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class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Treaties_and_statutes" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Treaties_and_statutes"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.1</span> <span>Treaties and statutes</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Treaties_and_statutes-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Murder_of_Spotted_Tail" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Murder_of_Spotted_Tail"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.2</span> <span>Murder of Spotted Tail</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Murder_of_Spotted_Tail-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Trial" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Trial"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.3</span> <span>Trial</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Trial-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li 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Ct. 396; 27 <a href="/wiki/L._Ed." class="mw-redirect" title="L. Ed.">L. Ed.</a> 1030; 1883 <a href="/wiki/U.S._LEXIS" class="mw-redirect" title="U.S. LEXIS">U.S. LEXIS</a> 997</div></td></tr><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header" style="background-color: #99c0ff; white-space:nowrap">Case history</th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Prior</th><td class="infobox-data"><i>U.S. v. Kan-gi-shun-ca</i>, 14 <a href="/wiki/North_Western_Reporter" title="North Western Reporter">N.W.</a> 437, 3 Dakota 106 (<a href="/wiki/Dakota_Territory" title="Dakota Territory">Dakota Terr.</a> 1882)</td></tr><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header" style="background-color: #99c0ff; white-space:nowrap">Holding</th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data">Held that a federal court did not have jurisdiction to try an Indian who killed another Indian on the reservation when the offense had been tried by the tribal court, writ of <i>habeas corpus</i> granted.</td></tr><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header" style="background-color: #99c0ff; white-space:nowrap">Court membership</th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data"><dl style="margin:0; padding:0.1em 0.5em; text-align:center; line-height:1.3em;"> <dt style="margin:0;">Chief Justice</dt> <dd style="margin:0 0 0.3em;"><a href="/wiki/Morrison_Waite" title="Morrison Waite">Morrison Waite</a> </dd> <dt style="margin:0;">Associate Justices</dt> <dd style="margin:0;"><a href="/wiki/Samuel_Freeman_Miller" title="Samuel Freeman Miller">Samuel F. Miller</a> <b>·</b>  <a href="/wiki/Stephen_Johnson_Field" title="Stephen Johnson Field">Stephen J. Field</a><br /><a href="/wiki/Joseph_P._Bradley" title="Joseph P. Bradley">Joseph P. Bradley</a> <b>·</b>  <a href="/wiki/John_Marshall_Harlan" title="John Marshall Harlan">John M. Harlan</a><br /><a href="/wiki/William_Burnham_Woods" title="William Burnham Woods">William B. Woods</a> <b>·</b>  <a href="/wiki/Stanley_Matthews_(lawyer)" class="mw-redirect" title="Stanley Matthews (lawyer)">Stanley Matthews</a><br /><a href="/wiki/Horace_Gray" title="Horace Gray">Horace Gray</a> <b>·</b>  <a href="/wiki/Samuel_Blatchford" title="Samuel Blatchford">Samuel Blatchford</a> </dd></dl></td></tr><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header" style="background-color: #99c0ff; white-space:nowrap">Case opinion</th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Majority</th><td class="infobox-data">Matthews, joined by <i>unanimous</i></td></tr><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header" style="background-color: #99c0ff; white-space:nowrap">Laws applied</th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data">Revised Stat. §2146 (1878)</td></tr></tbody></table> <p><i><b>Ex parte Crow Dog</b></i>, 109 U.S. 556 (1883), is a <a href="/wiki/List_of_landmark_court_decisions_in_the_United_States" title="List of landmark court decisions in the United States">landmark</a><sup id="cite_ref-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> decision of the <a href="/wiki/Supreme_Court_of_the_United_States" title="Supreme Court of the United States">Supreme Court of the United States</a> that followed the death of one member of a <a href="/wiki/Native_Americans_in_the_United_States" title="Native Americans in the United States">Native American</a> tribe at the hands of another on <a href="/wiki/Indian_reservation" title="Indian reservation">reservation</a> land.<sup id="cite_ref-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>fn 1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Crow_Dog" title="Crow Dog">Crow Dog</a> was a member of the <a href="/wiki/Brul%C3%A9" class="mw-redirect" title="Brulé">Brulé</a> band of the <a href="/wiki/Lakota_people" title="Lakota people">Lakota</a> Sioux. On August 5, 1881 he shot and killed <a href="/wiki/Spotted_Tail" title="Spotted Tail">Spotted Tail</a>, a Lakota chief; there are different accounts of the background to the killing. The tribal council dealt with the incident according to <a href="/wiki/Sioux" title="Sioux">Sioux</a> tradition, and Crow Dog paid restitution to the dead man's family. However, the U.S. authorities then prosecuted Crow Dog for <a href="/wiki/Murder" title="Murder">murder</a> in a federal court. He was found guilty and sentenced to hang. </p><p>The defendant then petitioned the Supreme Court for a writ of <a href="/wiki/Habeas_corpus" title="Habeas corpus">habeas corpus</a>, arguing that the federal court had no jurisdiction to try cases where the offense had already been tried by the tribal council.<sup id="cite_ref-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The court found unanimously for the plaintiff and Crow Dog was therefore released. This case was the first time in history that an Indian was held on trial for the murder of another Indian. The case led to the <a href="/wiki/Major_Crimes_Act" title="Major Crimes Act">Major Crimes Act</a> in 1885, which placed some major crimes (initially seven, now 15) under federal jurisdiction if committed by an Indian against another Indian on a reservation or tribal land. This case was the beginning of the <a href="/wiki/Plenary_power" title="Plenary power">plenary power</a> legal doctrine that has been used in Indian case law to limit <a href="/wiki/Tribal_sovereignty_in_the_United_States" title="Tribal sovereignty in the United States">tribal sovereignty</a>. </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Background">Background</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Ex_parte_Crow_Dog&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Background"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Siouxreservationmap.png" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="map of Great Sioux Reservation" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/75/Siouxreservationmap.png/200px-Siouxreservationmap.png" decoding="async" width="200" height="200" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/75/Siouxreservationmap.png/300px-Siouxreservationmap.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/75/Siouxreservationmap.png/400px-Siouxreservationmap.png 2x" data-file-width="500" data-file-height="500" /></a><figcaption>Great Sioux Reservation</figcaption></figure> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Treaties_and_statutes">Treaties and statutes</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Ex_parte_Crow_Dog&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Treaties and statutes"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Crow Dog<sup id="cite_ref-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>fn 2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> was a <a href="/wiki/Brul%C3%A9" class="mw-redirect" title="Brulé">Brulé</a><sup id="cite_ref-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>fn 3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> subchief who lived on the <a href="/wiki/Great_Sioux_Reservation" title="Great Sioux Reservation">Great Sioux Reservation</a>, in the part that is now the <a href="/wiki/Rosebud_Indian_Reservation" title="Rosebud Indian Reservation">Rosebud Indian Reservation</a> in south-central <a href="/wiki/South_Dakota" title="South Dakota">South Dakota</a> on its border with <a href="/wiki/Nebraska" title="Nebraska">Nebraska</a>. The tribe had made several treaties with the <a href="/wiki/United_States" title="United States">United States</a>, the most significant being the 1868 <a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_Fort_Laramie_(1868)" title="Treaty of Fort Laramie (1868)">Treaty of Fort Laramie</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This treaty provided that Indians agreed to turn over those accused of crimes to the <a href="/wiki/Indian_agent" title="Indian agent">Indian agent</a>, a representative of the U.S. government in Indian affairs.<sup id="cite_ref-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>fn 4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The treaty also stipulated that tribal members would stay on the reservation provided (which included the <a href="/wiki/Black_Hills" title="Black Hills">Black Hills</a>)<sup id="cite_ref-13" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>fn 5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> unless three-fourths of the adult male tribal members agreed otherwise.<sup id="cite_ref-14" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In 1874, Colonel <a href="/wiki/George_Armstrong_Custer" title="George Armstrong Custer">George Armstrong Custer</a> led a party into the Black Hills to investigate rumors of gold. Once he announced the discovery of gold on <a href="/wiki/French_Creek_(Cheyenne_River)" class="mw-redirect" title="French Creek (Cheyenne River)">French Creek</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Black_Hills_Gold_Rush" class="mw-redirect" title="Black Hills Gold Rush">Black Hills Gold Rush</a> brought prospectors into that area in violation of the Fort Laramie treaty.<sup id="cite_ref-15" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Lakota protested in 1875 to no avail, as the United States demanded that the Lakota sell the Black Hills.<sup id="cite_ref-16" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The United States then declared the Lakota as hostile, which started the <a href="/wiki/Great_Sioux_War_of_1876" title="Great Sioux War of 1876">Black Hills War</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-17" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The war included the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_the_Rosebud" title="Battle of the Rosebud">Battle of the Rosebud</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_the_Little_Bighorn" title="Battle of the Little Bighorn">Battle of the Little Bighorn</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Slim_Buttes" title="Battle of Slim Buttes">Battle of Slim Buttes</a>, among others. The war ended in 1877. Crow Dog fought in this war, while the man he later killed, <a href="/wiki/Spotted_Tail" title="Spotted Tail">Spotted Tail</a>, did not.<sup id="cite_ref-18" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Congress passed a law later in 1877 (19 <a href="/wiki/United_States_Statutes_at_Large" title="United States Statutes at Large">Stat.</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://legislink.org/us/stat-19-176">176</a>) that took the Black Hills away from the tribe, contrary to the language of the treaty.<sup id="cite_ref-19" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Murder_of_Spotted_Tail">Murder of Spotted Tail</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Ex_parte_Crow_Dog&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Murder of Spotted Tail"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:CrowDog%26Horse1898.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="photograph of Chief Crow Dog" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/97/CrowDog%26Horse1898.jpg/200px-CrowDog%26Horse1898.jpg" decoding="async" width="200" height="265" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/97/CrowDog%26Horse1898.jpg/300px-CrowDog%26Horse1898.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/97/CrowDog%26Horse1898.jpg/400px-CrowDog%26Horse1898.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2795" data-file-height="3703" /></a><figcaption>The shooter, Chief Crow Dog (Kangi Sunká)</figcaption></figure> <p>On August 5, 1881, Crow Dog shot and killed Spotted Tail,<sup id="cite_ref-21" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>fn 6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> who was the uncle of <a href="/wiki/Oglala_Lakota" class="mw-redirect" title="Oglala Lakota">Oglala Lakota</a> war leader <a href="/wiki/Crazy_Horse" title="Crazy Horse">Crazy Horse</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-22" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Spotted Tail had not been selected as a chief by the tribe, but instead had been appointed by General <a href="/wiki/George_Crook" title="George Crook">George Crook</a> in 1876, which hurt him in the view of many of the tribe.