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</li> <li id="toc-Gestational_surrogacy" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Gestational_surrogacy"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 1.2 Gestational surrogacy </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Gestational_surrogacy-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Risks" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Risks"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2 Risks </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Risks-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Risks subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Risks-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Embryo" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Embryo"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.1 Embryo </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Embryo-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Surrogate_mothers" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Surrogate_mothers"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.2 Surrogate mothers </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Surrogate_mothers-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Outcomes" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Outcomes"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3 Outcomes </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Outcomes-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Indications_for_surrogacy" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Indications_for_surrogacy"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4 Indications for surrogacy </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Indications_for_surrogacy-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Gestational_surrogacy_2" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Gestational_surrogacy_2"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5 Gestational surrogacy </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Gestational_surrogacy_2-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-History" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#History"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6 History </div> </a> <ul id="toc-History-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Psychological_concerns" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Psychological_concerns"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7 Psychological concerns </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Psychological_concerns-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Psychological concerns subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Psychological_concerns-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Surrogate" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Surrogate"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7.1 Surrogate </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Surrogate-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Child_and_parents" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Child_and_parents"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7.2 Child and parents </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Child_and_parents-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Legal_issues" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Legal_issues"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 8 Legal issues </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Legal_issues-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Legal issues subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Legal_issues-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Citizenship" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Citizenship"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 8.1 Citizenship </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Citizenship-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-East_Asia" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#East_Asia"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 8.2 East Asia </div> </a> <ul id="toc-East_Asia-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-China" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#China"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 8.2.1 China </div> </a> <ul id="toc-China-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Ethical_issues" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Ethical_issues"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 9 Ethical issues </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Ethical_issues-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Ethical issues subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Ethical_issues-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Gestational_carrier" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Gestational_carrier"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 9.1 Gestational carrier </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Gestational_carrier-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Child" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Child"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 9.2 Child </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Child-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Traditional_values_in_Chinese_society" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Traditional_values_in_Chinese_society"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 9.3 Traditional values in Chinese society </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Traditional_values_in_Chinese_society-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Financial_aspects" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Financial_aspects"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 10 Financial aspects </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Financial_aspects-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Religious_issues" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Religious_issues"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 11 Religious issues </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Religious_issues-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Religious issues subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Religious_issues-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Buddhism" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Buddhism"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 11.1 Buddhism </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Buddhism-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Christianity" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Christianity"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 11.2 Christianity </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Christianity-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Catholicism" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Catholicism"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 11.2.1 Catholicism </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Catholicism-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Hinduism" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Hinduism"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 11.3 Hinduism </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Hinduism-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Islam" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Islam"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 11.4 Islam </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Islam-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Jainism" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Jainism"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 11.5 Jainism </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Jainism-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Judaism" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Judaism"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 11.6 Judaism </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Judaism-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Fertility_tourism" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Fertility_tourism"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 12 Fertility tourism </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Fertility_tourism-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 13 See also </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 14 References </div> </a> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Further_reading" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Further_reading"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 15 Further reading </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Further_reading-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 16 External links </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" > Toggle the table of contents </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading">Surrogacy</h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. Available in 56 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-56" aria-hidden="true" > 56 languages </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-af mw-list-item"><a href="https://af.wikipedia.org/wiki/Surrogaatmoederskap" title="Surrogaatmoederskap – Afrikaans" lang="af" hreflang="af" data-title="Surrogaatmoederskap" data-language-autonym="Afrikaans" data-language-local-name="Afrikaans" class="interlanguage-link-target">Afrikaans</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AA%D8%A3%D8%AC%D9%8A%D8%B1_%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%B1%D8%AD%D9%85" title="تأجير الرحم – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="تأجير الرحم" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target">العربية</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-as mw-list-item"><a href="https://as.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A6%9B%E0%A6%BE%E0%A7%B0%E0%A7%8B%E0%A6%97%E0%A7%87%E0%A6%9B%E0%A6%BF" title="ছাৰোগেছি – Assamese" lang="as" hreflang="as" data-title="ছাৰোগেছি" data-language-autonym="অসমীয়া" data-language-local-name="Assamese" class="interlanguage-link-target">অসমীয়া</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-az mw-list-item"><a href="https://az.wikipedia.org/wiki/Surroqat_anal%C4%B1q" title="Surroqat analıq – Azerbaijani" lang="az" hreflang="az" data-title="Surroqat analıq" data-language-autonym="Azərbaycanca" data-language-local-name="Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target">Azərbaycanca</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bn mw-list-item"><a href="https://bn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A6%B8%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%B0%E0%A7%8B%E0%A6%97%E0%A7%87%E0%A6%B8%E0%A6%BF" title="সারোগেসি – Bangla" lang="bn" hreflang="bn" data-title="সারোগেসি" data-language-autonym="বাংলা" data-language-local-name="Bangla" class="interlanguage-link-target">বাংলা</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bg mw-list-item"><a href="https://bg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A1%D1%83%D1%80%D0%BE%D0%B3%D0%B0%D1%82%D0%BD%D0%BE_%D0%BC%D0%B0%D0%B9%D1%87%D0%B8%D0%BD%D1%81%D1%82%D0%B2%D0%BE" title="Сурогатно майчинство – Bulgarian" lang="bg" hreflang="bg" data-title="Сурогатно майчинство" data-language-autonym="Български" data-language-local-name="Bulgarian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Български</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gestaci%C3%B3_per_substituci%C3%B3" title="Gestació per substitució – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Gestació per substitució" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target">Català</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs mw-list-item"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/N%C3%A1hradn%C3%AD_mate%C5%99stv%C3%AD" title="Náhradní mateřství – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="Náhradní mateřství" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="Czech" class="interlanguage-link-target">Čeština</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Leihmutter" title="Leihmutter – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Leihmutter" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target">Deutsch</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-et mw-list-item"><a href="https://et.wikipedia.org/wiki/Asendusemadus" title="Asendusemadus – Estonian" lang="et" hreflang="et" data-title="Asendusemadus" data-language-autonym="Eesti" data-language-local-name="Estonian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Eesti</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-el mw-list-item"><a href="https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%A0%CE%B1%CF%81%CE%AD%CE%BD%CE%B8%CE%B5%CF%84%CE%B7_%CE%BC%CE%B7%CF%84%CF%81%CF%8C%CF%84%CE%B7%CF%84%CE%B1" title="Παρένθετη μητρότητα – Greek" lang="el" hreflang="el" data-title="Παρένθετη μητρότητα" data-language-autonym="Ελληνικά" data-language-local-name="Greek" class="interlanguage-link-target">Ελληνικά</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vientre_de_alquiler_(pr%C3%A1ctica)" title="Vientre de alquiler (práctica) – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Vientre de alquiler (práctica)" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Español</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eo mw-list-item"><a href="https://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lupatrino" title="Lupatrino – Esperanto" lang="eo" hreflang="eo" data-title="Lupatrino" data-language-autonym="Esperanto" data-language-local-name="Esperanto" class="interlanguage-link-target">Esperanto</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eu mw-list-item"><a href="https://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Haurdunaldi_subrogatu" title="Haurdunaldi subrogatu – Basque" lang="eu" hreflang="eu" data-title="Haurdunaldi subrogatu" data-language-autonym="Euskara" data-language-local-name="Basque" class="interlanguage-link-target">Euskara</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B1%D8%AD%D9%85_%D8%A7%D8%AC%D8%A7%D8%B1%D9%87%E2%80%8C%D8%A7%DB%8C" title="رحم اجاره‌ای – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="رحم اجاره‌ای" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target">فارسی</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gestation_pour_autrui" title="Gestation pour autrui – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Gestation pour autrui" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target">Français</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ga mw-list-item"><a href="https://ga.wikipedia.org/wiki/M%C3%A1thairionada%C3%ADocht" title="Máthairionadaíocht – Irish" lang="ga" hreflang="ga" data-title="Máthairionadaíocht" data-language-autonym="Gaeilge" data-language-local-name="Irish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Gaeilge</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gl mw-list-item"><a href="https://gl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Xestaci%C3%B3n_por_substituci%C3%B3n" title="Xestación por substitución – Galician" lang="gl" hreflang="gl" data-title="Xestación por substitución" data-language-autonym="Galego" data-language-local-name="Galician" class="interlanguage-link-target">Galego</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EB%8C%80%EB%A6%AC%EB%AA%A8" title="대리모 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="대리모" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target">한국어</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hy mw-list-item"><a href="https://hy.