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href="#North_to_free_states_and_Canada"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.1 North to free states and Canada </div> </a> <ul id="toc-North_to_free_states_and_Canada-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Structure" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Structure"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.1.1 Structure </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Structure-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Geography" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Geography"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.1.2 Geography </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Geography-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Traveling_conditions" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Traveling_conditions"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.1.3 Traveling conditions </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Traveling_conditions-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Maroons" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Maroons"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.2 Maroons </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Maroons-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Freedom_routes_into_Native_American_lands" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Freedom_routes_into_Native_American_lands"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.3 Freedom routes into Native American lands </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Freedom_routes_into_Native_American_lands-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-South_to_Florida_and_Mexico" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#South_to_Florida_and_Mexico"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.4 South to Florida and Mexico </div> </a> <ul id="toc-South_to_Florida_and_Mexico-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Background" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Background"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.4.1 Background </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Background-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Slave_states_and_slave_hunters" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Slave_states_and_slave_hunters"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.4.2 Slave states and slave hunters </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Slave_states_and_slave_hunters-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Routes" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Routes"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.4.3 Routes </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Routes-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Assistance" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Assistance"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.4.4 Assistance </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Assistance-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Southern_freedom_seekers" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Southern_freedom_seekers"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.4.5 Southern freedom seekers </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Southern_freedom_seekers-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Rio_Grande_stations" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Rio_Grande_stations"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.4.6 Rio Grande stations </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Rio_Grande_stations-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Arrival_in_Mexico" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Arrival_in_Mexico"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.4.7 Arrival in Mexico </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Arrival_in_Mexico-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Colonies" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Colonies"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.4.8 Colonies </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Colonies-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Scholarship" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Scholarship"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.4.9 Scholarship </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Scholarship-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-"Reverse_Underground_Railroad"" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#"Reverse_Underground_Railroad""> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.5 "Reverse Underground Railroad" </div> </a> <ul id="toc-"Reverse_Underground_Railroad"-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-American_Revolutionary_War_routes_(1775_to_1783)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#American_Revolutionary_War_routes_(1775_to_1783)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.6 American Revolutionary War routes (1775 to 1783) </div> </a> <ul id="toc-American_Revolutionary_War_routes_(1775_to_1783)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-War_of_1812_routes" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#War_of_1812_routes"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.7 War of 1812 routes </div> </a> <ul id="toc-War_of_1812_routes-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Black_Refugees" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Black_Refugees"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.7.1 Black Refugees </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Black_Refugees-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Merikens" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Merikens"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.7.2 Merikens </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Merikens-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-The_"Saltwater_Railroad"_freedom_route" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#The_"Saltwater_Railroad"_freedom_route"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.8 The "Saltwater Railroad" freedom route </div> </a> <ul id="toc-The_"Saltwater_Railroad"_freedom_route-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Fugitive_Slave_Act_of_1850" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Fugitive_Slave_Act_of_1850"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.9 Fugitive Slave Act of 1850 </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Fugitive_Slave_Act_of_1850-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-American_Civil_War_routes_(1861_to_1865)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#American_Civil_War_routes_(1861_to_1865)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.10 American Civil War routes (1861 to 1865) </div> </a> <ul id="toc-American_Civil_War_routes_(1861_to_1865)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Union_Navy_and_Emancipation" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Union_Navy_and_Emancipation"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.10.1 Union Navy and Emancipation </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Union_Navy_and_Emancipation-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Legal_and_political" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Legal_and_political"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.10.2 Legal and political </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Legal_and_political-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Criticism" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Criticism"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.10.3 Criticism </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Criticism-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Arrival_in_Canada" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Arrival_in_Canada"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.11 Arrival in Canada </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Arrival_in_Canada-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Folklore" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Folklore"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.12 Folklore </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Folklore-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Notable_people" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Notable_people"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.13 Notable people </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Notable_people-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-National_Underground_Railroad_Network" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#National_Underground_Railroad_Network"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4 National Underground Railroad Network </div> </a> <ul id="toc-National_Underground_Railroad_Network-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-International_Underground_Railroad_Month" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#International_Underground_Railroad_Month"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5 International Underground Railroad Month </div> </a> <ul id="toc-International_Underground_Railroad_Month-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-In_popular_culture" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#In_popular_culture"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6 In popular culture </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-In_popular_culture-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle In popular culture subsection </button> <ul id="toc-In_popular_culture-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Inspirations_for_fiction" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Inspirations_for_fiction"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6.1 Inspirations for fiction </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Inspirations_for_fiction-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Literature" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Literature"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6.2 Literature </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Literature-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Music" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Music"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6.3 Music </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Music-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Comics" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Comics"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6.4 Comics </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Comics-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7 See also </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Notes" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Notes"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 8 Notes </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Notes-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 9 References </div> </a> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Further_reading" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Further_reading"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 10 Further reading </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Further_reading-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Further reading subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Further_reading-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Folklore_and_myth" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Folklore_and_myth"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 10.1 Folklore and myth </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Folklore_and_myth-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 11 External links </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" > Toggle the table of contents </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading">Underground Railroad</h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. Available in 33 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-33" aria-hidden="true" > 33 languages </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B3%D9%83%D8%A9_%D8%AD%D8%AF%D9%8A%D8%AF%D9%8A%D8%A9_%D8%AA%D8%AD%D8%AA_%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%A3%D8%B1%D8%B6" title="سكة حديدية تحت الأرض – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="سكة حديدية تحت الأرض" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target">العربية</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bg mw-list-item"><a href="https://bg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9F%D0%BE%D0%B4%D0%B7%D0%B5%D0%BC%D0%BD%D0%B0%D1%82%D0%B0_%D0%B6%D0%B5%D0%BB%D0%B5%D0%B7%D0%BD%D0%B8%D1%86%D0%B0" title="Подземната железница – Bulgarian" lang="bg" hreflang="bg" data-title="Подземната железница" data-language-autonym="Български" data-language-local-name="Bulgarian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Български</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ferrocarril_Subterrani" title="Ferrocarril Subterrani – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Ferrocarril Subterrani" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target">Català</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs mw-list-item"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Podzemn%C3%AD_%C5%BEeleznice" title="Podzemní železnice – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="Podzemní železnice" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="Czech" class="interlanguage-link-target">Čeština</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-da mw-list-item"><a href="https://da.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Underground_Railroad" title="The Underground Railroad – Danish" lang="da" hreflang="da" data-title="The Underground Railroad" data-language-autonym="Dansk" data-language-local-name="Danish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Dansk</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Underground_Railroad" title="Underground Railroad – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Underground Railroad" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target">Deutsch</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-el mw-list-item"><a href="https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%A5%CF%80%CF%8C%CE%B3%CE%B5%CE%B9%CE%BF%CF%82_%CF%83%CE%B9%CE%B4%CE%B7%CF%81%CF%8C%CE%B4%CF%81%CE%BF%CE%BC%CE%BF%CF%82" title="Υπόγειος σιδηρόδρομος – Greek" lang="el" hreflang="el" data-title="Υπόγειος σιδηρόδρομος" data-language-autonym="Ελληνικά" data-language-local-name="Greek" class="interlanguage-link-target">Ελληνικά</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ferrocarril_subterr%C3%A1neo" title="Ferrocarril subterráneo – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Ferrocarril subterráneo" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Español</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eo mw-list-item"><a href="https://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Subtera_fervojo_(Usona_historio)" title="Subtera fervojo (Usona historio) – Esperanto" lang="eo" hreflang="eo" data-title="Subtera fervojo (Usona historio)" data-language-autonym="Esperanto" data-language-local-name="Esperanto" class="interlanguage-link-target">Esperanto</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eu mw-list-item"><a href="https://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lurpeko_burdinbidea" title="Lurpeko burdinbidea – Basque" lang="eu" hreflang="eu" data-title="Lurpeko burdinbidea" data-language-autonym="Euskara" data-language-local-name="Basque" class="interlanguage-link-target">Euskara</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B1%D8%A7%D9%87%E2%80%8C%D8%A2%D9%87%D9%86_%D8%B2%DB%8C%D8%B1%D8%B2%D9%85%DB%8C%D9%86%DB%8C" title="راه‌آهن زیرزمینی – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="راه‌آهن زیرزمینی" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target">فارسی</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chemin_de_fer_clandestin" title="Chemin de fer clandestin – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Chemin de fer clandestin" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target">Français</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gl mw-list-item"><a href="https://gl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Underground_Railroad" title="Underground Railroad – Galician" lang="gl" hreflang="gl" data-title="Underground Railroad" data-language-autonym="Galego" data-language-local-name="Galician" class="interlanguage-link-target">Galego</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EC%A7%80%ED%95%98%EC%B2%A0%EB%8F%84_(%EB%B9%84%EB%B0%80%EA%B2%B0%EC%82%AC)" title="지하철도 (비밀결사) – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="지하철도 (비밀결사)" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target">한국어</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Underground_Railroad" title="Underground Railroad – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Underground Railroad" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Bahasa Indonesia</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ferrovia_Sotterranea" title="Ferrovia Sotterranea – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Ferrovia Sotterranea" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Italiano</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he mw-list-item"><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%9E%D7%A1%D7%99%D7%9C%D7%AA_%D7%94%D7%A8%D7%9B%D7%91%D7%AA_%D7%94%D7%9E%D7%97%D7%AA%D7%A8%D7%AA%D7%99%D7%AA" title="מסילת הרכבת המחתרתית – Hebrew" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="מסילת הרכבת המחתרתית" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="Hebrew" class="interlanguage-link-target">עברית</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ms mw-list-item"><a href="https://ms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Underground_Railroad" title="Underground Railroad – Malay" lang="ms" hreflang="ms" data-title="Underground Railroad" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Melayu" data-language-local-name="Malay" class="interlanguage-link-target">Bahasa Melayu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Underground_Railroad" title="Underground Railroad – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Underground Railroad" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target">Nederlands</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E5%9C%B0%E4%B8%8B%E9%89%84%E9%81%93_(%E7%A7%98%E5%AF%86%E7%B5%90%E7%A4%BE)" title="地下鉄道 (秘密結社) – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="地下鉄道 (秘密結社)" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target">日本語</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-no mw-list-item"><a href="https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Den_underjordiske_jernbanen" title="Den underjordiske jernbanen – Norwegian Bokmål" lang="nb" hreflang="nb" data-title="Den underjordiske jernbanen" data-language-autonym="Norsk bokmål" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Bokmål" class="interlanguage-link-target">Norsk bokmål</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Underground_Railroad" title="Underground Railroad – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="Underground Railroad" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Polish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Polski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Underground_Railroad" title="Underground Railroad – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Underground Railroad" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Português</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ro mw-list-item"><a href="https://ro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Underground_Railroad" 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.hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">For other uses, see <a href="/wiki/Underground_Railroad_(disambiguation)" class="mw-disambig" title="Underground Railroad (disambiguation)">Underground Railroad (disambiguation)</a>.</div> <div class="shortdescription nomobile noexcerpt noprint searchaux" style="display:none">Criminal organization</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1257001546">.mw-parser-output .infobox-subbox{padding:0;border:none;margin:-3px;width:auto;min-width:100%;font-size:100%;clear:none;float:none;background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .infobox-3cols-child{margin:auto}.mw-parser-output .infobox .navbar{font-size:100%}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data:not(.notheme)>div:not(.notheme)[style]{background:#1f1f23!important;color:#f8f9fa}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data:not(.notheme) div:not(.notheme){background:#1f1f23!important;color:#f8f9fa}}@media(min-width:640px){body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table{display:table!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table>caption{display:table-caption!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table>tbody{display:table-row-group}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table tr{display:table-row!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table th,body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table td{padding-left:inherit;padding-right:inherit}}</style><table class="infobox"><caption class="infobox-title">Underground Railroad</caption><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-image"><a href="/wiki/File:Undergroundrailroadsmall2.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/51/Undergroundrailroadsmall2.jpg/300px-Undergroundrailroadsmall2.jpg" decoding="async" width="300" height="148" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/51/Undergroundrailroadsmall2.jpg/450px-Undergroundrailroadsmall2.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/51/Undergroundrailroadsmall2.jpg/600px-Undergroundrailroadsmall2.jpg 2x" data-file-width="8345" data-file-height="4128" /></a><div class="infobox-caption">Map of Underground Railroad routes into the <a href="/wiki/Northern_United_States" title="Northern United States">Northern United States</a> and to modern-day Canada</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Founding location</th><td class="infobox-data">United States</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Territory</th><td class="infobox-data">United States, and routes to <a href="/wiki/British_North_America" title="British North America">British North America</a>, Mexico, <a href="/wiki/Spanish_Florida" title="Spanish Florida">Spanish Florida</a>, and the <a href="/wiki/Caribbean" title="Caribbean">Caribbean</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Ethnicity</th><td class="infobox-data">African Americans and other compatriots</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Activities</th><td class="infobox-data"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Fugitive_slaves_in_the_United_States" title="Fugitive slaves in the United States">Fleeing from slavery</a> into the Northern United States or Canada</li> <li>Aiding freedom seeking slaves</li></ul> </td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Allies</th><td class="infobox-data"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Religious_Society_of_Friends" class="mw-redirect" title="Religious Society of Friends">Religious Society of Friends</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Congregational_church" class="mw-redirect" title="Congregational church">Congregational church</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wesleyan_Church" title="Wesleyan Church">Wesleyan Church</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reformed_Presbyterian_Church_of_North_America" title="Reformed Presbyterian Church of North America">Reformed Presbyterian Church of North America</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vigilant_Association_of_Philadelphia" title="Vigilant Association of Philadelphia">Vigilant Association of Philadelphia</a></li></ul> </td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Rivals</th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Slave_catchers" class="mw-redirect" title="Slave catchers">Slave catchers</a>, <a href="/wiki/Reverse_Underground_Railroad" class="mw-redirect" title="Reverse Underground Railroad">Reverse Underground Railroad</a></td></tr></tbody></table> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1129693374">.mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul{margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .hlist 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a{color:var(--color-progressive)!important}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-list-title,html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle{background:transparent!important}html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle a{color:var(--color-progressive)!important}}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .sidebar{display:none!important}}</style><table class="sidebar sidebar-collapse nomobile nowraplinks hlist"><tbody><tr><td class="sidebar-pretitle">Part of <a href="/wiki/Category:Slavery" title="Category:Slavery">a series</a> on</td></tr><tr><th class="sidebar-title-with-pretitle"><a href="/wiki/Forced_labour" title="Forced labour">Forced labour</a> and <a href="/wiki/Slavery" title="Slavery">slavery</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-image"><a href="/wiki/File:IJzeren_voetring_voor_gevangenen_transparent_background.png" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="Shackles" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9e/IJzeren_voetring_voor_gevangenen_transparent_background.png/125px-IJzeren_voetring_voor_gevangenen_transparent_background.png" decoding="async" width="125" height="68" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9e/IJzeren_voetring_voor_gevangenen_transparent_background.png/188px-IJzeren_voetring_voor_gevangenen_transparent_background.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9e/IJzeren_voetring_voor_gevangenen_transparent_background.png/250px-IJzeren_voetring_voor_gevangenen_transparent_background.png 2x" data-file-width="498" data-file-height="272" /></a></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:transparent;border-top:1px solid #aaa;text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_the_21st_century" title="Slavery in the 21st century">Contemporary</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Child_labour" title="Child labour">Child Labour</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Children_in_the_military" title="Children in the military">Child soldiers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conscription" title="Conscription">Conscription</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Debt_bondage" title="Debt bondage">Debt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Forced_marriage" title="Forced marriage">Forced marriage</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bride_buying" title="Bride buying">Bride buying</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Child_marriage" title="Child marriage">Child marriage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wife_selling" title="Wife selling">Wife selling</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Forced_prostitution" title="Forced prostitution">Forced prostitution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_trafficking" title="Human trafficking">Human trafficking</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Involuntary_servitude" title="Involuntary servitude">Involuntary servitude</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peon" title="Peon">Peonage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Penal_labour" title="Penal labour">Penal labour</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_contemporary_Africa" title="Slavery in contemporary Africa">Contemporary Africa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_21st-century_jihadism" title="Slavery in 21st-century jihadism">21st-century jihadism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sexual_slavery" title="Sexual slavery">Sexual slavery</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wage_slavery" title="Wage slavery">Wage slavery</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:transparent;border-top:1px solid #aaa;text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/History_of_slavery" title="History of slavery">Historical</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <dl><dt><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_antiquity" title="Slavery in antiquity">Antiquity</a></dt></dl> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_ancient_Egypt" title="Slavery in ancient Egypt">Egypt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Babylonian_law#Three_classes" title="Babylonian law">Babylonia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_ancient_Greece" title="Slavery in ancient Greece">Greece</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_ancient_Rome" title="Slavery in ancient Rome">Rome</a></li></ul> <dl><dt><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_medieval_Europe" title="Slavery in medieval Europe">Medieval Europe</a></dt></dl> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ancillae" title="Ancillae">Ancillae</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Black_Sea_slave_trade" title="Black Sea slave trade">Black Sea slave trade</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_the_Byzantine_Empire" title="Slavery in the Byzantine Empire">Byzantine Empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kholop" title="Kholop">Kholop</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prague_slave_trade" title="Prague slave trade">Prague slave trade</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Serfdom" title="Serfdom">Serfs</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_serfdom" title="History of serfdom">History</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Serfdom_in_Russia" title="Serfdom in Russia">In Russia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Emancipation_reform_of_1861" title="Emancipation reform of 1861">Emancipation</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thrall" title="Thrall">Thrall</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Genoese_slave_trade" title="Genoese slave trade">Genoese slave trade</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Venetian_slave_trade" title="Venetian slave trade">Venetian slave trade</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Balkan_slave_trade" title="Balkan slave trade">Balkan slave trade</a></li></ul></li></ul> <dl><dt><a href="/wiki/History_of_slavery_in_the_Muslim_world" title="History of slavery in the Muslim world">Muslim world</a></dt></dl> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_the_Abbasid_Caliphate" title="Slavery in the Abbasid Caliphate">Slavery in the Abbasid Caliphate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_al-Andalus" title="Slavery in al-Andalus">Slavery in al-Andalus</a> ‎</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Baqt" title="Baqt">Baqt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mukataba" title="Mukataba">Contract of manumission</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bukhara_slave_trade" title="Bukhara slave trade">Bukhara slave trade</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crimean_slave_trade" class="mw-redirect" title="Crimean slave trade">Crimean slave trade</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Khazar_slave_trade" title="Khazar slave trade">Khazar slave trade</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Khivan_slave_trade" title="Khivan slave trade">Khivan slave trade</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_the_Ottoman_Empire" title="Slavery in the Ottoman Empire">Ottoman Empire</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Avret_Pazarlar%C4%B1" title="Avret Pazarları">Avret Pazarları</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_on_the_Barbary_Coast" title="Slavery on the Barbary Coast">Barbary Coast</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Barbary_slave_trade" title="Barbary slave trade">slave trade</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Barbary_pirates" title="Barbary pirates">pirates</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sack_of_Baltimore" title="Sack of Baltimore">Sack of Baltimore</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slave_raid_of_Su%C3%B0uroy" title="Slave raid of Suðuroy">Slave raid of Suðuroy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Turkish_Abductions" title="Turkish Abductions">Turkish Abductions</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islamic_views_on_concubinage" title="Islamic views on concubinage">Concubinage</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_concubinage_in_the_Muslim_world" title="History of concubinage in the Muslim world">history</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ma_malakat_aymanukum" class="mw-redirect" title="Ma malakat aymanukum">Ma malakat aymanukum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Avret_Pazarlar%C4%B1" title="Avret Pazarları">Avret Pazarları</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Harem" title="Harem">Harem</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abbasid_harem" title="Abbasid harem">Abbasid harem</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ottoman_Imperial_Harem" title="Ottoman Imperial Harem">Ottoman Imperial Harem</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Safavid_imperial_harem" title="Safavid imperial harem">Safavid imperial harem</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Qajar_harem" title="Qajar harem">Qajar harem</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jarya" title="Jarya">Jarya</a>/<a href="/wiki/Cariye" title="Cariye">Cariye</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Odalisque" title="Odalisque">Odalisque</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Qiyan" title="Qiyan">Qiyan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Umm_al-walad" title="Umm al-walad">Umm al-walad</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Circassian_slave_trade" class="mw-redirect" title="Circassian slave trade">Circassian slave trade</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Saqaliba" title="Saqaliba">Saqaliba</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_the_Rashidun_Caliphate" title="Slavery in the Rashidun Caliphate">Slavery in the Rashidun Caliphate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_the_Umayyad_Caliphate" title="Slavery in the Umayyad Caliphate">Slavery in the Umayyad Caliphate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_the_Abbasid_Caliphate" title="Slavery in the Abbasid Caliphate">Slavery in the Abbasid Caliphate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Volga_Bulgarian_slave_trade" title="Volga Bulgarian slave trade">Volga Bulgarian slave trade</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_21st-century_jihadism" title="Slavery in 21st-century jihadism">21st century</a></li></ul> <dl><dt><a href="/wiki/Atlantic_slave_trade" title="Atlantic slave trade">Atlantic slave trade</a></dt></dl> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bristol_slave_trade" title="Bristol slave trade">Bristol</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Atlantic_slave_trade_to_Brazil" title="Atlantic slave trade to Brazil">Brazil</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Voyages:_The_Trans-Atlantic_Slave_Trade_Database" title="Voyages: The Trans-Atlantic Slave Trade Database">Database</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dutch_Slave_Coast" title="Dutch Slave Coast">Dutch</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Middle_Passage" title="Middle Passage">Middle Passage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nantes_slave_trade" title="Nantes slave trade">Nantes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_New_France" title="Slavery in New France">New France</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Panyarring" title="Panyarring">Panyarring</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_colonial_Spanish_America" title="Slavery in colonial Spanish America">Spanish Empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slave_Coast_of_West_Africa" title="Slave Coast of West Africa">Slave Coast</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_the_colonial_history_of_the_United_States" title="Slavery in the colonial history of the United States">Thirteen colonies</a></li></ul> <dl><dt>Topics and practice</dt></dl> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Conscription" title="Conscription">Conscription</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ghilman" title="Ghilman">Ghilman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mamluk" title="Mamluk">Mamluk</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Devshirme" title="Devshirme">Devshirme</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Blackbirding" title="Blackbirding">Blackbirding</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Coolie" title="Coolie">Coolie</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Corv%C3%A9e" title="Corvée">Corvée labour</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Field_slaves_in_the_United_States" title="Field slaves in the United States">Field slaves in the United States</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Treatment_of_slaves_in_the_United_States" title="Treatment of slaves in the United States">Treatment</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/House_slave" title="House slave">House slaves</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Saqaliba" title="Saqaliba">Saqaliba</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slave_market" title="Slave market">Slave market</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slave_raiding" title="Slave raiding">Slave raiding</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_children_in_the_military" title="History of children in the military">Child soldiers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/White_slavery" title="White slavery">White slavery</a></li></ul> <dl><dt>Naval</dt></dl> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Galley_slave" title="Galley slave">Galley slave</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Impressment" title="Impressment">Impressment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Barbary_pirates" title="Barbary pirates">Pirates</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shanghaiing" title="Shanghaiing">Shanghaiing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slave_ship" title="Slave ship">Slave ship</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:transparent;border-top:1px solid #aaa;text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)">By country or region</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <dl><dt><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_Africa" title="Slavery in Africa">Sub-Saharan Africa</a></dt></dl> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_contemporary_Africa" title="Slavery in contemporary Africa">Contemporary Africa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trans-Saharan_slave_trade" title="Trans-Saharan slave trade">Trans-Saharan slave trade</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Red_Sea_slave_trade" title="Red Sea slave trade">Red Sea slave trade</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indian_Ocean_slave_trade" title="Indian Ocean slave trade">Indian Ocean slave trade</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Zanzibar_slave_trade" class="mw-redirect" title="Zanzibar slave trade">Zanzibar slave trade</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_Angola" title="Slavery in Angola">Angola</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_trafficking_in_Chad" title="Human trafficking in Chad">Chad</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_the_Comoros" title="Slavery in the Comoros">Comoros</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_Ethiopia" title="Slavery in Ethiopia">Ethiopia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_Mali" title="Slavery in Mali">Mali</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_Mauritania" title="Slavery in Mauritania">Mauritania</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_Niger" title="Slavery in Niger">Niger</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_Nigeria" title="Slavery in Nigeria">Nigeria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_Seychelles" title="Slavery in Seychelles">Seychelles</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_Somalia" title="Slavery in Somalia">Somalia</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Somali_slave_trade" class="mw-redirect" title="Somali slave trade">Somali slave trade</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_South_Africa" title="Slavery in South Africa">South Africa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_Sudan" title="Slavery in Sudan">Sudan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_Zanzibar" title="Slavery in Zanzibar">Zanzibar</a></li></ul> <dl><dt><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_the_Americas" class="mw-redirect" title="Slavery in the Americas">North and South America</a></dt></dl> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_Pre-Columbian_America" title="Slavery in Pre-Columbian America">Pre-Columbian America</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Aztec_slavery" class="mw-redirect" title="Aztec slavery">Aztec</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_among_the_indigenous_peoples_of_the_Americas" class="mw-redirect" title="Slavery among the indigenous peoples of the Americas">Americas indigenous</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_among_Native_Americans_in_the_United_States" title="Slavery among Native Americans in the United States">U.S. Natives</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_the_United_States" title="Slavery in the United States">United States</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Field_slaves_in_the_United_States" title="Field slaves in the United States">Field slaves</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Female_slavery_in_the_United_States" title="Female slavery in the United States">female</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Contemporary_slavery_in_the_United_States" class="mw-redirect" title="Contemporary slavery in the United States">Contemporary</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slave_states_and_free_states" title="Slave states and free states">maps</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Partus_sequitur_ventrem" title="Partus sequitur ventrem">partus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Penal_labor_in_the_United_States" title="Penal labor in the United States">prison labour</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slave_codes" title="Slave codes">Slave codes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Treatment_of_the_enslaved_in_the_United_States" class="mw-redirect" title="Treatment of the enslaved in the United States">Treatment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slave_trade_in_the_United_States" title="Slave trade in the United States">interregional</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_trafficking_in_the_United_States" title="Human trafficking in the United States">Human trafficking</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_the_Bahamas" title="Slavery in the Bahamas">The Bahamas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_Canada" title="Slavery in Canada">Canada</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_the_British_and_French_Caribbean" title="Slavery in the British and French Caribbean">Caribbean</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Barbados_Slave_Code" title="Barbados Slave Code">Barbados</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_the_British_Virgin_Islands" title="Slavery in the British Virgin Islands">British Virgin Islands</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_Trinidad" class="mw-redirect" title="Slavery in Trinidad">Trinidad</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Code_Noir" title="Code Noir">Code Noir</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_Latin_America" title="Slavery in Latin America">Latin America</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_Brazil" title="Slavery in Brazil">Brazil</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Lei_%C3%81urea" title="Lei Áurea">Lei Áurea</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_Colombia" title="Slavery in Colombia">Colombia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_Cuba" title="Slavery in Cuba">Cuba</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_Haiti" title="Slavery in Haiti">Haiti</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Haitian_Revolution" title="Haitian Revolution">revolt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Restavek" title="Restavek">Restavek</a></li></ul></li> <li>(<a href="/wiki/Encomienda" title="Encomienda">Encomienda</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Afro%E2%80%93Puerto_Ricans" title="Afro–Puerto Ricans">Puerto Rico</a></li></ul> <dl><dt><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_Asia" title="Slavery