|title=Byzantium and the Avars, 6th-9th Century AD: Political, Diplomatic and Cultural Relations |year=2018 |publisher=Brill |isbn=9789004248380 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=gwpwuQEACAAJ}} * [[Michel Kazanski|Kazanski, Michel]] (2020). &quot;[https://hal.archives-ouvertes.fr/hal-02902087/file/Kazanski_Archaeology-Slavic%20Migrations_2020.pdf Archaeology of the Slavic Migrations]&quot;. ''Encyclopedia of Slavic Languages and Linguistics Online''. BRILL * {{cite journal |last1=Kazanski |first1=Michel |author-link=Michel Kazanski |date=2023 |title=Первые контакты дунайских славян и авар: свидетельства византийских авторов и археологии |trans-title=First contacts of the Danubian Slavs and Avars: the evidences from the Byzantine writers and archaeology |url=https://www.academia.edu/111739327 |journal=Antichnaya Drevnost's I Srednie Veka |volume=23 |publisher=[[Ural University Press]] |pages=76–89 |doi=10.15826/adsv.2023.51.004|doi-access=free}} * {{cite book|last=Koder|first=Johannes|editor1=Johannes Preiser-Kapeller|editor2=Lucian Reinfandt|editor3=Yannis Stouraitis|title=Migration Histories of the Medieval Afroeurasian Transition Zone: Aspects of Mobility Between Africa, Asia and Europe, 300-1500 C.E.|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=QMBnzQEACAAJ|year=2020|publisher=Brill|isbn=978-90-04-42561-3|pages=81–100|chapter=On the Slavic Immigration in the Byzantine Balkans |doi=10.1163/9789004425613_004|s2cid=218997565}} * {{Cite book|last=Komatina|first=Predrag|chapter=The Church in Serbia at the Time of Cyrilo-Methodian Mission in Moravia|title=Cyril and Methodius: Byzantium and the World of the Slavs|year=2015|location=Thessaloniki|publisher=Dimos|pages=711–718|chapter-url=https://www.academia.edu/13442372}} * {{cite book |last=König |first=Tomáš |chapter=The Early Slavs: from the Western Carpathians to the Adriatic |editor=Homza, Martin; Holjevac, Željko; Filipec, Krešimir; Vrtel', Andrej |date=2022 |title=Studia Carpathico-Adriatica III: From the Carpathians to the Adriatic: The Archeology of the Migration Period and the Middle Ages |chapter-url=https://www.academia.edu/108719684 |location=Bratislava |publisher=Comenius University Bratislava |page=38–53 |isbn=978-80-223-5684-8}} * {{Cite book|last=Pleterski|first=Andrej|title=Etnogeneza Slovanov: Obris trenutnega stanja arheoloških raziskav|trans-title=Ethnogenesis of the Slavs: Outline of the current state of archaeological research|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=RQQUAQAAMAAJ|year=1990|location=Ljubljana|publisher=Filozofska fakulteta, Oddelek za arheologijo|language=sl}} * {{Cite book|last=Pohl|first=Walter|author-link=Walter Pohl|title=The Avars: A Steppe Empire in Central Europe, 567–822|year=2018|publisher=Cornell University Press|isbn=9781501729409|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ZoR1DwAAQBAJ}} * {{cite book |first=Valentin Vasilyevich |last=Sedov |year=2013 |orig-year=1995 |title=Славяне в раннем Средневековье |trans-title=Sloveni u ranom srednjem veku (Slavs in Early Middle Ages) |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=HD4oAAAAMAAJ |publisher=Akademska knjiga |location=Novi Sad |isbn=978-86-6263-026-1}} * {{Cite book|author=Sotirović, Vladimir B.|title=On the Origins of Proto-Croats and Proto-Serbs|year=2018|publisher=Vilnius University|url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/329184431}} * {{cite book|last=Vedriš|first=Trpimir|editor=Zrinka Nikolić Jakus|title=Nova zraka u europskom svjetlu: Hrvatske zemlje u ranome srednjem vijeku (oko 550 − oko 1150)|trans-title=Croatian lands in the Early Middle Ages (o. 550. – o. 1150.)|year=2015|publisher=[[Matica hrvatska]]|location=Zagreb|language=hr |isbn=978-953-150-942-8|pages=581–608|chapter=Balkanske sklavinije i Bugarska – Hrvatska u međunarodnom kontekstu|trans-chapter=Balkan 'sklavinias' and Bulgaria – Croatia in the international context}} * {{cite book |last=Vida |first=Tivadar |chapter=The process of the settlement of the Carpathian Basin by the Avars and their configuration of power |date=2021 |title=Von den Hunnen zu den Türken - Reiterkrieger in Europa und Zentralasien: Internationale Konferenz am Römisch-Germanischen Zentralmuseum - Leibniz Forschungsinstitut für Archäologie in Kooperation mit dem Institut für Mittelalterforschung der Österreichischen Akademie der Wissenschaften und dem Landesmuseum Halle: Mainz, 25.-26.April 2018 |chapter-url=https://www.academia.edu/97871513 |location=Halle |publisher=Tagungen des Landesmuseums für Vorgeschichte Halle |page=171–189 |isbn=978-3-948618-24-7}} * {{Cite book|last=Živković|first=Tibor|title=Јужни Словени под византијском влашћу (South Slavs under Byzantine rule 600-1025AD)|year=2007|publisher=Čigoja|isbn=978-86-7558-501-5|pages=504 |url= https://www.delfi.rs/knjige/911_juzni_sloveni_pod_vizantijskom_vlascu_6001025_knjiga_delfi_knjizare.html}} * {{Cite book|last=Živković|first=Tibor|author-link=Tibor Živković|title=Forging unity: The South Slavs between East and West 550-1150|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=JlIsAQAAIAAJ|year=2008|location=Belgrade|publisher=The Institute of History, Čigoja štampa|isbn=9788675585732}} {{Slavic ethnic groups (VII-XII century)}} [[Category:7th-century conflicts]] [[Category:7th century in the Byzantine Empire]] [[Category:Wars involving the Byzantine Empire]] [[Category:Invasions of Greece]] [[Category:South Slavic history]] [[Category:History of the Balkans]]</div></summary> <author><name>Βατο</name></author> </entry> <entry> <id>https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Slavic_migrations_to_the_Balkans&diff=1255077038</id> <title>Slavic migrations to the Balkans</title> <link rel="alternate" type="text/html" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Slavic_migrations_to_the_Balkans&diff=1255077038"/> <updated>2024-11-03T00:50:54Z</updated> <summary type="html">Βατο: clarification <hr /> <div>{{Short description|Overview of Slavic migrations to Southeast Europe}} [[File:Migration_of_Early_Slavs.png|right|thumb|Slavic migrations to Southeast Europe.]] [[Slavs]] began [[human migration|migrating]] to [[Southeastern Europe]] in the mid-6th century and first decades of the 7th century in the [[Early Middle Ages]]. The rapid demographic spread of the Slavs was followed by a population exchange, mixing and [[language shift]] to and from [[Common Slavic|Slavic]]. The settlement was facilitated by the substantial decrease of the Southeastern European population during the [[Plague of Justinian]]. Another reason was the [[Late Antique Little Ice Age]] from 536 to around 660 CE and the series of wars between the [[Sasanian Empire]] and the [[Avar Khaganate]] against the [[Eastern Roman Empire]]. The backbone of the Avar Khaganate consisted of [[Early Slavs|Slavic tribes]]. After the failed [[Siege of Constantinople (626)|siege of Constantinople]] in the summer of 626, they remained in the wider Southeast Europe area after they had settled the [[Byzantine]] provinces south of the [[Sava (river)|Sava]] and [[Danube]] rivers, from the [[Adriatic]] towards the [[Aegean Sea|Aegean]] up to the [[Black Sea]]. Exhausted by several factors and reduced to the coastal parts of the [[Balkans]], Byzantium was not able to wage war on two fronts and regain its lost territories, so it reconciled with the establishment of ''[[Sklavinias]]'' influence and created an alliance with them against the Avar and [[First Bulgarian Empire|Bulgar Khaganate]]s. ==Background== Before the [[Migration Period|great migration period]], the population of the Southeast Europe was composed of Ancient Greeks, [[Illyrians]] and [[Thracians]] who had been [[Romanization (cultural)|Romanized]] and [[Hellenization|Hellenized]], as well as of [[Roman Empire|Roman Imperial]] subjects. There may have also been small communities of [[Heruli]], [[Bastarnae]], [[Langobards]] and [[Sciri]]. After the destructive campaigns of [[Attila the Hun]] and the [[Goths]], who were previously ''[[foederati]]'', which resulted in the fall of the [[Western Roman Empire]], Eastern Roman Emperor [[Justinian I]] began the reconstruction of fortresses, cities, and Christianity. However, the [[Plague of Justinian]] (from 541–549 until the mid-8th century{{sfn|Koder|2020|p=84}}) decimated the native population, resulting in the weakening of the [[Pannonian Limes|Pannonian]] and [[Danubian Limes]]. Various factors, including the Late Antique Little Ice Age and [[population pressure]], pushed the migration of the [[Early Slavs]], who were also led by the [[Pannonian Avars]].{{sfn|Sedov|2013|p=206–207}}&lt;ref name=&quot;Little2007&quot;&gt;{{cite book|editor=Lester K. Little|title=Plague and the End of Antiquity: The Pandemic of 541-750|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=DKhLOd6gGlAC|year=2007|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=978-0-521-84639-4|pages=15, 24, 116, 118, 125, 286–287}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;Wright, David Curtis (1997). &quot;The Hsiung-Nu-Hun Equation Revisited&quot;. ''Eurasian Studies Yearbook''. 69: 77–112.&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=bü&gt;{{cite journal |author1=Ulf Büntgen |author2=Vladimir S. Myglan |author3=Fredrik Charpentier Ljungqvist |author4=Michael McCormick |author5=Nicola Di Cosmo |author6=Michael Sigl |author7=Johann Jungclaus |author8=Sebastian Wagner |author9=Paul J. Krusic |author10=Jan Esper |author11=Jed O. Kaplan |author12=Michiel A. C. de Vaan |author13=Jürg Luterbacher |author14=Lukas Wacker |author15=Willy Tegel |author26=Alexander V. Kirdyanov |title=Cooling and societal change during the Late Antique Little Ice Age from 536 to around 660 AD |journal=Nature Geoscience |date=2016 |volume=9 |issue=3 |pages=231–236 |doi=10.1038/ngeo2652 |bibcode=2016NatGe...9..231B |url=http://elib.sfu-kras.ru/handle/2311/27894 }}&lt;/ref&gt; Early Slavs could have been sporadically present in the [[Carpathian Basin]] during the time of [[Sarmatian]] [[Iazyges]] (and related to [[Limigantes]]).{{sfn|Dvornik|1956|p=29}} They possibly also participated in the campaigns of the [[Huns]] and of various Germanic tribes from the end of the 5th century CE (evidence being recorded words &quot;[[Hunnic language#Corpus|medos, kamos, strava]]&quot; in a Hunnic camp{{sfn|Dvornik|1956|p=30}}).{{sfn|Dvornik|1962|p=113}}{{sfn|Sedov|2013|p=207}} ==History== {{main|Antae|Sclaveni}} [[File:Location of White Croatia and White Serbia in 560.jpg|thumb|right|Historical situation in cca. 560 AD before the invasion of the [[Pannonian Avars]], according to [[Francis Dvornik]] (1949-56).]] The Slavs who settled in Southeast Europe comprised two groups: the [[Antae]] and the [[Sclaveni]]. The first certain Slavic raids date to the early 6th century during the time of the Eastern Roman Emperor [[Justin I]] ({{reign | 518 | 527}}), coinciding with the end of the [[Vitalian (consul)|Vitalian revolt]] of 511–518.{{sfn|Sedov|2013|p=207–208}} [[Procopius]] recorded that in 518 a large army of the Antae, &quot;who dwell close to the Sclaveni&quot;, crossed the Danube River into Roman territory. Raids continued with ever-faster and stronger incursions during the time of [[Justinian I]] ({{reign | 527 | 565}}),{{sfn|Koder|2020|p=82}} with Procopius recording that the whole of [[Illyria|Illyricum]] and [[Thrace]] was pillaged almost every year by Huns,{{refn|group=&quot;nb&quot;|The ethnonym of the Huns, like those of Scythians and Türks, became a generic term for steppe-people (nomads) and invading enemies from the East, no matter their actual origin and identity.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book |last= Beckwith |first= Christopher I. |author-link= Christopher I. Beckwith |date= 2009 |title= Empires of the Silk Road: A History of Central Eurasia from the Bronze Age to the Present |url= https://books.google.com/books?id=-Ue8BxLEMt4C |publisher=Princeton University Press |pages=99 |isbn=9781400829941 |quote= Like the name Scythian up to the early medieval period, the name Hun became a generic (usually pejorative) term in subsequent history for any steppe-warrior people, or even any enemy people, regardless of their actual identity.}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book |last= Dickens |first= Mark |date= 2004 |title= Medieval Syriac Historians' Perceptions of the Turks |url= https://www.academia.edu/436106 |publisher= University of Cambridge |pages= 19 |quote= Syriac chroniclers (along with their Arab, Byzantine, Latin, Armenian, and Georgian counterparts) did not use ethnonyms as specifically as modern scholars do. As K. Czeglédy notes, &quot;some sources... use the ethnonyms of the various steppe peoples, in particular those of the Scythians, Huns and Turkic tribes, in the generic sense of 'nomads'&quot;.}}&lt;/ref&gt;}} Sclaveni, and Antae, who did enormous damage to the native Roman population, making the region a &quot;Scythian desert&quot;.{{sfn|Sedov|2013|p=208}} As the [[Danubian Limes]] lacked garrisons, in 545 Justinian I made an alliance with the Antae to stop [[Barbarians|barbarian]] intrusions from Antae territory in the [[Lower Danube (Euroregion)|Lower Danube]] area. This caused more Sclaveni intrusions from the region of [[Podunavlje]],{{sfn|Kazanski|2020|p=12}} with the intruders spending in 551 their time in Dalmatia &quot;as if in their own land&quot;,{{sfn|Curta|2001|p=86}} but also occasioned peaceful permanent settlement on Byzantine territory, which began around the same time.{{sfn|Sedov|2013|p=208–209}} Things changed with the arrival of the [[Pannonian Avars]] (after [[Lombard–Gepid War (567)|fall of Gepids (567)]] and departure of [[Lombards]] in 568), who fought against the Antae and subjugated masses of both Antae (562, but maintained independence as Byzantine allies until 602) and Sclaveni (Pannonian Slavs lost independence to Avars between 571-578, while Lower Danube/Wallachian Slavs were never conquered and active on their own but were Avar allies since 585).{{sfn|Živković|2008|pp=7–13, 18–26}} After the death of Justinian I, the new Roman Emperor [[Justin II]] ({{reign | 565 | 574}}) halted the payment of subsidies to the Avars, thus sparking an [[Avar–Byzantine wars | almost century-long war]] (568-626). With the Byzantines preoccupied with the [[Byzantine–Sasanian War of 572–591|572–591]] and [[Byzantine–Sasanian War of 602–628|602–628]] wars with the [[Sasanian Empire]], Avars and Slavs made devastating intrusions along the Byzantine borders from Northern Italy to Southern Greece, and by the mid-7th century, the Slavs had settled in all the [[Balkans]] and [[Peloponnese]].{{sfn|Kazanski|2020|p=12}} The Byzantine Emperor [[Maurice (emperor)|Maurice]] ({{reign | 582 | 602}}) in his [[Maurice's Balkan campaigns|Balkan campaigns]] (582–602) did not manage to stop the successful siege of [[Siege of Sirmium|Sirmium]] (580 to 582), though his generals triumphed at [[Battles of Viminacium|Viminacium]] (599). Subsequently the [[Siege of Thessalonica (617)| siege of Thessalonica]] (617), and the destruction of various cities including [[Justiniana Prima]] and [[Salona]], culminated with the unsuccessful [[Siege of Constantinople (626)]].{{sfn|Sedov|2013|p=209–212, 215}}{{sfn|Koder|2020|p=83}} After the siege, somewhere between 628–629, the Slavs and Avars were fighting, and the Pannonian Slavs managed to liberate themselves from the Avar rule.{{sfn|Živković|2008|pp=7–13, 18–26}} According to Procopius, Slavic social and political organization was a kind of ''[[demokratia]]'' in which a council of nobles ruled the tribal community. This allowed Slav tribes to stay together regardless of environmental factors, but according to [[:de:Johannes Koder|Johannes Koder]], &quot;impeded coordinated military resistance against the enemy&quot;, which put them in a situation of being under foreign political leadership.{{sfn|Koder|2020|p=83}}{{sfn|Sedov|2013|p=229}} When the Slavs and later the Avars entered the southeast of Europe they lacked advanced siege-warfare tactics, but around 587 they acquired this knowledge from contact with Byzantine culture, and because of this no urban settlement or fort could oppose them any more.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last= Vryonis|first= Speros|author-link= Speros Vryonis|title= The Evolution of Slavic Society and the Slavic Invasions in Greece. The First Major Slavic Attack on Thessaloniki, A. D. 597|journal= Hesperia: The Journal of the American School of Classical Studies at Athens|year= 1981|volume= 50|issue= 4|pages= 378–390 |doi=10.2307/147879|jstor= 147879}}&lt;/ref&gt; With the destruction of Roman fortifications came a loss of Byzantine military and administrative power in Roman provinces. The native population was often decimated, and smaller or larger groups of Slavs settled in the devastated lands. Settlement among the natives, often replacing them, happened in the autumn, when winter supplies were secured for the people and animals. After mixing with the natives who survived in smaller communities, depending on the region, the Slavic tribes mostly had names of [[toponym]]ic origin.{{sfn|Sedov|2013|p=212, 215}} [[File:Early medieval South Slavic tribes.png|thumb|right|Approximate location of South Slavic tribes, per V. V. Sedov 1995.]] Slavs established dense settlements in Southeast Europe, more precisely in the [[Praetorian prefecture of Illyricum]]: * In the late Roman province of [[Noricum]] was the [[Slavic settlement of the Eastern Alps]] (including [[Carantanians]]). * In [[Pannonia]] were the [[Pannonian Slavs]] (with [[Dulebes|Pannonian Dulebes]]). * The province of [[Dalmatia (Roman province)|Dalmatia]] was settled by the [[White Croats]] (and [[Guduscani]]), [[Sorbs (tribe)|Serbs]], [[Narentines]], [[Zachlumians]], [[Travunija]]ns, and [[Kanalites]]. * [[Praevalitana]] was settled by [[Duklja|Diocleans]]. * The provinces of [[Moesia]] and [[Dardania (Roman province)|Dardania]] were inhabited by [[Merehani]], [[Braničevci]], [[Timočani]] and [[Praedenecenti]]. * The provinces of [[Dacia Ripensis]] and Moesia Secunda were inhabited by [[Seven Slavic tribes]] and [[Severians]]. * In part of the [[Diocese of Thrace]] were [[Smolyani]] and [[Strymonites]]. * In all of the [[Diocese of Macedonia]] were numerous tribes of [[Drougoubitai]], [[Berziti]], [[Sagudates]], [[Rhynchinoi]], [[Baiounitai]], [[Belegezites]], [[Melingoi]] and [[Ezeritai]]. * Some Slavs in Thrace were also relocated to [[Anatolia]], and later became known as [[Asia Minor Slavs]].{{sfn|Sedov|2013|p=212–218, 382, 413, 444, 458}} Eventually the Slavs settled in the former Roman provinces of Pannonia and Dalmatia reached a substantial amount of autonomy or independence, establishing ''[[Sklavinias]]'' influenced both by [[Francia]] and by the Byzantine Empire. In most parts of the former dioceses of [[Diocese of Dacia | Dacia]] and [[Diocese of Thrace | Thracia]] the ''Sklavinias'' fell under the rule of the [[First Bulgarian Empire]], while in the [[diocese of Macedonia]] they lacked political organization, because of which the Byzantine Empire regained control there, and after 200 years the Slavs in the southern Balkans became assimilated by the Greek-speaking majority. In the territory of present-day [[Albania]] the Albanian-speaking majority assimilated the local Slavic settlers.{{sfn|Sedov|2013|p=229–232}}{{sfn|Vedriš|2015|p=581–603}}{{sfn|Koder|2020|p=91–95}} ===Christianization=== After the settlement of the Slavs, most of Southeast Europe turned to [[paganism]] and entered the [[Byzantine Dark Ages|Dark Ages]], alongside most of post-Roman Europe. Many Slavs soon began to accept the cultural customs of the highly civilized Roman provinces,{{sfn|Sedov|2013|p=207}} and in order to expand their cultural and state influence on the South Slavs, the [[Holy See|Roman Church]] and [[Ecumenical Patriarchate of Constantinople]] began the process of [[Christianization of the Slavs]].&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last= Živković|first= Tibor|author-link= Tibor Živković|title= On the Baptism of the Serbs and Croats in the Time of Basil I (867–886)|journal=Studia Slavica et Balcanica Petropolitana|year= 2013|issue= 1|pages= 33–53|url= http://slavica-petropolitana.spbu.ru/files/2013_1/Zivkovic.pdf}}&lt;/ref&gt; [[Martin of Braga]] already in 558 listed Slavs among baptized barbarians, possibly a reference to the Pannonian Slavs.{{sfn|Kazanski|2023|pp=84–85}} [[Pope Agatho]] in a letter to Byzantine emperor [[Constantine IV]] regarding the [[Third Council of Constantinople]] mentioned that many Roman Church bishops are active &quot;in the middle of the barbarians - the Lombards and Slavs, as well as the Franks, Goths and Britons&quot;.{{sfn|Komatina|2015|p=713}} A mid-8th century episcopal notitia mentions Slavs among many others as part of the territorial jurisdiction of the Roman Church.{{sfn|Komatina|2015|p=713}} ==Archaeology== Very soon after their arrival the typical Slavic archaeological culture was changed by the influence of native Byzantine cultures.{{sfn|Sedov|2013|p=217}} According to the archaeological data the main movement of the Slavs was from the Middle and Lower Danube valley.{{sfn|Sedov|2013|p=218, 220–221}}{{sfn|Kazanski|2020|p=8}} The [[Ipotesti–Candesti culture]] was composed of a mixture of Sclaveni [[Prague-Korchak culture|Prague-Korchak]] and Antae [[Penkovka culture]] with some elements of the so-called Martinovka culture.{{sfn|Sedov|2013|p=219, 221–222}}{{sfn|Kazanski|2020|p=7–9}} V. V. Sedov considered that the majority of the Slavic population in Southeast Europe was descending from Antae,{{sfn|Sedov|2013|p=221}} while [[Michel Kazanski]] and Andrej Pleterski gave more emphasis on the Sclaveni as immigration started in Western Ukraine (river Dniester) and South(-eastern) Poland (around river Vistula).{{sfn|Kazanski|2020|p=7–8, 10}}{{sfn|Pleterski|1990|pp=34, 50}} For now archaeologically the earliest Slavic sites and [[Artifact (archaeology)|artifacts]] in Moldova are dated to the 5th century, in Romania since 6th century, from there to Transylvania in mid-6th century (with [[Gepids]] assimilation and additional Slavic waves since mid-7th century).{{sfn|Kazanski|2020|p=8–12}} In Southwestern Hungary (southwest of [[Lake Balaton]]) near the border with Slovenia and Croatia, specifically in Northeastern Slovenia, are radiocarbon dated to the first-third of the 6th century.{{sfn|Kazanski|2020|p=13}}{{sfn|Kazanski|2023|pp=84–85}} In Bulgaria and countries of former [[Yugoslavia]] since late 6th and 7th century, while Greece surely only since the 7th century (although military invasions could be argued since mid-6th century).{{sfn|Kazanski|2020|p=8–12}} The distribution of the cremation burials and archaic Prague-pottery associated with the early Slavs shows higher density at the periphery, especially western, of the Avar Khaganate in the Central Danube region.{{sfn|König|2022|pp=46–52}} The region north of Sava river was in the 6th century settled from there, and then in the 7th century another group of Slavs with pottery made on a tournette settled the Sava river region (including Dalmatia and other parts of Western Balkans).{{sfn|König|2022|pp=46–52}} In the central-eastern part of the Carpathian Basin, the early Slavic and Avar settlements were separated by the [[Devil's Dykes]] (''limes sarmaticus'').{{sfn|Vida|2021|pp=182}} Avars also constructed a new dyke system in eastern Transylvania against the Slavs, but considering the amount of Slavic cultural remains in the Transylvanian Basin, that dyke didn't manage to serve its purpose.{{sfn|Vida|2021|pp=183}} The grave artifacts of the Slavic community and its tribal leaders of [[Nușfalău]]-[[Someșeni]] group in northwestern Romania showed close relations with the Avars. That community was identified by scholars with the West Slavs, White Croats and most probably East Slavs in general.{{sfn|Cosma|2022|pp=344–355}} ===Lifestyle=== According to archaeological data and historical sources, the Slavs mostly travelled along the river valleys, but in the Southern Balkans, they travelled where they encountered greater resistance by the native [[Byzantine Greeks|Byzantine Greek]] forces, along the mountain ranges.{{sfn|Sedov|2013|p=216}}{{sfn|Koder|2020|p=88–89}} They mostly were engaged in [[agriculture]], cultivating [[proso millet]], which they introduced,{{sfn|Koder|2020|p=84}} [[wheat]], but also [[flax]].{{sfn|Sedov|2013|p=225–227}} They grew various fruits and vegetables, and learned [[viticulture]].{{sfn|Sedov|2013|p=225–226}} They were actively engaged in [[animal husbandry]], using [[horse]]s for military and agricultural purposes, and raising [[oxen]] and [[goats]].{{sfn|Sedov|2013|p=226}} Those living in hilly terrain mostly lived as [[shepherds]].{{sfn|Sedov|2013|p=226}} Those living near lakes, rivers, and seas also used various hooks and nets for fishing.{{sfn|Sedov|2013|p=227}} They were known to be especially skilled in woodworking and shipbuilding, but also knew about metalworking and pottery.{{sfn|Sedov|2013|p=227–228}} ==Genetics== [[File:Plos.Balkans.2.png|thumb|Admixture analysis of autosomal SNPs of the Southeast Europe in a global context on the resolution level of 7 assumed ancestral populations: the African (brown), South/West European (light blue), Asian (yellow), Middle Eastern (orange), South Asian (green), North/East European (dark blue) and beige Caucasus component.&lt;ref name=&quot;Kovacevic2014&quot;/&gt;]] According to the 2013 [[Autosome|autosomal]] [[Identity by descent|IBD]] survey &quot;of recent genealogical ancestry over the past 3,000 years at a continental scale&quot;, the speakers of [[Serbo-Croatian language]] share a very high number of common ancestors dated to the [[migration period]] approximately 1,500 years ago with [[Poland]] and [[Romania]]-[[Bulgaria]] cluster among others in [[Eastern Europe]]. It is concluded to be caused by the [[Huns|Hunnic]] and Slavic expansion, which was a &quot;relatively small population that expanded over a large geographic area&quot;, particularly &quot;the expansion of the Slavic populations into regions of low population density beginning in the sixth century&quot; and that it is &quot;highly coincident with the modern distribution of Slavic languages&quot;.&lt;ref name=&quot;Ralph2013&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |author=P. Ralph |title=The Geography of Recent Genetic Ancestry across Europe |journal=[[PLOS Biology]] |volume=11 |issue=5 |year=2013 |doi=10.1371/journal.pbio.1001555 |pages=e105090 |pmid=23667324 |pmc=3646727 |display-authors=etal |doi-access=free }}&lt;/ref&gt; According to Kushniarevich et al. 2015, the Hellenthal et al. 2014 IBD analysis,&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |work=A genetic atlas of human admixture history |title=Companion website for &quot;A genetic atlas of human admixture history&quot;, Hellenthal et al, Science (2014) |url=http://admixturemap.paintmychromosomes.com/}}&lt;br&gt; {{cite journal |last1=Hellenthal |first1=Garrett |last2=Busby |first2=George B.J. |last3=Band |first3=Gavin |last4=Wilson |first4=James F. |last5=Capelli |first5=Cristian |last6=Falush |first6=Daniel |last7=Myers |first7=Simon |title=A Genetic Atlas of Human Admixture History |journal=[[Science (journal)|Science]] |date=14 February 2014 |volume=343 |issue=6172 |pages=747–751 |doi=10.1126/science.1243518 |pmid=24531965 |issn=0036-8075|pmc=4209567 |bibcode=2014Sci...343..747H }}&lt;br&gt; {{cite journal |title=Supplementary Material for &quot;A genetic atlas of human admixture history&quot; |journal = Science|volume = 343|issue = 6172|pages=747–751 |quote=S7.6 &quot;East Europe&quot;: The difference between the 'East Europe I' and 'East Europe II' analyses is that the latter analysis included the Polish as a potential donor population. The Polish were included in this analysis to reflect a Slavic language speaking source group.&quot; &quot;We speculate that the second event seen in our six Eastern Europe populations between northern European and southern European ancestral sources may correspond to the expansion of Slavic language speaking groups (commonly referred to as the Slavic expansion) across this region at a similar time, perhaps related to displacement caused by the Eurasian steppe invaders (38; 58). Under this scenario, the northerly source in the second event might represent DNA from Slavic-speaking migrants (sampled Slavic-speaking groups are excluded from being donors in the EastEurope I analysis). To test consistency with this, we repainted these populations adding the Polish as a single Slavic-speaking donor group (“East Europe II” analysis; see Note S7.6) and, in doing so, they largely replaced the original North European component (Figure S21), although we note that two nearby populations, Belarus and Lithuania, are equally often inferred as sources in our original analysis (Table S12). Outside these six populations, an admixture event at the same time (910CE, 95% CI:720-1140CE) is seen in the southerly neighboring Greeks, between sources represented by multiple neighboring Mediterranean peoples (63%) and the Polish (37%), suggesting a strong and early impact of the Slavic expansions in Greece, a subject of recent debate (37). These shared signals we find across East European groups could explain a recent observation of an excess of IBD sharing among similar groups, including Greece, that was dated to a wide range between 1,000 and 2,000 years ago (37)|pmc = 4209567|year = 2014|last1 = Hellenthal|first1 = G.|last2 = Busby|first2 = G. B.|last3 = Band|first3 = G.|last4 = Wilson|first4 = J. F.|last5 = Capelli|first5 = C.|last6 = Falush|first6 = D.|last7 = Myers|first7 = S.|pmid = 24531965|doi = 10.1126/science.1243518| bibcode=2014Sci...343..747H }}&lt;/ref&gt; also found &quot;multi-directional admixture events among East Europeans (both Slavic and non-Slavic), dated to around 1,000–1,600 YBP&quot; which coincides with &quot;the proposed time-frame for the Slavic expansion&quot;.&lt;ref name=&quot;Kushniarevich2015&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |author=A. Kushniarevich |display-authors=etal |year=2015 |title=Genetic Heritage of the Balto-Slavic Speaking Populations: A Synthesis of Autosomal, Mitochondrial and Y-Chromosomal Data |journal=[[PLOS One]] |volume=10 |issue=9 |pages=6, 7 |bibcode=2015PLoSO..1035820K |doi=10.1371/journal.pone.0135820 |pmc=4558026 |pmid=26332464 |doi-access=free}}&lt;/ref&gt; The Slavic influence is &quot;dated to 500-900 CE or a bit later with over 40-50% among [[Bulgarians]], [[Romanians]], and [[Hungarians]]&quot;.&lt;ref name=&quot;Ralph2013&quot;/&gt; The 2015 IBD analysis found that the [[South Slavs]] have lower proximity to [[Greeks]] than with [[East Slavs]] and [[West Slavs]] and that there's an &quot;even patterns of IBD sharing among East-West Slavs–'inter-Slavic' populations (Hungarians, Romanians and [[Gagauz people|Gagauz]])–and South Slavs, i.e. across an area of assumed historic movements of people including Slavs&quot;. The slight peak of shared IBD segments between South and East-West Slavs suggests a shared &quot;Slavonic-time ancestry&quot;.&lt;ref name=&quot;Kushniarevich2015&quot;/&gt; According to a recent [[Genetic admixture|admixture]] analysis, the South Slavs show a genetic uniformity,&lt;ref name=&quot;Kovacevic2014&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|author=L. Kovačević|title=Standing at the Gateway to Europe - The Genetic Structure of Western Balkan Populations Based on Autosomal and Haploid Markers|journal=[[PLOS One]] |volume=9|issue=8|year=2014|doi=10.1371/journal.pone.0105090|pages=e105090|pmid=25148043|pmc=4141785 |bibcode=2014PLoSO...9j5090K|display-authors=etal |doi-access=free}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;Delser2018&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |author=P. M. Delser |title=Genetic Landscape of Slovenians: Past Admixture and Natural Selection Pattern|journal=Frontiers in Genetics |volume=9 |pages=551 |year=2018 |doi=10.3389/fgene.2018.00551 |pmid=30510563 |pmc=6252347 |display-authors=etal|doi-access=free}}&lt;/ref&gt; with a modeled ancestral genetic component in the study peaking in Baltic speakers, being high in East Slavs (80-95%) as well as Western and North-Western Europeans (Germans, Orcadians, Swedes), and between 55-70% among South Slavs.