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D5%8D%D5%B8%D6%82%D6%80%D5%B8%D5%A3%D5%A1%D5%BF_%D5%B4%D5%A1%D5%B5%D6%80%D5%B8%D6%82%D5%A9%D5%B5%D5%B8%D6%82%D5%B6" title="Սուրոգատ մայրություն – Armenian" lang="hy" hreflang="hy" data-title="Սուրոգատ մայրություն" data-language-autonym="Հայերեն" data-language-local-name="Armenian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Հայերեն</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hi mw-list-item"><a href="https://hi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%B8%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%A5%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%A8%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%AA%E0%A4%A8%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%A8_%E0%A4%AE%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%A4%E0%A5%83%E0%A4%A4%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B5" title="स्थानापन्न मातृत्व – Hindi" lang="hi" hreflang="hi" data-title="स्थानापन्न मातृत्व" data-language-autonym="हिन्दी" data-language-local-name="Hindi" class="interlanguage-link-target">हिन्दी</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hr mw-list-item"><a href="https://hr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Surogatno_maj%C4%8Dinstvo" title="Surogatno majčinstvo – Croatian" lang="hr" hreflang="hr" data-title="Surogatno majčinstvo" data-language-autonym="Hrvatski" data-language-local-name="Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Hrvatski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ibu_pengganti" title="Ibu pengganti – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Ibu pengganti" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Bahasa Indonesia</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gestazione_per_altri" title="Gestazione per altri – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Gestazione per altri" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Italiano</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he mw-list-item"><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%A4%D7%95%D7%A0%D7%93%D7%A7%D7%90%D7%95%D7%AA" title="פונדקאות – Hebrew" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="פונדקאות" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="Hebrew" class="interlanguage-link-target">עברית</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ku mw-list-item"><a href="https://ku.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ducaniya_c%C3%AEgir" title="Ducaniya cîgir – Kurdish" lang="ku" hreflang="ku" data-title="Ducaniya cîgir" data-language-autonym="Kurdî" data-language-local-name="Kurdish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Kurdî</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-la mw-list-item"><a href="https://la.wikipedia.org/wiki/Graviditas_surrogata" title="Graviditas surrogata – Latin" lang="la" hreflang="la" data-title="Graviditas surrogata" data-language-autonym="Latina" data-language-local-name="Latin" class="interlanguage-link-target">Latina</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lv mw-list-item"><a href="https://lv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Surogasija" title="Surogasija – Latvian" lang="lv" hreflang="lv" data-title="Surogasija" data-language-autonym="Latviešu" data-language-local-name="Latvian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Latviešu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lt mw-list-item"><a href="https://lt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pakaitin%C4%97_motinyst%C4%97" title="Pakaitinė motinystė – Lithuanian" lang="lt" hreflang="lt" data-title="Pakaitinė motinystė" data-language-autonym="Lietuvių" data-language-local-name="Lithuanian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Lietuvių</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lmo mw-list-item"><a href="https://lmo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gestazion_per_alter" title="Gestazion per alter – Lombard" lang="lmo" hreflang="lmo" data-title="Gestazion per alter" data-language-autonym="Lombard" data-language-local-name="Lombard" class="interlanguage-link-target">Lombard</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hu 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href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maternidade_de_substitui%C3%A7%C3%A3o" title="Maternidade de substituição – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Maternidade de substituição" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Português</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ro mw-list-item"><a href="https://ro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mam%C4%83_purt%C4%83toare" title="Mamă purtătoare – Romanian" lang="ro" hreflang="ro" data-title="Mamă purtătoare" data-language-autonym="Română" data-language-local-name="Romanian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Română</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A1%D1%83%D1%80%D1%80%D0%BE%D0%B3%D0%B0%D1%82%D0%BD%D0%BE%D0%B5_%D0%BC%D0%B0%D1%82%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%B8%D0%BD%D1%81%D1%82%D0%B2%D0%BE" title="Суррогатное материнство – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Суррогатное материнство" 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<button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-pin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-appearance.pin">move to sidebar</button> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-unpin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-appearance.unpin">hide</button> </div> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div id="bodyContent" class="vector-body" aria-labelledby="firstHeading" data-mw-ve-target-container> <div class="vector-body-before-content"> <div class="mw-indicators"> </div> <div id="siteSub" class="noprint">From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia</div> </div> <div id="contentSub"><div id="mw-content-subtitle"></div></div> <div id="mw-content-text" class="mw-body-content"><div class="mw-content-ltr mw-parser-output" lang="en" dir="ltr"><div class="shortdescription nomobile noexcerpt noprint searchaux" style="display:none">Arrangement in which a woman carries and delivers a child for designated parent(s)</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">This article is about a type of pregnancy. For other uses of the word "surrogacy", see <a href="/wiki/Surrogate_(disambiguation)" class="mw-redirect mw-disambig" title="Surrogate (disambiguation)">Surrogate</a>.</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Surrogate_parents_attending_birth.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fe/Surrogate_parents_attending_birth.jpg/330px-Surrogate_parents_attending_birth.jpg" decoding="async" width="330" height="220" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fe/Surrogate_parents_attending_birth.jpg/495px-Surrogate_parents_attending_birth.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fe/Surrogate_parents_attending_birth.jpg/660px-Surrogate_parents_attending_birth.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2100" data-file-height="1400" /></a><figcaption>Intended parents attend the birth of their child by a gestational surrogate.</figcaption></figure> Surrogacy is an arrangement, often supported by a legal agreement, whereby a woman agrees to <a href="/wiki/Childbirth" title="Childbirth">childbirth</a> on behalf of another person(s) who will become the child's parent(s) after birth. People pursue surrogacy for a variety of reasons such as <a href="/wiki/Infertility" title="Infertility">infertility</a>, dangers or undesirable <a href="/wiki/Pregnancy_risks" class="mw-redirect" title="Pregnancy risks">factors of pregnancy</a>, or when pregnancy is a medical impossibility. While a surrogacy relationship or legal agreement contains the gestational carrier and the child's parent(s) after birth, the gestational carriers are usually being referred as surrogate mothers. Surrogate mothers are the woman who carries and gives birth to a baby for another person, in such process of surrogacy.<a href="#cite_note-1">[1]</a> Surrogate mothers are usually introduced to parent(s) in need of surrogacy through third-party agencies, or other matching channels. They are usually required to participate in processes of insemination (no matter traditional or IVF), pregnancy, delivery, and newborn feeding early after birth. In surrogacy arrangements, monetary compensation may or may not be involved. Receiving money for the arrangement is known as commercial surrogacy.<a href="#cite_note-:2-2">[2]</a> <a href="#cite_note-CommercialSurrogacy-3">[3]</a> The legality and cost of surrogacy varies widely between jurisdictions, contributing to <a href="/wiki/Fertility_tourism" title="Fertility tourism">fertility tourism</a>, and sometimes resulting in problematic international or interstate surrogacy arrangements. For example, those living in a country where surrogacy is banned travel to a jurisdiction that permits it. In some <a href="/wiki/Surrogacy_laws_by_country" title="Surrogacy laws by country">countries</a>, surrogacy is legal if there is no financial gain. Where commercial surrogacy is legal, third-party agencies may assist by finding a surrogate and arranging a surrogacy contract with her. These agencies often obtain medical tests to ensure healthy gestation and delivery. They also usually facilitate legal matters concerning the intended parents and the surrogate. <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Methods">Methods</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Surrogacy&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Methods">edit</a>]</div> Surrogacy may be either traditional or gestational, which are differentiated by the genetic origin of the egg. Gestational surrogacy tends to be more common than traditional surrogacy and is considered less legally complex.<a href="#cite_note-4">[4]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Traditional_surrogacy">Traditional surrogacy</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Surrogacy&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Traditional surrogacy">edit</a>]</div> A traditional surrogacy (also known as partial, natural, or straight surrogacy) is one where the surrogate's egg is fertilised by the intended father's or a donor's sperm. Insemination of the surrogate can be either through sex (<a href="/wiki/Natural_insemination" class="mw-redirect" title="Natural insemination">natural insemination</a>) or <a href="/wiki/Artificial_insemination" title="Artificial insemination">artificial insemination</a>. Using the sperm of a donor results in a child who is not genetically related to the intended parent(s). If the intended father's sperm is used in the insemination, the resulting child is genetically related to both him and the surrogate.<a href="#cite_note-5">[5]</a><a href="#cite_note-surrogacy-6">[6]</a> Some choose to inseminate privately without the intervention of a doctor or physician. In some jurisdictions, the intended parents using donor sperm need to go through an adoption process to have legal parental rights of the resulting child. Many fertility centres that provide for surrogacy assist the parties through the legal process. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Gestational_surrogacy">Gestational surrogacy</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Surrogacy&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Gestational surrogacy">edit</a>]</div> Gestational surrogacy (also known as host or full surrogacy<a href="#cite_note-imrie20142-7">[7]</a>) was first achieved in April 1986.