in Asia">East, Southeast, and South Asia</a></dt></dl> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Human_trafficking_in_Southeast_Asia" title="Human trafficking in Southeast Asia">Human trafficking in Southeast Asia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_Bhutan" title="Slavery in Bhutan">Bhutan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_Brunei" title="Slavery in Brunei">Brunei</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_China" title="Slavery in China">China</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Booi_Aha" title="Booi Aha">Booi Aha</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Laogai" title="Laogai">Laogai</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Penal_system_in_China" title="Penal system in China">penal system</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_India" title="Slavery in India">India</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Debt_bondage_in_India" title="Debt bondage in India">Debt bondage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chukri_System" class="mw-redirect" title="Chukri System">Chukri System</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_Indonesia" title="Slavery in Indonesia">Indonesia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_Japan" title="Slavery in Japan">Japan</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Comfort_women" title="Comfort women">comfort women</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_Korea" title="Slavery in Korea">Korea</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Kwalliso" title="Kwalliso">Kwalliso</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_Malaysia" title="Slavery in Malaysia">Malaysia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_the_Maldives" class="mw-redirect" title="Slavery in the Maldives">Maldives</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_the_Mongol_Empire" class="mw-redirect" title="Slavery in the Mongol Empire">Slavery in the Mongol Empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_Thailand" title="Slavery in Thailand">Thailand</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/United_States_military_and_prostitution_in_South_Korea" title="United States military and prostitution in South Korea">Yankee princess</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_Vietnam" title="Slavery in Vietnam">Vietnam</a></li></ul> <dl><dt><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_Oceania" class="mw-redirect" title="Slavery in Oceania">Australia and Oceania</a></dt></dl> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_Australia" title="Slavery in Australia">Australia</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Human_trafficking_in_Australia" title="Human trafficking in Australia">Human trafficking</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Blackbirding" title="Blackbirding">Blackbirding</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slave_raiding_in_Easter_Island" class="mw-redirect" title="Slave raiding in Easter Island">Slave raiding in Easter Island</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_trafficking_in_Papua_New_Guinea" title="Human trafficking in Papua New Guinea">Human trafficking in Papua New Guinea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Blackbirding_in_Polynesia" class="mw-redirect" title="Blackbirding in Polynesia">Blackbirding in Polynesia</a></li></ul> <dl><dt>Europe and North Asia</dt></dl> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Sex_trafficking_in_Europe" title="Sex trafficking in Europe">Sex trafficking in Europe</a></li> <li>United Kingdom <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Penal_labour_in_the_United_Kingdom" title="Penal labour in the United Kingdom">Penal Labour</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_Britain" title="Slavery in Britain">Slavery</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Danish_slave_trade" title="Danish slave trade">Denmark</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dutch_Slave_Coast" title="Dutch Slave Coast">Dutch Republic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Forced_labour_under_German_rule_during_World_War_II" title="Forced labour under German rule during World War II">Germany in World War II</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_Malta" title="Slavery in Malta">Malta</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thrall" title="Thrall">Norway</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_Poland" title="Slavery in Poland">Poland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_Portugal" title="Slavery in Portugal">Portugal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_Romania" title="Slavery in Romania">Romania</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_Russia" title="Slavery in Russia">Russia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_Spain" title="Slavery in Spain">Spain</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Swedish_slave_trade" title="Swedish slave trade">Sweden</a></li></ul> <dl><dt>North Africa and West Asia</dt></dl> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_Afghanistan" title="Slavery in Afghanistan">Afghanistan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_Algeria" title="Slavery in Algeria">Algeria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_Bahrain" title="Slavery in Bahrain">Bahrain</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_Egypt" title="Slavery in Egypt">Egypt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_trafficking_in_the_Middle_East" title="Human trafficking in the Middle East">Human trafficking in the Middle East</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_Iran" title="Slavery in Iran">Iran</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_Iraq" title="Slavery in Iraq">Iraq</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_Jordan" title="Slavery in Jordan">Jordan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_Kuwait" title="Slavery in Kuwait">Kuwait</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_Lebanon" title="Slavery in Lebanon">Lebanon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_Libya" title="Slavery in Libya">Libya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_Morocco" title="Slavery in Morocco">Morocco</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_Oman" title="Slavery in Oman">Oman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_Palestine" title="Slavery in Palestine">Palestine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_Saudi_Arabia" title="Slavery in Saudi Arabia">Saudi Arabia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_Syria" title="Slavery in Syria">Syria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_Tunisia" title="Slavery in Tunisia">Tunisia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_Qatar" title="Slavery in Qatar">Qatar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_Yemen" title="Slavery in Yemen">Yemen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_the_United_Arab_Emirates" class="mw-redirect" title="Slavery in the United Arab Emirates">United Arab Emirates</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:transparent;border-top:1px solid #aaa;text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Slavery_and_religion" title="Slavery and religion">Religion</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/The_Bible_and_slavery" title="The Bible and slavery">Bible</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christian_views_on_slavery" title="Christian views on slavery">Christianity</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Catholic_Church_and_slavery" title="Catholic Church and slavery">Catholicism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mormonism_and_slavery" title="Mormonism and slavery">Mormonism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islamic_views_on_slavery" title="Islamic views on slavery">Islam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_views_on_slavery" title="Jewish views on slavery">Judaism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bah%C3%A1%CA%BC%C3%AD_Faith_and_slavery" class="mw-redirect" title="Baháʼí Faith and slavery">Baháʼí Faith</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:transparent;border-top:1px solid #aaa;text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Abolitionism" title="Abolitionism">Opposition and resistance</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Abolitionism" title="Abolitionism">Abolitionism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Abolitionism_in_the_United_Kingdom" title="Abolitionism in the United Kingdom">U.K.</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abolitionism_in_the_United_States" title="Abolitionism in the United States">U.S.</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Brussels_Anti-Slavery_Conference_1889%E2%80%9390" title="Brussels Anti-Slavery Conference 1889–90">Brussels Anti-Slavery Conference 1889–90</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Temporary_Slavery_Commission" title="Temporary Slavery Commission">Temporary Slavery Commission</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1926_Slavery_Convention" title="1926 Slavery Convention">1926 Slavery Convention</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Committee_of_Experts_on_Slavery" title="Committee of Experts on Slavery">Committee of Experts on Slavery</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Advisory_Committee_of_Experts_on_Slavery" title="Advisory Committee of Experts on Slavery">Advisory Committee of Experts on Slavery</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ad_Hoc_Committee_on_Slavery" title="Ad Hoc Committee on Slavery">Ad Hoc Committee on Slavery</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Supplementary_Convention_on_the_Abolition_of_Slavery" title="Supplementary Convention on the Abolition of Slavery">Supplementary Convention on the Abolition of Slavery</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_abolitionists" title="List of abolitionists">Abolitionists</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anglo-Egyptian_Slave_Trade_Convention" title="Anglo-Egyptian Slave Trade Convention">Anglo-Egyptian Slave Trade Convention</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Slavery_International" title="Anti-Slavery International">Anti-Slavery International</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Blockade_of_Africa" title="Blockade of Africa">Blockade of Africa</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/West_Africa_Squadron" title="West Africa Squadron">U.K.</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_Slave_Trade_Patrol" title="African Slave Trade Patrol">U.S.</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/American_Colonization_Society" title="American Colonization Society">Colonization</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Liberia" title="Liberia">Liberia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sierra_Leone" title="Sierra Leone">Sierra Leone</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Compensated_emancipation" title="Compensated emancipation">Compensated emancipation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Freedman" title="Freedman">Freedman</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Manumission" title="Manumission">Manumission</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Freedom_suit" title="Freedom suit">Freedom suit</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slave_Power" title="Slave Power">Slave Power</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Underground Railroad</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Songs_of_the_Underground_Railroad" title="Songs of the Underground Railroad">songs</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slave_rebellion" title="Slave rebellion">Slave rebellion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slave_Trade_Act" title="Slave Trade Act">Slave Trade Acts</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_international_law" title="Slavery in international law">International law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Third_Servile_War" title="Third Servile War">Third Servile War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thirteenth_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Thirteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution">13th Amendment to the United States Constitution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_abolition_of_slavery_and_serfdom" title="Timeline of abolition of slavery and serfdom">Timeline of abolition of slavery and serfdom</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Abolition_of_slave_trade_in_Persian_gulf&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Abolition of slave trade in Persian gulf (page does not exist)">Abolition of slave trade in Persian gulf</a> [<a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%85%D9%85%D9%86%D9%88%D8%B9%DB%8C%D8%AA_%D8%AA%D8%AC%D8%A7%D8%B1%D8%AA_%D8%A8%D8%B1%D8%AF%D9%87_%D8%AF%D8%B1_%D8%AE%D9%84%DB%8C%D8%AC_%D9%81%D8%A7%D8%B1%D8%B3" class="extiw" title="fa:ممنوعیت تجارت برده در خلیج فارس">fa</a>]</li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:transparent;border-top:1px solid #aaa;text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)">Related</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_at_common_law" title="Slavery at common law">Common law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indentured_servitude" title="Indentured servitude">Indentured servitude</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Forced_labour" title="Forced labour">Forced labour</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fugitive_slaves_in_the_United_States" title="Fugitive slaves in the United States">Fugitive slaves</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Fugitive_slave_laws_in_the_United_States" title="Fugitive slave laws in the United States">laws</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fugitive_Slave_Convention" title="Fugitive Slave Convention">convention</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Great_Dismal_Swamp_maroons" title="Great Dismal Swamp maroons">Great Dismal Swamp maroons</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_slaves" title="List of slaves">List of slaves</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_slave_owners" title="List of slave owners">owners</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_last_survivors_of_American_slavery" title="List of last survivors of American slavery">last survivors of American slavery</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_slavery-related_memorials_and_museums" title="List of slavery-related memorials and museums">List of slavery-related memorials and museums</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slave_marriages_in_the_United_States" title="Slave marriages in the United States">Slave marriages in the United States</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slave_narrative" title="Slave narrative">Slave narrative</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_films_featuring_slavery" title="List of films featuring slavery">films</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slave_Songs_of_the_United_States" title="Slave Songs of the United States">songs</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slave_name" title="Slave name">Slave name</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slave_catcher" title="Slave catcher">Slave catcher</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slave_patrol" title="Slave patrol">Slave patrol</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Slave_Route_Project" title="The Slave Route Project">Slave Route Project</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Slave_breeding_in_the_United_States" title="Slave breeding in the United States">breeding</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_court_cases_in_the_United_States_involving_slavery" title="List of court cases in the United States involving slavery">court cases</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/George_Washington_and_slavery" title="George Washington and slavery">Washington</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Jefferson_and_slavery" title="Thomas Jefferson and slavery">Jefferson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Quincy_Adams_and_abolitionism" title="John Quincy Adams and abolitionism">J.Q. Adams</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abraham_Lincoln_and_slavery" title="Abraham Lincoln and slavery">Lincoln</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Emancipation_Proclamation" title="Emancipation Proclamation">Emancipation Proclamation</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Forty_acres_and_a_mule" title="Forty acres and a mule">40 acres</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Freedmen%27s_Bureau" title="Freedmen's Bureau">Freedmen's Bureau</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slave_iron_bit" title="Slave iron bit">Iron bit</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Emancipation_Day" title="Emancipation Day">Emancipation Day</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-navbar"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239400231">.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar ul{display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::before{margin-right:-0.125em;content:"[ "}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::after{margin-left:-0.125em;content:" ]"}.mw-parser-output .navbar li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .navbar a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini abbr{font-variant:small-caps;border-bottom:none;text-decoration:none;cursor:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-full{font-size:114%;margin:0 7em}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-mini{font-size:114%;margin:0 4em}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}}</style><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Forced_labour" title="Template:Forced labour"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Forced_labour" title="Template talk:Forced labour"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Forced_labour" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Forced labour"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table> The Underground Railroad was used by <a href="/wiki/Fugitive_slaves_in_the_United_States" title="Fugitive slaves in the United States">freedom seekers</a> from <a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_the_United_States" title="Slavery in the United States">slavery in the United States</a> and was generally an organized network of secret routes and safe houses.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHudson20151,_6,_10-1">[1]</a> Enslaved Africans and <a href="/wiki/African_Americans" title="African Americans">African Americans</a> escaped from slavery as early as the 16th century and many of their escapes were unaided,<a href="#cite_note-2">[2]</a><a href="#cite_note-3">[3]</a><a href="#cite_note-4">[4]</a> but the network of safe houses operated by agents generally known as the Underground Railroad began to organize in the 1780s among Abolitionist Societies in the <a href="/wiki/Northern_United_States" title="Northern United States">North</a>.<a href="#cite_note-5">[5]</a><a href="#cite_note-6">[6]</a> It ran north and grew steadily until the <a href="/wiki/Emancipation_Proclamation" title="Emancipation Proclamation">Emancipation Proclamation</a> was signed in 1863 by President <a href="/wiki/Abraham_Lincoln" title="Abraham Lincoln">Abraham Lincoln</a>.<a href="#cite_note-afroamhistory-7">[7]</a> The escapees sought primarily to escape into <a href="/wiki/Slave_states_and_free_states" title="Slave states and free states">free states</a>, and from there to Canada.<a href="#cite_note-8">[8]</a> The network, primarily the work of <a href="/wiki/Free_Negro" title="Free Negro">free</a> and enslaved African Americans,<a href="#cite_note-9">[9]</a> was assisted by <a href="/wiki/Abolitionism_in_the_United_States" title="Abolitionism in the United States">abolitionists</a> and others sympathetic to the cause of the <a href="/wiki/Fugitive_slaves_in_the_United_States" title="Fugitive slaves in the United States">escapees</a>.<a href="#cite_note-10">[10]</a> The enslaved people who risked capture and those who aided them are also collectively referred to as the passengers and conductors of the Railroad, respectively.<a href="#cite_note-PBS-11">[11]</a> Various other routes led to Mexico,<a href="#cite_note-12">[12]</a> where slavery had been abolished, and to islands in the <a href="/wiki/Caribbean" title="Caribbean">Caribbean</a> that were not part of the slave trade.<a href="#cite_note-13">[13]</a> An earlier escape route running south toward <a href="/wiki/Spanish_Florida" title="Spanish Florida">Florida</a>, then a <a href="/wiki/Spanish_Empire" title="Spanish Empire">Spanish</a> possession (except 1763–1783), existed from the late 17th century until approximately 1790.<a href="#cite_note-14">[14]</a><a href="#cite_note-15">[15]</a> During the <a href="/wiki/American_Civil_War" title="American Civil War">American Civil War</a>, freedom seekers escaped to Union lines in the South to obtain their freedom. One estimate suggests that, by 1850, approximately 100,000 slaves had escaped to freedom via the network.<a href="#cite_note-afroamhistory-7">[7]</a> According to former professor of <a href="/wiki/Pan-Africanism" title="Pan-Africanism">Pan-African</a> studies, J. Blaine Hudson, who was dean of the College of Arts and Sciences at the University of Louisville, by the end of the American Civil War 500,000 or more African Americans self-emancipated themselves from slavery on the Underground Railroad.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHudson201510-16">[16]</a> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Origin_of_the_name">Origin of the name</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Underground_Railroad&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Origin of the name">edit</a>]</div> <a href="/wiki/Eric_Foner" title="Eric Foner">Eric Foner</a> wrote that the term "was perhaps first used by a Washington newspaper in 1839, quoting a young slave hoping to escape bondage via a railroad that 'went underground all the way to Boston'".<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFoner20156–9-17">[17]</a><a href="#cite_note-18">[18]</a> Dr. Robert Clemens Smedley wrote that following slave catchers' failed searches and lost traces of fugitives as far north as <a href="/wiki/Columbia,_Pennsylvania" title="Columbia, Pennsylvania">Columbia, Pennsylvania</a>, they declared in bewilderment that "there must be an underground railroad somewhere," giving origin to the term.<a href="#cite_note-19">[19]</a> <a href="/wiki/Scott_Shane" title="Scott Shane">Scott Shane</a> wrote that the first documented use of the term was in an article written by <a href="/wiki/Thomas_Smallwood" title="Thomas Smallwood">Thomas Smallwood</a> in the August 10, 1842, edition of Tocsin of Liberty, an abolitionist newspaper published in Albany. He also wrote that the 1879 book Sketches in the History of the Underground Railroad said the phrase was mentioned in an 1839 Washington newspaper article and that the book's author said 40 years later that he had quoted the article from memory as closely as he could.<a href="#cite_note-20">[20]</a><a href="#cite_note-21">[21]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Terminology">Terminology</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Underground_Railroad&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Terminology">edit</a>]</div> Members of the Underground Railroad often used specific terms, based on the metaphor of the railway. For example: <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1184024115">.mw-parser-output .div-col{margin-top:0.3em;column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .div-col-small{font-size:90%}.mw-parser-output .div-col-rules{column-rule:1px solid #aaa}.mw-parser-output .div-col dl,.mw-parser-output .div-col ol,.mw-parser-output .div-col ul{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .div-col li,.mw-parser-output .div-col dd{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}</style><div class="div-col"> <ul><li>People who helped fugitive slaves find the railroad were "agents"</li> <li>Guides were known as "conductors"</li> <li>Hiding places were "stations" or "way stations"</li> <li>"Station masters" hid escaping slaves in their homes</li> <li>People escaping slavery were referred to as "passengers" or "cargo"</li> <li>Fugitive slaves would obtain a "ticket"</li> <li>Similar to common <a href="/wiki/Gospel" title="Gospel">gospel</a> lore, the "wheels would keep on turning"</li> <li>Financial benefactors of the Railroad were known as "stockholders"<a href="#cite_note-22">[22]</a></li> <li>Promised Land - was a code word for Canada</li> <li>River Jordan - was a code word for Ohio River</li> <li>Heaven - was a code for freedom or Canada<a href="#cite_note-23">[23]</a></li></ul> </div> The <a href="/wiki/Big_Dipper#Guidepost" title="Big Dipper">Big Dipper</a> (whose "bowl" points to the <a href="/wiki/North_Star" class="mw-redirect" title="North Star">North Star</a>) was known as the <a href="/wiki/Follow_the_Drinkin%27_Gourd" title="Follow the Drinkin' Gourd">drinkin' gourd</a>. The Railroad was often known as the "freedom train" or "Gospel train", which headed towards "Heaven" or "the Promised Land", i.e., Canada.<a href="#cite_note-24">[24]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Political_background">Political background</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Underground_Railroad&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Political background">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:The_disappointed_abolitionists_LCCN2008661783.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cc/The_disappointed_abolitionists_LCCN2008661783.jpg/220px-The_disappointed_abolitionists_LCCN2008661783.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="134" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cc/The_disappointed_abolitionists_LCCN2008661783.jpg/330px-The_disappointed_abolitionists_LCCN2008661783.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cc/The_disappointed_abolitionists_LCCN2008661783.jpg/440px-The_disappointed_abolitionists_LCCN2008661783.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1536" data-file-height="939" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/David_Ruggles" title="David Ruggles">David Ruggles</a> between two men confronting John P. Dang</figcaption></figure> For the fugitive slaves who "rode" the Underground Railroad, many of them considered Canada their final destination. An estimated 30,000 to 40,000 of them settled in Canada, half of whom came between 1850 and 1860. Others settled in <a href="/wiki/Free_and_slave_states" class="mw-redirect" title="Free and slave states">free states</a> in the north.<a href="#cite_note-25">[25]</a> Thousands of court cases for fugitive slaves were recorded between the <a href="/wiki/American_Revolutionary_War" title="American Revolutionary War">Revolutionary War</a> and the <a href="/wiki/American_Civil_War" title="American Civil War">Civil War</a>.<a href="#cite_note-26">[26]</a> Under the original <a href="/wiki/Fugitive_Slave_Act_of_1793" title="Fugitive Slave Act of 1793">Fugitive Slave Act of 1793</a>, officials from free states were required to assist slaveholders or their agents who recaptured fugitives, but some state legislatures prohibited this. The law made it easier for slaveholders and slave catchers to capture African Americans and return them to slavery, and in some cases allowed them to enslave free blacks. It also created an eagerness among abolitionists to help enslaved people, resulting in the growth of anti-slavery societies and the Underground Railroad.<a href="#cite_note-27">[27]</a> With heavy lobbying by Southern politicians, the <a href="/wiki/Compromise_of_1850" title="Compromise of 1850">Compromise of 1850</a> was passed by <a href="/wiki/United_States_Congress" title="United States Congress">Congress</a> after the <a href="/wiki/Mexican%E2%80%93American_War" title="Mexican–American War">Mexican–American War</a>. It included a more stringent <a href="/wiki/Fugitive_Slave_Act_of_1850" title="Fugitive Slave Act of 1850">Fugitive Slave Law</a>; ostensibly, the compromise addressed regional problems by compelling officials of free states to assist slave catchers, granting them immunity to operate in free states.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPotter1976132–139-28">[28]</a> Because the law required sparse documentation to claim a person was a fugitive, slave catchers also kidnapped <a href="/wiki/Free_negro" class="mw-redirect" title="Free negro">free blacks</a>, especially children, and sold them into slavery.<a href="#cite_note-29">[29]</a> Southern politicians often exaggerated the number of escaped slaves and often blamed these escapes on Northerners interfering with Southern property rights.<a href="#cite_note-30">[30]</a> The law deprived people suspected of being slaves of the right to defend themselves in court, making it difficult to prove free status.<a href="#cite_note-31">[31]</a> Some Northern states enacted <a href="/wiki/Personal_liberty_laws" title="Personal liberty laws">personal liberty laws</a> that made it illegal for public officials to capture or imprison former slaves.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPotter1976139-32">[32]</a> The perception that Northern states ignored the fugitive slave laws and regulations was a major justification offered for <a href="/wiki/Secession_in_the_United_States" title="Secession in the United States">secession</a>.<a href="#cite_note-33">[33]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Routes_and_methods_of_escape">Routes and methods of escape</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Underground_Railroad&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Routes and methods of escape">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Great_Dismal_Swamp-Fugitive_Slaves_crop.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1a/Great_Dismal_Swamp-Fugitive_Slaves_crop.jpg/220px-Great_Dismal_Swamp-Fugitive_Slaves_crop.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="247" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1a/Great_Dismal_Swamp-Fugitive_Slaves_crop.jpg/330px-Great_Dismal_Swamp-Fugitive_Slaves_crop.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/1a/Great_Dismal_Swamp-Fugitive_Slaves_crop.jpg 2x" data-file-width="340" data-file-height="381" /></a><figcaption>Freedom seekers escaped to the <a href="/wiki/Great_Dismal_Swamp_maroons" title="Great Dismal Swamp maroons">Great Dismal Swamp</a>'s maroon community.<a href="#cite_note-34">[34]</a></figcaption></figure> Underground Railroad routes went north to free states and Canada, to the Caribbean, to United States western territories, and to <a href="/wiki/Indian_Territory" title="Indian Territory">Indian territories</a>. Some fugitive slaves traveled south into Mexico for their freedom.<a href="#cite_note-35">[35]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHudson2015-36">[36]</a> Many escaped by sea, including <a href="/wiki/Oney_Judge" class="mw-redirect" title="Oney Judge">Ona Judge</a>, who had been enslaved by President <a href="/wiki/George_Washington" title="George Washington">George Washington</a>.<a href="#cite_note-37">[37]</a> Some historians view the waterways of the South as an important component for freedom seekers to escape as water sources were pathways to freedom. In addition, historians of the Underground Railroad found 200,000 runaway slave advertisements in North American newspapers from the middle of the 1700s until the end of the American Civil War.<a href="#cite_note-38">[38]</a> Freedom seekers in <a href="/wiki/Alabama" title="Alabama">Alabama</a> hid on <a href="/wiki/Steamboat" title="Steamboat">steamboats</a> heading to <a href="/wiki/Mobile,_Alabama" title="Mobile, Alabama">Mobile, Alabama</a> in hopes of blending in among the city's free Black community, and also hid on other steamboats leaving Alabama that were headed further northward into free territories and free states. In 1852, a law was passed by the Alabama legislature to reduce the number of freedom seekers escaping on boats. The law penalized slaveholders and captains of vessels if they allowed enslaved people on board without a pass. Alabama freedom seekers also made canoes to escape.<a href="#cite_note-39">[39]</a> Freedom seekers escaped from their enslavers in <a href="/wiki/Panama" title="Panama">Panama</a> on boats heading for California by way of the Panama route. Slaveholders used the Panama route to reach California. In Panama slavery was illegal and <a href="/wiki/Afro-Panamanians" title="Afro-Panamanians">Black Panamanians</a> encouraged enslaved people from the United States to escape into the local city of Panama.<a href="#cite_note-40">[40]</a> Freedom seekers created methods to throw off the <a href="/wiki/Slave_catcher" title="Slave catcher">slave catchers</a>' bloodhounds from tracking their scent. One method was using a combination of hot pepper, lard, and vinegar on their shoes. In North Carolina freedom seekers put <a href="/wiki/Turpentine" title="Turpentine">turpentine</a> on their shoes to prevent slave catchers' dogs from tracking their scents, in Texas escapees used paste made from a charred bullfrog.<a href="#cite_note-41">[41]</a> Other runaways escaped into the swamps to wash off their scent.<a href="#cite_note-42">[42]</a> Most escapes occurred at night when the runaways could hide under the cover of darkness.<a href="#cite_note-43">[43]</a> Another method freedom seekers used to prevent capture was carrying forged free passes. During slavery, free Blacks showed proof of their freedom by carrying a pass that proved they were free. Free Blacks and enslaved people created forged free passes for freedom seekers as they traveled through slave states.<a href="#cite_note-44">[44]</a><a href="#cite_note-45">[45]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="North_to_free_states_and_Canada">North to free states and Canada</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Underground_Railroad&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: North to free states and Canada">edit</a>]</div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Structure">Structure</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Underground_Railroad&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Structure">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Quakers_in_the_abolition_movement" title="Quakers in the abolition movement">Quakers in the abolition movement</a></div> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Harriet_Tubman.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1d/Harriet_Tubman.jpg/200px-Harriet_Tubman.jpg" decoding="async" width="200" height="285" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1d/Harriet_Tubman.jpg/300px-Harriet_Tubman.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1d/Harriet_Tubman.jpg/400px-Harriet_Tubman.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1122" data-file-height="1600" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Harriet_Tubman" title="Harriet Tubman">Harriet Tubman</a> (photo H. B. Lindsley), <abbr title="circa">c.</abbr> 1870. A worker on the Underground Railroad, Tubman made 13 trips to the South, helping to free over 70 people. She led people to the Northern free states and Canada. This helped Harriet Tubman gain the name "<a href="/wiki/Moses" title="Moses">Moses</a> of Her People".<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEClifford_Larson2004xvii-46">[46]</a></figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Levi_coffin.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a9/Levi_coffin.JPG/200px-Levi_coffin.JPG" decoding="async" width="200" height="220" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a9/Levi_coffin.JPG/300px-Levi_coffin.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/a9/Levi_coffin.JPG 2x" data-file-width="367" data-file-height="404" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Quaker" class="mw-redirect" title="Quaker">Quaker</a> abolitionist <a href="/wiki/Levi_Coffin" title="Levi Coffin">Levi Coffin</a> and his wife Catherine helped more than 2,000 enslaved people escape to freedom.</figcaption></figure> Despite the thoroughfare's name, the escape network was neither literally underground nor a railroad. (The first literal underground railroad did not exist <a href="/wiki/London_Underground" title="London Underground">until 1863</a>.) According to <a href="/wiki/John_Rankin_(abolitionist)" title="John Rankin (abolitionist)">John Rankin</a>, "It was so called because they who took passage on it disappeared from public view as really as if they had gone into the ground. After the fugitive slaves entered a depot on that road no trace of them could be found. They were secretly passed from one depot to another until they arrived at a destination where they were able to remain free."<a href="#cite_note-47">[47]</a> It was known as a railroad, using rail terminology such as stations and conductors, because that was the transportation system in use at the time.<a href="#cite_note-48">[48]</a> The Underground Railroad did not have a headquarters or governing body, nor were there published guides, maps, pamphlets, or even newspaper articles. It consisted of meeting points, secret routes, transportation, and <a href="/wiki/Safe_house" title="Safe house">safe houses</a>, all of them maintained by <a href="/wiki/Abolitionism_in_the_United_States" title="Abolitionism in the United States">abolitionist sympathizers</a> and communicated by <a href="/wiki/Word_of_mouth" title="Word of mouth">word of mouth</a>, although there is also a report of a numeric code used to encrypt messages.<a href="#cite_note-49">[49]</a> Participants generally organized in small, independent groups; this helped to maintain secrecy. People escaping enslavement would move north along the route from one way station to the next. "Conductors" on the railroad came from various backgrounds and included <a href="/wiki/Free_people_of_color" title="Free people of color">free-born blacks</a>, white abolitionists, the formerly enslaved (either escaped or <a href="/wiki/Manumission" title="Manumission">manumitted</a>), and Native Americans.<a href="#cite_note-50">[50]</a><a href="#cite_note-51">[51]</a> Believing that slavery was "contrary to the ethics of Jesus", Christian congregations and clergy played a role, especially the <a href="/wiki/Religious_Society_of_Friends" class="mw-redirect" title="Religious Society of Friends">Religious Society of Friends</a> (<a href="/wiki/Quakers" title="Quakers">Quakers</a>), <a href="/wiki/Congregational_church" class="mw-redirect" title="Congregational church">Congregationalists</a>, <a href="/wiki/Wesleyan_Methodist_Church_(United_States)" title="Wesleyan Methodist Church (United States)">Wesleyan Methodists</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Reformed_Presbyterian_Church_of_North_America" title="Reformed Presbyterian Church of North America">Reformed Presbyterians</a>, as well as the anti-slavery branches of <a href="/wiki/Mainline_Protestant" title="Mainline Protestant">mainstream denominations</a> which entered into <a href="/wiki/Schism" title="Schism">schism</a> over the issue, such as the <a href="/wiki/Methodist_Episcopal_Church" title="Methodist Episcopal Church">Methodist Episcopal Church</a> and the <a href="/wiki/American_Baptists" class="mw-redirect" title="American Baptists">Baptists</a>.<a href="#cite_note-52">[52]</a> The role of free blacks was crucial; without it, there would have been almost no chance for fugitives from slavery to reach freedom safely.<a href="#cite_note-53">[53]</a> The groups of underground railroad "agents" worked in organizations known as <a href="/wiki/Vigilance_committee" title="Vigilance committee">vigilance committees</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFoner2015-54">[54]</a> <a href="/wiki/Free_Negro" title="Free Negro">Free Black</a> communities in Indiana, Illinois, Ohio, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, and New York helped freedom seekers escape from slavery. <a href="/wiki/Black_church" title="Black church">Black Churches</a> were stations on the Underground Railroad, and Black communities in the North hid freedom seekers in their churches and homes. Historian Cheryl Janifer Laroche explained in her book, Free Black Communities and the Underground Railroad The Geography of Resistance that: "Blacks, enslaved and free, operated as the main actors in the central drama that was the Underground Railroad." Laroche further explained how some authors center white abolitionists and white people involved in the antislavery movement as the main factors for freedom seekers escapes and overlook the important role of free Black communities.<a href="#cite_note-55">[55]</a> In addition, author Diane Miller states: "Traditionally, historians have overlooked the agency of African Americans in their own quest for freedom by portraying the Underground Railroad as an organized effort by white religious groups, often Quakers, to aid 'helpless' slaves." Historian Larry Gara argues that many of the stories of the Underground Railroad belong in folklore and not history. The actions of real historical figures such as Harriet Tubman, <a href="/wiki/Thomas_Garrett" title="Thomas Garrett">Thomas Garrett</a>, and Levi Coffin are exaggerated, and Northern abolitionists who guided the enslaved to Canada are hailed as the heroes of the Underground Railroad. This narrative minimizes the intelligence and agency of enslaved Black people who liberated themselves, and implies that freedom seekers needed the help of Northerners to escape.<a href="#cite_note-56">[56]</a><a href="#cite_note-57">[57]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Geography">Geography</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Underground_Railroad&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Geography">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Rail_Road_Suspension_Bridge_Near_Niagara_Falls_v2.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/56/Rail_Road_Suspension_Bridge_Near_Niagara_Falls_v2.jpg/220px-Rail_Road_Suspension_Bridge_Near_Niagara_Falls_v2.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="151" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/56/Rail_Road_Suspension_Bridge_Near_Niagara_Falls_v2.jpg/330px-Rail_Road_Suspension_Bridge_Near_Niagara_Falls_v2.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/56/Rail_Road_Suspension_Bridge_Near_Niagara_Falls_v2.jpg/440px-Rail_Road_Suspension_Bridge_Near_Niagara_Falls_v2.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2775" data-file-height="1902" /></a><figcaption>Freedom seekers escaped slavery and reached Canada by way of the <a href="/wiki/Niagara_Falls_Suspension_Bridge" title="Niagara Falls Suspension Bridge">Niagara Falls Suspension Bridge</a>.</figcaption></figure> The Underground Railroad benefited greatly from the geography of the U.S.–Canada border: Michigan, Ohio, Pennsylvania and most of New York were separated from Canada by water, over which transport was usually easy to arrange and relatively safe. The main route for freedom seekers from the South led up the Appalachians, Harriet Tubman going via <a href="/wiki/Harpers_Ferry" class="mw-redirect" title="Harpers Ferry">Harpers Ferry</a>, through the highly anti-slavery <a href="/wiki/Connecticut_Western_Reserve" title="Connecticut Western Reserve">Western Reserve</a> region of northeastern Ohio to the vast shore of Lake Erie, and then to Canada by boat. A smaller number, traveling by way of New York or New England, went via <a href="/wiki/Syracuse,_New_York" title="Syracuse, New York">Syracuse</a> (home of <a href="/wiki/Samuel_May" class="mw-redirect" title="Samuel May">Samuel May</a>) and <a href="/wiki/Rochester,_New_York" title="Rochester, New York">Rochester, New York</a> (home of <a href="/wiki/Frederick_Douglass" title="Frederick Douglass">Frederick Douglass</a>), crossing the <a href="/wiki/Niagara_River" title="Niagara River">Niagara River</a> or <a href="/wiki/Lake_Ontario" title="Lake Ontario">Lake Ontario</a> into Canada. By 1848 the <a href="/wiki/Niagara_Falls_Suspension_Bridge" title="Niagara Falls Suspension Bridge">Niagara Falls Suspension Bridge</a> had been built—it crossed the Niagara River and connected New York to Canada. Enslaved runaways used the bridge to escape their bondage, and Harriet Tubman used the bridge to take freedom seekers into Canada.<a href="#cite_note-58">[58]</a><a href="#cite_note-59">[59]</a> Those traveling via the New York <a href="/wiki/Adirondacks" class="mw-redirect" title="Adirondacks">Adirondacks</a>, sometimes via Black communities like <a href="/wiki/Timbuctoo,_New_York" title="Timbuctoo, New York">Timbuctoo, New York</a>, entered Canada via <a href="/wiki/Ogdensburg,_New_York" title="Ogdensburg, New York">Ogdensburg</a>, on the <a href="/wiki/St._Lawrence_River" title="St. Lawrence River">St. Lawrence River</a>, or on <a href="/wiki/Lake_Champlain" title="Lake Champlain">Lake Champlain</a> (<a href="/wiki/Joshua_Young" title="Joshua Young">Joshua Young</a> assisted). The western route, used by <a href="/wiki/John_Brown_(abolitionist)" title="John Brown (abolitionist)">John Brown</a> among others, led from Missouri west to free Kansas and north to free Iowa, then east via Chicago to the <a href="/wiki/Detroit_River" title="Detroit River">Detroit River</a>. <a href="/wiki/Thomas_Downing_(restaurateur)" title="Thomas Downing (restaurateur)">Thomas Downing</a> was a free Black man in New York and operated his Oyster restaurant as a stop on the Underground Railroad. <a href="/wiki/Fugitive_slaves_in_the_United_States" title="Fugitive slaves in the United States">Freedom seekers</a> (runaway slaves) escaping slavery and seeking freedom hid in the basement of Downing's restaurant.