<sup id="cite_ref-23" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> He was viewed as an accommodationist and the <a href="/wiki/Bureau_of_Indian_Affairs" title="Bureau of Indian Affairs">Bureau of Indian Affairs</a> (BIA) referred to him as the "great peace chief."<sup id="cite_ref-24" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> He also supervised the <a href="/wiki/Indian_agency_police" title="Indian agency police">tribal police</a> of about 300 men.<sup id="cite_ref-25" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In contrast, Crow Dog was a traditionalist<sup id="cite_ref-26" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and although he had been a captain in the tribal police, he was fired by Spotted Tail sometime after a July 4, 1881, confrontation during which Crow Dog pointed a rifle at Spotted Tail.<sup id="cite_ref-27" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>On August 5, tensions further escalated at a tribal meeting where a number of tribal members criticized Spotted Tail for taking Light-in-the-Lodge, the wife of Medicine Bear, a crippled man, into his household as his second wife.<sup id="cite_ref-28" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It was believed that the killing occurred that day as the result of Crow Dog and Spotted Tail meeting, both armed, and mistaking the other man's intentions.<sup id="cite_ref-29" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In another version of the story, Crow Dog was appointed by the tribal council to head the tribal police, which undermined the authority of Spotted Tail. Crow Dog discovered that Spotted Tail was taking money from ranchers for "grazing rights" and he denounced him for it, while Spotted Tail defended the practice.<sup id="cite_ref-30" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> A later conflict with the Indian agent forced the tribal police to disband, and Crow Dog lost his position.<sup id="cite_ref-31" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This version makes no mention of another man's wife being the reason for the killing, and states that Crow Dog ambushed Spotted Tail to gain power in the tribe.<sup id="cite_ref-32" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> There is no consensus among historians as to which events happened as described. </p><p>In either case, the matter was settled within the tribe, following longstanding tribal custom, by Crow Dog making a <a href="/wiki/Restitution" class="mw-redirect" title="Restitution">restitution</a> payment of $600,<sup id="cite_ref-34" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>fn 7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> eight horses, and one blanket to Spotted Tail's family.<sup id="cite_ref-35" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Trial">Trial</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Ex_parte_Crow_Dog&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Trial"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Spotted_Tail.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="photograph of Chief Spotted Tail" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0a/Spotted_Tail.jpg/200px-Spotted_Tail.jpg" decoding="async" width="200" height="277" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0a/Spotted_Tail.jpg/300px-Spotted_Tail.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0a/Spotted_Tail.jpg/400px-Spotted_Tail.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2879" data-file-height="3985" /></a><figcaption>The victim, Chief Spotted Tail (Siŋté Glešká)</figcaption></figure> <p>Following the killing and the settlement under tribal customs, the Indian agent had Crow Dog arrested and taken to Fort Niobrara, Nebraska.<sup id="cite_ref-36" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Within 20 days, the <a href="/wiki/United_States_Attorney_General" title="United States Attorney General">U.S. Attorney General</a> and the <a href="/wiki/United_States_Secretary_of_the_Interior" title="United States Secretary of the Interior">Secretary of the Interior</a> concluded that the Federal Enclave Act of 1854<sup id="cite_ref-37" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> as modified by the <a href="/wiki/Assimilative_Crimes_Act" title="Assimilative Crimes Act">Assimilative Crimes Act</a> allowed the territorial death penalty to be applied to Crow Dog.<sup id="cite_ref-38" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In September 1881, Crow Dog was indicted by a federal <a href="/wiki/Grand_jury" title="Grand jury">grand jury</a> for <a href="/wiki/Murder" title="Murder">murder</a> and <a href="/wiki/Manslaughter" title="Manslaughter">manslaughter</a> under the laws of the <a href="/wiki/Dakota_Territory" title="Dakota Territory">Dakota Territory</a>. In March 1882 the case was heard by Judge <a href="/wiki/Gideon_C._Moody" title="Gideon C. Moody">Gideon C. Moody</a> at the First Judicial District Court of Dakota, located in <a href="/wiki/Deadwood,_South_Dakota" title="Deadwood, South Dakota">Deadwood</a>, South Dakota.<sup id="cite_ref-39" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-39"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The court appointed A. J. Plowman to represent Crow Dog,<sup id="cite_ref-40" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> who claimed that he had been punished and made reparations according to the customs of the Brulé Sioux tribe. According to a contemporary news report of the Deadwood Times<sup id="cite_ref-42" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-42"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>fn 8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> it was the first time "in the history of the country, [that] an Indian is held for trial for the murder of another Indian."<sup id="cite_ref-43" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-43"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The trial was viewed at the time as a sham,<sup id="cite_ref-45" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-45"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>fn 9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and despite testimonies from Indian witnesses stating that Spotted Tail had killed a rival once before,<sup id="cite_ref-47" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-47"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>fn 10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> that Spotted Tail drew a pistol on Crow Dog, and that Spotted Tail's intention was to kill Crow Dog,<sup id="cite_ref-48" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-48"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Crow Dog was convicted and sentenced to be hanged on May 11, 1882.<sup id="cite_ref-49" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-49"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The prosecution had presented five Indian witnesses<sup id="cite_ref-51" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-51"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>fn 11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> who stated that Spotted Tail was ambushed, and some witnesses stated he was unarmed. In an unusual move for a death penalty case, Moody released Crow Dog, allowing him to go home pending his appeal to the territorial Supreme Court. Surprising many of the white citizens of the area, Crow Dog returned to court as required. In May 1882, the territorial Supreme Court affirmed the conviction, and the execution was rescheduled for May 11, 1883.<sup id="cite_ref-52" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-52"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>41<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Crow Dog then petitioned the <a href="/wiki/United_States_Supreme_Court" class="mw-redirect" title="United States Supreme Court">United States Supreme Court</a> for a writ of <i><a href="/wiki/Habeas_corpus" title="Habeas corpus">habeas corpus</a></i> and the Supreme Court accepted the case.<sup id="cite_ref-53" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-53"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>42<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Opinion_of_the_Court">Opinion of the Court</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Ex_parte_Crow_Dog&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Opinion of the Court"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Thomas_Stanley_Matthews_-_Brady-Handy.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="photograph of Justice T. Stanley Matthews" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5a/Thomas_Stanley_Matthews_-_Brady-Handy.jpg/200px-Thomas_Stanley_Matthews_-_Brady-Handy.jpg" decoding="async" width="200" height="253" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5a/Thomas_Stanley_Matthews_-_Brady-Handy.jpg/300px-Thomas_Stanley_Matthews_-_Brady-Handy.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5a/Thomas_Stanley_Matthews_-_Brady-Handy.jpg/400px-Thomas_Stanley_Matthews_-_Brady-Handy.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2824" data-file-height="3568" /></a><figcaption>Justice T. Stanley Matthews, author of the unanimous opinion</figcaption></figure> <p>Justice <a href="/wiki/Stanley_Matthews_(judge)" title="Stanley Matthews (judge)">Stanley Matthews</a> delivered the opinion of the unanimous court. Matthews noted that Crow Dog was indicted for murder under a statute prohibiting murder on federal land.<sup id="cite_ref-55" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-55"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>fn 12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-56" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-56"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>44<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Matthews then looked at the federal laws dealing with Indians, including a statute that applied the prohibition on murder to Indian reservations<sup id="cite_ref-58" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-58"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>fn 13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-59" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-59"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>46<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and another covering exceptions to prosecution.<sup id="cite_ref-61" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-61"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>fn 14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-62" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-62"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>48<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The first statute prohibited murder on federal land, the second statute applied the first statute to reservations, and the last had specific exceptions to prosecution. Matthews felt that this last section was the most critical one in the case, with the section stating unequivocally that federal law: "shall not be construed to extend to [crimes committed by one Indian against the person or property of another Indian, nor to] any Indian committing any offense in the Indian country who has been punished by the local law of the tribe"<sup id="cite_ref-63" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-63"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>49<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> (brackets in original). Matthews rejected the contention of the United States that the 1868 Treaty of Fort Laramie implicitly repealed the exceptions to prosecution. He stated that since the law had not been amended or changed, and since implied repeals are not favored unless the implication is necessary, to allow such a repeal would be to reverse the general policy of the United States. Matthews said that such a repeal required a "clear expression of the intention of Congress," which was not present in the case. In a clear evocation of the principle of tribal sovereignty,<sup id="cite_ref-64" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-64"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>50<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Matthews stated: </p> <blockquote><p>It tries them, not by their peers, nor by the customs of their people, nor the law of their land, but by superiors of a different race, according to the law of a social state of which they have an imperfect conception, and which is opposed to the traditions of their history, to the habits of their lives, to the strongest prejudices of their savage nature; one which measures the red man's revenge by the maxims of the white man's morality.