<a href="#cite_note-People-GS2-8">[8]</a> It takes place when an <a href="/wiki/Embryo" title="Embryo">embryo</a> created by <a href="/wiki/In_vitro_fertilisation" title="In vitro fertilisation">in vitro fertilization</a> (IVF) technology is implanted in a surrogate, sometimes called a gestational carrier. <a href="/wiki/Gestation" title="Gestation">Gestational</a> surrogacy has several forms, and in each form, the resulting child is genetically unrelated to the surrogate: <ul><li>The embryo is created using the intended father's sperm and the intended mother's eggs;</li> <li>The embryo is created using the intended father's <a href="/wiki/Sperm" title="Sperm">sperm</a> and a donor <a href="/wiki/Egg" title="Egg">egg</a>;</li> <li>The embryo is created using the intended mother's egg and donor sperm;</li> <li>A donor embryo is transferred to a surrogate. Such an embryo may be available when others undergoing <a href="/wiki/In_vitro_fertilisation" title="In vitro fertilisation">IVF</a> have embryos left over, which they donate to others. The resulting child is genetically unrelated to the intended parent(s).<a href="#cite_note-9">[9]</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Risks">Risks</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Surrogacy&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Risks">edit</a>]</div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Embryo">Embryo</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Surrogacy&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Embryo">edit</a>]</div> The embryo implanted in gestational surrogacy faces the same risks as anyone using <a href="/wiki/IVF" class="mw-redirect" title="IVF">IVF</a> would. Preimplantation risks of the embryo include unintentional epigenetic effects, influence of media which the embryo is cultured on, and undesirable consequences of invasive manipulation of the embryo. Often, multiple embryos are transferred to increase the chance of implantation, and if multiple gestations occur, both the surrogate and the embryos face higher risks of complications.<a href="#cite_note-:22-10">[10]</a> Children born through singleton IVF surrogacy have been shown to have no physical or mental abnormalities compared to those children born through natural conception. However, children born through multiple gestation in gestational carriers often result in preterm labor and delivery, resulting in prematurity and physical and/or mental anomalies.<a href="#cite_note-:22-10">[10]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Surrogate_mothers">Surrogate mothers</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Surrogacy&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Surrogate mothers">edit</a>]</div> Gestational surrogates have a smaller chance of having <a href="/wiki/Hypertensive_disease_of_pregnancy" title="Hypertensive disease of pregnancy">hypertensive disorder during pregnancy</a> compared to mothers pregnant by <a href="/wiki/Egg_donation" title="Egg donation">oocyte donation</a>. This is possibly because gestational carriers tend to be healthier and more fertile than women who use oocyte donation. Gestational carriers also have low rates of <a href="/wiki/Placenta_praevia" title="Placenta praevia">placenta previa</a> / <a href="/wiki/Placental_abruption" title="Placental abruption">placental abruptions</a> (1.1–7.9%).<a href="#cite_note-:82-11">[11]</a> In most countries, such as China, there exists a huge gap in the legal framework between the legislation and regulation for surrogacy. Due to insufficient authority supervision, surrogacy and the safety of surrogate mothers lack of professional support or reliable operation, the medical conditions cannot be achieved either. All these precarious factors increase the safety risks of artificial surgeries such as egg retrieval and insemination. Moreover, the underground contracts can inflict serious physiological harm on surrogate mothers. Surrogacy agencies ignore surrogate mothers' health risks and deaths: enforced foetal sex selection through forced abortions are very common,<a href="#cite_note-:25-12">[12]</a> and multiple implantations and foetal reduction procedures may also be repeated on the same surrogate mother, causing health hazards such as miscarriage, infertility, and even death. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Outcomes">Outcomes</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Surrogacy&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Outcomes">edit</a>]</div> Among gestational surrogacy arrangements, between 19–33% of gestational surrogates will successfully become pregnant from an <a href="/wiki/Embryo_transfer" title="Embryo transfer">embryo transfer</a>. Of these cases, 30–70% will successfully allow the intended parent(s) to become parent(s) of the resulting child.<a href="#cite_note-:9-13">[13]</a> For surrogate pregnancies where only one child is born, the <a href="/wiki/Preterm_birth" title="Preterm birth">preterm birth</a> rate in surrogacy is marginally lower than babies born from standard IVF (11.5% vs 14%). Babies born from surrogacy also have similar average gestational age as infants born through in vitro fertilization and <a href="/wiki/Egg_donation" title="Egg donation">oocyte donation</a>; approximately weeks. Preterm birth rate was higher for surrogate twin pregnancies compared to single births. There are fewer babies with low birth weight when born through surrogacy compared to those born through in vitro fertilization but both methods have similar rates of birth defects.<a href="#cite_note-:82-11">[11]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Indications_for_surrogacy">Indications for surrogacy</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Surrogacy&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Indications for surrogacy">edit</a>]</div> Opting for surrogacy is a choice for single men desiring to raise a child from infancy, same sex couples unable or unwilling for pregnancy, or women unable or unwilling to carry children on their own. Surrogacy is chosen by women for a number of medical reasons, such as abnormal or absent uterus, either congenitally (also known as <a href="/wiki/M%C3%BCllerian_agenesis" title="Müllerian agenesis">Mayer–Rokitansky–Kuster–Hauser syndrome</a>)<a href="#cite_note-:32-14">[14]</a> or post-hysterectomy.<a href="#cite_note-:42-15">[15]</a> Women may have a <a href="/wiki/Hysterectomy" title="Hysterectomy">hysterectomy</a> due to complications in childbirth such as heavy bleeding or a ruptured uterus. Medical diseases such as <a href="/wiki/Cervical_cancer" title="Cervical cancer">cervical cancer</a> or endometrial cancer can also lead to surgical removal of the uterus.<a href="#cite_note-:42-15">[15]</a> Past implantation failures, history of multiple miscarriages, or concurrent severe heart or renal conditions that can make pregnancy harmful may also prompt women to consider surrogacy.<a href="#cite_note-:222-16">[16]</a> The biological impossibility of single men and same-sex couples having a baby also may indicate surrogacy as an option.<a href="#cite_note-:222-16">[16]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Gestational_surrogacy_2">Gestational surrogacy</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Surrogacy&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Gestational surrogacy">edit</a>]</div> In gestational surrogacy, the child is not biologically related to the surrogate, who is often referred to as a gestational carrier. Instead, the embryo is created via in vitro fertilization (IVF), using the eggs and sperm of the intended parents or donors, and is then transferred to the surrogate.<a href="#cite_note-17">[17]</a> According to recommendations made by the <a href="/wiki/European_Society_of_Human_Reproduction_and_Embryology" title="European Society of Human Reproduction and Embryology">European Society of Human Reproduction and Embryology</a> and <a href="/wiki/American_Society_for_Reproductive_Medicine" title="American Society for Reproductive Medicine">American Society for Reproductive Medicine</a>, a gestational carrier is preferably between the ages of 21 and 45, has had one <a href="/wiki/Full_term" class="mw-redirect" title="Full term">full-term</a>, <a href="/wiki/Complications_of_pregnancy" title="Complications of pregnancy">uncomplicated pregnancy</a> where she successfully had at least one child, and has had no more than five deliveries or three <a href="/wiki/Caesarean_section" title="Caesarean section">Caesarean sections</a>.<a href="#cite_note-:9-13">[13]</a>   The <a href="/wiki/International_Federation_of_Gynaecology_and_Obstetrics" title="International Federation of Gynaecology and Obstetrics">International Federation of Gynaecology and Obstetrics</a> recommends that the surrogate's <a href="/wiki/Autonomy" title="Autonomy">autonomy</a> should be respected throughout the pregnancy even if her wishes conflict with what the intended parents want.<a href="#cite_note-18">[18]</a> The most commonly reported motivation given by gestational surrogates is an <a href="/wiki/Altruistic" class="mw-redirect" title="Altruistic">altruistic</a> desire to help a childless couple.<a href="#cite_note-:9-13">[13]</a> Other less commonly given reasons include enjoying the experience of pregnancy, and financial compensation.<a href="#cite_note-19">[19]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="History">History</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Surrogacy&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: History">edit</a>]</div> Having another woman bear a child for a couple to raise, usually with the male half of the couple as the genetic father, has been referenced since the ancient times. Babylonian law and <a href="/wiki/Custom_(law)" class="mw-redirect" title="Custom (law)">custom</a> allowed this practice, and a woman unable to give birth could use the practice to avoid a <a href="/wiki/Divorce" title="Divorce">divorce</a>, which would otherwise be inevitable.<a href="#cite_note-JN243-20">[20]</a><a href="#cite_note-21">[21]</a> Many developments in medicine, social customs, and legal proceedings around the world paved the way for modern surrogacy:<a href="#cite_note-Merino-22">[22]</a> <ul><li>1936 – In the U.S., drug companies <a href="/wiki/Schering-Kahlbaum" class="mw-redirect" title="Schering-Kahlbaum">Schering-Kahlbaum</a> and <a href="/wiki/Parke-Davis" title="Parke-Davis">Parke-Davis</a> started the pharmaceutical production of <a href="/wiki/Estrogen" title="Estrogen">estrogen</a>.</li> <li>1944 – <a href="/wiki/Harvard_Medical_School" title="Harvard Medical School">Harvard Medical School</a> professor <a href="/wiki/John_Rock_(American_scientist)" class="mw-redirect" title="John Rock (American scientist)">John Rock</a> became the first person to fertilize human <a href="/wiki/Ovum" class="mw-redirect" title="Ovum">ovum</a> outside the <a href="/wiki/Uterus" title="Uterus">uterus</a>.</li> <li>1953 – Researchers successfully performed the first <a href="/wiki/Semen_cryopreservation" title="Semen cryopreservation">cryopreservation of sperm</a>.</li> <li>1976 – Michigan lawyer Noel Keane wrote the first surrogacy contract in the United States.<a href="#cite_note-NYT_Article_on_Keane-23">[23]</a></li> <li>1978 – <a href="/wiki/Louise_Brown" title="Louise Brown">Louise Brown</a>, the first "test-tube baby", was born in England, the product of the first successful IVF procedure.</li> <li>1985–1986 – A woman carried the first successful gestational surrogate pregnancy.<a href="#cite_note-People-GS-24">[24]</a></li> <li>1986 – Melissa Stern, otherwise known as "<a href="/wiki/Baby_M" title="Baby M">Baby M</a>," was born in the U.S. The surrogate and biological mother, Mary Beth Whitehead, refused to give up custody of Melissa to the couple with whom she made the surrogacy agreement. The courts of <a href="/wiki/New_Jersey" title="New Jersey">New Jersey</a> found that Whitehead was the child's legal mother and declared contracts for gestational carrierhood illegal and invalid. However, the court found it in the best interest of the infant to award custody of Melissa to the child's biological father, William Stern, and his wife Elizabeth Stern, rather than to Whitehead, the gestational carrier.<a href="#cite_note-25">[25]</a></li> <li>1990 – In <a href="/wiki/California" title="California">California</a>, gestational carrier Anna Johnson refused to give up the baby to intended parents Mark and Crispina Calvert. The couple sued her for custody (<a href="/w/index.php?title=Calvert_v._Johnson&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Calvert v. Johnson (page does not exist)">Calvert v. Johnson</a>), and the court upheld their parental rights. In doing so, it legally defined the true mother as the woman who, according to the surrogacy agreement, intends to create and raise a child.<a href="#cite_note-26">[26]</a></li> <li>2009 – Ukraine, one of the most requested countries in Europe for this treatment, has its first Surrogacy Law approved.</li> <li>2021 – The <a href="/wiki/Supreme_Court_of_Justice_of_the_Nation" title="Supreme Court of Justice of the Nation">Supreme Court of Mexico</a> ruled that every individual, regardless of sexual orientation, marital status, or nationality, has the right to access assisted reproductive technology to form a family, and that the Civil Code of <a href="/wiki/Tabasco" title="Tabasco">the state of Tabasco</a> that restricts surrogacy to Mexican married couples is unconstitutional. It also ruled that legal parentage should be based on the presence of procreational will, not genetic or gestational relationship.<a href="#cite_note-27">[27]</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Psychological_concerns">Psychological concerns</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Surrogacy&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Psychological concerns">edit</a>]</div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Surrogate">Surrogate</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Surrogacy&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Surrogate">edit</a>]</div> Anthropological studies of surrogates have shown that surrogates engage in various distancing techniques throughout the surrogate pregnancy so as to ensure that they do not become emotionally attached to the baby.<a href="#cite_note-28">[28]</a><a href="#cite_note-isbn97805202596452-29">[29]</a><a href="#cite_note-30">[30]</a> Many surrogates intentionally try to foster the development of emotional attachment between the intended mother and the surrogate child.