&lt;ref name=&quot;Kushniarevich2015&quot;/&gt; According to 2017 admixture study of Peloponnesian Greek population, &quot;the Slavic ancestry of Peloponnesean subpopulations ranges from 0.2 to 14.4%&quot;.&lt;ref name=&quot;Stamatoyannopoulos2017&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |author=G. Stamatoyannopoulos|title=Genetics of the peloponnesean populations and the theory of extinction of the medieval peloponnesean Greeks|journal=[[European Journal of Human Genetics]]|volume=25|year=2017|issue=5 |doi=10.1038/ejhg.2017.18|pages=637–645|pmid=28272534|pmc=5437898|display-authors=etal|doi-access=free}}&lt;/ref&gt; The 2006 Y-DNA study results &quot;suggest that the Slavic expansion started from the territory of present-day Ukraine, thus supporting the hypothesis that places the earliest known homeland of Slavs in the basin of the middle [[Dnieper]]&quot;.&lt;ref name=&quot;Rębała ''et al.'' 2007&quot;&gt;{{cite journal | pmid = 17364156 | year = 2007 | last1 = Rebała | first1 = K | last2 = Mikulich | first2 = AI | last3 = Tsybovsky | first3 = IS | last4 = Siváková | first4 = D | last5 = Dzupinková | first5 = Z | last6 = Szczerkowska-Dobosz | first6 = A | last7 = Szczerkowska | first7 = Z | title = Y-STR variation among Slavs: Evidence for the Slavic homeland in the middle Dnieper basin | volume = 52 | issue = 5 | pages = 406–14 | doi = 10.1007/s10038-007-0125-6 | journal = Journal of Human Genetics | doi-access = free }}&lt;/ref&gt; According to genetic studies until 2020, the distribution, variance and frequency of the [[Human Y-chromosome DNA haplogroup|Y-DNA haplogroups]] [[Haplogroup R1a|R1a]] and [[Haplogroup I-M438#I2a-L621|I2]] and their subclades R-M558, R-M458 and I-CTS10228 among South Slavs are in correlation with the spreading of Slavic languages during the medieval Slavic expansion from Eastern Europe, most probably from the territory of present-day [[Ukraine]] and [[Lesser Poland|Southeastern Poland]].&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal|author=A. Zupan|title=The paternal perspective of the Slovenian population and its relationship with other populations|url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/251567977|journal=[[Annals of Human Biology]]|volume=40|issue=6|date=2013|doi=10.3109/03014460.2013.813584|pmid=23879710 |display-authors=etal|pages=515–526 |s2cid=34621779|quote=However, a study by Battaglia et al. (2009) showed a variance peak for I2a1 in the Ukraine and, based on the observed pattern of variation, it could be suggested that at least part of the I2a1 haplogroup could have arrived in the Balkans and Slovenia with the Slavic migrations from a homeland in present-day Ukraine... The calculated age of this specific haplogroup together with the variation peak detected in the suggested Slavic homeland could represent a signal of Slavic migration arising from medieval Slavic expansions. However, the strong genetic barrier around the area of Bosnia and Herzegovina, associated with the high frequency of the I2a1b-M423 haplogroup, could also be a consequence of a Paleolithic genetic signal of a Balkan refuge area, followed by mixing with a medieval Slavic signal from modern-day Ukraine.}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{Citation |last1=Underhill |first1=Peter A. |year=2015 |title=The phylogenetic and geographic structure of Y-chromosome haplogroup R1a |journal=[[European Journal of Human Genetics]] |volume=23 |issue=1 |pages=124–131 |doi=10.1038/ejhg.2014.50 |pmid=24667786 |pmc=4266736 |quote=R1a-M458 exceeds 20% in the Czech Republic, Slovakia, Poland, and Western Belarus. The lineage averages 11–15% across Russia and Ukraine and occurs at 7% or less elsewhere (Figure 2d). Unlike hg R1a-M458, the R1a-M558 clade is also common in the Volga-Uralic populations. R1a-M558 occurs at 10–33% in parts of Russia, exceeds 26% in Poland and Western Belarus, and varies between 10 and 23% in the Ukraine, whereas it drops 10-fold lower in Western Europe. In general, both R1a-M458 and R1a-M558 occur at low but informative frequencies in Balkan populations with known Slavonic heritage.}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;Utevska&quot;&gt;{{cite thesis |type=PhD |author=O.M. Utevska |date=2017 |title=Генофонд українців за різними системами генетичних маркерів: походження і місце на європейському генетичному просторі |trans-title=The gene pool of Ukrainians revealed by different systems of genetic markers: the origin and statement in Europe |publisher=National Research Center for Radiation Medicine of [[National Academy of Sciences of Ukraine]] |url=http://nrcrm.gov.ua/science/councils/dissertation/ |language=uk|pages=219–226, 302}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;Neparaczki&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |last1=Neparáczki |first1=Endre |last2=Maróti |first2=Zoltán |display-authors=1 |date=2019 |title=Y-chromosome haplogroups from Hun, Avar and conquering Hungarian period nomadic people of the Carpathian Basin |journal=[[Scientific Reports]] |publisher=[[Nature Research]] |volume=9 |issue=16569 |page=16569 |doi=10.1038/s41598-019-53105-5 |pmc=6851379 |pmid=31719606 |bibcode=2019NatSR...916569N |quote=Hg I2a1a2b-L621 was present in 5 Conqueror samples, and a 6th sample form Magyarhomorog (MH/9) most likely also belongs here, as MH/9 is a likely kin of MH/16 (see below). This Hg of European origin is most prominent in the Balkans and Eastern Europe, especially among Slavic speaking groups.}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;HorolmaTibor2019&quot;&gt;{{cite book|first1=Horolma |last1=Pamjav|first2=Tibor |last2=Fehér|first3=Endre|last3=Németh|first4=László|last4=Koppány Csáji|title=Genetika és őstörténet |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=xq2xDwAAQBAJ|year=2019|publisher=Napkút Kiadó|language=hu |isbn=978-963-263-855-3|pages=58|quote=Az I2-CTS10228 (köznevén „dinári-kárpáti&quot;) alcsoport legkorábbi közös őse 2200 évvel ezelőttre tehető, így esetében nem arról van szó, hogy a mezolit népesség Kelet-Európában ilyen mértékben fennmaradt volna, hanem arról, hogy egy, a mezolit csoportoktól származó szűk család az európai vaskorban sikeresen integrálódott egy olyan társadalomba, amely hamarosan erőteljes demográfiai expanzióba kezdett. Ez is mutatja, hogy nem feltétlenül népek, mintsem családok sikerével, nemzetségek elterjedésével is számolnunk kell, és ezt a jelenlegi etnikai identitással összefüggésbe hozni lehetetlen. A csoport elterjedése alapján valószínűsíthető, hogy a szláv népek migrációjában vett részt, így válva az R1a-t követően a második legdominánsabb csoporttá a mai Kelet-Európában. Nyugat-Európából viszont teljes mértékben hiányzik, kivéve a kora középkorban szláv nyelvet beszélő keletnémet területeket.}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;Fóthi&quot;&gt;{{Citation |last1=Fóthi |first1=E. |last2=Gonzalez |first2=A. |last3=Fehér |first3=T. |display-authors=etal |title=Genetic analysis of male Hungarian Conquerors: European and Asian paternal lineages of the conquering Hungarian tribes |journal=Archaeological and Anthropological Sciences |volume=12 |issue=1 |date=2020 |doi=10.1007/s12520-019-00996-0|doi-access=free|quote=Based on SNP analysis, the CTS10228 group is 2200 ± 300 years old. The group’s demographic expansion may have begun in Southeast Poland around that time, as carriers of the oldest subgroup are found there today. The group cannot solely be tied to the Slavs, because the proto-Slavic period was later, around 300–500 CE... The SNP-based age of the Eastern European CTS10228 branch is 2200 ± 300 years old. The carriers of the most ancient subgroup live in Southeast Poland, and it is likely that the rapid demographic expansion which brought the marker to other regions in Europe began there. The largest demographic explosion occurred in the Balkans, where the subgroup is dominant in 50.5% of Croatians, 30.1% of Serbs, 31.4% of Montenegrins, and in about 20% of Albanians and Greeks. As a result, this subgroup is often called Dinaric. It is interesting that while it is dominant among modern Balkan peoples, this subgroup has not been present yet during the Roman period, as it is almost absent in Italy as well (see Online Resource 5; ESM_5).}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;Kassian2020&quot;&gt;{{citation |last1=Kushniarevich |first1=Alena |last2=Kassian |first2=Alexei |editor=Marc L. Greenberg |date=2020 |title=Encyclopedia of Slavic Languages and Linguistics Online |chapter=Genetics and Slavic languages |publisher=Brill |doi=10.1163/2589-6229_ESLO_COM_032367 |access-date=10 December 2020 |chapter-url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/341945550 |quote=The geographic distributions of the major eastern European NRY haplogroups (R1a-Z282, I2a-P37) overlap with the area occupied by the present-day Slavs to a great extent, and it might be tempting to consider both haplogroups as Slavic-specic patrilineal lineages}}&lt;/ref&gt; A 2022 [[archaeogenetic]] study published in ''[[Science (journal)|Science]]'' compared ancient, medieval and modern population samples and found that the medieval Slavic migrations &quot;profoundly affected the region&quot;, resulting in the reduction of [[Early European Farmers|Anatolian Neolithic ancestry]] in Southeastern Europe. Pre-Slavic Southeast European populations have the most Anatolian Neolithic component of ancestry, whereas present-day Slavs outside the Southeast Europe have the least, &quot;with present-day people from Southeastern Europe intermediate between the two extremes&quot;. Among present-day populations &quot;Greeks and Albanians have more Anatolian Neolithic ancestry than their South Slavic neighbors&quot;.&lt;ref name=&quot;Lazaridis2022&quot;&gt;{{cite journal | author1= Iosif Lazaridis |author2= Songül Alpaslan-Roodenberg |author3= Ayşe Acar |author4= Ayşen Açıkkol |author5= Anagnostis Agelarakis |author6= Levon Aghikyan |author7= Uğur Akyüz |author8= Desislava Andreeva |author9= Gojko Andrijašević |author10= David Reich | display-authors = et al. | title = A genetic probe into the ancient and medieval history of Southern Europe and West Asia | journal = Science | volume = 377 | issue = 6609 | pages = 940–951 | date = 26 August 2022 | pmid = 36007020 | doi = 10.1126/science.abq0755|pmc= 10019558 |s2cid= 251844202 |url= https://centaur.reading.ac.uk/107194/1/abq0755_HistoricalPeriod_Manuscript_July21.pdf }}&lt;/ref&gt; A 2023 archaeogenetic study published in ''[[Cell (journal)|Cell]]'', based on 146 samples, confirmed that the spread of Slavic language and identity was because of large movements of people of both males and females with specific Eastern European ancestry and that &quot;more than half of the ancestry of most peoples in the Balkans today comes from the Slavic migrations, with around a third Slavic ancestry even in countries like Greece where no Slavic languages are spoken today&quot;.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |url=https://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2023/12/231207161343.htm |title=Ancient DNA analysis reveals how the rise and fall of the Roman Empire shifted populations in the Balkans |date=December 7, 2023 |website=[[ScienceDaily]] |access-date=December 8, 2023}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;Olalde2023&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |last1=Olalde |first1=Iñigo |last2=Carrión |first2=Pablo |date=December 7, 2023 |title=A genetic history of the Balkans from Roman frontier to Slavic migrations |url=https://www.cell.com/cell/fulltext/S0092-8674(23)01135-2 |journal=[[Cell (journal)|Cell]] |volume=186 |issue=25 |pages=P5472-5485.E9 |doi=10.1016/j.cell.2023.10.018 |access-date=December 8, 2023|doi-access=free |pmc=10752003 }}&lt;/ref&gt; The big data set also showed that the Y-DNA haplogroups I2a-L621 and R1a-Z282 are absent in the antiquity and appear only since the Early Middle Ages &quot;always associated with Eastern European related ancestry in the autosomal genome, which supports that these lineages were introduced in the Balkans by Eastern European migrants during the Early Medieval period&quot;.&lt;ref name=&quot;Olalde2023&quot;/&gt; ==See also== * [[Extreme weather events of 535–536]] * [[Bulgars]] * [[Outline of Slavic history and culture]] * [[Pre-modern human migration]] ==Notes== {{Reflist|group=&quot;nb&quot;}} ==References== {{Reflist|2}} ==Sources== * {{cite book |last=Cosma |first=Călin |chapter=Avar Artifacts in Slavic Barrow Cremation Cemeteries From Transylvania and Northwestern Romania |date=2022 |editor=Papeša, Anita Rapan; Dugonjić, Anita |title=Avars and Slavs: Two Sides of the Belt Strap End - Avars on the North and the South of the Khaganate, proceedings of the international scientific conference held in Vinkovci 2020 |chapter-url=https://www.academia.edu/98359007 |location=Zagreb, Vinkovci |publisher=Arheološki muzej u Zagrebu, Gradski muzej Vinkovci |page=344–355 |isbn=9789538143588}} * {{Cite book|last=Crawford|first=Peter|title=The War of the Three Gods: Romans, Persians and the Rise of Islam|year=2013|publisher=Pen and Sword|isbn=9781848846128|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ZPAHBAAAQBAJ}} * {{Cite book|last=Curta|first=Florin|author-link=Florin Curta|title=The Making of the Slavs: History and Archaeology of the Lower Danube Region, c.500–700|year=2001|publisher=Cembridge University|isbn=9781139428880|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=rcFGhCVs0sYC}} * {{Cite book|author=Dodgeon, Michael H. |author2=Lieu, Samuel N. C.|title=The Roman Eastern Frontier and the Persian Wars AD 363-628|year=1991|publisher=Psychology Press|isbn=9780415465304|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=zoZIxpQ8A2IC}} *{{cite book |last=Dvornik |first=Francis |author-link=Francis Dvornik |date=1956 |title=The Slavs: Their Early History and Civilization |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=DEoLAQAAIAAJ |location=Boston |publisher=[[American Academy of Arts and Sciences]]}}&lt;/ref&gt; * {{cite book |editor1-last=Jenkins|editor1-first=Romilly|editor1-link=Romilly Jenkins|author1=[[Francis Dvornik]]|author2=[[Romilly Jenkins]]|author3=[[Bernard Lewis]]|author4=[[Gyula Moravcsik]]|author5=[[Dimitri Obolensky]]|author6=[[Steven Runciman]]|ref={{harvid|Dvornik|1962}}|year=1962|publisher=[[The Athlone Press]], [[University of London]]|title=De Administrando Imperio: Volume II Commentary|url=https://archive.org/details/dli.ernet.168258|location=London|isbn=9780884020219}} * {{The Early Medieval Balkans}} * {{Cite book|last=Kardaras|first=Georgios|title=Byzantium and the Avars, 6th-9th Century AD: Political, Diplomatic and Cultural Relations |year=2018 |publisher=Brill |isbn=9789004248380 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=gwpwuQEACAAJ}} * [[Michel Kazanski|Kazanski, Michel]] (2020). &quot;[https://hal.archives-ouvertes.fr/hal-02902087/file/Kazanski_Archaeology-Slavic%20Migrations_2020.pdf Archaeology of the Slavic Migrations]&quot;. ''Encyclopedia of Slavic Languages and Linguistics Online''. BRILL * {{cite journal |last1=Kazanski |first1=Michel |author-link=Michel Kazanski |date=2023 |title=Первые контакты дунайских славян и авар: свидетельства византийских авторов и археологии |trans-title=First contacts of the Danubian Slavs and Avars: the evidences from the Byzantine writers and archaeology |url=https://www.academia.edu/111739327 |journal=Antichnaya Drevnost's I Srednie Veka |volume=23 |publisher=[[Ural University Press]] |pages=76–89 |doi=10.15826/adsv.2023.51.004|doi-access=free}} * {{cite book|last=Koder|first=Johannes|editor1=Johannes Preiser-Kapeller|editor2=Lucian Reinfandt|editor3=Yannis Stouraitis|title=Migration Histories of the Medieval Afroeurasian Transition Zone: Aspects of Mobility Between Africa, Asia and Europe, 300-1500 C.E.|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=QMBnzQEACAAJ|year=2020|publisher=Brill|isbn=978-90-04-42561-3|pages=81–100|chapter=On the Slavic Immigration in the Byzantine Balkans |doi=10.1163/9789004425613_004|s2cid=218997565}} * {{Cite book|last=Komatina|first=Predrag|chapter=The Church in Serbia at the Time of Cyrilo-Methodian Mission in Moravia|title=Cyril and Methodius: Byzantium and the World of the Slavs|year=2015|location=Thessaloniki|publisher=Dimos|pages=711–718|chapter-url=https://www.academia.edu/13442372}} * {{cite book |last=König |first=Tomáš |chapter=The Early Slavs: from the Western Carpathians to the Adriatic |editor=Homza, Martin; Holjevac, Željko; Filipec, Krešimir; Vrtel', Andrej |date=2022 |title=Studia Carpathico-Adriatica III: From the Carpathians to the Adriatic: The Archeology of the Migration Period and the Middle Ages |chapter-url=https://www.academia.edu/108719684 |location=Bratislava |publisher=Comenius University Bratislava |page=38–53 |isbn=978-80-223-5684-8}} * {{Cite book|last=Pleterski|first=Andrej|title=Etnogeneza Slovanov: Obris trenutnega stanja arheoloških raziskav|trans-title=Ethnogenesis of the Slavs: Outline of the current state of archaeological research|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=RQQUAQAAMAAJ|year=1990|location=Ljubljana|publisher=Filozofska fakulteta, Oddelek za arheologijo|language=sl}} * {{Cite book|last=Pohl|first=Walter|author-link=Walter Pohl|title=The Avars: A Steppe Empire in Central Europe, 567–822|year=2018|publisher=Cornell University Press|isbn=9781501729409|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ZoR1DwAAQBAJ}} * {{cite book |first=Valentin Vasilyevich |last=Sedov |year=2013 |orig-year=1995 |title=Славяне в раннем Средневековье |trans-title=Sloveni u ranom srednjem veku (Slavs in Early Middle Ages) |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=HD4oAAAAMAAJ |publisher=Akademska knjiga |location=Novi Sad |isbn=978-86-6263-026-1}} * {{Cite book|author=Sotirović, Vladimir B.|title=On the Origins of Proto-Croats and Proto-Serbs|year=2018|publisher=Vilnius University|url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/329184431}} * {{cite book|last=Vedriš|first=Trpimir|editor=Zrinka Nikolić Jakus|title=Nova zraka u europskom svjetlu: Hrvatske zemlje u ranome srednjem vijeku (oko 550 − oko 1150)|trans-title=Croatian lands in the Early Middle Ages (o. 550. – o. 1150.)|year=2015|publisher=[[Matica hrvatska]]|location=Zagreb|language=hr |isbn=978-953-150-942-8|pages=581–608|chapter=Balkanske sklavinije i Bugarska – Hrvatska u međunarodnom kontekstu|trans-chapter=Balkan 'sklavinias' and Bulgaria – Croatia in the international context}} * {{cite book |last=Vida |first=Tivadar |chapter=The process of the settlement of the Carpathian Basin by the Avars and their configuration of power |date=2021 |title=Von den Hunnen zu den Türken - Reiterkrieger in Europa und Zentralasien: Internationale Konferenz am Römisch-Germanischen Zentralmuseum - Leibniz Forschungsinstitut für Archäologie in Kooperation mit dem Institut für Mittelalterforschung der Österreichischen Akademie der Wissenschaften und dem Landesmuseum Halle: Mainz, 25.-26.April 2018 |chapter-url=https://www.academia.edu/97871513 |location=Halle |publisher=Tagungen des Landesmuseums für Vorgeschichte Halle |page=171–189 |isbn=978-3-948618-24-7}} * {{Cite book|last=Živković|first=Tibor|title=Јужни Словени под византијском влашћу (South Slavs under Byzantine rule 600-1025AD)|year=2007|publisher=Čigoja|isbn=978-86-7558-501-5|pages=504 |url= https://www.delfi.rs/knjige/911_juzni_sloveni_pod_vizantijskom_vlascu_6001025_knjiga_delfi_knjizare.html}} * {{Cite book|last=Živković|first=Tibor|author-link=Tibor Živković|title=Forging unity: The South Slavs between East and West 550-1150|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=JlIsAQAAIAAJ|year=2008|location=Belgrade|publisher=The Institute of History, Čigoja štampa|isbn=9788675585732}} {{Slavic ethnic groups (VII-XII century)}} [[Category:7th-century conflicts]] [[Category:7th century in the Byzantine Empire]] [[Category:Wars involving the Byzantine Empire]] [[Category:Invasions of Greece]] [[Category:South Slavic history]] [[Category:History of the Balkans]]</div></summary> <author><name>Βατο</name></author> </entry> <entry> <id>https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Albanian_paganism&diff=1254960907</id> <title>Albanian paganism</title> <link rel="alternate" type="text/html" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Albanian_paganism&diff=1254960907"/> <updated>2024-11-02T13:52:22Z</updated> <summary type="html">Βατο: <hr /> <div>{{Short description|none}} &lt;!-- &quot;none&quot; is preferred when the title is sufficiently descriptive; see [[WP:SDNONE]] --&gt; [[File:Childe Harold's pilgrimage - a romaunt (1869) (14756251426).jpg|thumb|250px|[[Albanian war dance|Albanian warrior dance]] in circle around fire ([[Zjarri (Albanian paganism)|zjarri]]), drawing from the book ''[[Childe Harold's Pilgrimage]]'' written by [[Lord Byron]] in the early 19th century. Practiced for several hours with very short intervals, the dance gets new vigour from the words of the accompanying song that starts with a [[battle cry]] invoking [[war drums]], and which is of a piece with the movement and usually changed only once or twice during the whole performance.{{sfn|Steiner-Karafili|2010|pp=143–144}} The ritual purifying fire is traditionally used by Albanians, in particular singing and dancing around it, to gain [[Apotropaic|protection and energizing]] from its supernatural power.&lt;ref&gt;{{harvnb|Tirta|2004|pp=279–281, 327}}; {{harvnb|Xhemaj|1983|pp=104–121}}; {{harvnb|Useini|2024|p=164}}.&lt;/ref&gt;]] '''Albanian paganism''' comprises the [[Paganism|pagan]] [[Tradition|customs]], [[belief]]s, [[ritual]]s, [[myth]]s and [[legend]]s of the [[Albanian people]]. The elements of Albanian mythology are of ancient [[Paleo-Balkanic religion|Paleo-Balkanic]] origin and almost all of them are pagan.{{sfn|Pipa|1993|p=253}} Ancient paganism persisted among Albanians, and especially within the inaccessible and deep interior{{sfn|Norris|1993|p=34}} – where [[Albanian folklore]] evolved over the centuries in a relatively isolated [[Albanian tribes|tribal culture and society]]{{sfn|Elsie|2001a|pp=vii–viii}} – it has continued to persist, or at most it was partially transformed by the Christian, Muslim and Marxist beliefs that were either to be introduced by choice or imposed by force.&lt;ref name=&quot;auto&quot;&gt;{{harvnb|Norris|1993|p=34}}; {{harvnb|Qafleshi|2011|pp=43–71}}; {{harvnb|Hykolli|Krasniqi|2020|p=78}}; {{harvnb|Useini|2024|p=164}}.&lt;/ref&gt; The Albanian traditional customary law ([[Kanun (Albania)|Kanun]]) has held a sacred – although secular – longstanding, unwavering and unchallenged authority with a cross-religious effectiveness over the Albanians, which is attributed to an earlier pagan code common to all the [[Albanian tribes]].{{sfn|Tarifa|2008|p=11}} Indeed, the Kanun contains several customary concepts that clearly have their origins in pagan beliefs, including in particular the [[ancestor worship]], [[animism]] and [[totemism]], which have been preserved since pre-Christian times.{{sfn|Yamamoto|2005|p=164}}&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite book|title=Studime Historike|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=1xdXAAAAYAAJ|publisher=Akademia e Shkencave e RPSH., Instituti i Historisë|year=1972|volume=9|location=Tiranë|pages=107–110|language=sq}}&lt;/ref&gt;{{sfn|Trnavci|2010|p=205}} Albanian traditions have been [[Oral tradition|orally transmitted]] – through memory systems that have survived intact into modern times – down the generations and are still very much alive in the mountainous regions of [[Albania]], [[Kosovo]] and western [[North Macedonia]], as well as among the [[Arbëreshë people|Arbëreshë]] in [[Italy]] and the [[Arvanites]] in [[Greece]], and the [[Arbanasi people|Arbanasi]] in [[Croatia]].&lt;ref name=&quot;auto4&quot;&gt;{{harvnb|Elsie|1994|p=i}}; {{harvnb|Elsie|2001b|p=ix}}; {{harvnb|Tarifa|2008|pp=3, 11–12}}; {{harvnb|Stipčević|2009|pp=505–509}}; {{harvnb|Qafleshi|2011|pp=43–71}}; {{harvnb|Sokoli|2013|pp=182-184}}; {{harvnb|Galaty|2018|pp=100–102}}; {{harvnb|Useini|2024|p=164}}.&lt;/ref&gt; {{multiple image | align = right | direction = vertical | image_style = border:none | total_width = 260 | image1 = Albanian tattoo patterns – Sun and Fire symbols.png | alt1 = | image2 = Albanian tattoo patterns.png | alt2 = | footer = [[Albanian traditional tattoo]] patterns: 19th century (top), early 20th century (bottom). They are symbols of the Sun ([[Dielli (Albanian paganism)|Dielli]]) and the Moon ([[Hëna (Albanian paganism)|Hëna]]); the cross (also [[swastika]] in some tattoos) is the Albanian traditional way to represent the deified Fire – [[Zjarri (Albanian paganism)|Zjarri]], evidently also called with the theonym [[Enji (deity)|Enji]].&lt;ref&gt;{{harvnb|Treimer|1971|p=32}}; {{harvnb|Murray-Aynsley|1891|pp=29, 31}}.&lt;/ref&gt; Also appearing in other expressions of Albanian traditional art (graves, jewellery, embroidery, and house carvings),&lt;ref name=&quot;auto13&quot;&gt;{{harvnb|Galaty|Lafe|Lee|Tafilica|2013|pp=155–157}}; {{harvnb|Lelaj|2015|pp=91–118}}; {{harvnb|Tirta|2004|pp=68–82}}; {{harvnb|Elsie|2001a|pp=181, 244}}; {{harvnb|Poghirc|1987|p=178}}; {{harvnb|Durham|1928a|p=51}}; {{harvnb|Durham|1928b|pp=120–125}}.&lt;/ref&gt; they represent celestial, light, fire and hearth worship, expressing the favor of the light within the [[Albanian paganism#Dualistic struggle – cosmic renewal|dualistic struggle between light and darkness]].&lt;ref&gt;{{harvnb|Durham|1928b|pp=102–106}}; {{harvnb|Treimer|1971|p=32}}; {{harvnb|Murray-Aynsley|1891|pp=26, 29, 31}}.&lt;/ref&gt; The Fire rituals and the Sun and Moon worship are the earliest attested cults of the Albanians.{{sfn|Malcolm|2020|pp=19–20}}&lt;ref name=&quot;Elsie-Franck&quot;&gt;{{cite web|editor-last=Elsie|editor-first=Robert|title=1534. Sebastian Franck: Albania: A Mighty Province of Europe|url=http://www.albanianhistory.net/1534_Franck/|website=Texts and Documents of Albanian History }}&lt;/ref&gt;}} The old beliefs in [[sun]] and [[moon]], [[light]] and [[darkness]], [[sky]] and [[earth]], [[fire]] and [[hearth]], [[water]] and [[Spring (hydrology)|spring]]s, [[death]] and [[Reincarnation|rebirth]], [[birds]] and [[snake|serpents]], [[mountains]], [[stones]] and [[caves]], [[sacrifice]], and [[fate]] are some of the pagan beliefs among Albanians.&lt;ref&gt;{{harvnb|Egro|2003|p=35}}; {{harvnb|Tirta|2004|pp=87–110, 176, 410}}; {{harvnb|Doja|2005|pp=449–462}}; {{harvnb|Xhemaj|1983|pp=104–121}}; {{harvnb|Stipčević|2009|pp=505–507}}; {{harvnb|Qafleshi|2011|pp=43–71}}; {{harvnb|Sokoli|2013|p=181}}; {{harvnb|Hysi|2006|pp=349–361}}; {{harvnb|Galaty|Lafe|Lee|Tafilica|2013|p=161}}; {{harvnb|Lajçi|2019|p=29}}; {{harvnb|Useini|2024|p=164}}.&lt;/ref&gt; The Fire ([[Zjarri (Albanian paganism)|Zjarri]]) rituals and the Sun ([[Dielli (Albanian paganism)|Dielli]]) and Moon ([[Hëna (Albanian paganism)|Hëna]]) worship are the earliest attested cults of the Albanians.{{sfn|Malcolm|2020|pp=19–20}}&lt;ref name=&quot;Elsie-Franck&quot;/&gt; The Sun holds the primary role in Albanian pagan customs, beliefs, rituals, myths, and legends; Albanian major traditional festivities and calendar rites are based on the Sun, worshiped as the god of [[light]], [[sky]] and [[weather]], giver of life, health and energy, and all-seeing eye;&lt;ref&gt;{{harvnb|Tirta|2004|pp=68, 70–72, 249–254}}; {{harvnb|Sokoli|2013|p=181}}; {{harvnb|Hysi|2006|pp=349–361}}; {{harvnb|Gjoni|2012|pp=85–86}}.&lt;/ref&gt; the [[sunrise]] is honored as it is believed to give energy and health to the body.{{sfn|Gjoni|2012|pp=86–87}} The Moon is worshiped as a goddess, with her cyclical [[Lunar phase|phases]] regulating many aspects of Albanian life, defining agricultural and livestock activities, various crafts, and human body.&lt;ref name=&quot;auto20&quot;&gt;{{harvnb|Galaty|Lafe|Lee|Tafilica|2013|p=157}}; {{harvnb|Tirta|2004|p=73}}; {{harvnb|Elsie|2001a|p=181}}.&lt;/ref&gt; The morning and evening star [[Venus]] is personified with [[Prende]], associated with dawn, beauty, love, fertility, health, and the protection of women.&lt;ref&gt;{{harvnb|Sedaj|1982|p=78}}; {{harvnb|Elsie|2001a|pp=257–259}}; {{harvnb|Lambertz|1922|pp=47–49, 143–144}}; {{harvnb|Hyllested|Joseph|2022|p=235}}; {{harvnb|Lambertz|1973|p=509}}; {{harvnb|Dedvukaj|2023|pp=1–2}}.&lt;/ref&gt; The cult of the Earth ([[Dheu (Albanian paganism)|Dheu]]) and that of the Sky ([[Qielli (Albanian paganism)|Qielli]]) have a special place. The Fire – Zjarri, evidently also called with the theonym [[Enji (deity)|Enji]] – is [[Deity|deified]] in Albanian tradition as releaser of [[light]] and [[heat]] with the power to [[Apotropaic magic|ward off]] [[darkness]] and [[evil]], affect [[List of natural phenomena|cosmic phenomena]] and give strength to the Sun, and as sustainer of the continuity between [[life]] and [[afterlife]] and between the [[generation]]s, ensuring the survival of the lineage ([[Albanian tribes|''fis'' or ''farë'']]). To spit into Fire is [[taboo]]. The divine power of Fire is used for the [[hearth]] and the [[rituals]], including calendar fires, [[sacrifices|sacrificial offerings]], [[divination]], [[Ritual purification|purification]], and protection from big storms and other potentially harmful events.&lt;ref name=&quot;auto12&quot;&gt;{{harvnb|Tirta|2004|pp=68–69, 135, 176–181, 249–261, 274–282, 327, 410}}; {{harvnb|Xhemaj|1983|pp=104–121}}; {{harvnb|Halimi|Halimi-Statovci|Xhemaj|2011|pp=2–5, 9, 11, 12,15, 17}}; {{harvnb|Useini|2024|p=164}}; {{harvnb|Pipa|1993|p=253}}; {{harvnb|Poghirc|1987|pp=178–179}}; {{harvnb|De Rapper|2012|pp=14–15}}; {{harvnb|Gjoni|2012|p=90}}; {{harvnb|Galaty|Lafe|Lee|Tafilica|2013|p=161}}.&lt;/ref&gt; Fire worship and rituals are associated with the cult of the Sun, the cult of the hearth ([[vatër]]) and the [[Ancestor worship|ancestor]], and the cult of fertility in [[agriculture]] and [[animal husbandry]].&lt;ref name=&quot;auto5&quot;&gt;{{harvnb|Tirta|2004|pp=68–69, 135, 176–181, 249–261, 274–282, 327}}; {{harvnb|Xhemaj|1983|pp=104–121}}; {{harvnb|Qafleshi|2011|p=49}}; {{harvnb|Poghirc|1987|pp=178–179}}; {{harvnb|Hysi|2006|pp=349–361}}.&lt;/ref&gt; Ritual calendar fires are associated with the cosmic cycle and the rhythms of agricultural and pastoral life.&lt;ref name=&quot;auto18&quot;&gt;{{harvnb|Poghirc|1987|p=179}}; {{harvnb|Tirta|2004|pp=68–69, 135, 176–181, 249–261, 274–282, 327}}; {{harvnb|Xhemaj|1983|pp=104–121}}; {{harvnb|Useini|2024|p=164}}.&lt;/ref&gt; [[Besa (Albanian culture)|Besa]] is a common practice in Albanian culture, consisting of an [[oath]] (''be'') solemnly taken by sun, by moon, by sky, by earth, by fire, by stone and [[Thunderstone (folklore)|thunderstone]], by mountain, by water, and by snake, which are all considered [[sacred|sacred objects]].&lt;ref&gt;{{harvnb|Tirta|2004|pp=42–102, 238–239, 318}}; {{harvnb|Pipa|1993|p=253}}; {{harvnb|Elsie|2001a|pp=35–36, 193, 244}}; {{harvnb|Poghirc|1987|pp=178–179}}; {{harvnb|Hysi|2006|pp=349–361}}.&lt;/ref&gt; Associated with human life, [[bees]] are highly revered by Albanians.{{sfn|Tirta|2004|pp=62–68}} The [[eagle]] is the animal totem of all Albanians, associated with the Sky, freedom and heroism.{{sfn|Brahaj|2007|pp=16–18}}{{sfn|Tirta|2004|pp=62–68}} A widespread folk symbol is the [[Serpent symbolism|serpent]] ([[Vitore|Gjarpër, Vitore, etc.]]), a totem of the Albanians associated with [[chthonic|earth]], [[water worship|water]], [[Sun worship|sun]], [[hearth]] and [[ancestor worship|ancestor]] cults, as well as [[destiny]], [[good fortune]] and [[fertility]].&lt;ref&gt;{{harvnb|Sinani|2010|pp=105–106, 111}}; {{harvnb|Stipčević|2009|p=507}}; {{harvnb|Doli|2009|pp=127–128}}; {{harvnb|Tirta|2004|pp=62–68|p=}}.&lt;/ref&gt; The sun, the moon, the star, the eagle (bird), the serpent, and the bee, often appear in Albanian legends and folk art.