<sup id="cite_ref-65" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-65"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>51<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></p></blockquote> <p>As a result, the Court concluded, the First Judicial District Court of Dakota was without jurisdiction to hear the case. The writ of <i>habeas corpus</i> was issued, discharging Crow Dog from federal custody.<sup id="cite_ref-66" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-66"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>52<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Subsequent_developments">Subsequent developments</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Ex_parte_Crow_Dog&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Subsequent developments"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Major_Crimes_Act_of_1885">Major Crimes Act of 1885</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Ex_parte_Crow_Dog&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Major Crimes Act of 1885"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Shocked by the Supreme Court's decision and under strong pressure from the BIA,<sup id="cite_ref-67" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-67"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>53<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Congress passed the <a href="/wiki/Major_Crimes_Act" title="Major Crimes Act">Major Crimes Act</a> in response.<sup id="cite_ref-69" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-69"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>fn 15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-70" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-70"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>55<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Major Crimes Act placed seven serious felony offenses (with amendments over the years, now fifteen) under the jurisdiction of the federal government.<sup id="cite_ref-72" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-72"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>fn 16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Those wishing to <a href="/wiki/Cultural_assimilation_of_Native_Americans" title="Cultural assimilation of Native Americans">assimilate</a> Indians into mainstream white society<sup id="cite_ref-74" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-74"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>fn 17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> wanted to do away with the "heathen" tribal laws and apply white laws to the tribes.<sup id="cite_ref-75" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-75"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>58<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The BIA had also been attempting since 1874 to extend federal jurisdiction over major crimes to reservations, without any success.<sup id="cite_ref-76" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-76"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>59<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Beginning in 1882, the <a href="/wiki/Indian_Rights_Association" title="Indian Rights Association">Indian Rights Association</a> (IRA) also tried to extend federal jurisdiction, but in a different manner.<sup id="cite_ref-77" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-77"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>60<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The IRA believed that the tribes would be better served by a completely separate court system, modeled after U.S. courts and called agency courts. The only appeal would be to the Commissioner of Indian Affairs.<sup id="cite_ref-78" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-78"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>61<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The BIA opposed that approach, preferring to try only major crimes in the nearest federal court. <i><a href="/wiki/Ex_parte" title="Ex parte">Ex parte</a> Crow Dog</i> provided the BIA a perfect example of why this was needed, along with an incident involving Spotted Tail's son, Spotted Tail, Jr., in which the younger Spotted Tail participated in a fight during which three Brulé were killed.<sup id="cite_ref-80" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-80"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>fn 18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-81" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-81"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>63<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The younger Spotted Tail was also confined pending murder charges, and it took a direct order of the <a href="/wiki/United_States_Secretary_of_the_Interior" title="United States Secretary of the Interior">Secretary of the Interior</a> for the local BIA agents to comply with the Supreme Court decision before he was released.<sup id="cite_ref-82" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-82"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>64<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The BIA also implemented regulations in 1883 criminalizing traditional tribal practices such as war dances and polygamy.<sup id="cite_ref-83" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-83"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>65<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Between the BIA's efforts and the IRA efforts, the law was passed in 1885, making seven offenses federal crimes.<sup id="cite_ref-84" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-84"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>66<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Many members of the Indian tribes were bitter with this outcome for decades afterwards. <a href="/wiki/Wayne_Ducheneaux" title="Wayne Ducheneaux">Wayne Ducheneaux</a>, president of the <a href="/wiki/National_Congress_of_American_Indians" title="National Congress of American Indians">National Congress of American Indians</a>, testified before Congress on the matter in 1968:<sup id="cite_ref-85" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-85"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>67<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <blockquote><p>Before all this came about we had our own method of dealing with law-breakers and in settling disputes between members. That all changed when Crow Dog killed Spotted Tail. Of course, our method of dealing with that was Crow Dog should go take care of Spotted Tail's family, and if he didn't do that we'd banish him from the tribe. But that was considered too barbaric, and thought perhaps we should hang him like civilized people do, so they passed the Major Crimes Act that said we don't know how to handle murderers and they were going to show us.<sup id="cite_ref-86" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-86"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>68<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></p></blockquote> <p>In 2000, <a href="/wiki/Larry_Echo_Hawk" title="Larry Echo Hawk">Larry Echo Hawk</a>, a <a href="/wiki/Pawnee_people" title="Pawnee people">Pawnee</a> who had been the <a href="/wiki/State_attorney_general" title="State attorney general">Attorney General</a> of <a href="/wiki/Idaho" title="Idaho">Idaho</a> and was later the <a href="/wiki/Bureau_of_Indian_Affairs#Commissioners_and_Assistant_Secretaries" title="Bureau of Indian Affairs">Assistant Secretary of the Interior for Indian Affairs</a>, noted that: "The Major Crimes Act was designed to give the federal government authority to criminally prosecute seven specific major crimes committed by Indians in Indian Country. It was a direct assault on the sovereign authority of tribal government over tribal members."<sup id="cite_ref-87" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-87"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>69<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Tribal_sovereignty">Tribal sovereignty</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Ex_parte_Crow_Dog&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Tribal sovereignty"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><i>Crow Dog</i> had a tremendous impact on <a href="/wiki/Tribal_sovereignty_in_the_United_States" title="Tribal sovereignty in the United States">tribal sovereignty</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-88" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-88"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>70<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The decision recognized two distinct concepts in addition to those related to criminal law. First, Justice Matthews had noted that under <i><a href="/wiki/Cherokee_Nation_v._Georgia" title="Cherokee Nation v. Georgia">Cherokee Nation v. Georgia</a></i>, (1831)<sup id="cite_ref-89" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-89"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>71<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> the Brulé tribe had a right to its own law in <a href="/wiki/Indian_country" title="Indian country">Indian country</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-90" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-90"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>72<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Part of this ruling was based on American constitutional tradition – at that time, not all Indians were U.S. citizens<sup id="cite_ref-92" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-92"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>fn 19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and according to Matthews did not have a "voice in the selection of representatives and the framing of the laws."<sup id="cite_ref-93" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-93"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>74<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The case held that Indian tribes retain sovereignty, and is still valid law. For example, <i><a href="/wiki/United_States_v._Lara" title="United States v. Lara">United States v. Lara</a></i>, (2004)<sup id="cite_ref-94" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-94"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>75<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> cited <i>Crow Dog</i> when holding that both a tribe and the federal government could prosecute Lara, as they were separate sovereigns. Subsequent cases have supported the concept "that tribal Indians living in Indian country are citizens of the United States first (under the <a href="/wiki/Plenary_power" title="Plenary power">plenary power</a> doctrine), the tribes second, and the states third, and then only to the extent that Congress chooses."<sup id="cite_ref-95" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-95"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>76<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Currently the tribes are authorized to operate their own courts, not as a right of tribal sovereignty, but under a federal law.<sup id="cite_ref-96" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-96"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>77<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> As of 2007, about half of the federally recognized tribes have tribal courts.<sup id="cite_ref-97" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-97"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>78<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The power of these courts was limited to minor crimes with a maximum punishment of a $5,000 fine and imprisonment of no more than one year<sup id="cite_ref-98" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-98"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>79<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> until the passage of the <a href="/wiki/Tribal_Law_and_Order_Act_of_2010" title="Tribal Law and Order Act of 2010">Tribal Law and Order Act of 2010</a>. Under this new act, tribes may sentence offenders for up to three years per offense and a $15,000 fine.