<a href="#cite_note-31">[31]</a> Some surrogates describe feeling empowered by the experience.<a href="#cite_note-isbn97805202596452-29">[29]</a><a href="#cite_note-32">[32]</a> Although gestational surrogates generally report being satisfied with their experience as surrogates, there are cases in which they are not.<a href="#cite_note-Ciccarelli_21–432-33">[33]</a> Unmet expectations are associated with dissatisfaction. Some women did not feel a certain level of closeness with the couple and others did not feel respected by the couple. Some gestational surrogates report emotional distress during the process of surrogacy. There may be a lack of access to therapy and emotional support through the surrogate process. Gestational surrogates may struggle with <a href="/wiki/Postpartum_depression" title="Postpartum depression">postpartum depression</a> and issues with relinquishing the child to their intended parents.<a href="#cite_note-:111-34">[34]</a> Immediate postpartum depression has been observed in gestational surrogates at a rate of 0-20%. Some surrogates report negative feelings with relinquishing rights to the child immediately after birth, but most negative feelings resolve after some time.<a href="#cite_note-35">[35]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Child_and_parents">Child and parents</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Surrogacy&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: Child and parents">edit</a>]</div> A systematic review<a href="#cite_note-:111-34">[34]</a> of 55 studies examining the outcomes for surrogacy for gestational carriers and resulting families showed that there were no major psychological differences in children up to the age of 10 years old that were born from surrogacy compared to those children born from other assisted reproductive technology or those children conceived naturally. Gay men who have become fathers using surrogacy have reported similar experiences to those of other couples who have used surrogacy, including their relationship with both their child and their surrogate.<a href="#cite_note-36">[36]</a> A study has followed a cohort of 32 surrogacy, 32 egg donation, and 54 natural conception families through to age seven, reporting the impact of surrogacy on the families and children at ages one,<a href="#cite_note-:02-37">[37]</a> two,<a href="#cite_note-38">[38]</a> and seven.<a href="#cite_note-39">[39]</a> At age one, parents through surrogacy showed greater psychological well-being and adaptation to parenthood than those who conceived naturally; there were no differences in infant temperament. At age two, parents through surrogacy showed more positive mother–child relationships and less <a href="/wiki/Parenting_stress" title="Parenting stress">parenting stress</a> on the part of fathers than their natural conception counterparts; there were no differences in child development between these two groups. At age seven, the surrogacy and egg donation families showed less positive mother–child interaction than the natural conception families, but there were no differences in maternal positive or negative attitudes or child adjustment. The researchers concluded that the surrogacy families continued to function well. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Legal_issues">Legal issues</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Surrogacy&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: Legal issues">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Surrogacy_laws_by_country" title="Surrogacy laws by country">Surrogacy laws by country</a></div> The legality of surrogacy varies around the world. Many countries do not have laws which specifically deal with surrogacy. Some countries ban surrogacy outright, while others ban commercial surrogacy but allow altruistic surrogacy (in which the surrogate is not financially compensated). Some countries allow commercial surrogacy, with few restrictions. Some jurisdictions extend a ban on surrogacy to international surrogacy. In some jurisdictions rules applicable to <a href="/wiki/Adoption" title="Adoption">adoptions</a> apply while others do not regulate the practice. The US, Ukraine, Russia and Georgia have the most liberal laws in the world, allowing commercial surrogacy, including for foreigners.<a href="#cite_note-40">[40]</a> Several Asian countries used to have liberal laws, but the practice has since been restricted. In 2013, Thailand banned commercial surrogacy, and restricted altruistic surrogacy to Thai couples.<a href="#cite_note-bbc.com-41">[41]</a> In 2016, Cambodia also banned commercial surrogacy.<a href="#cite_note-bbc.com-41">[41]</a> Nepal, Mexico, and India have also recently banned foreign commercial surrogacy.<a href="#cite_note-42">[42]</a> Surrogacy is legal and common in Iran, and monetary remuneration is practiced and allowed by religious authorities.<a href="#cite_note-43">[43]</a><a href="#cite_note-44">[44]</a> Laws dealing with surrogacy must deal with: <ul><li>Enforceability of surrogacy agreements. In some jurisdictions, they are void or prohibited, and some jurisdictions distinguish between commercial and altruistic surrogacy.</li> <li>The different issues raised by traditional and gestational surrogacy.</li> <li>Mechanisms for the legal recognition of the intended parents as the legal parents, either by pre-birth orders or by post-birth adoption.</li></ul> Although laws differ widely from one jurisdiction to another, some generalizations are possible:<a href="#cite_note-45">[45]</a> The historical legal assumption has been that the woman giving birth to a child is that child's legal mother, and the only way for another woman to be recognized as the mother is through adoption (usually requiring the birth mother's formal abandonment of parental rights). Even in jurisdictions that do not recognize surrogacy arrangements, if the potential adoptive parents and the birth mother proceed without any intervention from the government and do not change their mind along the way, they will likely be able to achieve the effects of surrogacy by having the gestational carrier give birth and then give the child up for private adoption to the intended parents. If the jurisdiction specifically bans surrogacy, however, and authorities find out about the arrangement, there may be financial and legal consequences for the parties involved. One jurisdiction (<a href="/wiki/Quebec" title="Quebec">Quebec</a>) prevented the genetic mother's adoption of the child even though that left the child with no legal mother.<a href="#cite_note-quebectest-46">[46]</a> Some jurisdictions specifically prohibit only commercial and not altruistic surrogacy. Even jurisdictions that do not prohibit surrogacy may rule that surrogacy contracts (commercial, altruistic, or both) are void. If the contract is either prohibited or void, then there is no recourse if one party to the agreement has a change of heart: if a surrogate changes her mind and decides to keep the child, the intended mother has no claim to the child even if it is her genetic offspring, and the couple cannot get back any money they may have paid the surrogate; if the intended parents change their mind and do not want the child after all, the surrogate cannot get any money to make up for the expenses, or any promised payment, and she will be left with legal custody of the child. Jurisdictions that permit surrogacy sometimes offer a way for the intended mother, especially if she is also the genetic mother, to be recognized as the legal mother without going through the process of abandonment and adoption. Often this is via a birth order<a href="#cite_note-47">[47]</a> in which a court rules on the legal parentage of a child. These orders usually require the consent of all parties involved, sometimes even including the husband of a married gestational surrogate. Most jurisdictions provide for only a post-birth order, often out of an unwillingness to force the gestational carrier to give up parental rights if she changes her mind after the birth. A few jurisdictions do provide for pre-birth orders, generally only in cases when the gestational carrier is not genetically related to the expected child. Some jurisdictions impose other requirements in order to issue birth orders: for example, that the intended parents be heterosexual and married to one another. Jurisdictions that provide for pre-birth orders are also more likely to provide for some kind of enforcement of surrogacy contracts. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Citizenship">Citizenship</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Surrogacy&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: Citizenship">edit</a>]</div> The citizenship and legal status of the children resulting from surrogacy arrangements can be problematic. The Hague Conference Permanent Bureau identified the question of citizenship of these children as a "pressing problem" in the Permanent Bureau 2014 Study (Hague Conference Permanent Bureau, 2014a: 84–94).<a href="#cite_note-48">[48]</a><a href="#cite_note-49">[49]</a> According to U.S. Department of State, Bureau of Consular Affairs, for a child born abroad to be a U.S. citizen one or both of the child's genetic parents must be a U.S. citizen. In other words, the only way for a foreign born surrogate child to acquire U.S. citizenship automatically at birth is if they are the biological child of a U.S. citizen. Furthermore, in some countries, the child will not be a citizen of the country in which they are born because the gestational carrier is not legally the parent of said child. This could result in a child being born without citizenship.<a href="#cite_note-50">[50]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="East_Asia">East Asia</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Surrogacy&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: East Asia">edit</a>]</div> In South Korea, Hong Kong, Malaysia, Thailand, and India, surrogacies are all regulated “through national laws that expressly ban it or explicitly set the parameters for its legality”.<a href="#cite_note-51">[51]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="China">China</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Surrogacy&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: China">edit</a>]</div> Particularly in China, surrogacy operates within a legally gray area. Scholars mostly claim that surrogacy incites social instability both for the Chinese Government and the public, such as civil disputes, gender disproportion, crime, and the spread of disease.<a href="#cite_note-:13-52">[52]</a> However, no law legislation or enforcement has been published against surrogacy, whether it is a surrogate mother or a connecting third agency, despite the state government's attitude to ban such practice.<a href="#cite_note-53">[53]</a> Any medical organization involved in surrogacy will be considered as law violation, including any institution that organizes, implements, or facilitates egg retrieval and sale of women. Statistics found more than 400 surrogacy agencies facilitate the birth of more than 10,000 surrogate children every year on average — operating underground with legal prohibitions.<a href="#cite_note-:25-12">[12]</a> Due to such blurry legal issues, surrogate mothers have become an underprivileged group facing the oppression of women's reproductive rights and the lack of formal legal restrictions. Many of the conditions they should have, such as emotional caring and social resources, are absent, as research claiming that surrogacy contracts usually blindly meet client needs while ignoring the health and well-being of the surrogate mothers.<a href="#cite_note-:25-12">[12]</a> They are marginalized by society and lack the companionship of their partners and legitimate medical health checkups during the nearly one year of pregnancy. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Ethical_issues">Ethical issues</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Surrogacy&action=edit&section=18" title="Edit section: Ethical issues">edit</a>]</div> Numerous ethical questions have been raised with regards to surrogacy. They generally stem from concerns relating to social justice, women's rights, child welfare, bioethics,<a href="#cite_note-54">[54]</a> and societal traditional values. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Gestational_carrier">Gestational carrier</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Surrogacy&action=edit&section=19" title="Edit section: Gestational carrier">edit</a>]</div> Those who view surrogacy as a social justice issue argue that it leads to the exploitation of women in developing countries whose wombs are commodified to meet the reproductive needs of the more affluent.<a href="#cite_note-:172-55">[55]</a><a href="#cite_note-:182-56">[56]</a><a href="#cite_note-:192-57">[57]</a><a href="#cite_note-:202-58">[58]</a><a href="#cite_note-:212-59">[59]</a> While opponents of this stance argue that surrogacy provides a much-needed source of revenue for women facing poverty in developing countries, others purport that the lack of legislation in such countries often leads to much of the profit accruing to middlemen and commercial agencies rather than the gestational carriers themselves.<a href="#cite_note-:172-55">[55]</a><a href="#cite_note-:182-56">[56]</a> It has been argued that under laws of countries where surrogacy falls under the umbrella of adoption, commercial surrogacy can be considered problematic as payment for adoption is unethical, but not paying a gestational carrier for her service is a form of exploitation.<a href="#cite_note-60">[60]</a> Both opponents and supporters of surrogacy have agreed that implementing international laws on surrogacy can limit the social justice issues that gestational carriers face in transnational surrogacy.