&lt;ref&gt;{{harvnb|Poghirc|1987|p=178}}; {{harvnb|Bido|1998|pp=701–702}}; {{harvnb|Tirta|2004|pp=68–82}}; {{harvnb|Elsie|2001a|pp=181, 244}}&lt;/ref&gt; {{Albanians}} {{Mythology}} In Albanian mythology, the physical [[phenomena]], [[Classical elements|elements]] and [[Physical object|objects]] are attributed to [[supernatural]] beings. The mythological and legendary figures are deities, demigods, humans, and monsters, as well as supernatural beings in the shapes of men, animals and plants.{{sfn|Sokoli|2013|p=181}} The deities are generally not persons, but [[Animism|animistic]] personifications of [[nature]].&lt;ref&gt;{{harvnb|Pipa|1993|pp=253–254}}; {{harvnb|Skendi|1967|pp=165–166}}.&lt;/ref&gt; Albanian beliefs, myths and legends are organized around the [[Dualism in cosmology|dualistic]] struggle between [[good and evil]], [[light]] and [[darkness]],&lt;ref&gt;{{harvnb|Lelaj|2015|p=97}}; {{harvnb|Sokoli|2013|p=181}}; {{harvnb|Elsie|1994|p=i}}; {{harvnb|Poghirc|1987|p=179}}&lt;/ref&gt; the most famous representation of which is the constant battle between [[drangue]] and [[kulshedra]],&lt;ref name=&quot;auto10&quot;&gt;{{harvnb|Lelaj|2015|p=97}}; {{harvnb|Pipa|1993|pp=253–254}}.&lt;/ref&gt; a conflict that symbolises the cyclic return in the [[water]]y and [[earth|chthonian]] world of death, accomplishing the [[Cosmos|cosmic]] renewal of [[reincarnation|rebirth]]. The weavers of [[destiny]], [[Ora (mythology)|ora]] or [[Fatia|fatí]], control the order of the [[universe]] and enforce its laws.&lt;ref&gt;{{harvnb|Doja|2005|pp=449–462}}; {{harvnb|Kondi|2017|p=279}}&lt;/ref&gt; The [[Zana (mythology)|zana]] are associated with [[wilderness]] and the vital energy of human beings.&lt;ref&gt;{{harvnb|Galaty|Lafe|Lee|Tafilica|2013|p=157}}; {{harvnb|Lurker|2004|p=207}}; {{harvnb|Elsie|2001a|p=269}}; {{harvnb|Doja|2005|p=456}}; {{harvnb|Kondi|2017|p=279}}&lt;/ref&gt; A very common motif in Albanian folk narrative is [[metamorphosis]]: men morph into [[deer]], [[wolves]], and [[owls]], while women morph into [[stoats]], [[cuckoos]], and turtles.{{sfn|Pipa|1993|pp=253–254}} Resulted from the Albanian tribal culture and folklore and permeated by Albanian pagan beliefs and ancient mythology, the ''[[Kângë Kreshnikësh]]'' (&quot;Songs of Heroes&quot;) constitute the most important legendary cycle of the [[Albanian epic poetry]], based on the [[hero]] cult.&lt;ref&gt;{{harvnb|Vata-Mikeli|2023|pp=429–430}}; {{harvnb|Neziri|2021}}; {{harvnb|Loria-Rivel|2020|pp=45–46}}; {{harvnb|Miftari|Visoka|2019|pp=240–241}}; {{harvnb|Leka|2018|pp=119–120}}; {{harvnb|Neziri|2001|pp=7–10}}; {{harvnb|Watkins|1995|pp=83, 164, 443}}; {{harvnb|Pipa|1993|pp=253–254}}.&lt;/ref&gt; Hero's bravery and self-sacrifice, as well as love of life and hope for a bright future play a central role in Albanian tales.{{sfn|Sokoli|2013|p=181}} == Documentation == {{Further|Albanian folklore|Kanun (Albania)}} {{See also|Albanian epic poetry}} Albanian traditions have been handed down [[Oral tradition|orally across generations]].&lt;ref&gt;{{harvnb|Elsie|1994|p=i}}; {{harvnb|Elsie|2001b|p=ix}}; {{harvnb|Tarifa|2008|pp=3, 11–12}}; {{harvnb|Sokoli|2013|pp=182-184}}.&lt;/ref&gt; They have been preserved through traditional memory systems that have survived intact into modern times in Albania, a phenomenon that is explained by the lack of state formation among Albanians and their ancestors – the [[Illyrians]], being able to preserve their [[Albanian tribes|&quot;tribally&quot; organized society]]. This distinguished them from civilizations such as [[Ancient Egypt]], [[Minoans]] and [[Mycenaeans]], who underwent state formation and disrupted their traditional memory practices.{{sfn|Galaty|2018|pp=100–102}} Albanian traditional practices, beliefs, myths and legends have been sporadically described in written sources since the 15th century CE,{{sfn|Malcolm|2020|pp=19–20}}&lt;ref name=&quot;Elsie-Franck&quot;/&gt;{{sfn|Skendi|1954|pp=27–28}} but the systematic collection of Albanian customs and folklore material began only in the 19th century.{{sfn|Skendi|1954|pp=7–10}} == Origin == {{Indo-European topics}} {{See also|Proto-Indo-European mythology|Paleo-Balkan mythology|Illyrian mythology}} The elements of Albanian mythology are of [[Paleo-Balkanic religion|Paleo-Balkanic]] origin and almost all of them are [[pagan]].{{sfn|Pipa|1993|p=253}} Ancient [[Illyrian religion]] is considered to be one of the sources from which Albanian mythology and folklore evolved,{{sfn|Stipčević|1977|p=74}}{{sfn|West|2007|pp=288}}{{sfn|Wilkes|1995|p=280}} reflecting a number of parallels with Ancient [[Greek mythology|Greek]] and [[Roman mythology|Roman]] mythologies.{{sfn|Poghirc|1987|p=179}} Albanian legend also shows similarities with neighbouring [[Indo-European languages|Indo-European]] traditions, such as the oral epics with the [[South Slavs]] and the folk tales of the [[Greeks]].{{sfn|West|2007|pp=19}} Albanian mythology inherited the [[Proto-Indo-European mythology|Indo-European]] narrative [[Albanian epic poetry|epic genre]] about past warriors (''[[Kângë Kreshnikësh]]''), a tradition shared with [[Ancient Greece|early Greece]], [[classical India]], early [[medieval England]], [[medieval Germany]] and South Slavs.{{sfn|West|2007|p=68}} Albanian folk beliefs and mythology also retained the typical Indo-European tradition of the [[Deity|deities]] located on the highest and most inaccessible mountains ([[Mount Tomor]]).{{sfn|West|2007|pp=151}} Albanian paganism retained the Indo-European [[Sky deity|sky]], [[God of Thunder|lightning]] and [[Weather deity|weather]] deities ([[Zojz (deity)|Zojz]], [[Shurdh]], [[Verbt]]), [[*Seh₂ul and *Meh₁not|Sun and Moon]] deities ([[Dielli (Albanian paganism)|Dielli]] and [[Hëna (Albanian paganism)|Hëna]]), the [[*H₂éwsōs|dawn goddess]] ([[Prende|Prende/Afërdita]]), [[Fire deity|fire]] rituals and deities and the [[hearth]] cult ([[Enji (deity)|Enji/Zjarri]], [[Nëna e Vatrës]], [[Vatër]]),{{sfn|West|2007|pp=243, 266}}{{sfn|Treimer|1971|pp=31–33}}{{sfn|Hyllested|2024|p=60}}{{sfn|Hyllested|Joseph|2022|p=232}} the [[Fates]] and [[Destiny]] goddesses ([[Zana (mythology)|Zana]], [[Ora (mythology)|Ora]], [[Fatia|Fatí]], [[Mira (mythology)|Mira]]),{{sfn|West|2007|pp=385–386}} aspects of the [[*Dʰéǵʰōm|earth worship]] ([[Dheu|Dhé]]){{sfn|Ushaku|1988|pp=92, 95–97}} and of the [[Divine twins]] ([[Muji and Halili]]),{{sfn|Juka|1984|p=64}}{{sfn|Neziri|2008|pp=80–82}} as well as the [[Proto-Indo-European mythology#Serpent-slaying myth|&quot;serpent-slaying&quot;]] and [[Proto-Indo-European mythology#Fire in water|&quot;fire in water&quot;]] myths ([[Drangue]] and [[Kulshedra]]),{{sfn|West|2007|pp=385–386}} the &quot;Daughter of the Sun and Moon&quot; legend ([[E Bija e Hënës dhe e Diellit]]),{{sfn|West|2007|p=233}} and the guard of the gates of the [[Underworld]] (the [[Hellhound|three-headed dog]] who never sleeps).{{sfn|West|2007|pp=392}} ==History== The absence of any single and specific theonymic root for the &quot;earth&quot; in the various branches of the [[Indo-European language family]], might be due to the predominance held by [[Mother goddess|earth mother goddess]] cults already extant and profoundly rooted among [[Pre-Indo-European languages|Pre-Indo-European]]-speaking peoples encountered by incoming [[Indo-European languages|Indo-European]]-speaking peoples.{{sfn|York|1993|p=247}} The confrontation between the belief systems of Pre-Indo-European populations—who favored 'Mother Earth Cults' comprising earthly beliefs, female deities and priesthood—and of Indo-European populations who favored 'Father Heaven Cults' comprising celestial beliefs, male deities and priesthood, might be reflected in the dichotomy of [[matriarchy]] and [[patriarchy]] that emerges from the two types of female warriors/active characters in [[Albanian epic poetry]], in particular in the ''[[Kângë Kreshnikësh]]''.{{Refn|In Albanian epics there are on the one hand female characters who play an active role in the quest and the decisions that affect the whole [[Albanian tribes|tribe]], on the other hand those who [[Albanian sworn virgins|undergo a masculinization process]] as a condition to be able to participate actively in the fights according to the principles of the [[Kanun (Albania)|Kanun]].{{sfn|Loria-Rivel|2020|pp=47–48, 52}}||group=note}}{{sfn|Loria-Rivel|2020|pp=47–48, 52}} Nevertheless, the Albanian belief system has preserved also the importance of the cult of the earth, [[Zonja e Dheut|Dheu]].{{sfn|Tirta|2004|pp=189–190, 230}}{{sfn|Ushaku|1988|pp=92, 95–97}} [[File:Mali i Tomorrit nga kalaja e Beratit.jpg|thumb|250px|The cult practiced by the Albanians on [[Mount Tomorr]] in central [[Albania]] is considered as a continuation of the ancient [[Zojz (deity)|sky-god]] worship.]] The Albanian sky and lightning god, [[Zojz (deity)|Zojz]], is considered to have been worshiped by [[Illyrians]] in ancient times.{{sfn|Sedaj|1982|p=75}} Albanian ''Zojz'' is the clear equivalent and cognate of [[Messapic language|Messapic]] ''[[Zis (deity)|Zis]]'' and [[Ancient Greek]] ''[[Zeus]]'', the continuations of the [[Proto-Indo-European language|Proto-Indo-European]] ''[[Dyeus|*Di̯ḗu̯s]]'' 'sky god'.{{sfn|Søborg|2020|p=74}}{{sfn|Hyllested|Joseph|2022|p=232}} In the pre-Christian pagan period the term ''Zot'' from [[Proto-Albanian]]: ''*dźie̅u ̊ a(t)t-'' was presumably used in Albanian to refer to the [[Sky father|sky father/god/lord]], father-god, heavenly father (the [[Indo-European mythology|Indo-European]] [[Dyēus|father daylight-sky-god]]).{{sfn|Demiraj|2011|p=70}} After the first access of the ancestors of the Albanians to the Christian religion in antiquity the term ''Zot'' has been used for [[God]], [[God the Father|the Father]] and [[God the Son|the Son]] ([[Christ]]).{{sfn|Demiraj|2011|p=70}}{{sfn|Demiraj|2002|p=34}} The worship and practices associated to the Indo-European sky and lighning deity have been preserved by Albanians until the 20th century, and in some forms still continue today.&lt;ref name=&quot;auto16&quot;&gt;{{harvnb|Brahaj|2007|pp=16–18}}; {{harvnb|Cook|2010|p=1171}}; {{harvnb|Lambertz|1922|pp=47, 143–144, 146–148}}.&lt;/ref&gt; Early evidence of the celestial cult in [[Illyria]] is provided by 6th century BCE plaques from [[Lake Shkodra]], which belonged to the [[Illyrians|Illyrian]] tribal area of what was referred in historical sources to as the [[Labeatae]] in later times. Each of those plaques portray simultaneously sacred representations of the sky and the sun, and symbolism of lighning and fire, as well as the [[tree of life]] and birds (eagles). In those plaques there is a mythological representation of the celestial deity: the Sun deity animated with a face and two wings, throwing lightning into a fire altar, which in some plaques is held by two men (sometimes on two boats). This mythological representation is identical to the Albanian folk belief and practice associated to the lightning deity: a traditional practice during thunderstorms was to bring outdoors a lit fireplace ({{lang|sq|[[vatër]] me [[Zjarri (Albanian paganism)|zjarr]]}}), in order to gain the favor of the deity so the thunders would not be harmful to the human community.&lt;ref&gt;{{harvnb|Brahaj|2007|pp=16–18}}; {{harvnb|Tirta|2004|p=82}}.&lt;/ref&gt; Albanian folk beliefs regard the lightning as ''[[Zjarri i Qiellit]]'' (&quot;the Fire of the Sky&quot;) and consider it as the &quot;[[weapon]] of the deity&quot;.{{sfn|Tirta|2004|pp=82, 406}} The earliest figurative representations that accurately mirror the Albanian lamentation of the dead—[[gjâmë]]—appear on [[Dardani]]an funerary stelae of [[classical antiquity]].{{sfn|Joseph|Dedvukaj|2024|pp=1–3}} In the context of religious perceptions, historical sources confirm the relations between the Greco-Roman religious ethics and the [[Kanun (Albania)|Albanian customary laws]]. These relations can be seen during the rule of the [[Illyrian emperors]], such as [[Aurelian]] who introduced the [[Sol Invictus#Aurelian|cult of the Sun]]; [[Diocletian]] who stabilized the empire and ensured its continuation through the institution of the [[Tetrarchy]]; [[Constantine the Great]] who issued the [[Edict of Milan|Edict of Toleration]] for the Christianized population and who summoned the [[First Council of Nicaea]] involving many clercs from Illyricum; [[Justinian]] who issued the [[Corpus Juris Civilis]] and sought to create an Illyrian Church, building [[Justiniana Prima]] and [[Justiniana Secunda]], which was intended to become the centre of Byzantine administration.{{sfn|Belgiorno de Stefano|2014|pp=2–3}} [[File:Albanian traditional carving patterns.png|thumb|250px|Albanian traditional carving patterns on chairs and graves, drawn by [[Edith Durham]] before 1928. They are representations of the Sun ([[Dielli (Albanian paganism)|Dielli]]) and the Moon ([[Hana (Albanian paganism)|Hana]]), sometimes also rayed (symbolizing their light).]] Prehistoric Illyrian symbols used on funeral monuments of the pre-Roman period have been used also in Roman times and continued into [[late antiquity]] in the broad Illyrian territory. The same motifs were kept with identical cultural-religious symbolism on various monuments of the early medieval culture of the Albanians. They appear also on later funerary monuments, including the medieval tombstones ([[stećci]]) in [[Bosnia and Herzegovina]] and the burial monuments used until recently in northern [[Albania]], [[Kosovo]], [[Montenegro]], southern [[Serbia]] and northern [[North Macedonia]]. Such motifs are particularly related to the ancient cults of the Sun and Moon, survived until recently among northern Albanians.{{sfn|Dobruna-Salihu|2005|p=345–346}} [[File:Fireplace of a House of Shkreli.png|thumb|250px|Fireplace (''[[votër]]'') of a house of [[Shkreli (tribe)|Shkreli]], northern Albania, drawn by [[Edith Durham]] in 1909.]] Among the Illyrians of early Albania the Sun was a widespread symbol. The spread of a [[Sun cult]] and the persistence of [[Solar symbol|Sun motifs]] into the Roman period and later are considered to have been the product of the Illyrian culture. In [[Christian iconography]] the symbol of the Sun is associated with immortality and a right to rule. The pagan cult of the Sun was almost identical to the Christian cult in the first centuries of Christianity. Varieties of the symbols of the Sun that Christian orders brought in the region found in the Albanian highlands sympathetic supporters, enriching the body of their symbols with new material.{{sfn|Galaty|Lafe|Lee|Tafilica|2013|p=156}} The historical-linguistic determination of the Albanian Christian terminology provides evidence that Albanians have already joined the process of conversion to Christianity in the Balkans since the [[late antiquity]] (4th–5th centuries AD). The earliest church lexicon is mainly of [[Late Latin]] or [[Ecclesiastical Latin]] origin and, to a large extent, of native origin, which leads to the conclusion that the Christianisation of the Albanians occurred under the Latin-based liturgy and ecclesiastical order of the [[Holy See]]. Also according to Church documents, the territories that coincide with the present-day Albanian-speaking compact area had remained under the jurisdiction of the [[Bishop of Rome]] and used Latin as official language at least until the first half of the 8th century.{{sfn|Demiraj|2011|pp=73–74}} At the time of the [[Slavic migrations to the Balkans|South Slavic incursion]] and the threat of ethnic turbulence in the Albanian-inhabited regions, the Christianization of the Albanians had already been completed and it had apparently developed for Albanians as a further identity-forming feature alongside the ethnic-linguistic unity.{{sfn|Demiraj|2002|pp=36–37}} Church administration, which was controlled by a thick network of Roman bishoprics, collapsed with the arrival of the Slavs. Between the early 7th century and the late 9th century the interior areas of the Balkans were deprived of church administration, and Christianity might have survived only as a popular tradition on a reduced degree.{{sfn|Fischer|Schmitt|2022|p=25}} Some Albanians living in the mountains, who were only partially affected by Romanization, probably sank back into the Classic Paganism.{{sfn|Demiraj|2002|p=26}} The reorganization of the Church as a cult institution in the region took a considerable amount of time.{{sfn|Demiraj|2011|p=63}} The Balkans were brought back into the Christian orbit only after the recovery of the Byzantine Empire and through the activity of Byzantine missionaries.{{sfn|Fischer|Schmitt|2022|p=25}} The earliest church vocabulary of [[Middle Greek]] origin in Albanian dates to the 8th–9th centuries, at the time of the [[Byzantine Iconoclasm]], which was started by the Byzantine Emperor [[Leo III the Isaurian]].{{sfn|Demiraj|2011|pp=63–64, 70}} In 726 Leo III established ''[[de jure]]'' the jurisdiction of the [[Ecumenical Patriarchate of Constantinople]] over the Balkans, as the Church and the State established an institution. The Eastern Church expanded its influence in the area along with the social and political developments. Between the 7th and 12th centuries a powerful network of cult institutions were revived completely covering the ecclesiastical administration of the entire present-day Albanian-speaking compact area. In particular an important role was played by the [[Theme of Dyrrhachium]] and the [[Archdiocese of Ohrid]].{{sfn|Demiraj|2011|p=64}} Survived through the centuries, the Christian belief among Albanians became an important cultural element in their ethnic identity. Indeed, the lack of [[Old Church Slavonic]] terms in Albanian Christian terminology shows that the missionary activities during the [[Christianization of the Slavs]] did not involve Albanian-speakers.{{sfn|Demiraj|2011|p=71}} In a text compiled around the beginning of the 11th century in the [[Old Bulgarian language]], the Albanians are mentioned for the first time with their old ethnonym ''[[Names of the Albanians and Albania#Arbanasi|Arbanasi]]'' as half-believers, a term which for Eastern Orthodox Christian Bulgarians meant Catholic Christian.{{sfn|Elsie|2003|p=3}} The [[East–West Schism|Great Schism of 1054]] involved Albania separating the region between Catholic Christianity in the north and Orthodox Christianity in the south.{{sfn|Ramet|1989|p=381}} [[Islam]] was first introduced to Albania in the 15th century after the [[Ottoman Empire|Ottoman]] conquest of the area. In [[Albania under the Ottoman Empire|Ottoman times]], often to escape higher taxes levied on Christian subjects, the majority of Albanians became Muslims. However one part retained Christian and pre-Christian beliefs.{{sfn|Esposito|2004|p=20}} In the 16th century the Albanians are firstly mentioned as worshippers of the [[Sun]] and the [[Moon]].&lt;ref name=&quot;Elsie-Franck&quot;/&gt; British poet [[Lord Byron]] (1788–1824), describing the Albanian religious belief, reported that &quot;The Greeks hardly regard them as Christians, or the Turks as Muslims; and in fact they are a mixture of both, and sometimes neither.&quot;{{sfn|Esposito|2004|p=20}} In Ottoman times education in the Albanian language was forbidden. The folk storytellers have played an important role in preserving Albanian folklore.{{sfn|Sokoli|2013|pp=182-183}} The lack of schools was compensated by the folk creativity, molding generations of Albanians with their forefathers' wisdom and experience and protecting them from assimilation processes.{{sfn|Sokoli|2013|p=184}} Between the 16th and 18th centuries, in Albania arrived also the [[Bektashi]] [[Sufi]] order{{sfn|Kressing|Kaser|2002|p=72}} which spread widely among Albanians because of its traditional tolerance and regard for different religions, practices and beliefs and because it allowed itself to be a vehicle for the expression of [[Laramans|Crypto-Christian]], Christian and pre-Christian pagan beliefs and rituals.{{sfn|Skendi|1967|pp=244–245}}{{sfn|Elsie|2010|p=40}}{{sfn|Elsie|2019|p=116}} Bektashism is a Muslim [[dervish]] order (''[[tariqat]]'') thought to have originated in the 13th century in a frontier region of [[Anatolia]], where Christianity, Islam and paganism coexisted, allowing the incorporation of comparable pagan and non-Muslim beliefs into popular Islam. It facilitated the conversion process to the new Muslims and became the official order of the [[Janissaries]].{{sfn|Skendi|1967b|pp=12–13}}{{sfn|Minkov|2004|pp=103–104}} After the ban of all the Sufi orders in [[Turkey]] in 1925, the Bektashi Order established its headquarters in [[Tirana]].{{sfn|Esposito|2004|p=20}} [[File:Gjama.jpg|thumb|Men of [[Theth]] ([[Shala (tribe)|Shala]]) practicing the [[gjâmë]] – the Albanian lamentation of the dead – in the funeral of Ujk Vuksani, 1937.]] Since its founding in 1912, Albania has been a [[secular state]], becoming [[atheist]] during the [[Communism in Albania|Communist regime]], and returning secular after the fall of the regime. For half a century the regime in Albania anathemized all beliefs, without taking into account the fact that the Albanian traditional rites, customs, beliefs, mythology, etc. aligned Albanians – who have preserved a unique culture – with the major ancient groups of peoples.{{sfn|Qafleshi|2011|pp=46–47}} Albanian folklore evolved over the centuries in a relative isolated [[Albanian tribes|tribal culture and society]],{{sfn|Elsie|2001a|pp=vii-viii}} and although several changes occurred in the Albanian belief system, an ancient layer of pre-Christian beliefs has survived until today.&lt;ref&gt;{{harvnb|Useini|2024|p=164}}; {{harvnb|Hykolli|Krasniqi|2020|p=78}};{{harvnb|Qafleshi|2011|pp=43–71}}; {{harvnb|Poghirc|1987|p=178}}; {{harvnb|Pipa|1993|p=253}}; {{harvnb|Skendi|1967|pp=165–166}}.&lt;/ref&gt; Ancient paganism persisted among Albanians, and within the inaccessible and deep interior it has continued to persist, or at most it was partially transformed by the Christian, Muslim and Marxist beliefs that were either to be introduced by choice or imposed by force.&lt;ref name=&quot;auto&quot;/&gt; Albanian traditions have been [[Oral tradition|orally transmitted]] – through memory systems that have survived intact into modern times – down the generations and are still very much alive in the mountainous regions of [[Albania]], [[Kosovo]] and western [[North Macedonia]], as well as among the [[Arbëreshë people|Arbëreshë]] in [[Italy]] and the [[Arvanites]] in [[Greece]], and the [[Arbanasi people|Arbanasi]] in [[Croatia]].&lt;ref name=&quot;auto4&quot;/&gt; ==Cosmology== ===Supreme entity, animated Nature, and Fate=== Either in [[Paganism|pagan]]-[[Polytheism|polytheistic]] or [[Monotheism|monotheistic]] contexts, the supreme entity in [[Albanian language|Albanian]] is referred to as ''[[Zojz (deity)|Zojz(-i)]]/Zot(-i)'', ''[[Perëndi]](-a)'', or ''Hy(-u)/Hyj(-i)'', always associated with the [[sky]] and [[light]].&lt;ref&gt;{{harvnb|Poghirc|1987|p=178}}; {{harvnb|Sardushkin|2002|pp=140–141}}; {{harvnb|Doja|2005|pp=449–462}}; {{harvnb|Demiraj|2002|p=34}}; {{harvnb|Lambertz|1922|pp=47, 143–144}}.&lt;/ref&gt; In Albanian the god who rules the sky is referred to as ''i Bukuri i Qiellit'' (&quot;the Beauty of the Sky&quot;), a phrase that is used in pagan contexts for the Sun ([[Dielli (Albanian paganism)|Dielli]]), worshiped as the god of [[light]], [[sky]] and [[weather]], giver of life, health and energy, and all-seeing eye.&lt;ref name=&quot;auto17&quot;&gt;{{harvnb|Tirta|2004|pp=68, 70–72, 249–254}}; {{harvnb|Sokoli|2013|p=181}}; {{harvnb|Hysi|2006|pp=349–361}}; {{harvnb|Gjoni|2012|pp=85–86}}; {{harvnb|Lambertz|1949|p=46}}; {{harvnb|Fishta|Lambertz|1958|p=284}}; {{harvnb|Ushaku|1988|p=101}}; {{harvnb|Lurker|2005|p=38}}.&lt;/ref&gt; As the wide set of cultic traditions dedicated to him indicates, the Albanian Sun-god appears to be an expression of the [[Proto-Indo-European mythology|Proto-Indo-European]] Sky-god ([[Zojz (deity)|Zot or Zojz]] in Albanian).{{sfn|Treimer|1971|p=31}} The Sun, referred to as &quot;the all-seeing (big) eye&quot; is invoked in Albanian solemn oaths ([[Besa (Albanian culture)|be]]), and information about everything that happens on Earth is asked to the all-seeing Sun in ritual songs.{{sfn|Hysi|2006|pp=349–361}}{{sfn|Gjoni|2012|p=86}} The Fire – [[Zjarri (Albanian paganism)|Zjarri]] – is deified as releaser of [[light]] and [[heat]] with the power to [[Apotropaic magic|ward off]] [[darkness]] and [[evil]], affect [[List of natural phenomena|cosmic phenomena]] and give strength to the Sun, and as sustainer of the continuity between [[life]] and [[afterlife]] and between the [[generation]]s.&lt;ref name=&quot;auto12&quot;/&gt; The primeval religiosity of the Albanian mountains is expressed by a supreme deity who is the god of the universe and who is conceived through the belief in the fantastic and supernatural entities, resulting in an extremely structured imaginative creation.{{sfn|Schirò|1959|p=30–31}}{{sfn|Krasniqi|2019|p=141}} The components of [[Nature]] are [[Animism|animated]] and personified [[deities]], so in Albanian folk beliefs and mythology the Sky ([[Qielli (Albanian paganism)|Qielli]]) with the clouds and lightning, the Sun ([[Dielli (Albanian paganism)|Dielli]]), the Moon ([[Hëna (Albanian paganism)|Hëna]]), and the stars (including [[Afërdita]]), the Fire ([[Zjarri (Albanian paganism)|Zjarri]]) and the hearth ([[Vatër|vatra]]), the Earth ([[Dheu|Dheu/Toka]]) with the mountains, stones, caves, and water springs, etc., are cult objects, considered to be participants in the world of humans influencing the events in their life, and afterlife as well. Solemn oaths ([[Besa (Albanian culture)|Besa]]) and curse formulas involve and are addressed to, or taken by, the animated components of Nature.&lt;ref&gt;{{harvnb|Vata-Mikeli|2023|pp=429–431}}; {{harvnb|Sokoli|2013|p=181}}; {{harvnb|Hysi|2006|pp=349–361}}; {{harvnb|Tirta|2004|pp=42–102, 238–239, 318}}; {{harvnb|Elsie|2001a|pp=35–36, 181, 193, 244}}; {{harvnb|Watkins|1995|pp=83, 164, 443}}; {{harvnb|Pipa|1993|p=253}}; {{harvnb|Poghirc|1987|pp=178–179}}; {{harvnb|Xhemaj|1983|pp=104–121}}.&lt;/ref&gt; The supreme god allows the existence of terrestrial female deities with their intervention in earthly events and interaction with humans.{{sfn|Schirò|1959|p=30–31}}{{sfn|Doja|2005|pp=456, 459}} Hence the Albanian belief in [[Zana (mythology)|zanas]] and [[Ora (mythology)|oras]] (also [[Fatia|fati]] or [[Mira (mythology)|mira]]{{Sfn|Elsie|2001a|p=167}}), who symbolize the vital energy and existential time of human beings respectively. The zana idealizes feminine energy, wild beauty, eternal youth and the joy of nature. They appear as warlike nymphs capable of offering simple mortals a part of their own psychophysical and divine power, giving humans strength comparable to that of the [[drangue]]. The ora represent the &quot;moment of the day&quot; (Albanian: ''koha e ditës'') and the flowing of human destiny. As masters of time and place, they take care of humans (also of the zana and of some particular animals) watching over their life, their house and their hidden treasures before sealing their destiny.{{sfn|Kondi|2017|p=279}}{{sfn|Tirta|2004|pp=63, 71, 112–117, 137–140, 163, 164, 191, 192}} So, the goddesses of fate &quot;maintain the order of the universe and enforce its laws&quot;{{sfn|Doja|2005|p=459}} – &quot;organising the appearance of humankind.&quot;{{sfn|Doja|2005|p=456}} However great his power, the supreme god holds an executive role as he carries out what has been already ordained by the fate goddesses.{{sfn|Doja|2005|p=459}} ===Dualistic struggle – cosmic renewal=== {{multiple image | align = right | direction = vertical | image_style = border:none | total_width = 260 | image1 = Albanian tattoo patterns.png | alt1 = | image2 = Tattoos of Catholic women – Jajce, Bosnia.png | alt2 = | footer = Tattoo patterns of northern Albanians (top); tattoo patterns of Catholic women (and one man) in Bosnia (bottom). Drawn by Edith Durham in the early 20th century. Many of those patterns also appear on Albanian traditional art (graves, jewellery, embroidery, and house carvings). They represent celestial, light, fire and hearth worship, expressing the favor of the light within the dualistic struggle between light and darkness.&lt;ref&gt;{{harvnb|Durham|1928b|pp=102–106}}; {{harvnb|Treimer|1971|p=32}}; {{harvnb|Murray-Aynsley|1891|pp=26, 29, 31}}.&lt;/ref&gt; }} Albanian beliefs, myths and legends are organized around the [[Dualism in cosmology|dualistic]] struggle between [[good and evil]], [[light]] and [[darkness]], which cyclically produces the [[Cosmos|cosmic]] renewal.&lt;ref&gt;{{harvnb|Lelaj|2015|p=97}}; {{harvnb|Doja|2005|pp=449–462}}; {{harvnb|Elsie|1994|p=i}}; {{harvnb|Poghirc|1987|p=179}}&lt;/ref&gt; Ritual calendar fires (''[[Zjarret e Vitit]]'') are practiced in relation to the cosmic cycle and the rhythms of agricultural and pastoral life, with the function to give strength to the Sun and to [[apotropaic|ward off]] [[evil]] according to the old beliefs.&lt;ref name=&quot;auto18&quot;/&gt; Exercising a great influence on Albanian major traditional feasts and calendar rites, the Sun ([[Dielli (Albanian paganism)|Dielli]]) is worshiped as the [[god of light]] and giver of life, who fades away the darkness of the world and melts the frost, allowing the renewal of [[Nature]].&lt;ref name=&quot;auto14&quot;&gt;{{harvnb|Lambertz|1949|p=46}}; {{harvnb|Fishta|Lambertz|1958|p=284}}; {{harvnb|Ushaku|1988|p=101}}; {{harvnb|Lurker|2005|p=38}}; {{harvnb|Sokoli|2013|p=181}}.&lt;/ref&gt; The most famous Albanian mythological representation of the dualistic struggle between good and evil, light and darkness, is the constant battle between [[drangue]] and [[kulshedra]],&lt;ref name=&quot;auto10&quot;/&gt; a conflict that symbolises the cyclic return in the [[water]]y and [[earth|chthonian]] world of death, accomplishing the [[Cosmos|cosmic]] renewal of [[reincarnation|rebirth]].&lt;ref&gt;{{harvnb|Doja|2005|pp=449–462}}; {{harvnb|Tirta|2004|pp=121–132}}; {{harvnb|Lelaj|2015|p=97}}.&lt;/ref&gt; The legendary battle of a heroic deity associated with [[weather god|thunder and weather]] – like drangue – who fights and slays a huge multi-headed serpent associated with water, storms, and drought – like kulshedra – [[Proto-Indo-European mythology#Serpent-slaying myth|is a common motif]] of [[Indo-European mythology]].{{sfn|West|2007|pp=358–359}} The original legend may have symbolized the [[Chaos (cosmogony)#Chaoskampf|''Chaoskampf'']], a clash between forces of order and chaos.{{sfn|Watkins|1995|pages=299–300}} In Albanian tradition the clash between drangue and kulshedra, light and darkness, is furthermore seen as a mythological representation of the cult of the Sun and the Moon, widely observed in [[Albanian traditional tattooing]] and in other expressions of traditional art (graves, jewellery, embroidery, and house carvings).&lt;ref name=&quot;auto13&quot;/&gt; The supremacy of the deity of the sky – the light side – over that of the underworld – the dark side – is symbolized by the victory of celestial divine heroes against [[kulshedra]], an earthly/chthonic deity or demon originating from darkness. Those celestial divine heroes are often [[drangue]] (the most widespread [[culture hero]] among Albanians), but also [[e Bija e Hënës dhe e Diellit]] (&quot;the Daughter of the Moon and the Sun&quot;) who is referred to as ''pika e qiellit'' (&quot;drop of the sky&quot; or &quot;lightning&quot;), which falls everywhere from heaven on the mountains and the valleys and strikes pride and evil,{{sfn|Shuteriqi|1959|p=66}}{{sfn|Tirta|2004|pp=72, 127–128}} or by other heroic characters marked in their bodies by the symbols of celestial objects,{{sfn|Tirta|2004|pp=72, 127–128}} such as [[The Twins (Albanian tale)|Zjermi]] (lit. &quot;the Fire&quot;), who notably is born with the Sun on his forehead.{{sfn|Schirò|1923|pp=411–439}} The dualism between black/darkness and white/light is also remarkably represented by the Moon's phases, which symbolize both fertility (increase) and sterility (decrease). Moon's cyclical phases have regulated many aspects of the life of the Albanians, defining agricultural and livestock activities, various crafts, and human body.{{sfn|Galaty|Lafe|Lee|Tafilica|2013|p=157}} ==Cultic deities== ===Zojz, Qielli=== [[File:Vula zyrtare e Skënderbeut.svg|thumb|Celestial symbols – double-headed eagle and six-pointed star/sun – on the official seal of [[Skanderbeg]], the Lord of Albania (D · AL Dominus Albaniae).]] [[Zojz (deity)|Zojz]] is the sky and lightning god.