<sup id="cite_ref-99" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-99"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>80<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> As a result of Crow Dog and ensuing legislation, jurisdiction in Indian country is complex, as shown by the following table:<sup id="cite_ref-100" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-100"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>81<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <table class="wikitable sortable"> <tbody><tr> <th>Offender</th> <th>Victim</th> <th>Crime</th> <th>Criminal Jurisdiction</th> <th>Law</th> <th>Authority </th></tr> <tr> <td>Indian</td> <td>Indian</td> <td>Non-major</td> <td>Tribal</td> <td>Tribal</td> <td> </td></tr> <tr> <td>Indian</td> <td>Any</td> <td>Major</td> <td>Federal/Tribal concurrent</td> <td>Federal/Tribal concurrent</td> <td>Major Crimes Act </td></tr> <tr> <td>Indian</td> <td>Non-Indian</td> <td>Non-major</td> <td>Federal/Tribal concurrent</td> <td>State</td> <td>General Crimes Act </td></tr> <tr> <td>Non-Indian</td> <td>Indian</td> <td>Any</td> <td>Federal</td> <td>Federal</td> <td>General Crimes Act </td></tr> <tr> <td>Non-Indian</td> <td>Non-Indian</td> <td>Any</td> <td>State</td> <td>State</td> <td> </td></tr></tbody></table> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Plenary_power_doctrine">Plenary power doctrine</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Ex_parte_Crow_Dog&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Plenary power doctrine"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The court also created the plenary power doctrine, holding that the federal court did not have jurisdiction because Congress had not passed a law giving jurisdiction to the federal courts or taking away the rights of the tribe.<sup id="cite_ref-101" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-101"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>82<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <i>Crow Dog</i> was the last in a line of sovereignty cases that began with <i>Cherokee Nation</i>; the next major case, <i><a href="/wiki/United_States_v._Kagama" title="United States v. Kagama">United States v. Kagama</a></i> (1886),<sup id="cite_ref-102" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-102"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>83<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> upheld the plenary power of Congress to enact the Major Crimes Act.<sup id="cite_ref-103" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-103"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>84<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The plenary power doctrine allowed Congress to enact any law that it wanted to pass, over the opposition of the tribe or tribes affected. Congress subsequently used this power to breach the <a href="/wiki/Medicine_Lodge_Treaty" title="Medicine Lodge Treaty">Medicine Lodge Treaty</a> with the <a href="/wiki/Kiowa_people" class="mw-redirect" title="Kiowa people">Kiowa</a> by reducing the size of the Kiowa reservation without their consent.<sup id="cite_ref-105" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-105"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>fn 20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-106" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-106"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>86<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The use of this power led to complaints of being subject to a lawmaking body without representation, especially prior to being granted U.S. citizenship in 1924.<sup id="cite_ref-108" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-108"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>fn 21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-109" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-109"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>88<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Ex_parte_Crow_Dog&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Criminal_law_in_the_Waite_Court" title="Criminal law in the Waite Court">Criminal law in the Waite Court</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Notes">Notes</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Ex_parte_Crow_Dog&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Notes"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-3">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">The phrase <i><a href="/wiki/Ex_parte" title="Ex parte">ex parte</a></i>, meaning for or by one side only, has traditionally been used in the captions of petitions for the <a href="/wiki/Writ" title="Writ">writ</a> of <i><a href="/wiki/Habeas_corpus" title="Habeas corpus">habeas corpus</a></i>, although such proceedings were not <i>ex parte</i> in any significant sense. This is because a writ of <i>habeas corpus</i> is a "<a href="/wiki/Prerogative_writ" title="Prerogative writ">prerogative writ</a>" issued in the name of the monarch, the title appearing as <i>R v (Defendant), ex parte (Claimant)</i>; in the US, this has been reduced to <i>Ex parte</i> (Claimant)<i>.</i></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-6"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-6">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Crow Dog's <a href="/wiki/Lakota_people" title="Lakota people">Lakota</a> name was Kangi Sunká.<sup id="cite_ref-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-8"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-8">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">The Brulé were a band of the Lakota (also called Teton) Sioux. The Lakota name for the band is Sičháŋǧu Oyáte.<sup id="cite_ref-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-11"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-11">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">The actual treaty language is: "If bad men among the Indians shall commit a wrong or depredation upon the person or property of any one, white, black, or Indians, subject to the authority of the United States, and at peace therewith, the Indians herein named solemnly agree that they will, upon proof made to their agent and notice by him, deliver up the wrong-doer to the United States..."<sup id="cite_ref-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This was common language between 1821 and 1868 in treaties with Indian tribes.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-13"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-13">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">The name of the Black Hills in the Lakota language is Pahá Sápa.<sup id="cite_ref-12" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-21"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-21">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Spotted Tail's Lakota name was Siŋté Glešká.<sup id="cite_ref-20" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-34"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-34">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Some sources state the amount was $50.<sup id="cite_ref-33" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-42"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-42">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">As cited by Kingsbury, without date of publication or further information.<sup id="cite_ref-41" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-41"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-45"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-45">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">One potential juror stated that the word of one white man would outweigh the word of a hundred Indians. In addition, the judge did not allow several witnesses for Crow Dog to testify, including his wife, nor was any information on the various treaties with the tribe admitted into evidence.<sup id="cite_ref-44" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-44"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-47"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-47">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">It was noted that Spotted Tail had killed <a href="/wiki/Big_Mouth_(chief)" title="Big Mouth (chief)">Big Mouth</a>, another Brulé member by having two other Indians grab and hold Big Mouth while Spotted Tail shot him.<sup id="cite_ref-46" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-46"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-51"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-51">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">The witnesses were He Dog, Ring Thunder, High Bear, Chasing Hawk, and Kills On Horseback.<sup id="cite_ref-50" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-50"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-55"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-55">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">"Every person who commits murder-- ... or in any other place under the exclusive jurisdiction of the United States; ... shall suffer death."<sup id="cite_ref-54" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-54"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>43<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-58"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-58">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">"...the general laws of the United States as to punishment of crimes committed in any place within the sole and exclusive jurisdiction of the United States, except the District of Columbia, shall extend to Indian country."<sup id="cite_ref-57" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-57"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>45<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-61"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-61">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">"The preceding section shall not be construed to extend to crimes committed by one Indian against the person or property of another Indian, nor to any Indian committing any offense who has been punished by the local laws of the tribe..."<sup id="cite_ref-60" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-60"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>47<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-69"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-69">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">The bill's sponsor, Representative Cutcheon expressed "anger" at the release of a "murderer" into society.<sup id="cite_ref-68" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-68"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>54<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-72"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-72">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">The original list of offenses was: murder, manslaughter, rape, assault with intent to commit murder, arson, burglary and larceny. Later, Congress added kidnapping, maiming, incest, assault with a dangerous weapon, assault with serious bodily injury, assault of a child under 16, child abuse or neglect, robbery, or a felony under 18 USC Ch. 109A (Sexual Abuse). Territorially, it covered "Indian Country", defined as all reservation land, all Indian allotments, and all dependent Indian communities outside of reservations. The crime had to be committed by an Indian for federal jurisdiction to apply.<sup id="cite_ref-71" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-71"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>56<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-74"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-74">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">This included eastern liberal reformers, such as the Indian Rights Association.<sup id="cite_ref-73" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-73"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>57<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-80"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-80">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Following a dispute over a woman, White Thunder and Spotted Tail, Jr. were involved in a fight. White Thunder was slain along with his father and Song Pumpkin, and Spotted Tail, Jr. was arrested and confined in jail. Spotted Tail, Jr. was the only Indian released from custody as a result of <i>Ex parte Crow Dog</i>.<sup id="cite_ref-79" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-79"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>62<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-92"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-92">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Indians born within the U.S. did not automatically become U.S. citizens until passage of the <a href="/wiki/Indian_Citizenship_Act_of_1924" class="mw-redirect" title="Indian Citizenship Act of 1924">Indian Citizenship Act of 1924</a><sup id="cite_ref-91" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-91"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>73<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-105"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-105">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">The United States admitted that they breached the treaty in <i><a href="/wiki/Lone_Wolf_v._Hitchcock" title="Lone Wolf v. Hitchcock">Lone Wolf v. Hitchcock</a></i> (1903).