<a href="#cite_note-61">[61]</a> Other human rights activists express concern over the conditions under which gestational carriers are kept by surrogacy clinics which exercise much power and control over the process of surrogate pregnancy.<a href="#cite_note-:172-55">[55]</a><a href="#cite_note-:182-56">[56]</a> Isolated from friends and family and required to live in separate surrogacy hostels on the pretext of ensuring consistent <a href="/wiki/Prenatal_care" title="Prenatal care">prenatal care</a>, it is argued that gestational carriers may face psychological challenges that cannot be offset by the (limited) economic benefits of surrogacy.<a href="#cite_note-:172-55">[55]</a><a href="#cite_note-:182-56">[56]</a> Other psychological issues are noted, such as the implications of gestational carriers emotionally detaching themselves from their babies in anticipation of birth departure.<a href="#cite_note-:192-57">[57]</a> The relevance of a woman's consent in judging the ethical acceptability of surrogacy is another point of controversy within human rights circles. While some hold that any consensual process is not a human rights violation, other human rights activists argue that human rights are not just about survival but about human dignity and respect.<a href="#cite_note-:212-59">[59]</a> Thus, decisions cannot be defined as involving agency if they are driven by coercion, violence, or extreme poverty, which is often the case with women in developing countries who pursue surrogacy due to economic need or aggressive persuasion from their husbands.<a href="#cite_note-:172-55">[55]</a><a href="#cite_note-:182-56">[56]</a><a href="#cite_note-:192-57">[57]</a><a href="#cite_note-:212-59">[59]</a> On the other end of the spectrum, it has been argued that bans on surrogacy are violations of human rights under the existing laws of the <a href="/wiki/Inter-American_Court_of_Human_Rights" title="Inter-American Court of Human Rights">Inter-American Court of Human Rights</a> reproductive rights landmark.<a href="#cite_note-62">[62]</a> Some <a href="/wiki/Feminism" title="Feminism">feminists</a> have also argued that surrogacy is an assault to a woman's dignity and right to autonomy over her body.<a href="#cite_note-:192-57">[57]</a><a href="#cite_note-:202-58">[58]</a><a href="#cite_note-:212-59">[59]</a> By degrading impoverished women to the mere status of "baby producers", commercial surrogacy has been accused by feminists of commodifying women's bodies in a manner akin to <a href="/wiki/Prostitution" title="Prostitution">prostitution</a>.<a href="#cite_note-:192-57">[57]</a> Some feminists also express concerns over links between surrogacy and <a href="/wiki/Patriarchy" title="Patriarchy">patriarchal</a> expressions of domination as numerous reports have been cited of women in developing countries coerced into commercial surrogacy by their husbands wanting to "earn money off of their wives' bodies".<a href="#cite_note-:192-57">[57]</a> Supporters of surrogacy have argued to mandate education of gestational carriers regarding their rights and risks through the process in order to both rectify the ethical issues that arise and to enhance their autonomy.<a href="#cite_note-63">[63]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Child">Child</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Surrogacy&action=edit&section=20" title="Edit section: Child">edit</a>]</div> Those concerned with the <a href="/wiki/Children%27s_rights" title="Children's rights">rights of the child</a> in the context of surrogacy reference issues related to identity and parenthood, abandonment and abuse, and <a href="/wiki/Trafficking_of_children" title="Trafficking of children">child trafficking</a>. It is argued that in commercial surrogacy, the rights of the child are often neglected as the baby becomes a mere commodity within an economic transaction of a good and a service.<a href="#cite_note-64">[64]</a> Such opponents of surrogacy argue that transferring the duties of parenthood from the birthing mother to a contracting couple denies the child any claim to its "gestational carrier" and to its biological parents if the egg and/or sperm is/are not that of the contracting parents.<a href="#cite_note-:202-58">[58]</a> In addition, they claim that the child has no right to information about any siblings he or she may have in the latter instance.<a href="#cite_note-:202-58">[58]</a> The relevance of disclosing the use of surrogacy as an <a href="/wiki/Assisted_reproductive_technology" title="Assisted reproductive technology">assisted reproductive technique</a> to the child has also been argued to be important for both health risks and the rights of the child.<a href="#cite_note-65">[65]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Traditional_values_in_Chinese_society">Traditional values in Chinese society</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Surrogacy&action=edit&section=21" title="Edit section: Traditional values in Chinese society">edit</a>]</div> In China, surrogacy has been argued to contradict traditional Chinese values.<a href="#cite_note-:13-52">[52]</a> Traditional Chinese values focus on blood ties and family ties. The physical connection between parents and children and the process by which parents give birth to children are considered virtuous ("生恩 shēng'ēn"). There is also an ancient Chinese saying that believes that "the body, hair, and skin come from the parents who gave birth to one", and blood relatives should be respected, and one should not harm oneself at will ("身体发肤受之父母 shēntǐ fà fū shòu zhī fùmǔ"). When Chinese people regard blood relations as an important pathway to demonstrate filial piety and family intimacy, these traditional concepts are rooted in the cognitive norm of society. Such emphasis on biological parents and blood relations undoubtedly resulted in conflicts with the practice of surrogacy, which regards childbirth as only a physiological process. Correspondingly, this value of kinship relations strongly affects the social status of surrogate mothers. They are easily considered "heartless" or "don't care about their own children" in Chinese society because they are only responsible for the birth process and hand over the children to others and do not participate in the upbringing process. However, there are also opinions that this separation from the children is not voluntary for surrogate mothers, but is forced by third-party agencies or restricted by unfair contracts. They can only give up the right to raise their children and send them away despite suffering great psychological and emotional trauma. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Financial_aspects">Financial aspects</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Surrogacy&action=edit&section=22" title="Edit section: Financial aspects">edit</a>]</div> According to the Assisted Human Reproduction Act adopted in 2004, it is prohibited in Canada to compensate a female for acting as a surrogate mother or to advertise the payment of such compensation.<a href="#cite_note-:0-66">[66]</a> However, on October 1, 2016, Health Canada announced its intention to update and strengthen the Assisted Human Reproduction Act to regulate the financial aspects of contracts between intended parents and surrogate mothers.<a href="#cite_note-:0-66">[66]</a> According to research, surrogate mothers are mostly motivated by their low socioeconomic status or family debt;<a href="#cite_note-:25-12">[12]</a> they are more likely to be forced into surrogacy due to financial pressures. In 2020, Section 12 of the Assisted Human Reproduction Act provides for the reimbursement of expenses and monetary compensation to the surrogate mother to alleviate the financial burden associated with surrogacy.<a href="#cite_note-:0-66">[66]</a> According to this proposed regulation, the reimbursement of eligible expenses is not obligatory.<a href="#cite_note-:0-66">[66]</a> Aiming at emphasizing the voluntary nature of the gesture. The proposed regulation provides a non-exhaustive list of different categories of eligible expenses, such as parking fees, travel expenses, caregiver expenses, meals, psychological consultations, etc.<a href="#cite_note-:0-66">[66]</a> Additionally, the surrogate mother can be reimbursed for any lost wages during pregnancy if she obtains written confirmation from a qualified physician that the work posed a risk to the pregnancy.<a href="#cite_note-:0-66">[66]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Religious_issues">Religious issues</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Surrogacy&action=edit&section=23" title="Edit section: Religious issues">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Religious_response_to_assisted_reproductive_technology" title="Religious response to assisted reproductive technology">Religious response to assisted reproductive technology</a></div> Different religions take different approaches to surrogacy, often related to their stances on assisted reproductive technology in general. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Buddhism">Buddhism</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Surrogacy&action=edit&section=24" title="Edit section: Buddhism">edit</a>]</div> <a href="/wiki/Buddhism" title="Buddhism">Buddhist</a> thought is inconclusive on the matter of surrogacy. The prominent belief is that Buddhism totally accepts surrogacy since there are no Buddhist teachings suggesting that <a href="/wiki/Infertility" title="Infertility">infertility</a> treatments or surrogacy are immoral.<a href="#cite_note-herencyclopedia-67">[67]</a> This stance is further supported by the common conception that serving as a gestational carrier is an expression of compassion and therefore automatically aligns with <a href="/wiki/Buddhist_ethics" title="Buddhist ethics">Buddhist values</a>.<a href="#cite_note-synonym.com-68">[68]</a> However, numerous Buddhist thinkers have expressed concerns with certain aspects of surrogacy.<a href="#cite_note-69">[69]</a><a href="#cite_note-synonym.com-68">[68]</a> One Buddhist perspective on surrogacy arises from the Buddhist belief in <a href="/wiki/Reincarnation" title="Reincarnation">reincarnation</a> as a manifestation of <a href="/wiki/Karma" title="Karma">karma</a>.<a href="#cite_note-synonym.com-68">[68]</a> According to this view, gestational carrierhood circumvents the workings of karma by interfering with the natural cycle of rebirth.<a href="#cite_note-synonym.com-68">[68]</a> Others reference the <a href="/wiki/Gautama_Buddha" class="mw-redirect" title="Gautama Buddha">Buddha</a> directly who purportedly taught that trade in <a href="/wiki/Sentience" title="Sentience">sentient</a> beings, including human beings, is not a righteous practice as it almost always involves exploitation that causes suffering.<a href="#cite_note-thedailyenlightenment.com-70">[70]</a> Susumu Shimazono, professor of Religious Studies at the <a href="/wiki/University_of_Tokyo" title="University of Tokyo">University of Tokyo</a>, contends in the magazine Dharma World that surrogacy places the childbearing surrogate in a position of subservience, in which her body becomes a "tool" for another.<a href="#cite_note-synonym.com-68">[68]</a> Simultaneously, other Buddhist thinkers argue that as long as the primary purpose of being a gestational carrier is out of compassion instead of profit, it is not exploitative and is therefore morally permissible.<a href="#cite_note-thedailyenlightenment.com-70">[70]</a> This further highlights the lack of consensus on surrogacy within the Buddhist community. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Christianity">Christianity</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Surrogacy&action=edit&section=25" title="Edit section: Christianity">edit</a>]</div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Catholicism">Catholicism</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Surrogacy&action=edit&section=26" title="Edit section: Catholicism">edit</a>]</div> The <a href="/wiki/Catholic_Church" title="Catholic Church">Catholic Church</a> is opposed to surrogacy, which it views as immoral and incompatible with Biblical texts surrounding topics of birth, <a href="/wiki/Marriage" title="Marriage">marriage</a>, and life.[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] Paragraph 2376 of the <a href="/wiki/Catechism_of_the_Catholic_Church" title="Catechism of the Catholic Church">Catechism</a> of the Catholic Church states that: "Techniques that entail the dissociation of husband and wife, by the intrusion of a person other than the couple (donation of sperm or ovum, surrogate uterus), are gravely immoral."<a href="#cite_note-71">[71]</a> Many proponents of this stance express concern that the sanctity of marriage may be compromised by the insertion of a third party into the marriage contract.<a href="#cite_note-Pope-72">[72]</a> Additionally, the practice of <a href="/wiki/In_vitro_fertilisation" title="In vitro fertilisation">in vitro fertilisation</a> involved in gestational surrogacy is generally viewed as morally impermissible due to its removal of human conception from the act of <a href="/wiki/Sexual_intercourse" title="Sexual intercourse">sexual intercourse</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Pope-72">[72]</a> Catholics also condemn in vitro fertilisation due to the destruction of embryos that accompanies the frequent practice of discarding, freezing, or donating non-implanted eggs to <a href="/wiki/Stem_cell_controversy" title="Stem cell controversy">stem cell research</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Pope-72">[72]</a> As such, the Catholic Church deems all practices involving in vitro fertilisation, including gestational surrogacy, as morally problematic.[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Hinduism">Hinduism</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Surrogacy&action=edit&section=27" title="Edit section: Hinduism">edit</a>]</div> Surrogacy does not conflict with the <a href="/wiki/Hinduism" title="Hinduism">Hindu religion</a>.