{{sfn|Hyllested|Joseph|2022|p=232}}{{sfn|Mann|1952|p=32}}{{sfn|Feizi|1929|p=82}}{{sfn|Sedaj|1982|p=75}} Regarded as the chief god and the highest of all gods,&lt;ref name=&quot;auto16&quot;/&gt; traces of his worship survived in northern Albania until the early 20th century, and in some forms still continue today.&lt;ref name=&quot;auto16&quot;/&gt; The old beliefs in the Sky (Alb. ''Qielli'') are pagan beliefs preserved by Albanians since ancient times.{{sfn|Egro|2003|p=35}} The sacred significance of one of the main symbols of the sky cult – the eagle – has been scrupulously preserved by Albanians, who have always considered it their animal [[totem]].{{sfn|Brahaj|2007|pp=16–18}} An epithet considered to be associated with the sky-god is &quot;father&quot;, thought to be contained in the Albanian noun ''Zot'' (&quot;[[Sky Father]]&quot;, from [[Proto-Albanian]]: ''*dźie̅u ̊ a(t)t-''), used to refer to the [[King of the gods|Supreme Being]].&lt;ref&gt;{{harvnb|Demiraj|Starostin|Lubotsky|de Vaan}}; {{harvnb|Curtis|2017|p=1746}}; {{harvnb|Kölligan|2017|p=2254}}; {{harvnb|Demiraj|2011|p=70}}; {{harvnb|Demiraj|2002|p=34}}; {{harvnb|Demiraj|1997|pp=431-432}}; {{harvnb|Mann|1977|p=72}}; {{harvnb|Treimer|1971|p=32}}.&lt;/ref&gt; A remarkable reflection of [[Proto-Indo-European mythology]] associated with the dawn goddess ''[[*H₂éwsōs]]'' is the Albanian tradition according to which the dawn goddess – [[Prende]] – is the daughter of the sky god – Zojz. [[File:Tunja (Village near Tomorri Mountain).jpg|thumb|View of [[Mount Tomorr]] from the Tunja village.]] In Albanian the god who rules the sky is referred to as ''i Bukuri i Qiellit'' (&quot;the Beauty of the Sky&quot;), a phrase that is used in pagan contexts for the Sun ([[Dielli (Albanian paganism)|Dielli]]), worshiped as the god of [[light]], [[sky]] and [[weather]], giver of life, health and energy, and all-seeing eye.&lt;ref name=&quot;auto17&quot;/&gt; The Albanian tradition according to which the Sun is an &quot;eye&quot;,&lt;ref name=&quot;auto11&quot;&gt;{{harvnb|Tirta|2004|pp=71–72}}; {{harvnb|Hysi|2006|pp=349–361}}; {{harvnb|Cook|1964|p=197}}.&lt;/ref&gt; is a reflection of the Indo-European belief according to which the Sun is the eye of the Sky-God.{{sfn|Cook|1964|p=197}} Albanian folk beliefs regard the [[lightning]] as the &quot;fire of the sky&quot; (''[[Zjarri i Qiellit]]'') and consider it as the &quot;weapon of the deity&quot;.{{sfn|Tirta|2004|pp=82, 406}} Finding correspondences with Albanian folk beliefs and practices, early evidence of the celestial cult in [[Illyria]] is provided by 6th century BCE Illyrian plaques from [[Lake Shkodra]], depicting simultaneously sacred representations of the sky and the sun, and symbolism of lighning and fire, as well as the [[sacred tree]] and birds (eagles); the Sun deity is animated with a face and two wings, throwing lightning into a fire altar.{{sfn|Brahaj|2007|pp=16–18}} Albanian [[Enji (deity)#Lightning and storms|rituals to avert big storms]] with torrential rains, lightning, and hail, seek assistance from the supernatural power of the Fire ([[Zjarri (Albanian paganism)|Zjarri]], evidently also called with the theonym [[Enji (deity)|Enji]]).&lt;ref name=&quot;auto19&quot;&gt;{{harvnb|Tirta|2004|pp=82, 309}}; {{harvnb|Xhemaj|1983|pp=104–121}}; {{harvnb|Brahaj|2007|pp=16–18}}.&lt;/ref&gt; Albanian rituals for [[Dodola and Perperuna|rainmaking]] invoke the Sky and the Sun.&lt;ref name=&quot;auto8&quot;&gt;{{harvnb|Tirta|2004|pp=307–313}}; {{harvnb|Gjoni|2012|pp=85–86}}.&lt;/ref&gt; The cult practiced by the Albanians on several [[sacred mountains]] (notably on [[Mount Tomorr]] in central Albania) performed with pilgrimages, prayers to the Sun, ritual [[bonfires]], and [[animal sacrifices]],&lt;ref&gt;{{harvnb|Tirta|2004|p=75}}; {{harvnb|Gjoni|2012|pp=81–87}}; {{harvnb|Krasniqi|2014|pp=4–5}}.&lt;/ref&gt; is considered a continuation of the ancient [[Proto-Indo-European mythology|Indo-European]] sky-god worship.{{sfn|Cook|2010|p=1171}} The cult of the Sky is also preserved in [[Besa (Albanian culture)|Albanian solemn oaths]].&lt;ref&gt;{{harvnb|Elsie|2001a|pp=193, 244}}; {{harvnb|Cook|1964|p=197}}.&lt;/ref&gt; The Sky (Qielli) is often paired with the Earth ([[Dheu]]) in Albanian oath swearings.&lt;ref name=&quot;auto9&quot;&gt;{{harvnb|Ushaku|1988|pp=92, 95–97}}; {{harvnb|Pipa|1993|p=253}}; {{harvnb|Elsie|2001a|p=193}}; {{harvnb|Hysi|2006|pp=349–350}}.&lt;/ref&gt; The Albanian divine [[culture hero]] [[drangue]], who plays a dominant role in Albanian mythology, features the attributes of a sky and lightning deity, apparently an Albanian reflection of the Indo-European sky god.{{sfn|Tirta|2004|p=127}} In some Albanian regions the lightning god who lives in the clouds in the sky is alternatively referred to as [[Shurdhi]], [[Verbti]], or [[Rmoria]].{{sfn|Tirta|2004|p=130}} Another possible name of the sky and lightning god could be [[Perëndi]]. An Albanian mythical tale concerning the highest of the gods, who uses [[thunderbolt]]s to defeat the [[sea]]-[[storm]] god [[Talas (deity)|Talas]], has been documented in the early 20th century from the [[Shala (tribe)|Shala]] region in northern Albania.&lt;ref&gt;{{harvnb|Lambertz|1922|pp=47, 146–148}}&lt;/ref&gt; ===Zonja e Dheut, Dheu=== [[File:Broja 06.JPG|thumb|An instance of the Albanian worship of the Mother Earth is the veneration and deep respect that the pople of [[Kelmendi (tribe)|Kelmend]] dedicate to her. For them environment is of great importance, and they are deeply attached to their territory, maintaining a balance that involves material aspects as well as cultural and spiritual aspects.{{sfn|Wolff|2022|pp=109, 115}}]] ''[[Zonja e Dheut]]'' (also {{lang-aln|Zôja e Dheut}}) is used in Albanian to refer to the [[Earth Goddess]].&lt;ref&gt;{{harvnb|Ushaku|1988|pp=92, 95–97}}; {{harvnb|Mann|1948|pp=583–584}}.&lt;/ref&gt; The [[Mother Goddess|Earth Mother Goddess]] or Great Mother ([[Magna Mater]]) is simply referred to as [[Dheu|''Dhé'' or ''Dheu'']] in Albanian, and traces of her worship have been preserved in Albanian tradition.&lt;ref&gt;{{harvnb|Poghirc|1987|p=178}}; {{harvnb|Ushaku|1988|pp=92, 95–97}}; {{harvnb|Pipa|1993|p=253}}; {{harvnb|Tirta|2004|pp=189–190, 230}}.&lt;/ref&gt; The Albanian noun ''Toka'' &quot;The Earth&quot; is also used to refer to the living Earth.{{sfn|Stipčević|2009|p=506}} The fact that ''dhé'' &quot;earth&quot; is an Albanian inherited word from [[Proto-Indo-European]], with ritualization in sacred contexts preserving its stability and density, highlights the important role of the earth in Albanian culture.{{sfn|Ushaku|1988|pp=92, 95–97}} Very serious [[Besa (Albanian culture)|Albanian oath swearings]] taken by earth, and many [[curse]] formulas based on the earth, also show the great significance of the earth cult in Albanian tradition.&lt;ref&gt;{{harvnb|Ushaku|1988|pp=92, 95–97}}; {{harvnb|Pipa|1993|p=253}}; {{harvnb|Elsie|2001a|p=193}}; {{harvnb|Tirta|2004|pp=42, 68, 230, 439}}; {{harvnb|Hysi|2006|pp=349–350}}.&lt;/ref&gt; The cult of the Earth Mother Goddes is expressed by the whorship of the female ancestor and maternal breasts,&lt;ref&gt;{{harvnb|Poghirc|1987|p=178}}; {{harvnb|Tirta|2004|pp=188–190}}.&lt;/ref&gt; and by rituals and beliefs involving immurement and building (also with animal sacrifices),&lt;ref&gt;{{harvnb|Poghirc|1987|pp=178–179, 340–341}}; {{harvnb|Tirta|2004|p=191}}.&lt;/ref&gt; spring, renewal of nature and soil fertility,&lt;ref&gt;{{harvnb|Tirta|2004|pp=254–255, 260}}; {{harvnb|Qafleshi|2011|p=55}}&lt;/ref&gt; death and afterlife as the final dwelling of humans,{{sfn|Tirta|2004|pp=220–221, 230–231, 335, 375}} pristine sacred places, and building plots.{{sfn|Tirta|2004|pp=333–339}} ''Kroni'' ([[definiteness|indefinite form]]: ''kron''), ''krua'', or ''kroi'', is a hydronym widespread in Albanian inhabited territories. It is an ancient Albanian word, meaning &quot;living water&quot;, &quot;flowing water&quot;, &quot;[[water spring]]&quot;. Some people believe that water is to the living Earth what blood is to the humans.{{sfn|Stipčević|2009|pp=505–506}} In Albanian culture the original female ancestor of the kin group (Alb. [[Albanian tribes|''fis'' or ''farë'']]) is referred to as the &quot;mother of the home&quot; representing the Great Mother, and she is often imagined as a serpent (see [[Vitore]] and [[Nëna e Vatrës]]).{{sfn|Doja|2005|p=458}} The serpent is a sacred animal totem of the Albanians. Regarded as an earth-deity, the serpent is euphemistically called with names that are derived form the Albanian words for earth, ''dhé'' and ''tokë'': ''Dhetokësi'', ''Dheu'', ''Përdhesi'', ''Tokësi'' or ''Itokësi''.{{sfn|Tirta|2004|pp=147–152, 239, 409}} The earth is often paired with the sky in Albanian oath swearings, e.g.: ''për qiell e dhé'', ''pasha tokën e pasha qiellin'', etc.&lt;ref name=&quot;auto9&quot;/&gt; ===Dielli=== {{multiple image |align=right |total_width=400 |image_style=border:none; |image1=Ballokume të Elbasanit 02.jpg |image2=Fli nga Grashtica.jpg|footer=[[Ballokume]], a cookie (left); [[Flia]] (meaning &quot;[[sacrifice]]&quot;), a dish (right). They are figurative representations of the Sun, traditionally prepared and eaten during [[Dita e Verës|Dita e Verës or Verëza]] – an Albanian pagan [[Spring day|spring festival]], celebrated by all Albanians (also officially in [[Albania]]) to drive away the darkness of the winter season allowing Nature's renewal and for the strengthening of the Sun, traditionally by litting [[bonfires]] in yards everywhere, especially on high places.}} [[Dielli (Albanian paganism)|Dielli]], the [[Sun]], holds the primary role in Albanian pagan customs, beliefs, rituals, myths, and legends. Albanian major traditional festivities and calendar rites are based on the Sun, worshiped as the god of [[light]], [[sky]] and [[weather]], giver of life, health and energy, and all-seeing eye.&lt;ref&gt;{{harvnb|Tirta|2004|pp=68, 70, 249–254}}; {{harvnb|Sokoli|2013|p=181}}; {{harvnb|Hysi|2006|pp=349–361}}; {{harvnb|Gjoni|2012|p=86}}.&lt;/ref&gt; In Albanian tradition the [[fire]] – ''[[Zjarri (Albanian paganism)|zjarri]]'', evidently also called with the theonym [[Enji (deity)|Enji]] – worship and rituals are particularly related to the cult of the Sun. Ritual calendar fires or bonfires are traditionally kindled before sunrise in order to give strength to the Sun.&lt;ref&gt;{{harvnb|Qafleshi|2011|p=49}}; {{harvnb|Tirta|2004|pp=68–69, 135, 176–181, 249–261, 274–282, 327}}; {{harvnb|Xhemaj|1983|pp=104–121}}.&lt;/ref&gt; Many rituals are practiced before and during [[sunrise]], honoring this moment of the day as it is believed to give energy and health to the body.{{sfn|Gjoni|2012|pp=86–87}}{{sfn|Useini|2024|p=164}} As the wide set of cultic traditions dedicated to him indicates, the Albanian Sun-god appears to be an expression of the [[Proto-Indo-European mythology|Proto-Indo-European]] Sky-god ([[Zojz (deity)|Zot or Zojz]] in Albanian).{{sfn|Treimer|1971|p=31}} Albanians were firstly described in written sources as worshippers of the Sun and the Moon by German humanist [[Sebastian Franck]] in 1534,&lt;ref name=&quot;Elsie-Franck&quot;/&gt; but the Sun and the Moon have been preserved as sacred elements of Albanian tradition since antiquity. [[Illyrians|Illyrian]] [[material culture]] shows that the Sun was the chief cult object of the [[Illyrian religion]].&lt;ref&gt;{{harvnb|Galaty|Lafe|Lee|Tafilica|2013|p=156}}; {{harvnb|Dobruna-Salihu|2005|pp=345–346}}; {{harvnb|Tirta|2004|pp=68–70}}; {{harvnb|Egro|2003|p=35}}; {{harvnb|Stipčević|1977|p=182}}.&lt;/ref&gt; Finding correspondences with Albanian folk beliefs and practices, the Illyrian Sun-deity is figuratively represented on Iron Age plaques from [[Lake Shkodra]] as the god of the [[sky]] and [[lightning]], also associated with the [[fire]] altar where he throws lightning bolts.{{sfn|Brahaj|2007|pp=16–18}} The symbolization of the cult of the Sun, which is often combined with the [[Lunar phase|crescent]] [[Moon]], is commonly found in a variety of contexts of Albanian folk art, including [[Albanian traditional tattooing|traditional tattooing]], grave art, jewellery, embroidery, and house carvings.&lt;ref name=&quot;auto7&quot;&gt;{{harvnb|Galaty|Lafe|Lee|Tafilica|2013|pp=155–157}}; {{harvnb|Tirta|2004|pp=68–82}}; {{harvnb|Elsie|2001a|pp=181, 244}}; {{harvnb|Poghirc|1987|p=178}}; {{harvnb|Durham|1928a|p=51}}; {{harvnb|Durham|1928b|pp=120–125}}.&lt;/ref&gt; Solemn oaths ([[Besa (Albanian culture)|Besa]]), good omens, and curse formulas, involve and are addressed to, or taken by, the Sun.&lt;ref&gt;{{harvnb|Tirta|2004|pp=71–72}}; {{harvnb|Elsie|2001a|pp=193, 244}}; {{harvnb|Cook|1964|p=197}}.&lt;/ref&gt; Prayers to the Sun, ritual [[bonfires]], and [[animal sacrifices]] have been common practices performed by Albanians during the ritual pilgrimages on mountain tops.&lt;ref&gt;{{harvnb|Tirta|2004|p=75}}; {{harvnb|Gjoni|2012|pp=81–87}}; {{harvnb|Xhemaj|1983|pp=104–121}}.&lt;/ref&gt; In Albanian the god who rules the sky is referred to as ''i Bukuri i Qiellit'' (&quot;the Beauty of the Sky&quot;), a phrase that is used in pagan contexts for the Sun, the [[god of light]] and giver of life, who fades away the darkness of the world and melts the frost, allowing the renewal of [[Nature]].&lt;ref name=&quot;auto14&quot;/&gt; According to folk beliefs, the Sun makes the sky cloudy or clears it up.{{sfn|Tirta|2004|pp=71–72}} Albanian rituals for [[Dodola and Perperuna|rainmaking]] invoke the Sky and the Sun.&lt;ref name=&quot;auto8&quot;/&gt; In Albanian tradition the Sun is referred to as an &quot;eye&quot;, which is a reflection of the [[Proto-Indo-European mythology|Indo-European]] belief according to which the Sun is the eye of the Sky-God [[Dyeus|*Di̯ḗu̯s]]{{sfn|Cook|1964|p=197}} ([[Zojz (deity)|Zojz]] in Albanian tradition&lt;ref name=&quot;auto2&quot;&gt;{{harvnb|Hyllested|Joseph|2022|p=232}}; {{harvnb|Søborg|2020|p=74}}.&lt;/ref&gt;). According to folk beliefs, the Sun is all-seeing, with a single glance he possesses the ability to see the entire surface of the [[Earth]]. The Sun, referred to as &quot;the all-seeing (big) eye&quot; is invoked in solemn oaths ([[Besa (Albanian culture)|be]]), and information about everything that happens on Earth is asked to the all-seeing Sun in ritual songs.{{sfn|Hysi|2006|pp=349–361}}{{sfn|Gjoni|2012|p=86}} In Albanian pagan beliefs and mythology the Sun is animistically personified as a male deity. The Moon ({{lang|sq|[[Hëna (Albanian paganism)|Hëna]]}}) is his female counterpart.&lt;ref name=&quot;auto15&quot;&gt;{{harvnb|Tirta|2004|pp=72, 128}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;auto3&quot;&gt;{{harvnb|Dushi|2020|p=21}}&lt;/ref&gt; In pagan beliefs the fire hearth ({{lang|sq|[[Vatër|vatra]] e zjarrit}}) is the symbol of fire as the offspring of the Sun.{{sfn|Gjoni|2012|p=90}} In some folk tales, myths and legends the Sun and the Moon are regarded as husband and wife, also notably appearing as the parents of [[E Bija e Hënës dhe e Diellit]] (&quot;the Daughter of the Moon and the Sun&quot;); in others the Sun and the Moon are regarded as brother and sister, but in this case they are never considered consorts.&lt;ref name=&quot;auto15&quot;/&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;auto3&quot;/&gt; [[Nëna e Diellit]] (&quot;the Mother of the Sun&quot; or &quot;the Sun's Mother&quot;) also appears as a personified deity in Albanian folk beliefs and tales.&lt;ref name=&quot;auto6&quot;/&gt; ====Nëna e Diellit==== [[Nëna e Diellit]] is the Mother of the Sun ([[Dielli (Albanian paganism)|Dielli]]). A sacred [[ritual]] called &quot;the funeral of the Sun's Mother&quot; was very widespread in southeastern [[Albania]] until the 20th century.&lt;ref name=&quot;auto6&quot;&gt;{{harvnb|Golan|1991|p=55}}; {{harvnb|Daum|1998|p=236}}; {{harvnb|Golan|2003|pp=93–94}}; {{harvnb|Tirta|2004|pp=259–260}}; {{harvnb|Neziri|2015|p=124}}.&lt;/ref&gt; She has been described by scholars as a heaven goddess&lt;ref&gt;{{harvnb|Golan|1991|p=55}}; {{harvnb|Golan|2003|pp=93–94}}&lt;/ref&gt; and a goddess of agriculture, livestock, and earth fertility, as suggested by the sacred ritual dedicated to her.&lt;ref&gt;{{harvnb|Tirta|2004|pp=259–260}}&lt;/ref&gt; Nëna e Diellit also features as a deity in Albanian folk tales.&lt;ref&gt;{{harvnb|Lambertz|1952|p=138}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{harvnb|Elsie|2001a|p=98}}&lt;/ref&gt; Nëna e Diellit represents a manifestation of the [[personification]] of the Sun in Albanian mythology.{{sfn|Bovan|1985|p=241}} ===Hëna=== [[File:Marubi photograph woman from Grudë.jpg|thumb|upright|The sun/star and the crescent moon stitched to the crown of the headgear of a woman of the [[Gruda (tribe)|Gruda tribe]]. This fashion was very common among Catholic women of all the northern [[Albanian tribes]].{{sfn|Durham|1928b|p=121}}]] [[Hëna (Albanian paganism)|Hëna]], the [[Moon]], holds a prominent position in Albanian culture, with Moon's cyclical [[Lunar phase|phases]] regulating many aspects of the life of the Albanians, defining agricultural and livestock activities, various crafts, and human body.&lt;ref name=&quot;auto20&quot;/&gt; Albanians were firstly described in written sources as worshippers of the Sun and the Moon by German humanist [[Sebastian Franck]] in 1534,&lt;ref name=&quot;Elsie-Franck&quot;/&gt; but the Sun and the Moon have been preserved as sacred elements of Albanian tradition since antiquity.&lt;ref&gt;{{harvnb|Galaty|Lafe|Lee|Tafilica|2013|p=156}}; {{harvnb|Dobruna-Salihu|2005|p=345–346}}; {{harvnb|Tirta|2004|pp=68–70}}; {{harvnb|Egro|2003|p=35}}; {{harvnb|Stipčević|1977|p=182}}.&lt;/ref&gt; The symbolization of the [[Lunar phase|crescent]] [[Moon]], often combined with the Sun, is commonly found in a variety of contexts of Albanian folk art, including [[Albanian traditional tattooing|traditional tattooing]], grave art, jewellery, embroidery, and house carvings.&lt;ref name=&quot;auto7&quot;/&gt; In Albanian pagan beliefs and mythology the Moon is a personified female deity, and the Sun ({{lang|sq|[[Dielli (Albanian paganism)|Dielli]]}}) is her male counterpart.&lt;ref name=&quot;auto15&quot;/&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;auto3&quot;/&gt; In some folk tales, myths and legends the Moon and the Sun are regarded as wife and husband, also notably appearing as the parents of [[E Bija e Hënës dhe e Diellit]] (&quot;the Daughter of the Moon and the Sun&quot;); in others the Sun and the Moon are regarded as brother and sister, but in this case they are never considered consorts.&lt;ref name=&quot;auto15&quot;/&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;auto3&quot;/&gt; In [[Old Albanian]] the name ''Hana''/''Hanë'' was attested also as a theonym – the Albanian rendering of [[Roman religion|Roman]] goddess [[Diana (mythology)|Diana]].{{sfn|Neri|2021|ps=: &quot;hënë&quot;}} ===Prende, Afër-dita=== {{multiple image | align=right | total_width=360 | image_style=border:none; | image1=Albanian traditional art 1.png | alt1= | image2=Albanian traditional art 2.png | alt2= | footer=Albanian traditional art with an elaborate design representing the sun, serpent, bird (dove), wheat and flowering plant. Embroidered on the scarlet cloak that is traditionally given on the weddingday by the bridegroom to the bride (Catholic of Shkodra), the pattern suggests a fertility cult.{{sfn|Durham|1928b|pp=126–128}} Drawn by Edith Durham in the early 20th century.}} [[Prende|Prende or Premte]] is the dawn goddess and goddess of [[Love goddess|love]], [[List of beauty deities|beauty]], [[List of fertility deities|fertility]], [[health deity|health]] and protector of women.&lt;ref&gt;{{harvnb|Lambertz|1973|p=509}}; {{harvnb|Dunwich|2000|p=151}}; {{harvnb|Lurker|2005|p=155}}; {{harvnb|Hyllested|Joseph|2022|p=235}}; {{harvnb|Dedvukaj|2023|p=1}}.&lt;/ref&gt; She is also called Afër-dita,&lt;ref name=&quot;auto22&quot;&gt;{{harvnb|Sedaj|1982|p=78}}; {{harvnb|Lambertz|1973|p=509}}&lt;/ref&gt; an [[Albanian language|Albanian]] phrase meaning &quot;near day&quot;, &quot;the day is near&quot;, or &quot;dawn&quot;,&lt;ref&gt;{{harvnb|Dedvukaj|2023|pp=1–2}}; {{harvnb|Plangarica|2001|p=46}}&lt;/ref&gt;{{Refn|''Afërdita''{{sfn|Kostallari|1981|p=377}}{{sfn|Thomaj|2002|p=1488}} or {{lang-aln|Afêrdita}}{{sfn|Lambertz|1973|p=509}} is the native [[Albanian language|Albanian]] name of the planet [[Venus]]; ''Afro-dita'' is its Albanian imperative form meaning &quot;come forth the day/dawn&quot;.{{sfn|Dedvukaj|2023|p=1}}|group=note}} in association with the cult of the planet [[Venus]], the morning and evening star.&lt;ref name=&quot;auto22&quot;/&gt;{{Refn|Albanian: ''(h)ylli i dritës, Afërdita'' &quot;the Star of Light, Afërdita&quot; (i.e. Venus, the morning star){{sfn|Lambertz|1973|p=509}} and ''(h)ylli i mbrëmjes, Afërdita'' (i.e. Venus, the evening star).{{sfn|Frashëri|1980|p=294}}|group=note}} Her sacred day is [[Friday]], named in Albanian after her: ''e premte'', ''premtja'' ({{lang-aln|e prende, prendja}}{{sfn|Camaj|Fox|1984|p=328}}).&lt;ref name=&quot;auto1&quot;&gt;{{harvnb|Dunwich|2000|p=151}}; {{harvnb|Lurker|2005|p=155}}&lt;/ref&gt; She is referred to as ''Zoja Prenne'' or ''Zoja e Bukuris'' (&quot;Goddess/Lady Prenne&quot; or &quot;Goddess/Lady of Beauty&quot;).{{sfn|Demiraj|Starostin|Lubotsky|de Vaan}}{{sfn|Elsie|2001a|p=258}}{{sfn|Sedaj|1982|pp=78, 457}} In Albanian mythology Prende appears as the daughter of [[Zojz (deity)|Zojz]], the Albanian sky and lightning god.{{sfn|Lambertz|1922|pp=47, 143–144, 146–148}} Thought to have been worshiped by the [[Illyrians]] in antiquity,&lt;ref name=&quot;auto1&quot;/&gt; Prende is identified with the cult of [[Venus (mythology)|Venus]] and she was worshipped in northern [[Albania]], especially by the Albanian women, until recent times. She features attributes of [[Aphrodite]], [[Iris (mythology)|Iris]], and [[Helen of Troy|Helen]], as well as [[Persephone]] as shown by the etymology of her name.{{sfn|Hyllested|2024|p=60}} Describing a goddess of the underworld and at the same time a personification of springtime, the Albanian ''[[e Bukura e Dheut]]'' (&quot;the Beauty of the Earth&quot;) is evidently an epithet of the Albanian equivalent of Persephone.{{sfn|Elsie|2001a|pp=79–81}} In Christian times she was called ''ShënePremte''{{sfn|Elsie|2001a|p=258}} or ''Shën Prende''{{sfn|Galaty|Lafe|Lee|Tafilica|2013|p=43}} (&quot;Saint Veneranda&quot;), identified by the [[Catholic Church in Albania|Catholic Church]] as [[Saint Anne]], mother of [[Virgin Mary]]. She was so popular in Albania that over one in eight of the Catholic churches existing in the late 16th and the early 17th centuries were named after her. Many other historical Catholic and Orthodox churches were dedicated to her in the 18th and 19th centuries.{{sfn|Elsie|2001a|p=258}} ===Enji, Zjarri=== [[Enji (deity)|Enji]] ({{IPA-sq|ɛɲi|lang}}) is the old name of the [[fire]] god, evidently contained in the week day name that was dedicated to him – {{lang|sq|e enjte}} – the [[Albanian language|Albanian]] word for [[Thursday]].&lt;ref&gt;{{harvnb|Tagliavini|1963|p=103}}; {{harvnb|Treimer|1971|p=32}}; {{harvnb|Orel|1998|p=88}}; {{harvnb|Lurker|2005|p=57}}; {{harvnb|Koch|2015|p=113}}; {{harvnb|Sarao|2021|p=13}}&lt;/ref&gt; The Fire – [[Zjarri (Albanian paganism)|Zjarri]] – is [[Deity|deified]] in Albanian tradition as releaser of [[light]] and [[heat]] with the power to [[Apotropaic magic|ward off]] [[darkness]] and [[evil]], affect [[List of natural phenomena|cosmic phenomena]] and give strength to the Sun, and as sustainer of the continuity between [[life]] and [[afterlife]] and between the [[generation]]s. The divine power of Fire is used for the [[hearth]] and the [[rituals]], including calendar fires, [[sacrifices|sacrificial offerings]], [[divination]], [[Ritual purification|purification]], and protection from big storms and other potentially harmful events.&lt;ref name=&quot;auto12&quot;/&gt; Fire worship and rituals are associated with the cult of the Sun ([[Dielli (Albanian paganism)|Dielli]]), the cult of the hearth ([[vatër]]) and the [[Ancestor worship|ancestor]], and the cult of fertility in [[agriculture]] and [[animal husbandry]].&lt;ref name=&quot;auto5&quot;/&gt; Fire rituals that are commonly found among [[Indo-European]] peoples, including the [[Albanians]], have been firstly attested by the [[Vedas]], with hymns dedicated to the fire god [[Agni]].{{sfn|Tirta|2004|pp=250–251}} Described in written sources since 1482,{{sfn|Malcolm|2020|pp=19–20}} the Albanian practices associated with ritual fires have been historically fought by the Christian clergy, without success.{{sfn|Qafleshi|2011|p=49}} The cult of the mystic fire and the fire ritual practices have played a prominent role in the lives of all the Albanian people until the 20th century, and in rural areas they continue to be important for Albanian traditional customs even in the present days.{{sfn|Tirta|2004|pp=68-69, 135, 176-181, 249-261, 274-282, 327}}{{sfn|Qafleshi|2011|p=49}}{{sfn|Useini|2024|p=164}}{{sfn|Xhemaj|1983|pp=104–121}} The theonym from which Thursday was named in Albanian is considered to have been attested in antiquity in [[Illyrians|Illyrian]] [[theophoric name]]s with the [[Latin alphabet|Latin]] spelling ''En(n)-''.{{sfn|Lambertz|1973|p=476}} He was presumably worshiped by the Illyrians in antiquity&lt;ref&gt;{{harvnb|Treimer|1971|p=32}}; {{harvnb|Lambertz|1973|p=476}}; {{harvnb|Poghirc|1987|p=178}}; {{harvnb|Lurker|2005|p=57}}; {{harvnb|Sarao|2021|p=13}}.&lt;/ref&gt; and he may have been the most prominent god of the Albanian pantheon in Roman times by [[Interpretatio romana|interpreting]] [[Jupiter (mythology)|Jupiter]], when week-day names were formed in the Albanian language.&lt;ref&gt;{{harvnb|Treimer|1971|p=32}}; {{harvnb|Lambertz|1973|p=476}}; {{harvnb|Poghirc|1987|p=178}}; {{harvnb|Orel|1998|p=88}}; {{harvnb|Koch|2015|p=113}}.&lt;/ref&gt; The belief in a prominent fire and wind god, who was referred to as [[I Verbti]] (&quot;the blind one&quot;), and who was often regarded more powerful than the Christian [[God]], survived in northern [[Albania]] until recent times.&lt;ref&gt;{{harvnb|Lambertz|1922|pp=47, 49, 145–146}}; {{harvnb|Stadtmüller|1954|pp=216–217}}; {{harvnb|Lambertz|1973|pp=505–506}}.&lt;/ref&gt; Under Christianization the god of fire was [[demonized]] and considered a [[false god]], and it was spread about that anyone who invoked him would be blinded by fire.&lt;ref&gt;{{harvnb|Lurker|2004|p=197}}; {{harvnb|Stadtmüller|1954|pp=216–217}}; {{harvnb|Lambertz|1922|pp=47, 49, 145–146}}.&lt;/ref&gt; The [[Ritual purification|purifying power]] of fire underlies the Albanian folk belief according to which the fire god is the enemy of uncleanliness and the opponent of filth.{{sfn|Lambertz|1922|pp=47, 49, 145–146}} [[File:Fireplace of a house of Mirdita.png|thumb|250px|Hearth fire lighting a dark room in a house of [[Mirdita]], northern Albania. Drawn by Edith Durham in 1909.]] In Albanian tradition Fire is deeply respected. To spit into it is [[taboo]].{{sfn|Pipa|1993|p=253}} [[Besa (Albanian culture)|Albanian solemn oaths]] are taken &quot;by fire&quot;,{{sfn|Hysi|2006|pp=349–361}} and the worst curse formulas are cast for the extinguishing of the individual's, family's and clan's fire.{{sfn|Muka|1984|p=29}} The lineage is identified with an original fire, and the members of a same tribe/clan are &quot;from the same fire&quot;. ''Zjarri i Vatrës'' (&quot;the Fire of the Hearth&quot;) is regarded as the offspring of the Sun and the sustainer of the continuity between the world of the living and that of the dead and between the generations, ensuring the survival of the lineage ([[Albanian tribes|''fis'' or ''farë'']]).&lt;ref name=&quot;auto21&quot;&gt;{{harvnb|Poghirc|1987|p=179}}; {{harvnb|Tirta|2004|pp=176, 410}}; {{harvnb|Xhemaj|1983|pp=104–121}}; {{harvnb|De Rapper|2012|pp=14–15}}; {{harvnb|Gjoni|2012|p=90}}; {{harvnb|Galaty|Lafe|Lee|Tafilica|2013|p=161}}.&lt;/ref&gt; The absence of fire in a house is traditionally considered a great curse.{{sfn|Muka|1984|p=29}} Protectors of the hearth are [[Vitore|Gjarpri i Vatrës]] (&quot;the Serpent of the Hearth&quot;), a household benign serpent,&lt;ref&gt;{{harvnb|Tirta|2004|pp=152–156}}; {{harvnb|Elsie|2001a|p=260}}; {{harvnb|Doja|2005|pp=449–462}}; {{harvnb|Poghirc|1987|p=179}}; {{harvnb|Doli|2009|pp=127–128}}; {{harvnb|Stipčević|2009|p=507}}.&lt;/ref&gt; and [[Nëna e Vatrës]] (&quot;the Mother of the Hearth&quot;).{{sfn|Tirta|2004|pp=176–181}}{{sfn|Poghirc|1987|p=179}} ''Zjarret e Vitit'' (&quot;Ritual Calendar Fires&quot;) are associated with the cosmic cycle and the rhythms of agricultural and pastoral life.&lt;ref name=&quot;auto18&quot;/&gt; The ritual collective fires (based on the house, kinship, or neighborhood) or bonfires in yards (especially on high places) lit before [[sunrise]] to celebrate the main traditional Albanian festivities such as [[Dita e Verës]] ([[March equinox|spring equinox]]), ''[[#Shëngjergji|Shëngjergji]]'', ''[[#Summer solstice|Shën Gjini–Shën Gjoni]]'' ([[summer solstice]]), the [[#Winter solstice|winter festivals]] ([[winter solstice]]), or mountain pilgrimages, often accompanied by [[animal sacrifices]], are related to the cult of the Sun, and in particular they are practiced with the function to give strength to the Sun and to [[apotropaic|ward off evil]] according to the old beliefs.{{sfn|Tirta|2004|pp=75, 113, 116, 250}}{{sfn|Xhemaj|1983|pp=104–121}}{{sfn|Useini|2024|p=164}} ''Zjarri i Gjallë'', ''Zjarri i Egër'', or ''Zjarri i Keq'' – traditionally kindled with rudimentary [[fire making]] tools and techniques – is the ritual purifying Fire used for the cleansing, protection, healing, and energizing of livestock and humans.{{sfn|Tirta|2004|pp=279–281, 327}}{{sfn|Xhemaj|1983|pp=104–121}} Albanian folk beliefs regard the [[lightning]] as ''Zjarri i Qiellit'' (&quot;the Fire of the Sky&quot;) and consider it as the &quot;weapon of the deity&quot;.{{sfn|Tirta|2004|pp=82, 406}} During big storms with torrential rains, lightning and hail, which often cause great damage to agriculture, livestock, and to the rural economy in general, Albanians traditionally bring outdoors Fire as a continuous chain or in a container, as well as ember and fire-related metallic objects, seeking assistance from the supernatural power of the Fire, in order to turn the storm away and to avert the harms it can cause to the community.&lt;ref name=&quot;auto19&quot;/&gt; ==Sacred animals== {{multiple image | align=right | total_width=300 | image_style=border:none | image1=Original swords o Ali Pasha Tepelena.jpg | alt1= Swords o Ali Pasha | image2=Stamp of Albania - 2014 - Colnect 688610 - Shepherd s crook Labëria.jpeg | footer=A serpent (''gjarpër'') carved on the sheath of an original sword of the Albanian ruler [[Ali Pasha Tepelena]] (left).&lt;br&gt;A serpent-shaped shepherd's crook from [[Labëria]], depicted on a 2014 [[Postage stamps and postal history of Albania|postage stamp of Albania]] (right). | alt2= Shepherd's crook }} *Shqiponja, the [[eagle]]: the animal [[totem]] of the [[Albanian people]], associated with the Sky, freedom and heroism{{sfn|Brahaj|2007|pp=16–18}}{{sfn|Tirta|2004|pp=62–68|p=}}{{sfn|Hysi|2006|pp=349–361}} *Bleta, the [[bee]]: associated with human life. When an animal ceases to live, Albanians use the verb ''[[:wikt:ngordh|ngordh]]'' or ''cof''; when a bee ceases to live, they use the verb ''[[:wikt:vdes|vdes]]'' (which is used to refer to human death). Meaning that for Albanians bees are beings of a higher caste, like humans.