<sup id="cite_ref-104" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-104"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>85<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-108"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-108">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Even after becoming U.S. citizens in 1924, many states did not allow Indians to vote, with New Mexico only finally allowing it in 1962.<sup id="cite_ref-107" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-107"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>87<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></span> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Ex_parte_Crow_Dog&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239543626"><div class="reflist reflist-columns references-column-width" style="column-width: 30em;"> <ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-1">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite id="CITEREFMagocBernstein2015" class="citation book cs1">Magoc, Chris J.; Bernstein, David, eds. (December 14, 2015). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=CMEnCwAAQBAJ&q=Ex+parte+Crow+Dog+landmark&pg=PA616">"VOLUME 2: Northwest Indian Wars to Wounded Knee → 3. Controlling the Indians, 1835 – 1903 → Historical Overview → Custer, George Armstrong"</a>. <i>Imperialism and Expansionism in American History: A Social, Political, and Cultural Encyclopedia and Document Collection</i>. Santa Barbara, California, United States of America: <a href="/wiki/ABC-CLIO" class="mw-redirect" title="ABC-CLIO">ABC-CLIO</a>. p. 616. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-61069-429-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-61069-429-2"><bdi>978-1-61069-429-2</bdi></a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">June 16,</span> 2020</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=VOLUME+2%3A+Northwest+Indian+Wars+to+Wounded+Knee+%E2%86%92+3.+Controlling+the+Indians%2C+1835+%E2%80%93+1903+%E2%86%92+Historical+Overview+%E2%86%92+Custer%2C+George+Armstrong&rft.btitle=Imperialism+and+Expansionism+in+American+History%3A+A+Social%2C+Political%2C+and+Cultural+Encyclopedia+and+Document+Collection&rft.place=Santa+Barbara%2C+California%2C+United+States+of+America&rft.pages=616&rft.pub=ABC-CLIO&rft.date=2015-12-14&rft.isbn=978-1-61069-429-2&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DCMEnCwAAQBAJ%26q%3DEx%2Bparte%2BCrow%2BDog%2Blandmark%26pg%3DPA616&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEx+parte+Crow+Dog" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-2">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFC._Joseph_Genetin-Pilawa2012" class="citation book cs1">C. Joseph Genetin-Pilawa (October 22, 2012). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=GGKKzf6nT8wC&q=Ex+parte+Crow+Dog+landmark&pg=PA24">"Chapter 1: Confininig Indians"</a>. <i>Crooked Paths to Allotment: The Fight over Federal Indian Policy after the Civil War</i> (First ed.). Chapel Hill, North Carolina, United States of America: The University of North Carolina Press. p. 24. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8078-3576-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8078-3576-0"><bdi>978-0-8078-3576-0</bdi></a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">June 16,</span> 2020</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Chapter+1%3A+Confininig+Indians&rft.btitle=Crooked+Paths+to+Allotment%3A+The+Fight+over+Federal+Indian+Policy+after+the+Civil+War&rft.place=Chapel+Hill%2C+North+Carolina%2C+United+States+of+America&rft.pages=24&rft.edition=First&rft.pub=The+University+of+North+Carolina+Press&rft.date=2012-10-22&rft.isbn=978-0-8078-3576-0&rft.au=C.+Joseph+Genetin-Pilawa&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DGGKKzf6nT8wC%26q%3DEx%2Bparte%2BCrow%2BDog%2Blandmark%26pg%3DPA24&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEx+parte+Crow+Dog" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-4">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><i>Ex parte Crow Dog</i>, <a href="/wiki/List_of_United_States_Supreme_Court_cases,_volume_109" title="List of United States Supreme Court cases, volume 109">109</a> <a href="/wiki/United_States_Reports" title="United States Reports">U.S.</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://supreme.justia.com/cases/federal/us/109/556/">556</a> (1883).</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-5">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r920966791">.mw-parser-output span.smallcaps{font-variant:small-caps}.mw-parser-output span.smallcaps-smaller{font-size:85%}</style><span class="smallcaps">Sidney L. Harring</span>, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r920966791"><span class="smallcaps">Crow Dog's Case: American Indian Sovereignty, Tribal Law, and United States Law in the Nineteenth Century</span> 3 (1994).</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-7"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-7">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r920966791"><span class="smallcaps">Donovin Arleigh Sprague</span>, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r920966791"><span class="smallcaps">Rosebud Sioux</span> 7 (2005).</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-9"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-9">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20111126131814/http://digital.library.okstate.edu/kappler/Vol2/treaties/sio0998.htm">2 <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r920966791"><span class="smallcaps">Indian Affairs: Laws and Treaties</span></a> 998 (Charles J. Kappler, ed.,1904).</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-10"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-10">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Kappler, at 998.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-12"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-12">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r920966791"><span class="smallcaps">Over 5,000 Terms and Expressions from Aarigaa! to Zopilote</span> 263-64 (Wil Blevins, ed., 2002).</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-14"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-14">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Kappler, at 1002.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-15"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-15">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20111126131814/http://digital.library.okstate.edu/kappler/Vol2/treaties/sio0998.htm">2 <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r920966791"><span class="smallcaps">Indian Affairs: Laws and Treaties</span></a> 998 (Charles J. Kappler, ed.,1904).</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-16"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-16">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r920966791"><span class="smallcaps">Edward Lazarus</span>, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r920966791"><span class="smallcaps">Black Hills/White Justice: The Sioux Nation versus the United States, 1775 to the Present</span> 79-80 (1999).</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-17"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-17">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Lazarus, at 84.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-18"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-18">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r920966791"><span class="smallcaps">Peter F. Panzeri, Little Big Horn 1876: Custer's Last Stand</span> 25 (1995).</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-19"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-19">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://digital.library.okstate.edu/kappler/Vol1/HTML_files/SES0166.html"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r920966791"><span class="smallcaps">1 Indian Affairs: Laws and Treaties</span></a> 166 (Charles J. Kappler, ed., 1904) (<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20110526040019/http://digital.library.okstate.edu/kappler/vol1/html_files/SES0166.html">Archived</a> 2011-05-26 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>).</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-20"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-20">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r920966791"><span class="smallcaps">Harring</span>, at 282.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-22"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-22">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r920966791"><span class="smallcaps">George Hyde & Harry H. Anderson</span>, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r920966791"><span class="smallcaps">Spotted Tail's Folk: a History of the Brulé Sioux</span> 83 (2d ed. 1976).</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-23"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-23">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r920966791"><span class="smallcaps">Charles Alexander Eastman</span>, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r920966791"><span class="smallcaps">Indian Heroes and Great Chieftains</span> 40 (1919).</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-24"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-24">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Michael A. Powell, <i>Crow Dog and the Issue of Tribal Jurisdiction</i>, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r920966791"><span class="smallcaps">Law in the Western United States</span> 283 (Gordon Morris Bakken, ed., 2000).</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-25"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-25">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Hyde, at 293.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-26"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-26">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Powell, at 283.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-27"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-27">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r920966791"><span class="smallcaps">Jeffrey Ostler</span>, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r920966791"><span class="smallcaps">The Plains Sioux and U.S. Colonialism from Lewis and Clark to Wounded Knee</span> 198-99 (2004).</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-28"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-28">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r920966791"><span class="smallcaps">Eastman</span>, at 40; <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r920966791"><span class="smallcaps">Harring</span>, at 108-09; Gaylen L. Box, <i>Crow Dog: Tribal Sovereignty & Criminal Jurisdiction In Indian Country</i>, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r920966791"><span class="smallcaps">50-May Advocate (Idaho)</span> 13 (2007).</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-29"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-29">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r920966791"><span class="smallcaps">Ostler</span>, at 201.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-30"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-30">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r920966791"><span class="smallcaps">Eastman</span>, at 40; <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r920966791"><span class="smallcaps">Hyde</span>, at 313-14.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-31"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-31">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r920966791"><span class="smallcaps">Hyde</span>, at 331.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-32"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-32">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r920966791"><span class="smallcaps">Hyde</span>, at 334.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-33"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-33">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r920966791"><span class="smallcaps">George Washington Kingsbury & George Martin Smith</span>, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r920966791"><span class="smallcaps">2 History of the Dakota Territory</span> 1194 (1915).