<a href="#cite_note-60">[60]</a> Enslaved people helped freedom seekers escape from slavery. Arnold Gragstone was enslaved and helped runaways escape from slavery by guiding them across the <a href="/wiki/Ohio_River" title="Ohio River">Ohio River</a> for their freedom.<a href="#cite_note-61">[61]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:William_Still_portrait.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/75/William_Still_portrait.png/220px-William_Still_portrait.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="226" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/75/William_Still_portrait.png/330px-William_Still_portrait.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/75/William_Still_portrait.png/440px-William_Still_portrait.png 2x" data-file-width="688" data-file-height="707" /></a><figcaption>William Still was a free Black man in Philadelphia who helped hundreds of freedom seekers escape from slavery.</figcaption></figure> <a href="/wiki/William_Still" title="William Still">William Still</a>,<a href="#cite_note-62">[62]</a> sometimes called "The Father of the Underground Railroad", helped hundreds of slaves escape (as many as 60 a month), sometimes hiding them in his <a href="/wiki/Philadelphia" title="Philadelphia">Philadelphia</a> home. He kept careful records, including short biographies of the people, that contained frequent railway metaphors. He maintained correspondence with many of them, often acting as a middleman in communications between people who had escaped slavery and those left behind. He later published these accounts in the book The Underground Railroad: Authentic Narratives and First-Hand Accounts (1872), a valuable resource for historians to understand how the system worked and learn about individual ingenuity in escapes. According to Still, messages were often encoded so that they could be understood only by those active in the railroad. For example, the following message, "I have sent via at two o'clock four large hams and two small hams", indicated that four adults and two children were sent by train from <a href="/wiki/Harrisburg,_Pennsylvania" title="Harrisburg, Pennsylvania">Harrisburg</a> to Philadelphia. The additional word via indicated that the "passengers" were not sent on the usual train, but rather via <a href="/wiki/Reading,_Pennsylvania" title="Reading, Pennsylvania">Reading, Pennsylvania</a>. In this case, the authorities were tricked into going to the regular location (station) in an attempt to intercept the runaways, while Still met them at the correct station and guided them to safety. They eventually escaped either further north or to Canada, where slavery had been <a href="/wiki/Slavery_Abolition_Act_1833" title="Slavery Abolition Act 1833">abolished</a> during the 1830s.<a href="#cite_note-63">[63]</a> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Desperate_Conflict_in_a_Barn.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8a/Desperate_Conflict_in_a_Barn.png/280px-Desperate_Conflict_in_a_Barn.png" decoding="async" width="280" height="195" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8a/Desperate_Conflict_in_a_Barn.png/420px-Desperate_Conflict_in_a_Barn.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8a/Desperate_Conflict_in_a_Barn.png/560px-Desperate_Conflict_in_a_Barn.png 2x" data-file-width="1754" data-file-height="1221" /></a><figcaption>Struggle for freedom in a Maryland barn. Wood-engraving from William Still's The Underground Rail Road, p. 50.<a href="#cite_note-64">[64]</a></figcaption></figure> To reduce the risk of infiltration, many people associated with the Underground Railroad <a href="/wiki/Compartmentalization_(information_security)" title="Compartmentalization (information security)">knew only their part of the operation</a> and not of the whole scheme. "Conductors" led or transported the "passengers" from station to station. A conductor sometimes pretended to be enslaved to enter a <a href="/wiki/Plantations_in_the_American_South" class="mw-redirect" title="Plantations in the American South">plantation</a>. Once a part of a plantation, the conductor would direct the runaways to the North. Enslaved people traveled at night, about 10–20 miles (16–32 km) to each station. They rested, and then a message was sent to the next station to let the station master know the escapees were on their way. They would stop at the so-called "stations" or "depots" during the day and rest. The stations were often located in basements,<a href="#cite_note-65">[65]</a> barns,<a href="#cite_note-66">[66]</a> churches,<a href="#cite_note-67">[67]</a> or in hiding places in caves.<a href="#cite_note-68">[68]</a> The resting spots where the freedom seekers could sleep and eat were given the code names "stations" and "depots", which were held by "station masters". "Stockholders" gave money or supplies for assistance. Using biblical references, fugitives referred to Canada as the "<a href="/wiki/Promised_Land" title="Promised Land">Promised Land</a>" or "Heaven" and the <a href="/wiki/Ohio_River" title="Ohio River">Ohio River</a>, which marked the boundary between <a href="/wiki/Slave_states_and_free_states" title="Slave states and free states">slave states and free states</a>, as the "<a href="/wiki/Jordan_River" title="Jordan River">River Jordan</a>".<a href="#cite_note-69">[69]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Traveling_conditions">Traveling conditions</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Underground_Railroad&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Traveling conditions">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:4271695318-marymeachum.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3a/4271695318-marymeachum.jpg/220px-4271695318-marymeachum.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="303" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/3/3a/4271695318-marymeachum.jpg 1.5x" data-file-width="300" data-file-height="413" /></a><figcaption>Mary Meachum was an Underground Railroad agent in St. Louis, Missouri</figcaption></figure> Although the freedom seekers sometimes traveled on boat or train,<a href="#cite_note-70">[70]</a> they usually traveled on foot or by wagon, sometimes lying down, covered with hay or similar products, in groups of one to three escapees. Some groups were considerably larger. Abolitionist <a href="/wiki/Charles_Turner_Torrey" title="Charles Turner Torrey">Charles Turner Torrey</a> and his colleagues rented horses and wagons and often transported as many as 15 or 20 people at a time.<a href="#cite_note-71">[71]</a> Free and enslaved black men occupied as mariners (sailors) helped enslaved people escape from slavery by providing a ride on their ship, providing information on the safest and best escape routes, and safe locations on land, and locations of trusted people for assistance. Enslaved African-American mariners had information about slave revolts occurring in the Caribbean, and relayed this news to enslaved people they had contact with in American ports. Free and enslaved African-American mariners assisted <a href="/wiki/Harriet_Tubman" title="Harriet Tubman">Harriet Tubman</a> in her rescue missions. Black mariners provided to her information about the best escape routes and helped her on her rescue missions. In <a href="/wiki/New_Bedford,_Massachusetts" title="New Bedford, Massachusetts">New Bedford, Massachusetts</a>, freedom seekers stowed away on ships leaving the docks with the assistance of Black and white crewmembers and hid in the ships' cargoes during their journey to freedom.<a href="#cite_note-72">[72]</a> Enslaved people living near rivers escaped on boats and canoes. In 1855, <a href="/wiki/John_Berry_Meachum" title="John Berry Meachum">Mary Meachum</a>, a free Black woman, attempted to help eight or nine slaves escape from slavery on the <a href="/wiki/Mississippi_River" title="Mississippi River">Mississippi River</a> near St. Louis, Missouri to the free state of Illinois. To assist with the escape were white antislavery activists and an African American guide from Illinois named "Freeman." However, the escape was not successful because word of the escape reached police agents and slave catchers who waited across the river on the Illinois shore. Breckenridge, Burrows and Meachum were arrested. Prior to this escape attempt, Mary Meachum and her husband John, a former slave, were agents on the Underground Railroad and helped other slaves escape from slavery crossing the Mississippi River.<a href="#cite_note-73">[73]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Underground_Railroad_Handbook.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0d/Underground_Railroad_Handbook.jpg/220px-Underground_Railroad_Handbook.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="309" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0d/Underground_Railroad_Handbook.jpg/330px-Underground_Railroad_Handbook.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0d/Underground_Railroad_Handbook.jpg/440px-Underground_Railroad_Handbook.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1760" data-file-height="2472" /></a><figcaption>Enslaved people living near rivers and the <a href="/wiki/Chesapeake_Bay" title="Chesapeake Bay">Chesapeake Bay</a> escaped from slavery using canoes and boats.</figcaption></figure> Routes were often purposely indirect to confuse pursuers. Most escapes were by individuals or small groups; occasionally, there were mass escapes, such as with the <a href="/wiki/Pearl_incident" title="Pearl incident">Pearl incident</a>. The journey was often considered particularly difficult and dangerous for women or children. Children were sometimes hard to keep quiet or were unable to keep up with a group. In addition, enslaved women were rarely allowed to leave the plantation, making it harder for them to escape in the same ways that men could.<a href="#cite_note-74">[74]</a> Although escaping was harder for women, some women were successful. One of the most famous and successful conductors (people who secretly traveled into slave states to rescue those seeking freedom) was <a href="/wiki/Harriet_Tubman" title="Harriet Tubman">Harriet Tubman</a>, a woman who escaped slavery.<a href="#cite_note-75">[75]</a><a href="#cite_note-76">[76]</a> Due to the risk of discovery, information about routes and safe havens was passed along by word of mouth, although in 1896 there is a reference to a numerical code used to encrypt messages. Southern newspapers of the day were often filled with pages of notices soliciting information about fugitive slaves and offering sizable rewards for their capture and return. <a href="/wiki/United_States_Marshals_Service#History" title="United States Marshals Service">Federal marshals</a> and professional <a href="/wiki/Bounty_hunter" title="Bounty hunter">bounty hunters</a> known as <a href="/wiki/Slave_catcher" title="Slave catcher">slave catchers</a> pursued freedom seekers as far as the <a href="/wiki/Canada%E2%80%93United_States_border" title="Canada–United States border">Canada–U.S. border</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPotter1976133-77">[77]</a> <a href="/wiki/Fugitive_slaves_in_the_United_States" title="Fugitive slaves in the United States">Freedom seekers</a> (runaway slaves) foraged, fished, and hunted for food on their journey to freedom on the Underground Railroad. With these ingredients, they prepared one-pot meals (stews), a West African cooking method. Enslaved and free Black people left food outside their front doors to provide nourishment to the freedom seekers. The meals created on the Underground Railroad became a part of the foodways of Black Americans called <a href="/wiki/Soul_food" title="Soul food">soul food</a>.<a href="#cite_note-78">[78]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Maroons">Maroons</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Underground_Railroad&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Maroons">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Maroons_preparing_to_ambush_a_convoy.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/74/Maroons_preparing_to_ambush_a_convoy.jpg/220px-Maroons_preparing_to_ambush_a_convoy.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="159" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/74/Maroons_preparing_to_ambush_a_convoy.jpg/330px-Maroons_preparing_to_ambush_a_convoy.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/74/Maroons_preparing_to_ambush_a_convoy.jpg/440px-Maroons_preparing_to_ambush_a_convoy.jpg 2x" data-file-width="897" data-file-height="648" /></a><figcaption>Maroons</figcaption></figure> The majority of <a href="/wiki/Freedom_seekers" class="mw-redirect" title="Freedom seekers">freedom seekers</a> that escaped from slavery did not have help from an abolitionist. Although there are stories of black and white abolitionists helping freedom seekers escape from slavery, many escapes were unaided.<a href="#cite_note-79">[79]</a><a href="#cite_note-80">[80]</a> Other Underground Railroad escape routes for freedom seekers were <a href="/wiki/Maroons" title="Maroons">maroon communities</a>. Maroon communities were hidden places, such as wetlands or marshes, where escaped slaves established their own independent communities. Examples of maroon communities in the United States include the <a href="/wiki/Black_Seminoles" title="Black Seminoles">Black Seminole</a> communities in Florida, as well as groups that lived in the <a href="/wiki/Great_Dismal_Swamp_maroons" title="Great Dismal Swamp maroons">Great Dismal Swamp</a> in Virginia and in the <a href="/wiki/Okefenokee_Swamp" title="Okefenokee Swamp">Okefenokee swamp</a> of Georgia and Florida, among others.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHudson2015143–144-81">[81]</a><a href="#cite_note-82">[82]</a> In the 1780s, Louisiana had a maroon community in the <a href="/wiki/Bayou" title="Bayou">bayous</a> of <a href="/wiki/Saint_Malo,_Louisiana" title="Saint Malo, Louisiana">Saint Malo</a>. The leader of the Saint Malo maroon community was <a href="/wiki/Jean_Saint_Malo" title="Jean Saint Malo">Jean Saint Malo</a>, a freedom seeker who escaped to live among other runaways in the swamps and bayous of Saint Malo. The population of maroons was fifty and the Spanish colonial government broke up the community and on June 19, 1784, Jean Saint Malo was executed.<a href="#cite_note-83">[83]</a><a href="#cite_note-84">[84]</a> Colonial <a href="/wiki/Province_of_South_Carolina" title="Province of South Carolina">South Carolina</a> had a number of maroon settlements in its marshland regions in the <a href="/wiki/South_Carolina_Lowcountry" title="South Carolina Lowcountry">Lowcountry</a> and near rivers. Maroons in South Carolina fought to maintain their freedom and prevent enslavement in <a href="/wiki/Ashepoo_River" title="Ashepoo River">Ashepoo</a> in 1816, <a href="/wiki/Williamsburg_County,_South_Carolina" title="Williamsburg County, South Carolina">Williamsburg County</a> in 1819, <a href="/wiki/Georgetown,_South_Carolina" title="Georgetown, South Carolina">Georgetown</a> in 1820, Jacksonborough in 1822, and near Marion in 1861. Historian <a href="/wiki/Herbert_Aptheker" title="Herbert Aptheker">Herbert Aptheker</a> found evidence that fifty maroon communities existed in the United States between 1672 and 1864.<a href="#cite_note-85">[85]</a><a href="#cite_note-86">[86]</a> The history of maroons showed how the enslaved resisted enslavement by living in free independent settlements. Historical archeologist Dan Sayer says that historians downplay the importance of maroon settlements and place valor in white involvement in the Underground Railroad, which he argues shows a racial bias, indicating a "...reluctance to acknowledge the strength of black resistance and initiative."<a href="#cite_note-87">[87]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Freedom_routes_into_Native_American_lands">Freedom routes into Native American lands</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Underground_Railroad&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Freedom routes into Native American lands">edit</a>]</div> From colonial America into the 19th century, <a href="/wiki/Indigenous_peoples_of_the_Americas" title="Indigenous peoples of the Americas">Indigenous peoples</a> of North America assisted and protected enslaved Africans journey to freedom.<a href="#cite_note-88">[88]</a><a href="#cite_note-89">[89]</a> However, not all Indigenous communities were accepting of freedom seekers, some of whom they enslaved themselves or returned to their former enslavers.<a href="#cite_note-90">[90]</a> The earliest accounts of escape are from the 16th century. In 1526, Spaniards established the first European colony in the continental United States in South Carolina called <a href="/wiki/San_Miguel_de_Gualdape" title="San Miguel de Gualdape">San Miguel de Gualdape</a>. The enslaved Africans revolted and historians suggest they escaped to <a href="/wiki/Shakori" title="Shakori">Shakori</a> Indigenous communities.<a href="#cite_note-91">[91]</a><a href="#cite_note-92">[92]</a> As early as 1689, <a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_the_colonial_United_States" class="mw-redirect" title="Slavery in the colonial United States">enslaved Africans</a> fled from the <a href="/wiki/South_Carolina_Lowcountry" title="South Carolina Lowcountry">South Carolina Lowcountry</a> to <a href="/wiki/Spanish_Florida" title="Spanish Florida">Spanish Florida</a> seeking freedom.<a href="#cite_note-Opala-93">[93]</a> The <a href="/wiki/Seminole" title="Seminole">Seminole Nation</a> accepted <a href="/wiki/Gullah" title="Gullah">Gullah</a> runaways (today called <a href="/wiki/Black_Seminoles" title="Black Seminoles">Black Seminoles</a>) into their lands.<a href="#cite_note-94">[94]</a> This was a southern route on the Underground Railroad into Seminole Indian lands that went from Georgia and the Carolinas into Florida. In Northwest Ohio in the 18th and 19th centuries, three <a href="/wiki/Native_Americans_in_the_United_States" title="Native Americans in the United States">Indigenous/Native American</a> nations, the <a href="/wiki/Shawnee" title="Shawnee">Shawnee</a>, Ottawa, and <a href="/wiki/Wyandot_people" title="Wyandot people">Wyandot</a> assisted freedom seekers escape from slavery. The Ottawa people accepted and protected runaways in their villages. Other escapees were taken to <a href="/wiki/Fort_Malden" title="Fort Malden">Fort Malden</a> by the Ottawa. In <a href="/wiki/Upper_Sandusky,_Ohio" title="Upper Sandusky, Ohio">Upper Sandusky</a>, Wyandot people allowed a <a href="/wiki/Maroons" title="Maroons">maroon community</a> of freedom seekers in their lands called Negro Town for four decades.<a href="#cite_note-95">[95]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Beverly_Image_of_Native_Villages.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/76/Beverly_Image_of_Native_Villages.jpg/220px-Beverly_Image_of_Native_Villages.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="128" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/76/Beverly_Image_of_Native_Villages.jpg/330px-Beverly_Image_of_Native_Villages.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/76/Beverly_Image_of_Native_Villages.jpg/440px-Beverly_Image_of_Native_Villages.jpg 2x" data-file-width="901" data-file-height="523" /></a><figcaption>Native Americans accepted freedom seekers into their villages and escorted them to Canada.</figcaption></figure> In the 18th and 19th centuries in areas around the <a href="/wiki/Chesapeake_Bay" title="Chesapeake Bay">Chesapeake Bay</a> and <a href="/wiki/Delaware" title="Delaware">Delaware</a>, <a href="/wiki/Nanticoke_people" title="Nanticoke people">Nanticoke people</a> hid freedom seekers in their villages. The Nanticoke people lived in small villages near the <a href="/wiki/Pocomoke_River" title="Pocomoke River">Pocomoke River</a>; the river rises in several forks in the <a href="/wiki/Great_Cypress_Swamp" title="Great Cypress Swamp">Great Cypress Swamp</a> in southern <a href="/wiki/Sussex_County,_Delaware" title="Sussex County, Delaware">Sussex County, Delaware</a>. African Americans escaping slavery were able to hide in swamps, and the water washed off the scent of enslaved runaways making it difficult for dogs to track their scent. As early as the 18th centuries, mixed blood communities formed.<a href="#cite_note-96">[96]</a><a href="#cite_note-97">[97]</a> In <a href="/wiki/History_of_slavery_in_Maryland" title="History of slavery in Maryland">Maryland</a>, freedom seekers escaped to Shawnee villages located along the <a href="/wiki/Potomac_River" title="Potomac River">Potomac River</a>. Slaveholders in Virginia and Maryland filed numerous complaints and court petitions against the Shawnee and Nanticoke for hiding freedom seekers in their villages.<a href="#cite_note-98">[98]</a> <a href="/wiki/Odawa" title="Odawa">Odawa</a> people also accepted freedom seekers into their villages. The Odawa transferred the runaways to the <a href="/wiki/Ojibwe" title="Ojibwe">Ojibwe</a> who escorted them to Canada.<a href="#cite_note-99">[99]</a> Some enslaved people who escaped slavery and fled to Native American villages stayed in their communities. White pioneers who traveled to Kentucky and the <a href="/wiki/Ohio_Territory" title="Ohio Territory">Ohio Territory</a> saw "<a href="/wiki/Black_Indians_in_the_United_States" title="Black Indians in the United States">Black Shawnees</a>" living with Indigenous people in the <a href="/wiki/Trans-Appalachia" title="Trans-Appalachia">trans-Appalachian west</a>. During the colonial ear in <a href="/wiki/New_Spain" title="New Spain">New Spain</a> and in the <a href="/wiki/Seminole" title="Seminole">Seminole</a> Nation in Florida, African Americans and Indigenous marriages occurred.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHudson2015155-100">[100]</a><a href="#cite_note-101">[101]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="South_to_Florida_and_Mexico">South to Florida and Mexico</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Underground_Railroad&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: South to Florida and Mexico">edit</a>]</div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Background">Background</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Underground_Railroad&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Background">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:1888-view-Old_Stone_Fort-Harby-illus-American_Magazine.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fe/1888-view-Old_Stone_Fort-Harby-illus-American_Magazine.jpg/220px-1888-view-Old_Stone_Fort-Harby-illus-American_Magazine.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="169" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fe/1888-view-Old_Stone_Fort-Harby-illus-American_Magazine.jpg/330px-1888-view-Old_Stone_Fort-Harby-illus-American_Magazine.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fe/1888-view-Old_Stone_Fort-Harby-illus-American_Magazine.jpg/440px-1888-view-Old_Stone_Fort-Harby-illus-American_Magazine.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1386" data-file-height="1064" /></a><figcaption>"<a href="/wiki/Old_Stone_Fort_Museum_(Texas)" title="Old Stone Fort Museum (Texas)">The Old Stone Fort of Nacogdoches</a>", by Lee C. Harby, The American Magazine, April 1888 edition</figcaption></figure> Beginning in the 16th century, Spaniards brought enslaved Africans to <a href="/wiki/New_Spain" title="New Spain">New Spain</a>, including <a href="/wiki/Mission_Nombre_de_Dios" title="Mission Nombre de Dios">Mission Nombre de Dios</a> in what would become the city of <a href="/wiki/St._Augustine,_Florida" title="St. Augustine, Florida">St. Augustine</a> in <a href="/wiki/Spanish_Florida" title="Spanish Florida">Spanish Florida</a>. Over time, free <a href="/wiki/Afro-Spaniards" title="Afro-Spaniards">Afro-Spaniards</a> took up various trades and occupations and served in the <a href="/wiki/Military_of_New_Spain" title="Military of New Spain">colonial militia</a>.<a href="#cite_note-UTSA_-_AAT-102">[102]</a> After King <a href="/wiki/Charles_II_of_Spain" title="Charles II of Spain">Charles II of Spain</a> proclaimed Spanish Florida a safe haven for escaped slaves from British North America, they began escaping to Florida by the hundreds from as far north as <a href="/wiki/Province_of_New_York" title="Province of New York">New York</a>. The Spanish established <a href="/wiki/Fort_Mose_Historic_State_Park" class="mw-redirect" title="Fort Mose Historic State Park">Fort Mose</a> for free Blacks in the St. Augustine area in 1738. In 1806, enslaved people arrived at the <a href="/wiki/Old_Stone_Fort_Museum_(Texas)" title="Old Stone Fort Museum (Texas)">Stone Fort</a> in <a href="/wiki/Nacogdoches,_Texas" title="Nacogdoches, Texas">Nacogdoches, Texas</a> seeking freedom. They arrived with a forged passport from a Kentucky judge. The Spanish refused to return them back to the United States. More freedom seekers traveled through Texas the following year.<a href="#cite_note-Barnes-103">[103]</a> Enslaved people were emancipated by crossing the border from the United States into Mexico, which was a <a href="/wiki/Territorial_evolution_of_Mexico" title="Territorial evolution of Mexico">Spanish colony</a> into the nineteenth century.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECrable2021-104">[104]</a> In the United States, enslaved people were considered property. That meant that they did not have rights to marry and they could be sold away from their partners. They also did not have rights to fight inhumane and cruel punishment. In <a href="/wiki/New_Spain" title="New Spain">New Spain</a>, fugitive slaves were recognized as humans. They were allowed to join the Catholic Church and marry. They also were protected from inhumane and cruel punishment.<a href="#cite_note-Barnes-103">[103]</a> During the <a href="/wiki/War_of_1812" title="War of 1812">War of 1812</a>, <a href="/wiki/United_States_Army" title="United States Army">U.S. Army</a> general <a href="/wiki/Andrew_Jackson" title="Andrew Jackson">Andrew Jackson</a> invaded <a href="/wiki/Spanish_Florida" title="Spanish Florida">Spanish Florida</a> in part because enslaved people had run away from plantations in the Carolinas and Georgia to Florida. Some of the runaways joined the <a href="/wiki/Black_Seminoles" title="Black Seminoles">Black Seminoles</a> who later moved to Mexico.<a href="#cite_note-Barnes-103">[103]</a> However, Mexico sent mixed signals on its position against slavery. Sometimes it allowed enslaved people to be returned to slavery and it allowed Americans to move into Spanish territorial property in order to populate the North, where the Americans would then establish cotton plantations, bringing enslaved people to work the land.<a href="#cite_note-Barnes-103">[103]</a> In 1829, Mexican president <a href="/wiki/Vicente_Guerrero" title="Vicente Guerrero">Vicente Guerrero</a> (who was a mixed race black man) formally abolished slavery in Mexico.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHudson2015-36">[36]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELittle2021-105">[105]</a> Freedom seekers from Southern plantations in the <a href="/wiki/Deep_South" title="Deep South">Deep South</a>, particularly from Louisiana, Mississippi and Texas, escaped slavery and headed for Mexico.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHudson2015-36">[36]</a><a href="#cite_note-Barnes-103">[103]</a> At that time, Texas was part of Mexico. The <a href="/wiki/Texas_Revolution" title="Texas Revolution">Texas Revolution</a>, initiated in part to legalize slavery, resulted in the formation of the <a href="/wiki/Republic_of_Texas" title="Republic of Texas">Republic of Texas</a> in 1836.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELittle2021-105">[105]</a> Following the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_San_Jacinto" title="Battle of San Jacinto">Battle of San Jacinto</a>, there were some enslaved people who withdrew from the Houston area with the Mexican army, seeing the troops as a means to escape slavery.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBurnett2021-106">[106]</a> When Texas joined the Union in 1845, it was a <a href="/wiki/Slave_state" class="mw-redirect" title="Slave state">slave state</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELittle2021-105">[105]</a> and the Rio Grande became the international border with Mexico.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBurnett2021-106">[106]</a> Pressure between free and slave states deepened as Mexico abolished slavery and western states joined the Union as free states. As more free states were added to the Union, the lesser the influence of slave state representatives in Congress.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECrable2021-104">[104]</a><a href="#cite_note-Barnes-103">[103]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Slave_states_and_slave_hunters">Slave states and slave hunters</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Underground_Railroad&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: Slave states and slave hunters">edit</a>]</div> The Southern Underground Railroad went through slave states, lacking the abolitionist societies and the organized system of the north. People who spoke out against slavery were subject to mobs, physical assault, and being hanged. There were slave catchers who looked for runaway slaves. There were never more than a few hundred free blacks in Texas, which meant that free blacks did not feel safe in the state. The network to freedom was informal, random, and dangerous.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBird2021-107">[107]</a> <a href="/wiki/United_States_Armed_Forces" title="United States Armed Forces">U.S. military</a> forts, established along the Rio Grande border during the <a href="/wiki/Mexican%E2%80%93American_War" title="Mexican–American War">Mexican–American War</a> of the 1840s, captured and returned fleeing enslaved people to their slaveholders.<a href="#cite_note-Leanos-108">[108]</a><a href="#cite_note-109">[109]</a> The <a href="/wiki/Fugitive_Slave_Act_of_1850" title="Fugitive Slave Act of 1850">Fugitive Slave Act of 1850</a> made it a criminal act to aid fleeing escaping enslaved people in <a href="/wiki/Slave_states_and_free_states" title="Slave states and free states">free states</a>. Similarly, the United States government wanted to enact a treaty with Mexico so that they would help capture and return bonds-people. Mexico, however, continued their practice to allow anyone that crossed their borders to be free. Slave catchers continued to cross the southern border into Mexico and illegally capture black people and return them to slavery.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELittle2021-105">[105]</a> A group of slave hunters became the <a href="/wiki/Texas_Ranger_Division" title="Texas Ranger Division">Texas Rangers</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Leanos-108">[108]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Routes">Routes</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Underground_Railroad&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: Routes">edit</a>]</div> <div class="thumb tright"><div class="thumbinner" style="position: relative; top: 0px; right: 0px; width: 275px;"><div class="thumbinner noresize" style="position: relative; top: 0px; right: 0px; outline:0px; border:0px; padding:0px; height: 300px; width: 275px;"><a class="mw-kartographer-map notheme mw-kartographer-container floatright" style="width: 275px; height: 300px;" data-mw-kartographer="mapframe" data-style="osm-intl" data-width="275" data-height="300" data-zoom="5" data-lat="29" data-lon="-95" href="/wiki/Special:Map/5/29/-95/en"><img src="https://maps.wikimedia.org/img/osm-intl,5,29,-95,275x300.png?lang=en" width="275" height="300" decoding="async" srcset="https://maps.wikimedia.org/img/osm-intl,5,29,-95,275x300@2x.png?lang=en 2x" alt="Map" /></a><div style="display:inline-block; position: absolute; outline-width: 0px; outline-style: solid; outline-color: blue; top: 0px; left: -12.5px; width: 300px; height: 300px; transform: rotate(0deg); border-radius: 0px; background-color: #FFFFFF00; color:inherit;"></div><div style="display:inline-block; position: absolute; line-height: 0.98; white-space: nowrap; top: 143px; left: -14.5px; transform: translateX(-100%) rotate(0deg); text-align: right; background-color: transparent; color:inherit;"> </div><div style="display:inline-block; position: absolute; outline-width: 0px; top: 282px; left: 262px; width: 12px; height: 12px; background-color: transparent;color:inherit;"><a href="https://www.openstreetmap.org/copyright" title="About OpenStreetMaps" rel="nofollow"><img alt="About OpenStreetMaps" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/db/Invisible_Square.svg/12px-Invisible_Square.svg.png" decoding="async" width="12" height="12" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/db/Invisible_Square.svg/18px-Invisible_Square.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/db/Invisible_Square.svg/24px-Invisible_Square.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="200" data-file-height="200" /></a></div><div style="display:inline-block; position: absolute; outline-width: 0px; top: 282px; left: 165px; width: 12px; height: 12px; background-color: transparent;color:inherit;"><a href="https://foundation.wikimedia.org/wiki/Policy:Maps_Terms_of_Use" title="Maps: terms of use"><img alt="Maps: terms of use" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/db/Invisible_Square.svg/12px-Invisible_Square.svg.png" decoding="async" width="12" height="12" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/db/Invisible_Square.svg/18px-Invisible_Square.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/db/Invisible_Square.svg/24px-Invisible_Square.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="200" data-file-height="200" /></a></div><div style="display:inline-block; position: absolute; outline-width: 0px; outline-style: solid; outline-color: blue; top: 256px; left: 213.5px; background-color:transparent; color:inherit; transform: rotate(0deg);"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/10/Mapscaleline.svg/52px-Mapscaleline.svg.png" decoding="async" width="52" height="7" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/10/Mapscaleline.svg/78px-Mapscaleline.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/10/Mapscaleline.svg/104px-Mapscaleline.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="138" data-file-height="18" /></div><div style="display:inline-block; position: absolute; line-height: 0.98; white-space: nowrap; top: 255.875px; left: 259px; transform: translateX(-100%) rotate(0deg); text-align: right; background-color: transparent; color:inherit;"> 300km 200miles</div><div style="display:inline-block; position: absolute; outline-width: 1px; outline-style: solid; outline-color: #FFFFFFFF; top: 145.75634772553px; left: 8.927297619401px; background-color:transparent; color:inherit; transform: rotate(0deg);"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0c/Red_pog.svg/10px-Red_pog.svg.png" decoding="async" width="10" height="10" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0c/Red_pog.svg/15px-Red_pog.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0c/Red_pog.svg/20px-Red_pog.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="64" data-file-height="64" /></div><div style="display:inline-block; position: absolute; line-height: 0.98; white-space: nowrap; top: 150.75634772553px; left: 21.427297619401px; text-align: left; transform: rotate(0deg) background-color: transparent; color:inherit;"> Piedras Negras</div><div style="display:inline-block; position: absolute; outline-width: 1px; outline-style: solid; outline-color: #FFFFFFFF; top: 83.877262211221px; left: 202.01204391057px; background-color:transparent; color:inherit; transform: rotate(0deg);"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0c/Red_pog.svg/10px-Red_pog.svg.png" decoding="async" width="10" height="10" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0c/Red_pog.svg/15px-Red_pog.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0c/Red_pog.svg/20px-Red_pog.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="64" data-file-height="64" /></div><div style="display:inline-block; position: absolute; line-height: 0.98; white-space: nowrap; top: 87.877262211221px; left: 205.51204391057px; width: fit-content; height: fit-content; text-align: center; transform: translateX(-50%) translateY(-100%) rotate(0deg); background-color: transparent; color:inherit;"> Louisiana</div><div style="display:inline-block; position: absolute; outline-width: 1px; outline-style: solid; outline-color: #FFFFFFFF; top: 217.63299395791px; left: 77.291706206265px; background-color:transparent; color:inherit; transform: rotate(0deg);"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0c/Red_pog.svg/10px-Red_pog.svg.png" decoding="async" width="10" height="10" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0c/Red_pog.svg/15px-Red_pog.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0c/Red_pog.svg/20px-Red_pog.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="64" data-file-height="64" /></div><div style="display:inline-block; position: absolute; line-height: 0.98; white-space: nowrap; top: 222.63299395791px; left: 71.791706206265px; transform: translateX(-100%) rotate(0deg); text-align: right; background-color: transparent; color:inherit;"> Matamoros</div><div style="display:inline-block; position: absolute; outline-width: 1px; outline-style: solid; outline-color: #FFFFFFFF; top: 69.559750200113px; left: 141.90714485996px; background-color:transparent; color:inherit; transform: rotate(0deg);"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0c/Red_pog.svg/10px-Red_pog.svg.png" decoding="async" width="10" height="10" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0c/Red_pog.svg/15px-Red_pog.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0c/Red_pog.svg/20px-Red_pog.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="64" data-file-height="64" /></div><div style="display:inline-block; position: absolute; line-height: 0.98; white-space: nowrap; top: 74.559750200113px; left: 136.40714485996px; transform: translateX(-100%) rotate(0deg); text-align: right; background-color: transparent; color:inherit;"> Nacogdoches</div><div style="display:inline-block; position: absolute; outline-width: 1px; outline-style: solid; outline-color: #FFFFFFFF; top: 38.242178305747px; left: 93.036700559248px; background-color:transparent; color:inherit; transform: rotate(0deg);"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0c/Red_pog.svg/10px-Red_pog.svg.png" decoding="async" width="10" height="10" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0c/Red_pog.svg/15px-Red_pog.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0c/Red_pog.svg/20px-Red_pog.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="64" data-file-height="64" /></div><div style="display:inline-block; position: absolute; line-height: 0.98; white-space: nowrap; top: 42.242178305747px; left: 96.536700559248px; width: fit-content; height: fit-content; text-align: center; transform: translateX(-50%) translateY(-100%) rotate(0deg); background-color: transparent; color:inherit;"> </div><div style="display:inline-block; position: absolute; outline-width: 1px; outline-style: solid; outline-color: #FFFFFFFF; top: 175.9602335563px; left: 32.315163325122px; background-color:transparent; color:inherit; transform: rotate(0deg);"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0c/Red_pog.svg/10px-Red_pog.svg.png" decoding="async" width="10" height="10" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0c/Red_pog.svg/15px-Red_pog.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0c/Red_pog.svg/20px-Red_pog.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="64" data-file-height="64" /></div><div style="display:inline-block; position: absolute; line-height: 0.98; white-space: nowrap; top: 180.9602335563px; left: 44.815163325122px; text-align: left; transform: rotate(0deg) background-color: transparent; color:inherit;"> Laredo</div><div style="display:inline-block; position: absolute; outline-width: 1px; outline-style: solid; outline-color: #FFFFFFFF; top: 130.7115902674px; left: 137.94417452891px; background-color:transparent; color:inherit; transform: rotate(0deg);"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0c/Red_pog.svg/10px-Red_pog.svg.png" decoding="async" width="10" height="10" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0c/Red_pog.svg/15px-Red_pog.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0c/Red_pog.svg/20px-Red_pog.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="64" data-file-height="64" /></div><div style="display:inline-block; position: absolute; line-height: 0.98; white-space: nowrap; top: 148.7115902674px; left: 141.44417452891px; width: fit-content; text-align: center; transform: translateX(-50%) rotate(0deg); background-color: transparent; color:inherit;"> Galveston</div><div style="display:inline-block; position: absolute; outline-width: 1px; outline-style: solid; outline-color: #FFFFFFFF; top: 126.97316668293px; left: 54.878957657431px; background-color:transparent; color:inherit; transform: rotate(0deg);"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0c/Red_pog.svg/10px-Red_pog.svg.png" decoding="async" width="10" height="10" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0c/Red_pog.svg/15px-Red_pog.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0c/Red_pog.svg/20px-Red_pog.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="64" data-file-height="64" /></div><div style="display:inline-block; position: absolute; line-height: 0.98; white-space: nowrap; top: 131.97316668293px; left: 49.378957657431px; transform: translateX(-100%) rotate(0deg); text-align: right; background-color: transparent; color:inherit;"> </div> <div style="display:inline-block; position: absolute; outline-width: 1px; outline-style: solid; outline-color: #FFFFFFFF; top: 104.98379588884px; left: 71.881912021212px; background-color:transparent; color:inherit; transform: rotate(0deg);"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0c/Red_pog.svg/10px-Red_pog.svg.png" decoding="async" width="10" height="10" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0c/Red_pog.svg/15px-Red_pog.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0c/Red_pog.svg/20px-Red_pog.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="64" data-file-height="64" /></div><div style="display:inline-block; position: absolute; line-height: 0.98; white-space: nowrap; top: 109.98379588884px; left: 84.381912021212px; text-align: left; transform: rotate(0deg) background-color: transparent; color:inherit;"> </div><div style="display:inline-block; position: absolute;top: 9px;left: 239px"><div style="color: white; opacity:100; font-size: 19px; font-weight:normal; text-align: left;"><a class="mw-kartographer-maplink no-icon" data-mw-kartographer="maplink" data-style="osm-intl" href="/wiki/Special:Map/6/29/-95/en" data-zoom="6" data-lat="29" data-lon="-95" data-overlays="["_6aefc58bcc89006dd83a6850a820812ce980d15d"]"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1038841319">.mw-parser-output .tooltip-dotted{border-bottom:1px dotted;cursor:help}</style> </a></div></div></div><div class="thumbcaption">Routes from Indian Territory (Oklahoma), Arkansas, and Louisiana through Texas: 1) Dallas or Nacogdoches to Austin - San Antonio - Laredo, 2) Nacogdoches to Houston - Galveston - boat to Mexico, 3) Nacogdoches to Houston - Matamoros<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBurnett2021-106">[106]</a></div></div></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Brooklyn_Museum_-_A_Ride_for_Liberty_--_The_Fugitive_Slaves_-_Eastman_Johnson_-_overall.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/06/Brooklyn_Museum_-_A_Ride_for_Liberty_--_The_Fugitive_Slaves_-_Eastman_Johnson_-_overall.jpg/220px-Brooklyn_Museum_-_A_Ride_for_Liberty_--_The_Fugitive_Slaves_-_Eastman_Johnson_-_overall.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="183" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/06/Brooklyn_Museum_-_A_Ride_for_Liberty_--_The_Fugitive_Slaves_-_Eastman_Johnson_-_overall.jpg/330px-Brooklyn_Museum_-_A_Ride_for_Liberty_--_The_Fugitive_Slaves_-_Eastman_Johnson_-_overall.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/06/Brooklyn_Museum_-_A_Ride_for_Liberty_--_The_Fugitive_Slaves_-_Eastman_Johnson_-_overall.jpg/440px-Brooklyn_Museum_-_A_Ride_for_Liberty_--_The_Fugitive_Slaves_-_Eastman_Johnson_-_overall.jpg 2x" data-file-width="768" data-file-height="638" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Eastman_Johnson" title="Eastman Johnson">Eastman Johnson</a>, <a href="/wiki/A_Ride_for_Liberty_%E2%80%93_The_Fugitive_Slaves" title="A Ride for Liberty – The Fugitive Slaves">A Ride for Liberty – The Fugitive Slaves</a>, oil on paperboard, 22 × 26.25 inches, <abbr title="circa">c.</abbr> 1862, <a href="/wiki/Brooklyn_Museum" title="Brooklyn Museum">Brooklyn Museum</a>. Depicts a family of African Americans fleeing enslavement in the Southern United States during the <a href="/wiki/American_Civil_War" title="American Civil War">American Civil War</a>.