{{sfn|Tirta|2004|pp=62–68|p=}} *Gjarpri, the [[Snake|serpent]]: an animal totem of Albanians, associated with [[chthonic|earth]], [[water worship|water]], [[Sun worship|sun]], [[hearth]] and [[ancestor worship|ancestor]] cults, as well as [[destiny]], [[good fortune]] and [[fertility]]{{sfn|Sinani|2010|pp=105–106, 111}}{{sfn|Stipčević|2009|p=507}}{{sfn|Doli|2009|pp=127–128}}{{sfn|Tirta|2004|pp=62–68|p=}}{{sfn|Hysi|2006|pp=349–361}} **Dhe-tokësi, dheu or tokësi: chthonic serpent{{sfn|Tirta|2004|pp=147–152, 239, 409}} **Bolla: [[Grass snake|water serpent]]{{sfn|Tirta|2004|pp=152–156}} *Dreri, the [[deer]]: associated with [[Sun worship|sun cult]]{{sfn|Tirta|2004|pp=62–68|p=}} *Dhia e egër, the [[wild goat]]: associated with [[Vegetation deity|forests cult]]{{sfn|Tirta|2004|pp=62–68|p=}}{{sfn|Hysi|2006|pp=349–361}} *Kali, the [[horse]]: the most distinguished [[Proto-Indo-European mythology|Indo-European]] cultic animal{{sfn|Hysi|2006|pp=349–361}} *Kau, the [[ox]]: associated with earth and agriculture{{sfn|Poghirc|1987|p=178}}{{sfn|Tirta|2004|pp=167–268}}{{sfn|Hysi|2006|pp=349–361}} *Bukla, the [[stoat]]{{sfn|Tirta|2004|pp=62–68|p=}} *Ujku, the [[wolf]]{{sfn|Tirta|2004|pp=62–68|p=}}{{sfn|Hysi|2006|pp=349–361}} ==Mythical beings== {{div col|colwidth=22em}} *Nymph-like beings **Nuse Mali: mountain nymphs{{sfn|Tirta|2004|pp=115, 132}}{{sfn|Elsie|2001b|pp=22, 48, 130}} ***[[Zana e malit]], [[Ora (mythology)|Ora]], [[Bardha]], [[Shtojzovalle]], Jashtësme, Të Lumet Natë, Mira, [[E Bukura e Dheut]] (the earthly beauty) **Nuse uji: water nymphs{{sfn|Tirta|2004|pp=115, 132}}{{Sfn|Elsie|2001a|pp=101, 191}} ***Zana e ujit, Nusja Shapulicë, Cuca e Liqenit, Ksheta, [[Perria]]; [[E Bukura e Detit]] (the beauty of the sea) *Serpentine dragons **[[Kulshedra|Bolla→Bollar→Errshaja→Kulshedra]]{{sfn|Doja|2005|pp=449–462}}{{Sfn|Elsie|2001a|pp=46–47, 74–76, 153–156}} **[[Ljubi]]{{Sfn|Elsie|2001a|p=161}} **[[Stihi]]{{Sfn|Elsie|2001a|pp=241–242}} **Sprija{{Sfn|Elsie|2001a|p=240}} **[[Lamia|Llamja]] (half snake-half woman monster that seduces men and eats children){{Sfn|Elsie|2001a|pp=160–161}} *Speaking animals with human emotions and [[Oracle|oracular]] abilities{{sfn|Leka|2018|pp=119–120}} **Birds **Serpents **Horses *Abe (phantom wearing a cloak){{Sfn|Elsie|2001a|p=4}} *Angu (shapeless ghost who appears in dreams){{sfn|Tirta|2004|pp=132–137}} *Avullushe (spirits that suffocate people with their breath){{Sfn|Elsie|2001a|pp=18–19}}{{sfn|Poghirc|1987|p=179}} *[[Bardha]] (pale, nebulous spirits who dwell under the earth) {{Sfn|Elsie|2001a|p=20}} *Bariu i mirë (the good shepherd){{sfn|Tirta|2004|p=407}} *[[Baloz]] (dark knight, huge monster){{Sfn|Elsie|2001a|pp=20–21}}{{sfn|Poghirc|1987|p=179}} *[[Bushi i kënetës]]: bull of ponds and swamps which can cause rain by bellowing{{Sfn|Elsie|2001a|pp=48–49}}{{sfn|Tirta|2004|pp=67–68}} *Bushtra (bad omen-wishing female witch){{Sfn|Elsie|2001a|p=49}} *Çakalloz (mighty being, slightly deranged hero){{Sfn|Elsie|2001a|p=50}} *[[Dhampir]] (half-vampire, half-human){{sfn|Tirta|2004|pp=132–137}}{{Sfn|Elsie|2001a|pp=68–69}} *Dhevështruesi (half human and half animal){{sfn|Tirta|2004|pp=132–137}}{{Sfn|Elsie|2001a|p=69}} *Dhamsutë (deaf and dumb mare){{sfn|Tirta|2004|pp=132–137}}{{Sfn|Elsie|2001a|p=69}} *[[Djall]] (god of death and evil) *Divi ([[ogre]]){{Sfn|Elsie|2001a|p=71}} *[[Drangue]] (winged warrior that kills dragons) *Dreq ([[Devil|devils]]) *Fierkuqja (Venomous lizard that hides in red ferns) *Flama (restless evil ghost){{Sfn|Elsie|2001a|p=90}} *Floçka (water nymph) *Gjysmagjeli{{Sfn|Elsie|2001a|p=107}} *Gogol ([[bogeyman]]){{Sfn|Elsie|2001a|p=103}} *Golden horned goats (wild goats protectors of the forests) {{Sfn|Lurker|2004|p=207}}{{sfn|Elsie|2001b|pp=165–169}} *Grabofç (monstrous two headed snake){{Sfn|Elsie|2001a|p=104}} *Hajnjeri (man eating giant){{Sfn|Elsie|2001a|p=107}} *Hija (shadow ghost) {{Sfn|Elsie|2001a|p=113}} *Jashtësme (elf-like nymphs that live in forests){{Sfn|Elsie|2001a|pp=130}} *Judi (giant ghost){{sfn|Tirta|2004|pp=132–137}}{{Sfn|Elsie|2001a|p=140}} *Kacamisri (similar to [[Tom Thumb]]) *[[Karkanxholl]] ([[goblins]]){{Sfn|Elsie|2001a|p=150}} *Katallan ([[Giant (mythology)|giant]]),{{Sfn|Elsie|2001a|pp=150–151}} having its origins in the [[Catalan Company]]'s brutality in the [[Catalan Campaign in Asia Minor]]. *Katravesh (the four-eared one, man-eating monster){{Sfn|Elsie|2001a|p=151}} *Keshete ([[naiad]]) *Kolivilor (demon similar to an incubus){{Sfn|Elsie|2001a|p=152}} *Kore (child eating demon){{Sfn|Elsie|2001a|p=152}} *[[Kukudh]] (blind female demon that spreads diseases) {{Sfn|Elsie|2001a|p=153}} *Lahin (dwarf-like goblin)){{Sfn|Elsie|2001a|p=158}} *Laura (shapeshifting swamp hag){{sfn|Tirta|2004|pp=132–137}}{{Sfn|Elsie|2001a|p=158}} *[[Lugat]] ([[revenant]]){{sfn|Tirta|2004|pp=132–137}}{{Sfn|Elsie|2001a|pp=162–163}} *Magjí (evil woman, old hag)){{Sfn|Elsie|2001a|p=164}} *Makth (nightmare ghost that suffocates people during sleep){{Sfn|Elsie|2001a|p=164}} *[[Mauthia]]: earth and mountains{{Sfn|Elsie|2001a|p=176}}{{sfn|Poghirc|1987|p=179}} *Mira (Spirits of fate) *Pëlhurëza ([[veil]] ghost){{sfn|Tirta|2004|pp=132–137}} *[[Perria]] (beautiful female jinn who bedazzles humans){{Sfn|Elsie|2001a|p=185}} *Qeros (Scurfhead){{sfn|Elsie|2001b|pp=155, 230}} *Qose (Barefaced Man){{sfn|Elsie|2001b|pp=22–23}} *Rrqepta (similar to a beast){{sfn|Tirta|2004|pp=132–137}} *Rusale ([[mermaid]]){{sfn|Novik|2015|p=266}} *[[Shtojzovalle]] (forest spirits) *[[Shtriga]] (vampiric witch){{Sfn|Elsie|2001a|p=236}}{{sfn|Tirta|2004|pp=111, 193–194}} *Syqeni (the Doggy Eyed, a [[Magician (fantasy)|wizard]]){{sfn|Tirta|2004|pp=132–137}} *Thopçi or Herri ([[gnome]]){{sfn|Tirta|2004|pp=132–137}}{{Sfn|Elsie|2001a|p=113}} *Three headed dog ([[Hellhound]]){{Sfn|Elsie|2001a|p=79}} *[[Vampire]]{{sfn|Tirta|2004|pp=132–137}}{{sfn|Novik|2015|p=266}} *Vdekja (grim reaper) *[[Vitore]] (snake spirit that lays gold coins and protects the home from evil) *Vurvolaka (werewolves){{sfn|Poghirc|1987|p=179}} *[[Xhindi]] ([[jinn]]){{Sfn|Elsie|2001a|p=134}}{{sfn|Poghirc|1987|p=179}} {{div col end}} ==Hero cult== ===Heroic characters=== The [[Albanian language|Albanian]] terms for &quot;hero&quot; are ''trim'' (female: ''trimneshë''), ''kreshnik'' or ''hero'' (female: ''heroinë''). Some of the main heroes of the Albanian epic songs, legends and myths are: ====E Bija e Hënës dhe e Diellit==== [[E Bija e Hënës dhe e Diellit]] &quot;the Daughter of the Moon and the Sun&quot; is described as {{lang|sq|pika e qiellit}}, &quot;the drop of the sky or lightning&quot;, which falls everywhere from heaven on the mountains and the valleys and strikes pride and evil. She fights and defeats the [[kulshedra]]. ====Drangue==== [[Drangue]] is a semi-human winged warrior who fights the [[kulshedra]]; his most powerful weapons are [[lightning]]-swords and [[thunderbolts]], but he also uses meteoric stones, piles of trees and rocks; In Albanian paganism, there is a unique tradition about children born with the essence of dragons. These children are believed to be born with dragon wings, symbolizing their deep connection to ancient, powerful forces. As infants, they have the ability to fly, but their wings must remain unseen, as it is believed that if anyone witnesses them, it would bring death to the onlooker. To protect both the child and others, their wings are cut while they are still young, ensuring their secret remains hidden. Although the wings are removed, the strength and spirit of the dragon live on within them.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://www.anabelmagazine.com/news/55121/shpjegimi-per-historite-e-gjysheve-per-femijet-me-flatra-dragoi|title=Shpjegimi mbi historitë e gjysheve për 'fëmijët me flatra dragoi'|date=January 27, 2021|website=www.anabelmagazine.com}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book |last1=Doja |first1=Albert |title=Mythology and Destiny |page=451 454 |url=https://discovery.ucl.ac.uk/id/eprint/18364/1/18364.pdf}}&lt;/ref&gt; ====Zjermi and Handa==== [[The Twins (Albanian tale)|Zjermi and Handa]] are the protagonists of the heroic folktale &quot;[[The Twins (Albanian tale)|The Twins]]&quot;. Zjerma (lit. &quot;fire&quot;) was born with the [[sun]] in the forehead, while Handa (lit. &quot;moon&quot;) was born with the [[moon]] in the forehead. They have two horses and two dogs as companions, and two silver swords as weapons. Zjermi slays the [[kulshedra]] and defeats the [[shtriga]], rescuing his brother Handa. In a variant of the tale Zjermi also rescues a [[drangue]] called Zef and then they become blood brothers and fight in alliance with other drangue the kulshedra. ====Muji and Halili==== Muji and Halili are the protagonists of [[Albanian epic poetry|epic cycle]] of the ''[[Kângë Kreshnikësh]]'' ====Others==== *[[Gjergj Elez Alia]] *[[Little Constantine]] ===Heroic motifs=== The Albanian heroic songs are substantially permeated by the concepts contained in the [[Kanun (Albania)|Kanun]], a code of Albanian oral customary laws: [[honor]], considered as the highest ideal in Albanian society; [[shame]] and dishonor, regarded as worse than death; [[Besa (Albanian culture)|besa]] and [[loyalty]], [[gjakmarrja]].{{sfn|Skendi|1954|pp=83, 86–91}}{{sfn|Watkins|1995|pp=83, 164, 443}} Another characteristic of Albanian heroic songs are [[weapons]]. Their importance and the love which the heroes have for them are carefully represented in the songs, while they are rarely described physically. A common feature appearing in these songs is the desire for fame and glory, which is related to the courage of a person.{{sfn|Skendi|1954|pp=91–92}} ==Concepts== {{Col-begin}} {{Col-break|width=34%}} *[[Kanun (Albania)|Kanun]], the Albanian traditional customary law{{sfn|Skendi|1954|p=}}{{sfn|Watkins|1995|p=67}} *[[Good and Evil]], [[Light]] and [[Darkness]]{{sfn|Elsie|1994|p=i}} *[[Fate]]: [[Fatia|Fatí]] (among [[Tosks]]), [[Ora (mythology)|Ora]] (among [[Ghegs]]){{sfn|Doja|2005|pp=449–462}}{{sfn|Poghirc|1987|p=179}} *[[Zjarri (Albanian paganism)|Zjarri]], the Fire&lt;ref&gt;{{harvnb|Pipa|1993|p=253}}; {{harvnb|Poghirc|1987|pp=178–179}} {{harvnb|Tirta|2004|pp=68–69, 135, 176–181, 249–261, 274–282, 327}}; {{harvnb|Xhemaj|1983|pp=104–121}}; {{harvnb|Tagliavini|1963|p=103}}; {{harvnb|Treimer|1971|p=32}}; {{harvnb|Orel|1998|p=88}}; {{harvnb|Lurker|2004|p=57}}.&lt;/ref&gt; **Zjarri i Vatrës, &quot;the Fire of the Hearth&quot;&lt;ref name=&quot;auto21&quot;/&gt; **Zjarri i Gjallë, Zjarri i Egër, Zjarri i Keq, &quot;Ritual Purifying Fire&quot;{{sfn|Tirta|2004|pp=68–69, 135, 176–181, 249–261, 274–282, 327}}{{sfn|Xhemaj|1983|pp=104–121}} **Zjarret e Vitit, &quot;Ritual calendar Fires&quot;{{sfn|Tirta|2004|pp=68–69, 135, 176–181, 249–261, 274–282, 327}}{{sfn|Xhemaj|1983|pp=104–121}}{{sfn|Poghirc|1987|p=179}} **Zjarri i Qiellit, &quot;the Fire of the Sky&quot; (&quot;Lightning&quot;){{sfn|Tirta|2004|pp=82, 309}} *[[Besa (Albanian culture)|Besa/Beja]] ([[Oath|oath swearing]]){{sfn|Tirta|2004|pp=42–102, 238–239, 318}}{{sfn|Elsie|2001b|pp=35–36}}{{sfn|Watkins|1995|pp=83, 164, 443}}{{sfn|Hysi|2006|pp=349–361}}{{sfn|Sokoli|2013|p=181}} **me diell (by sun), me dhè (by earth), me zjarr (by fire), me fushë (by field), me gur/gur-rrufeje (by stone/thunder-stone), me hënë (by moon), me mal (by mountain), me qiell (by sky), me ujë (by water), me toks (by snake) *[[Hospitality#Albanians|Mikpritja (hospitality)]]{{sfn|Tarifa|2008|pp=8–10}} *[[Gjakmarrja]] (blood feud){{sfn|Calic|2019|p=64}} *[[Numbers]]{{Sfn|Elsie|2001a|p=191}}{{sfn|Tirta|2004|pp=358–391}} *Nxiri: all-seing eyes that look at humans from the ground following their movements everywhere, considered to be the sight of the living Earth{{sfn|Stipčević|2009|p=506}} {{Col-break|width=34%}} *[[Soul|Fryma, Hija, Shpirti]] (the [[Soul]]){{sfn|Tirta|2004|pp=135, 199–200, 227–243}}{{sfn|Doja|2000}}{{sfn|Poghirc|1987|p=179}}{{sfn|Kondi|2017|p=279}} *[[Reincarnation|Rebirth]]{{sfn|Tirta|2004|pp=199–200, 205}}{{sfn|Doja|2000}} *[[Animism]]{{sfn|Tirta|2004|pp=169, 205, 227}} *[[Totemism]]{{sfn|Tirta|2004|pp=19, 20, 66–68, 145–170}} *[[Ancestor worship]]{{sfn|Tirta|2004|pp=135, 199–200, 227–243}}{{sfn|Doja|2000}}{{sfn|Poghirc|1987|p=179}} *[[Evil eye#Albania|Syri i Keq]] (the [[evil eye]]){{sfn|Tirta|2004|pp=13, 26, 66, 82, 156–157, 279–281, 290–291, 309, 316, 324–327}}{{sfn|Stipčević|2009|p=508}}{{sfn|Poghirc|1987|p=179}} *Yshtje ([[incantation]]){{sfn|Poghirc|1987|p=179–180}} *Ditët e Plakës (Old Woman's Days, a belief about the last cold days of winter){{Sfn|Elsie|2001a|p=193}}{{sfn|Pipa|1978|p=55}} *Shetuar or shituar: person that has been paralyzed/[[Petrifaction in mythology and fiction|petrified]] by a [[Zana (mythology)|zana]]{{sfn|Galaty|Lafe|Lee|Tafilica|2013|p=162}}{{sfn|Qafleshi|2011|p=69}} {{col-end}} ==Rituals and practices== {{Col-begin}} {{Col-break|width=34%}} *[[Childbirth|Childbirth rituals]]{{sfn|Doja|2005|pp=449–462}}{{sfn|Doja|2000}}{{sfn|Elsie|2001a|pp=36–40}} *[[Wedding|Wedding rituals]]{{sfn|Doja|2000}}{{sfn|Elsie|2001a|pp=166–171}} *[[Vajtim|Vajtim, Gjâmë]]{{sfn|Tirta|2004|pp=216–227}}{{sfn|Kondi|2017|pp=277–288}} *[[Muranë|Murana]] (burial mounds of stones, [[Tumulus|tumuli]] for the cult of the [[Ancestor worship|ancestor]] / [[hero]]){{sfn|Sokoli|2013|p=181}}{{sfn|Tirta|2004|p=87}} *[[Sacrifices]]{{sfn|Lajçi|2019|p=29}}{{sfn|Qafleshi|2011|p=55}}{{sfn|Tirta|2004|pp=260, 340–357}} **[[Animal sacrifices]]{{sfn|Lajçi|2019|p=29}}{{sfn|Qafleshi|2011|p=55}}{{sfn|Tirta|2004|pp=260, 340–357}}{{sfn|Xhemaj|1983|pp=104–121}} *Calendar rituals{{sfn|Tirta|2004|pp=249–264}}{{sfn|Xhemaj|1983|pp=104–121}}{{sfn|Qafleshi|2011|pp=55–67}}{{sfn|Halimi|Halimi-Statovci|Xhemaj|2011}}{{sfn|Useini|2024|p=164}} **Winter rituals ***Winter solstice rituals **Spring rituals ***Spring equinox rituals ***Shëngjergji rituals **Summer rituals ***Summer solstice rituals ****Shëngjini–Shëngjoni ***[[Prende]] ***[[Tomorr]] and other mountains **Autumn rituals *Mountain pilgrimage rituals{{sfn|Tirta|2004|pp=75, 113, 116, 249–264}}{{sfn|Krasniqi|2014|pp=4–5}}{{sfn|Gjoni|2012|pp=62, 85–86}}{{sfn|Xhemaj|1983|pp=104–121}} *[[Albanian traditional tattooing]]{{sfn|Lelaj|2015|pp=91–118}}{{sfn|Tirta|2004|pp=68–70}} *[[Apotropaic]] rituals{{sfn|Malcolm|2020|p=57}}{{sfn|Xhemaj|1983|pp=104–121}} *[[Traditional medicine|Healing]] rituals{{sfn|Tirta|2004|pp=26, 279–281, 324–327}}{{sfn|Malcolm|2020|p=57}}{{sfn|Xhemaj|1983|pp=104–121}} *[[Evil eye]] rituals{{sfn|Tirta|2004|pp=13, 26, 66, 82, 156–157, 279–281, 290–291, 309, 316, 324–327}}{{sfn|Xhemaj|1983|pp=104–121}} *[[Divination|Divinatory]] rituals{{sfn|Xhemaj|1983|pp=104–121}}{{sfn|Malcolm|2020|p=57}} {{Col-break|width=34%}} [[File:Ceremonia e Marrjes se Nuses - Valbonë.JPG|thumb|upright|Bride-taking ceremony from [[Valbonë]], northern Albania. In old Albanian tradition the groom went with his party made up of men of his family on horseback to the bride's home to ask for her hand and thereafter take her to his home, where the [[wedding reception]] was held.]] *Fire rituals: [[Enji (deity)|Zjarri]]{{sfn|Tirta|2004|pp=68–69, 135, 176–181, 249–261, 274–282, 327}}{{sfn|Xhemaj|1983|pp=104–121}}{{sfn|Useini|2024|p=164}}{{sfn|Pipa|1993|p=253}} **Calendar fires: {{lang|sq|Zjarret e Vitit}}, associated with the cosmic cycle and the rhythms of agricultural and pastoral life{{sfn|Poghirc|1987|p=179}}{{sfn|Tirta|2004|pp=68–69, 135, 176–181, 249–261, 274–282, 327}}{{sfn|Xhemaj|1983|pp=104–121}}{{sfn|Useini|2024|p=164}} **Purifying fire: {{lang|sq|Zjarri i Gjallë, Zjarri i Egër, Zjarri i Keq}}, used for the purification and healing of livestock and humans{{sfn|Tirta|2004|pp=68–69, 135, 176–181, 249–261, 274–282, 327}}{{sfn|Xhemaj|1983|pp=104–121}}{{sfn|Useini|2024|p=164}} **Hearth fire: {{lang|sq|Zjarri i Vatrës}}, associated with the cult of the hearth ([[vatër]]){{sfn|Poghirc|1987|p=179}}{{sfn|Tirta|2004|pp=68–69, 135, 176–181, 249–261, 274–282, 327}}{{sfn|Xhemaj|1983|pp=104–121}} **Protector fire [[Enji (deity)#Lightning and storms|against big storms]] and other potentially harmful events: by bringing outdoors fire as a continuous chain or in a container, as well as ember and fire-related metallic objects *Weather rituals{{sfn|Tirta|2004|pp=307–313}}{{sfn|Xhemaj|1983|pp=104–121}} **Rituals to turn away hailstorms (''ndalja/larghimi i stuhisë së breshrit'') ***[[Enji (deity)#Lightning and storms|through the protection of fire]] **[[Dodola and Perperuna|Rainmaking rituals]] ({{lang|sq|thirrja e shiut}})&lt;ref&gt;{{harvnb|Tirta|2004|pp=310–312}}; {{harvnb|Qafleshi|2011|pp=43, 51–52|}}; {{harvnb|Ministria|2014|p=66}}; {{harvnb|Halimi|Halimi-Statovci|Xhemaj|2011|pp=2–6, 32–43}}; {{harvnb|Elsie|2001a|p=215}}.&lt;/ref&gt; ***Through ritual processions, dances and songs *Sky cult rituals: [[Qielli (Albanian paganism)|Qielli]] *Earth cult rituals: [[Dheu]] *Sun cult rituals: [[Dielli (Albanian paganism)|Dielli]] *Moon cult rituals: [[Hëna (Albanian paganism)|Hëna]] {{col-end}} ==Traditional festivals== ===Spring equinox=== [[File:Karnevalet ilire.jpg|thumb|upright|Albanian woman with traditional decorations, during the Illyrian carnivals, celebrating the [[Dita e Verës|Albanian spring festival]] in the [[Sharr Mountains]].]] [[Dita e Verës|Dita e Verës (Verëza)]]: &quot;The Summer Day&quot;, the Albanian [[Spring Day|spring festival]] celebrated (also as an official holiday in [[Albania]]) on March 1 of the [[Julian calendar]] ([[March 14]] of the [[Gregorian calendar]]). In the old Albanian calendar it corresponds to the first day of the new year ({{lang-sq|Kryeviti, Kryet e Motmotit, Motmoti i Ri, Nata e Mojit}}) and marks the end of the winter season (the second half of the year) and the beginning of the summer season (the first half of the year) on the [[March equinox|spring equinox]] ({{lang-sq|sadita-nata}}), marking the period of the year when daylight is longer than night. [[Edith Durham]] – who collected Albanian ethnographic material from northern Albania and Montenegro – reported that [[Albanian traditional tattooing]] of girls was practiced on March 19.{{sfn|Tirta|2004|p=254}} Another festival celebrated by Albanians around the spring equinox is [[Nowruz]] ({{lang-sq|[[Nevruz in Albania|Dita e Sulltan Nevruzit]]}}) celebrated on [[March 22]], mainly by [[Bektashism in Albania|Bektashis]],{{sfn|Tirta|2004|pp=253–255}} {{Sfn|Elsie|2001a|pp=259–260}} and ''Dita e Zojës'' (among the Catholics) or ''Vangjelizmoi'' (among the Orthodox), celebrated on March 25.{{sfn|Tirta|2004|pp=254–255}} Those festivities are associated with the cult of the Sun ([[Dielli (Albanian paganism)|Dielli]]) and the renewal of nature. The renewal of nature is also associated with the worship of the Great Mother Goddess ([[Dheu (Albanian paganism)|Dheu]]), which is celebrated with several rites and customs, in particular wood or anything from vegetation cannot be cut, and the earth is considered to be &quot;pregnant&quot; (Alb. ''me barrë'') and cannot be worked.{{sfn|Tirta|2004|pp=254–255}} ===Shëngjergji=== Shëngjergji &quot;Saint George&quot; is a festival celebrated by Albanians both on April 23 and on May 6 (as well as in the period between). It would coincide with [[Saint George's Day]], were it not for the fact that Shëngjergji is celebrated by all Albanians, regardless of being Christians or Muslims, and that the celebrations are carried out with traditional pagan rituals and practices, such as pilgrimages on [[Sacred mountains#Albania|sacred mountains]] and places, ritual [[bonfires]] on high places, [[animal sacrifices]], water rituals, rituals with serpents, etc. It is rather considered a pre-Christian festivity associated with the worship of a deity of agriculture and livestock.{{sfn|Tirta|2004|pp=254–255}}{{sfn|Qafleshi|2011|pp=43–71}}{{sfn|Hykolli|Krasniqi|2020|p=83}}{{sfn|Halimi|Halimi-Statovci|Xhemaj|2011|pp=3–4, 19–31, 41}}{{sfn|Useini|2024|p=164}} ===Summer solstice=== The [[summer solstice]] is celabrated by Albanians often with the name ''Shën Gjini''–''Shën Gjoni'', but also with the name ''Festa e Malit'' or ''Festa e Bjeshkës'' (&quot;Mountain Feast&quot;), as well as ''Festa e Blegtorisë'' (&quot;Livestock Feast&quot;). It is associated with the production in agricultural and livestock activities.{{sfn|Tirta|2004|p=260}}{{sfn|Xhemaj|1983|pp=104–121}} To celebrate this feast, bonfires are traditionally lit where straw is burned and ashes are thrown on the ground, as a &quot;burning for regeneration&quot; ritual. Tribal or community fires are traditionally made with straw, with people jumping across them. In some regions plumes of burning chaff were carried in the air, running through the fields and hills. The ashes of the straw that burned in the ritual fires of this event are traditionally thrown to the field for good luck.{{sfn|Tirta|2004|p=260}}{{sfn|Xhemaj|1983|pp=104–121}} During this feast [[sheep shearing]] is traditionally performed by shepherds.{{sfn|Tirta|2004|p=260}} ===Winter solstice=== Albanian traditional festivities around the winter solstice celebrate the return of the Sun ([[Dielli (Albanian paganism)|Dielli]]) for summer and the lengthening of the days.{{sfn|Xhemaj|1983|pp=104–121}}{{sfn|Qafleshi|2011|pp=43–71}}{{sfn|Tirta|2004|pp=249–251}}{{sfn|Poghirc|1987|p=179}} The Albanian traditional rites during the winter solstice period are pagan, and very ancient. Albanologist [[Johann Georg von Hahn]] (1811 – 1869) reported that clergy, during his time and before, have vigorously fought the pagan rites that were practiced by Albanians to celebrate this festivity, but without success.{{sfn|Tirta|2004|p=250}} The old rites of this festivity were accompanied by collective fires based on the house, kinship or neighborhood, a practice performed in order to give strength to the Sun according to the old beliefs. The rites related to the cult of vegetation, which expressed the desire for increased production in agriculture and animal husbandry, were accompanied by animal sacrifices to the fire, lighting pine trees at night, luck [[divination]] tests with crackling in the fire or with coins in ritual bread, making and consuming ritual foods, performing various magical ritualistic actions in livestock, fields, vineyards and orchards, and so on.{{sfn|Tirta|2004|p=250}}{{sfn|Xhemaj|1983|pp=104–121}}{{sfn|Qafleshi|2011|pp=43–71}} ====Nata e Buzmit==== Nata e Buzmit, &quot;[[Yule log]]'s night&quot;, is celebrated between December 22 and January 6.{{sfn|Tirta|2004|pp=249–251}} Buzmi is a ritualistic piece of wood (or several pieces of wood) that is put to burn in the fire ([[Zjarri (Albanian paganism)|zjarri]]) of the hearth ([[vatër]]) on the night of a winter celebration that falls after the return of the Sun for summer (after the winter solstice), sometimes on the night of ''Kërshëndella'' on December 24 ([[Christmas Eve]]), sometimes on the night of ''kolendra'', or sometimes on [[New Year's Day]] or on any other occasion aound the same period, a tradition that is originally related to the cult of the Sun ([[Dielli (Albanian paganism)|Dielli]]).{{sfn|Tirta|2004|p=282}}{{sfn|Xhemaj|1983|pp=104–121}}{{sfn|Qafleshi|2011|pp=43–71}} A series of rituals of a magical character are performed with the buzmi, which, based on old beliefs, aims at agricultural plant growth and for the prosperity of production in the living thing (production of vegetables, trees, vineyards, etc.). This practice has been traditionally found among all Albanians, also documented among the [[Arbëreshë people|Arbëreshë]] in Italy and the [[Arvanites]] in Greece until the first half of the 20th century,{{sfn|Tirta|2004|p=282}} and it is still preserved in remote Albanian ethnographic regions today.{{sfn|Qafleshi|2011|pp=43–71}} It is considered a custom of [[Proto-Indo-European religion|Proto-Indo-European]] origin.{{sfn|Tirta|2004|p=282}} The richest set of rites related to buzmi are found in northern Albania ([[Mirdita]], [[Pukë]], [[Dukagjini Highlands|Dukagjin]], [[Malësia e Madhe]], [[Shkodër]] and [[Lezhë]], as well as in [[Kosovo]], [[Dibër Valley|Dibër]] and so on.{{sfn|Tirta|2004|p=282}}{{sfn|Qafleshi|2011|pp=43–71}} ==See also== {{Albanian tribes sidebar}} *[[Albanian epic poetry]] ==Notes== {{Reflist|group=note}} {{clear}} == References == {{Reflist|30em}} == Bibliography == {{Refbegin|30em|indent=yes}} &lt;!-- B --&gt; *{{cite journal|last=Belgiorno de Stefano|first=Maria Gabriella|title=La coesistenza delle religioni in Albania. 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Trofenik|year=1971|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=dTIBAAAAMAAJ}} *{{cite book|last= Trnavci|first=Genc|editor-last1=Sellers|editor-first1=Mortimer|editor-last2=Tomaszewski|editor-first2=Tadeusz|title=The Rule of Law in Comparative Perspective|chapter=The Interaction of Customary Law with the Modern Rule of Law in Albania and Kosova|year=2010|publisher=Springer Verlag|isbn=978-90-481-3748-0|pages=201–215|volume=3|series=Ius Gentium: Comparative Perspectives on Law and Justice|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=9Rx7_KyUp7cC}} &lt;!-- U --&gt; *{{cite journal|last=Useini|first=Rini|title=Ethnology as a Vital Manifestation, (Folk Rites and Practices)|journal=Philosophica|volume=11|issue=22–23|pages=160–166|issn=2671-3020|publisher=[[University of Tetova]]|year=2024|doi=10.62792/ut.philosophica.v11.i22-23.p2732}} *{{cite journal|last=Ushaku|first=Ruzhdi|title=Mbi strukturën leksiko-semantike dhe etimologjike të tipit të togfjalëshit të shqipes burri i dheut (Mundësia për një rindërtim)|journal=Gjurmime Albanologjike|volume=17-18|publisher=[[Albanological Institute of Prishtina]]|year=1988|pages=63–76|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Da1iAAAAMAAJ}} &lt;!-- V --&gt; *{{cite journal|last=Vata-Mikeli|first=Rovena|title=Shtresa mitologjike në kënget epike legjendare shqiptare, rasti i Eposit të Kreshnikëve|journal=ALBANOLOGJIA International Journal of Albanology |publisher=[[University of Tetova]]|issn=1857-9485|eissn=2545-4919|year=2023|volume=10|issue=19–20|pages=428–431}} &lt;!-- W --&gt; *{{cite book|last=Watkins|first=Calvert|author-link=Calvert Watkins|title=How to Kill a Dragon: Aspects of Indo-European Poetics|publisher=Oxford University Press|year=1995|location=London|isbn=978-0-19-514413-0|url = https://books.google.com/books?id=BoF7PwAACAAJ}} *{{cite book|title=Indo-European Poetry and Myth|last=West|first=Morris L.|publisher=Oxford University Press|year=2007|isbn=978-0199280759|author-link=Martin Litchfield West|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ZXrJA_5LKlYC}} *{{cite book|last=Wheeler|first=G. Post|title=Albanian Wonder Tales|place=New York|publisher=The Junior Literary Guild and Doubleday, Doran and Company, Inc.|year=1936|pages=247–280|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=2vApAQAAMAAJ}} *{{citation|last=Wilkes|first=J. J.|author-link=J. J. Wilkes|title=The Illyrians|location=Oxford, United Kingdom|publisher=Blackwell Publishing|year=1995|isbn=0-631-19807-5|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=4Nv6SPRKqs8C}} *{{cite book|last=Wolff|first=Martine|title=Grazing Communities: Pastoralism on the Move and Biocultural Heritage Frictions|chapter=Transhumance in Kelmend, Northern Albania: Traditions, Contemporary Challenges, and Sustainable Development|editor-last=Bindi|editor-first=Letizia|volume=29|series=Environmental Anthropology and Ethnobiology|publisher=Berghahn Books|year=2022|isbn=9781800734760|chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=RadFEAAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PA102|pages=102–120}} &lt;!-- X --&gt; *{{cite book|last=Xhemaj|first=Ukë|chapter=Zjarri në besimet popullore shqiptare|trans-chapter=The Fire in Albanian Folk Beliefs|title=Trashëgimia dhe tranformimi i kulturës popullore: materiala nga sesioni shkencor, mbajtur në Prishtinë më 7-8 shtator 1979|editor=Mark Krasniqi, Ukë Xhemaj|publisher=[[Albanological Institute of Prishtina]]|year=1983|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=lGgKAQAAIAAJ|pages=104–121}} &lt;!-- Y --&gt; *{{cite book|last=Yamamoto|first=Kazuhiko|title=The ethical structure of Kanun and its cultural implications|publisher=Melosi Design|year=2005|isbn=9780972992398|language=en}} *{{Cite journal|title=Toward a Proto-Indo-European vocabulary of the sacred|last=York|first=Michael|journal=WORD|year=1993|volume=44|issue=2|pages=235–254|doi=10.1080/00437956.1993.11435902|issn=0043-7956|doi-access=free}} {{Refend}} == Further reading == * {{cite journal |first=Mark |last=Tirta |title=Figures mythologiques Albanaises et rencontres Balkaniques |trans-title=Albanian Mythological Figures and Balkanien Coincidences |journal=Studia Albanica |volume=29 |issue=1+02 |date=1992 |pages=119–125 |language=French |url=https://www.ceeol.com/search/article-detail?id=81313}} {{navboxes|list= {{Albanian mythology}} {{Albania topics}} {{Europe topic|Mythology of}} {{Europe topic|Folklore of}} {{Paganism}} {{Religion topics}} }} {{Authority control}} {{DEFAULTSORT:Albanian Mythology}} [[Category:Albanian paganism]] [[Category:Culture of Albania]] [[Category:Albanian folklore]] [[Category:Albanian mythology]] [[Category:Paleo-Balkan mythology]]</div></summary> <author><name>Βατο</name></author> </entry> <entry> <id>https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Albanian_paganism&diff=1254960501</id> <title>Albanian paganism</title> <link rel="alternate" type="text/html" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Albanian_paganism&diff=1254960501"/> <updated>2024-11-02T13:50:11Z</updated> <summary type="html">Βατο: <hr /> <div>{{Short description|none}} &lt;!-- &quot;none&quot; is preferred when the title is sufficiently descriptive; see [[WP:SDNONE]] --&gt; [[File:Childe Harold's pilgrimage - a romaunt (1869) (14756251426).jpg|thumb|250px|[[Albanian war dance|Albanian warrior dance]] in circle around fire ([[Zjarri (Albanian paganism)|zjarri]]), drawing from the book ''[[Childe Harold's Pilgrimage]]'' written by [[Lord Byron]] in the early 19th century. Practiced for several hours with very short intervals, the dance gets new vigour from the words of the accompanying song that starts with a [[battle cry]] invoking [[war drums]], and which is of a piece with the movement and usually changed only once or twice during the whole performance.{{sfn|Steiner-Karafili|2010|pp=143–144}} The ritual purifying fire is traditionally used by Albanians, in particular singing and dancing around it, to gain [[Apotropaic|protection and energizing]] from its supernatural power.&lt;ref&gt;{{harvnb|Tirta|2004|pp=279–281, 327}}; {{harvnb|Xhemaj|1983|pp=104–121}}; {{harvnb|Useini|2024|p=164}}.&lt;/ref&gt;]] '''Albanian paganism''' comprises the [[Paganism|pagan]] [[Tradition|customs]], [[belief]]s, [[ritual]]s, [[myth]]s and [[legend]]s of the [[Albanian people]]. The elements of Albanian mythology are of ancient [[Paleo-Balkanic religion|Paleo-Balkanic]] origin and almost all of them are pagan.{{sfn|Pipa|1993|p=253}} Ancient paganism persisted among Albanians, and especially within the inaccessible and deep interior{{sfn|Norris|1993|p=34}} – where [[Albanian folklore]] evolved over the centuries in a relatively isolated [[Albanian tribes|tribal culture and society]]{{sfn|Elsie|2001a|pp=vii–viii}} – it has continued to persist, or at most it was partially transformed by the Christian, Muslim and Marxist beliefs that were either to be introduced by choice or imposed by force.&lt;ref name=&quot;auto&quot;&gt;{{harvnb|Norris|1993|p=34}}; {{harvnb|Qafleshi|2011|pp=43–71}}; {{harvnb|Hykolli|Krasniqi|2020|p=78}}; {{harvnb|Useini|2024|p=164}}.&lt;/ref&gt; The Albanian traditional customary law ([[Kanun (Albania)|Kanun]]) has held a sacred – although secular – longstanding, unwavering and unchallenged authority with a cross-religious effectiveness over the Albanians, which is attributed to an earlier pagan code common to all the [[Albanian tribes]].{{sfn|Tarifa|2008|p=11}} Indeed, the Kanun contains several customary concepts that clearly have their origins in pagan beliefs, including in particular the [[ancestor worship]], [[animism]] and [[totemism]], which have been preserved since pre-Christian times.{{sfn|Yamamoto|2005|p=164}}&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite book|title=Studime Historike|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=1xdXAAAAYAAJ|publisher=Akademia e Shkencave e RPSH., Instituti i Historisë|year=1972|volume=9|location=Tiranë|pages=107–110|language=sq}}&lt;/ref&gt;{{sfn|Trnavci|2010|p=205}} Albanian traditions have been [[Oral tradition|orally transmitted]] – through memory systems that have survived intact into modern times – down the generations and are still very much alive in the mountainous regions of [[Albania]], [[Kosovo]] and western [[North Macedonia]], as well as among the [[Arbëreshë people|Arbëreshë]] in [[Italy]] and the [[Arvanites]] in [[Greece]], and the [[Arbanasi people|Arbanasi]] in [[Croatia]].