</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-35"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-35">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r920966791"><span class="smallcaps">Kingsbury</span>, at 1194; <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r920966791"><span class="smallcaps">George E. Hyde</span>, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r920966791"><span class="smallcaps">A Sioux Chronicle</span> 46-66 (1993); <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r920966791"><span class="smallcaps">Laurence French</span>, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r920966791"><span class="smallcaps">Native American Justice</span> 135 (2003); <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r920966791"><span class="smallcaps">Vine Deloria, Jr. & <a href="/wiki/Clifford_M._Lytle" title="Clifford M. Lytle">Clifford M. Lytle</a></span>, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r920966791"><span class="smallcaps">The Nations Within: The Past and Future of American Indian Sovereignty</span> 4 (1998); <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r920966791"><span class="smallcaps">Harring</span>, at 110.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-36"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-36">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r920966791"><span class="smallcaps">Deloria</span>, at 4; <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r920966791"><span class="smallcaps">Harring</span>, at 110-11.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-37"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-37">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Now codified at <a href="/wiki/Title_18_of_the_United_States_Code" title="Title 18 of the United States Code">18 U.S.C.</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.law.cornell.edu/uscode/text/18/1152">§ 1152</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-38"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-38">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r920966791"><span class="smallcaps">Harring</span>, at 113-15.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-39"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-39">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r920966791"><span class="smallcaps">Harring</span>, at 125-28.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-40"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-40">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r920966791"><span class="smallcaps">French</span>, at 135; <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r920966791"><span class="smallcaps">Harring</span>, at 121.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-41"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-41">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r920966791"><span class="smallcaps">Kingsbury</span>, at 1193.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-43"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-43">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r920966791"><span class="smallcaps">Kingsbury</span>, at 1193.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-44"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-44">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r920966791"><span class="smallcaps">French</span>, at 136.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-46"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-46">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r920966791"><span class="smallcaps">French</span>, at 136.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-48"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-48">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r920966791"><span class="smallcaps">Richard Irving Dodge</span>, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r920966791"><span class="smallcaps">The Plains of the Great West and their Inhabitants: Being a Description of the Plains, Game, Indians, &c., of the Great North American Desert</span> 271 (1877); <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r920966791"><span class="smallcaps">Harring</span>, at 122.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-49"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-49">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r920966791"><span class="smallcaps">Harring</span>, at 125.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-50"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-50">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Powell, at 283-84</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-52"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-52">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><i>United States v. Crow Dog</i>, 14 N.W. 437 (Dak. 1882).</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-53"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-53">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><i>Crow Dog</i>, 109 U.S. at 557; <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r920966791"><span class="smallcaps">Kingsbury</span>, at 1195; <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r920966791"><span class="smallcaps">French</span>, at 136; <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r920966791"><span class="smallcaps">Vine Deloria, Jr. & <a href="/wiki/Clifford_M._Lytle" title="Clifford M. Lytle">Clifford M. Lytle</a></span>, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r920966791"><span class="smallcaps">American Indians, American Justice</span> 168-70 (1983); Powell, at 284.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-54"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-54">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://memory.loc.gov/cgi-bin/ampage?collId=llsl&fileName=018/llsl018.db&recNum=1110">Act of Mar. 3, 1875, ch. 145</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20170130230137/http://memory.loc.gov/cgi-bin/ampage?collId=llsl&fileName=018%2Fllsl018.db&recNum=1110">Archived</a> 2017-01-30 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> 18 <a href="/wiki/United_States_Statutes_at_Large" title="United States Statutes at Large">Stat.</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://legislink.org/us/stat-18-1038">1038</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-56"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-56">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">18 <a href="/wiki/United_States_Statutes_at_Large" title="United States Statutes at Large">Stat.</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://legislink.org/us/stat-18-1038">1038</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-57"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-57">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://memory.loc.gov/cgi-bin/ampage?collId=llsl&fileName=018/llsl018.db&recNum=446">Act of Mar. 27, 1854, ch. 26</a> 18 <a href="/wiki/United_States_Statutes_at_Large" title="United States Statutes at Large">Stat.</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://legislink.org/us/stat-18-374">374</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-59"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-59">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">18 <a href="/wiki/United_States_Statutes_at_Large" title="United States Statutes at Large">Stat.</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://legislink.org/us/stat-18-374">374</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-60"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-60">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://memory.loc.gov/cgi-bin/ampage?collId=llsl&fileName=018/llsl018.db&recNum=446">Act of Feb. 18, 1875, ch. 80</a> 18 <a href="/wiki/United_States_Statutes_at_Large" title="United States Statutes at Large">Stat.</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://legislink.org/us/stat-18-374">374</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-62"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-62">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">18 <a href="/wiki/United_States_Statutes_at_Large" title="United States Statutes at Large">Stat.</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://legislink.org/us/stat-18-374">374</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-63"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-63">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">18 <a href="/wiki/United_States_Statutes_at_Large" title="United States Statutes at Large">Stat.</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://legislink.org/us/stat-18-374">374</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-64"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-64">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Robert N. Clinton, <i>There Is No Federal Supremacy Clause For Indian Tribes</i> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r920966791"><span class="smallcaps">34 Ariz. St. L.J.</span> 113 (2002).</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-65"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-65">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><i>Crow Dog</i>, 109 U.S. at 571; <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r920966791"><span class="smallcaps">Deloria</span>, at 26.; Kevin K. Washburn, <i>Federal Criminal Law and Tribal Self-Determination</i> 84 <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r920966791"><span class="smallcaps">N.C.L. Rev.</span> 779 (2006).</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-66"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-66">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><i>Crow Dog</i>, 109 U.S. at 572; <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r920966791"><span class="smallcaps">Harring</span>, at 129.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-67"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-67">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Clinton, at 113.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-68"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-68">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Susan M. McGoldrick, <i>Jurisdiction to Sentence and Convict for Lesser Included Offenses under the Major Crimes Act: A Critical Assessment of the Keeble Legacy</i> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r920966791"><span class="smallcaps">12 Am. Indian L. Rev. 219</span> (1984).</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-70"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-70">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r920966791"><span class="smallcaps">Deloria</span>, at 4, 29; Powell, at 286.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-71"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-71">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="/wiki/Title_18_of_the_United_States_Code" title="Title 18 of the United States Code">18 U.S.C.</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.law.cornell.edu/uscode/text/18/1151">§§ 1151</a>–<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.law.cornell.edu/uscode/text/18/1153">1153</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-73"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-73">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r920966791"><span class="smallcaps">French</span>, at 136.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-75"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-75">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r920966791"><span class="smallcaps">French</span>, at 136-37; <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r920966791"><span class="smallcaps">The Oxford guide to United States Supreme Court decisions</span> 66 (Kermit L. Hall, ed., 2001).</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-76"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-76">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r920966791"><span class="smallcaps">Harring</span>, at 115-16, 134-35.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-77"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-77">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r920966791"><span class="smallcaps">Tribal Criminal Law and Procedure</span> 40-50 (Carrie E. Garrow & Sarah Deer, eds., 2004); <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r920966791"><span class="smallcaps">Harring</span>, at 134.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-78"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-78">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Garrow, at 40-50.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-79"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-79">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r920966791"><span class="smallcaps">Harring</span>, at 133.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-81"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-81">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r920966791"><span class="smallcaps">Harring</span>, at 133.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-82"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-82">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r920966791"><span class="smallcaps">Harring</span>, at 133; Washburn, at 779.