</figcaption></figure> Thousands of freedom seekers traveled along a network from the southern United States to Texas and ultimately Mexico.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEContreras2020b-110">[110]</a> Southern enslaved people generally traveled across "unforgiving country" on foot or horseback while pursued by lawmen and slave hunters.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBird2021-107">[107]</a> Some stowed away on ferries bound for a Mexican port<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELittle2021-105">[105]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEContreras2020b-110">[110]</a> from <a href="/wiki/New_Orleans" title="New Orleans">New Orleans</a>, Louisiana and <a href="/wiki/Galveston,_Texas" title="Galveston, Texas">Galveston, Texas</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBurnett2021-106">[106]</a> There were some who transported cotton to <a href="/wiki/Brownsville,_Texas" title="Brownsville, Texas">Brownsville, Texas</a> on wagons and then crossed into Mexico at <a href="/wiki/Matamoros,_Tamaulipas" title="Matamoros, Tamaulipas">Matamoros</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBurnett2021-106">[106]</a> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1224211176">.mw-parser-output .quotebox{background-color:#F9F9F9;border:1px solid #aaa;box-sizing:border-box;padding:10px;font-size:88%;max-width:100%}.mw-parser-output .quotebox.floatleft{margin:.5em 1.4em .8em 0}.mw-parser-output .quotebox.floatright{margin:.5em 0 .8em 1.4em}.mw-parser-output .quotebox.centered{overflow:hidden;position:relative;margin:.5em auto .8em auto}.mw-parser-output .quotebox.floatleft span,.mw-parser-output .quotebox.floatright span{font-style:inherit}.mw-parser-output .quotebox>blockquote{margin:0;padding:0;border-left:0;font-family:inherit;font-size:inherit}.mw-parser-output .quotebox-title{text-align:center;font-size:110%;font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output .quotebox-quote>:first-child{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .quotebox-quote:last-child>:last-child{margin-bottom:0}.mw-parser-output .quotebox-quote.quoted:before{font-family:"Times New Roman",serif;font-weight:bold;font-size:large;color:gray;content:" “ ";vertical-align:-45%;line-height:0}.mw-parser-output .quotebox-quote.quoted:after{font-family:"Times New Roman",serif;font-weight:bold;font-size:large;color:gray;content:" ” ";line-height:0}.mw-parser-output .quotebox .left-aligned{text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .quotebox .right-aligned{text-align:right}.mw-parser-output .quotebox .center-aligned{text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .quotebox .quote-title,.mw-parser-output .quotebox .quotebox-quote{display:block}.mw-parser-output .quotebox cite{display:block;font-style:normal}@media screen and (max-width:640px){.mw-parser-output .quotebox{width:100%!important;margin:0 0 .8em!important;float:none!important}}</style><div class="quotebox pullquote floatright" style="width:250px; ;"> <blockquote class="quotebox-quote left-aligned" style=""> Sometimes someone would come 'long and try to get us to run up north and be free. We used to laugh at that. </blockquote> <cite class="left-aligned" style="">—Former slave Felix Haywood, interviewed in 1937 for the federal Slave Narrative Project.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBurnett2021-106">[106]</a></cite> </div> Many traveled through North Carolina, Arkansas, Alabama, Louisiana, or Mississippi toward Texas and ultimately Mexico.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELittle2021-105">[105]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEContreras2020b-110">[110]</a> People fled slavery from <a href="/wiki/Indian_Territory" title="Indian Territory">Indian Territory</a> (now Oklahoma).<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBurnett2021-106">[106]</a> <a href="/wiki/Black_Seminoles" title="Black Seminoles">Black Seminoles</a> traveled on a southwestern route from Florida into Mexico.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHudson2015147-111">[111]</a><a href="#cite_note-112">[112]</a> Going overland meant that the last 150 miles or so were traversed through the difficult and extremely hot terrain of the <a href="/wiki/Nueces_Strip" title="Nueces Strip">Nueces Strip</a> located between the <a href="/wiki/Nueces_River" title="Nueces River">Nueces River</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Rio_Grande" title="Rio Grande">Rio Grande</a>. There was little shade and a lack of potable water in this brush country.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBird2021-107">[107]</a><a href="#cite_note-113">[a]</a> Escapees were more likely to survive the trip if they had a horse and a gun.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBird2021-107">[107]</a> The <a href="/wiki/National_Park_Service" title="National Park Service">National Park Service</a> identified a route from <a href="/wiki/Natchitoches,_Louisiana" title="Natchitoches, Louisiana">Natchitoches, Louisiana</a> to <a href="/wiki/Monclova" title="Monclova">Monclova</a>, <a href="/wiki/Mexico" title="Mexico">Mexico</a> in 2010 that is roughly the southern Underground Railroad path. It is also believed that <a href="/wiki/El_Camino_Real_de_los_Tejas" class="mw-redirect" title="El Camino Real de los Tejas">El Camino Real de los Tejas</a> was a path for freedom. It was made a <a href="/wiki/National_Historic_Trail" class="mw-redirect" title="National Historic Trail">National Historic Trail</a> by President <a href="/wiki/George_W._Bush" title="George W. Bush">George W. Bush</a> in 2004.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEContreras2020b-110">[110]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Assistance">Assistance</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Underground_Railroad&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: Assistance">edit</a>]</div> Some journeyed on their own without assistance, and others were helped by people along the southern Underground Railroad.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELittle2021-105">[105]</a> Assistance included guidance, directions, shelter, and supplies.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBird2021-107">[107]</a> Black people, black and white couples, and anti-slavery German immigrants provided support, but most of the help came from Mexican laborers.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBird2021-107">[107]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEContreras2020b-110">[110]</a> So much so that enslavers came to distrust any Mexican, and a law was enacted in Texas that forbade Mexicans from talking to enslaved people.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBurnett2021-106">[106]</a> Mexican migrant workers developed relationships with enslaved black workers whom they worked with. They offered guidance, such as what it would be like to cross the border, and empathy. Having realized the ways in which Mexicans were helping enslaved people to escape, slaveholders and residents of Texan towns pushed people out of the town, whipped them in public, or lynched them.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBird2021-107">[107]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEContreras2020b-110">[110]</a> Some border officials helped enslaved people crossing into Mexico. In <a href="/wiki/Monclova" title="Monclova">Monclova</a>, <a href="/wiki/Mexico" title="Mexico">Mexico</a> a border official took up a collection in the town for a family in need of food, clothing, and money to continue on their journey south and out of reach of slave hunters.<a href="#cite_note-Leanos-108">[108]</a> Once they crossed the border, some Mexican authorities helped former enslaved people from being returned to the United States by slave hunters.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBurnett2021-106">[106]</a> Freedom seekers that were taken on ferries to Mexican ports were aided by Mexican ship captains, one of whom was caught in Louisiana and indicted for helping enslaved people escape.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECrable2021-104">[104]</a> Knowing the repercussions of running away or being caught helping someone runaway, people were careful to cover their tracks, and public and personal records about fugitive slaves are scarce. In greater supply are records by people who promoted slavery or attempted to catch fugitive slaves. More than 2,500 escapes are documented by the Texas Runaway Slave Project at <a href="/wiki/Stephen_F._Austin_State_University" title="Stephen F. Austin State University">Stephen F. Austin State University</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBird2021-107">[107]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Southern_freedom_seekers">Southern freedom seekers</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Underground_Railroad&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: Southern freedom seekers">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Tom_Blue,_General_Sam_Houston%27s_bodyguard.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/61/Tom_Blue%2C_General_Sam_Houston%27s_bodyguard.jpg/220px-Tom_Blue%2C_General_Sam_Houston%27s_bodyguard.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="346" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/61/Tom_Blue%2C_General_Sam_Houston%27s_bodyguard.jpg/330px-Tom_Blue%2C_General_Sam_Houston%27s_bodyguard.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/61/Tom_Blue%2C_General_Sam_Houston%27s_bodyguard.jpg/440px-Tom_Blue%2C_General_Sam_Houston%27s_bodyguard.jpg 2x" data-file-width="748" data-file-height="1176" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Tom_Blue" title="Tom Blue">Tom Blue</a>, enslaved by General <a href="/wiki/Sam_Houston" title="Sam Houston">Sam Houston</a>, ran away and joined the Mexican military.</figcaption></figure> Advertisements were placed in newspapers offering rewards for the return of their "property". Slave catchers traveled through Mexico. There were <a href="/wiki/Black_Seminoles" title="Black Seminoles">Black Seminoles</a>, or Los Mascogos who lived in northern Mexico who provided armed resistance.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEContreras2020b-110">[110]</a> <a href="/wiki/Sam_Houston" title="Sam Houston">Sam Houston</a>, president of the <a href="/wiki/Republic_of_Texas" title="Republic of Texas">Republic of Texas</a>, was the slaveholder to <a href="/wiki/Tom_Blue" title="Tom Blue">Tom</a> who ran away. He headed to Texas and once there he enlisted in the Mexican military.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELittle2018-114">[113]</a> One enslaved man was branded with the letter "R" on each side of his cheek after a failed attempt to escape slavery. He tried again in the winter of 1819, leaving the cotton plantation of his enslaver on horseback. With four others, they traveled southwest to Mexico at the risk of being attacked by hostile Native Americans, apprehended by slave catchers, or attacked by "horse-eating alligators".<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECrable2021-104">[104]</a> Many people did not make it to Mexico. In 1842, a Mexican man and a black woman left <a href="/wiki/Jackson_County,_Texas" title="Jackson County, Texas">Jackson County, Texas</a> on two horses, but they were caught at the <a href="/wiki/Lavaca_River" title="Lavaca River">Lavaca River</a>.<a href="#cite_note-115">[114]</a> The wife, an enslaved woman, was valuable to her owner so she was returned to slavery. Her husband, possibly a farm laborer or an indentured servant, was immediately lynched.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBird2021-107">[107]</a> Fugitive slaves changed their names in Mexico. They married into Mexican families and relocated further south of the American-Mexican border. All of these factors makes it hard to trace the whereabouts of the formerly enslaved people.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEContreras2020b-110">[110]</a> A database at <a href="/wiki/Stephen_F._Austin_State_University" title="Stephen F. Austin State University">Stephen F. Austin State University</a> has a database of runaway slave advertisements as part of The Texas Runaway Slave Project. The <a href="/wiki/Works_Progress_Administration" title="Works Progress Administration">Works Progress Administration</a> during the <a href="/wiki/Great_Depression" title="Great Depression">Great Depression</a> initiated a <a href="/wiki/Federal_Writers%27_Project" title="Federal Writers' Project">Federal Writers' Project</a> to document slave narratives, including those who settled in Mexico. One of them was Felix Haywood, who found freedom when he crossed the <a href="/wiki/Rio_Grande" title="Rio Grande">Rio Grande</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEContreras2020b-110">[110]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Rio_Grande_stations">Rio Grande stations</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Underground_Railroad&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: Rio Grande stations">edit</a>]</div> Two families, the Webbers and the Jacksons, lived along the Rio Grande and helped people escape slavery. The husbands were white and the wives were black women who had been formerly enslaved.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEContreras2020b-110">[110]</a> It is not known if <a href="/wiki/Matilda_and_Nathaniel_Jackson#Nathaniel_Jackson" title="Matilda and Nathaniel Jackson">Nathaniel Jackson</a> purchased the freedom of <a href="/wiki/Matilda_and_Nathaniel_Jackson" title="Matilda and Nathaniel Jackson">Matilda Hicks</a> and her family, but in the early 1860s they moved to Hidalgo county, where they settled and lived as a family. He was a white southerner and she was an enslaved woman, who had been childhood sweethearts in Alabama.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEContreras2020b-110">[110]</a> He was the son of her slaveholder,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELittle2021-105">[105]</a> who helped a group of seven families in 1857 and others cross into Mexico.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBird2021-107">[107]</a> Silvia Hector Webber was born enslaved in West Florida and in 1819 was sold to a slaveholder in Clark County, Arkansas. The slaveholders's son, John Cryer, illegally brought Silvia to Mexican Texas in 1828, four years after Mexico had deemed the slave trade into Mexican territory against the law. Silvia, however, with the help of John Webber secured her and her 3 children's freedom papers in 1834.<a href="#cite_note-116">[115]</a> Together Silvia and John lived an antislavery life and often harbored fugitives from slavery in their ranch and house. Silvia was known to transport freedom seekers, on a ferry she licensed at her ranch, onto freedom in Mexico.<a href="#cite_note-117">[116]</a> <a href="/wiki/John_Ferdinand_Webber" class="mw-redirect" title="John Ferdinand Webber">John Ferdinand Webber</a>, born in Vermont, lived along the Rio Grande with his wife, <a href="/wiki/Silvia_Hector_Webber" class="mw-redirect" title="Silvia Hector Webber">Silvia Hector Webber</a>,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEContreras2020b-110">[110]</a> and together were known to have helped enslaved people cross the Rio Grande.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBird2021-107">[107]</a> The Jacksons and Webbers, who both owned licensed ferry service, were well known among runaways.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBurnett2021-106">[106]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Arrival_in_Mexico">Arrival in Mexico</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Underground_Railroad&action=edit&section=18" title="Edit section: Arrival in Mexico">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Black_Seminoles#Migration_to_Mexico" title="Black Seminoles">Black Seminoles § Migration to Mexico</a></div> Fugitive slaves who made it to Mexico lived with the knowledge that they could be illegally kidnapped by slave catchers or <a href="/wiki/Blackbirding" title="Blackbirding">blackbirders</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBird2021-107">[107]</a> Slave hunters who tried to kidnap former slaves from Mexico could be taken to court or shot.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECrable2021-104">[104]</a> There was little support from their new communities and few opportunities for employment. They did not have official paperwork that stated that they were free.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBird2021-107">[107]</a> They were, though, able to enter into <a href="/wiki/Indentured_servitude" title="Indentured servitude">indentured servitude</a> contracts and join military colonies.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECrable2021-104">[104]</a> Some people, after they settled in Mexico, returned to the United States to help family members escape and to guide them to Mexico.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECrable2021-104">[104]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Colonies">Colonies</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Underground_Railroad&action=edit&section=19" title="Edit section: Colonies">edit</a>]</div> There were abolitionists from the north who petitioned the Mexican government to establish colonies for free and runaway blacks. Benjamin Lundy, a <a href="/wiki/Quakers" title="Quakers">Quaker</a>, lobbied for a colony to be established in what is now Texas during the early 1830s, but he was unable to do so when Texas legalized slavery when it separated from Mexico and became the <a href="/wiki/Republic_of_Texas" title="Republic of Texas">Republic of Texas</a> (1836).<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELittle2021-105">[105]</a> <a href="/wiki/Black_Seminoles" title="Black Seminoles">Black Seminoles</a> successfully petitioned for land and established a colony in 1852. The land is still owned by their descendants.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELittle2021-105">[105]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Scholarship">Scholarship</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Underground_Railroad&action=edit&section=20" title="Edit section: Scholarship">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Galveston_Weekly_News_from_May_11,_1858._%22$25_Reward.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a6/Galveston_Weekly_News_from_May_11%2C_1858._%22%2425_Reward.jpg/220px-Galveston_Weekly_News_from_May_11%2C_1858._%22%2425_Reward.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="102" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a6/Galveston_Weekly_News_from_May_11%2C_1858._%22%2425_Reward.jpg/330px-Galveston_Weekly_News_from_May_11%2C_1858._%22%2425_Reward.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a6/Galveston_Weekly_News_from_May_11%2C_1858._%22%2425_Reward.jpg/440px-Galveston_Weekly_News_from_May_11%2C_1858._%22%2425_Reward.jpg 2x" data-file-width="614" data-file-height="286" /></a><figcaption>$25 Reward for Tom, Galveston Weekly News from May 11, 1858</figcaption></figure> The Texas Runaway Slave Project, located in <a href="/wiki/Nacogdoches" class="mw-redirect" title="Nacogdoches">Nacogdoches</a> at the <a href="/wiki/Stephen_F._Austin_State_University" title="Stephen F. Austin State University">Stephen F. Austin State University</a>, has researched runaway advertisements that appeared in 19,000 editions of newspapers from the mid-19th century.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBurnett2021-106">[106]</a> Alice L. Baumgartner has studied the prevalence of people who fled slavery from the Southern states to Mexico. She published South to Freedom: Runaway Slaves to Mexico and the Road to the Civil War.<a href="#cite_note-Barnes-103">[103]</a> Thomas Mareite completed a doctoral dissertation at Leiden University on the social and political experiences of enslaved people who escaped from the U.S. South to Mexico, titled Conditional Freedom: Free Soil and Fugitive Slaves from the U.S. South to Mexico's Northeast, 1803–1861.<a href="#cite_note-118">[117]</a> Roseann Bacha-Garza, of the <a href="/wiki/University_of_Texas_Rio_Grande_Valley" title="University of Texas Rio Grande Valley">University of Texas Rio Grande Valley</a>, has managed historical archeology projects and has researched the incidence of enslaved people who fled to Mexico.<a href="#cite_note-Leanos-108">[108]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEContreras2020a-119">[118]</a> Mekala Audain has also published a chapter titled "A Scheme to Desert: The Louisiana Purchase and Freedom Seekers in the Louisiana-Texas Borderlands, 1804–1806" in the edited volume In Search of Liberty: African American Internationalism in the Nineteenth-Century Atlantic World.<a href="#cite_note-120">[119]</a> Maria Esther Hammack completed her doctoral dissertation on the subject in 2021 at the <a href="/wiki/University_of_Texas_at_Austin" title="University of Texas at Austin">University of Texas at Austin</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Leanos-108">[108]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id=""Reverse_Underground_Railroad"">"Reverse Underground Railroad"</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Underground_Railroad&action=edit&section=21" title="Edit section: "Reverse Underground Railroad"">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Kidnapping_into_slavery_in_the_United_States" title="Kidnapping into slavery in the United States">Kidnapping into slavery in the United States</a></div> Freedom seekers were not the only black people at risk from slave catchers. With demand for slaves high in the Deep South as cotton was planted, strong, healthy blacks in their prime working and reproductive years were seen and treated as highly valuable commodities. Both former slaves and free blacks were sometimes kidnapped and sold into slavery, as in the well-documented case of <a href="/wiki/Solomon_Northup" title="Solomon Northup">Solomon Northup</a>, a New York-born free black who was kidnapped by Southern slavers while visiting Washington, DC. "Certificates of freedom", also known as "free papers", were signed and <a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/notarize" class="extiw" title="wikt:notarize">notarized</a> statements attesting to the free status of individual Blacks. They could easily be destroyed or stolen, so they provided little protection. Some buildings, such as the <a href="/wiki/Crenshaw_House_(Gallatin_County,_Illinois)" title="Crenshaw House (Gallatin County, Illinois)">Crenshaw House</a> in far-southeastern <a href="/wiki/Illinois" title="Illinois">Illinois</a>, are known sites where free blacks were sold into slavery, known as the "<a href="/wiki/Reverse_Underground_Railroad" class="mw-redirect" title="Reverse Underground Railroad">Reverse Underground Railroad</a>".<a href="#cite_note-121">[120]</a><a href="#cite_note-122">[121]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="American_Revolutionary_War_routes_(1775_to_1783)">American Revolutionary War routes (1775 to 1783)</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Underground_Railroad&action=edit&section=22" title="Edit section: American Revolutionary War routes (1775 to 1783)">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Black_Company_of_Pioneers" title="Black Company of Pioneers">Black Company of Pioneers</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Rose_Fortune" title="Rose Fortune">Rose Fortune</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:The_underground_rail_road_-_a_record_of_facts,_authentic_narratives,_letters,_%26c.,_narrating_the_hardships,_hair-breadth_escapes,_and_death_struggles_of_the_slaves_in_their_efforts_for_freedom,_as_(14757706931).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b9/The_underground_rail_road_-_a_record_of_facts%2C_authentic_narratives%2C_letters%2C_%26c.%2C_narrating_the_hardships%2C_hair-breadth_escapes%2C_and_death_struggles_of_the_slaves_in_their_efforts_for_freedom%2C_as_%2814757706931%29.jpg/220px-thumbnail.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="156" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b9/The_underground_rail_road_-_a_record_of_facts%2C_authentic_narratives%2C_letters%2C_%26c.%2C_narrating_the_hardships%2C_hair-breadth_escapes%2C_and_death_struggles_of_the_slaves_in_their_efforts_for_freedom%2C_as_%2814757706931%29.jpg/330px-thumbnail.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b9/The_underground_rail_road_-_a_record_of_facts%2C_authentic_narratives%2C_letters%2C_%26c.%2C_narrating_the_hardships%2C_hair-breadth_escapes%2C_and_death_struggles_of_the_slaves_in_their_efforts_for_freedom%2C_as_%2814757706931%29.jpg/440px-thumbnail.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1824" data-file-height="1292" /></a><figcaption>Some enslaved people escaped from slavery using their enslaver's horse.</figcaption></figure> During the <a href="/wiki/American_Revolutionary_War" title="American Revolutionary War">American Revolutionary War</a>, enslaved people escaped from bondage and fled to British forces, Canada, Florida, and <a href="/wiki/Native_Americans_in_the_United_States" title="Native Americans in the United States">Native American</a> lands. The last <a href="/wiki/John_Murray,_4th_Earl_of_Dunmore" title="John Murray, 4th Earl of Dunmore">Royal Governor of Virginia</a>, <a href="/wiki/Dunmore%27s_Proclamation" title="Dunmore's Proclamation">Lord Dunmore</a>, planned to weaken American colonists by issuing a proclamation in 1775 that gave freedom to the enslaved who escaped their American colonial masters and joined the British. According to a PBS and National Park Service article this proclamation resulted in an estimated 100,000 <a href="/wiki/Fugitive_slaves_in_the_United_States" title="Fugitive slaves in the United States">freedom seekers</a> escaping during the war. American colonial officers received numerous requests for the return of escaped slaves. In November of 1775, Dunmore started a military unit of 300 freedom seekers in North Carolina called "the <a href="/wiki/Ethiopian_Regiment" class="mw-redirect" title="Ethiopian Regiment">Ethiopian Regiment</a>." In Virginia 800 freedom seekers joined the regiment.<a href="#cite_note-123">[122]</a><a href="#cite_note-124">[123]</a> American colonists tried to deter freedom seekers from joining the British by sending <a href="/wiki/Slave_patrol" title="Slave patrol">slave patrols</a> to stop runaways, and published newspapers and editorials stating the British will not act on their promise of granting freedom to runaway slaves.<a href="#cite_note-125">[124]</a> Thousands of free and enslaved Black people fought with the British in hopes to gain their freedom were called <a href="/wiki/Black_Loyalist" title="Black Loyalist">Black Loyalists</a>. Black Loyalists who served with the British for one year received Certificates of Freedom and were taken to Caribbean <a href="/wiki/British_colonization_of_the_Americas" title="British colonization of the Americas">British colonies</a> to live as free people in the Bahamas and Jamaica, and others were taken north to Canada.<a href="#cite_note-126">[125]</a> Between 1783 and 1785, 3,000 enslaved and free Black Americans settled in the British colony of <a href="/wiki/Black_Nova_Scotians" title="Black Nova Scotians">Nova Scotia, Canada</a>.<a href="#cite_note-127">[126]</a> Other enslaved people ran away to join the <a href="/wiki/Continental_Army" title="Continental Army">Continental Army</a> or Patriot <a href="/wiki/Militia_(United_States)" title="Militia (United States)">militias</a>. Black Americans who fought in the Continental Army were called <a href="/wiki/Black_Patriot" title="Black Patriot">Black Patriots</a>, and some did earn their freedom through their military service. Some enslaved runaways took the war as an opportunity to escape using their enslaver's horse.<a href="#cite_note-128">[127]</a><a href="#cite_note-129">[128]</a><a href="#cite_note-130">[129]</a><a href="#cite_note-131">[130]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="War_of_1812_routes">War of 1812 routes</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Underground_Railroad&action=edit&section=23" title="Edit section: War of 1812 routes">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_Canada" title="Slavery in Canada">Slavery in Canada</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:William_Williams_Black_Soldier_U.S._Army_War_of_1812.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3f/William_Williams_Black_Soldier_U.S._Army_War_of_1812.jpg/220px-William_Williams_Black_Soldier_U.S._Army_War_of_1812.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="269" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3f/William_Williams_Black_Soldier_U.S._Army_War_of_1812.jpg/330px-William_Williams_Black_Soldier_U.S._Army_War_of_1812.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/3/3f/William_Williams_Black_Soldier_U.S._Army_War_of_1812.jpg 2x" data-file-width="340" data-file-height="415" /></a><figcaption>William Williams was an enslaved runaway and a Black Soldier in the U.S. Army in the War of 1812.<a href="#cite_note-132">[131]</a></figcaption></figure> During the <a href="/wiki/War_of_1812" title="War of 1812">War of 1812</a>, 700 enslaved people in <a href="/wiki/History_of_slavery_in_Maryland" title="History of slavery in Maryland">Maryland</a> escaped from slavery.<a href="#cite_note-133">[132]</a> Before the war, freedom seekers escaped to the <a href="/wiki/Michigan_Territory" title="Michigan Territory">Michigan Territory</a> by crossing the <a href="/wiki/Detroit_River" title="Detroit River">Detroit River</a>. Over the years the numbers of escaped African Americans grew in the territory. Territorial governor <a href="/wiki/William_Hull" title="William Hull">William Hull</a> offered Peter Denison, an enslaved man, "a written license" allowing him to form a militia company of free Blacks and escaped slaves. The men were armed and trained but Hull disbanded the militia. Some of the Black men in the militia escaped from slavery in British Canada. In the 18th century, slavery was practiced in Canada, and by 1793 it was phased out, but some <a href="/wiki/Black_Canadians" title="Black Canadians">Black Canadians</a> remained enslaved. During the late 18th century and early 19th century, the route of freedom seekers went south beginning in British Canada to their final destination in free American territories in the Old Northwest. By the War of 1812, slave laws in British Canada prohibited the continuation of slavery. This changed the final destinations of freedom seekers in the United States to look north to Canada to obtain their freedom. In the summer of 1812, Hull declared that enslaved runaways and free Blacks in the Michigan Territory were free citizens, and when war broke out with Britain Black citizens of Michigan were armed to fight against the British. After his military service, Peter Denison and his family left Michigan and relocated north to Canada.<a href="#cite_note-134">[133]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Black_Refugees">Black Refugees</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Underground_Railroad&action=edit&section=24" title="Edit section: Black Refugees">edit</a>]</div> In April of 1814, the British Army promised freedom to enslaved Black Americans who joined the British military or who choose freedom in <a href="/wiki/British_colonization_of_the_Americas" title="British colonization of the Americas">British colonies</a>. In the Chesapeake Region of Virginia and Maryland and coastal areas of Georgia, about 4,000 enslaved Black Americans escaped from slavery. Within the number of 4,000 freedom seekers who escaped, 2,000 sailed to Nova Scotia between September 1813 and August 1816 on naval vessels and private ships chartered by the British and were taken to Nova Scotia and <a href="/wiki/New_Brunswick" title="New Brunswick">News Brunswick, Canada</a> and 400 freedom seekers were taken to <a href="/wiki/Trinidad" title="Trinidad">Trinidad</a> in the Caribbean. The Black people who settled in British Canada are known as <a href="/wiki/Black_refugee_(War_of_1812)" title="Black refugee (War of 1812)">Black refugees</a> who escaped slavery in the United States and sided with the British during the War of 1812.<a href="#cite_note-135">[134]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Merikens">Merikens</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Underground_Railroad&action=edit&section=25" title="Edit section: Merikens">edit</a>]</div> The <a href="/wiki/Merikin" class="mw-redirect" title="Merikin">Merikins</a> were formerly enslaved Black Americans that escaped slavery and joined the British military's all-Black unit of <a href="/wiki/Corps_of_Colonial_Marines" title="Corps of Colonial Marines">Colonial Marines</a> during the War of 1812. When the war ended, they were taken to numerous British colonies to live as free people. About 700 Colonial Marines were taken to <a href="/wiki/Trinidad" title="Trinidad">Trinidad</a> in the Caribbean. Although slavery was legal in Trinidad, they were guaranteed protection under commander Robert Mitchell. The formerly Black Americans called themselves Merikens, "an abbreviated word for 'Americans'" and started new lives in Trinidad in six Company Villages in the southern part of the island.<a href="#cite_note-136">[135]</a> The Trinidadian government provided the Merikens with food, rations, clothing, and tools needed to build their homes, and they grew their own food of corn, pumpkin, plantain, and rice.<a href="#cite_note-137">[136]</a><a href="#cite_note-138">[137]</a><a href="#cite_note-139">[138]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="The_"Saltwater_Railroad"_freedom_route">The "Saltwater Railroad" freedom route</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Underground_Railroad&action=edit&section=26" title="Edit section: The "Saltwater Railroad" freedom route">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:The_merchant_vessel_-_a_sailor_boy%27s_voyages_around_the_world_(1884)_(14593118478).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8d/The_merchant_vessel_-_a_sailor_boy%27s_voyages_around_the_world_%281884%29_%2814593118478%29.jpg/220px-The_merchant_vessel_-_a_sailor_boy%27s_voyages_around_the_world_%281884%29_%2814593118478%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="134" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8d/The_merchant_vessel_-_a_sailor_boy%27s_voyages_around_the_world_%281884%29_%2814593118478%29.jpg/330px-The_merchant_vessel_-_a_sailor_boy%27s_voyages_around_the_world_%281884%29_%2814593118478%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8d/The_merchant_vessel_-_a_sailor_boy%27s_voyages_around_the_world_%281884%29_%2814593118478%29.jpg/440px-The_merchant_vessel_-_a_sailor_boy%27s_voyages_around_the_world_%281884%29_%2814593118478%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2944" data-file-height="1792" /></a><figcaption>A scene in the Bahamas in 1884</figcaption></figure> From 1821 to 1861, freedom seekers escaped from the Southeastern slave states of South Carolina, Georgia, and Florida to the <a href="/wiki/The_Bahamas" title="The Bahamas">Bahamas</a> on a secret route called the "Saltwater Railroad." Prior to 1821, Florida was a Spanish colony called by historians, <a href="/wiki/Spanish_Florida" title="Spanish Florida">Spanish Florida</a>, where enslaved runaways were declared free under Spanish laws. However, by 1821 Florida was under the control of the United States. Free Blacks in Florida feared they might be re-enslaved under American laws and hundreds of free people escaped to the Bahamas. From 1821 to 1825, the Southern beaches of Florida provided a safe haven for freedom seekers looking to escape on boats that departed from Florida going to the island. Other freedom seekers escaped by making their own canoes and boats and sailed to the Bahamas unaided.<a href="#cite_note-140">[139]</a><a href="#cite_note-141">[140]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Gulf_of_Mexico.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f0/Gulf_of_Mexico.png/220px-Gulf_of_Mexico.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="167" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f0/Gulf_of_Mexico.png/330px-Gulf_of_Mexico.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/f0/Gulf_of_Mexico.png 2x" data-file-width="432" data-file-height="328" /></a><figcaption>Enslaved people in the United States departed off the Southern Florida coast in boats and escaped to the Bahamas.</figcaption></figure> By 1825, the construction of the <a href="/wiki/Cape_Florida_Light" title="Cape Florida Light">Cape Florida Lighthouse</a> (in present-day <a href="/wiki/Miami-Dade_County,_Florida" title="Miami-Dade County, Florida">Miami-Dade County</a>) was a setback to enslaved runaways looking to escape at night on boats off the Florida coast due to the bright light that was helpful to guide sailors off the Florida Reef. The Bahamas attracted enslaved people because there was a community of <a href="/wiki/Black_Seminoles" title="Black Seminoles">Black Seminoles</a> and other escapees. The Bahamas was a British controlled island where under local imperial practices Black people owned land, had access to education, and were legally married. In addition, in 1825, Britain declared that any escapees reaching British controlled lands were free. This declaration resulted in hundreds of more slaves in the United States to escape to the island. By the 1830s, historians estimate that at least 6,000 freedom seekers made their way to the Bahamas, and by the 1840s, the Bahamas had more enslaved runaways than any British colony in the Caribbean.<a href="#cite_note-142">[141]</a> The actions of Britain to liberate enslaved Americans strained political relationships with the United States. In 1841 on the slave ship, <a href="/wiki/Creole_mutiny" title="Creole mutiny">Creole</a>, a slave revolt occurred. The Creole departed from Virginia with over one hundred enslaved people heading to New Orleans, Louisiana. The enslaved revolted and took control of the ship and sailed it to <a href="/wiki/Nassau,_The_Bahamas" title="Nassau, The Bahamas">Nassau</a> in the Bahamas. This revolt sparked international attention; the escapees were charged but later released.<a href="#cite_note-143">[142]</a><a href="#cite_note-144">[143]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Fugitive_Slave_Act_of_1850">Fugitive Slave Act of 1850</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Underground_Railroad&action=edit&section=27" title="Edit section: Fugitive Slave Act of 1850">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:From_Library_of_Congress-_%22Print_shows_a_portrait_of_the_fugitive_slave_Anthony_Burns,_whose_arrest_and_trial_under_the_Fugitive_(32f5b651-55ed-457d-8c2e-45b46a5dcc24).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/46/From_Library_of_Congress-_%22Print_shows_a_portrait_of_the_fugitive_slave_Anthony_Burns%2C_whose_arrest_and_trial_under_the_Fugitive_%2832f5b651-55ed-457d-8c2e-45b46a5dcc24%29.jpg/220px-thumbnail.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="281" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/46/From_Library_of_Congress-_%22Print_shows_a_portrait_of_the_fugitive_slave_Anthony_Burns%2C_whose_arrest_and_trial_under_the_Fugitive_%2832f5b651-55ed-457d-8c2e-45b46a5dcc24%29.jpg/330px-thumbnail.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/46/From_Library_of_Congress-_%22Print_shows_a_portrait_of_the_fugitive_slave_Anthony_Burns%2C_whose_arrest_and_trial_under_the_Fugitive_%2832f5b651-55ed-457d-8c2e-45b46a5dcc24%29.jpg/440px-thumbnail.jpg 2x" data-file-width="801" data-file-height="1024" /></a><figcaption>A portrait of freedom seeker <a href="/wiki/Anthony_Burns" title="Anthony Burns">Anthony Burns</a>, arrested under the Fugitive Slave Law</figcaption></figure> Under the terms of the <a href="/wiki/Fugitive_Slave_Act_of_1850" title="Fugitive Slave Act of 1850">Fugitive Slave Act of 1850</a>, when suspected fugitives were seized and brought to a special <a href="/wiki/Magistrate" title="Magistrate">magistrate</a> known as a commissioner, they had no right to a jury trial and could not testify on their own behalf. Between 1850 and 1860, 343 freedom seekers were taken before a commissioner and 332 were returned to slavery. Commissioners received ten dollars when they ruled in favor of a slaveholder and received five dollars if they ruled in a slave's favor. Technically, they were not accused of a crime. The marshal or private <a href="/wiki/Slave-catcher" class="mw-redirect" title="Slave-catcher">slave-catcher</a> needed only to swear an oath to acquire a <a href="/wiki/Writ" title="Writ">writ</a> of <a href="/wiki/Replevin" title="Replevin">replevin</a> for the return of property. A fine of 1,000 dollars was charged to individuals who assisted a freedom seeker's escape.<a href="#cite_note-145">[144]</a> Congress was dominated by Southern congressmen because the population of their states was bolstered by the inclusion of <a href="/wiki/Three-Fifths_Compromise" class="mw-redirect" title="Three-Fifths Compromise">three-fifths</a> of the number of slaves in population totals. They passed the Fugitive Slave Law of 1850 because of frustration at having fugitives from slavery helped by the public and even official institutions outside the South. In some parts of the North, slave catchers needed police protection. According to author Andrew Delbanco, "Northerners began to realize slavery wasn't just a Southern issue after the passage of the 1850 law." Prior to the American Civil War, the nation was divided on how to deal with enslaved runaways. The Fugitive Slave Act further divided the nation as Southern slaveholders now had political power to return freedom seekers who escaped to the North and return them to the South, and Northerners were required by law to assist in the return of runaways.<a href="#cite_note-146">[145]</a> Some freedom seekers were arrested under the fugitive slave law; they were, <a href="/wiki/Anthony_Burns" title="Anthony Burns">Anthony Burns</a>, John Price, <a href="/wiki/Shadrach_Minkins" title="Shadrach Minkins">Shadrach Minkins</a>, Stephen Pembroke and his two sons, and others. Abolitionists used these cases to push the question of slavery at the center of national politics; they argued that enslaved people's resistance to enslavement through numerous escapes advocates the abolition of slavery.<a href="#cite_note-147">[146]</a><a href="#cite_note-148">[147]</a><a href="#cite_note-149">[148]</a><a href="#cite_note-150">[149]</a> A few weeks after the fugitive slave law passed, Black populations in Northern cities declined due to formerly enslaved African Americans migrating to Canada in fear they might be captured and re-enslaved. On August 1, 1834, Britain <a href="/wiki/Slavery_Abolition_Act_1833" title="Slavery Abolition Act 1833">abolished slavery</a> in Canada and throughout the <a href="/wiki/British_Empire" title="British Empire">British Empire</a>, making Canada a safer choice for American slaves and free Blacks seeking freedom.<a href="#cite_note-151">[150]</a> In <a href="/wiki/Pittsburgh" title="Pittsburgh">Pittsburgh</a>, Pennsylvania most of the Black waiters working in the city's hotel fled to Canada. <a href="/wiki/Columbia,_Pennsylvania" title="Columbia, Pennsylvania">Columbia, Pennsylvania</a>'s Black population decreased by half. Between mid-February and early March of 1851, one hundred free African Americans and fugitives fled the city of Boston. Abolitionists in <a href="/wiki/Detroit" title="Detroit">Detroit, Michigan</a> guided 1,200 free people to Canada. By December of 1850, it is estimated that 3,000 African Americans took refuge in Canada.<a href="#cite_note-152">[151]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="American_Civil_War_routes_(1861_to_1865)">American Civil War routes (1861 to 1865)</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Underground_Railroad&action=edit&section=28" title="Edit section: American Civil War routes (1861 to 1865)">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Contraband_(American_Civil_War)" title="Contraband (American Civil War)">Contraband (American Civil War)</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Contraband_foreground_-_Copy.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/dd/Contraband_foreground_-_Copy.jpg/220px-Contraband_foreground_-_Copy.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="216" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/dd/Contraband_foreground_-_Copy.jpg/330px-Contraband_foreground_-_Copy.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/dd/Contraband_foreground_-_Copy.jpg 2x" data-file-width="431" data-file-height="424" /></a><figcaption>Enslaved people who escaped to Union lines during the Civil War were called contraband.</figcaption></figure> During the <a href="/wiki/American_Civil_War" title="American Civil War">American Civil War</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Union_Army" class="mw-redirect" title="Union Army">Union Army</a> captured Southern towns in <a href="/wiki/Beaufort,_South_Carolina" title="Beaufort, South Carolina">Beaufort, South Carolina</a>, <a href="/wiki/St._Simons,_Georgia" title="St. Simons, Georgia">St. Simons Island, Georgia</a>, and other areas and setup encampments. As a result, enslaved people on nearby plantations escaped from slavery and ran to Union lines for freedom and to sign up to fight in the Union Army. American historian <a href="/wiki/Eric_Foner" title="Eric Foner">Eric Foner</a> explains in his book, Gateway to Freedom: The Hidden History of the Underground Railroad, that: "...the Civil War fundamentally transformed the opportunities available for slaves seeking freedom. As soon as federal troops which in Maryland meant the very beginning of the war, slaves sought refuge with the Union..."