&lt;ref name=&quot;auto4&quot;&gt;{{harvnb|Elsie|1994|p=i}}; {{harvnb|Elsie|2001b|p=ix}}; {{harvnb|Tarifa|2008|pp=3, 11–12}}; {{harvnb|Stipčević|2009|pp=505–509}}; {{harvnb|Qafleshi|2011|pp=43–71}}; {{harvnb|Sokoli|2013|pp=182-184}}; {{harvnb|Galaty|2018|pp=100–102}}; {{harvnb|Useini|2024|p=164}}.&lt;/ref&gt; {{multiple image | align = right | direction = vertical | image_style = border:none | total_width = 260 | image1 = Albanian tattoo patterns – Sun and Fire symbols.png | alt1 = | image2 = Albanian tattoo patterns.png | alt2 = | footer = [[Albanian traditional tattoo]] patterns: 19th century (top), early 20th century (bottom). They are symbols of the Sun ([[Dielli (Albanian paganism)|Dielli]]) and the Moon ([[Hëna (Albanian paganism)|Hëna]]); the cross (also [[swastika]] in some tattoos) is the Albanian traditional way to represent the deified Fire – [[Zjarri (Albanian paganism)|Zjarri]], evidently also called with the theonym [[Enji (deity)|Enji]].&lt;ref&gt;{{harvnb|Treimer|1971|p=32}}; {{harvnb|Murray-Aynsley|1891|pp=29, 31}}.&lt;/ref&gt; Also appearing in other expressions of Albanian traditional art (graves, jewellery, embroidery, and house carvings),&lt;ref name=&quot;auto13&quot;&gt;{{harvnb|Galaty|Lafe|Lee|Tafilica|2013|pp=155–157}}; {{harvnb|Lelaj|2015|pp=91–118}}; {{harvnb|Tirta|2004|pp=68–82}}; {{harvnb|Elsie|2001a|pp=181, 244}}; {{harvnb|Poghirc|1987|p=178}}; {{harvnb|Durham|1928a|p=51}}; {{harvnb|Durham|1928b|pp=120–125}}.&lt;/ref&gt; they represent celestial, light, fire and hearth worship, expressing the favor of the light within the [[Albanian paganism#Dualistic struggle – cosmic renewal|dualistic struggle between light and darkness]].&lt;ref&gt;{{harvnb|Durham|1928b|pp=102–106}}; {{harvnb|Treimer|1971|p=32}}; {{harvnb|Murray-Aynsley|1891|pp=26, 29, 31}}.&lt;/ref&gt; The Fire rituals and the Sun and Moon worship are the earliest attested cults of the Albanians.{{sfn|Malcolm|2020|pp=19–20}}&lt;ref name=&quot;Elsie-Franck&quot;&gt;{{cite web|editor-last=Elsie|editor-first=Robert|title=1534. Sebastian Franck: Albania: A Mighty Province of Europe|url=http://www.albanianhistory.net/1534_Franck/|website=Texts and Documents of Albanian History }}&lt;/ref&gt;}} The old beliefs in [[sun]] and [[moon]], [[light]] and [[darkness]], [[sky]] and [[earth]], [[fire]] and [[hearth]], [[water]] and [[Spring (hydrology)|spring]]s, [[death]] and [[Reincarnation|rebirth]], [[birds]] and [[snake|serpents]], [[mountains]], [[stones]] and [[caves]], [[sacrifice]], and [[fate]] are some of the pagan beliefs among Albanians.&lt;ref&gt;{{harvnb|Egro|2003|p=35}}; {{harvnb|Tirta|2004|pp=87–110, 176, 410}}; {{harvnb|Doja|2005|pp=449–462}}; {{harvnb|Xhemaj|1983|pp=104–121}}; {{harvnb|Stipčević|2009|pp=505–507}}; {{harvnb|Qafleshi|2011|pp=43–71}}; {{harvnb|Sokoli|2013|p=181}}; {{harvnb|Hysi|2006|pp=349–361}}; {{harvnb|Galaty|Lafe|Lee|Tafilica|2013|p=161}}; {{harvnb|Lajçi|2019|p=29}}; {{harvnb|Useini|2024|p=164}}.&lt;/ref&gt; The Fire ([[Zjarri (Albanian paganism)|Zjarri]]) rituals and the Sun ([[Dielli (Albanian paganism)|Dielli]]) and Moon ([[Hëna (Albanian paganism)|Hëna]]) worship are the earliest attested cults of the Albanians.{{sfn|Malcolm|2020|pp=19–20}}&lt;ref name=&quot;Elsie-Franck&quot;/&gt; The Sun holds the primary role in Albanian pagan customs, beliefs, rituals, myths, and legends; Albanian major traditional festivities and calendar rites are based on the Sun, worshiped as the god of [[light]], [[sky]] and [[weather]], giver of life, health and energy, and all-seeing eye;&lt;ref&gt;{{harvnb|Tirta|2004|pp=68, 70–72, 249–254}}; {{harvnb|Sokoli|2013|p=181}}; {{harvnb|Hysi|2006|pp=349–361}}; {{harvnb|Gjoni|2012|pp=85–86}}.&lt;/ref&gt; the [[sunrise]] is honored as it is believed to give energy and health to the body.{{sfn|Gjoni|2012|pp=86–87}} The Moon is worshiped as a goddess, with her cyclical [[Lunar phase|phases]] regulating many aspects of Albanian life, defining agricultural and livestock activities, various crafts, and human body.&lt;ref name=&quot;auto20&quot;&gt;{{harvnb|Galaty|Lafe|Lee|Tafilica|2013|p=157}}; {{harvnb|Tirta|2004|p=73}}; {{harvnb|Elsie|2001a|p=181}}.&lt;/ref&gt; The morning and evening star [[Venus]] is personified with [[Prende]], associated with dawn, beauty, love, fertility, health, and the protection of women.&lt;ref&gt;{{harvnb|Sedaj|1982|p=78}}; {{harvnb|Elsie|2001a|pp=257–259}}; {{harvnb|Lambertz|1922|pp=47–49, 143–144}}; {{harvnb|Hyllested|Joseph|2022|p=235}}; {{harvnb|Lambertz|1973|p=509}}; {{harvnb|Dedvukaj|2023|pp=1–2}}.&lt;/ref&gt; The cult of the Earth ([[Dheu (Albanian paganism)|Dheu]]) and that of the Sky ([[Qielli (Albanian paganism)|Qielli]]) have a special place. The Fire – Zjarri, evidently also called with the theonym [[Enji (deity)|Enji]] – is [[Deity|deified]] in Albanian tradition as releaser of [[light]] and [[heat]] with the power to [[Apotropaic magic|ward off]] [[darkness]] and [[evil]], affect [[List of natural phenomena|cosmic phenomena]] and give strength to the Sun, and as sustainer of the continuity between [[life]] and [[afterlife]] and between the [[generation]]s, ensuring the survival of the lineage ([[Albanian tribes|''fis'' or ''farë'']]). To spit into Fire is [[taboo]]. The divine power of Fire is used for the [[hearth]] and the [[rituals]], including calendar fires, [[sacrifices|sacrificial offerings]], [[divination]], [[Ritual purification|purification]], and protection from big storms and other potentially harmful events.&lt;ref name=&quot;auto12&quot;&gt;{{harvnb|Tirta|2004|pp=68–69, 135, 176–181, 249–261, 274–282, 327, 410}}; {{harvnb|Xhemaj|1983|pp=104–121}}; {{harvnb|Halimi|Halimi-Statovci|Xhemaj|2011|pp=2–5, 9, 11, 12,15, 17}}; {{harvnb|Useini|2024|p=164}}; {{harvnb|Pipa|1993|p=253}}; {{harvnb|Poghirc|1987|pp=178–179}}; {{harvnb|De Rapper|2012|pp=14–15}}; {{harvnb|Gjoni|2012|p=90}}; {{harvnb|Galaty|Lafe|Lee|Tafilica|2013|p=161}}.&lt;/ref&gt; Fire worship and rituals are associated with the cult of the Sun, the cult of the hearth ([[vatër]]) and the [[Ancestor worship|ancestor]], and the cult of fertility in [[agriculture]] and [[animal husbandry]].&lt;ref name=&quot;auto5&quot;&gt;{{harvnb|Tirta|2004|pp=68–69, 135, 176–181, 249–261, 274–282, 327}}; {{harvnb|Xhemaj|1983|pp=104–121}}; {{harvnb|Qafleshi|2011|p=49}}; {{harvnb|Poghirc|1987|pp=178–179}}; {{harvnb|Hysi|2006|pp=349–361}}.&lt;/ref&gt; Ritual calendar fires are associated with the cosmic cycle and the rhythms of agricultural and pastoral life.&lt;ref name=&quot;auto18&quot;&gt;{{harvnb|Poghirc|1987|p=179}}; {{harvnb|Tirta|2004|pp=68–69, 135, 176–181, 249–261, 274–282, 327}}; {{harvnb|Xhemaj|1983|pp=104–121}}; {{harvnb|Useini|2024|p=164}}.&lt;/ref&gt; [[Besa (Albanian culture)|Besa]] is a common practice in Albanian culture, consisting of an [[oath]] (''be'') solemnly taken by sun, by moon, by sky, by earth, by fire, by stone and [[Thunderstone (folklore)|thunderstone]], by mountain, by water, and by snake, which are all considered [[sacred|sacred objects]].&lt;ref&gt;{{harvnb|Tirta|2004|pp=42–102, 238–239, 318}}; {{harvnb|Pipa|1993|p=253}}; {{harvnb|Elsie|2001a|pp=35–36, 193, 244}}; {{harvnb|Poghirc|1987|pp=178–179}}; {{harvnb|Hysi|2006|pp=349–361}}.&lt;/ref&gt; Associated with human life, [[bees]] are highly revered by Albanians.{{sfn|Tirta|2004|pp=62–68}} The [[eagle]] is the animal totem of all Albanians, associated with the Sky, freedom and heroism.{{sfn|Brahaj|2007|pp=16–18}}{{sfn|Tirta|2004|pp=62–68}} A widespread folk symbol is the [[Serpent symbolism|serpent]] ([[Vitore|Gjarpër, Vitore, etc.]]), a totem of the Albanians associated with [[chthonic|earth]], [[water worship|water]], [[Sun worship|sun]], [[hearth]] and [[ancestor worship|ancestor]] cults, as well as [[destiny]], [[good fortune]] and [[fertility]].&lt;ref&gt;{{harvnb|Sinani|2010|pp=105–106, 111}}; {{harvnb|Stipčević|2009|p=507}}; {{harvnb|Doli|2009|pp=127–128}}; {{harvnb|Tirta|2004|pp=62–68|p=}}.&lt;/ref&gt; The sun, the moon, the star, the eagle (bird), the serpent, and the bee, often appear in Albanian legends and folk art.&lt;ref&gt;{{harvnb|Poghirc|1987|p=178}}; {{harvnb|Bido|1998|pp=701–702}}; {{harvnb|Tirta|2004|pp=68–82}}; {{harvnb|Elsie|2001a|pp=181, 244}}&lt;/ref&gt; {{Albanians}} {{Mythology}} In Albanian mythology, the physical [[phenomena]], [[Classical elements|elements]] and [[Physical object|objects]] are attributed to [[supernatural]] beings. The mythological and legendary figures are deities, demigods, humans, and monsters, as well as supernatural beings in the shapes of men, animals and plants.{{sfn|Sokoli|2013|p=181}} The deities are generally not persons, but [[Animism|animistic]] personifications of [[nature]].&lt;ref&gt;{{harvnb|Pipa|1993|pp=253–254}}; {{harvnb|Skendi|1967|pp=165–166}}.&lt;/ref&gt; Albanian beliefs, myths and legends are organized around the [[Dualism in cosmology|dualistic]] struggle between [[good and evil]], [[light]] and [[darkness]],&lt;ref&gt;{{harvnb|Lelaj|2015|p=97}}; {{harvnb|Sokoli|2013|p=181}}; {{harvnb|Elsie|1994|p=i}}; {{harvnb|Poghirc|1987|p=179}}&lt;/ref&gt; the most famous representation of which is the constant battle between [[drangue]] and [[kulshedra]],&lt;ref name=&quot;auto10&quot;&gt;{{harvnb|Lelaj|2015|p=97}}; {{harvnb|Pipa|1993|pp=253–254}}.&lt;/ref&gt; a conflict that symbolises the cyclic return in the [[water]]y and [[earth|chthonian]] world of death, accomplishing the [[Cosmos|cosmic]] renewal of [[reincarnation|rebirth]]. The weavers of [[destiny]], [[Ora (mythology)|ora]] or [[Fatia|fatí]], control the order of the [[universe]] and enforce its laws.&lt;ref&gt;{{harvnb|Doja|2005|pp=449–462}}; {{harvnb|Kondi|2017|p=279}}&lt;/ref&gt; The [[Zana (mythology)|zana]] are associated with [[wilderness]] and the vital energy of human beings.&lt;ref&gt;{{harvnb|Galaty|Lafe|Lee|Tafilica|2013|p=157}}; {{harvnb|Lurker|2004|p=207}}; {{harvnb|Elsie|2001a|p=269}}; {{harvnb|Doja|2005|p=456}}; {{harvnb|Kondi|2017|p=279}}&lt;/ref&gt; A very common motif in Albanian folk narrative is [[metamorphosis]]: men morph into [[deer]], [[wolves]], and [[owls]], while women morph into [[stoats]], [[cuckoos]], and turtles.{{sfn|Pipa|1993|pp=253–254}} Resulted from the Albanian tribal culture and folklore and permeated by Albanian pagan beliefs and ancient mythology, the ''[[Kângë Kreshnikësh]]'' (&quot;Songs of Heroes&quot;) constitute the most important legendary cycle of the [[Albanian epic poetry]], based on the [[hero]] cult.&lt;ref&gt;{{harvnb|Vata-Mikeli|2023|pp=429–430}}; {{harvnb|Neziri|2021}}; {{harvnb|Loria-Rivel|2020|pp=45–46}}; {{harvnb|Miftari|Visoka|2019|pp=240–241}}; {{harvnb|Leka|2018|pp=119–120}}; {{harvnb|Neziri|2001|pp=7–10}}; {{harvnb|Watkins|1995|pp=83, 164, 443}}; {{harvnb|Pipa|1993|pp=253–254}}.&lt;/ref&gt; Hero's bravery and self-sacrifice, as well as love of life and hope for a bright future play a central role in Albanian tales.{{sfn|Sokoli|2013|p=181}} == Documentation == {{Further|Albanian folklore|Kanun (Albania)}} {{See also|Albanian epic poetry}} Albanian traditions have been handed down [[Oral tradition|orally across generations]].&lt;ref&gt;{{harvnb|Elsie|1994|p=i}}; {{harvnb|Elsie|2001b|p=ix}}; {{harvnb|Tarifa|2008|pp=3, 11–12}}; {{harvnb|Sokoli|2013|pp=182-184}}.&lt;/ref&gt; They have been preserved through traditional memory systems that have survived intact into modern times in Albania, a phenomenon that is explained by the lack of state formation among Albanians and their ancestors – the [[Illyrians]], being able to preserve their [[Albanian tribes|&quot;tribally&quot; organized society]]. This distinguished them from civilizations such as [[Ancient Egypt]], [[Minoans]] and [[Mycenaeans]], who underwent state formation and disrupted their traditional memory practices.{{sfn|Galaty|2018|pp=100–102}} Albanian traditional practices, beliefs, myths and legends have been sporadically described in written sources since the 15th century CE,{{sfn|Malcolm|2020|pp=19–20}}&lt;ref name=&quot;Elsie-Franck&quot;/&gt;{{sfn|Skendi|1954|pp=27–28}} but the systematic collection of Albanian customs and folklore material began only in the 19th century.{{sfn|Skendi|1954|pp=7–10}} == Origin == {{Indo-European topics}} {{See also|Proto-Indo-European mythology|Paleo-Balkan mythology|Illyrian mythology}} The elements of Albanian mythology are of [[Paleo-Balkanic religion|Paleo-Balkanic]] origin and almost all of them are [[pagan]].{{sfn|Pipa|1993|p=253}} Ancient [[Illyrian religion]] is considered to be one of the sources from which Albanian mythology and folklore evolved,{{sfn|Stipčević|1977|p=74}}{{sfn|West|2007|pp=288}}{{sfn|Wilkes|1995|p=280}} reflecting a number of parallels with Ancient [[Greek mythology|Greek]] and [[Roman mythology|Roman]] mythologies.{{sfn|Poghirc|1987|p=179}} Albanian legend also shows similarities with neighbouring [[Indo-European languages|Indo-European]] traditions, such as the oral epics with the [[South Slavs]] and the folk tales of the [[Greeks]].{{sfn|West|2007|pp=19}} Albanian mythology inherited the [[Proto-Indo-European mythology|Indo-European]] narrative [[Albanian epic poetry|epic genre]] about past warriors (''[[Kângë Kreshnikësh]]''), a tradition shared with [[Ancient Greece|early Greece]], [[classical India]], early [[medieval England]], [[medieval Germany]] and South Slavs.{{sfn|West|2007|p=68}} Albanian folk beliefs and mythology also retained the typical Indo-European tradition of the [[Deity|deities]] located on the highest and most inaccessible mountains ([[Mount Tomor]]).{{sfn|West|2007|pp=151}} Albanian paganism retained the Indo-European [[Sky deity|sky]], [[God of Thunder|lightning]] and [[Weather deity|weather]] deities ([[Zojz (deity)|Zojz]], [[Shurdh]], [[Verbt]]), [[*Seh₂ul and *Meh₁not|Sun and Moon]] deities ([[Dielli (Albanian paganism)|Dielli]] and [[Hëna (Albanian paganism)|Hëna]]), the [[*H₂éwsōs|dawn goddess]] ([[Prende|Prende/Afërdita]]), [[Fire deity|fire]] rituals and deities and the [[hearth]] cult ([[Enji (deity)|Enji/Zjarri]], [[Nëna e Vatrës]], [[Vatër]]),{{sfn|West|2007|pp=243, 266}}{{sfn|Treimer|1971|pp=31–33}}{{sfn|Hyllested|2024|p=60}}{{sfn|Hyllested|Joseph|2022|p=232}} the [[Fates]] and [[Destiny]] goddesses ([[Zana (mythology)|Zana]], [[Ora (mythology)|Ora]], [[Fatia|Fatí]], [[Mira (mythology)|Mira]]),{{sfn|West|2007|pp=385–386}} aspects of the [[*Dʰéǵʰōm|earth worship]] ([[Dheu|Dhé]]){{sfn|Ushaku|1988|pp=92, 95–97}} and of the [[Divine twins]] ([[Muji and Halili]]),{{sfn|Juka|1984|p=64}}{{sfn|Neziri|2008|pp=80–82}} as well as the [[Proto-Indo-European mythology#Serpent-slaying myth|&quot;serpent-slaying&quot;]] and [[Proto-Indo-European mythology#Fire in water|&quot;fire in water&quot;]] myths ([[Drangue]] and [[Kulshedra]]),{{sfn|West|2007|pp=385–386}} the &quot;Daughter of the Sun and Moon&quot; legend ([[E Bija e Hënës dhe e Diellit]]),{{sfn|West|2007|p=233}} and the guard of the gates of the [[Underworld]] (the [[Hellhound|three-headed dog]] who never sleeps).{{sfn|West|2007|pp=392}} ==History== The absence of any single and specific theonymic root for the &quot;earth&quot; in the various branches of the [[Indo-European language family]], might be due to the predominance held by [[Mother goddess|earth mother goddess]] cults already extant and profoundly rooted among [[Pre-Indo-European languages|Pre-Indo-European]]-speaking peoples encountered by incoming [[Indo-European languages|Indo-European]]-speaking peoples.{{sfn|York|1993|p=247}} The confrontation between the belief systems of Pre-Indo-European populations—who favored 'Mother Earth Cults' comprising earthly beliefs, female deities and priesthood—and of Indo-European populations who favored 'Father Heaven Cults' comprising celestial beliefs, male deities and priesthood, might be reflected in the dichotomy of [[matriarchy]] and [[patriarchy]] that emerges from the two types of female warriors/active characters in [[Albanian epic poetry]], in particular in the ''[[Kângë Kreshnikësh]]''.{{Refn|In Albanian epics there are on the one hand female characters who play an active role in the quest and the decisions that affect the whole [[Albanian tribes|tribe]], on the other hand those who [[Albanian sworn virgins|undergo a masculinization process]] as a condition to be able to participate actively in the fights according to the principles of the [[Kanun (Albania)|Kanun]].{{sfn|Loria-Rivel|2020|pp=47–48, 52}}||group=note}}{{sfn|Loria-Rivel|2020|pp=47–48, 52}} Nevertheless, the Albanian belief system has preserved also the importance of the cult of the earth, [[Zonja e Dheut|Dheu]].{{sfn|Tirta|2004|pp=189–190, 230}}{{sfn|Ushaku|1988|pp=92, 95–97}} [[File:Mali i Tomorrit nga kalaja e Beratit.jpg|thumb|250px|The cult practiced by the Albanians on [[Mount Tomorr]] in central [[Albania]] is considered as a continuation of the ancient [[Zojz (deity)|sky-god]] worship.]] The Albanian sky and lightning god, [[Zojz (deity)|Zojz]], is considered to have been worshiped by [[Illyrians]] in ancient times.{{sfn|Sedaj|1982|p=75}} Albanian ''Zojz'' is the clear equivalent and cognate of [[Messapic language|Messapic]] ''[[Zis (deity)|Zis]]'' and [[Ancient Greek]] ''[[Zeus]]'', the continuations of the [[Proto-Indo-European language|Proto-Indo-European]] ''[[Dyeus|*Di̯ḗu̯s]]'' 'sky god'.{{sfn|Søborg|2020|p=74}}{{sfn|Hyllested|Joseph|2022|p=232}} In the pre-Christian pagan period the term ''Zot'' from [[Proto-Albanian]]: ''*dźie̅u ̊ a(t)t-'' was presumably used in Albanian to refer to the [[Sky father|sky father/god/lord]], father-god, heavenly father (the [[Indo-European mythology|Indo-European]] [[Dyēus|father daylight-sky-god]]).{{sfn|Demiraj|2011|p=70}} After the first access of the ancestors of the Albanians to the Christian religion in antiquity the term ''Zot'' has been used for [[God]], [[God the Father|the Father]] and [[God the Son|the Son]] ([[Christ]]).{{sfn|Demiraj|2011|p=70}}{{sfn|Demiraj|2002|p=34}} The worship and practices associated to the Indo-European sky and lighning deity have been preserved by Albanians until the 20th century, and in some forms still continue today.&lt;ref name=&quot;auto16&quot;&gt;{{harvnb|Brahaj|2007|pp=16–18}}; {{harvnb|Cook|2010|p=1171}}; {{harvnb|Lambertz|1922|pp=47, 143–144, 146–148}}.&lt;/ref&gt; Early evidence of the celestial cult in [[Illyria]] is provided by 6th century BCE plaques from [[Lake Shkodra]], which belonged to the [[Illyrians|Illyrian]] tribal area of what was referred in historical sources to as the [[Labeatae]] in later times. Each of those plaques portray simultaneously sacred representations of the sky and the sun, and symbolism of lighning and fire, as well as the [[tree of life]] and birds (eagles). In those plaques there is a mythological representation of the celestial deity: the Sun deity animated with a face and two wings, throwing lightning into a fire altar, which in some plaques is held by two men (sometimes on two boats). This mythological representation is identical to the Albanian folk belief and practice associated to the lightning deity: a traditional practice during thunderstorms was to bring outdoors a lit fireplace ({{lang|sq|[[vatër]] me [[Zjarri (Albanian paganism)|zjarr]]}}), in order to gain the favor of the deity so the thunders would not be harmful to the human community.&lt;ref&gt;{{harvnb|Brahaj|2007|pp=16–18}}; {{harvnb|Tirta|2004|p=82}}.&lt;/ref&gt; Albanian folk beliefs regard the lightning as ''[[Zjarri i Qiellit]]'' (&quot;the Fire of the Sky&quot;) and consider it as the &quot;[[weapon]] of the deity&quot;.{{sfn|Tirta|2004|pp=82, 406}} The earliest figurative representations that accurately mirror the Albanian lamentation of the dead—[[gjâmë]]—appear on [[Dardani]]an funerary stelae of [[classical antiquity]].{{sfn|Joseph|Dedvukaj|2024|pp=1–3}} In the context of religious perceptions, historical sources confirm the relations between the Greco-Roman religious ethics and the [[Kanun (Albania)|Albanian customary laws]]. These relations can be seen during the rule of the [[Illyrian emperors]], such as [[Aurelian]] who introduced the [[Sol Invictus#Aurelian|cult of the Sun]]; [[Diocletian]] who stabilized the empire and ensured its continuation through the institution of the [[Tetrarchy]]; [[Constantine the Great]] who issued the [[Edict of Milan|Edict of Toleration]] for the Christianized population and who summoned the [[First Council of Nicaea]] involving many clercs from Illyricum; [[Justinian]] who issued the [[Corpus Juris Civilis]] and sought to create an Illyrian Church, building [[Justiniana Prima]] and [[Justiniana Secunda]], which was intended to become the centre of Byzantine administration.{{sfn|Belgiorno de Stefano|2014|pp=2–3}} [[File:Albanian traditional carving patterns.png|thumb|250px|Albanian traditional carving patterns on chairs and graves, drawn by [[Edith Durham]] before 1928. They are representations of the Sun ([[Dielli (Albanian paganism)|Dielli]]) and the Moon ([[Hana (Albanian paganism)|Hana]]), sometimes also rayed (symbolizing their light).]] Prehistoric Illyrian symbols used on funeral monuments of the pre-Roman period have been used also in Roman times and continued into [[late antiquity]] in the broad Illyrian territory. The same motifs were kept with identical cultural-religious symbolism on various monuments of the early medieval culture of the Albanians. They appear also on later funerary monuments, including the medieval tombstones ([[stećci]]) in [[Bosnia and Herzegovina]] and the burial monuments used until recently in northern [[Albania]], [[Kosovo]], [[Montenegro]], southern [[Serbia]] and northern [[North Macedonia]]. Such motifs are particularly related to the ancient cults of the Sun and Moon, survived until recently among northern Albanians.{{sfn|Dobruna-Salihu|2005|p=345–346}} [[File:Fireplace of a House of Shkreli.png|thumb|250px|Fireplace (''[[votër]]'') of a house of [[Shkreli (tribe)|Shkreli]], northern Albania, drawn by [[Edith Durham]] in 1909.]] Among the Illyrians of early Albania the Sun was a widespread symbol. The spread of a [[Sun cult]] and the persistence of [[Solar symbol|Sun motifs]] into the Roman period and later are considered to have been the product of the Illyrian culture. In [[Christian iconography]] the symbol of the Sun is associated with immortality and a right to rule. The pagan cult of the Sun was almost identical to the Christian cult in the first centuries of Christianity. Varieties of the symbols of the Sun that Christian orders brought in the region found in the Albanian highlands sympathetic supporters, enriching the body of their symbols with new material.{{sfn|Galaty|Lafe|Lee|Tafilica|2013|p=156}} The historical-linguistic determination of the Albanian Christian terminology provides evidence that Albanians have already joined the process of conversion to Christianity in the Balkans since the [[late antiquity]] (4th–5th centuries AD). The earliest church lexicon is mainly of [[Late Latin]] or [[Ecclesiastical Latin]] origin and, to a large extent, of native origin, which leads to the conclusion that the Christianisation of the Albanians occurred under the Latin-based liturgy and ecclesiastical order of the [[Holy See]]. Also according to Church documents, the territories that coincide with the present-day Albanian-speaking compact area had remained under the jurisdiction of the [[Bishop of Rome]] and used Latin as official language at least until the first half of the 8th century.{{sfn|Demiraj|2011|pp=73–74}} At the time of the [[Slavic migrations to the Balkans|South Slavic incursion]] and the threat of ethnic turbulence in the Albanian-inhabited regions, the Christianization of the Albanians had already been completed and it had apparently developed for Albanians as a further identity-forming feature alongside the ethnic-linguistic unity.{{sfn|Demiraj|2002|pp=36–37}} Church administration, which was controlled by a thick network of Roman bishoprics, collapsed with the arrival of the Slavs. Between the early 7th century and the late 9th century the interior areas of the Balkans were deprived of church administration, and Christianity might have survived only as a popular tradition on a reduced degree.{{sfn|Fischer|Schmitt|2022|p=25}} Some Albanians living in the mountains, who were only partially affected by Romanization, probably sank back into the Classic Paganism.{{sfn|Demiraj|2002|p=26}} The reorganization of the Church as a cult institution in the region took a considerable amount of time.{{sfn|Demiraj|2011|p=63}} The Balkans were brought back into the Christian orbit only after the recovery of the Byzantine Empire and through the activity of Byzantine missionaries.{{sfn|Fischer|Schmitt|2022|p=25}} The earliest church vocabulary of [[Middle Greek]] origin in Albanian dates to the 8th–9th centuries, at the time of the [[Byzantine Iconoclasm]], which was started by the Byzantine Emperor [[Leo III the Isaurian]].{{sfn|Demiraj|2011|pp=63–64, 70}} In 726 Leo III established ''[[de jure]]'' the jurisdiction of the [[Ecumenical Patriarchate of Constantinople]] over the Balkans, as the Church and the State established an institution. The Eastern Church expanded its influence in the area along with the social and political developments. Between the 7th and 12th centuries a powerful network of cult institutions were revived completely covering the ecclesiastical administration of the entire present-day Albanian-speaking compact area. In particular an important role was played by the [[Theme of Dyrrhachium]] and the [[Archdiocese of Ohrid]].{{sfn|Demiraj|2011|p=64}} Survived through the centuries, the Christian belief among Albanians became an important cultural element in their ethnic identity. Indeed, the lack of [[Old Church Slavonic]] terms in Albanian Christian terminology shows that the missionary activities during the [[Christianization of the Slavs]] did not involve Albanian-speakers.{{sfn|Demiraj|2011|p=71}} In a text compiled around the beginning of the 11th century in the [[Old Bulgarian language]], the Albanians are mentioned for the first time with their old ethnonym ''[[Names of the Albanians and Albania#Arbanasi|Arbanasi]]'' as half-believers, a term which for Eastern Orthodox Christian Bulgarians meant Catholic Christian.{{sfn|Elsie|2003|p=3}} The [[East–West Schism|Great Schism of 1054]] involved Albania separating the region between Catholic Christianity in the north and Orthodox Christianity in the south.{{sfn|Ramet|1989|p=381}} [[Islam]] was first introduced to Albania in the 15th century after the [[Ottoman Empire|Ottoman]] conquest of the area. In [[Albania under the Ottoman Empire|Ottoman times]], often to escape higher taxes levied on Christian subjects, the majority of Albanians became Muslims. However one part retained Christian and pre-Christian beliefs.{{sfn|Esposito|2004|p=20}} In the 16th century the Albanians are firstly mentioned as worshippers of the [[Sun]] and the [[Moon]].&lt;ref name=&quot;Elsie-Franck&quot;/&gt; British poet [[Lord Byron]] (1788–1824), describing the Albanian religious belief, reported that &quot;The Greeks hardly regard them as Christians, or the Turks as Muslims; and in fact they are a mixture of both, and sometimes neither.&quot;{{sfn|Esposito|2004|p=20}} In Ottoman times education in the Albanian language was forbidden. The folk storytellers have played an important role in preserving Albanian folklore.{{sfn|Sokoli|2013|pp=182-183}} The lack of schools was compensated by the folk creativity, molding generations of Albanians with their forefathers' wisdom and experience and protecting them from assimilation processes.{{sfn|Sokoli|2013|p=184}} Between the 16th and 18th centuries, in Albania arrived also the [[Bektashi]] [[Sufi]] order{{sfn|Kressing|Kaser|2002|p=72}} which spread widely among Albanians because of its traditional tolerance and regard for different religions, practices and beliefs and because it allowed itself to be a vehicle for the expression of [[Laramans|Crypto-Christian]], Christian and pre-Christian pagan beliefs and rituals.{{sfn|Skendi|1967|pp=244–245}}{{sfn|Elsie|2010|p=40}}{{sfn|Elsie|2019|p=116}} Bektashism is a Muslim [[dervish]] order (''[[tariqat]]'') thought to have originated in the 13th century in a frontier region of [[Anatolia]], where Christianity, Islam and paganism coexisted, allowing the incorporation of comparable pagan and non-Muslim beliefs into popular Islam. It facilitated the conversion process to the new Muslims and became the official order of the [[Janissaries]].{{sfn|Skendi|1967b|pp=12–13}}{{sfn|Minkov|2004|pp=103–104}} After the ban of all the Sufi orders in [[Turkey]] in 1925, the Bektashi Order established its headquarters in [[Tirana]].{{sfn|Esposito|2004|p=20}} [[File:Gjama.jpg|thumb|Men of [[Theth]] ([[Shala (tribe)|Shala]]) practicing the [[gjâmë]] – the Albanian lamentation of the dead – in the funeral of Ujk Vuksani, 1937.]] Since its founding in 1912, Albania has been a [[secular state]], becoming [[atheist]] during the [[Communism in Albania|Communist regime]], and returning secular after the fall of the regime. For half a century the regime in Albania anathemized all beliefs, without taking into account the fact that the Albanian traditional rites, customs, beliefs, mythology, etc. aligned Albanians – who have preserved a unique culture – with the major ancient groups of peoples.{{sfn|Qafleshi|2011|pp=46–47}} Albanian folklore evolved over the centuries in a relative isolated [[Albanian tribes|tribal culture and society]],{{sfn|Elsie|2001a|pp=vii-viii}} and although several changes occurred in the Albanian belief system, an ancient layer of pre-Christian beliefs has survived until today.&lt;ref&gt;{{harvnb|Useini|2024|p=164}}; {{harvnb|Hykolli|Krasniqi|2020|p=78}};{{harvnb|Qafleshi|2011|pp=43–71}}; {{harvnb|Poghirc|1987|p=178}}; {{harvnb|Pipa|1993|p=253}}; {{harvnb|Skendi|1967|pp=165–166}}.&lt;/ref&gt; Ancient paganism persisted among Albanians, and within the inaccessible and deep interior it has continued to persist, or at most it was partially transformed by the Christian, Muslim and Marxist beliefs that were either to be introduced by choice or imposed by force.&lt;ref name=&quot;auto&quot;/&gt; Albanian traditions have been [[Oral tradition|orally transmitted]] – through memory systems that have survived intact into modern times – down the generations and are still very much alive in the mountainous regions of [[Albania]], [[Kosovo]] and western [[North Macedonia]], as well as among the [[Arbëreshë people|Arbëreshë]] in [[Italy]] and the [[Arvanites]] in [[Greece]], and the [[Arbanasi people|Arbanasi]] in [[Croatia]].&lt;ref name=&quot;auto4&quot;/&gt; ==Cosmology== ===Supreme entity, animated Nature, and Fate=== Either in [[Paganism|pagan]]-[[Polytheism|polytheistic]] or [[Monotheism|monotheistic]] contexts, the supreme entity in [[Albanian language|Albanian]] is referred to as ''[[Zojz (deity)|Zojz(-i)]]/Zot(-i)'', ''[[Perëndi]](-a)'', or ''Hy(-u)/Hyj(-i)'', always associated with the [[sky]] and [[light]].&lt;ref&gt;{{harvnb|Poghirc|1987|p=178}}; {{harvnb|Sardushkin|2002|pp=140–141}}; {{harvnb|Doja|2005|pp=449–462}}; {{harvnb|Demiraj|2002|p=34}}; {{harvnb|Lambertz|1922|pp=47, 143–144}}.&lt;/ref&gt; In Albanian the god who rules the sky is referred to as ''i Bukuri i Qiellit'' (&quot;the Beauty of the Sky&quot;), a phrase that is used in pagan contexts for the Sun ([[Dielli (Albanian paganism)|Dielli]]), worshiped as the god of [[light]], [[sky]] and [[weather]], giver of life, health and energy, and all-seeing eye.&lt;ref name=&quot;auto17&quot;&gt;{{harvnb|Tirta|2004|pp=68, 70–72, 249–254}}; {{harvnb|Sokoli|2013|p=181}}; {{harvnb|Hysi|2006|pp=349–361}}; {{harvnb|Gjoni|2012|pp=85–86}}; {{harvnb|Lambertz|1949|p=46}}; {{harvnb|Fishta|Lambertz|1958|p=284}}; {{harvnb|Ushaku|1988|p=101}}; {{harvnb|Lurker|2005|p=38}}.&lt;/ref&gt; As the wide set of cultic traditions dedicated to him indicates, the Albanian Sun-god appears to be an expression of the [[Proto-Indo-European mythology|Proto-Indo-European]] Sky-god ([[Zojz (deity)|Zot or Zojz]] in Albanian).