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-83"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-83">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Box, at 14.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-84"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-84">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r920966791"><span class="smallcaps">Harring</span>, at 136-40.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-85"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-85">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Robert D. Probasco, <i>Indian Tribes, Civil Rights, and Federal Courts</i>, 7 <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r920966791"><span class="smallcaps">Tex. Wesleyan L. Rev.</span> 119 (2001).</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-86"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-86">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Probasco, at 119.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-87"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-87">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="/wiki/Larry_Echo_Hawk" title="Larry Echo Hawk">Larry Echo Hawk</a>, <i>Review: Justice for Native Americans Requires Returning to Our Constitutional Origins Vine Deloria, Jr. & <a href="/wiki/David_E._Wilkins" title="David E. Wilkins">David E. Wilkins</a> Tribes, Treaties, and Constitutional Tribulations</i>, 4 <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r920966791"><span class="smallcaps">Green Bag 2d</span> 101 (2000).</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-88"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-88">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r920966791"><span class="smallcaps">Harring</span>, at 219.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-89"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-89">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><i><a href="/wiki/Cherokee_Nation_v._Georgia" title="Cherokee Nation v. Georgia">Cherokee Nation v. Georgia</a></i>, <a href="/wiki/List_of_United_States_Supreme_Court_cases,_volume_30" title="List of United States Supreme Court cases, volume 30">30</a> <a href="/wiki/United_States_Reports" title="United States Reports">U.S.</a> (5 <a href="/wiki/Reporter_of_Decisions_of_the_Supreme_Court_of_the_United_States" title="Reporter of Decisions of the Supreme Court of the United States">Pet.</a>) <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://supreme.justia.com/cases/federal/us/30/1/">1</a> (1831).</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-90"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-90">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Anthony G. Gulig & Sidney L. Harring, <i>An Indian cannot get a morsel of pork...": A retrospective on Crow Dog, Lone Wolf, Blackbird, Tribal Sovereignty, Indian Land and writing Indian history</i>, 38 <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r920966791"><span class="smallcaps">Tulsa L. Rev.</span> 87 (2002).</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-91"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-91">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="/wiki/Indian_Citizenship_Act_of_1924" class="mw-redirect" title="Indian Citizenship Act of 1924">Indian Citizenship Act of 1924</a>, Act of Jun. 2, 1924, ch. 233 43 <a href="/wiki/United_States_Statutes_at_Large" title="United States Statutes at Large">Stat.</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://legislink.org/us/stat-43-253">253</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-93"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-93">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><i>Crow Dog</i>, 109 U.S. at 569; Clinton, at 113.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-94"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-94">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><i><a href="/wiki/United_States_v._Lara" title="United States v. Lara">United States v. Lara</a></i>, <a href="/wiki/List_of_United_States_Supreme_Court_cases,_volume_541" title="List of United States Supreme Court cases, volume 541">541</a> <a href="/wiki/United_States_Reports" title="United States Reports">U.S.</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://supreme.justia.com/cases/federal/us/541/193/">193</a> (2004).</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-95"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-95">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Philip P. Frickey, <i>Congressional Intent, Practical Reasoning, And The Dynamic Nature Of Federal Indian Law</i>, 78 <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r920966791"><span class="smallcaps">Cal. L. Rev.</span> 1137 (1990).</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-96"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-96">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="/wiki/Indian_Reorganization_Act" title="Indian Reorganization Act">Indian Reorganization Act of 1934</a>, Jun. 18, 1934, ch. 576 48 <a href="/wiki/United_States_Statutes_at_Large" title="United States Statutes at Large">Stat.</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://legislink.org/us/stat-48-984">984</a>; Box, at 15-16.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-97"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-97">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Box, at 14.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-98"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-98">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="/wiki/Indian_Civil_Rights_Act_of_1968" class="mw-redirect" title="Indian Civil Rights Act of 1968">Indian Civil Rights Act of 1968</a>, April 11, 1968, 82 <a href="/wiki/United_States_Statutes_at_Large" title="United States Statutes at Large">Stat.</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://legislink.org/us/stat-82-77">77</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-99"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-99">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="/wiki/Tribal_Law_and_Order_Act_of_2010" title="Tribal Law and Order Act of 2010">Tribal Law and Order Act of 2010</a>, Jul. 29, 2010, 124 <a href="/wiki/United_States_Statutes_at_Large" title="United States Statutes at Large">Stat.</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://legislink.org/us/stat-124-2258">2258</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-100"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-100">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Matthew Handler, <i>Tribal Law And Disorder: A Look at a System of Broken Justice in Indian Country and the Steps Needed to Fix It</i>, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r920966791"><span class="smallcaps">75 Brook. L. Rev. 261</span> (2009).</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-101"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-101">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Gulig, at 87.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-102"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-102">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><i><a href="/wiki/United_States_v._Kagama" title="United States v. Kagama">United States v. Kagama</a></i>, <a href="/wiki/List_of_United_States_Supreme_Court_cases,_volume_118" title="List of United States Supreme Court cases, volume 118">118</a> <a href="/wiki/United_States_Reports" title="United States Reports">U.S.</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://supreme.justia.com/cases/federal/us/118/375/">375</a> (1886).</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-103"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-103">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Gulig, at 87.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-104"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-104">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><i><a href="/wiki/Lone_Wolf_v._Hitchcock" title="Lone Wolf v. Hitchcock">Lone Wolf v. Hitchcock</a></i>, <a href="/wiki/List_of_United_States_Supreme_Court_cases,_volume_187" title="List of United States Supreme Court cases, volume 187">187</a> <a href="/wiki/United_States_Reports" title="United States Reports">U.S.</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://supreme.justia.com/cases/federal/us/187/553/">553</a> (1903); Lazarus, at 171.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-106"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-106">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r920966791"><span class="smallcaps">W. Dale Mason</span>, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r920966791"><span class="smallcaps">Indian Gaming: Tribal Sovereignty and American Politics</span> 29 (2000).</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-107"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-107">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><i><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.pbs.org/indiancountry/challenges/voting.html">Tribal Sovereignty: Voting Rights & Politics</a></i>, in Indian Country Diaries, KERA-PBS, Aug. 29, 2012.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-109"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-109">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Jack Blair, <i>Demanding a Voice in Our Own Best Interest: A Call for a Delegate of the Cherokee Nation to the United States House of Representatives</i>, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r920966791"><span class="smallcaps">20 Am. Indian L. Rev. 225</span> (1996).</span> </li> </ol></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Ex_parte_Crow_Dog&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: External links"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Wikisource-logo.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg/15px-Wikisource-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="15" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg/23px-Wikisource-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg/30px-Wikisource-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="410" data-file-height="430" /></a></span> Works related to <a 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href="/wiki/Native_American_civil_rights" title="Native American civil rights">Rights</a> of <a href="/wiki/Native_Americans_in_the_United_States" title="Native Americans in the United States">Native Americans in the United States</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background:#F0E68C;;width:1%">Case law</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Johnson_v._McIntosh" title="Johnson v. McIntosh">Johnson v. McIntosh</a></i> (1823)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Cherokee_Nation_v._Georgia" title="Cherokee Nation v. Georgia">Cherokee Nation v. Georgia</a></i> (1831)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Worcester_v._Georgia" title="Worcester v. Georgia">Worcester v. Georgia</a></i> (1832)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Fellows_v._Blacksmith" title="Fellows v. Blacksmith">Fellows v. Blacksmith</a></i> (1857)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/New_York_ex_rel._Cutler_v._Dibble" title="New York ex rel. Cutler v. Dibble">New York ex rel. Cutler v. Dibble</a></i> (1858)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Standing_Bear_v._Crook" class="mw-redirect" title="Standing Bear v. Crook">Standing Bear v. Crook</a></i> (D. Neb. 1879)</li> <li><i><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Ex parte Crow Dog</a></i> (1883)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Elk_v._Wilkins" title="Elk v. Wilkins">Elk v. Wilkins</a></i> (1884)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Seneca_Nation_of_Indians_v._Christy" title="Seneca Nation of Indians v. Christy">Seneca Nation of Indians v. Christy</a></i> (1896)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Talton_v._Mayes" title="Talton v. Mayes">Talton v. Mayes</a></i> (1896)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Lone_Wolf_v._Hitchcock" title="Lone Wolf v. Hitchcock">Lone Wolf v. Hitchcock</a></i> (1903)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/United_States_v._Santa_Fe_Pacific_Railroad_Co." title="United States v. Santa Fe Pacific Railroad Co.">United States v. Santa Fe Pacific Railroad Co.