<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFoner2015-54">[54]</a> <a href="/wiki/Susie_King_Taylor" title="Susie King Taylor">Susie King Taylor</a> was born enslaved in Liberty County, Georgia and escaped from slavery with her family to Union lines in <a href="/wiki/St._Catherines_Island" title="St. Catherines Island">St. Catherine's Island</a>, Georgia with the help of her uncle who put her on a federal gunboat plying the waters near <a href="/wiki/Confederate_States_of_America" title="Confederate States of America">Confederate</a>-held <a href="/wiki/Fort_Pulaski_National_Monument" title="Fort Pulaski National Monument">Fort Pulaski</a>. In addition, thousands of enslaved Black Americans escaped slavery and fled to Union lines in the South Carolina <a href="/wiki/Sea_Islands" title="Sea Islands">Sea Islands</a>.<a href="#cite_note-153">[152]</a><a href="#cite_note-154">[153]</a> In 1861, Jarvis Harvey escaped from slavery and sailed to Union lines at <a href="/wiki/Fort_Monroe" title="Fort Monroe">Fortress Monroe, Virginia</a>.<a href="#cite_note-155">[154]</a> Robert Sutton was born enslaved in Alberti Plantation along Florida’s northeastern boundary with Georgia, and during the Civil War he escaped from slavery by making a canoe and sailed out to Port Royal, South Carolina where Black Americans were freed from slavey after the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Port_Royal" title="Battle of Port Royal">Battle of Port Royal</a> and signed up to fight in the <a href="/wiki/1st_South_Carolina_Volunteer_Infantry_Regiment_(Colored)" title="1st South Carolina Volunteer Infantry Regiment (Colored)">1st South Carolina Volunteer Infantry Regiment</a>.<a href="#cite_note-156">[155]</a> <a href="/wiki/Prince_Rivers" title="Prince Rivers">Prince Rivers</a> escaped from slavery and found freedom in Union lines in <a href="/wiki/Port_Royal,_South_Carolina" title="Port Royal, South Carolina">Port Royal, South Carolina</a> after his enslaver fled Beaufort upon arrival of the Union Navy and Army. Rivers later signed up to fight in the 1st South Carolina Volunteer Infantry Regiment.<a href="#cite_note-157">[156]</a> On May 12, 1862, <a href="/wiki/Robert_Smalls" title="Robert Smalls">Robert Smalls</a> and sixteen enslaved people escaped from slavery during the Civil War on a Confederate ship and sailed it out the <a href="/wiki/Charleston_Harbor" title="Charleston Harbor">Charleston Harbor</a> to a Union blockade in South Carolina.<a href="#cite_note-158">[157]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Contraband_Camp,_formerly_used_as_a_Female_Seminary.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a2/Contraband_Camp%2C_formerly_used_as_a_Female_Seminary.jpg/220px-Contraband_Camp%2C_formerly_used_as_a_Female_Seminary.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="144" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a2/Contraband_Camp%2C_formerly_used_as_a_Female_Seminary.jpg/330px-Contraband_Camp%2C_formerly_used_as_a_Female_Seminary.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a2/Contraband_Camp%2C_formerly_used_as_a_Female_Seminary.jpg/440px-Contraband_Camp%2C_formerly_used_as_a_Female_Seminary.jpg 2x" data-file-width="851" data-file-height="556" /></a><figcaption>Contraband camps were formed during the Civil War and provided refuge and protection to newly freed people in Union occupied territories of the South.</figcaption></figure> Underground Railroad agents shifted their efforts and escape plans around Union encampments because large numbers of <a href="/wiki/Fugitive_slaves_in_the_United_States" title="Fugitive slaves in the United States">freedom seekers</a> escaped to Union occupied territories and not the North for their freedom.<a href="#cite_note-159">[158]</a> For example, the <a href="/wiki/Kansas_Territory" title="Kansas Territory">Kansas territory</a> became a state in 1861, and slavery was prohibited in the state of Kansas. During the Civil War, abolitionists, <a href="/wiki/Free-Stater_(Kansas)" title="Free-Stater (Kansas)">free staters</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Jayhawker" title="Jayhawker">Jayhawkers</a> helped to emancipate freedom seekers who escaped slavery from Missouri (a slave state that bordered Kansas) and brought them back to Kansas as <a href="/wiki/Contraband_(American_Civil_War)" title="Contraband (American Civil War)">contraband</a> of war.<a href="#cite_note-160">[159]</a> An article from the National Park Service explains how the Civil War shifted the escape routes and final destinations of freedom seekers: "But, no sooner had Union troops appeared in the border states, on the islands off the Atlantic coast, and in the lower Mississippi Valley, than thousands of blacks took the opportunity to liberate themselves by absconding to the Yankee (Union) camps. A first effort to send them back to their masters was soon abandoned. The runaways became '<a href="/wiki/Contraband_(American_Civil_War)" title="Contraband (American Civil War)">contraband</a>,' or confiscated property of war. Many of them quickly found work within the Union lines and members of their families began to join them."<a href="#cite_note-161">[160]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Contrabands_at_headquarters_of_General_Lafayette_LCCN2014646902.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bb/Contrabands_at_headquarters_of_General_Lafayette_LCCN2014646902.jpg/220px-Contrabands_at_headquarters_of_General_Lafayette_LCCN2014646902.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="172" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bb/Contrabands_at_headquarters_of_General_Lafayette_LCCN2014646902.jpg/330px-Contrabands_at_headquarters_of_General_Lafayette_LCCN2014646902.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bb/Contrabands_at_headquarters_of_General_Lafayette_LCCN2014646902.jpg/440px-Contrabands_at_headquarters_of_General_Lafayette_LCCN2014646902.jpg 2x" data-file-width="5083" data-file-height="3982" /></a><figcaption>Contrabands at headquarters of General Lafayette in Yorktown, Virginia</figcaption></figure> The word contraband was given to enslaved runaways by Union General <a href="/wiki/Benjamin_Butler" title="Benjamin Butler">Benjamin Butler</a>. In 1861, three enslaved men in Norfolk, Virginia, Shepard Mallory, Frank Baker, and James Townsend, escaped from slavery and fled to Union lines at <a href="/wiki/Fort_Monroe" title="Fort Monroe">Fort Monroe</a>. Butler refused to act on the Fugitive Slave Law of 1850 that required the return of escaped slaves to their enslavers. Instead, Butler kept the three men because they were "property" of the Confederate States and not the United States where the Fugitive Slave Act was passed and enforced. An article from the National Trust for Historical Preservation explains: "...Butler realized the absurdity of honoring the Fugitive Slave Law, which dictated that he return the three runaways to their owner. They had been helping to construct a Confederate battery that threatened his fort. Why send them back and bolster that effort? So the general struck upon a politically expedient solution: Because Virginia had seceded from the Union, he argued, he no longer had a constitutional obligation to return the runaways. Rather, in keeping with military law governing war between nations, he would seize the three runaways as contraband—property to be used by the enemy against the Union."<a href="#cite_note-162">[161]</a><a href="#cite_note-163">[162]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Corinth_Contraband_Camp_(2c163208-1dd8-b71c-079b-9015087c01e4).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ec/Corinth_Contraband_Camp_%282c163208-1dd8-b71c-079b-9015087c01e4%29.jpg/220px-Corinth_Contraband_Camp_%282c163208-1dd8-b71c-079b-9015087c01e4%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ec/Corinth_Contraband_Camp_%282c163208-1dd8-b71c-079b-9015087c01e4%29.jpg/330px-Corinth_Contraband_Camp_%282c163208-1dd8-b71c-079b-9015087c01e4%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ec/Corinth_Contraband_Camp_%282c163208-1dd8-b71c-079b-9015087c01e4%29.jpg/440px-Corinth_Contraband_Camp_%282c163208-1dd8-b71c-079b-9015087c01e4%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="960" data-file-height="720" /></a><figcaption>A plaque to remember Corinth Contraband Camp</figcaption></figure> As the Civil War continued, areas of the South and border states became refugee camps for freedom seekers. <a href="/wiki/Washington,_D.C." title="Washington, D.C.">Washington D.C.</a> was a large refugee area during the war. On April 16, 1862, Congress passed the <a href="/wiki/District_of_Columbia_Compensated_Emancipation_Act" title="District of Columbia Compensated Emancipation Act">Compensated Emancipation Act</a> that abolished slavery in the District of Columbia. After the passage of this act, freedom seekers from Virginia and Maryland escaped and found freedom in the District of Columbia, and by 1863, there were 10,000 refugees (former runaway slaves) in the city and their numbers doubled the Black population in Washington, D.C.<a href="#cite_note-164">[163]</a><a href="#cite_note-165">[164]</a> During the war, enslaved people living near Beaufort County, South Carolina escaped from slavery and fled to Union lines in Beaufort because African Americans in the county were freed from slavery after the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Port_Royal" title="Battle of Port Royal">Battle of Port Royal</a> on November 7, 1861 when the plantation owners fled the area after the arrival of the Union Navy and Army. As a result, a refugee camp was started to provide safety and protection to freedom seekers. In the beginning there were sixty to seventy runaways, but as time progressed the numbers of refugees grew to 320. The Union Army did not have enough food rations and clothes to take care of them. Free men, women, and children in Beaufort's refugee camp were paid to work for the Union as cooks, laundress, servants, and carpenters.<a href="#cite_note-166">[165]</a> Union forces occupied <a href="/wiki/Corinth,_Mississippi" title="Corinth, Mississippi">Corinth, Mississippi</a> and slaves from nearby plantations escaped to Union lines. To accommodate the freedom seekers, general <a href="/wiki/Grenville_M._Dodge" title="Grenville M. Dodge">Grenville M. Dodge</a> established the Corinth Contraband Camp with homes, schools, hospitals, churches, and paid employment for African Americans. It was estimated that Corinth Contraband Camp provided a new life for 6,000 former slaves.<a href="#cite_note-167">[166]</a><a href="#cite_note-168">[167]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Union_Navy_and_Emancipation">Union Navy and Emancipation</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Underground_Railroad&action=edit&section=29" title="Edit section: Union Navy and Emancipation">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Company_of_colored_troops._(3110840538).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/23/Company_of_colored_troops._%283110840538%29.jpg/220px-Company_of_colored_troops._%283110840538%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="188" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/23/Company_of_colored_troops._%283110840538%29.jpg/330px-Company_of_colored_troops._%283110840538%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/23/Company_of_colored_troops._%283110840538%29.jpg/440px-Company_of_colored_troops._%283110840538%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="760" data-file-height="648" /></a><figcaption>Free Blacks and former slaves who escaped slavery signed up to fight in the Union Army and Navy.</figcaption></figure> The Secretary of the Navy during the Civil War was <a href="/wiki/Gideon_Welles" title="Gideon Welles">Gideon Welles</a> and in September of 1861 Welles declared that enslaved and free African Americans could enlist at the lowest rating of "Boy" in the Union Navy. Union vessels located in Southern ports received numbers of runaways who fled slavery by way of small boats to vessels docked in Union controlled territories. Benjamin Gould recorded in his journal that by September 22, 1862, eight freedom seekers had arrived at the <a href="/wiki/USS_Cambridge_(1860)" title="USS Cambridge (1860)">USS Cambridge</a> and that 20 more runaways arrived two weeks later. One of the escaped freedom seekers listed was William Gould, who later joined the Union (U.S.) Navy and fought against the Confederacy from 1862 to 1865. The Union vessel <a href="/wiki/USS_Hartford_(1858)" title="USS Hartford (1858)">USS Harftford</a> helped to liberate enslaved people while going up the <a href="/wiki/Mississippi_River" title="Mississippi River">Mississippi River</a>. <a href="/wiki/Bartholomew_Diggins" title="Bartholomew Diggins">Bartholomew Diggins</a>, who served aboard the vessel, recalled the events of liberating the enslaved. He said: "we picked [up] many negroes [sic] slaves who would come out to the ships in small boats at every place we anchored." Other Union vessels that helped to liberate the enslaved were the USS Essex and USS Iroquois. A few Union soldiers and sailors returned escaped slaves back to their enslavers.<a href="#cite_note-169">[168]</a><a href="#cite_note-170">[169]</a> By the end of the war, 179,000 formerly enslaved and free Black Americans had fought in the Union Army, and 21,000 had fought in the Union Navy.<a href="#cite_note-171">[170]</a> From the <a href="/wiki/American_Revolutionary_War" title="American Revolutionary War">American Revolutionary War</a>, through the <a href="/wiki/War_of_1812" title="War of 1812">War of 1812</a>, and then the American Civil War, the Underground Railroad contributed to hundreds and sometimes thousands of escapes by African Americans.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHudson20152,_9–10-172">[171]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Legal_and_political">Legal and political</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Underground_Railroad&action=edit&section=30" title="Edit section: Legal and political">edit</a>]</div> When frictions between North and South culminated in the <a href="/wiki/American_Civil_War" title="American Civil War">Civil War</a>, many Black people, both enslaved and free, fought for the <a href="/wiki/Union_Army" class="mw-redirect" title="Union Army">Union Army</a>.<a href="#cite_note-173">[172]</a> Following Union victory in the Civil War, on December 6, 1865, the <a href="/wiki/Thirteenth_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Thirteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution">Thirteenth Amendment</a> to the Constitution outlawed slavery except as punishment for a crime.<a href="#cite_note-174">[173]</a> Following its passage, in some cases the Underground Railroad operated in the opposite direction, as people who had escaped to Canada returned to the United States.<a href="#cite_note-175">[174]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Criticism">Criticism</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Underground_Railroad&action=edit&section=31" title="Edit section: Criticism">edit</a>]</div> <a href="/wiki/Frederick_Douglass" title="Frederick Douglass">Frederick Douglass</a> was a writer and orator who had escaped slavery. He wrote critically of the attention drawn to the ostensibly secret Underground Railroad in his first autobiography, <a href="/wiki/Narrative_of_the_Life_of_Frederick_Douglass,_an_American_Slave" class="mw-redirect" title="Narrative of the Life of Frederick Douglass, an American Slave">Narrative of the Life of Frederick Douglass, an American Slave</a> (1845): <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1244412712">.mw-parser-output .templatequote{overflow:hidden;margin:1em 0;padding:0 32px}.mw-parser-output .templatequotecite{line-height:1.5em;text-align:left;margin-top:0}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .templatequotecite{padding-left:1.6em}}</style><blockquote class="templatequote">I have never approved of the very public manner in which some of our western friends have conducted what they call the Underground Railroad, but which I think, by their open declarations, has been made most emphatically the upperground railroad.</blockquote> He went on to say that, although he honored the movement, he felt that the efforts at publicity served more to enlighten the slave-owners than the slaves, making them more watchful and making it more difficult for future slaves to escape.<a href="#cite_note-176">[175]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Arrival_in_Canada">Arrival in Canada</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Underground_Railroad&action=edit&section=32" title="Edit section: Arrival in Canada">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/American_immigration_to_Canada" title="American immigration to Canada">American immigration to Canada</a> and <a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_Canada" title="Slavery in Canada">Slavery in Canada</a></div> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:UndergroundRailroadmonumentWindsor.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bb/UndergroundRailroadmonumentWindsor.jpg/175px-UndergroundRailroadmonumentWindsor.jpg" decoding="async" width="175" height="253" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bb/UndergroundRailroadmonumentWindsor.jpg/263px-UndergroundRailroadmonumentWindsor.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bb/UndergroundRailroadmonumentWindsor.jpg/350px-UndergroundRailroadmonumentWindsor.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1481" data-file-height="2145" /></a><figcaption>International Underground Railroad Memorial in <a href="/wiki/Windsor,_Ontario" title="Windsor, Ontario">Windsor, Ontario</a></figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:John_Brown_by_Levin_Handy,_1890-1910.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8a/John_Brown_by_Levin_Handy%2C_1890-1910.jpg/170px-John_Brown_by_Levin_Handy%2C_1890-1910.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="255" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8a/John_Brown_by_Levin_Handy%2C_1890-1910.jpg/255px-John_Brown_by_Levin_Handy%2C_1890-1910.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8a/John_Brown_by_Levin_Handy%2C_1890-1910.jpg/340px-John_Brown_by_Levin_Handy%2C_1890-1910.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1949" data-file-height="2919" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/John_Brown_(abolitionist)" title="John Brown (abolitionist)">John Brown</a> participated in the Underground Railroad as an abolitionist.</figcaption></figure> <a href="/wiki/British_North_America" title="British North America">British North America</a> (present-day Canada) was a desirable destination, as its long border gave many points of access, it was farther from <a href="/wiki/Slave_catchers" class="mw-redirect" title="Slave catchers">slave catchers</a>, and it was beyond the reach of the United States' <a href="/wiki/Fugitive_Slave_Act" class="mw-redirect" title="Fugitive Slave Act">Fugitive Slave Acts</a>. Further, slavery ended decades earlier in <a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_Canada" title="Slavery in Canada">Canada</a> than in the <a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_the_United_States" title="Slavery in the United States">United States</a>. Britain banned the institution of <a href="/wiki/Slavery_Abolition_Act_1833" title="Slavery Abolition Act 1833">slavery in present-day Canada (and in most British colonies) in 1833</a>, though the practice of slavery in Canada had effectively ended already early in the 19th century through case law, due to court decisions resulting from litigation on behalf of slaves seeking <a href="/wiki/Manumission" title="Manumission">manumission</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Shadd2016-177">[176]</a> Most former enslaved, reaching Canada by boat across <a href="/wiki/Lake_Erie" title="Lake Erie">Lake Erie</a> and <a href="/wiki/Lake_Ontario" title="Lake Ontario">Lake Ontario</a>, settled in <a href="/wiki/Ontario" title="Ontario">Ontario</a>. More than 30,000 people were said to have escaped there via the network during its 20-year peak period,<a href="#cite_note-CAN-178">[177]</a> although <a href="/wiki/United_States_census" title="United States census">U.S. census</a> figures account for only 6,000.<a href="#cite_note-179">[178]</a> Numerous fugitives' stories are documented in the 1872 book <a href="/wiki/The_Underground_Railroad_(Still)" title="The Underground Railroad (Still)">The Underground Railroad Records</a> by <a href="/wiki/William_Still" title="William Still">William Still</a>, an abolitionist who then headed the Philadelphia <a href="/wiki/Vigilance_Committee" class="mw-redirect" title="Vigilance Committee">Vigilance Committee</a>.<a href="#cite_note-180">[179]</a> Estimates vary widely, but at least 30,000 slaves, and potentially more than 100,000, escaped to Canada via the Underground Railroad.<a href="#cite_note-CAN-178">[177]</a> The largest group settled in <a href="/wiki/Upper_Canada" title="Upper Canada">Upper Canada</a> (Ontario), called <a href="/wiki/Canada_West" class="mw-redirect" title="Canada West">Canada West</a> from 1841.<a href="#cite_note-181">[180]</a> Numerous <a href="/wiki/Black_Canadian" class="mw-redirect" title="Black Canadian">Black Canadian</a> communities developed in <a href="/wiki/Southern_Ontario" title="Southern Ontario">Southern Ontario</a>. These were generally in the triangular region bounded by <a href="/wiki/Niagara_Falls,_Ontario" title="Niagara Falls, Ontario">Niagara Falls</a>, Toronto, and <a href="/wiki/Windsor,_Ontario" title="Windsor, Ontario">Windsor</a>. Several rural villages made up mostly of people freed from slavery were established in <a href="/wiki/Kent_County,_Ontario" title="Kent County, Ontario">Kent</a> and <a href="/wiki/Essex_County,_Ontario" title="Essex County, Ontario">Essex</a> counties in Ontario. <a href="/wiki/Fort_Malden" title="Fort Malden">Fort Malden</a>, in <a href="/wiki/Amherstburg,_Ontario" class="mw-redirect" title="Amherstburg, Ontario">Amherstburg, Ontario</a>, was deemed the "chief place of entry" for escaped slaves seeking to enter Canada. The abolitionist <a href="/wiki/Levi_Coffin" title="Levi Coffin">Levi Coffin</a>, who was known for aiding over 2,000 fugitives to safety, supported this choice. He described Fort Malden as "the great landing place, the principle terminus of the underground railroad of the west."<a href="#cite_note-182">[181]</a> After 1850, approximately thirty people a day were crossing over to Fort Malden by steamboat.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECalarcoVogelGroverHallstrom201115-183">[182]</a> The Sultana was one of the ships, making "frequent round trips" between <a href="/wiki/Great_Lakes" title="Great Lakes">Great Lakes</a> ports. Its captain, C.W. Appleby, a celebrated mariner, facilitated the conveyance of several fugitives from various <a href="/wiki/Lake_Erie" title="Lake Erie">Lake Erie</a> ports to Fort Malden.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECalarco2008110-184">[183]</a> Other fugitives at Fort Malden had been assisted by <a href="/wiki/William_Wells_Brown" title="William Wells Brown">William Wells Brown</a>, himself someone who had escaped slavery. He found employment on a Lake Erie steamer and transported numerous fugitives from Cleveland to Ontario by way of Buffalo or Detroit. "It is well known," he tells us, "that a great number of fugitives make their escape to Canada, by way of Cleaveland. [sic] ...The friends of the slave, knowing that I would transport them without charge, never failed to have a delegation when the boat arrived at Cleaveland. [sic] I have sometimes had four or five on board at one time."<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBrown1848107–108-185">[184]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:MarthaCoffinWright.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/11/MarthaCoffinWright.jpg/220px-MarthaCoffinWright.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="287" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/11/MarthaCoffinWright.jpg/330px-MarthaCoffinWright.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/11/MarthaCoffinWright.jpg 2x" data-file-width="336" data-file-height="439" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Martha_Coffin_Wright" title="Martha Coffin Wright">Martha Coffin Wright</a> operated her house in <a href="/wiki/Auburn,_New_York" title="Auburn, New York">Auburn, New York</a> as a stop on the Underground Railroad and it was frequented by Harriet Tubman during her rescue missions. Wright's house connected to other network of safe houses in New York that led to Canada.<a href="#cite_note-186">[185]</a></figcaption></figure> Another important destination was <a href="/wiki/Nova_Scotia" title="Nova Scotia">Nova Scotia</a>, which was first settled by <a href="/wiki/Black_Loyalists" class="mw-redirect" title="Black Loyalists">Black Loyalists</a> during the <a href="/wiki/American_Revolution" title="American Revolution">American Revolution</a> and then by <a href="/wiki/Black_Refugee_(War_of_1812)" class="mw-redirect" title="Black Refugee (War of 1812)">Black Refugees</a> during the <a href="/wiki/War_of_1812" title="War of 1812">War of 1812</a> (see <a href="/wiki/Black_Nova_Scotians" title="Black Nova Scotians">Black Nova Scotians</a>). Important Black settlements also developed in other parts of <a href="/wiki/British_North_America" title="British North America">British North America</a> (now parts of Canada). These included <a href="/wiki/Lower_Canada" title="Lower Canada">Lower Canada</a> (present-day <a href="/wiki/Quebec" title="Quebec">Quebec</a>) and <a href="/wiki/Vancouver_Island" title="Vancouver Island">Vancouver Island</a>, where Governor <a href="/wiki/James_Douglas_(governor)" title="James Douglas (governor)">James Douglas</a> encouraged Black immigration because of his opposition to slavery. He also hoped a significant Black community would form a bulwark against those who wished to unite the island with the United States.<a href="#cite_note-187">[186]</a> Upon arriving at their destinations, many freedom seekers were disappointed, as life in Canada was difficult. While not at risk from <a href="/wiki/Slave_catcher" title="Slave catcher">slave catchers</a> due to being in a different country, <a href="/wiki/Racism_in_Canada" title="Racism in Canada">racial discrimination</a> was still widespread.<a href="#cite_note-188">[187]</a><a href="#cite_note-189">[188]</a><a href="#cite_note-190">[189]</a> Many of the new arrivals had to compete with mass <a href="/wiki/European_Canadians" title="European Canadians">European immigration</a> for jobs, and overt racism was common. For example, in reaction to Black Loyalists being settled in eastern Canada by the Crown, the city of <a href="/wiki/Saint_John,_New_Brunswick" title="Saint John, New Brunswick">Saint John, New Brunswick</a>, amended its charter in 1785 specifically to exclude Blacks from practicing a trade, selling goods, fishing in the harbor, or becoming freemen; these provisions stood until 1870.<a href="#cite_note-191">[190]</a> With the outbreak of the Civil War in the U.S., many black refugees left Canada to enlist in the <a href="/wiki/Union_Army" class="mw-redirect" title="Union Army">Union Army</a>. While some later returned to Canada, many remained in the United States. Thousands of others returned to the American South after the war ended. The desire to reconnect with friends and family was strong, and most were hopeful about the changes emancipation and <a href="/wiki/Reconstruction_era" title="Reconstruction era">Reconstruction</a> would bring. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Folklore">Folklore</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Underground_Railroad&action=edit&section=33" title="Edit section: Folklore">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Quilts_of_the_Underground_Railroad" title="Quilts of the Underground Railroad">Quilts of the Underground Railroad</a> and <a href="/wiki/Songs_of_the_Underground_Railroad" title="Songs of the Underground Railroad">Songs of the Underground Railroad</a></div> Since the 1980s, claims have arisen that <a href="/wiki/Quilt" title="Quilt">quilt</a> designs were used to signal and direct enslaved people to escape routes and assistance. According to advocates of the quilt theory, ten quilt patterns were used to direct enslaved people to take particular actions. The quilts were placed one at a time on a fence as a means of nonverbal communication to alert escaping slaves. The code had a dual meaning: first to signal enslaved people to prepare to escape, and second to give clues and indicate directions on the journey.<a href="#cite_note-192">[191]</a> The quilt design theory is disputed. The first published work documenting an <a href="/wiki/Oral_history" title="Oral history">oral history</a> source was in 1999, and the first publication of this theory is believed to be a 1980 children's book.<a href="#cite_note-SLJ407-193">[192]</a> Quilt historians and scholars of pre-Civil War (1820–1860) America have disputed this legend.<a href="#cite_note-194">[193]</a> There is no contemporary evidence of any sort of quilt code, and quilt historians such as Pat Cummings and Barbara Brackman have raised serious questions about the idea. In addition, Underground Railroad historian Giles Wright has published a pamphlet debunking the quilt code. Similarly, some popular, nonacademic sources claim that spirituals and other songs, such as "Steal Away" or "<a href="/wiki/Follow_the_Drinkin%27_Gourd" title="Follow the Drinkin' Gourd">Follow the Drinking Gourd</a>", contained coded information and helped individuals navigate the railroad. They have offered little evidence to support their claims. Scholars tend to believe that while the slave songs may certainly have expressed hope for deliverance from the sorrows of this world, these songs did not present literal help for runaway slaves.<a href="#cite_note-songstory-195">[194]</a> The Underground Railroad inspired cultural works. For example, "<a href="/wiki/Song_of_the_Free" title="Song of the Free">Song of the Free</a>", written in 1860 about a man fleeing slavery in <a href="/wiki/Tennessee" title="Tennessee">Tennessee</a> by escaping to Canada, was composed to the tune of "<a href="/wiki/Oh!_Susanna" title="Oh! Susanna">Oh! Susanna</a>". Every stanza ends with a reference to Canada as the land "where colored men are free". Slavery in <a href="/wiki/Upper_Canada" title="Upper Canada">Upper Canada</a> (now Ontario) was outlawed in 1793; in 1819, <a href="/wiki/Sir_John_Robinson,_1st_Baronet,_of_Toronto" title="Sir John Robinson, 1st Baronet, of Toronto">John Robinson</a>, the Attorney General of Upper Canada, declared that by residing in Canada, black residents were set free, and that Canadian courts would<a href="#cite_note-196">[195]</a> protect their freedom. <a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_Canada" title="Slavery in Canada">Slavery in Canada</a> as a whole had been in rapid decline after an 1803 court ruling, and was finally abolished outright in 1834. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Notable_people">Notable people</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Underground_Railroad&action=edit&section=34" title="Edit section: Notable people">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Category:Underground_Railroad_people" title="Category:Underground Railroad people">Category:Underground Railroad people</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1184024115"><div class="div-col" style="column-width: 22em;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ann_Bamford" title="Ann Bamford">Ann Bamford</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Brown_(abolitionist)" title="John Brown (abolitionist)">John Brown</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Owen_Brown_(abolitionist,_born_1771)" title="Owen Brown (abolitionist, born 1771)">Owen Brown (father)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Owen_Brown_(abolitionist,_born_1824)" title="Owen Brown (abolitionist, born 1824)">Owen Brown (son)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Samuel_Burris" title="Samuel Burris">Samuel Burris</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Obadiah_Bush" title="Obadiah Bush">Obadiah Bush</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Levi_Coffin" title="Levi Coffin">Levi Coffin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Elizabeth_Rous_Comstock" title="Elizabeth Rous Comstock">Elizabeth Rous Comstock</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hovenden_House,_Barn_and_Abolition_Hall#Abolitionism" title="Hovenden House, Barn and Abolition Hall">George Corson</a><a href="#cite_note-197">[196]</a><a href="#cite_note-198">[197]</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Moses_Dickson" title="Moses Dickson">Moses Dickson</a><a href="#cite_note-199">[198]</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Frederick_Douglass" title="Frederick Douglass">Frederick Douglass</a><a href="#cite_note-200">[199]</a><a href="#cite_note-201">[200]</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Asa_Drury" title="Asa Drury">Asa Drury</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/George_Hussey_Earle_Sr." title="George Hussey Earle Sr.">George Hussey Earle Sr.</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Calvin_Fairbank" title="Calvin Fairbank">Calvin Fairbank</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bartholomew_Fussell" title="Bartholomew Fussell">Bartholomew Fussell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Matilda_Joslyn_Gage" title="Matilda Joslyn Gage">Matilda Joslyn Gage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Galt" title="Thomas Galt">Thomas Galt</a><a href="#cite_note-202">[201]</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Garrett" title="Thomas Garrett">Thomas Garrett</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFoner2015155–159-203">[202]</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sydney_Howard_Gay" title="Sydney Howard Gay">Sydney Howard Gay</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFoner20159–10-204">[203]</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Josiah_Bushnell_Grinnell" class="mw-redirect" title="Josiah Bushnell Grinnell">Josiah Bushnell Grinnell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Frances_Harper" class="mw-redirect" title="Frances Harper">Frances Harper</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Laura_Smith_Haviland" title="Laura Smith Haviland">Laura Smith Haviland</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECalarco2008144–152-205">[204]</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lewis_Hayden" title="Lewis Hayden">Lewis Hayden</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECalarco2008153-206">[205]</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Hunn_(farmer)" title="John Hunn (farmer)">John Hunn</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFoner2015156-207">[206]</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roger_Hooker_Leavitt" title="Roger Hooker Leavitt">Roger Hooker Leavitt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jermain_Wesley_Loguen" title="Jermain Wesley Loguen">Jermain Wesley Loguen</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFoner2015180-208">[207]</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Samuel_Joseph_May" title="Samuel Joseph May">Samuel Joseph May</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFoner2015146–147-209">[208]</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Berry_Meachum" title="John Berry Meachum">John Berry Meachum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mary_Meachum" class="mw-redirect" title="Mary Meachum">Mary Meachum</a><a href="#cite_note-stlpublicradio-210">[209]</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cynthia_Catlin_Miller" title="Cynthia Catlin Miller">Cynthia Catlin Miller</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_M._Mitchell" title="William M. Mitchell">William M. Mitchell</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECalarco2008210–211-211">[210]</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Solomon_Northup" title="Solomon Northup">Solomon Northup</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECalarco2008222–224-212">[211]</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Parker_(abolitionist)" title="John Parker (abolitionist)">John Parker</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECalarco2008225–228-213">[212]</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Elijah_F._Pennypacker" title="Elijah F. Pennypacker">Elijah F. Pennypacker</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mary_Ellen_Pleasant" title="Mary Ellen Pleasant">Mary Ellen Pleasant</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Wesley_Posey" title="John Wesley Posey">John Wesley Posey</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECalarco2008236–238-214">[213]</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Amy_and_Isaac_Post" title="Amy and Isaac Post">Amy and Isaac Post</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peter_Quire" title="Peter Quire">Peter Quire</a><a href="#cite_note-215">[214]</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Rankin_(abolitionist)" title="John Rankin (abolitionist)">John Rankin</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECalarco2008242–250-216">[215]</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alexander_Milton_Ross" title="Alexander Milton Ross">Alexander Milton Ross</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/David_Ruggles" title="David Ruggles">David Ruggles</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFoner20152–3-217">[216]</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gerrit_Smith" title="Gerrit Smith">Gerrit Smith</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFoner201558–59,_123–124-218">[217]</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/George_Luther_Stearns" title="George Luther Stearns">George Luther Stearns</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_Still" title="William Still">William Still</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFoner201513-219">[218]</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Ton" title="John Ton">John Ton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charles_Turner_Torrey" title="Charles Turner Torrey">Charles Turner Torrey</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFoner201587–88-220">[219]</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_Troy_(abolitionist)" title="William Troy (abolitionist)">William Troy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Harriet_Tubman" title="Harriet Tubman">Harriet Tubman</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFoner2015190–194-221">[220]</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Martha_Coffin_Wright" title="Martha Coffin Wright">Martha Coffin Wright</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Van_Zandt" title="John Van Zandt">John Van Zandt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bernardhus_Van_Leer" title="Bernardhus Van Leer">Bernardhus Van Leer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Silvia_and_John_Webber" title="Silvia and John Webber">Silvia and John Webber</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Edward_Wetherill" title="Edward Wetherill">Edward Wetherill</a></li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="National_Underground_Railroad_Network">National Underground Railroad Network</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Underground_Railroad&action=edit&section=35" title="Edit section: National Underground Railroad Network">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Harriet_Tubman_Underground_Railroad_NHP_VC4.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d9/Harriet_Tubman_Underground_Railroad_NHP_VC4.jpg/220px-Harriet_Tubman_Underground_Railroad_NHP_VC4.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="137" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d9/Harriet_Tubman_Underground_Railroad_NHP_VC4.jpg/330px-Harriet_Tubman_Underground_Railroad_NHP_VC4.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d9/Harriet_Tubman_Underground_Railroad_NHP_VC4.jpg/440px-Harriet_Tubman_Underground_Railroad_NHP_VC4.jpg 2x" data-file-width="4572" data-file-height="2838" /></a><figcaption>The Harriet Tubman Underground Railroad National Historical Park in Dorchester County, Maryland</figcaption></figure> Following upon legislation passed in 1990 for the National Park Service to perform a special resource study of the Underground Railroad,<a href="#cite_note-222">[221]</a> in 1997, the <a href="/wiki/105th_United_States_Congress" title="105th United States Congress">105th Congress</a> introduced and subsequently passed H.R. 1635 – National Underground Railroad Network to Freedom Act of 1998, which President <a href="/wiki/Bill_Clinton" title="Bill Clinton">Bill Clinton</a> signed into law that year.<a href="#cite_note-223">[222]</a> This act authorized the <a href="/wiki/United_States_National_Park_Service" class="mw-redirect" title="United States National Park Service">United States National Park Service</a> to establish the National Underground Railroad Network to Freedom program to identify associated sites, as well as preserve them and popularize the Underground Railroad and stories of people involved in it. The National Park Service has designated many sites within the network, posted stories about people and places, sponsors an essay contest, and holds a national conference about the Underground Railroad in May or June each year.<a href="#cite_note-224">[223]</a> The <a href="/wiki/Harriet_Tubman_Underground_Railroad_National_Historical_Park" title="Harriet Tubman Underground Railroad National Historical Park">Harriet Tubman Underground Railroad National Historical Park</a>, which includes Underground Railroad routes in three counties of <a href="/wiki/Eastern_Shore_of_Maryland" title="Eastern Shore of Maryland">Maryland's Eastern Shore</a> and <a href="/wiki/Harriet_Tubman%27s_birthplace" title="Harriet Tubman's birthplace">Harriet Tubman's birthplace</a>, was created by President <a href="/wiki/Barack_Obama" title="Barack Obama">Barack Obama</a> under the <a href="/wiki/Antiquities_Act" title="Antiquities Act">Antiquities Act</a> on March 25, 2013.<a href="#cite_note-225">[224]</a> Its sister park, the <a href="/wiki/Harriet_Tubman_National_Historical_Park" title="Harriet Tubman National Historical Park">Harriet Tubman National Historical Park</a> in <a href="/wiki/Auburn,_New_York" title="Auburn, New York">Auburn</a>, New York, was established on January 10, 2017, and focuses on the later years of Tubman's life as well as her involvement with the Underground Railroad and the <a href="/wiki/Abolitionism_in_the_United_States" title="Abolitionism in the United States">abolition movement</a>.<a href="#cite_note-226">[225]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="International_Underground_Railroad_Month">International Underground Railroad Month</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Underground_Railroad&action=edit&section=36" title="Edit section: International Underground Railroad Month">edit</a>]</div> The month of September was designated International Underground Railroad Month, because September was the month <a href="/wiki/Harriet_Tubman" title="Harriet Tubman">Harriet Tubman</a> and <a href="/wiki/Frederick_Douglass" title="Frederick Douglass">Frederick Douglass</a> escaped from slavery.<a href="#cite_note-227">[226]</a><a href="#cite_note-228">[227]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="In_popular_culture">In popular culture</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Underground_Railroad&action=edit&section=37" title="Edit section: In popular culture">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:2023_Ohio_American_Innovation_Dollar.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/eb/2023_Ohio_American_Innovation_Dollar.jpg/220px-2023_Ohio_American_Innovation_Dollar.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="220" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/e/eb/2023_Ohio_American_Innovation_Dollar.jpg 1.5x" data-file-width="300" data-file-height="300" /></a><figcaption>The Underground Railroad is memorialized on the reverse of the 2023 Ohio <a href="/wiki/American_Innovation_dollars" title="American Innovation dollars">American Innovation dollar</a></figcaption></figure> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Inspirations_for_fiction">Inspirations for fiction</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Underground_Railroad&action=edit&section=38" title="Edit section: Inspirations for fiction">edit</a>]</div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/The_Underground_Railroad_(novel)" title="The Underground Railroad (novel)">The Underground Railroad</a> is a 2016 novel by <a href="/wiki/Colson_Whitehead" title="Colson Whitehead">Colson Whitehead</a>. It won the 2016 National Book Award and the 2017 <a href="/wiki/Pulitzer_Prize_for_Fiction" title="Pulitzer Prize for Fiction">Pulitzer Prize for Fiction</a>.