<a href="#cite_note-herencyclopedia-67">[67]</a> Surrogacy and other scientific methods of assisted reproduction are generally supported within the Hindu community. While Hindu scholars have not debated the issue extensively, <a href="/wiki/T._C._Anand_Kumar" title="T. C. Anand Kumar">T. C. Anand Kumar</a>, an Indian reproductive biologist, argues that there is no conflict between Hinduism and assisted reproduction.<a href="#cite_note-73">[73]</a> Others have supported this stance with reference to <a href="/w/index.php?title=Hindu_faith&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Hindu faith (page does not exist)">Hindu faith</a>, including a story in the <a href="/wiki/Bhagavata_Purana" title="Bhagavata Purana">Bhagavata Purana</a> which suggests the practice of gestational carrier-hood:<a href="#cite_note-herencyclopedia-67">[67]</a> <blockquote><a href="/wiki/Kamsa" title="Kamsa">Kamsa</a>, the wicked king of Mathura, had imprisoned his sister Devaki and her husband Vasudeva because oracles had informed him that her child would be his killer. Every time she delivered a child, he smashed its head on the floor. He killed six children. When the seventh child was conceived, the gods intervened. They summoned the goddess Yogamaya and had her transfer the fetus from the womb of Devaki to the womb of Rohini (Vasudeva's other wife who lived with her sister Yashoda across the river Yamuna, in the village of cowherds at Gokulam). Thus the child conceived in one womb was incubated in and delivered through another womb.<a href="#cite_note-herencyclopedia-67">[67]</a></blockquote> Additionally, infertility is often associated with <a href="/wiki/Karma" title="Karma">karma</a> in the Hindu tradition and consequently treated as a pathology to be treated.<a href="#cite_note-www.beliefnet.com-74">[74]</a> This has led to general acceptance of medical intervention for addressing infertility amongst Hindus.<a href="#cite_note-www.beliefnet.com-74">[74]</a> As such, surrogacy and other scientific methods of <a href="/wiki/Assisted_reproductive_technology" title="Assisted reproductive technology">assisted reproduction</a> are generally supported within the Hindu community.<a href="#cite_note-www.beliefnet.com-74">[74]</a> Nonetheless, Hindu women do not commonly use surrogacy as an option to treat <a href="/wiki/Infertility" title="Infertility">infertility</a>, despite often serving as surrogates for Western commissioning couples.<a href="#cite_note-herencyclopedia-67">[67]</a><a href="#cite_note-www.beliefnet.com-74">[74]</a> When surrogacy is practiced by Hindus, it is more likely to be used within the family circle as opposed to involving anonymous donors.<a href="#cite_note-www.beliefnet.com-74">[74]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Islam">Islam</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Surrogacy&action=edit&section=28" title="Edit section: Islam">edit</a>]</div> For Muslims, the Qur'anic injunction that "their mothers are only those who conceived them and gave birth to them (waladna hum)" denies the distinction between genetic and gestational mothers, hence complicating notions of lineage within the context of surrogacy, which are central to the Muslim faith.<a href="#cite_note-75">[75]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Jainism">Jainism</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Surrogacy&action=edit&section=29" title="Edit section: Jainism">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:HarinegameshinTransfersEmbryoKalpasutra1300.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d5/HarinegameshinTransfersEmbryoKalpasutra1300.jpg/280px-HarinegameshinTransfersEmbryoKalpasutra1300.jpg" decoding="async" width="280" height="47" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d5/HarinegameshinTransfersEmbryoKalpasutra1300.jpg/420px-HarinegameshinTransfersEmbryoKalpasutra1300.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d5/HarinegameshinTransfersEmbryoKalpasutra1300.jpg/560px-HarinegameshinTransfersEmbryoKalpasutra1300.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1500" data-file-height="254" /></a><figcaption>Harinegameshin Transfers Mahavira's Embryo, from a Kalpasutra manuscript, c. 1300–1350, Philadelphia Museum of Art</figcaption></figure> <a href="/wiki/Jainism" title="Jainism">Jain</a> scholars have not debated the issue of surrogacy extensively. Nonetheless, the practice of surrogacy is referenced in the <a href="/wiki/%C5%9Av%C4%93t%C4%81mbara" class="mw-redirect" title="Śvētāmbara">Śvētāmbara</a> tradition of Jainism according to which the embryo of Lord <a href="/wiki/Mahavira" title="Mahavira">Mahavira</a> was transferred from a <a href="/wiki/Brahmin" title="Brahmin">Brahmin</a> woman Devananada to the womb of <a href="/wiki/Trishala" title="Trishala">Trishala</a>, the queen of <a href="/wiki/Kshatriya" title="Kshatriya">Kshatriya</a> ruler Siddharth, by a divinity named <a href="/wiki/Naigamesha" title="Naigamesha">Harinegameshin</a>.<a href="#cite_note-76">[76]</a> This account is not present in <a href="/wiki/Digambara" title="Digambara">Digambara</a> Jain texts, however. Other sources state that surrogacy is not objectionable in the Jain view as it is seen as a physical operation akin to any other medical treatment used to treat a bodily deficiency.<a href="#cite_note-:1-77">[77]</a> However, some religious concerns related to surrogacy have been raised within the Jain community including the loss of non-implanted embryos, destruction of traditional marriage relationships, and <a href="/wiki/Adultery" title="Adultery">adulterous</a> implications of gestational surrogacy.<a href="#cite_note-:1-77">[77]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Judaism">Judaism</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Surrogacy&action=edit&section=30" title="Edit section: Judaism">edit</a>]</div> In general, there is a lack of consensus within the <a href="/wiki/Jews" title="Jews">Jewish community</a> on the matter of surrogacy. Jewish scholars and <a href="/wiki/Rabbi" title="Rabbi">rabbis</a> have long debated this topic, expressing conflicting views on both sides of the debate. Those supportive of surrogacy within the <a href="/wiki/Judaism" title="Judaism">Jewish religion</a> generally view it as a morally permissible way for Jewish women who cannot conceive to fulfill their religious obligations of procreation.<a href="#cite_note-Spikebrennan-78">[78]</a><a href="#cite_note-Golinkin_2012-79">[79]</a> Rabbis who favour this stance often cite Genesis 9:1 which commands all Jews to "be fruitful and multiply".<a href="#cite_note-Spikebrennan-78">[78]</a> In 1988, the <a href="/wiki/Committee_on_Jewish_Law_and_Standards" title="Committee on Jewish Law and Standards">Committee on Jewish Law and Standards</a> associated with the Conservative Jewish movement issued formal approval for surrogacy, concluding that "the <a href="/wiki/Mitzvah" title="Mitzvah">mitzvah</a> of parenthood is so great that ovum surrogacy is permissible".<a href="#cite_note-Spikebrennan-78">[78]</a> Jewish scholars and rabbis which hold an anti-surrogacy stance often see it as a form of <a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_the_21st_century" title="Slavery in the 21st century">modern slavery</a> wherein women's bodies are exploited and children are commodified.<a href="#cite_note-Spikebrennan-78">[78]</a> As Jews possess the religious obligation to "actively engage in the redemption of those who are enslaved", practices seen as involving human exploitation are morally condemned.<a href="#cite_note-Spikebrennan-78">[78]</a> This thinking aligns with concerns brought forth by other groups regarding the relation between surrogacy practices and forms of <a href="/wiki/Human_trafficking" title="Human trafficking">human trafficking</a> in certain countries with large fertility tourism industries. Several Jewish scholars and rabbis also cite ethical concerns surrounding the "broken relationship" between the child and its surrogate birth mother.<a href="#cite_note-Spikebrennan-78">[78]</a> Rabbi Immanuel Jacovits, chief rabbi of the <a href="/wiki/List_of_Chief_Rabbis_of_the_United_Hebrew_Congregations" class="mw-redirect" title="List of Chief Rabbis of the United Hebrew Congregations">United Hebrew Congregation</a> from 1976 to 1991, reported in his 1975 publication Jewish Medical Ethics that "to use another person as an incubator and then take from her the child that she carried and delivered for a fee is a revolting degradation of maternity and an affront to human dignity."<a href="#cite_note-Spikebrennan-78">[78]</a> Another point of contention surrounding surrogacy within the Jewish community is the issue of defining motherhood. There are generally three conflicting views on this topic: 1) the ovum donor is the mother, 2) the gestational carrier is the mother, and 3) the child has two mothers—both the ovum donor and the gestational carrier.<a href="#cite_note-Golinkin_2012-79">[79]</a> While most contend that parenthood is determined by the woman giving birth, a minority opt to consider the genetic parents the legal parents, citing the well-known passage in <a href="/wiki/Sanhedrin_(tractate)" title="Sanhedrin (tractate)">Sanhedrin</a> 91b of the <a href="/wiki/Talmud" title="Talmud">Talmud</a> which states that life begins at conception.<a href="#cite_note-Golinkin_2012-79">[79]</a> Also controversial is the issue of defining Judaism in the context of surrogacy. <a href="/wiki/Halakha" title="Halakha">Jewish Law</a> states that if a Jewish woman is the surrogate, then the child is Jewish.<a href="#cite_note-Golinkin_2012-79">[79]</a> However, this often raises issues when the child is raised by a non-Jewish family and approaches for addressing this issue are also widely debated within the Jewish community.<a href="#cite_note-Golinkin_2012-79">[79]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Fertility_tourism">Fertility tourism</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Surrogacy&action=edit&section=31" title="Edit section: Fertility tourism">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Fertility_tourism" title="Fertility tourism">Fertility tourism</a></div> Some countries, such as the United States, Canada, Greece, Georgia and Mexico are popular surrogacy destinations for foreign intended parents.<a href="#cite_note-80">[80]</a> Ukraine, Belarus and Russia were also destinations before the <a href="/wiki/Russian_invasion_of_Ukraine" title="Russian invasion of Ukraine">Russian invasion of Ukraine</a>. Eligibility, processes and costs differ from country to country. Fertility tourism for surrogacy is driven by legal restrictions in the home country or the incentive of lower prices abroad. Previously popular destinations, India, Nepal and Thailand have all recently implemented bans on commercial surrogacy for non-residents.<a href="#cite_note-:16-81">[81]</a> China is also a famous destination, even though surrogacy is legally banned.<a href="#cite_note-:2-2">[2]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Surrogacy&action=edit&section=32" title="Edit section: See also">edit</a>]</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1259569809">.mw-parser-output .portalbox{padding:0;margin:0.5em 0;display:table;box-sizing:border-box;max-width:175px;list-style:none}.mw-parser-output .portalborder{border:1px solid var(--border-color-base,#a2a9b1);padding:0.1em;background:var(--background-color-neutral-subtle,#f8f9fa)}.mw-parser-output .portalbox-entry{display:table-row;font-size:85%;line-height:110%;height:1.9em;font-style:italic;font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output 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href="/wiki/Sexual_surrogate" class="mw-redirect" title="Sexual surrogate">Sexual surrogate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sperm_donation" title="Sperm donation">Sperm donation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Surrogacy_laws_by_country" title="Surrogacy laws by country">Surrogacy laws by country</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Third-party_reproduction" title="Third-party reproduction">Third-party reproduction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mitochondrial_replacement_therapy" title="Mitochondrial replacement therapy">Mitochondrial replacement therapy</a></li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Surrogacy&action=edit&section=33" title="Edit section: References">edit</a>]</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist 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cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and 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April 3, 2023.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Surrogacy%3A+Parenthood+as+a+global+industry&rft.date=2023-04-03&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fenglish.elpais.com%2Fsociety%2F2023-04-03%2Fsurrogacy-parenthood-as-a-global-industry.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASurrogacy" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-:16-81"><a href="#cite_ref-:16_81-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation news cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.theglobeandmail.com/opinion/article-how-canada-became-an-international-surrogacy-destination/">"How Canada became an international surrogacy destination"</a>. The Globe and Mail. Retrieved March 27, 2019.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Globe+and+Mail&rft.atitle=How+Canada+became+an+international+surrogacy+destination&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.theglobeandmail.com%2Fopinion%2Farticle-how-canada-became-an-international-surrogacy-destination%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASurrogacy" class="Z3988"> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Further_reading">Further reading</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Surrogacy&action=edit&section=34" title="Edit section: Further reading">edit</a>]</div> <ul><li>Teman, Elly (March, 2010). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.ucpress.edu/book.php?isbn=9780520259645">"Birthing a Mother: The Surrogate Body and the Pregnant Self". Berkeley: University of California Press</a>.</li> <li>Siegel-Itzkovich, Judy (April 3, 2010). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.jpost.com/LandedPages/PrintArticle.aspx?id=172370">"Womb to Let"</a>. <a href="/wiki/The_Jerusalem_Post" title="The Jerusalem Post">The Jerusalem Post</a>.</li> <li>Li, Shan (February 18, 2012). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.latimes.com/business/la-fi-china-surrogate-20120219%2c0%2c6405320.story">"Chinese Couples Come to U.S. to Have Children Through Surrogacy"</a>. <a href="/wiki/Los_Angeles_Times" title="Los Angeles Times">Los Angeles Times</a>.</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Surrogacy&action=edit&section=35" title="Edit section: External links">edit</a>]</div> <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20050726080830/http://www.betterhealth.vic.gov.au/bhcv2/bhcarticles.nsf/pages/Surrogacy_the_issues?OpenDocument">"Surrogacy"</a>, Better Health Channel, State Government of Victoria, Australia</li></ul> <div class="navbox-styles"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1129693374">.mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul{margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt,.mw-parser-output .hlist li{margin:0;display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul ul{display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist 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href="/wiki/Fertility_tourism" title="Fertility tourism">Fertility tourism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Male_infertility_crisis" title="Male infertility crisis">Male infertility crisis</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Fertility_medication" title="Fertility medication">Fertility medication</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Estrogen_antagonist" class="mw-redirect" title="Estrogen antagonist">Estrogen antagonists</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Aromatase_inhibitor" title="Aromatase inhibitor">aromatase inhibitor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Clomifene" title="Clomifene">clomifene</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Follicle-stimulating_hormone" title="Follicle-stimulating hormone">FSH</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gonadotropin-releasing_hormone_agonist" title="Gonadotropin-releasing hormone agonist">GnRH agonists</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gonadotropin" title="Gonadotropin">Gonadotropins</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Menotropin" title="Menotropin">menotropins</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_chorionic_gonadotropin#Use_as_medication" title="Human chorionic gonadotropin">hCG</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/In_vitro_fertilisation" title="In vitro fertilisation">In vitro fertilisation</a> (IVF) and expansions</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Assisted_zona_hatching" title="Assisted zona hatching">Assisted zona hatching</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Autologous_endometrial_coculture" title="Autologous endometrial coculture">Autologous endometrial coculture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cytoplasmic_transfer" class="mw-redirect" title="Cytoplasmic transfer">Cytoplasmic transfer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Embryo_transfer" title="Embryo transfer">Embryo transfer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gestational_carrier" class="mw-redirect" title="Gestational carrier">Gestational carrier</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/In_vitro_maturation" title="In vitro maturation">In vitro maturation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Intracytoplasmic_sperm_injection" title="Intracytoplasmic sperm injection">Intracytoplasmic sperm injection</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oocyte_selection" title="Oocyte selection">Oocyte selection</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Controlled_ovarian_hyperstimulation" title="Controlled ovarian hyperstimulation">Ovarian hyperstimulation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Partner-assisted_reproduction" title="Partner-assisted reproduction">Partner-assisted reproduction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Preimplantation_genetic_diagnosis" title="Preimplantation genetic diagnosis">Preimplantation genetic diagnosis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transvaginal_oocyte_retrieval" title="Transvaginal oocyte retrieval">Transvaginal ovum retrieval</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zygote_intrafallopian_transfer" title="Zygote intrafallopian transfer">Zygote intrafallopian transfer</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Other methods</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Artificial_insemination" title="Artificial insemination">Artificial insemination</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ovulation_induction" title="Ovulation induction">Ovulation induction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cryopreservation" title="Cryopreservation">Cryopreservation</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Embryo_cryopreservation" title="Embryo cryopreservation">embryos</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oocyte_cryopreservation" title="Oocyte cryopreservation">oocyte</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ovarian_tissue_cryopreservation" title="Ovarian tissue cryopreservation">ovarian tissue</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Semen_cryopreservation" title="Semen cryopreservation">semen</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gamete_intrafallopian_transfer" title="Gamete intrafallopian transfer">Gamete intrafallopian transfer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reproductive_surgery" title="Reproductive surgery">Reproductive surgery</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Vasectomy_reversal" title="Vasectomy reversal">Vasectomy reversal</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Selective_reduction" title="Selective reduction">Selective reduction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sex_selection" title="Sex selection">Sex selection</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Surrogacy</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Donation</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Donor_registration" title="Donor registration">Donor registration</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Donor_Sibling_Registry" title="Donor Sibling Registry">Donor Sibling Registry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Egg_donation" title="Egg donation">Egg donation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Embryo_donation" title="Embryo donation">Embryo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sperm_donation" title="Sperm donation">Sperm</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Semen_collection" title="Semen collection">Semen collection</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sperm_bank" title="Sperm bank">Sperm bank</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ova_bank" title="Ova bank">Ova bank</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Ethics</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Accidental_incest" title="Accidental incest">Accidental incest</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fertility_fraud" title="Fertility fraud">Fertility fraud</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Genetic_diagnosis_of_intersex" title="Genetic diagnosis of intersex">Genetic diagnosis of intersex</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religious_response_to_assisted_reproductive_technology" title="Religious response to assisted reproductive technology">Religious response to ART</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mitochondrial_donation" class="mw-redirect" title="Mitochondrial donation">Mitochondrial donation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sex_selection" title="Sex selection">Sex selection</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Related</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Reproduction_and_pregnancy_in_speculative_fiction" title="Reproduction and pregnancy in speculative fiction">Reproduction and pregnancy in speculative fiction</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Parenting" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Parenting" title="Template:Parenting"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Parenting" title="Template talk:Parenting"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Parenting" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Parenting"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Parenting" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Parenting" title="Parenting">Parenting</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Kinship_terminology" title="Kinship terminology">Kinship terminology</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Parent" title="Parent">Parent</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mother" title="Mother">Mother</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Father" title="Father">Father</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Adoption" title="Adoption">Adoptive</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alloparenting" title="Alloparenting">Alloparenting</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Coparenting" title="Coparenting">Coparenting</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Extended_family" title="Extended family">Extended family</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Foster_care" title="Foster care">Foster care</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Noncustodial_parent" title="Noncustodial parent">Noncustodial</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_family" title="Nuclear family">Nuclear family</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Orphan" title="Orphan">Orphaned</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shared_parenting" title="Shared parenting">Shared parenting</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Single_parent" title="Single parent">Single parent</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stepfamily" title="Stepfamily">Blended family</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Surrogacy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/In_loco_parentis" title="In loco parentis">In loco parentis</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Theories · Areas</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Attachment_theory" title="Attachment theory">Attachment theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Applied_behavior_analysis" title="Applied behavior analysis">Applied behavior analysis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Behaviorism" title="Behaviorism">Behaviorism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Child_development" title="Child development">Child development</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cognitive_development" title="Cognitive development">Cognitive development</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Developmental_psychology" title="Developmental psychology">Developmental psychology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Development_of_the_human_body" title="Development of the human body">Human development</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Identity_formation" title="Identity formation">Identity formation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Introjection" title="Introjection">Introjection</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Love" title="Love">Love</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maternal_bond" title="Maternal bond">Maternal bond</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nature_versus_nurture" title="Nature versus nurture">Nature versus nurture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Parental_investment" title="Parental investment">Parental investment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paternal_bond" title="Paternal bond">Paternal bond</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pediatrics" title="Pediatrics">Pediatrics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_emotional_development" title="Social emotional development">Social emotional development</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Socialization" title="Socialization">Socialization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_psychology" title="Social psychology">Social psychology</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Parenting_styles" title="Parenting styles">Styles</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Achievement_ideology" title="Achievement ideology">Achievement ideology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Atlas_personality" title="Atlas personality">Atlas personality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Attachment_parenting" title="Attachment parenting">Attachment parenting</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Baby_talk" title="Baby talk">Baby talk</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddha-like_mindset" title="Buddha-like mindset">Buddha-like parenting</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Concerted_cultivation" title="Concerted cultivation">Concerted cultivation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Enmeshment" title="Enmeshment">Enmeshment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Free-range_parenting" title="Free-range