</a></i> (1941)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Tee-Hit-Ton_Indians_v._United_States" title="Tee-Hit-Ton Indians v. United States">Tee-Hit-Ton Indians v. United States</a></i> (1955)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Williams_v._Lee" title="Williams v. Lee">Williams v. Lee</a></i> (1959)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Federal_Power_Commission_v._Tuscarora_Indian_Nation" title="Federal Power Commission v. Tuscarora Indian Nation">Federal Power Commission v. Tuscarora Indian Nation</a></i> (1960)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Menominee_Tribe_v._United_States" title="Menominee Tribe v. United States">Menominee Tribe v. United States</a></i> (1968)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/McClanahan_v._Arizona_State_Tax_Commission" title="McClanahan v. Arizona State Tax Commission">McClanahan v. Arizona State Tax Commission</a></i> (1973)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Oneida_Indian_Nation_of_New_York_v._County_of_Oneida" title="Oneida Indian Nation of New York v. County of Oneida">Oneida Indian Nation of New York v. County of Oneida</a></i> (1974)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Bryan_v._Itasca_County" title="Bryan v. Itasca County">Bryan v. Itasca County</a></i> (1976)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/United_States_v._Antelope" title="United States v. Antelope">United States v. Antelope</a></i> (1977)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Santa_Clara_Pueblo_v._Martinez" title="Santa Clara Pueblo v. Martinez">Santa Clara Pueblo v. Martinez</a></i> (1978)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Merrion_v._Jicarilla_Apache_Tribe" title="Merrion v. Jicarilla Apache Tribe">Merrion v. Jicarilla Apache Tribe</a></i> (1982)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Solem_v._Bartlett" title="Solem v. Bartlett">Solem v. Bartlett</a></i> (1984)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/County_of_Oneida_v._Oneida_Indian_Nation_of_New_York_State" title="County of Oneida v. Oneida Indian Nation of New York State">County of Oneida v. Oneida Indian Nation of New York State</a></i> (1985)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/South_Carolina_v._Catawba_Indian_Tribe,_Inc." title="South Carolina v. Catawba Indian Tribe, Inc.">South Carolina v. Catawba Indian Tribe, Inc.</a></i> (1986)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Hodel_v._Irving" title="Hodel v. Irving">Hodel v. Irving</a></i> (1987)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Mississippi_Band_of_Choctaw_Indians_v._Holyfield" title="Mississippi Band of Choctaw Indians v. Holyfield">Mississippi Band of Choctaw Indians v. Holyfield</a></i> (1989)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Duro_v._Reina" title="Duro v. Reina">Duro v. Reina</a></i> (1990)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/South_Dakota_v._Bourland" title="South Dakota v. Bourland">South Dakota v. Bourland</a></i> (1993)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Idaho_v._Coeur_d%27Alene_Tribe_of_Idaho" title="Idaho v. Coeur d'Alene Tribe of Idaho">Idaho v. Coeur d'Alene Tribe of Idaho</a></i> (1997)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Idaho_v._United_States" title="Idaho v. United States">Idaho v. United States</a></i> (2001)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/United_States_v._Lara" title="United States v. Lara">United States v. Lara</a></i> (2004)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/City_of_Sherrill_v._Oneida_Indian_Nation_of_New_York" title="City of Sherrill v. Oneida Indian Nation of New York">City of Sherrill v. Oneida Indian Nation of New York</a></i> (2005)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Cobell_v._Salazar" title="Cobell v. Salazar">Cobell v. Salazar</a></i> (D.C. Cir. 2009)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Adoptive_Couple_v._Baby_Girl" title="Adoptive Couple v. Baby Girl">Adoptive Couple v. Baby Girl</a></i> (2013)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Sharp_v._Murphy" title="Sharp v. Murphy">Sharp v. Murphy</a> </i>and<i> <a href="/wiki/McGirt_v._Oklahoma" title="McGirt v. Oklahoma">McGirt v. Oklahoma</a></i> (2020)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Oklahoma_v._Castro-Huerta" title="Oklahoma v. Castro-Huerta">Oklahoma v. Castro-Huerta</a></i> (2022)</li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_United_States_Supreme_Court_cases_involving_Indian_tribes" title="List of United States Supreme Court cases involving Indian tribes">List of United States Supreme Court cases involving Indian tribes</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background:#F0E68C;;width:1%">Legislation</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Blood_quantum_laws" title="Blood quantum laws">Blood quantum laws</a> (1705 onwards)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nonintercourse_Act" title="Nonintercourse Act">Nonintercourse Act</a> (1790,1793,1796,1799,1802,1834)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Civilization_Fund_Act" title="Civilization Fund Act">Civilization Act</a> (1819)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indian_Removal_Act" title="Indian Removal Act">Indian Removal Act</a> (1830)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dawes_Act" title="Dawes Act">Dawes Act</a> (1887)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Curtis_Act_of_1898" title="Curtis Act of 1898">Curtis Act</a> (1898)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Burke_Act" title="Burke Act">Burke Act</a> (1906)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indian_Citizenship_Act" title="Indian Citizenship Act">Indian Citizenship Act</a> (1924)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indian_Reorganization_Act" title="Indian Reorganization Act">Indian Reorganization Act</a> (1934)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indian_arts_and_crafts_laws" title="Indian arts and crafts laws">Indian arts and crafts laws</a> (1935–2019)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oklahoma_Indian_Welfare_Act" title="Oklahoma Indian Welfare Act">Oklahoma Indian Welfare Act</a> (1936)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nationality_Act_of_1940" title="Nationality Act of 1940">Nationality Act</a> (1940)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Public_Law_280" title="Public Law 280">Public Law 280</a> (1953)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indian_Relocation_Act_of_1956" title="Indian Relocation Act of 1956">Indian Relocation Act</a> (1956)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Civil_Rights_Act_of_1968" title="Civil Rights Act of 1968">Indian Civil Rights Act</a> (1968)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alaska_Native_Claims_Settlement_Act" title="Alaska Native Claims Settlement Act">Alaska Native Claims Settlement Act</a> (1971)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indian_Self-Determination_and_Education_Assistance_Act_of_1975" title="Indian Self-Determination and Education Assistance Act of 1975">Indian Self-Determination and Education Assistance Act</a> (1975)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/American_Indian_Religious_Freedom_Act" title="American Indian Religious Freedom Act">American Indian Religious Freedom Act</a> (1978)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indian_Child_Welfare_Act" title="Indian Child Welfare Act">Indian Child Welfare Act</a> (1978)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Diminishment" title="Diminishment">Diminishment</a> (1984)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indian_Gaming_Regulatory_Act" title="Indian Gaming Regulatory Act">Indian Gaming Regulatory Act</a> (1988)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Native_American_Languages_Act_of_1990" title="Native American Languages Act of 1990">Native American Languages Act</a> (1990)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Native_American_Graves_Protection_and_Repatriation_Act" title="Native American Graves Protection and Repatriation Act">Native American Graves Protection and Repatriation Act</a> (1990)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indian_Arts_and_Crafts_Act_of_1990" title="Indian Arts and Crafts Act of 1990">Indian Arts and Crafts Act</a> (1990)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cherokee_Nation_Truth_in_Advertising_for_Native_Art" title="Cherokee Nation Truth in Advertising for Native Art">Cherokee Nation Truth in Advertising for Native Art</a> (2008)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background:#F0E68C;;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Native_American_recognition_in_the_United_States" title="Native American recognition in the United States">Federal</a> and<br /><a href="/wiki/State-recognized_tribes_in_the_United_States" title="State-recognized tribes in the United States">State recognition</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/United_States_federal_recognition_of_Native_Hawaiians" title="United States federal recognition of Native Hawaiians">Federal recognition of Native Hawaiians</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Legal_status_of_Hawaii" title="Legal status of Hawaii">Legal status of Hawaii</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_federally_recognized_tribes_in_the_contiguous_United_States" title="List of federally recognized tribes in the contiguous United States">Federally recognized tribes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/State-recognized_tribes_in_the_United_States" title="State-recognized tribes in the United States">State recognized tribes</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background:#F0E68C;;width:1%">Related</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Aboriginal_title_in_the_United_States" title="Aboriginal title in the United States">Aboriginal title</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bureau_of_Indian_Affairs" title="Bureau of Indian Affairs">Bureau of Indian Affairs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cherokee_Commission" title="Cherokee Commission">Cherokee Commission</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dawes_Rolls" title="Dawes Rolls">Dawes Rolls</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Declaration_on_the_Rights_of_Indigenous_Peoples" title="Declaration on the Rights of Indigenous Peoples">Declaration on the Rights of Indigenous Peoples</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eagle_feather_law" title="Eagle feather law">Eagle feather law</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Eagle-bone_whistle" title="Eagle-bone whistle">Eagle-bone whistle</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hunting_license" title="Hunting license">Hunting license</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/In_the_Courts_of_the_Conqueror" title="In the Courts of the Conqueror">In the Courts of the Conqueror</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indian_reservation" title="Indian reservation">Indian reservations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Long_Walk_of_the_Navajo" title="Long Walk of the Navajo">Long Walk of the Navajo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Indian_Gaming_Commission" title="National Indian Gaming Commission">National Indian Gaming Commission</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Native_American_civil_rights" title="Native American civil rights">Native American civil rights</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Native_American_gaming" title="Native American gaming">Native American gaming</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Native_American_Rights_Fund" title="Native American Rights Fund">Native American Rights Fund</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Recognition_of_Native_American_sacred_sites_in_the_United_States" title="Recognition of Native American sacred sites in the United States">Recognition of sacred sites</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Seminole_Wars" title="Seminole Wars">Seminole Wars</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Survivance" title="Survivance">Survivance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trail_of_Tears" title="Trail of Tears">Trail of Tears</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Treaty_rights" title="Treaty rights">Treaty rights</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tribal_sovereignty_in_the_United_States" title="Tribal sovereignty in the United States">Tribal sovereignty</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Native_American_self-determination" title="Native American self-determination">Self-determination</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_Congressional_Joint_Special_Committee_on_Conditions_of_Indian_Tribes" title="United States Congressional Joint Special Committee on Conditions of Indian Tribes">United States Congressional Joint Special Committee on Conditions of Indian Tribes</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div>    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