{{sfn|Treimer|1971|p=31}} The Sun, referred to as &quot;the all-seeing (big) eye&quot; is invoked in Albanian solemn oaths ([[Besa (Albanian culture)|be]]), and information about everything that happens on Earth is asked to the all-seeing Sun in ritual songs.{{sfn|Hysi|2006|pp=349–361}}{{sfn|Gjoni|2012|p=86}} The Fire – [[Zjarri (Albanian paganism)|Zjarri]] – is deified as releaser of [[light]] and [[heat]] with the power to [[Apotropaic magic|ward off]] [[darkness]] and [[evil]], affect [[List of natural phenomena|cosmic phenomena]] and give strength to the Sun, and as sustainer of the continuity between [[life]] and [[afterlife]] and between the [[generation]]s.&lt;ref name=&quot;auto12&quot;/&gt; The primeval religiosity of the Albanian mountains is expressed by a supreme deity who is the god of the universe and who is conceived through the belief in the fantastic and supernatural entities, resulting in an extremely structured imaginative creation.{{sfn|Schirò|1959|p=30–31}}{{sfn|Krasniqi|2019|p=141}} The components of [[Nature]] are [[Animism|animated]] and personified [[deities]], so in Albanian folk beliefs and mythology the Sky ([[Qielli (Albanian paganism)|Qielli]]) with the clouds and lightning, the Sun ([[Dielli (Albanian paganism)|Dielli]]), the Moon ([[Hëna (Albanian paganism)|Hëna]]), and the stars (including [[Afërdita]]), the Fire ([[Zjarri (Albanian paganism)|Zjarri]]) and the hearth ([[Vatër|vatra]]), the Earth ([[Dheu|Dheu/Toka]]) with the mountains, stones, caves, and water springs, etc., are cult objects, considered to be participants in the world of humans influencing the events in their life, and afterlife as well. Solemn oaths ([[Besa (Albanian culture)|Besa]]) and curse formulas involve and are addressed to, or taken by, the animated components of Nature.&lt;ref&gt;{{harvnb|Vata-Mikeli|2023|pp=429–431}}; {{harvnb|Sokoli|2013|p=181}}; {{harvnb|Hysi|2006|pp=349–361}}; {{harvnb|Tirta|2004|pp=42–102, 238–239, 318}}; {{harvnb|Elsie|2001a|pp=35–36, 181, 193, 244}}; {{harvnb|Watkins|1995|pp=83, 164, 443}}; {{harvnb|Pipa|1993|p=253}}; {{harvnb|Poghirc|1987|pp=178–179}}; {{harvnb|Xhemaj|1983|pp=104–121}}.&lt;/ref&gt; The supreme god allows the existence of terrestrial female deities with their intervention in earthly events and interaction with humans.{{sfn|Schirò|1959|p=30–31}}{{sfn|Doja|2005|pp=456, 459}} Hence the Albanian belief in [[Zana (mythology)|zanas]] and [[Ora (mythology)|oras]] (also [[Fatia|fati]] or [[Mira (mythology)|mira]]{{Sfn|Elsie|2001a|p=167}}), who symbolize the vital energy and existential time of human beings respectively. The zana idealizes feminine energy, wild beauty, eternal youth and the joy of nature. They appear as warlike nymphs capable of offering simple mortals a part of their own psychophysical and divine power, giving humans strength comparable to that of the [[drangue]]. The ora represent the &quot;moment of the day&quot; (Albanian: ''koha e ditës'') and the flowing of human destiny. As masters of time and place, they take care of humans (also of the zana and of some particular animals) watching over their life, their house and their hidden treasures before sealing their destiny.{{sfn|Kondi|2017|p=279}}{{sfn|Tirta|2004|pp=63, 71, 112–117, 137–140, 163, 164, 191, 192}} So, the goddesses of fate &quot;maintain the order of the universe and enforce its laws&quot;{{sfn|Doja|2005|p=459}} – &quot;organising the appearance of humankind.&quot;{{sfn|Doja|2005|p=456}} However great his power, the supreme god holds an executive role as he carries out what has been already ordained by the fate goddesses.{{sfn|Doja|2005|p=459}} ===Dualistic struggle – cosmic renewal=== {{multiple image | align = right | direction = vertical | image_style = border:none | total_width = 260 | image1 = Albanian tattoo patterns.png | alt1 = | image2 = Tattoos of Catholic women – Jajce, Bosnia.png | alt2 = | footer = Tattoo patterns of northern Albanians (top); tattoo patterns of Catholic women (and one man) in Bosnia (bottom). Drawn by Edith Durham in the early 20th century. Many of those patterns also appear on Albanian traditional art (graves, jewellery, embroidery, and house carvings). They represent celestial, light, fire and hearth worship, expressing the favor of the light within the dualistic struggle between light and darkness.&lt;ref&gt;{{harvnb|Durham|1928b|pp=102–106}}; {{harvnb|Treimer|1971|p=32}}; {{harvnb|Murray-Aynsley|1891|pp=26, 29, 31}}.&lt;/ref&gt; }} Albanian beliefs, myths and legends are organized around the [[Dualism in cosmology|dualistic]] struggle between [[good and evil]], [[light]] and [[darkness]], which cyclically produces the [[Cosmos|cosmic]] renewal.&lt;ref&gt;{{harvnb|Lelaj|2015|p=97}}; {{harvnb|Doja|2005|pp=449–462}}; {{harvnb|Elsie|1994|p=i}}; {{harvnb|Poghirc|1987|p=179}}&lt;/ref&gt; Ritual calendar fires (''[[Zjarret e Vitit]]'') are practiced in relation to the cosmic cycle and the rhythms of agricultural and pastoral life, with the function to give strength to the Sun and to [[apotropaic|ward off]] [[evil]] according to the old beliefs.&lt;ref name=&quot;auto18&quot;/&gt; Exercising a great influence on Albanian major traditional feasts and calendar rites, the Sun is worshiped as the [[god of light]] and giver of life, who fades away the darkness of the world and melts the frost, allowing the renewal of [[Nature]].&lt;ref name=&quot;auto14&quot;&gt;{{harvnb|Lambertz|1949|p=46}}; {{harvnb|Fishta|Lambertz|1958|p=284}}; {{harvnb|Ushaku|1988|p=101}}; {{harvnb|Lurker|2005|p=38}}; {{harvnb|Sokoli|2013|p=181}}.&lt;/ref&gt; The most famous Albanian mythological representation of the dualistic struggle between good and evil, light and darkness, is the constant battle between [[drangue]] and [[kulshedra]],&lt;ref name=&quot;auto10&quot;/&gt; a conflict that symbolises the cyclic return in the [[water]]y and [[earth|chthonian]] world of death, accomplishing the [[Cosmos|cosmic]] renewal of [[reincarnation|rebirth]].&lt;ref&gt;{{harvnb|Doja|2005|pp=449–462}}; {{harvnb|Tirta|2004|pp=121–132}}; {{harvnb|Lelaj|2015|p=97}}.&lt;/ref&gt; The legendary battle of a heroic deity associated with [[weather god|thunder and weather]] – like drangue – who fights and slays a huge multi-headed serpent associated with water, storms, and drought – like kulshedra – [[Proto-Indo-European mythology#Serpent-slaying myth|is a common motif]] of [[Indo-European mythology]].{{sfn|West|2007|pp=358–359}} The original legend may have symbolized the [[Chaos (cosmogony)#Chaoskampf|''Chaoskampf'']], a clash between forces of order and chaos.{{sfn|Watkins|1995|pages=299–300}} In Albanian tradition the clash between drangue and kulshedra, light and darkness, is furthermore seen as a mythological representation of the cult of the Sun and the Moon, widely observed in [[Albanian traditional tattooing]] and in other expressions of traditional art (graves, jewellery, embroidery, and house carvings).&lt;ref name=&quot;auto13&quot;/&gt; The supremacy of the deity of the sky – the light side – over that of the underworld – the dark side – is symbolized by the victory of celestial divine heroes against [[kulshedra]], an earthly/chthonic deity or demon originating from darkness. Those celestial divine heroes are often [[drangue]] (the most widespread [[culture hero]] among Albanians), but also [[e Bija e Hënës dhe e Diellit]] (&quot;the Daughter of the Moon and the Sun&quot;) who is referred to as ''pika e qiellit'' (&quot;drop of the sky&quot; or &quot;lightning&quot;), which falls everywhere from heaven on the mountains and the valleys and strikes pride and evil,{{sfn|Shuteriqi|1959|p=66}}{{sfn|Tirta|2004|pp=72, 127–128}} or by other heroic characters marked in their bodies by the symbols of celestial objects,{{sfn|Tirta|2004|pp=72, 127–128}} such as [[The Twins (Albanian tale)|Zjermi]] (lit. &quot;the Fire&quot;), who notably is born with the Sun on his forehead.{{sfn|Schirò|1923|pp=411–439}} The dualism between black/darkness and white/light is also remarkably represented by the Moon's phases, which symbolize both fertility (increase) and sterility (decrease). Moon's cyclical phases have regulated many aspects of the life of the Albanians, defining agricultural and livestock activities, various crafts, and human body.{{sfn|Galaty|Lafe|Lee|Tafilica|2013|p=157}} ==Cultic deities== ===Zojz, Qielli=== [[File:Vula zyrtare e Skënderbeut.svg|thumb|Celestial symbols – double-headed eagle and six-pointed star/sun – on the official seal of [[Skanderbeg]], the Lord of Albania (D · AL Dominus Albaniae).]] [[Zojz (deity)|Zojz]] is the sky and lightning god.{{sfn|Hyllested|Joseph|2022|p=232}}{{sfn|Mann|1952|p=32}}{{sfn|Feizi|1929|p=82}}{{sfn|Sedaj|1982|p=75}} Regarded as the chief god and the highest of all gods,&lt;ref name=&quot;auto16&quot;/&gt; traces of his worship survived in northern Albania until the early 20th century, and in some forms still continue today.&lt;ref name=&quot;auto16&quot;/&gt; The old beliefs in the Sky (Alb. ''Qielli'') are pagan beliefs preserved by Albanians since ancient times.{{sfn|Egro|2003|p=35}} The sacred significance of one of the main symbols of the sky cult – the eagle – has been scrupulously preserved by Albanians, who have always considered it their animal [[totem]].{{sfn|Brahaj|2007|pp=16–18}} An epithet considered to be associated with the sky-god is &quot;father&quot;, thought to be contained in the Albanian noun ''Zot'' (&quot;[[Sky Father]]&quot;, from [[Proto-Albanian]]: ''*dźie̅u ̊ a(t)t-''), used to refer to the [[King of the gods|Supreme Being]].&lt;ref&gt;{{harvnb|Demiraj|Starostin|Lubotsky|de Vaan}}; {{harvnb|Curtis|2017|p=1746}}; {{harvnb|Kölligan|2017|p=2254}}; {{harvnb|Demiraj|2011|p=70}}; {{harvnb|Demiraj|2002|p=34}}; {{harvnb|Demiraj|1997|pp=431-432}}; {{harvnb|Mann|1977|p=72}}; {{harvnb|Treimer|1971|p=32}}.&lt;/ref&gt; A remarkable reflection of [[Proto-Indo-European mythology]] associated with the dawn goddess ''[[*H₂éwsōs]]'' is the Albanian tradition according to which the dawn goddess – [[Prende]] – is the daughter of the sky god – Zojz. [[File:Tunja (Village near Tomorri Mountain).jpg|thumb|View of [[Mount Tomorr]] from the Tunja village.]] In Albanian the god who rules the sky is referred to as ''i Bukuri i Qiellit'' (&quot;the Beauty of the Sky&quot;), a phrase that is used in pagan contexts for the Sun ([[Dielli (Albanian paganism)|Dielli]]), worshiped as the god of [[light]], [[sky]] and [[weather]], giver of life, health and energy, and all-seeing eye.&lt;ref name=&quot;auto17&quot;/&gt; The Albanian tradition according to which the Sun is an &quot;eye&quot;,&lt;ref name=&quot;auto11&quot;&gt;{{harvnb|Tirta|2004|pp=71–72}}; {{harvnb|Hysi|2006|pp=349–361}}; {{harvnb|Cook|1964|p=197}}.&lt;/ref&gt; is a reflection of the Indo-European belief according to which the Sun is the eye of the Sky-God.{{sfn|Cook|1964|p=197}} Albanian folk beliefs regard the [[lightning]] as the &quot;fire of the sky&quot; (''[[Zjarri i Qiellit]]'') and consider it as the &quot;weapon of the deity&quot;.{{sfn|Tirta|2004|pp=82, 406}} Finding correspondences with Albanian folk beliefs and practices, early evidence of the celestial cult in [[Illyria]] is provided by 6th century BCE Illyrian plaques from [[Lake Shkodra]], depicting simultaneously sacred representations of the sky and the sun, and symbolism of lighning and fire, as well as the [[sacred tree]] and birds (eagles); the Sun deity is animated with a face and two wings, throwing lightning into a fire altar.{{sfn|Brahaj|2007|pp=16–18}} Albanian [[Enji (deity)#Lightning and storms|rituals to avert big storms]] with torrential rains, lightning, and hail, seek assistance from the supernatural power of the Fire ([[Zjarri (Albanian paganism)|Zjarri]], evidently also called with the theonym [[Enji (deity)|Enji]]).&lt;ref name=&quot;auto19&quot;&gt;{{harvnb|Tirta|2004|pp=82, 309}}; {{harvnb|Xhemaj|1983|pp=104–121}}; {{harvnb|Brahaj|2007|pp=16–18}}.&lt;/ref&gt; Albanian rituals for [[Dodola and Perperuna|rainmaking]] invoke the Sky and the Sun.&lt;ref name=&quot;auto8&quot;&gt;{{harvnb|Tirta|2004|pp=307–313}}; {{harvnb|Gjoni|2012|pp=85–86}}.&lt;/ref&gt; The cult practiced by the Albanians on several [[sacred mountains]] (notably on [[Mount Tomorr]] in central Albania) performed with pilgrimages, prayers to the Sun, ritual [[bonfires]], and [[animal sacrifices]],&lt;ref&gt;{{harvnb|Tirta|2004|p=75}}; {{harvnb|Gjoni|2012|pp=81–87}}; {{harvnb|Krasniqi|2014|pp=4–5}}.&lt;/ref&gt; is considered a continuation of the ancient [[Proto-Indo-European mythology|Indo-European]] sky-god worship.{{sfn|Cook|2010|p=1171}} The cult of the Sky is also preserved in [[Besa (Albanian culture)|Albanian solemn oaths]].&lt;ref&gt;{{harvnb|Elsie|2001a|pp=193, 244}}; {{harvnb|Cook|1964|p=197}}.&lt;/ref&gt; The Sky (Qielli) is often paired with the Earth ([[Dheu]]) in Albanian oath swearings.&lt;ref name=&quot;auto9&quot;&gt;{{harvnb|Ushaku|1988|pp=92, 95–97}}; {{harvnb|Pipa|1993|p=253}}; {{harvnb|Elsie|2001a|p=193}}; {{harvnb|Hysi|2006|pp=349–350}}.&lt;/ref&gt; The Albanian divine [[culture hero]] [[drangue]], who plays a dominant role in Albanian mythology, features the attributes of a sky and lightning deity, apparently an Albanian reflection of the Indo-European sky god.{{sfn|Tirta|2004|p=127}} In some Albanian regions the lightning god who lives in the clouds in the sky is alternatively referred to as [[Shurdhi]], [[Verbti]], or [[Rmoria]].{{sfn|Tirta|2004|p=130}} Another possible name of the sky and lightning god could be [[Perëndi]]. An Albanian mythical tale concerning the highest of the gods, who uses [[thunderbolt]]s to defeat the [[sea]]-[[storm]] god [[Talas (deity)|Talas]], has been documented in the early 20th century from the [[Shala (tribe)|Shala]] region in northern Albania.&lt;ref&gt;{{harvnb|Lambertz|1922|pp=47, 146–148}}&lt;/ref&gt; ===Zonja e Dheut, Dheu=== [[File:Broja 06.JPG|thumb|An instance of the Albanian worship of the Mother Earth is the veneration and deep respect that the pople of [[Kelmendi (tribe)|Kelmend]] dedicate to her. For them environment is of great importance, and they are deeply attached to their territory, maintaining a balance that involves material aspects as well as cultural and spiritual aspects.{{sfn|Wolff|2022|pp=109, 115}}]] ''[[Zonja e Dheut]]'' (also {{lang-aln|Zôja e Dheut}}) is used in Albanian to refer to the [[Earth Goddess]].&lt;ref&gt;{{harvnb|Ushaku|1988|pp=92, 95–97}}; {{harvnb|Mann|1948|pp=583–584}}.&lt;/ref&gt; The [[Mother Goddess|Earth Mother Goddess]] or Great Mother ([[Magna Mater]]) is simply referred to as [[Dheu|''Dhé'' or ''Dheu'']] in Albanian, and traces of her worship have been preserved in Albanian tradition.&lt;ref&gt;{{harvnb|Poghirc|1987|p=178}}; {{harvnb|Ushaku|1988|pp=92, 95–97}}; {{harvnb|Pipa|1993|p=253}}; {{harvnb|Tirta|2004|pp=189–190, 230}}.&lt;/ref&gt; The Albanian noun ''Toka'' &quot;The Earth&quot; is also used to refer to the living Earth.{{sfn|Stipčević|2009|p=506}} The fact that ''dhé'' &quot;earth&quot; is an Albanian inherited word from [[Proto-Indo-European]], with ritualization in sacred contexts preserving its stability and density, highlights the important role of the earth in Albanian culture.{{sfn|Ushaku|1988|pp=92, 95–97}} Very serious [[Besa (Albanian culture)|Albanian oath swearings]] taken by earth, and many [[curse]] formulas based on the earth, also show the great significance of the earth cult in Albanian tradition.&lt;ref&gt;{{harvnb|Ushaku|1988|pp=92, 95–97}}; {{harvnb|Pipa|1993|p=253}}; {{harvnb|Elsie|2001a|p=193}}; {{harvnb|Tirta|2004|pp=42, 68, 230, 439}}; {{harvnb|Hysi|2006|pp=349–350}}.&lt;/ref&gt; The cult of the Earth Mother Goddes is expressed by the whorship of the female ancestor and maternal breasts,&lt;ref&gt;{{harvnb|Poghirc|1987|p=178}}; {{harvnb|Tirta|2004|pp=188–190}}.&lt;/ref&gt; and by rituals and beliefs involving immurement and building (also with animal sacrifices),&lt;ref&gt;{{harvnb|Poghirc|1987|pp=178–179, 340–341}}; {{harvnb|Tirta|2004|p=191}}.&lt;/ref&gt; spring, renewal of nature and soil fertility,&lt;ref&gt;{{harvnb|Tirta|2004|pp=254–255, 260}}; {{harvnb|Qafleshi|2011|p=55}}&lt;/ref&gt; death and afterlife as the final dwelling of humans,{{sfn|Tirta|2004|pp=220–221, 230–231, 335, 375}} pristine sacred places, and building plots.{{sfn|Tirta|2004|pp=333–339}} ''Kroni'' ([[definiteness|indefinite form]]: ''kron''), ''krua'', or ''kroi'', is a hydronym widespread in Albanian inhabited territories. It is an ancient Albanian word, meaning &quot;living water&quot;, &quot;flowing water&quot;, &quot;[[water spring]]&quot;. Some people believe that water is to the living Earth what blood is to the humans.{{sfn|Stipčević|2009|pp=505–506}} In Albanian culture the original female ancestor of the kin group (Alb. [[Albanian tribes|''fis'' or ''farë'']]) is referred to as the &quot;mother of the home&quot; representing the Great Mother, and she is often imagined as a serpent (see [[Vitore]] and [[Nëna e Vatrës]]).{{sfn|Doja|2005|p=458}} The serpent is a sacred animal totem of the Albanians. Regarded as an earth-deity, the serpent is euphemistically called with names that are derived form the Albanian words for earth, ''dhé'' and ''tokë'': ''Dhetokësi'', ''Dheu'', ''Përdhesi'', ''Tokësi'' or ''Itokësi''.{{sfn|Tirta|2004|pp=147–152, 239, 409}} The earth is often paired with the sky in Albanian oath swearings, e.g.: ''për qiell e dhé'', ''pasha tokën e pasha qiellin'', etc.&lt;ref name=&quot;auto9&quot;/&gt; ===Dielli=== {{multiple image |align=right |total_width=400 |image_style=border:none; |image1=Ballokume të Elbasanit 02.jpg |image2=Fli nga Grashtica.jpg|footer=[[Ballokume]], a cookie (left); [[Flia]] (meaning &quot;[[sacrifice]]&quot;), a dish (right). They are figurative representations of the Sun, traditionally prepared and eaten during [[Dita e Verës|Dita e Verës or Verëza]] – an Albanian pagan [[Spring day|spring festival]], celebrated by all Albanians (also officially in [[Albania]]) to drive away the darkness of the winter season allowing Nature's renewal and for the strengthening of the Sun, traditionally by litting [[bonfires]] in yards everywhere, especially on high places.}} [[Dielli (Albanian paganism)|Dielli]], the [[Sun]], holds the primary role in Albanian pagan customs, beliefs, rituals, myths, and legends. Albanian major traditional festivities and calendar rites are based on the Sun, worshiped as the god of [[light]], [[sky]] and [[weather]], giver of life, health and energy, and all-seeing eye.&lt;ref&gt;{{harvnb|Tirta|2004|pp=68, 70, 249–254}}; {{harvnb|Sokoli|2013|p=181}}; {{harvnb|Hysi|2006|pp=349–361}}; {{harvnb|Gjoni|2012|p=86}}.&lt;/ref&gt; In Albanian tradition the [[fire]] – ''[[Zjarri (Albanian paganism)|zjarri]]'', evidently also called with the theonym [[Enji (deity)|Enji]] – worship and rituals are particularly related to the cult of the Sun. Ritual calendar fires or bonfires are traditionally kindled before sunrise in order to give strength to the Sun.&lt;ref&gt;{{harvnb|Qafleshi|2011|p=49}}; {{harvnb|Tirta|2004|pp=68–69, 135, 176–181, 249–261, 274–282, 327}}; {{harvnb|Xhemaj|1983|pp=104–121}}.&lt;/ref&gt; Many rituals are practiced before and during [[sunrise]], honoring this moment of the day as it is believed to give energy and health to the body.{{sfn|Gjoni|2012|pp=86–87}}{{sfn|Useini|2024|p=164}} As the wide set of cultic traditions dedicated to him indicates, the Albanian Sun-god appears to be an expression of the [[Proto-Indo-European mythology|Proto-Indo-European]] Sky-god ([[Zojz (deity)|Zot or Zojz]] in Albanian).{{sfn|Treimer|1971|p=31}} Albanians were firstly described in written sources as worshippers of the Sun and the Moon by German humanist [[Sebastian Franck]] in 1534,&lt;ref name=&quot;Elsie-Franck&quot;/&gt; but the Sun and the Moon have been preserved as sacred elements of Albanian tradition since antiquity. [[Illyrians|Illyrian]] [[material culture]] shows that the Sun was the chief cult object of the [[Illyrian religion]].&lt;ref&gt;{{harvnb|Galaty|Lafe|Lee|Tafilica|2013|p=156}}; {{harvnb|Dobruna-Salihu|2005|pp=345–346}}; {{harvnb|Tirta|2004|pp=68–70}}; {{harvnb|Egro|2003|p=35}}; {{harvnb|Stipčević|1977|p=182}}.&lt;/ref&gt; Finding correspondences with Albanian folk beliefs and practices, the Illyrian Sun-deity is figuratively represented on Iron Age plaques from [[Lake Shkodra]] as the god of the [[sky]] and [[lightning]], also associated with the [[fire]] altar where he throws lightning bolts.{{sfn|Brahaj|2007|pp=16–18}} The symbolization of the cult of the Sun, which is often combined with the [[Lunar phase|crescent]] [[Moon]], is commonly found in a variety of contexts of Albanian folk art, including [[Albanian traditional tattooing|traditional tattooing]], grave art, jewellery, embroidery, and house carvings.&lt;ref name=&quot;auto7&quot;&gt;{{harvnb|Galaty|Lafe|Lee|Tafilica|2013|pp=155–157}}; {{harvnb|Tirta|2004|pp=68–82}}; {{harvnb|Elsie|2001a|pp=181, 244}}; {{harvnb|Poghirc|1987|p=178}}; {{harvnb|Durham|1928a|p=51}}; {{harvnb|Durham|1928b|pp=120–125}}.&lt;/ref&gt; Solemn oaths ([[Besa (Albanian culture)|Besa]]), good omens, and curse formulas, involve and are addressed to, or taken by, the Sun.&lt;ref&gt;{{harvnb|Tirta|2004|pp=71–72}}; {{harvnb|Elsie|2001a|pp=193, 244}}; {{harvnb|Cook|1964|p=197}}.&lt;/ref&gt; Prayers to the Sun, ritual [[bonfires]], and [[animal sacrifices]] have been common practices performed by Albanians during the ritual pilgrimages on mountain tops.&lt;ref&gt;{{harvnb|Tirta|2004|p=75}}; {{harvnb|Gjoni|2012|pp=81–87}}; {{harvnb|Xhemaj|1983|pp=104–121}}.&lt;/ref&gt; In Albanian the god who rules the sky is referred to as ''i Bukuri i Qiellit'' (&quot;the Beauty of the Sky&quot;), a phrase that is used in pagan contexts for the Sun, the [[god of light]] and giver of life, who fades away the darkness of the world and melts the frost, allowing the renewal of [[Nature]].&lt;ref name=&quot;auto14&quot;/&gt; According to folk beliefs, the Sun makes the sky cloudy or clears it up.{{sfn|Tirta|2004|pp=71–72}} Albanian rituals for [[Dodola and Perperuna|rainmaking]] invoke the Sky and the Sun.&lt;ref name=&quot;auto8&quot;/&gt; In Albanian tradition the Sun is referred to as an &quot;eye&quot;, which is a reflection of the [[Proto-Indo-European mythology|Indo-European]] belief according to which the Sun is the eye of the Sky-God [[Dyeus|*Di̯ḗu̯s]]{{sfn|Cook|1964|p=197}} ([[Zojz (deity)|Zojz]] in Albanian tradition&lt;ref name=&quot;auto2&quot;&gt;{{harvnb|Hyllested|Joseph|2022|p=232}}; {{harvnb|Søborg|2020|p=74}}.&lt;/ref&gt;). According to folk beliefs, the Sun is all-seeing, with a single glance he possesses the ability to see the entire surface of the [[Earth]]. The Sun, referred to as &quot;the all-seeing (big) eye&quot; is invoked in solemn oaths ([[Besa (Albanian culture)|be]]), and information about everything that happens on Earth is asked to the all-seeing Sun in ritual songs.{{sfn|Hysi|2006|pp=349–361}}{{sfn|Gjoni|2012|p=86}} In Albanian pagan beliefs and mythology the Sun is animistically personified as a male deity. The Moon ({{lang|sq|[[Hëna (Albanian paganism)|Hëna]]}}) is his female counterpart.&lt;ref name=&quot;auto15&quot;&gt;{{harvnb|Tirta|2004|pp=72, 128}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;auto3&quot;&gt;{{harvnb|Dushi|2020|p=21}}&lt;/ref&gt; In pagan beliefs the fire hearth ({{lang|sq|[[Vatër|vatra]] e zjarrit}}) is the symbol of fire as the offspring of the Sun.{{sfn|Gjoni|2012|p=90}} In some folk tales, myths and legends the Sun and the Moon are regarded as husband and wife, also notably appearing as the parents of [[E Bija e Hënës dhe e Diellit]] (&quot;the Daughter of the Moon and the Sun&quot;); in others the Sun and the Moon are regarded as brother and sister, but in this case they are never considered consorts.&lt;ref name=&quot;auto15&quot;/&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;auto3&quot;/&gt; [[Nëna e Diellit]] (&quot;the Mother of the Sun&quot; or &quot;the Sun's Mother&quot;) also appears as a personified deity in Albanian folk beliefs and tales.&lt;ref name=&quot;auto6&quot;/&gt; ====Nëna e Diellit==== [[Nëna e Diellit]] is the Mother of the Sun ([[Dielli (Albanian paganism)|Dielli]]). A sacred [[ritual]] called &quot;the funeral of the Sun's Mother&quot; was very widespread in southeastern [[Albania]] until the 20th century.&lt;ref name=&quot;auto6&quot;&gt;{{harvnb|Golan|1991|p=55}}; {{harvnb|Daum|1998|p=236}}; {{harvnb|Golan|2003|pp=93–94}}; {{harvnb|Tirta|2004|pp=259–260}}; {{harvnb|Neziri|2015|p=124}}.&lt;/ref&gt; She has been described by scholars as a heaven goddess&lt;ref&gt;{{harvnb|Golan|1991|p=55}}; {{harvnb|Golan|2003|pp=93–94}}&lt;/ref&gt; and a goddess of agriculture, livestock, and earth fertility, as suggested by the sacred ritual dedicated to her.&lt;ref&gt;{{harvnb|Tirta|2004|pp=259–260}}&lt;/ref&gt; Nëna e Diellit also features as a deity in Albanian folk tales.&lt;ref&gt;{{harvnb|Lambertz|1952|p=138}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{harvnb|Elsie|2001a|p=98}}&lt;/ref&gt; Nëna e Diellit represents a manifestation of the [[personification]] of the Sun in Albanian mythology.{{sfn|Bovan|1985|p=241}} ===Hëna=== [[File:Marubi photograph woman from Grudë.jpg|thumb|upright|The sun/star and the crescent moon stitched to the crown of the headgear of a woman of the [[Gruda (tribe)|Gruda tribe]]. This fashion was very common among Catholic women of all the northern [[Albanian tribes]].{{sfn|Durham|1928b|p=121}}]] [[Hëna (Albanian paganism)|Hëna]], the [[Moon]], holds a prominent position in Albanian culture, with Moon's cyclical [[Lunar phase|phases]] regulating many aspects of the life of the Albanians, defining agricultural and livestock activities, various crafts, and human body.&lt;ref name=&quot;auto20&quot;/&gt; Albanians were firstly described in written sources as worshippers of the Sun and the Moon by German humanist [[Sebastian Franck]] in 1534,&lt;ref name=&quot;Elsie-Franck&quot;/&gt; but the Sun and the Moon have been preserved as sacred elements of Albanian tradition since antiquity.&lt;ref&gt;{{harvnb|Galaty|Lafe|Lee|Tafilica|2013|p=156}}; {{harvnb|Dobruna-Salihu|2005|p=345–346}}; {{harvnb|Tirta|2004|pp=68–70}}; {{harvnb|Egro|2003|p=35}}; {{harvnb|Stipčević|1977|p=182}}.&lt;/ref&gt; The symbolization of the [[Lunar phase|crescent]] [[Moon]], often combined with the Sun, is commonly found in a variety of contexts of Albanian folk art, including [[Albanian traditional tattooing|traditional tattooing]], grave art, jewellery, embroidery, and house carvings.&lt;ref name=&quot;auto7&quot;/&gt; In Albanian pagan beliefs and mythology the Moon is a personified female deity, and the Sun ({{lang|sq|[[Dielli (Albanian paganism)|Dielli]]}}) is her male counterpart.&lt;ref name=&quot;auto15&quot;/&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;auto3&quot;/&gt; In some folk tales, myths and legends the Moon and the Sun are regarded as wife and husband, also notably appearing as the parents of [[E Bija e Hënës dhe e Diellit]] (&quot;the Daughter of the Moon and the Sun&quot;); in others the Sun and the Moon are regarded as brother and sister, but in this case they are never considered consorts.&lt;ref name=&quot;auto15&quot;/&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;auto3&quot;/&gt; In [[Old Albanian]] the name ''Hana''/''Hanë'' was attested also as a theonym – the Albanian rendering of [[Roman religion|Roman]] goddess [[Diana (mythology)|Diana]].{{sfn|Neri|2021|ps=: &quot;hënë&quot;}} ===Prende, Afër-dita=== {{multiple image | align=right | total_width=360 | image_style=border:none; | image1=Albanian traditional art 1.png | alt1= | image2=Albanian traditional art 2.png | alt2= | footer=Albanian traditional art with an elaborate design representing the sun, serpent, bird (dove), wheat and flowering plant. Embroidered on the scarlet cloak that is traditionally given on the weddingday by the bridegroom to the bride (Catholic of Shkodra), the pattern suggests a fertility cult.{{sfn|Durham|1928b|pp=126–128}} Drawn by Edith Durham in the early 20th century.}} [[Prende|Prende or Premte]] is the dawn goddess and goddess of [[Love goddess|love]], [[List of beauty deities|beauty]], [[List of fertility deities|fertility]], [[health deity|health]] and protector of women.&lt;ref&gt;{{harvnb|Lambertz|1973|p=509}}; {{harvnb|Dunwich|2000|p=151}}; {{harvnb|Lurker|2005|p=155}}; {{harvnb|Hyllested|Joseph|2022|p=235}}; {{harvnb|Dedvukaj|2023|p=1}}.&lt;/ref&gt; She is also called Afër-dita,&lt;ref name=&quot;auto22&quot;&gt;{{harvnb|Sedaj|1982|p=78}}; {{harvnb|Lambertz|1973|p=509}}&lt;/ref&gt; an [[Albanian language|Albanian]] phrase meaning &quot;near day&quot;, &quot;the day is near&quot;, or &quot;dawn&quot;,&lt;ref&gt;{{harvnb|Dedvukaj|2023|pp=1–2}}; {{harvnb|Plangarica|2001|p=46}}&lt;/ref&gt;{{Refn|''Afërdita''{{sfn|Kostallari|1981|p=377}}{{sfn|Thomaj|2002|p=1488}} or {{lang-aln|Afêrdita}}{{sfn|Lambertz|1973|p=509}} is the native [[Albanian language|Albanian]] name of the planet [[Venus]]; ''Afro-dita'' is its Albanian imperative form meaning &quot;come forth the day/dawn&quot;.{{sfn|Dedvukaj|2023|p=1}}|group=note}} in association with the cult of the planet [[Venus]], the morning and evening star.&lt;ref name=&quot;auto22&quot;/&gt;{{Refn|Albanian: ''(h)ylli i dritës, Afërdita'' &quot;the Star of Light, Afërdita&quot; (i.e. Venus, the morning star){{sfn|Lambertz|1973|p=509}} and ''(h)ylli i mbrëmjes, Afërdita'' (i.e. Venus, the evening star).{{sfn|Frashëri|1980|p=294}}|group=note}} Her sacred day is [[Friday]], named in Albanian after her: ''e premte'', ''premtja'' ({{lang-aln|e prende, prendja}}{{sfn|Camaj|Fox|1984|p=328}}).&lt;ref name=&quot;auto1&quot;&gt;{{harvnb|Dunwich|2000|p=151}}; {{harvnb|Lurker|2005|p=155}}&lt;/ref&gt; She is referred to as ''Zoja Prenne'' or ''Zoja e Bukuris'' (&quot;Goddess/Lady Prenne&quot; or &quot;Goddess/Lady of Beauty&quot;).{{sfn|Demiraj|Starostin|Lubotsky|de Vaan}}{{sfn|Elsie|2001a|p=258}}{{sfn|Sedaj|1982|pp=78, 457}} In Albanian mythology Prende appears as the daughter of [[Zojz (deity)|Zojz]], the Albanian sky and lightning god.{{sfn|Lambertz|1922|pp=47, 143–144, 146–148}} Thought to have been worshiped by the [[Illyrians]] in antiquity,&lt;ref name=&quot;auto1&quot;/&gt; Prende is identified with the cult of [[Venus (mythology)|Venus]] and she was worshipped in northern [[Albania]], especially by the Albanian women, until recent times. She features attributes of [[Aphrodite]], [[Iris (mythology)|Iris]], and [[Helen of Troy|Helen]], as well as [[Persephone]] as shown by the etymology of her name.{{sfn|Hyllested|2024|p=60}} Describing a goddess of the underworld and at the same time a personification of springtime, the Albanian ''[[e Bukura e Dheut]]'' (&quot;the Beauty of the Earth&quot;) is evidently an epithet of the Albanian equivalent of Persephone.{{sfn|Elsie|2001a|pp=79–81}} In Christian times she was called ''ShënePremte''{{sfn|Elsie|2001a|p=258}} or ''Shën Prende''{{sfn|Galaty|Lafe|Lee|Tafilica|2013|p=43}} (&quot;Saint Veneranda&quot;), identified by the [[Catholic Church in Albania|Catholic Church]] as [[Saint Anne]], mother of [[Virgin Mary]]. She was so popular in Albania that over one in eight of the Catholic churches existing in the late 16th and the early 17th centuries were named after her. Many other historical Catholic and Orthodox churches were dedicated to her in the 18th and 19th centuries.{{sfn|Elsie|2001a|p=258}} ===Enji, Zjarri=== [[Enji (deity)|Enji]] ({{IPA-sq|ɛɲi|lang}}) is the old name of the [[fire]] god, evidently contained in the week day name that was dedicated to him – {{lang|sq|e enjte}} – the [[Albanian language|Albanian]] word for [[Thursday]].&lt;ref&gt;{{harvnb|Tagliavini|1963|p=103}}; {{harvnb|Treimer|1971|p=32}}; {{harvnb|Orel|1998|p=88}}; {{harvnb|Lurker|2005|p=57}}; {{harvnb|Koch|2015|p=113}}; {{harvnb|Sarao|2021|p=13}}&lt;/ref&gt; The Fire – [[Zjarri (Albanian paganism)|Zjarri]] – is [[Deity|deified]] in Albanian tradition as releaser of [[light]] and [[heat]] with the power to [[Apotropaic magic|ward off]] [[darkness]] and [[evil]], affect [[List of natural phenomena|cosmic phenomena]] and give strength to the Sun, and as sustainer of the continuity between [[life]] and [[afterlife]] and between the [[generation]]s. The divine power of Fire is used for the [[hearth]] and the [[rituals]], including calendar fires, [[sacrifices|sacrificial offerings]], [[divination]], [[Ritual purification|purification]], and protection from big storms and other potentially harmful events.