parenting">Free-range parenting</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gatekeeper_parent" title="Gatekeeper parent">Gatekeeper parent</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Helicopter_parent" title="Helicopter parent">Helicopter parent</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nurturant_parent_model" title="Nurturant parent model">Nurturant parenting</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slow_parenting" title="Slow parenting">Slow parenting</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Soccer_mom" title="Soccer mom">Soccer mom</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Strict_father_model" title="Strict father model">Strict father model</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Taking_Children_Seriously" title="Taking Children Seriously">Taking children seriously</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theybie" class="mw-redirect" title="Theybie">Theybie</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tiger_parenting" title="Tiger parenting">Tiger parenting</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Work_at_home_parent" title="Work at home parent">Work at home parent</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Techniques</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/After-school_activity" title="After-school activity">After-school activity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Allowance_(money)#Allowances_for_children" title="Allowance (money)">Allowance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bedtime" title="Bedtime">Bedtime</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Child_care" title="Child care">Child care</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Co-sleeping" title="Co-sleeping">Co-sleeping</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dishabituation" title="Dishabituation">Dishabituation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education" title="Education">Education</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Habituation" title="Habituation">Habituation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Homeschooling" title="Homeschooling">Homeschooling</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Identification_(psychology)" title="Identification (psychology)">Identification (psychology)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Introjection" title="Introjection">Introjection</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kommune_1" title="Kommune 1">Kommune 1</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Latchkey_kid" title="Latchkey kid">Latchkey kid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Moral_development" title="Moral development">Moral development</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Normative_social_influence" title="Normative social influence">Normative social influence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Parent_management_training" title="Parent management training">Parent management training</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Play_(activity)" title="Play (activity)">Play</a> (<a href="/wiki/Play_date" title="Play date">date</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Role_model" title="Role model">Role model</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_integration" title="Social integration">Social integration</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_aspects_of_television" title="Social aspects of television">Television</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_talk_(racism_in_the_United_States)" title="The talk (racism in the United States)">The talk (race)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_birds_and_the_bees" title="The birds and the bees">The talk (sex education)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Toy" title="Toy">Toy</a> (<a href="/wiki/Educational_toy" title="Educational toy">educational</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Triple_P_(parenting_program)" title="Triple P (parenting program)">Positive Parenting Program</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Child_discipline" title="Child discipline">Child discipline</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Blanket_training" title="Blanket training">Blanket training</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Corporal_punishment_in_the_home" title="Corporal punishment in the home">Corporal punishment in the home</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Curfew" title="Curfew">Curfew</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Grounding_(discipline_technique)" title="Grounding (discipline technique)">Grounding</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Positive_discipline" title="Positive discipline">Positive discipline</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Silent_treatment" title="Silent treatment">Tactical ignoring</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Time-out_(parenting)" title="Time-out (parenting)">Time-out</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Abuse</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Adverse_childhood_experiences" title="Adverse childhood experiences">Adverse childhood experiences</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Child_abandonment" title="Child abandonment">Child abandonment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Child_abuse" title="Child abuse">Child abuse</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Child_labour" title="Child labour">Child labour</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Child_neglect" title="Child neglect">Child neglect</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cinderella_effect" title="Cinderella effect">Cinderella effect</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Codependency" title="Codependency">Codependency</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dysfunctional_family" title="Dysfunctional family">Dysfunctional family</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Effects_of_domestic_violence" class="mw-redirect" title="Effects of domestic violence">Effects of domestic violence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Incest" title="Incest">Incest</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Narcissistic_parent" title="Narcissistic parent">Narcissistic parent</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Parental_abuse_by_children" title="Parental abuse by children">Parental abuse by children</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stress_in_early_childhood" title="Stress in early childhood">Stress in early childhood</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Legal and social aspects</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Child_custody" title="Child custody">Child custody</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Child_support" title="Child support">Child support</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cost_of_raising_a_child" title="Cost of raising a child">Cost of raising a child</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deadbeat_parent" title="Deadbeat parent">Deadbeat parent</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Disownment" title="Disownment">Disownment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Family_disruption" title="Family disruption">Family disruption</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Right_to_family_life" class="mw-redirect" title="Right to family life">Right to family life</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Management_of_domestic_violence" title="Management of domestic violence">Management of domestic violence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marriage" title="Marriage">Marriage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Parental_alienation" title="Parental alienation">Parental alienation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Parental_responsibility_(access_and_custody)" title="Parental responsibility (access and custody)">Parental responsibility</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Parents%27_rights_movement" title="Parents' rights movement">Parents' rights</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paternity_law" title="Paternity law">Paternity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shared_parenting" title="Shared parenting">Shared parenting</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Experts</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Mary_Ainsworth" title="Mary Ainsworth">Mary Ainsworth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Bowlby" title="John Bowlby">John Bowlby</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/T._Berry_Brazelton" title="T. Berry Brazelton">T. Berry Brazelton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rudolf_Dreikurs" title="Rudolf Dreikurs">Rudolf Dreikurs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/David_Elkind" title="David Elkind">David Elkind</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jo_Frost" title="Jo Frost">Jo Frost</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Haim_Ginott" title="Haim Ginott">Haim Ginott</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Gordon_(psychologist)" title="Thomas Gordon (psychologist)">Thomas Gordon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alan_E._Kazdin" title="Alan E. Kazdin">Alan E. Kazdin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Truby_King" title="Truby King">Truby King</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Annette_Lareau" title="Annette Lareau">Annette Lareau</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Penelope_Leach" title="Penelope Leach">Penelope Leach</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Matthew_Sanders_(parenting_researcher)" title="Matthew Sanders (parenting researcher)">Matthew Sanders</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_Sears_(physician)" title="William Sears (physician)">William Sears</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/B._F._Skinner" title="B. F. Skinner">B. F. Skinner</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Benjamin_Spock" title="Benjamin Spock">Benjamin Spock</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Organizations</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Families_Need_Fathers" title="Families Need Fathers">Families Need Fathers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mothers_Apart_from_Their_Children" title="Mothers Apart from Their Children">Mothers Apart from Their Children</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mothers%27_Union" title="Mothers' Union">Mothers' Union</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Childbirth_Trust" title="National Childbirth Trust">National Childbirth Trust</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Fatherhood_Initiative" title="National Fatherhood Initiative">National Fatherhood Initiative</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Parents_Organization" title="National Parents Organization">National Parents Organization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Parent%E2%80%93teacher_association" title="Parent–teacher association">Parent–teacher association</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Parents_Against_Child_Exploitation" title="Parents Against Child Exploitation">Parents Against Child Exploitation</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1038841319">.mw-parser-output .tooltip-dotted{border-bottom:1px dotted;cursor:help}</style><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1038841319"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox authority-control" aria-labelledby="Authority_control_databases_frameless&#124;text-top&#124;10px&#124;alt=Edit_this_at_Wikidata&#124;link=https&#58;//www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q334645#identifiers&#124;class=noprint&#124;Edit_this_at_Wikidata" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Authority_control_databases_frameless&#124;text-top&#124;10px&#124;alt=Edit_this_at_Wikidata&#124;link=https&#58;//www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q334645#identifiers&#124;class=noprint&#124;Edit_this_at_Wikidata" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Help:Authority_control" title="Help:Authority control">Authority control databases</a> <a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q334645#identifiers" title="Edit this at Wikidata"><img alt="Edit this at Wikidata" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg/10px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg.png" decoding="async" width="10" height="10" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg/15px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg/20px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="20" data-file-height="20" /></a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">International</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://id.worldcat.org/fast/1139551/">FAST</a></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">National</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://id.loc.gov/authorities/sh88004707">United States</a></li><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://aleph.nkp.cz/F/?func=find-c&local_base=aut&ccl_term=ica=ph868188&CON_LNG=ENG">Czech Republic</a></li><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://catalogo.bne.es/uhtbin/authoritybrowse.cgi?action=display&authority_id=XX5296381">Spain</a></li><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://olduli.nli.org.il/F/?func=find-b&local_base=NLX10&find_code=UID&request=987007548819905171">Israel</a></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div>    </div><noscript><img src="https://login.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:CentralAutoLogin/start?type=1x1" alt="" width="1" height="1" style="border: none; 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