&lt;ref name=&quot;auto12&quot;/&gt; Fire worship and rituals are associated with the cult of the Sun ([[Dielli (Albanian paganism)|Dielli]]), the cult of the hearth ([[vatër]]) and the [[Ancestor worship|ancestor]], and the cult of fertility in [[agriculture]] and [[animal husbandry]].&lt;ref name=&quot;auto5&quot;/&gt; Fire rituals that are commonly found among [[Indo-European]] peoples, including the [[Albanians]], have been firstly attested by the [[Vedas]], with hymns dedicated to the fire god [[Agni]].{{sfn|Tirta|2004|pp=250–251}} Described in written sources since 1482,{{sfn|Malcolm|2020|pp=19–20}} the Albanian practices associated with ritual fires have been historically fought by the Christian clergy, without success.{{sfn|Qafleshi|2011|p=49}} The cult of the mystic fire and the fire ritual practices have played a prominent role in the lives of all the Albanian people until the 20th century, and in rural areas they continue to be important for Albanian traditional customs even in the present days.{{sfn|Tirta|2004|pp=68-69, 135, 176-181, 249-261, 274-282, 327}}{{sfn|Qafleshi|2011|p=49}}{{sfn|Useini|2024|p=164}}{{sfn|Xhemaj|1983|pp=104–121}} The theonym from which Thursday was named in Albanian is considered to have been attested in antiquity in [[Illyrians|Illyrian]] [[theophoric name]]s with the [[Latin alphabet|Latin]] spelling ''En(n)-''.{{sfn|Lambertz|1973|p=476}} He was presumably worshiped by the Illyrians in antiquity&lt;ref&gt;{{harvnb|Treimer|1971|p=32}}; {{harvnb|Lambertz|1973|p=476}}; {{harvnb|Poghirc|1987|p=178}}; {{harvnb|Lurker|2005|p=57}}; {{harvnb|Sarao|2021|p=13}}.&lt;/ref&gt; and he may have been the most prominent god of the Albanian pantheon in Roman times by [[Interpretatio romana|interpreting]] [[Jupiter (mythology)|Jupiter]], when week-day names were formed in the Albanian language.&lt;ref&gt;{{harvnb|Treimer|1971|p=32}}; {{harvnb|Lambertz|1973|p=476}}; {{harvnb|Poghirc|1987|p=178}}; {{harvnb|Orel|1998|p=88}}; {{harvnb|Koch|2015|p=113}}.&lt;/ref&gt; The belief in a prominent fire and wind god, who was referred to as [[I Verbti]] (&quot;the blind one&quot;), and who was often regarded more powerful than the Christian [[God]], survived in northern [[Albania]] until recent times.&lt;ref&gt;{{harvnb|Lambertz|1922|pp=47, 49, 145–146}}; {{harvnb|Stadtmüller|1954|pp=216–217}}; {{harvnb|Lambertz|1973|pp=505–506}}.&lt;/ref&gt; Under Christianization the god of fire was [[demonized]] and considered a [[false god]], and it was spread about that anyone who invoked him would be blinded by fire.&lt;ref&gt;{{harvnb|Lurker|2004|p=197}}; {{harvnb|Stadtmüller|1954|pp=216–217}}; {{harvnb|Lambertz|1922|pp=47, 49, 145–146}}.&lt;/ref&gt; The [[Ritual purification|purifying power]] of fire underlies the Albanian folk belief according to which the fire god is the enemy of uncleanliness and the opponent of filth.{{sfn|Lambertz|1922|pp=47, 49, 145–146}} [[File:Fireplace of a house of Mirdita.png|thumb|250px|Hearth fire lighting a dark room in a house of [[Mirdita]], northern Albania. Drawn by Edith Durham in 1909.]] In Albanian tradition Fire is deeply respected. To spit into it is [[taboo]].{{sfn|Pipa|1993|p=253}} [[Besa (Albanian culture)|Albanian solemn oaths]] are taken &quot;by fire&quot;,{{sfn|Hysi|2006|pp=349–361}} and the worst curse formulas are cast for the extinguishing of the individual's, family's and clan's fire.{{sfn|Muka|1984|p=29}} The lineage is identified with an original fire, and the members of a same tribe/clan are &quot;from the same fire&quot;. ''Zjarri i Vatrës'' (&quot;the Fire of the Hearth&quot;) is regarded as the offspring of the Sun and the sustainer of the continuity between the world of the living and that of the dead and between the generations, ensuring the survival of the lineage ([[Albanian tribes|''fis'' or ''farë'']]).&lt;ref name=&quot;auto21&quot;&gt;{{harvnb|Poghirc|1987|p=179}}; {{harvnb|Tirta|2004|pp=176, 410}}; {{harvnb|Xhemaj|1983|pp=104–121}}; {{harvnb|De Rapper|2012|pp=14–15}}; {{harvnb|Gjoni|2012|p=90}}; {{harvnb|Galaty|Lafe|Lee|Tafilica|2013|p=161}}.&lt;/ref&gt; The absence of fire in a house is traditionally considered a great curse.{{sfn|Muka|1984|p=29}} Protectors of the hearth are [[Vitore|Gjarpri i Vatrës]] (&quot;the Serpent of the Hearth&quot;), a household benign serpent,&lt;ref&gt;{{harvnb|Tirta|2004|pp=152–156}}; {{harvnb|Elsie|2001a|p=260}}; {{harvnb|Doja|2005|pp=449–462}}; {{harvnb|Poghirc|1987|p=179}}; {{harvnb|Doli|2009|pp=127–128}}; {{harvnb|Stipčević|2009|p=507}}.&lt;/ref&gt; and [[Nëna e Vatrës]] (&quot;the Mother of the Hearth&quot;).{{sfn|Tirta|2004|pp=176–181}}{{sfn|Poghirc|1987|p=179}} ''Zjarret e Vitit'' (&quot;Ritual Calendar Fires&quot;) are associated with the cosmic cycle and the rhythms of agricultural and pastoral life.&lt;ref name=&quot;auto18&quot;/&gt; The ritual collective fires (based on the house, kinship, or neighborhood) or bonfires in yards (especially on high places) lit before [[sunrise]] to celebrate the main traditional Albanian festivities such as [[Dita e Verës]] ([[March equinox|spring equinox]]), ''[[#Shëngjergji|Shëngjergji]]'', ''[[#Summer solstice|Shën Gjini–Shën Gjoni]]'' ([[summer solstice]]), the [[#Winter solstice|winter festivals]] ([[winter solstice]]), or mountain pilgrimages, often accompanied by [[animal sacrifices]], are related to the cult of the Sun, and in particular they are practiced with the function to give strength to the Sun and to [[apotropaic|ward off evil]] according to the old beliefs.{{sfn|Tirta|2004|pp=75, 113, 116, 250}}{{sfn|Xhemaj|1983|pp=104–121}}{{sfn|Useini|2024|p=164}} ''Zjarri i Gjallë'', ''Zjarri i Egër'', or ''Zjarri i Keq'' – traditionally kindled with rudimentary [[fire making]] tools and techniques – is the ritual purifying Fire used for the cleansing, protection, healing, and energizing of livestock and humans.{{sfn|Tirta|2004|pp=279–281, 327}}{{sfn|Xhemaj|1983|pp=104–121}} Albanian folk beliefs regard the [[lightning]] as ''Zjarri i Qiellit'' (&quot;the Fire of the Sky&quot;) and consider it as the &quot;weapon of the deity&quot;.{{sfn|Tirta|2004|pp=82, 406}} During big storms with torrential rains, lightning and hail, which often cause great damage to agriculture, livestock, and to the rural economy in general, Albanians traditionally bring outdoors Fire as a continuous chain or in a container, as well as ember and fire-related metallic objects, seeking assistance from the supernatural power of the Fire, in order to turn the storm away and to avert the harms it can cause to the community.&lt;ref name=&quot;auto19&quot;/&gt; ==Sacred animals== {{multiple image | align=right | total_width=300 | image_style=border:none | image1=Original swords o Ali Pasha Tepelena.jpg | alt1= Swords o Ali Pasha | image2=Stamp of Albania - 2014 - Colnect 688610 - Shepherd s crook Labëria.jpeg | footer=A serpent (''gjarpër'') carved on the sheath of an original sword of the Albanian ruler [[Ali Pasha Tepelena]] (left).&lt;br&gt;A serpent-shaped shepherd's crook from [[Labëria]], depicted on a 2014 [[Postage stamps and postal history of Albania|postage stamp of Albania]] (right). | alt2= Shepherd's crook }} *Shqiponja, the [[eagle]]: the animal [[totem]] of the [[Albanian people]], associated with the Sky, freedom and heroism{{sfn|Brahaj|2007|pp=16–18}}{{sfn|Tirta|2004|pp=62–68|p=}}{{sfn|Hysi|2006|pp=349–361}} *Bleta, the [[bee]]: associated with human life. When an animal ceases to live, Albanians use the verb ''[[:wikt:ngordh|ngordh]]'' or ''cof''; when a bee ceases to live, they use the verb ''[[:wikt:vdes|vdes]]'' (which is used to refer to human death). Meaning that for Albanians bees are beings of a higher caste, like humans.{{sfn|Tirta|2004|pp=62–68|p=}} *Gjarpri, the [[Snake|serpent]]: an animal totem of Albanians, associated with [[chthonic|earth]], [[water worship|water]], [[Sun worship|sun]], [[hearth]] and [[ancestor worship|ancestor]] cults, as well as [[destiny]], [[good fortune]] and [[fertility]]{{sfn|Sinani|2010|pp=105–106, 111}}{{sfn|Stipčević|2009|p=507}}{{sfn|Doli|2009|pp=127–128}}{{sfn|Tirta|2004|pp=62–68|p=}}{{sfn|Hysi|2006|pp=349–361}} **Dhe-tokësi, dheu or tokësi: chthonic serpent{{sfn|Tirta|2004|pp=147–152, 239, 409}} **Bolla: [[Grass snake|water serpent]]{{sfn|Tirta|2004|pp=152–156}} *Dreri, the [[deer]]: associated with [[Sun worship|sun cult]]{{sfn|Tirta|2004|pp=62–68|p=}} *Dhia e egër, the [[wild goat]]: associated with [[Vegetation deity|forests cult]]{{sfn|Tirta|2004|pp=62–68|p=}}{{sfn|Hysi|2006|pp=349–361}} *Kali, the [[horse]]: the most distinguished [[Proto-Indo-European mythology|Indo-European]] cultic animal{{sfn|Hysi|2006|pp=349–361}} *Kau, the [[ox]]: associated with earth and agriculture{{sfn|Poghirc|1987|p=178}}{{sfn|Tirta|2004|pp=167–268}}{{sfn|Hysi|2006|pp=349–361}} *Bukla, the [[stoat]]{{sfn|Tirta|2004|pp=62–68|p=}} *Ujku, the [[wolf]]{{sfn|Tirta|2004|pp=62–68|p=}}{{sfn|Hysi|2006|pp=349–361}} ==Mythical beings== {{div col|colwidth=22em}} *Nymph-like beings **Nuse Mali: mountain nymphs{{sfn|Tirta|2004|pp=115, 132}}{{sfn|Elsie|2001b|pp=22, 48, 130}} ***[[Zana e malit]], [[Ora (mythology)|Ora]], [[Bardha]], [[Shtojzovalle]], Jashtësme, Të Lumet Natë, Mira, [[E Bukura e Dheut]] (the earthly beauty) **Nuse uji: water nymphs{{sfn|Tirta|2004|pp=115, 132}}{{Sfn|Elsie|2001a|pp=101, 191}} ***Zana e ujit, Nusja Shapulicë, Cuca e Liqenit, Ksheta, [[Perria]]; [[E Bukura e Detit]] (the beauty of the sea) *Serpentine dragons **[[Kulshedra|Bolla→Bollar→Errshaja→Kulshedra]]{{sfn|Doja|2005|pp=449–462}}{{Sfn|Elsie|2001a|pp=46–47, 74–76, 153–156}} **[[Ljubi]]{{Sfn|Elsie|2001a|p=161}} **[[Stihi]]{{Sfn|Elsie|2001a|pp=241–242}} **Sprija{{Sfn|Elsie|2001a|p=240}} **[[Lamia|Llamja]] (half snake-half woman monster that seduces men and eats children){{Sfn|Elsie|2001a|pp=160–161}} *Speaking animals with human emotions and [[Oracle|oracular]] abilities{{sfn|Leka|2018|pp=119–120}} **Birds **Serpents **Horses *Abe (phantom wearing a cloak){{Sfn|Elsie|2001a|p=4}} *Angu (shapeless ghost who appears in dreams){{sfn|Tirta|2004|pp=132–137}} *Avullushe (spirits that suffocate people with their breath){{Sfn|Elsie|2001a|pp=18–19}}{{sfn|Poghirc|1987|p=179}} *[[Bardha]] (pale, nebulous spirits who dwell under the earth) {{Sfn|Elsie|2001a|p=20}} *Bariu i mirë (the good shepherd){{sfn|Tirta|2004|p=407}} *[[Baloz]] (dark knight, huge monster){{Sfn|Elsie|2001a|pp=20–21}}{{sfn|Poghirc|1987|p=179}} *[[Bushi i kënetës]]: bull of ponds and swamps which can cause rain by bellowing{{Sfn|Elsie|2001a|pp=48–49}}{{sfn|Tirta|2004|pp=67–68}} *Bushtra (bad omen-wishing female witch){{Sfn|Elsie|2001a|p=49}} *Çakalloz (mighty being, slightly deranged hero){{Sfn|Elsie|2001a|p=50}} *[[Dhampir]] (half-vampire, half-human){{sfn|Tirta|2004|pp=132–137}}{{Sfn|Elsie|2001a|pp=68–69}} *Dhevështruesi (half human and half animal){{sfn|Tirta|2004|pp=132–137}}{{Sfn|Elsie|2001a|p=69}} *Dhamsutë (deaf and dumb mare){{sfn|Tirta|2004|pp=132–137}}{{Sfn|Elsie|2001a|p=69}} *[[Djall]] (god of death and evil) *Divi ([[ogre]]){{Sfn|Elsie|2001a|p=71}} *[[Drangue]] (winged warrior that kills dragons) *Dreq ([[Devil|devils]]) *Fierkuqja (Venomous lizard that hides in red ferns) *Flama (restless evil ghost){{Sfn|Elsie|2001a|p=90}} *Floçka (water nymph) *Gjysmagjeli{{Sfn|Elsie|2001a|p=107}} *Gogol ([[bogeyman]]){{Sfn|Elsie|2001a|p=103}} *Golden horned goats (wild goats protectors of the forests) {{Sfn|Lurker|2004|p=207}}{{sfn|Elsie|2001b|pp=165–169}} *Grabofç (monstrous two headed snake){{Sfn|Elsie|2001a|p=104}} *Hajnjeri (man eating giant){{Sfn|Elsie|2001a|p=107}} *Hija (shadow ghost) {{Sfn|Elsie|2001a|p=113}} *Jashtësme (elf-like nymphs that live in forests){{Sfn|Elsie|2001a|pp=130}} *Judi (giant ghost){{sfn|Tirta|2004|pp=132–137}}{{Sfn|Elsie|2001a|p=140}} *Kacamisri (similar to [[Tom Thumb]]) *[[Karkanxholl]] ([[goblins]]){{Sfn|Elsie|2001a|p=150}} *Katallan ([[Giant (mythology)|giant]]),{{Sfn|Elsie|2001a|pp=150–151}} having its origins in the [[Catalan Company]]'s brutality in the [[Catalan Campaign in Asia Minor]]. *Katravesh (the four-eared one, man-eating monster){{Sfn|Elsie|2001a|p=151}} *Keshete ([[naiad]]) *Kolivilor (demon similar to an incubus){{Sfn|Elsie|2001a|p=152}} *Kore (child eating demon){{Sfn|Elsie|2001a|p=152}} *[[Kukudh]] (blind female demon that spreads diseases) {{Sfn|Elsie|2001a|p=153}} *Lahin (dwarf-like goblin)){{Sfn|Elsie|2001a|p=158}} *Laura (shapeshifting swamp hag){{sfn|Tirta|2004|pp=132–137}}{{Sfn|Elsie|2001a|p=158}} *[[Lugat]] ([[revenant]]){{sfn|Tirta|2004|pp=132–137}}{{Sfn|Elsie|2001a|pp=162–163}} *Magjí (evil woman, old hag)){{Sfn|Elsie|2001a|p=164}} *Makth (nightmare ghost that suffocates people during sleep){{Sfn|Elsie|2001a|p=164}} *[[Mauthia]]: earth and mountains{{Sfn|Elsie|2001a|p=176}}{{sfn|Poghirc|1987|p=179}} *Mira (Spirits of fate) *Pëlhurëza ([[veil]] ghost){{sfn|Tirta|2004|pp=132–137}} *[[Perria]] (beautiful female jinn who bedazzles humans){{Sfn|Elsie|2001a|p=185}} *Qeros (Scurfhead){{sfn|Elsie|2001b|pp=155, 230}} *Qose (Barefaced Man){{sfn|Elsie|2001b|pp=22–23}} *Rrqepta (similar to a beast){{sfn|Tirta|2004|pp=132–137}} *Rusale ([[mermaid]]){{sfn|Novik|2015|p=266}} *[[Shtojzovalle]] (forest spirits) *[[Shtriga]] (vampiric witch){{Sfn|Elsie|2001a|p=236}}{{sfn|Tirta|2004|pp=111, 193–194}} *Syqeni (the Doggy Eyed, a [[Magician (fantasy)|wizard]]){{sfn|Tirta|2004|pp=132–137}} *Thopçi or Herri ([[gnome]]){{sfn|Tirta|2004|pp=132–137}}{{Sfn|Elsie|2001a|p=113}} *Three headed dog ([[Hellhound]]){{Sfn|Elsie|2001a|p=79}} *[[Vampire]]{{sfn|Tirta|2004|pp=132–137}}{{sfn|Novik|2015|p=266}} *Vdekja (grim reaper) *[[Vitore]] (snake spirit that lays gold coins and protects the home from evil) *Vurvolaka (werewolves){{sfn|Poghirc|1987|p=179}} *[[Xhindi]] ([[jinn]]){{Sfn|Elsie|2001a|p=134}}{{sfn|Poghirc|1987|p=179}} {{div col end}} ==Hero cult== ===Heroic characters=== The [[Albanian language|Albanian]] terms for &quot;hero&quot; are ''trim'' (female: ''trimneshë''), ''kreshnik'' or ''hero'' (female: ''heroinë''). Some of the main heroes of the Albanian epic songs, legends and myths are: ====E Bija e Hënës dhe e Diellit==== [[E Bija e Hënës dhe e Diellit]] &quot;the Daughter of the Moon and the Sun&quot; is described as {{lang|sq|pika e qiellit}}, &quot;the drop of the sky or lightning&quot;, which falls everywhere from heaven on the mountains and the valleys and strikes pride and evil. She fights and defeats the [[kulshedra]]. ====Drangue==== [[Drangue]] is a semi-human winged warrior who fights the [[kulshedra]]; his most powerful weapons are [[lightning]]-swords and [[thunderbolts]], but he also uses meteoric stones, piles of trees and rocks; In Albanian paganism, there is a unique tradition about children born with the essence of dragons. These children are believed to be born with dragon wings, symbolizing their deep connection to ancient, powerful forces. As infants, they have the ability to fly, but their wings must remain unseen, as it is believed that if anyone witnesses them, it would bring death to the onlooker. To protect both the child and others, their wings are cut while they are still young, ensuring their secret remains hidden. Although the wings are removed, the strength and spirit of the dragon live on within them.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://www.anabelmagazine.com/news/55121/shpjegimi-per-historite-e-gjysheve-per-femijet-me-flatra-dragoi|title=Shpjegimi mbi historitë e gjysheve për 'fëmijët me flatra dragoi'|date=January 27, 2021|website=www.anabelmagazine.com}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book |last1=Doja |first1=Albert |title=Mythology and Destiny |page=451 454 |url=https://discovery.ucl.ac.uk/id/eprint/18364/1/18364.pdf}}&lt;/ref&gt; ====Zjermi and Handa==== [[The Twins (Albanian tale)|Zjermi and Handa]] are the protagonists of the heroic folktale &quot;[[The Twins (Albanian tale)|The Twins]]&quot;. Zjerma (lit. &quot;fire&quot;) was born with the [[sun]] in the forehead, while Handa (lit. &quot;moon&quot;) was born with the [[moon]] in the forehead. They have two horses and two dogs as companions, and two silver swords as weapons. Zjermi slays the [[kulshedra]] and defeats the [[shtriga]], rescuing his brother Handa. In a variant of the tale Zjermi also rescues a [[drangue]] called Zef and then they become blood brothers and fight in alliance with other drangue the kulshedra. ====Muji and Halili==== Muji and Halili are the protagonists of [[Albanian epic poetry|epic cycle]] of the ''[[Kângë Kreshnikësh]]'' ====Others==== *[[Gjergj Elez Alia]] *[[Little Constantine]] ===Heroic motifs=== The Albanian heroic songs are substantially permeated by the concepts contained in the [[Kanun (Albania)|Kanun]], a code of Albanian oral customary laws: [[honor]], considered as the highest ideal in Albanian society; [[shame]] and dishonor, regarded as worse than death; [[Besa (Albanian culture)|besa]] and [[loyalty]], [[gjakmarrja]].{{sfn|Skendi|1954|pp=83, 86–91}}{{sfn|Watkins|1995|pp=83, 164, 443}} Another characteristic of Albanian heroic songs are [[weapons]]. Their importance and the love which the heroes have for them are carefully represented in the songs, while they are rarely described physically. A common feature appearing in these songs is the desire for fame and glory, which is related to the courage of a person.{{sfn|Skendi|1954|pp=91–92}} ==Concepts== {{Col-begin}} {{Col-break|width=34%}} *[[Kanun (Albania)|Kanun]], the Albanian traditional customary law{{sfn|Skendi|1954|p=}}{{sfn|Watkins|1995|p=67}} *[[Good and Evil]], [[Light]] and [[Darkness]]{{sfn|Elsie|1994|p=i}} *[[Fate]]: [[Fatia|Fatí]] (among [[Tosks]]), [[Ora (mythology)|Ora]] (among [[Ghegs]]){{sfn|Doja|2005|pp=449–462}}{{sfn|Poghirc|1987|p=179}} *[[Zjarri (Albanian paganism)|Zjarri]], the Fire&lt;ref&gt;{{harvnb|Pipa|1993|p=253}}; {{harvnb|Poghirc|1987|pp=178–179}} {{harvnb|Tirta|2004|pp=68–69, 135, 176–181, 249–261, 274–282, 327}}; {{harvnb|Xhemaj|1983|pp=104–121}}; {{harvnb|Tagliavini|1963|p=103}}; {{harvnb|Treimer|1971|p=32}}; {{harvnb|Orel|1998|p=88}}; {{harvnb|Lurker|2004|p=57}}.&lt;/ref&gt; **Zjarri i Vatrës, &quot;the Fire of the Hearth&quot;&lt;ref name=&quot;auto21&quot;/&gt; **Zjarri i Gjallë, Zjarri i Egër, Zjarri i Keq, &quot;Ritual Purifying Fire&quot;{{sfn|Tirta|2004|pp=68–69, 135, 176–181, 249–261, 274–282, 327}}{{sfn|Xhemaj|1983|pp=104–121}} **Zjarret e Vitit, &quot;Ritual calendar Fires&quot;{{sfn|Tirta|2004|pp=68–69, 135, 176–181, 249–261, 274–282, 327}}{{sfn|Xhemaj|1983|pp=104–121}}{{sfn|Poghirc|1987|p=179}} **Zjarri i Qiellit, &quot;the Fire of the Sky&quot; (&quot;Lightning&quot;){{sfn|Tirta|2004|pp=82, 309}} *[[Besa (Albanian culture)|Besa/Beja]] ([[Oath|oath swearing]]){{sfn|Tirta|2004|pp=42–102, 238–239, 318}}{{sfn|Elsie|2001b|pp=35–36}}{{sfn|Watkins|1995|pp=83, 164, 443}}{{sfn|Hysi|2006|pp=349–361}}{{sfn|Sokoli|2013|p=181}} **me diell (by sun), me dhè (by earth), me zjarr (by fire), me fushë (by field), me gur/gur-rrufeje (by stone/thunder-stone), me hënë (by moon), me mal (by mountain), me qiell (by sky), me ujë (by water), me toks (by snake) *[[Hospitality#Albanians|Mikpritja (hospitality)]]{{sfn|Tarifa|2008|pp=8–10}} *[[Gjakmarrja]] (blood feud){{sfn|Calic|2019|p=64}} *[[Numbers]]{{Sfn|Elsie|2001a|p=191}}{{sfn|Tirta|2004|pp=358–391}} *Nxiri: all-seing eyes that look at humans from the ground following their movements everywhere, considered to be the sight of the living Earth{{sfn|Stipčević|2009|p=506}} {{Col-break|width=34%}} *[[Soul|Fryma, Hija, Shpirti]] (the [[Soul]]){{sfn|Tirta|2004|pp=135, 199–200, 227–243}}{{sfn|Doja|2000}}{{sfn|Poghirc|1987|p=179}}{{sfn|Kondi|2017|p=279}} *[[Reincarnation|Rebirth]]{{sfn|Tirta|2004|pp=199–200, 205}}{{sfn|Doja|2000}} *[[Animism]]{{sfn|Tirta|2004|pp=169, 205, 227}} *[[Totemism]]{{sfn|Tirta|2004|pp=19, 20, 66–68, 145–170}} *[[Ancestor worship]]{{sfn|Tirta|2004|pp=135, 199–200, 227–243}}{{sfn|Doja|2000}}{{sfn|Poghirc|1987|p=179}} *[[Evil eye#Albania|Syri i Keq]] (the [[evil eye]]){{sfn|Tirta|2004|pp=13, 26, 66, 82, 156–157, 279–281, 290–291, 309, 316, 324–327}}{{sfn|Stipčević|2009|p=508}}{{sfn|Poghirc|1987|p=179}} *Yshtje ([[incantation]]){{sfn|Poghirc|1987|p=179–180}} *Ditët e Plakës (Old Woman's Days, a belief about the last cold days of winter){{Sfn|Elsie|2001a|p=193}}{{sfn|Pipa|1978|p=55}} *Shetuar or shituar: person that has been paralyzed/[[Petrifaction in mythology and fiction|petrified]] by a [[Zana (mythology)|zana]]{{sfn|Galaty|Lafe|Lee|Tafilica|2013|p=162}}{{sfn|Qafleshi|2011|p=69}} {{col-end}} ==Rituals and practices== {{Col-begin}} {{Col-break|width=34%}} *[[Childbirth|Childbirth rituals]]{{sfn|Doja|2005|pp=449–462}}{{sfn|Doja|2000}}{{sfn|Elsie|2001a|pp=36–40}} *[[Wedding|Wedding rituals]]{{sfn|Doja|2000}}{{sfn|Elsie|2001a|pp=166–171}} *[[Vajtim|Vajtim, Gjâmë]]{{sfn|Tirta|2004|pp=216–227}}{{sfn|Kondi|2017|pp=277–288}} *[[Muranë|Murana]] (burial mounds of stones, [[Tumulus|tumuli]] for the cult of the [[Ancestor worship|ancestor]] / [[hero]]){{sfn|Sokoli|2013|p=181}}{{sfn|Tirta|2004|p=87}} *[[Sacrifices]]{{sfn|Lajçi|2019|p=29}}{{sfn|Qafleshi|2011|p=55}}{{sfn|Tirta|2004|pp=260, 340–357}} **[[Animal sacrifices]]{{sfn|Lajçi|2019|p=29}}{{sfn|Qafleshi|2011|p=55}}{{sfn|Tirta|2004|pp=260, 340–357}}{{sfn|Xhemaj|1983|pp=104–121}} *Calendar rituals{{sfn|Tirta|2004|pp=249–264}}{{sfn|Xhemaj|1983|pp=104–121}}{{sfn|Qafleshi|2011|pp=55–67}}{{sfn|Halimi|Halimi-Statovci|Xhemaj|2011}}{{sfn|Useini|2024|p=164}} **Winter rituals ***Winter solstice rituals **Spring rituals ***Spring equinox rituals ***Shëngjergji rituals **Summer rituals ***Summer solstice rituals ****Shëngjini–Shëngjoni ***[[Prende]] ***[[Tomorr]] and other mountains **Autumn rituals *Mountain pilgrimage rituals{{sfn|Tirta|2004|pp=75, 113, 116, 249–264}}{{sfn|Krasniqi|2014|pp=4–5}}{{sfn|Gjoni|2012|pp=62, 85–86}}{{sfn|Xhemaj|1983|pp=104–121}} *[[Albanian traditional tattooing]]{{sfn|Lelaj|2015|pp=91–118}}{{sfn|Tirta|2004|pp=68–70}} *[[Apotropaic]] rituals{{sfn|Malcolm|2020|p=57}}{{sfn|Xhemaj|1983|pp=104–121}} *[[Traditional medicine|Healing]] rituals{{sfn|Tirta|2004|pp=26, 279–281, 324–327}}{{sfn|Malcolm|2020|p=57}}{{sfn|Xhemaj|1983|pp=104–121}} *[[Evil eye]] rituals{{sfn|Tirta|2004|pp=13, 26, 66, 82, 156–157, 279–281, 290–291, 309, 316, 324–327}}{{sfn|Xhemaj|1983|pp=104–121}} *[[Divination|Divinatory]] rituals{{sfn|Xhemaj|1983|pp=104–121}}{{sfn|Malcolm|2020|p=57}} {{Col-break|width=34%}} [[File:Ceremonia e Marrjes se Nuses - Valbonë.JPG|thumb|upright|Bride-taking ceremony from [[Valbonë]], northern Albania. In old Albanian tradition the groom went with his party made up of men of his family on horseback to the bride's home to ask for her hand and thereafter take her to his home, where the [[wedding reception]] was held.]] *Fire rituals: [[Enji (deity)|Zjarri]]{{sfn|Tirta|2004|pp=68–69, 135, 176–181, 249–261, 274–282, 327}}{{sfn|Xhemaj|1983|pp=104–121}}{{sfn|Useini|2024|p=164}}{{sfn|Pipa|1993|p=253}} **Calendar fires: {{lang|sq|Zjarret e Vitit}}, associated with the cosmic cycle and the rhythms of agricultural and pastoral life{{sfn|Poghirc|1987|p=179}}{{sfn|Tirta|2004|pp=68–69, 135, 176–181, 249–261, 274–282, 327}}{{sfn|Xhemaj|1983|pp=104–121}}{{sfn|Useini|2024|p=164}} **Purifying fire: {{lang|sq|Zjarri i Gjallë, Zjarri i Egër, Zjarri i Keq}}, used for the purification and healing of livestock and humans{{sfn|Tirta|2004|pp=68–69, 135, 176–181, 249–261, 274–282, 327}}{{sfn|Xhemaj|1983|pp=104–121}}{{sfn|Useini|2024|p=164}} **Hearth fire: {{lang|sq|Zjarri i Vatrës}}, associated with the cult of the hearth ([[vatër]]){{sfn|Poghirc|1987|p=179}}{{sfn|Tirta|2004|pp=68–69, 135, 176–181, 249–261, 274–282, 327}}{{sfn|Xhemaj|1983|pp=104–121}} **Protector fire [[Enji (deity)#Lightning and storms|against big storms]] and other potentially harmful events: by bringing outdoors fire as a continuous chain or in a container, as well as ember and fire-related metallic objects *Weather rituals{{sfn|Tirta|2004|pp=307–313}}{{sfn|Xhemaj|1983|pp=104–121}} **Rituals to turn away hailstorms (''ndalja/larghimi i stuhisë së breshrit'') ***[[Enji (deity)#Lightning and storms|through the protection of fire]] **[[Dodola and Perperuna|Rainmaking rituals]] ({{lang|sq|thirrja e shiut}})&lt;ref&gt;{{harvnb|Tirta|2004|pp=310–312}}; {{harvnb|Qafleshi|2011|pp=43, 51–52|}}; {{harvnb|Ministria|2014|p=66}}; {{harvnb|Halimi|Halimi-Statovci|Xhemaj|2011|pp=2–6, 32–43}}; {{harvnb|Elsie|2001a|p=215}}.&lt;/ref&gt; ***Through ritual processions, dances and songs *Sky cult rituals: [[Qielli (Albanian paganism)|Qielli]] *Earth cult rituals: [[Dheu]] *Sun cult rituals: [[Dielli (Albanian paganism)|Dielli]] *Moon cult rituals: [[Hëna (Albanian paganism)|Hëna]] {{col-end}} ==Traditional festivals== ===Spring equinox=== [[File:Karnevalet ilire.jpg|thumb|upright|Albanian woman with traditional decorations, during the Illyrian carnivals, celebrating the [[Dita e Verës|Albanian spring festival]] in the [[Sharr Mountains]].]] [[Dita e Verës|Dita e Verës (Verëza)]]: &quot;The Summer Day&quot;, the Albanian [[Spring Day|spring festival]] celebrated (also as an official holiday in [[Albania]]) on March 1 of the [[Julian calendar]] ([[March 14]] of the [[Gregorian calendar]]). In the old Albanian calendar it corresponds to the first day of the new year ({{lang-sq|Kryeviti, Kryet e Motmotit, Motmoti i Ri, Nata e Mojit}}) and marks the end of the winter season (the second half of the year) and the beginning of the summer season (the first half of the year) on the [[March equinox|spring equinox]] ({{lang-sq|sadita-nata}}), marking the period of the year when daylight is longer than night. [[Edith Durham]] – who collected Albanian ethnographic material from northern Albania and Montenegro – reported that [[Albanian traditional tattooing]] of girls was practiced on March 19.{{sfn|Tirta|2004|p=254}} Another festival celebrated by Albanians around the spring equinox is [[Nowruz]] ({{lang-sq|[[Nevruz in Albania|Dita e Sulltan Nevruzit]]}}) celebrated on [[March 22]], mainly by [[Bektashism in Albania|Bektashis]],{{sfn|Tirta|2004|pp=253–255}} {{Sfn|Elsie|2001a|pp=259–260}} and ''Dita e Zojës'' (among the Catholics) or ''Vangjelizmoi'' (among the Orthodox), celebrated on March 25.{{sfn|Tirta|2004|pp=254–255}} Those festivities are associated with the cult of the Sun ([[Dielli (Albanian paganism)|Dielli]]) and the renewal of nature. The renewal of nature is also associated with the worship of the Great Mother Goddess ([[Dheu (Albanian paganism)|Dheu]]), which is celebrated with several rites and customs, in particular wood or anything from vegetation cannot be cut, and the earth is considered to be &quot;pregnant&quot; (Alb. ''me barrë'') and cannot be worked.{{sfn|Tirta|2004|pp=254–255}} ===Shëngjergji=== Shëngjergji &quot;Saint George&quot; is a festival celebrated by Albanians both on April 23 and on May 6 (as well as in the period between). It would coincide with [[Saint George's Day]], were it not for the fact that Shëngjergji is celebrated by all Albanians, regardless of being Christians or Muslims, and that the celebrations are carried out with traditional pagan rituals and practices, such as pilgrimages on [[Sacred mountains#Albania|sacred mountains]] and places, ritual [[bonfires]] on high places, [[animal sacrifices]], water rituals, rituals with serpents, etc. It is rather considered a pre-Christian festivity associated with the worship of a deity of agriculture and livestock.{{sfn|Tirta|2004|pp=254–255}}{{sfn|Qafleshi|2011|pp=43–71}}{{sfn|Hykolli|Krasniqi|2020|p=83}}{{sfn|Halimi|Halimi-Statovci|Xhemaj|2011|pp=3–4, 19–31, 41}}{{sfn|Useini|2024|p=164}} ===Summer solstice=== The [[summer solstice]] is celabrated by Albanians often with the name ''Shën Gjini''–''Shën Gjoni'', but also with the name ''Festa e Malit'' or ''Festa e Bjeshkës'' (&quot;Mountain Feast&quot;), as well as ''Festa e Blegtorisë'' (&quot;Livestock Feast&quot;). It is associated with the production in agricultural and livestock activities.{{sfn|Tirta|2004|p=260}}{{sfn|Xhemaj|1983|pp=104–121}} To celebrate this feast, bonfires are traditionally lit where straw is burned and ashes are thrown on the ground, as a &quot;burning for regeneration&quot; ritual. Tribal or community fires are traditionally made with straw, with people jumping across them. In some regions plumes of burning chaff were carried in the air, running through the fields and hills. The ashes of the straw that burned in the ritual fires of this event are traditionally thrown to the field for good luck.{{sfn|Tirta|2004|p=260}}{{sfn|Xhemaj|1983|pp=104–121}} During this feast [[sheep shearing]] is traditionally performed by shepherds.{{sfn|Tirta|2004|p=260}} ===Winter solstice=== Albanian traditional festivities around the winter solstice celebrate the return of the Sun ([[Dielli (Albanian paganism)|Dielli]]) for summer and the lengthening of the days.{{sfn|Xhemaj|1983|pp=104–121}}{{sfn|Qafleshi|2011|pp=43–71}}{{sfn|Tirta|2004|pp=249–251}}{{sfn|Poghirc|1987|p=179}} The Albanian traditional rites during the winter solstice period are pagan, and very ancient. Albanologist [[Johann Georg von Hahn]] (1811 – 1869) reported that clergy, during his time and before, have vigorously fought the pagan rites that were practiced by Albanians to celebrate this festivity, but without success.{{sfn|Tirta|2004|p=250}} The old rites of this festivity were accompanied by collective fires based on the house, kinship or neighborhood, a practice performed in order to give strength to the Sun according to the old beliefs. The rites related to the cult of vegetation, which expressed the desire for increased production in agriculture and animal husbandry, were accompanied by animal sacrifices to the fire, lighting pine trees at night, luck [[divination]] tests with crackling in the fire or with coins in ritual bread, making and consuming ritual foods, performing various magical ritualistic actions in livestock, fields, vineyards and orchards, and so on.{{sfn|Tirta|2004|p=250}}{{sfn|Xhemaj|1983|pp=104–121}}{{sfn|Qafleshi|2011|pp=43–71}} ====Nata e Buzmit==== Nata e Buzmit, &quot;[[Yule log]]'s night&quot;, is celebrated between December 22 and January 6.{{sfn|Tirta|2004|pp=249–251}} Buzmi is a ritualistic piece of wood (or several pieces of wood) that is put to burn in the fire ([[Zjarri (Albanian paganism)|zjarri]]) of the hearth ([[vatër]]) on the night of a winter celebration that falls after the return of the Sun for summer (after the winter solstice), sometimes on the night of ''Kërshëndella'' on December 24 ([[Christmas Eve]]), sometimes on the night of ''kolendra'', or sometimes on [[New Year's Day]] or on any other occasion aound the same period, a tradition that is originally related to the cult of the Sun ([[Dielli (Albanian paganism)|Dielli]]).{{sfn|Tirta|2004|p=282}}{{sfn|Xhemaj|1983|pp=104–121}}{{sfn|Qafleshi|2011|pp=43–71}} A series of rituals of a magical character are performed with the buzmi, which, based on old beliefs, aims at agricultural plant growth and for the prosperity of production in the living thing (production of vegetables, trees, vineyards, etc.). This practice has been traditionally found among all Albanians, also documented among the [[Arbëreshë people|Arbëreshë]] in Italy and the [[Arvanites]] in Greece until the first half of the 20th century,{{sfn|Tirta|2004|p=282}} and it is still preserved in remote Albanian ethnographic regions today.{{sfn|Qafleshi|2011|pp=43–71}} It is considered a custom of [[Proto-Indo-European religion|Proto-Indo-European]] origin.{{sfn|Tirta|2004|p=282}} The richest set of rites related to buzmi are found in northern Albania ([[Mirdita]], [[Pukë]], [[Dukagjini Highlands|Dukagjin]], [[Malësia e Madhe]], [[Shkodër]] and [[Lezhë]], as well as in [[Kosovo]], [[Dibër Valley|Dibër]] and so on.{{sfn|Tirta|2004|p=282}}{{sfn|Qafleshi|2011|pp=43–71}} ==See also== {{Albanian tribes sidebar}} *[[Albanian epic poetry]] ==Notes== {{Reflist|group=note}} {{clear}} == References == {{Reflist|30em}} == Bibliography == {{Refbegin|30em|indent=yes}} &lt;!-- B --&gt; *{{cite journal|last=Belgiorno de Stefano|first=Maria Gabriella|title=La coesistenza delle religioni in Albania. 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