<a href="#cite_note-229">[228]</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Underground_Railroad_(TV_series)" class="mw-redirect" title="The Underground Railroad (TV series)">The Underground Railroad</a> is a 2021 <a href="/wiki/Streaming_television" title="Streaming television">streaming television</a> limited series, based on Whitehead's novel.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Underground_(TV_series)" title="Underground (TV series)">Underground</a> is an American television series that premiered in 2016, on <a href="/wiki/WGN_America" title="WGN America">WGN America</a>.</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Literature">Literature</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Underground_Railroad&action=edit&section=39" title="Edit section: Literature">edit</a>]</div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/David_Walker_(abolitionist)" title="David Walker (abolitionist)">David Walker</a> (1829) Appeal to the Coloured Citizens of the World</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Harriet_Beecher_Stowe" title="Harriet Beecher Stowe">Harriet Beecher Stowe</a> (1852) <a href="/wiki/Uncle_Tom%27s_Cabin" title="Uncle Tom's Cabin">Uncle Tom's Cabin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Caroline_Lee_Hentz" title="Caroline Lee Hentz">Caroline Lee Hentz</a> (1854) <a href="/wiki/The_Planter%27s_Northern_Bride" title="The Planter's Northern Bride">The Planter's Northern Bride</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_M._Mitchell" title="William M. Mitchell">William M. Mitchell</a> (1860) <a href="https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/The_Under-Ground_Railroad" class="extiw" title="s:The Under-Ground Railroad">The Under-Ground Railroad</a><a href="#cite_note-230">[229]</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sarah_Hopkins_Bradford" title="Sarah Hopkins Bradford">Sarah Hopkins Bradford</a> (1869) Scenes in the Life of <a href="/wiki/Harriet_Tubman" title="Harriet Tubman">Harriet Tubman</a>; (1896) Harriet Tubman, Moses of Her People</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Barbara_Smucker" title="Barbara Smucker">Barbara Smucker</a>, (1977) <a href="/wiki/Underground_to_Canada" title="Underground to Canada">Underground to Canada</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Music">Music</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Underground_Railroad&action=edit&section=40" title="Edit section: Music">edit</a>]</div> Underground Railroad was a company created by <a href="/wiki/Tupac_Shakur" title="Tupac Shakur">Tupac Shakur</a>, Big D the Impossible, Shock G, Pee Wee, Jeremy, Raw Fusion and Live Squad with the purpose of promoting and helping young black women and men with creating records, allowing them to initiate and develop their musical careers.<a href="#cite_note-231">[230]</a><a href="#cite_note-232">[231]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Comics">Comics</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Underground_Railroad&action=edit&section=41" title="Edit section: Comics">edit</a>]</div> In Big Jim and the White Boy, <a href="/wiki/David_F._Walker" title="David F. Walker">David F. Walker</a> and Marcus Kwame Anderson's upcoming graphic novel retelling of <a href="/wiki/Mark_Twain" title="Mark Twain">Mark Twain</a>'s <a href="/wiki/Adventures_of_Huckleberry_Finn" title="Adventures of Huckleberry Finn">Adventures of Huckleberry Finn</a>, Big Jim and Huck become Underground Railroad agents as they journey through Civil War-era United States to rescue the former's enslaved family.<a href="#cite_note-233">[232]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Underground_Railroad&action=edit&section=42" title="Edit section: See also">edit</a>]</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239009302">.mw-parser-output .portalbox{padding:0;margin:0.5em 0;display:table;box-sizing:border-box;max-width:175px;list-style:none}.mw-parser-output .portalborder{border:1px solid var(--border-color-base,#a2a9b1);padding:0.1em;background:var(--background-color-neutral-subtle,#f8f9fa)}.mw-parser-output .portalbox-entry{display:table-row;font-size:85%;line-height:110%;height:1.9em;font-style:italic;font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output .portalbox-image{display:table-cell;padding:0.2em;vertical-align:middle;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .portalbox-link{display:table-cell;padding:0.2em 0.2em 0.2em 0.3em;vertical-align:middle}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .portalleft{clear:left;float:left;margin:0.5em 1em 0.5em 0}.mw-parser-output .portalright{clear:right;float:right;margin:0.5em 0 0.5em 1em}}</style><ul role="navigation" aria-label="Portals" class="noprint portalbox portalborder portalright"> <li class="portalbox-entry"><img alt="flag" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/a/a4/Flag_of_the_United_States.svg/32px-Flag_of_the_United_States.svg.png" decoding="async" width="32" height="17" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/a/a4/Flag_of_the_United_States.svg/48px-Flag_of_the_United_States.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/a/a4/Flag_of_the_United_States.svg/64px-Flag_of_the_United_States.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1235" data-file-height="650" /><a href="/wiki/Portal:United_States" title="Portal:United States">United States portal</a></li></ul> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1184024115"><div class="div-col"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ausable_Chasm" title="Ausable Chasm">Ausable Chasm</a>, NY, home of the North Star Underground Railroad Museum</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Caroline_Quarlls" title="Caroline Quarlls">Caroline Quarlls</a> (1824–1892), first known person to escape slavery through Wisconsin's Underground Railroad</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fort_Mose_Historic_State_Park" class="mw-redirect" title="Fort Mose Historic State Park">Fort Mose Historic State Park</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Josiah_Henson_Museum_of_African-Canadian_History" title="Josiah Henson Museum of African-Canadian History">Josiah Henson Museum of African-Canadian History</a> near <a href="/wiki/Dresden,_Ontario" title="Dresden, Ontario">Dresden, Ontario</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Underground_Railroad_sites" title="List of Underground Railroad sites">List of Underground Railroad sites</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tilly_Escape" title="Tilly Escape">Tilly Escape</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Timbuctoo,_New_York" title="Timbuctoo, New York">Timbuctoo, New York</a></li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Notes">Notes</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Underground_Railroad&action=edit&section=43" title="Edit section: Notes">edit</a>]</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist reflist-lower-alpha"> <div class="mw-references-wrap"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-113"><a href="#cite_ref-113">^</a> Of recent years, unauthorized migrants have died when crossing this area, evidenced by bones found by immigration agents.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBurnett2021-106">[106]</a> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Underground_Railroad&action=edit&section=44" title="Edit section: References">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239543626"><div class="reflist reflist-columns references-column-width" style="column-width: 30em;"> <ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHudson20151,_6,_10-1"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHudson20151,_6,_10_1-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFHudson2015">Hudson 2015</a>, pp. 1, 6, 10. </li> <li id="cite_note-2"><a href="#cite_ref-2">^</a> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite class="citation book cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=7m8mTMjMSRYC&q=unaided">Special Resource Study, Management Concepts Underground Railroad</a>. U.S. Department of the Interior, National Park Service, Denver Service Center. 1995. p. 19.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Special+Resource+Study%2C+Management+Concepts+Underground+Railroad&rft.pages=19&rft.pub=U.S.+Department+of+the+Interior%2C+National+Park+Service%2C+Denver+Service+Center&rft.date=1995&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D7m8mTMjMSRYC%26q%3Dunaided&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AUnderground+Railroad" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-3"><a href="#cite_ref-3">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.nps.gov/subjects/undergroundrailroad/what-is-the-underground-railroad.htm#:~:text=The%20Underground%20Railroad%E2%80%94the%20resistance,there%20were%20efforts%20to%20escape.">"What is the Underground Railroad?"</a>. Underground Railroad Network to Freedom. Retrieved September 9, 2024.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Underground+Railroad+Network+to+Freedom&rft.atitle=What+is+the+Underground+Railroad%3F&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.nps.gov%2Fsubjects%2Fundergroundrailroad%2Fwhat-is-the-underground-railroad.htm%23%3A~%3Atext%3DThe%2520Underground%2520Railroad%25E2%2580%2594the%2520resistance%2Cthere%2520were%2520efforts%2520to%2520escape.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AUnderground+Railroad" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-4"><a href="#cite_ref-4">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://dspace.njstatelib.org/server/api/core/bitstreams/2d0a25c0-0b00-4c37-a53f-b8888b3e2193/content">"New Jersey's Underground Railroad Heritage"</a>. New Jersey Historical Commission. New Jersey State Library. Retrieved September 18, 2024.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=New+Jersey+Historical+Commission&rft.atitle=New+Jersey%27s+Underground+Railroad+Heritage&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdspace.njstatelib.org%2Fserver%2Fapi%2Fcore%2Fbitstreams%2F2d0a25c0-0b00-4c37-a53f-b8888b3e2193%2Fcontent&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AUnderground+Railroad" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-5"><a href="#cite_ref-5">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.nps.gov/parkhistory/online_books/ugrr/exugrr2.htm#:~:text=The%20runaways%20became%20%22contraband%2C%22,the%20Army%20were%20initially%20rebuffed.">"Historic Context for the Underground Railroad"</a>. Researching and Interpreting the Underground Railroad. The National Park Service. Retrieved September 8, 2024.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Researching+and+Interpreting+the+Underground+Railroad&rft.atitle=Historic+Context+for+the+Underground+Railroad&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.nps.gov%2Fparkhistory%2Fonline_books%2Fugrr%2Fexugrr2.htm%23%3A~%3Atext%3DThe%2520runaways%2520became%2520%2522contraband%252C%2522%2Cthe%2520Army%2520were%2520initially%2520rebuffed.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AUnderground+Railroad" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-6"><a href="#cite_ref-6">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.pbs.org/wgbh/aia/part4/4p2944.html">"The Underground Railroad c.1780 - 1862"</a>. Africans in America. PBS. Retrieved September 9, 2024.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Africans+in+America&rft.atitle=The+Underground+Railroad+c.1780+-+1862&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.pbs.org%2Fwgbh%2Faia%2Fpart4%2F4p2944.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AUnderground+Railroad" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-afroamhistory-7">^ <a href="#cite_ref-afroamhistory_7-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-afroamhistory_7-1">b</a> Vox, Lisa, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://afroamhistory.about.com/od/slavery/a/How-Did-Slaves-Resist-Slavery.htm">"How Did Slaves Resist Slavery?"</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20110711102749/http://afroamhistory.about.com/od/slavery/a/How-Did-Slaves-Resist-Slavery.htm">Archived</a> July 11, 2011, at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>, African-American History, About.com. Retrieved July 17, 2011. </li> <li id="cite_note-8"><a href="#cite_ref-8">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCross2010" class="citation book cs1">Cross, L.D. (2010). The Underground Railroad: The long journey to freedom in Canada. Toronto, ON: James Lorimer Limited, Publishers. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-55277-581-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-55277-581-3"><bdi>978-1-55277-581-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Underground+Railroad%3A+The+long+journey+to+freedom+in+Canada&rft.place=Toronto%2C+ON&rft.pub=James+Lorimer+Limited%2C+Publishers&rft.date=2010&rft.isbn=978-1-55277-581-3&rft.aulast=Cross&rft.aufirst=L.D.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AUnderground+Railroad" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-9"><a href="#cite_ref-9">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHunter2013" class="citation book cs1">Hunter, Carol (December 20, 2013). To Set the Captives Free. Reverend Jermain Wesley Loguen and the struggle for freedom in central New York 1835–1872 (2nd ed.). Hyrax Publishing. p. 139. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1494767983" title="Special:BookSources/978-1494767983"><bdi>978-1494767983</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=To+Set+the+Captives+Free.+Reverend+Jermain+Wesley+Loguen+and+the+struggle+for+freedom+in+central+New+York+1835%E2%80%931872&rft.pages=139&rft.edition=2nd&rft.pub=Hyrax+Publishing&rft.date=2013-12-20&rft.isbn=978-1494767983&rft.aulast=Hunter&rft.aufirst=Carol&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AUnderground+Railroad" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-10"><a href="#cite_ref-10">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation encyclopaedia cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/Underground%20Railroad">"Underground Railroad"</a>. dictionary.com. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20151003155223/http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/underground%20railroad">Archived</a> from the original on October 3, 2015. Retrieved July 17, 2011. <q>'A network of houses and other places abolitionists used to help enslaved Africans escape to freedom in the northern states or in Canada ... ' —American Heritage Dictionary</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Underground+Railroad&rft.btitle=dictionary.com&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fdictionary.reference.com%2Fbrowse%2FUnderground%2520Railroad&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AUnderground+Railroad" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-PBS-11"><a href="#cite_ref-PBS_11-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.pbs.org/wgbh/aia/part4/4p2944.html">"The Underground Railroad"</a>. Public Broadcasting Service. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20180622122605/http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/aia/part4/4p2944.html">Archived</a> from the original on June 22, 2018. Retrieved July 25, 2007.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=The+Underground+Railroad&rft.pub=Public+Broadcasting+Service&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.pbs.org%2Fwgbh%2Faia%2Fpart4%2F4p2944.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AUnderground+Railroad" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-12"><a href="#cite_ref-12">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLeanos2017" class="citation web cs1">Leanos, Reynaldo Jr. (2017). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.pri.org/stories/2017-03-29/underground-railroad-took-slaves-freedom-mexico">"This underground railroad took slaves to freedom in Mexico, PRI's The World, Public Radio International, March 29, 2017"</a>. Minneapolis, MN: Public Radio International. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20201018081421/https://www.pri.org/stories/2017-03-29/underground-railroad-took-slaves-freedom-mexico">Archived</a> from the original on October 18, 2020. Retrieved September 4, 2019.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=This+underground+railroad+took+slaves+to+freedom+in+Mexico%2C+PRI%27s+The+World%2C+Public+Radio+International%2C+March+29%2C+2017&rft.place=Minneapolis%2C+MN&rft.pub=Public+Radio+International&rft.date=2017&rft.aulast=Leanos&rft.aufirst=Reynaldo+Jr.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.pri.org%2Fstories%2F2017-03-29%2Funderground-railroad-took-slaves-freedom-mexico&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AUnderground+Railroad" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-13"><a href="#cite_ref-13">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation book cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/sheoh017_Jones_Leesa_transcript">Leesa Jones Interview Transcript, 2020-01-07 [SHE.OH.017]</a>. January 7, 2020.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Leesa+Jones+Interview+Transcript%2C+2020-01-07+%5BSHE.OH.017%5D&rft.date=2020-01-07&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fsheoh017_Jones_Leesa_transcript&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AUnderground+Railroad" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-14"><a href="#cite_ref-14">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSmith2012" class="citation news cs1">Smith, Bruce (March 18, 2012). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20120321073827/https://www.google.com/hostednews/ap/article/ALeqM5jiODwWs22MG9qBGQ_ZI9U-6W3s9g?docId=b67287f0636841dfbad57fb14222cd97">"For a century, Underground Railroad ran south"</a>. Associated Press. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.google.com/hostednews/ap/article/ALeqM5jiODwWs22MG9qBGQ_ZI9U-6W3s9g?docId=b67287f0636841dfbad57fb14222cd97">the original</a> on March 21, 2012. Retrieved March 23, 2012.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.atitle=For+a+century%2C+Underground+Railroad+ran+south&rft.date=2012-03-18&rft.aulast=Smith&rft.aufirst=Bruce&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.google.com%2Fhostednews%2Fap%2Farticle%2FALeqM5jiODwWs22MG9qBGQ_ZI9U-6W3s9g%3FdocId%3Db67287f0636841dfbad57fb14222cd97&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AUnderground+Railroad" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-15"><a href="#cite_ref-15">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMcIver1993" class="citation news cs1">McIver, Stuart (February 14, 1993). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20180213021610/http://articles.sun-sentinel.com/1993-02-14/features/9301090665_1_slaves-underground-railroad-francisco-menendez/2">"Fort Moses's Call To Freedom. Florida's Little-known Underground Railroad Was the Escape Route Taken by Slaves Who Fled to the State in the 1700s and Established America's First Black Town"</a>. <a href="/wiki/Sun-Sentinel" class="mw-redirect" title="Sun-Sentinel">Sun-Sentinel</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://articles.sun-sentinel.com/1993-02-14/features/9301090665_1_slaves-underground-railroad-francisco-menendez/2">the original</a> on February 13, 2018. 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The Canadian Encyclopedia. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210509210944/https://www.thecanadianencyclopedia.ca/en/article/underground-railroad#:~:text=An%2520estimated%252030%252C000%2520to%252040%252C000,reached%2520the%2520Province%2520of%2520Canada.">Archived</a> from the original on May 9, 2021. 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Retrieved September 13, 2024.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Atlas+Obscura&rft.atitle=A+Historical+Dig+Sheds+Light+on+the+Food+of+the+Underground+Railroad&rft.date=2020-10-14&rft.aulast=Gattuso&rft.aufirst=Reina&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.atlasobscura.com%2Farticles%2Fwhat-did-people-eat-on-underground-railroad&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AUnderground+Railroad" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-42"><a href="#cite_ref-42">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://mrnussbaum.com/storage/uploads/activities/tubman/path.htm">"The Underground Railroad"</a>. mrnussbaum.com. 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Townsend Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781591944140" title="Special:BookSources/9781591944140"><bdi>9781591944140</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=William+Still+and+the+Underground+Railroad&rft.pub=Townsend+Press&rft.date=2008&rft.isbn=9781591944140&rft.aulast=Stevens&rft.aufirst=Kathleen&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DljljDwAAQBAJ%26q%3DThat%2520night%2C%2520under%2520cover%2520of%2520darkness&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AUnderground+Railroad" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-44"><a href="#cite_ref-44">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBiehl" class="citation web cs1">Biehl, Andre F. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://slavery.princeton.edu/stories/strategies-for-escape">"Strategies for Escape: A Study of Fugitive Slave Ads (1770-1819)"</a>. 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Cincinnati: Western Tract and Book Society. pp. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/ASPC0002367700/page/n96">96</a>–97.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+soldier%2C+the+battle%2C+and+the+victory+%3A+being+a+brief+account+of+the+work+of+Rev.+John+Rankin+in+the+anti-slavery+cause&rft.place=Cincinnati&rft.pages=96-97&rft.pub=Western+Tract+and+Book+Society&rft.date=1870&rft.aulast=Ritchie&rft.aufirst=Andrew&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2FASPC0002367700&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AUnderground+Railroad" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-48"><a href="#cite_ref-48">^</a> Blight, David, 2004, p. 3. </li> <li id="cite_note-49"><a href="#cite_ref-49">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWright1896" class="citation news cs1">Wright, Mary E. 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National Geographic Society. November 16, 2011. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20170801160322/https://www.nationalgeographic.org/maps/undergroundrailroad/">Archived</a> from the original on August 1, 2017. Retrieved August 1, 2017.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=National+Geographic+Society&rft.atitle=The+Underground+Railroad&rft.date=2011-11-16&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.nationalgeographic.org%2Fmaps%2Fundergroundrailroad%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AUnderground+Railroad" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-51"><a href="#cite_ref-51">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMiles2011" class="citation magazine cs1">Miles, Tiya (Summer 2011). "Of Waterways and Runaways: Reflections on the Great Lakes in Underground Railroad History". Michigan Quarterly Review. Vol. L, no. 3. <a href="/wiki/Hdl_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Hdl (identifier)">hdl</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://hdl.handle.net/2027%2Fspo.act2080.0050.320">2027/spo.act2080.0050.320</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/1558-7266">1558-7266</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Michigan+Quarterly+Review&rft.atitle=Of+Waterways+and+Runaways%3A+Reflections+on+the+Great+Lakes+in+Underground+Railroad+History&rft.ssn=summer&rft.volume=L&rft.issue=3&rft.date=2011&rft_id=info%3Ahdl%2F2027%2Fspo.act2080.0050.320&rft.issn=1558-7266&rft.aulast=Miles&rft.aufirst=Tiya&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AUnderground+Railroad" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-52"><a href="#cite_ref-52">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation book cs1">History of Salem Township, Washtenaw County, Michigan. 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Lancaster: PHMC.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Vigilance+in+Pennsylvania%3A+Underground+Railroad+Activities+in+the+Keystone+State%2C+1837%E2%80%931861&rft.place=Lancaster&rft.pub=PHMC&rft.date=2000&rft.aulast=Pinsker&rft.aufirst=Matthew&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AUnderground+Railroad" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEFoner2015-54">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFoner2015_54-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFoner2015_54-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFFoner2015">Foner 2015</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-55"><a href="#cite_ref-55">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLaroche2013" class="citation book cs1">Laroche, Cheryl J. (2013). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=d7gPBAAAQBAJ&q=free+blacks+underground+railroad">Free Black Communities and the Underground Railroad The Geography of Resistance</a>. University of Illinois Press. pp. 1–3. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780252095894" title="Special:BookSources/9780252095894"><bdi>9780252095894</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Free+Black+Communities+and+the+Underground+Railroad+The+Geography+of+Resistance&rft.pages=1-3&rft.pub=University+of+Illinois+Press&rft.date=2013&rft.isbn=9780252095894&rft.aulast=Laroche&rft.aufirst=Cheryl+J.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Dd7gPBAAAQBAJ%26q%3Dfree%2Bblacks%2Bunderground%2Brailroad&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AUnderground+Railroad" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-56"><a href="#cite_ref-56">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMiller" class="citation web cs1">Miller, Diane. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.nps.gov/npgallery/GetAsset/5c8a5ce2-d40d-4a57-bbef-703aac0b479c">"The Underground Railroad in Bleeding Kansas"</a>. The National Park Service. Retrieved September 16, 2024.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=The+National+Park+Service&rft.atitle=The+Underground+Railroad+in+Bleeding+Kansas&rft.aulast=Miller&rft.aufirst=Diane&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.nps.gov%2Fnpgallery%2FGetAsset%2F5c8a5ce2-d40d-4a57-bbef-703aac0b479c&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AUnderground+Railroad" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-57"><a href="#cite_ref-57">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGara2013" class="citation book cs1">Gara, Larry (2013). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=WK48TBgPW-EC&q=folklore">The Liberty Line The Legend of the Underground Railroad</a>. University Press of Kentucky. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780813143569" title="Special:BookSources/9780813143569"><bdi>9780813143569</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Liberty+Line+The+Legend+of+the+Underground+Railroad&rft.pub=University+Press+of+Kentucky&rft.date=2013&rft.isbn=9780813143569&rft.aulast=Gara&rft.aufirst=Larry&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DWK48TBgPW-EC%26q%3Dfolklore&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AUnderground+Railroad" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-58"><a href="#cite_ref-58">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.nps.gov/articles/the-niagara-river-between-slavery-and-freedom.htm">"The Niagara River: Between Slavery and Freedom"</a>. 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Retrieved September 21, 2024.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=NPS&rft.atitle=Niagara+Falls+Underground+Railroad+Heritage+Center&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.nps.gov%2Fplaces%2Fniagara-falls-underground-railroad-heritage-center.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AUnderground+Railroad" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-60"><a href="#cite_ref-60">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://maap.columbia.edu/place/1.html">"Downing's Oyster House"</a>. Mapping the African American Past. Columbia University. Retrieved June 20, 2024.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Mapping+the+African+American+Past&rft.atitle=Downing%27s+Oyster+House&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fmaap.columbia.edu%2Fplace%2F1.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AUnderground+Railroad" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-61"><a href="#cite_ref-61">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBlaisdellRudisel2014" class="citation book cs1">Blaisdell, Bob; Rudisel, Christine (2014). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=0g_dAwAAQBAJ&q=civil%20war">Slave Narratives of the Underground Railroad</a>. Dover Publications. p. 72. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780486780610" title="Special:BookSources/9780486780610"><bdi>9780486780610</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Slave+Narratives+of+the+Underground+Railroad&rft.pages=72&rft.pub=Dover+Publications&rft.date=2014&rft.isbn=9780486780610&rft.aulast=Blaisdell&rft.aufirst=Bob&rft.au=Rudisel%2C+Christine&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D0g_dAwAAQBAJ%26q%3Dcivil%2520war&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AUnderground+Railroad" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-62"><a href="#cite_ref-62">^</a> Blight, David, 2004, p. 175 </li> <li id="cite_note-63"><a href="#cite_ref-63">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFStill1872" class="citation book cs1">Still, William (1872). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.goodreads.com/book/show/21243533-the-underground-railroad?from_search=true&search_version=service_impr">The Underground Railroad: Authentic Narratives and First-Hand Accounts</a>. <a href="/wiki/ASIN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ASIN (identifier)">ASIN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.amazon.com/dp/B00264GNTU">B00264GNTU</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20181214092959/https://www.goodreads.com/book/show/21243533-the-underground-railroad?from_search=true&search_version=service_impr">Archived</a> from the original on December 14, 2018. Retrieved July 25, 2015.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Underground+Railroad%3A+Authentic+Narratives+and+First-Hand+Accounts&rft.date=1872&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.amazon.com%2Fdp%2FB00264GNTU%23id-name%3DASIN&rft.aulast=Still&rft.aufirst=William&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.goodreads.com%2Fbook%2Fshow%2F21243533-the-underground-railroad%3Ffrom_search%3Dtrue%26search_version%3Dservice_impr&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AUnderground+Railroad" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-64"><a href="#cite_ref-64">^</a> Dictated by Robert Jackson a.k.a. Wesley Harris on November 2, 1853. "Engravings by Bensell, Schell, and others." </li> <li id="cite_note-65"><a href="#cite_ref-65">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCedarville_University2018" class="citation journal cs1">Cedarville University (February 12, 2018). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://digitalcommons.cedarville.edu/wyland_collection/85">"Underground Railroad Hiding Places"</a>. Slideshow Images. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210424165353/https://digitalcommons.cedarville.edu/wyland_collection/85/">Archived</a> from the original on April 24, 2021. 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Wabash Valley Visions & Voices Digital Memory Project. 1930s. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210415024158/http://visions.indstate.edu:8888/cdm/singleitem/collection/isulib/id/7638/rec/3">Archived</a> from the original on April 15, 2021. Retrieved February 27, 2021.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Wabash+Valley+Visions+%26+Voices+Digital+Memory+Project&rft.atitle=Point+of+interest+at+Oakland+City%E2%80%94site+of+barn+of+Col.+James+W.+Cockrum+used+as+an+underground+railroad+station&rft.date=1930&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fvisions.indstate.edu%3A8888%2Fcdm%2Fsingleitem%2Fcollection%2Fisulib%2Fid%2F7638%2Frec%2F3&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AUnderground+Railroad" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-67"><a href="#cite_ref-67">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://nmaahc.si.edu/blog/underground-railroad">"The Underground Railroad"</a>. National Museum of African American History and Culture. March 15, 2017. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210310182912/https://nmaahc.si.edu/blog/underground-railroad">Archived</a> from the original on March 10, 2021. Retrieved February 28, 2021.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=National+Museum+of+African+American+History+and+Culture&rft.atitle=The+Underground+Railroad&rft.date=2017-03-15&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fnmaahc.si.edu%2Fblog%2Funderground-railroad&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AUnderground+Railroad" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-68"><a href="#cite_ref-68">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://lestweforget.hamptonu.edu/page.cfm?uuid=9FEC4E64-D74A-B3E9-A15B5ED01281AC79">"The Smith Underground Railroad Station :: Ohio :: Henry Robert Burke :: Lest We Forget"</a>. lestweforget.hamptonu.edu. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210415024543/http://lestweforget.hamptonu.edu/page.cfm?uuid=9FEC4E64-D74A-B3E9-A15B5ED01281AC79">Archived</a> from the original on April 15, 2021. Retrieved February 28, 2021.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=lestweforget.hamptonu.edu&rft.atitle=The+Smith+Underground+Railroad+Station+%3A%3A+Ohio+%3A%3A+Henry+Robert+Burke+%3A%3A+Lest+We+Forget&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Flestweforget.hamptonu.edu%2Fpage.cfm%3Fuuid%3D9FEC4E64-D74A-B3E9-A15B5ED01281AC79&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AUnderground+Railroad" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-69"><a href="#cite_ref-69">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.safepassageohio.org/resources/weblesson.pdf">"Underground Railroad Codes"</a> (PDF). Myths and Codes of the Underground Railroad. Safe Passage. Greater Cincinnati Television Educational Foundation. p. 20. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20180612135935/http://www.safepassageohio.org/resources/weblesson.pdf">Archived</a> (PDF) from the original on June 12, 2018. Retrieved June 29, 2013.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Myths+and+Codes+of+the+Underground+Railroad&rft.atitle=Underground+Railroad+Codes&rft.pages=20&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.safepassageohio.org%2Fresources%2Fweblesson.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AUnderground+Railroad" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-70"><a href="#cite_ref-70">^</a> Bordewich, Fergus, 2005, p. 236 </li> <li id="cite_note-71"><a href="#cite_ref-71">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFTorrey2013" class="citation book cs1">Torrey, E. Fuller (2013). The Martyrdom of Abolitionist Charles Torrey. Baton Rouge: Louisiana State University Press.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Martyrdom+of+Abolitionist+Charles+Torrey&rft.place=Baton+Rouge&rft.pub=Louisiana+State+University+Press&rft.date=2013&rft.aulast=Torrey&rft.aufirst=E.+Fuller&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AUnderground+Railroad" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-72"><a href="#cite_ref-72">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://npshistory.com/publications/nebe/brochures/underground-railroad2.pdf">"The Underground Railroad: New Bedford Massachusetts"</a> (PDF). The National Park Service. 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Christian Science Monitor. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20180907110326/https://www.csmonitor.com/2004/0120/p19s02-bogn.html">Archived</a> from the original on September 7, 2018. Retrieved January 9, 2012.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Christian+Science+Monitor&rft.atitle=The+most+famous+abductor+on+the+Underground+Railroad&rft.date=2004-01-20&rft.aulast=Wellington&rft.aufirst=Darryl+Lorenzo&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.csmonitor.com%2F2004%2F0120%2Fp19s02-bogn.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AUnderground+Railroad" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-76"><a href="#cite_ref-76">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.history.com/topics/black-history/underground-railroad">"Underground Railroad - Black History - HISTORY.com"</a>. 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Retrieved September 8, 2024.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=The+White+House+Historical+Association&rft.atitle=Washington%2C+D.C.%27s+%22Contraband%22+Camps&rft.aulast=Fling&rft.aufirst=Sarah&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.whitehousehistory.org%2Fwashington-d-c-s-contraband-camps&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AUnderground+Railroad" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-166"><a href="#cite_ref-166">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFields-Black2024" class="citation book cs1">Fields-Black, Edda (2024). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=Tb3sEAAAQBAJ&q=refugee%20camps">Harriet Tubman, the Combahee River Raid, and Black Freedom During the Civil War</a>. Oxford University Press. pp. 193–195. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780197552797" title="Special:BookSources/9780197552797"><bdi>9780197552797</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Harriet+Tubman%2C+the+Combahee+River+Raid%2C+and+Black+Freedom+During+the+Civil+War&rft.pages=193-195&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2024&rft.isbn=9780197552797&rft.aulast=Fields-Black&rft.aufirst=Edda&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DTb3sEAAAQBAJ%26q%3Drefugee%2520camps&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AUnderground+Railroad" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-167"><a href="#cite_ref-167">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.nps.gov/shil/planyourvisit/contrabandcamp.htm">"Corinth Contraband Camp"</a>. Shiloh National Military Park. The National Park Service. Retrieved September 9, 2024.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Shiloh+National+Military+Park&rft.atitle=Corinth+Contraband+Camp&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.nps.gov%2Fshil%2Fplanyourvisit%2Fcontrabandcamp.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AUnderground+Railroad" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-168"><a href="#cite_ref-168">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.nps.gov/articles/000/corinth-contraband-camp-poi.htm">"Corinth Contraband Camp"</a>. The National Park Service. 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Retrieved September 19, 2024.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Naval+History+and+Heritage+Command&rft.atitle=African+Americans+in+the+U.S.+Navy+During+the+Civil+War&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.history.navy.mil%2Fbrowse-by-topic%2Fwars-conflicts-and-operations%2Fcivil-war-archive1%2Fafrican-americans-in-the-u-s--navy-during-the-civil-war.html%23%3A~%3Atext%3DThe%2520Navy%2520drew%2520upon%2520these%2Cof%2520the%2520Navy%2527s%2520enlisted%2520manpower.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AUnderground+Railroad" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-170"><a href="#cite_ref-170">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://news.stanford.edu/stories/2021/06/finding-fortitude-diaries-escaped-slave">"Stanford professor finds inspiration, fortitude from the diaries of his great-grandfather, who escaped slavery"</a>. 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Retrieved September 20, 2024.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=National+Archives+and+Records+Administration&rft.atitle=Black+Soldiers+in+the+U.S.+Military+During+the+Civil+War&rft.date=2016-08-15&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.archives.gov%2Feducation%2Flessons%2Fblacks-civil-war%23%3A~%3Atext%3DBy%2520the%2520end%2520of%2520the%2C19%252C000%2520served%2520in%2520the%2520Navy.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AUnderground+Railroad" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHudson20152,_9–10-172"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHudson20152,_9–10_172-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFHudson2015">Hudson 2015</a>, pp. 2, 9–10. </li> <li id="cite_note-173"><a href="#cite_ref-173">^</a> Mark Lardas, African American Soldier in the Civil War: USCT, 1862–66 </li> <li id="cite_note-174"><a href="#cite_ref-174">^</a> Ann Heinrichs, The Underground Railroad </li> <li id="cite_note-175"><a href="#cite_ref-175">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGindy2008" class="citation book cs1">Gindy, Gaye E. (2008). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.goodreads.com/book/show/4979770-the-underground-railroad-and-sylvania-s-historic-lathrop-house">The Underground Railroad and Sylvania's Historic Lathrop House</a>. AuthorHouse. p. 20. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781434367617" title="Special:BookSources/9781434367617"><bdi>9781434367617</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20160305004015/https://www.goodreads.com/book/show/4979770-the-underground-railroad-and-sylvania-s-historic-lathrop-house">Archived</a> from the original on March 5, 2016. Retrieved July 25, 2015.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Underground+Railroad+and+Sylvania%27s+Historic+Lathrop+House&rft.pages=20&rft.pub=AuthorHouse&rft.date=2008&rft.isbn=9781434367617&rft.aulast=Gindy&rft.aufirst=Gaye+E.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.goodreads.com%2Fbook%2Fshow%2F4979770-the-underground-railroad-and-sylvania-s-historic-lathrop-house&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AUnderground+Railroad" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-176"><a href="#cite_ref-176">^</a> Douglass, Frederick. (1845) Narrative of the Life of Frederick Douglass. Dover Publications. Chapter 11. </li> <li id="cite_note-Shadd2016-177"><a href="#cite_ref-Shadd2016_177-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFShadd2016" class="citation book cs1">Shadd, Mary Ann (2016). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=Ob1aDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA11">A Plea for Emigration; or Notes of Canada West: A Broadview Anthology of British Literature Edition</a>. Broadview Press. p. 11. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-55481-321-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-55481-321-6"><bdi>978-1-55481-321-6</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210415032411/https://books.google.com/books?id=Ob1aDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA11">Archived</a> from the original on April 15, 2021. Retrieved November 30, 2020.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+Plea+for+Emigration%3B+or+Notes+of+Canada+West%3A+A+Broadview+Anthology+of+British+Literature+Edition&rft.pages=11&rft.pub=Broadview+Press&rft.date=2016&rft.isbn=978-1-55481-321-6&rft.aulast=Shadd&rft.aufirst=Mary+Ann&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DOb1aDwAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPA11&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AUnderground+Railroad" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-CAN-178">^ <a href="#cite_ref-CAN_178-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-CAN_178-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20100106114439/http://www.histori.ca/minutes/minute.do?id=10166">"Settling Canada Underground Railroad"</a>. <a href="/wiki/Historica_Minutes" class="mw-redirect" title="Historica Minutes">Historica Minutes</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.histori.ca/minutes/minute.do?id=10166">the original</a> on January 6, 2010. Retrieved January 30, 2018. <q>Between 1840 and 1860, more than 30,000 people enslaved in America came secretly to Canada and freedom</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Historica+Minutes&rft.atitle=Settling+Canada+Underground+Railroad&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.histori.ca%2Fminutes%2Fminute.do%3Fid%3D10166&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AUnderground+Railroad" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-179"><a href="#cite_ref-179">^</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.cdva.ca.gov/news/GV%202-2-07.pdf">"From slavery to freedom"</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20070713234430/http://www.cdva.ca.gov/news/GV%202-2-07.pdf">Archived</a> July 13, 2007, at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>, The Grapevine, pp. 3–5. </li> <li id="cite_note-180"><a href="#cite_ref-180">^</a> <a href="/wiki/Deborah_Gray_White" title="Deborah Gray White">Deborah Gray White</a>, <a href="/wiki/Mia_Bay" title="Mia Bay">Mia Bay</a>, <a href="/wiki/Waldo_E._Martin_Jr." class="mw-redirect" title="Waldo E. Martin Jr.">Waldo E. Martin Jr.</a> Freedom on My Mind: A History of African Americans with Documents. Boston: Bedford/St. Martin's, p. 287. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-312-64883-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-312-64883-1">978-0-312-64883-1</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-181"><a href="#cite_ref-181">^</a> Bordewich, Fergus, 2005, p. 379 </li> <li id="cite_note-182"><a href="#cite_ref-182">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLandon1925" class="citation journal cs1">Landon, Fred (1925). "Amherstburg, Terminus of the Underground Railroad". <a href="/wiki/Journal_of_Negro_History" class="mw-redirect" title="Journal of Negro History">Journal of Negro History</a>. 10 (1): 5. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2307%2F2713665">10.2307/2713665</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/2713665">2713665</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:149997017">149997017</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+Negro+History&rft.atitle=Amherstburg%2C+Terminus+of+the+Underground+Railroad&rft.volume=10&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=5&rft.date=1925&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A149997017%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F2713665%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2307%2F2713665&rft.aulast=Landon&rft.aufirst=Fred&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AUnderground+Railroad" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTECalarcoVogelGroverHallstrom201115-183"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTECalarcoVogelGroverHallstrom201115_183-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFCalarcoVogelGroverHallstrom2011">Calarco et al. 2011</a>, p. 15. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTECalarco2008110-184"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTECalarco2008110_184-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFCalarco2008">Calarco 2008</a>, p. 110. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBrown1848107–108-185"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBrown1848107–108_185-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFBrown1848">Brown 1848</a>, pp. 107–108. </li> <li id="cite_note-186"><a href="#cite_ref-186">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.nps.gov/wori/learn/historyculture/martha-c-wright.htm">"Martha C. Wright"</a>. Women's Rights National Historical Park. Retrieved September 16, 2024.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Women%27s+Rights+National+Historical+Park&rft.atitle=Martha+C.+Wright&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.nps.gov%2Fwori%2Flearn%2Fhistoryculture%2Fmartha-c-wright.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AUnderground+Railroad" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-187"><a href="#cite_ref-187">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.leg.bc.ca:443/dyl/Pages/First-Black-Settlers-Arrive-in-Victoria.aspx">"First Black Settlers Arrive in Victoria"</a>. www.leg.bc.ca. 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Fernwood Publishing. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781552669792" title="Special:BookSources/9781552669792"><bdi>9781552669792</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Policing+Black+Lives+State+Violence+in+Canada+from+Slavery+to+the+Present&rft.pub=Fernwood+Publishing&rft.date=2017&rft.isbn=9781552669792&rft.au=Maynard&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AUnderground+Railroad" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-189"><a href="#cite_ref-189">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWinks1997" class="citation book cs1">Winks (1997). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=5cMTlnBYjxIC&q=racism">Blacks in Canada A History</a>. 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Retrieved January 16, 2017.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=www.nps.gov&rft.atitle=Network+to+Freedom+Homepage&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.nps.gov%2Fsubjects%2Fugrr%2Findex.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AUnderground+Railroad" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-225"><a href="#cite_ref-225">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.nps.gov/hatu/learn/management/index.htm">"Management – Harriet Tubman Underground Railroad National Historical Park (U.S. National Park Service)"</a>. www.nps.gov. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20200610193537/https://www.nps.gov/hatu/learn/management/index.htm">Archived</a> from the original on June 10, 2020. Retrieved June 10, 2020.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=www.nps.gov&rft.atitle=Management+%E2%80%93+Harriet+Tubman+Underground+Railroad+National+Historical+Park+%28U.S.+National+Park+Service%29&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.nps.gov%2Fhatu%2Flearn%2Fmanagement%2Findex.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AUnderground+Railroad" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-226"><a href="#cite_ref-226">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.nps.gov/hart/index.htm">"Harriet Tubman National Historical Park (U.S. National Park Service)"</a>. www.nps.gov. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20200610054259/https://www.nps.gov/hart/index.htm">Archived</a> from the original on June 10, 2020. Retrieved June 10, 2020.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=www.nps.gov&rft.atitle=Harriet+Tubman+National+Historical+Park+%28U.S.+National+Park+Service%29&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.nps.gov%2Fhart%2Findex.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AUnderground+Railroad" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-227"><a href="#cite_ref-227">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.nps.gov/subjects/undergroundrailroad/international-underground-railroad-month.htm">"International Underground Railroad Month"</a>. The National Park Service. Retrieved September 18, 2024.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=The+National+Park+Service&rft.atitle=International+Underground+Railroad+Month&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.nps.gov%2Fsubjects%2Fundergroundrailroad%2Finternational-underground-railroad-month.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AUnderground+Railroad" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-228"><a href="#cite_ref-228">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation news cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.somdnews.com/news/state/september-is-underground-railroad-month-in-maryland/article_7cecbb74-6add-11ef-95fb-a7670ec183af.html">"September is Underground Railroad Month in Maryland"</a>. Southern Maryland News. 2024. Retrieved September 18, 2024.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.atitle=September+is+Underground+Railroad+Month+in+Maryland&rft.date=2024&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.somdnews.com%2Fnews%2Fstate%2Fseptember-is-underground-railroad-month-in-maryland%2Farticle_7cecbb74-6add-11ef-95fb-a7670ec183af.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AUnderground+Railroad" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-229"><a href="#cite_ref-229">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.pulitzer.org/winners/colson-whitehead">"The 2017 Pulitzer Prize Winner in Fiction"</a>. pulitzer.org. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20170411091928/http://www.pulitzer.org/winners/colson-whitehead">Archived</a> from the original on April 11, 2017. Retrieved April 10, 2017.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=pulitzer.org&rft.atitle=The+2017+Pulitzer+Prize+Winner+in+Fiction&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.pulitzer.org%2Fwinners%2Fcolson-whitehead&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AUnderground+Railroad" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-230"><a href="#cite_ref-230">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMitchell1860" class="citation cs1">Mitchell, William (1860). <a class="external text" href="https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/The_Under-Ground_Railroad">The Under-Ground Railroad </a>. W. Tweedie – via <a href="/wiki/Wikisource" title="Wikisource">Wikisource</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Under-Ground+Railroad&rft.pub=W.+Tweedie&rft.date=1860&rft.aulast=Mitchell&rft.aufirst=William&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AUnderground+Railroad" class="Z3988"> [<a href="https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Index:The_Under-Ground_Railroad.djvu" class="extiw" title="wikisource:Index:The Under-Ground Railroad.djvu">scan</a> <a href="/wiki/File:Wikisource-logo.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="Wikisource link" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg/12px-Wikisource-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="12" height="13" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg/18px-Wikisource-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg/24px-Wikisource-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="410" data-file-height="430" /></a>] </li> <li id="cite_note-231"><a href="#cite_ref-231">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=rRdVJzMhwzg">"2Pac Full UNSEEN Interview (1992) Speaks on Police Brutality"</a>. <a href="/wiki/YouTube" title="YouTube">YouTube</a>. January 20, 2018. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20220129032503/https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=rRdVJzMhwzg">Archived</a> from the original on January 29, 2022. Retrieved January 29, 2022.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=YouTube&rft.atitle=2Pac+Full+UNSEEN+Interview+%281992%29+Speaks+on+Police+Brutality&rft.date=2018-01-20&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.youtube.com%2Fwatch%3Fv%3DrRdVJzMhwzg&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AUnderground+Railroad" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-232"><a href="#cite_ref-232">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://medium.com/@2pac/2pacalypse-now-1991-biography-part-2-cdc5d38b57fc">"2Pacalypse Now 1991 Biography, Part 2"</a>. December 19, 2016. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20220129032502/https://medium.com/@2pac/2pacalypse-now-1991-biography-part-2-cdc5d38b57fc">Archived</a> from the original on January 29, 2022. Retrieved January 29, 2022.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=2Pacalypse+Now+1991+Biography%2C+Part+2&rft.date=2016-12-19&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fmedium.com%2F%402pac%2F2pacalypse-now-1991-biography-part-2-cdc5d38b57fc&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AUnderground+Railroad" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-233"><a href="#cite_ref-233">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWalkerAnderson2024" class="citation web cs1">Walker, David F.; Anderson, Marcus Kwame (October 15, 2024). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.penguinrandomhouse.com/books/621145/big-jim-and-the-white-boy-by-david-f-walker-and-marcus-kwame-anderson/">"Big Jim and the White Boy: An American Classic Reimagined"</a>. <a href="/wiki/Random_House" title="Random House">Ten Speed Graphic</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Big+Jim+and+the+White+Boy%3A+An+American+Classic+Reimagined&rft.pub=Ten+Speed+Graphic&rft.date=2024-10-15&rft.aulast=Walker&rft.aufirst=David+F.&rft.au=Anderson%2C+Marcus+Kwame&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.penguinrandomhouse.com%2Fbooks%2F621145%2Fbig-jim-and-the-white-boy-by-david-f-walker-and-marcus-kwame-anderson%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AUnderground+Railroad" class="Z3988"> </li> </ol></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239549316">.mw-parser-output .refbegin{margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul{margin-left:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{margin-left:0;padding-left:3.2em;text-indent:-3.2em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul,.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul li{list-style:none}@media(max-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{padding-left:1.6em;text-indent:-1.6em}}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns ul{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .refbegin{font-size:90%}}</style><div class="refbegin" style=""> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBird2021" class="citation news cs1">Bird, Tyson (January 28, 2021). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://texashighways.com/culture/history/the-little-known-history-of-texas-underground-railroad/">"The Little Known History of Texas' Underground Railroad"</a>. Texas Highways. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210519021827/https://texashighways.com/culture/history/the-little-known-history-of-texas-underground-railroad/">Archived</a> from the original on May 19, 2021. Retrieved July 5, 2021.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Texas+Highways&rft.atitle=The+Little+Known+History+of+Texas%27+Underground+Railroad&rft.date=2021-01-28&rft.aulast=Bird&rft.aufirst=Tyson&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Ftexashighways.com%2Fculture%2Fhistory%2Fthe-little-known-history-of-texas-underground-railroad%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AUnderground+Railroad" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBlight,_David_W.2004" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/David_W._Blight" title="David W. Blight">Blight, David W.</a>, ed. (2004). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/passagestofreedo0000unse">Passages to Freedom: The Underground Railroad in History and Memory</a>. Smithsonian Books. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/1-58834-157-7" title="Special:BookSources/1-58834-157-7"><bdi>1-58834-157-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Passages+to+Freedom%3A+The+Underground+Railroad+in+History+and+Memory&rft.pub=Smithsonian+Books&rft.date=2004&rft.isbn=1-58834-157-7&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fpassagestofreedo0000unse&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AUnderground+Railroad" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBordewich2005" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Fergus_Bordewich" title="Fergus Bordewich">Bordewich, Fergus M.</a> (2005). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/boundforcanaanun00bord">Bound for Canaan: The Underground Railroad and the War for the Soul of America</a>. Harper Collins. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-06-052430-8" title="Special:BookSources/0-06-052430-8"><bdi>0-06-052430-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Bound+for+Canaan%3A+The+Underground+Railroad+and+the+War+for+the+Soul+of+America&rft.pub=Harper+Collins&rft.date=2005&rft.isbn=0-06-052430-8&rft.aulast=Bordewich&rft.aufirst=Fergus+M.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fboundforcanaanun00bord&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AUnderground+Railroad" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBrown1848" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/William_Wells_Brown" title="William Wells Brown">Brown, William W.</a> (1848). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/ASPC0001881300/page/n1/mode/1up">Narrative of William W. Brown, a fugitive slave</a> (2nd ed.). Boston: The Anti-slavery Office.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Narrative+of+William+W.+Brown%2C+a+fugitive+slave&rft.place=Boston&rft.edition=2nd&rft.pub=The+Anti-slavery+Office&rft.date=1848&rft.aulast=Brown&rft.aufirst=William+W.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2FASPC0001881300%2Fpage%2Fn1%2Fmode%2F1up&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AUnderground+Railroad" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBurnett2021" class="citation news cs1">Burnett, John (February 28, 2021). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.gpb.org/news/2021/02/28/chapter-in-us-history-often-ignored-the-flight-of-runaway-slaves-mexico">"A Chapter In U.S. History Often Ignored: The Flight Of Runaway Slaves To Mexico"</a>. Georgia Public Broadcasting. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210709195907/https://www.gpb.org/news/2021/02/28/chapter-in-us-history-often-ignored-the-flight-of-runaway-slaves-mexico">Archived</a> from the original on July 9, 2021. Retrieved July 8, 2021.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Georgia+Public+Broadcasting&rft.atitle=A+Chapter+In+U.S.+History+Often+Ignored%3A+The+Flight+Of+Runaway+Slaves+To+Mexico&rft.date=2021-02-28&rft.aulast=Burnett&rft.aufirst=John&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.gpb.org%2Fnews%2F2021%2F02%2F28%2Fchapter-in-us-history-often-ignored-the-flight-of-runaway-slaves-mexico&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AUnderground+Railroad" class="Z3988"> (heard on <a href="/wiki/All_Things_Considered" title="All Things Considered">All Things Considered</a>)</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCalarco2008" class="citation book cs1">Calarco, Tom (2008). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=RyEoBnpKYygC">People of the Underground Railroad: A Biographical Dictionary</a>. <a href="/wiki/Westport,_Connecticut" title="Westport, Connecticut">Westport</a>, Connecticut: <a href="/wiki/Greenwood_Press" class="mw-redirect" title="Greenwood Press">Greenwood Press</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0313339240" title="Special:BookSources/978-0313339240"><bdi>978-0313339240</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20200729123339/https://books.google.com/books?id=RyEoBnpKYygC">Archived</a> from the original on July 29, 2020. Retrieved June 23, 2020.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=People+of+the+Underground+Railroad%3A+A+Biographical+Dictionary&rft.place=Westport%2C+Connecticut&rft.pub=Greenwood+Press&rft.date=2008&rft.isbn=978-0313339240&rft.aulast=Calarco&rft.aufirst=Tom&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DRyEoBnpKYygC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AUnderground+Railroad" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCalarcoVogelGroverHallstrom2011" class="citation book cs1">—; Vogel, Cynthia; Grover, Kathryn; Hallstrom, Rae; Pope, Sharron L.; Waddy-Thibodeaux, Melissa (2011). Places of the Underground Railroad: A Geographical Guide. <a href="/wiki/Bloomsbury_Publishing" title="Bloomsbury Publishing">Bloomsbury Academic</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.5040%2F9798400697135">10.5040/9798400697135</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0313381461" title="Special:BookSources/978-0313381461"><bdi>978-0313381461</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Places+of+the+Underground+Railroad%3A+A+Geographical+Guide&rft.pub=Bloomsbury+Academic&rft.date=2011&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.5040%2F9798400697135&rft.isbn=978-0313381461&rft.aulast=Calarco&rft.aufirst=Tom&rft.au=Vogel%2C+Cynthia&rft.au=Grover%2C+Kathryn&rft.au=Hallstrom%2C+Rae&rft.au=Pope%2C+Sharron+L.&rft.au=Waddy-Thibodeaux%2C+Melissa&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AUnderground+Railroad" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFChadwick2000" class="citation book cs1">Chadwick, Bruce (2000). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/travelingundergr00chad">Traveling the Underground Railroad: A Visitor's Guide to More Than 300 Sites</a>. Citadel Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-8065-2093-0" title="Special:BookSources/0-8065-2093-0"><bdi>0-8065-2093-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Traveling+the+Underground+Railroad%3A+A+Visitor%27s+Guide+to+More+Than+300+Sites&rft.pub=Citadel+Press&rft.date=2000&rft.isbn=0-8065-2093-0&rft.aulast=Chadwick&rft.aufirst=Bruce&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Ftravelingundergr00chad&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AUnderground+Railroad" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFContreras2020a" class="citation news cs1">Contreras, Russell (September 16, 2020a). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.washingtonpost.com/national/story-of-the-underground-railroad-to-mexico-gains-attention/2020/09/16/2db8daa8-f82f-11ea-85f7-5941188a98cd_story.html">"Story of the Underground Railroad to Mexico gains attention"</a>. <a href="/wiki/The_Washington_Post" title="The Washington Post">The Washington Post</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0190-8286">0190-8286</a>. Retrieved July 7, 2021.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Washington+Post&rft.atitle=Story+of+the+Underground+Railroad+to+Mexico+gains+attention&rft.date=2020-09-16&rft.issn=0190-8286&rft.aulast=Contreras&rft.aufirst=Russell&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.washingtonpost.com%2Fnational%2Fstory-of-the-underground-railroad-to-mexico-gains-attention%2F2020%2F09%2F16%2F2db8daa8-f82f-11ea-85f7-5941188a98cd_story.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AUnderground+Railroad" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFContreras2020b" class="citation news cs1">— (September 17, 2020b). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://sentinelcolorado.com/uncategorized/story-of-the-underground-railroad-to-mexico-gains-attention/">"Story of the Underground Railroad to Mexico gains attention"</a>. Sentinel Colorado. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210709183145/https://sentinelcolorado.com/uncategorized/story-of-the-underground-railroad-to-mexico-gains-attention/">Archived</a> from the original on July 9, 2021. Retrieved July 3, 2021.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Sentinel+Colorado&rft.atitle=Story+of+the+Underground+Railroad+to+Mexico+gains+attention&rft.date=2020-09-17&rft.aulast=Contreras&rft.aufirst=Russell&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fsentinelcolorado.com%2Funcategorized%2Fstory-of-the-underground-railroad-to-mexico-gains-attention%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AUnderground+Railroad" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCrable2021" class="citation web cs1">Crable, Margaret (February 1, 2021). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://dornsifelive.usc.edu/news/stories/3393/slaves-escape-via-underground-railroad-to-mexico/">"USC Dornsife historian uncovers the Underground Railroad that ran to Mexico > News > USC Dornsife"</a>. Dornsife, University of Southern California. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210709185029/http://dornsifelive.usc.edu/news/stories/3393/slaves-escape-via-underground-railroad-to-mexico/">Archived</a> from the original on July 9, 2021. Retrieved July 5, 2021.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Dornsife%2C+University+of+Southern+California&rft.atitle=USC+Dornsife+historian+uncovers+the+Underground+Railroad+that+ran+to+Mexico+%3E+News+%3E+USC+Dornsife&rft.date=2021-02-01&rft.aulast=Crable&rft.aufirst=Margaret&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fdornsifelive.usc.edu%2Fnews%2Fstories%2F3393%2Fslaves-escape-via-underground-railroad-to-mexico%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AUnderground+Railroad" class="Z3988"></ref></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFoner2015" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Eric_Foner" title="Eric Foner">Foner, Eric</a> (2015). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/gatewaytofreedom0000fone_a5t8/page/6/mode/2up">Gateway to Freedom: The Hidden History of the Underground Railroad</a>. New York: W.W. Norton & Company, Inc. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-393-35219-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-393-35219-1"><bdi>978-0-393-35219-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Gateway+to+Freedom%3A+The+Hidden+History+of+the+Underground+Railroad&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=W.W.+Norton+%26+Company%2C+Inc.&rft.date=2015&rft.isbn=978-0-393-35219-1&rft.aulast=Foner&rft.aufirst=Eric&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fgatewaytofreedom0000fone_a5t8%2Fpage%2F6%2Fmode%2F2up&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AUnderground+Railroad" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFForbes1998" class="citation book cs1">Forbes, Ella (1998). But We Have No Country: The 1851 Christiana Pennsylvania Resistance. Africana Homestead Legacy Publishers. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0965330817" title="Special:BookSources/978-0965330817"><bdi>978-0965330817</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=But+We+Have+No+Country%3A+The+1851+Christiana+Pennsylvania+Resistance&rft.pub=Africana+Homestead+Legacy+Publishers&rft.date=1998&rft.isbn=978-0965330817&rft.aulast=Forbes&rft.aufirst=Ella&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AUnderground+Railroad" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFrostOsei2007" class="citation book cs1">Frost, Karolyn Smardz; Osei, Kwasi (2007). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/ivegothomeinglor00smar">I've Got a Home in Glory Land: A Lost Tale of the Underground Railroad</a>. Farrar, Straus & Giroux. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-374-16481-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-374-16481-2"><bdi>978-0-374-16481-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=I%27ve+Got+a+Home+in+Glory+Land%3A+A+Lost+Tale+of+the+Underground+Railroad&rft.pub=Farrar%2C+Straus+%26+Giroux&rft.date=2007&rft.isbn=978-0-374-16481-2&rft.aulast=Frost&rft.aufirst=Karolyn+Smardz&rft.au=Osei%2C+Kwasi&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fivegothomeinglor00smar&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AUnderground+Railroad" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGriffler2004" class="citation book cs1">Griffler, Keith P. (2004). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=xLKGinEZxygC">Front Line of Freedom: African Americans and the Forging of the Underground Railroad in the Ohio Valley</a>. University Press of Kentucky. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-8131-2298-8" title="Special:BookSources/0-8131-2298-8"><bdi>0-8131-2298-8</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20200709150206/https://books.google.com/books?id=xLKGinEZxygC">Archived</a> from the original on July 9, 2020. Retrieved November 20, 2015.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Front+Line+of+Freedom%3A+African+Americans+and+the+Forging+of+the+Underground+Railroad+in+the+Ohio+Valley&rft.pub=University+Press+of+Kentucky&rft.date=2004&rft.isbn=0-8131-2298-8&rft.aulast=Griffler&rft.aufirst=Keith+P.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DxLKGinEZxygC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AUnderground+Railroad" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHagedorn2004" class="citation book cs1">Hagedorn, Ann (2004). Beyond the River: The Untold Story of the Heroes of the Underground Railroad. Simon & Schuster. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-684-87066-5" title="Special:BookSources/0-684-87066-5"><bdi>0-684-87066-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Beyond+the+River%3A+The+Untold+Story+of+the+Heroes+of+the+Underground+Railroad&rft.pub=Simon+%26+Schuster&rft.date=2004&rft.isbn=0-684-87066-5&rft.aulast=Hagedorn&rft.aufirst=Ann&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AUnderground+Railroad" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHendrickHendrick2003" class="citation book cs1">Hendrick, George; Hendrick, Willene (2003). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/fleeingforfreedo00geor">Fleeing for Freedom: Stories of the Underground Railroad As Told by Levi Coffin and William Still</a>. Ivan R. Dee Publisher. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/1-56663-546-2" title="Special:BookSources/1-56663-546-2"><bdi>1-56663-546-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Fleeing+for+Freedom%3A+Stories+of+the+Underground+Railroad+As+Told+by+Levi+Coffin+and+William+Still&rft.pub=Ivan+R.+Dee+Publisher&rft.date=2003&rft.isbn=1-56663-546-2&rft.aulast=Hendrick&rft.aufirst=George&rft.au=Hendrick%2C+Willene&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Ffleeingforfreedo00geor&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AUnderground+Railroad" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHendrickHendrick2010" class="citation cs2">—; — (2010), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=AoFl4pNZzNgC">Black refugees in Canada: accounts of escape during the era of slavery</a>, McFarland & Co, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780786447336" title="Special:BookSources/9780786447336"><bdi>9780786447336</bdi></a>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20200709145147/https://books.google.com/books?id=AoFl4pNZzNgC">archived</a> from the original on July 9, 2020, retrieved November 20, 2015</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Black+refugees+in+Canada%3A+accounts+of+escape+during+the+era+of+slavery&rft.pub=McFarland+%26+Co&rft.date=2010&rft.isbn=9780786447336&rft.aulast=Hendrick&rft.aufirst=George&rft.au=Hendrick%2C+Willene&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DAoFl4pNZzNgC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AUnderground+Railroad" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHudson2002" class="citation book cs1">Hudson, J. Blaine (2002). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/fugitiveslavesun0000huds">Fugitive Slaves and the Underground Railroad in the Kentucky Borderland</a>. McFarland & Company. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-7864-1345-X" title="Special:BookSources/0-7864-1345-X"><bdi>0-7864-1345-X</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Fugitive+Slaves+and+the+Underground+Railroad+in+the+Kentucky+Borderland&rft.pub=McFarland+%26+Company&rft.date=2002&rft.isbn=0-7864-1345-X&rft.aulast=Hudson&rft.aufirst=J.+Blaine&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Ffugitiveslavesun0000huds&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AUnderground+Railroad" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHudson2015" class="citation book cs1">— (January 9, 2015). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=AKRI-GNca6oC">Encyclopedia of the Underground Railroad</a>. McFarland, Incorporated, Publishers. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781476602301" title="Special:BookSources/9781476602301"><bdi>9781476602301</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20220425214455/https://www.google.com/books/edition/Encyclopedia_of_the_Underground_Railroad/AKRI-GNca6oC?hl=en&gbpv=1&bsq=Maroon">Archived</a> from the original on April 25, 2022. Retrieved May 28, 2021.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Encyclopedia+of+the+Underground+Railroad&rft.pub=McFarland%2C+Incorporated%2C+Publishers&rft.date=2015-01-09&rft.isbn=9781476602301&rft.aulast=Hudson&rft.aufirst=J.+Blaine&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DAKRI-GNca6oC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AUnderground+Railroad" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLaRoche2014" class="citation book cs1">LaRoche, Cheryl Janifer (2014). Free Black Communities and the Underground Railroad: The Geography of Resistance. Urbana, Illinois: University of Illinois Press.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Free+Black+Communities+and+the+Underground+Railroad%3A+The+Geography+of+Resistance&rft.place=Urbana%2C+Illinois&rft.pub=University+of+Illinois+Press&rft.date=2014&rft.aulast=LaRoche&rft.aufirst=Cheryl+Janifer&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AUnderground+Railroad" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLittle2018" class="citation news cs1">Little, Becky (October 25, 2018). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.vallartadaily.com/forgotten-history-mexico-accepted-slave-migrants-fleeing-the-u-s/">"Forgotten History: Mexico accepted slave migrants fleeing the U.S."</a> Vallarta Daily News. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210709185257/https://www.vallartadaily.com/forgotten-history-mexico-accepted-slave-migrants-fleeing-the-u-s/">Archived</a> from the original on July 9, 2021. Retrieved July 8, 2021.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Vallarta+Daily+News&rft.atitle=Forgotten+History%3A+Mexico+accepted+slave+migrants+fleeing+the+U.S.&rft.date=2018-10-25&rft.aulast=Little&rft.aufirst=Becky&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.vallartadaily.com%2Fforgotten-history-mexico-accepted-slave-migrants-fleeing-the-u-s%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AUnderground+Railroad" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLittle2021" class="citation web cs1">— (January 29, 2021). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.history.com/news/underground-railroad-mexico-escaped-slaves">"The Little-Known Underground Railroad That Ran South to Mexico"</a>. HISTORY. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210709182027/https://www.history.com/news/underground-railroad-mexico-escaped-slaves">Archived</a> from the original on July 9, 2021. Retrieved July 3, 2021.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=HISTORY&rft.atitle=The+Little-Known+Underground+Railroad+That+Ran+South+to+Mexico&rft.date=2021-01-29&rft.aulast=Little&rft.aufirst=Becky&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.history.com%2Fnews%2Funderground-railroad-mexico-escaped-slaves&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AUnderground+Railroad" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPotter1976" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/David_M._Potter" title="David M. Potter">Potter, David M.</a> (1976). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/impendingcrisis00pott">The Impending Crisis, 1848–1861</a>. Harper Collins. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-06-131929-5" title="Special:BookSources/0-06-131929-5"><bdi>0-06-131929-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Impending+Crisis%2C+1848%E2%80%931861&rft.pub=Harper+Collins&rft.date=1976&rft.isbn=0-06-131929-5&rft.aulast=Potter&rft.aufirst=David+M.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fimpendingcrisis00pott&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AUnderground+Railroad" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.cr.nps.gov/nr/travel/underground/opugrr.htm">"Operating the Underground Railroad"</a>. <a href="/wiki/National_Park_Service" title="National Park Service">National Park Service</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20161226091541/https://cr.nps.gov/nr/travel/underground/opugrr.htm">Archived</a> from the original on December 26, 2016. Retrieved January 29, 2007.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=National+Park+Service&rft.atitle=Operating+the+Underground+Railroad&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.cr.nps.gov%2Fnr%2Ftravel%2Funderground%2Fopugrr.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AUnderground+Railroad" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation news cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.pbs.org/wgbh/aia/part4/4p2944.html">"Part 4: 1831–1865 Narrative, The Underground Railroad"</a>. Africans in America c.1780 – 1862: Judgment Day. <a href="/wiki/Public_Broadcasting_Service" class="mw-redirect" title="Public Broadcasting Service">PBS</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20180622122605/http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/aia/part4/4p2944.html">Archived</a> from the original on June 22, 2018. Retrieved September 17, 2017.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Africans+in+America+c.1780+%E2%80%93+1862%3A+Judgment+Day&rft.atitle=Part+4%3A+1831%E2%80%931865+Narrative%2C+The+Underground+Railroad&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.pbs.org%2Fwgbh%2Faia%2Fpart4%2F4p2944.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AUnderground+Railroad" class="Z3988"></li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Further_reading">Further reading</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Underground_Railroad&action=edit&section=45" title="Edit section: Further reading">edit</a>]</div> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBlackett2013" class="citation book cs1">Blackett, R.J.M. (2013). Making Freedom: The Underground Railroad and the Politics of Slavery (1st ed.). Chapel Hill, NC: <a href="/wiki/University_of_North_Carolina_Press" title="University of North Carolina Press">University of North Carolina Press</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4696-0877-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-4696-0877-8"><bdi>978-1-4696-0877-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Making+Freedom%3A+The+Underground+Railroad+and+the+Politics+of+Slavery&rft.place=Chapel+Hill%2C+NC&rft.edition=1st&rft.pub=University+of+North+Carolina+Press&rft.date=2013&rft.isbn=978-1-4696-0877-8&rft.aulast=Blackett&rft.aufirst=R.J.M.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AUnderground+Railroad" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBolton2019" class="citation book cs1">Bolton, S. Charles (2019). Fugitivism: Escaping Slavery in the Lower Mississippi Valley, 1820-1860. <a href="/wiki/University_of_Arkansas_Press" title="University of Arkansas Press">University of Arkansas Press</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781682260999" title="Special:BookSources/9781682260999"><bdi>9781682260999</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Fugitivism%3A+Escaping+Slavery+in+the+Lower+Mississippi+Valley%2C+1820-1860&rft.pub=University+of+Arkansas+Press&rft.date=2019&rft.isbn=9781682260999&rft.aulast=Bolton&rft.aufirst=S.+Charles&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AUnderground+Railroad" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFClifford_Larson2004" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Kate_Larson_(historian)" title="Kate Larson (historian)">Clifford Larson, Kate</a> (2004). Bound For the Promised Land: Harriet Tubman, Portrait of an American Hero. New York: Ballantine Books. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-345-45627-0" title="Special:BookSources/0-345-45627-0"><bdi>0-345-45627-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Bound+For+the+Promised+Land%3A+Harriet+Tubman%2C+Portrait+of+an+American+Hero&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=Ballantine+Books&rft.date=2004&rft.isbn=0-345-45627-0&rft.aulast=Clifford+Larson&rft.aufirst=Kate&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AUnderground+Railroad" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCurtis1941" class="citation book cs1">Curtis, Anna L. (1941). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.shockfamily.net/underground/index.html">Stories of the Underground Railroad</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20120331000922/http://www.shockfamily.net/underground/index.html">Archived</a> from the original on March 31, 2012.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Stories+of+the+Underground+Railroad&rft.date=1941&rft.aulast=Curtis&rft.aufirst=Anna+L.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.shockfamily.net%2Funderground%2Findex.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AUnderground+Railroad" class="Z3988"> (Stories about Thomas Garrett, a famous agent on the Underground Railroad)</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDiemer2022" class="citation book cs1">Diemer, Andrew K. (2022). Vigilance: The Life of William Still, Father of the Underground Railroad. Alfred A. Knopf. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780593534380" title="Special:BookSources/9780593534380"><bdi>9780593534380</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Vigilance%3A+The+Life+of+William+Still%2C+Father+of+the+Underground+Railroad&rft.pub=Alfred+A.+Knopf&rft.date=2022&rft.isbn=9780593534380&rft.aulast=Diemer&rft.aufirst=Andrew+K.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AUnderground+Railroad" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFrost2007" class="citation book cs1">Frost, Karolyn Smardz (2007). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/ivegothomeinglor00smar">I've Got a Home in Glory Land: A Lost Tale of the Underground Railroad</a>. New York: Farrar, Straus and Giroux. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780374531256" title="Special:BookSources/9780374531256"><bdi>9780374531256</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=I%27ve+Got+a+Home+in+Glory+Land%3A+A+Lost+Tale+of+the+Underground+Railroad&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=Farrar%2C+Straus+and+Giroux&rft.date=2007&rft.isbn=9780374531256&rft.aulast=Frost&rft.aufirst=Karolyn+Smardz&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fivegothomeinglor00smar&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AUnderground+Railroad" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJones2020" class="citation interview cs1">Jones, Leesa Bailey (January 7, 2020). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210415025538/https://digital.ncdcr.gov/digital/collection/p16062coll48/id/3/rec/1">"Leesa Jones Interview"</a>. State Archives of North Carolina (Oral History) (Interview). Interviewed by Brooks, Ellen. Washington, N.C. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://digital.ncdcr.gov/digital/collection/p16062coll48/id/3/rec/1">the original</a> on April 15, 2021. Retrieved February 27, 2021.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=State+Archives+of+North+Carolina+%28Oral+History%29&rft.atitle=Leesa+Jones+Interview&rft.date=2020-01-07&rft.aulast=Jones&rft.aufirst=Leesa+Bailey&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdigital.ncdcr.gov%2Fdigital%2Fcollection%2Fp16062coll48%2Fid%2F3%2Frec%2F1&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AUnderground+Railroad" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFStill1872" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/William_Still" title="William Still">Still, William</a> (1872). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/undergroundrailr00lcstil">The Underground Railroad: A Record of Facts, Authentic Narratives, Letters, &c., Narrating the Hardships, Hair-Breadth Escapes and Death Struggles of the Slaves in Their Efforts for Freedom, As Related by Themselves and Others, or Witnessed by the Author</a>. Philadelphia: Porter & Coates.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Underground+Railroad%3A+A+Record+of+Facts%2C+Authentic+Narratives%2C+Letters%2C+%26c.%2C+Narrating+the+Hardships%2C+Hair-Breadth+Escapes+and+Death+Struggles+of+the+Slaves+in+Their+Efforts+for+Freedom%2C+As+Related+by+Themselves+and+Others%2C+or+Witnessed+by+the+Author&rft.place=Philadelphia&rft.pub=Porter+%26+Coates&rft.date=1872&rft.aulast=Still&rft.aufirst=William&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fundergroundrailr00lcstil&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AUnderground+Railroad" class="Z3988"> (Classic book documenting the Underground Railroad operations in Philadelphia). <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation book cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/15263">Public domain ebook at Project Gutenberg</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Public+domain+ebook+at+Project+Gutenberg&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.gutenberg.org%2Febooks%2F15263&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AUnderground+Railroad" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/DKC0088/page/n5">"Book at Internet Archive"</a>. 1872.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Book+at+Internet+Archive&rft.date=1872&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2FDKC0088%2Fpage%2Fn5&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AUnderground+Railroad" class="Z3988"></li> <li><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/21/Speaker_Icon.svg/15px-Speaker_Icon.svg.png" decoding="async" width="15" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/21/Speaker_Icon.svg/23px-Speaker_Icon.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/21/Speaker_Icon.svg/30px-Speaker_Icon.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="500" data-file-height="500" /> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://librivox.org/search?title=The+Underground+Railroad&author=Still&reader=&keywords=&genre_id=0&status=all&project_type=either&recorded_language=&sort_order=catalog_date&search_page=1&search_form=advanced">The Underground Railroad</a> public domain audiobook at <a href="/wiki/LibriVox" title="LibriVox">LibriVox</a></li></ul></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFStrother1962" class="citation book cs1">Strother, Horatio T. (1962). The Underground Railroad in Connecticut. <a href="/wiki/Wesleyan_University_Press" title="Wesleyan University Press">Wesleyan University Press</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780819560124" title="Special:BookSources/9780819560124"><bdi>9780819560124</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Underground+Railroad+in+Connecticut&rft.pub=Wesleyan+University+Press&rft.date=1962&rft.isbn=9780819560124&rft.aulast=Strother&rft.aufirst=Horatio+T.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AUnderground+Railroad" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFTurner2001" class="citation book cs1">Turner, Glennette Tilley (2001). The Underground Railroad in Illinois. Newman Educational Pub. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0938990055" title="Special:BookSources/978-0938990055"><bdi>978-0938990055</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Underground+Railroad+in+Illinois&rft.pub=Newman+Educational+Pub.&rft.date=2001&rft.isbn=978-0938990055&rft.aulast=Turner&rft.aufirst=Glennette+Tilley&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AUnderground+Railroad" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWalker2021" class="citation book cs1">Walker, Timothy Dale, ed. (2021). Sailing to Freedom: Maritime Dimensions of the Underground Railroad. <a href="/wiki/University_of_Massachusetts_Press" title="University of Massachusetts Press">University of Massachusetts Press</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1625345936" title="Special:BookSources/978-1625345936"><bdi>978-1625345936</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Sailing+to+Freedom%3A+Maritime+Dimensions+of+the+Underground+Railroad&rft.pub=University+of+Massachusetts+Press&rft.date=2021&rft.isbn=978-1625345936&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AUnderground+Railroad" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWhitehead2016" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Colson_Whitehead" title="Colson Whitehead">Whitehead, Colson</a> (2016). <a href="/wiki/The_Underground_Railroad_(novel)" title="The Underground Railroad (novel)">The Underground Railroad</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doubleday_(publisher)" title="Doubleday (publisher)">Doubleday</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-385-54236-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-385-54236-4"><bdi>978-0-385-54236-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Underground+Railroad&rft.pub=Doubleday&rft.date=2016&rft.isbn=978-0-385-54236-4&rft.aulast=Whitehead&rft.aufirst=Colson&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AUnderground+Railroad" class="Z3988">; winner of the Pulitzer Prize for Fiction in 2017 for its poetical, mythical reflection on the meaning of the Railroad in American history.</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Folklore_and_myth">Folklore and myth</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Underground_Railroad&action=edit&section=46" title="Edit section: Folklore and myth">edit</a>]</div> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20110514184559/http://www.historyofquilts.com/underground-railroad.html">"Documentary Evidence is Missing on Underground Railroad Quilts"</a>. historyofquilts.com. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.historyofquilts.com/underground-railroad.html">the original</a> on May 14, 2011. Retrieved December 15, 2004.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=historyofquilts.com&rft.atitle=Documentary+Evidence+is+Missing+on+Underground+Railroad+Quilts&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.historyofquilts.com%2Funderground-railroad.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AUnderground+Railroad" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://historiccamdencounty.com/ccnews11.shtml">"New Jersey's Underground Railroad Myth-Buster: Giles Wright is on a Mission to Fine Tune Black History"</a>. Historic Camden County.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Historic+Camden+County&rft.atitle=New+Jersey%27s+Underground+Railroad+Myth-Buster%3A+Giles+Wright+is+on+a+Mission+to+Fine+Tune+Black+History&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fhistoriccamdencounty.com%2Fccnews11.shtml&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AUnderground+Railroad" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20130204013739/http://www.quilthistory.com/ugrrquilts.htm">"Putting it in Perspective: The Symbolism of Underground Railroad quilts"</a>. quilthistory.com. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.quilthistory.com/ugrrquilts.htm">the original</a> on February 4, 2013. Retrieved December 15, 2004.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=quilthistory.com&rft.atitle=Putting+it+in+Perspective%3A+The+Symbolism+of+Underground+Railroad+quilts&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.quilthistory.com%2Fugrrquilts.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AUnderground+Railroad" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20141011102719/http://www.womenfolk.com/quilting_history/abolitionist.htm">"Underground Railroad Quilts & Abolitionist Fairs"</a>. Womenfolk.com. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.womenfolk.com/quilting_history/abolitionist.htm">the original</a> on October 11, 2014. Retrieved December 15, 2004.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Womenfolk.com&rft.atitle=Underground+Railroad+Quilts+%26+Abolitionist+Fairs&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.womenfolk.com%2Fquilting_history%2Fabolitionist.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AUnderground+Railroad" class="Z3988"></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Underground_Railroad&action=edit&section=47" title="Edit section: External links">edit</a>]</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1235681985">.mw-parser-output .side-box{margin:4px 0;box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #aaa;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em;background-color:var(--background-color-interactive-subtle,#f8f9fa);display:flow-root}.mw-parser-output .side-box-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{padding:0.25em 0.9em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-image{padding:2px 0 2px 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<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1235681985"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1237033735"><div class="side-box side-box-right plainlinks sistersitebox"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"> <div class="side-box-flex"> <div class="side-box-image"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/dd/Wikivoyage-Logo-v3-icon.svg/40px-Wikivoyage-Logo-v3-icon.svg.png" decoding="async" width="40" height="40" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/dd/Wikivoyage-Logo-v3-icon.svg/60px-Wikivoyage-Logo-v3-icon.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/dd/Wikivoyage-Logo-v3-icon.svg/80px-Wikivoyage-Logo-v3-icon.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="193" data-file-height="193" /></div> <div class="side-box-text plainlist">Wikivoyage has a travel guide for <a href="https://en.wikivoyage.org/wiki/Underground_Railroad#Q868393" class="extiw" title="wikivoyage:Underground Railroad">Underground Railroad</a>.</div></div> </div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1235681985"><div class="side-box metadata side-box-right"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"> <div class="side-box-abovebelow"> <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:The_Wikipedia_Library" title="Wikipedia:The Wikipedia Library">Library resources</a> about the Underground Railroad <hr /></div> <div class="side-box-flex"> <div class="side-box-text plainlist"><ul><li><a class="external text" href="https://ftl.toolforge.org/cgi-bin/ftl?st=wp&su=Underground+Railroad&library=OLBP">Online books</a></li> <li><a class="external text" href="https://ftl.toolforge.org/cgi-bin/ftl?st=wp&su=Underground+Railroad">Resources in your library</a></li> <li><a class="external text" href="https://ftl.toolforge.org/cgi-bin/ftl?st=wp&su=Underground+Railroad&library=0CHOOSE0">Resources in other libraries</a></li> </ul></div></div> </div> <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.nps.gov/subjects/undergroundrailroad/index.htm">Underground Railroad</a> - National Park Service <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.nps.gov/subjects/undergroundrailroad/language-of-slavery.htm/">Underground Railroad: Language of Slavery</a></li></ul></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.antislaverystudies.org">Underground Railroad Studies</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.fergusbordewich.com/underground-railroad-timeline.html">Underground Railroad Timeline</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20060715052736/http://www.fourr.org/">Friends of the Underground Railroad</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.freedomcenter.org">National Underground Railroad Freedom Center</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.ugrri.org">Underground Railroad Research Institute at Georgetown College</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20190515073420/http://www.ugrri.org/">Archived</a> May 15, 2019, at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.worldcat.org/profiles/BECHS/lists/651523?view=&count=100&se=ts&sd=asc&qt=sort_ts_asc%20target=">Underground Railroad in Buffalo and Upstate New York</a>: A bibliography by The <a href="/wiki/Buffalo_History_Museum" title="Buffalo History Museum">Buffalo History Museum</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.newspapers.com/topics/civil-war/underground-railroad/">Newspaper articles and clippings about the Underground Railroad at Newspapers.com</a></li></ul> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236075235">.mw-parser-output .navbox{box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #a2a9b1;width:100%;clear:both;font-size:88%;text-align:center;padding:1px;margin:1em auto 0}.mw-parser-output .navbox .navbox{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .navbox+.navbox,.mw-parser-output .navbox+.navbox-styles+.navbox{margin-top:-1px}.mw-parser-output .navbox-inner,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup{width:100%}.mw-parser-output .navbox-group,.mw-parser-output .navbox-title,.mw-parser-output .navbox-abovebelow{padding:0.25em 1em;line-height:1.5em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .navbox-group{white-space:nowrap;text-align:right}.mw-parser-output .navbox,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup{background-color:#fdfdfd}.mw-parser-output .navbox-list{line-height:1.5em;border-color:#fdfdfd}.mw-parser-output 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.navbar{display:block;font-size:100%}.mw-parser-output .navbox-title .navbar{float:left;text-align:left;margin-right:0.5em}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .navbox-image img{max-width:none!important}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .navbox{display:none!important}}</style><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Underground_Railroad" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible uncollapsed navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="3"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Underground_Railroad" title="Template:Underground Railroad"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Underground_Railroad" title="Template talk:Underground Railroad"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Underground_Railroad" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Underground Railroad"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Underground_Railroad" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Underground Railroad</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Category:Underground_Railroad_people" title="Category:Underground Railroad people">People</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/William_Brinkley_(Underground_Railroad)" title="William Brinkley (Underground Railroad)">William Brinkley</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Brown_(abolitionist)" title="John Brown (abolitionist)">John Brown</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Owen_Brown_(abolitionist,_born_1771)" title="Owen Brown (abolitionist, born 1771)">Owen Brown</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Samuel_Burris" title="Samuel Burris">Samuel Burris</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Levi_Coffin" title="Levi Coffin">Levi Coffin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Richard_Dillingham" title="Richard Dillingham">Richard Dillingham</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Frederick_Douglass" title="Frederick Douglass">Frederick Douglass</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Calvin_Fairbank" title="Calvin Fairbank">Calvin Fairbank</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Isaac_S._Flint" title="Isaac S. Flint">Isaac S. Flint</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Garrett" title="Thomas Garrett">Thomas Garrett</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Frances_Harper" class="mw-redirect" title="Frances Harper">Frances Harper</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Laura_Smith_Haviland" title="Laura Smith Haviland">Laura Smith Haviland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/David_Hudson_(pioneer)" title="David Hudson (pioneer)">David Hudson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Daniel_Hughes_(underground_railroad)" title="Daniel Hughes (underground railroad)">Daniel Hughes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peg_Leg_Joe" title="Peg Leg Joe">Peg Leg Joe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_Cooper_Nell" title="William Cooper Nell">William Cooper Nell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Harriet_Forten_Purvis" title="Harriet Forten Purvis">Harriet Forten Purvis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robert_Purvis" title="Robert Purvis">Robert Purvis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Rankin_(abolitionist)" title="John Rankin (abolitionist)">John Rankin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hetty_Reckless" title="Hetty Reckless">Hetty Reckless</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gerrit_Smith" title="Gerrit Smith">Gerrit Smith</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_Still" title="William Still">William Still</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Calvin_Ellis_Stowe" title="Calvin Ellis Stowe">Calvin Ellis Stowe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Harriet_Beecher_Stowe" title="Harriet Beecher Stowe">Harriet Beecher Stowe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charles_Turner_Torrey" title="Charles Turner Torrey">Charles Turner Torrey</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Harriet_Tubman" title="Harriet Tubman">Harriet Tubman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Delia_Webster" title="Delia Webster">Delia Webster</a></li></ul> </div></td><td class="noviewer navbox-image" rowspan="5" style="width:1px;padding:0 0 0 2px"><div><a href="/wiki/File:Ursa_major_icon.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5b/Ursa_major_icon.svg/110px-Ursa_major_icon.svg.png" decoding="async" width="110" height="86" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5b/Ursa_major_icon.svg/165px-Ursa_major_icon.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5b/Ursa_major_icon.svg/220px-Ursa_major_icon.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="140" data-file-height="110" /></a></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Category:Underground_Railroad_locations" title="Category:Underground Railroad locations">Places</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Underground_Railroad_sites" title="List of Underground Railroad sites">List of Underground Railroad sites</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Houses_on_the_Underground_Railroad" title="Category:Houses on the Underground Railroad">houses</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Churches_on_the_Underground_Railroad" title="Category:Churches on the Underground Railroad">churches</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Underground_Railroad_in_Indiana" title="Underground Railroad in Indiana">Underground Railroad in Indiana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/British_Methodist_Episcopal_Church,_Salem_Chapel" title="British Methodist Episcopal Church, Salem Chapel">British Methodist Episcopal Church, Salem Chapel</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Events</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Emeline_and_Samuel_Hawkins" title="Emeline and Samuel Hawkins">Emeline and Samuel Hawkins</a> flight (1845)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pearl_incident" title="Pearl incident">Pearl incident</a> (1848)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kentucky_raid_in_Cass_County_(1847)" title="Kentucky raid in Cass County (1847)">Kentucky raid in Cass County</a> (1847)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wright_Modlin#The_South_Bend_Fugitive_Slave_Case" title="Wright Modlin">The South Bend Fugitive Slave Case</a> (1849)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christiana_Riot" title="Christiana Riot">Christiana Riot</a> (1851)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jerry_Rescue" title="Jerry Rescue">Jerry Rescue</a> (1851)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Uncle_Tom%27s_Cabin" title="Uncle Tom's Cabin">Uncle Tom's Cabin</a> (1852 book)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joshua_Glover" title="Joshua Glover">Joshua Glover rescue</a> (1854)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dred:_A_Tale_of_the_Great_Dismal_Swamp" title="Dred: A Tale of the Great Dismal Swamp">Dred: A Tale of the Great Dismal Swamp</a> (1856 book)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dover_Eight" title="Dover Eight">Dover Eight</a> (1857)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oberlin%E2%80%93Wellington_Rescue" title="Oberlin–Wellington Rescue">Oberlin–Wellington Rescue</a> (1858)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tilly_Escape" title="Tilly Escape">Tilly Escape</a> (1856)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ann_Maria_Jackson" title="Ann Maria Jackson">Ann Maria Jackson and her seven children</a> (1859)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thirteenth_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Thirteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution">Thirteenth Amendment</a> (1865)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Topics</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Abolitionism_in_the_United_States" title="Abolitionism in the United States">Abolitionism in the United States</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Abolitionism" title="Abolitionism">Abolitionism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_abolitionists" title="List of abolitionists">opponents of slavery</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_African-American_abolitionists" title="List of African-American abolitionists">African-American opponents</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abolitionism#Abolitionist_publications" title="Abolitionism">publications</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fugitive_slaves_in_the_United_States" title="Fugitive slaves in the United States">Fugitive slaves</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fugitive_slave_laws" class="mw-redirect" title="Fugitive slave laws">Fugitive slave laws</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Fugitive_Slave_Act_of_1850" title="Fugitive Slave Act of 1850">1850</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quilts_of_the_Underground_Railroad" title="Quilts of the Underground Railroad">Quilts</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reverse_Underground_Railroad" class="mw-redirect" title="Reverse Underground Railroad">Reverse Underground Railroad</a></li> <li>Signals <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Lawn_jockey" title="Lawn jockey">lawn jockey</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slave_catcher" title="Slave catcher">Slave catcher</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Songs_of_the_Underground_Railroad" title="Songs of the Underground Railroad">Songs of the Underground Railroad</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Underground_Railroad_(Still)" title="The Underground Railroad (Still)">The Underground Railroad Records</a> (1872 book)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Related</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/National_Underground_Railroad_Freedom_Center" title="National Underground Railroad Freedom Center">National Underground Railroad Freedom Center</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Harriet_Tubman_Memorial_(Boston)" title="Harriet Tubman Memorial (Boston)">Harriet Tubman Memorial (Boston)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Harriet_Tubman_Underground_Railroad_National_Historical_Park" title="Harriet Tubman Underground Railroad National Historical Park">Harriet Tubman Underground Railroad National Historical Park</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Harriet_Tubman_Underground_Railroad_State_Park" title="Harriet Tubman Underground Railroad State Park">Harriet Tubman Underground Railroad State Park</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Harriet_Tubman_Underground_Railroad_Visitor_Center" title="Harriet Tubman Underground Railroad Visitor Center">visitor center</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Niagara_Falls_Underground_Railroad_Heritage_Center" title="Niagara Falls Underground Railroad Heritage Center">Niagara Falls Underground Railroad Heritage Center</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Underground_Railroad_Bicycle_Route" title="Underground Railroad Bicycle Route">Underground Railroad Bicycle Route</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Railroad_to_Freedom:_A_Story_of_the_Civil_War" class="mw-redirect" title="The Railroad to Freedom: A Story of the Civil War">The Railroad to Freedom: A Story of the Civil War</a> (1932 book)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/A_Woman_Called_Moses" title="A Woman Called Moses">A Woman Called Moses</a> (1978 miniseries)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roots_of_Resistance:_The_Story_of_the_Underground_Railroad" title="Roots of Resistance: The Story of the Underground Railroad">Roots of Resistance</a> (1989 documentary)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Quest_for_Freedom" title="The Quest for Freedom">The Quest for Freedom</a> (1992 film)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Freedom:_The_Underground_Railroad" title="Freedom: The Underground Railroad">Freedom: The Underground Railroad</a> (2013 board game)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_North_Star_(2016_film)" title="The North Star (2016 film)">The North Star</a> (2016 film)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Underground_(TV_series)" title="Underground (TV series)">Underground</a> (2016 TV series)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Harriet_(film)" title="Harriet (film)">Harriet</a> (2019 film)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Underground_Railroad_(miniseries)" title="The Underground Railroad (miniseries)">The Underground Railroad</a> (2021 miniseries)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="3"><div><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_the_United_States" title="Slavery in the United States">Slavery in the United States</a> and <a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_Canada" title="Slavery in Canada">Slavery in Canada</a></div></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Slavery_in_the_United_States" style="text-align:left;;padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:History_of_slavery_in_the_United_States" title="Template:History of slavery in the United States"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:History_of_slavery_in_the_United_States" title="Template talk:History of slavery in the United States"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:History_of_slavery_in_the_United_States" title="Special:EditPage/Template:History of slavery in the United States"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Slavery_in_the_United_States" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_the_United_States" title="Slavery in the United States">Slavery in the United States</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align:right;">States</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_slavery_in_Alabama" title="History of slavery in Alabama">Alabama</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_slavery_in_Alaska" title="History of slavery in Alaska">Alaska</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_slavery_in_Arizona" class="mw-redirect" title="History of slavery in Arizona">Arizona</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_slavery_in_Arkansas" title="History of slavery in Arkansas">Arkansas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_slavery_in_California" title="History of slavery in California">California</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_slavery_in_Colorado" title="History of slavery in Colorado">Colorado</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_slavery_in_Connecticut" title="History of slavery in Connecticut">Connecticut</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_slavery_in_Delaware" title="History of slavery in Delaware">Delaware</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_slavery_in_Florida" title="History of slavery in Florida">Florida</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_slavery_in_Georgia_(U.S._state)" class="mw-redirect" title="History of slavery in Georgia (U.S. state)">Georgia</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_slavery_in_Hawaii&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="History of slavery in Hawaii (page does not exist)">Hawaii</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_slavery_in_Idaho&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="History of slavery in Idaho (page does not exist)">Idaho</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_slavery_in_Illinois" title="History of slavery in Illinois">Illinois</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_slavery_in_Indiana" title="History of slavery in Indiana">Indiana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_slavery_in_Iowa" title="History of slavery in Iowa">Iowa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_slavery_in_Kansas" title="History of slavery in Kansas">Kansas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_slavery_in_Kentucky" title="History of slavery in Kentucky">Kentucky</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_slavery_in_Louisiana" title="History of slavery in Louisiana">Louisiana</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_slavery_in_Maine&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="History of slavery in Maine (page does not exist)">Maine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_slavery_in_Maryland" title="History of slavery in Maryland">Maryland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_slavery_in_Massachusetts" title="History of slavery in Massachusetts">Massachusetts</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_slavery_in_Michigan" title="History of slavery in Michigan">Michigan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_slavery_in_Minnesota" title="History of slavery in Minnesota">Minnesota</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_slavery_in_Mississippi" title="History of slavery in Mississippi">Mississippi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_slavery_in_Missouri" title="History of slavery in Missouri">Missouri</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_slavery_in_Montana" title="History of slavery in Montana">Montana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_slavery_in_Nebraska" title="History of slavery in Nebraska">Nebraska</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_slavery_in_Nevada&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="History of slavery in Nevada (page does not exist)">Nevada</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_slavery_in_New_Hampshire" class="mw-redirect" title="History of slavery in New Hampshire">New Hampshire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_slavery_in_New_Jersey" title="History of slavery in New Jersey">New Jersey</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_slavery_in_New_Mexico" title="History of slavery in New Mexico">New Mexico</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_slavery_in_New_York" class="mw-redirect" title="History of slavery in New York">New York</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_slavery_in_North_Carolina" title="History of slavery in North Carolina">North Carolina</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_slavery_in_North_Dakota" class="mw-redirect" title="History of slavery in North Dakota">North Dakota</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_slavery_in_Ohio" class="mw-redirect" title="History of slavery in Ohio">Ohio</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_slavery_in_Oklahoma" title="History of slavery in Oklahoma">Oklahoma</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_slavery_in_Oregon&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="History of slavery in Oregon (page does not exist)">Oregon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_slavery_in_Pennsylvania" title="History of slavery in Pennsylvania">Pennsylvania</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_slavery_in_Rhode_Island" class="mw-redirect" title="History of slavery in Rhode Island">Rhode Island</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_slavery_in_South_Carolina" title="History of slavery in South Carolina">South Carolina</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_slavery_in_South_Dakota" title="History of slavery in South Dakota">South Dakota</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_slavery_in_Tennessee" title="History of slavery in Tennessee">Tennessee</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_slavery_in_Texas" title="History of slavery in Texas">Texas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_slavery_in_Utah" title="History of slavery in Utah">Utah</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_slavery_in_Vermont" title="History of slavery in Vermont">Vermont</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_slavery_in_Virginia" title="History of slavery in Virginia">Virginia</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_slavery_in_Washington_(state)&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="History of slavery in Washington (state) (page does not exist)">Washington</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_slavery_in_West_Virginia" title="History of slavery in West Virginia">West Virginia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_slavery_in_Wisconsin" class="mw-redirect" title="History of slavery in Wisconsin">Wisconsin</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_slavery_in_Wyoming&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="History of slavery in Wyoming (page does not exist)">Wyoming</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align:right;"><a href="/wiki/Federal_district" title="Federal district">Federal district</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><a href="/wiki/History_of_slavery_in_District_of_Columbia" class="mw-redirect" title="History of slavery in District of Columbia">District of Columbia</a></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align:right;">Territories</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_Puerto_Rico" class="mw-redirect" title="Slavery in Puerto Rico">Puerto Rico</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_Virgin_Islands#Danish_period" title="United States Virgin Islands">U.S. Virgin Islands</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align:right;">Topics</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_the_United_States" title="Slavery in the United States">History</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_among_Native_Americans_in_the_United_States" title="Slavery among Native Americans in the United States">Slavery among Native Americans</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_New_Spain" title="Slavery in New Spain">Slavery in New Spain</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_New_France" title="Slavery in New France">Slavery in New France</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_the_colonial_history_of_the_United_States" title="Slavery in the colonial history of the United States">Slavery in the colonial history of the United States</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indentured_servitude_in_British_America" title="Indentured servitude in British America">Indentured servitude in British America</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slave_trade_in_the_United_States" title="Slave trade in the United States">Slave trade in the United States</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slave_markets_and_slave_jails_in_the_United_States" title="Slave markets and slave jails in the United States">Slave markets and slave jails in the United States</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kidnapping_into_slavery_in_the_United_States" title="Kidnapping into slavery in the United States">Kidnapping into slavery in the United States</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slave_states_and_free_states" title="Slave states and free states">Slave states and free states</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slave_labor_on_United_States_military_installations_1799%E2%80%931863" title="Slave labor on United States military installations 1799–1863">Slave labor on United States military installations 1799–1863</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_at_American_colleges_and_universities" title="Slavery at American colleges and universities">Slavery at American colleges and universities</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Glossary_of_American_slavery" title="Glossary of American slavery">Glossary</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bibliography_of_slavery_in_the_United_States" title="Bibliography of slavery in the United States">Bibliography</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Cultural and social history</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/American_proslavery_movement" class="mw-redirect" title="American proslavery movement">American proslavery movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_as_a_positive_good_in_the_United_States" title="Slavery as a positive good in the United States">Slavery as a positive good in the United States</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Treatment_of_the_slaves_in_the_United_States&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Treatment of the slaves in the United States (page does not exist)">Treatment</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Slave_health_on_plantations_in_the_United_States" title="Slave health on plantations in the United States">Health</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-literacy_laws_in_the_United_States" title="Anti-literacy laws in the United States">Mandatory illiteracy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_during_the_slave_period_in_the_United_States" title="Education during the slave period in the United States">Education during the slave period</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slave_quarters_in_the_United_States" title="Slave quarters in the United States">Slave quarters</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slave_trade_in_the_United_States" title="Slave trade in the United States">Domestic slave trade</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_American_slave_traders" class="mw-redirect" title="List of American slave traders">List of American slave traders</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Runaway_slave_ad" class="mw-redirect" title="Runaway slave ad">Runaway slave ad</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slave_catcher" title="Slave catcher">Slave catcher</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abolitionism_in_the_United_States" title="Abolitionism in the United States">Abolitionism</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Underground Railroad</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_freedmen%27s_towns" title="List of freedmen's towns">Freedmen's towns</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Black_Canadians" title="Black Canadians">Black Canadians</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_abolitionists" title="List of abolitionists">List of abolitionists</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_American_founding_fathers_of_the_United_States" title="African American founding fathers of the United States">African American founding fathers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plantation_complexes_in_the_Southern_United_States" title="Plantation complexes in the Southern United States">Plantations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Field_slaves_in_the_United_States" title="Field slaves in the United States">Field slaves</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gang_system" title="Gang system">Gang system</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Task_system" title="Task system">Task system</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Planter_class" title="Planter class">Planter class</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_plantations_in_the_United_States" title="List of plantations in the United States">List of plantations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Amerindian_slave_ownership" title="Amerindian slave ownership">Amerindian slave ownership</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African-American_slave_owners" title="African-American slave owners">African-American slave owners</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/American_Colonization_Society" title="American Colonization Society">American Colonization Society</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slave_narrative" title="Slave narrative">Slave narrative</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Law and politics</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_and_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Slavery and the United States Constitution">Slavery and the United States Constitution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/American_slave_court_cases" class="mw-redirect" title="American slave court cases">American slave court cases</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Freedom_suits_in_the_United_States" title="Category:Freedom suits in the United States">Freedom suits</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fugitive_Slave_Clause" title="Fugitive Slave Clause">Fugitive Slave Clause</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Three-fifths_Compromise" title="Three-fifths Compromise">Three-fifths Compromise</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slave_and_free_states" class="mw-redirect" title="Slave and free states">Slave and free states</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_slavery_in_the_United_States_by_state" title="History of slavery in the United States by state">History of slavery by U.S. state</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fugitive_slaves_in_the_United_States" title="Fugitive slaves in the United States">Fugitive slaves</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fugitive_Slave_Act_of_1793" title="Fugitive Slave Act of 1793">Fugitive Slave Act of 1793</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Act_Prohibiting_Importation_of_Slaves" title="Act Prohibiting Importation of Slaves">Act Prohibiting Importation of Slaves</a> (1808)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gag_rule_(United_States)" title="Gag rule (United States)">Gag rule (1836–1840)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nullifier_Party" title="Nullifier Party">Nullifier Party</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fire-Eaters" title="Fire-Eaters">Fire-Eaters</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Movement_to_reopen_the_transatlantic_slave_trade" title="Movement to reopen the transatlantic slave trade">Movement to reopen the transatlantic slave trade</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fugitive_Slave_Act_of_1850" title="Fugitive Slave Act of 1850">Fugitive Slave Act of 1850</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Partus_sequitur_ventrem" title="Partus sequitur ventrem">Partus sequitur ventrem</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dred_Scott_v._Sandford" title="Dred Scott v. Sandford">Dred Scott v. Sandford</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thirteenth_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Thirteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution">Thirteenth Amendment of the Constitution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_presidents_of_the_United_States_who_owned_slaves" title="List of presidents of the United States who owned slaves">Presidents and slavery</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/George_Washington_and_slavery" title="George Washington and slavery">George Washington and slavery</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Jefferson_and_slavery" title="Thomas Jefferson and slavery">Thomas Jefferson and slavery</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_Madison_and_slavery" title="James Madison and slavery">James Madison and slavery</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Quincy_Adams_and_abolitionism" title="John Quincy Adams and abolitionism">John Quincy Adams and abolitionism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Tyler_and_slavery" title="John Tyler and slavery">John Tyler and slavery</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zachary_Taylor_and_slavery" title="Zachary Taylor and slavery">Zachary Taylor and slavery</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abraham_Lincoln_and_slavery" title="Abraham Lincoln and slavery">Abraham Lincoln and slavery</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Andrew_Johnson_and_slavery" title="Andrew Johnson and slavery">Andrew Johnson and slavery</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_vice_presidents_of_the_United_States_who_owned_slaves" title="List of vice presidents of the United States who owned slaves">Vice presidents</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_members_of_the_United_States_Congress_who_owned_slaves" title="List of members of the United States Congress who owned slaves">Members of Congress</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_United_States_Supreme_Court_Justices_who_owned_slaves" title="List of United States Supreme Court Justices who owned slaves">Supreme Court Justices</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Marriage, sexual slavery and procreation</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_sexual_slavery_in_the_United_States" title="History of sexual slavery in the United States">Sexual slavery</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Female_slavery_in_the_United_States" title="Female slavery in the United States">Female slavery</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Treatment_of_the_enslaved_in_the_United_States#Sexual_relations_and_rape" class="mw-redirect" title="Treatment of the enslaved in the United States">Sexual relations and rape</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slave_breeding_in_the_United_States" title="Slave breeding in the United States">Slave breeding</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slave_marriages_in_the_United_States" title="Slave marriages in the United States">Slave marriages</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pla%C3%A7age" title="Plaçage">Plaçage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Children_of_the_plantation" title="Children of the plantation">Children of the plantation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shadow_family" title="Shadow family">Shadow family</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/American_Civil_War" title="American Civil War">Civil War and after</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Origins_of_the_American_Civil_War" title="Origins of the American Civil War">Origins of the American Civil War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_during_the_American_Civil_War" title="Slavery during the American Civil War">Slavery during the American Civil War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/End_of_slavery_in_the_United_States" title="End of slavery in the United States">End of slavery in the United States</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Compensated_emancipation_in_the_United_States" title="Compensated emancipation in the United States">Compensated emancipation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Contraband_(American_Civil_War)" title="Contraband (American Civil War)">Contraband</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_Colored_Troops" title="United States Colored Troops">Colored Troops</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Emancipation_Proclamation" title="Emancipation Proclamation">Emancipation Proclamation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Juneteenth" title="Juneteenth">Juneteenth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reconstruction_era" title="Reconstruction era">Reconstruction era</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Radical_Republicans" title="Radical Republicans">Radical Republicans</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Freedmen%27s_Bureau" title="Freedmen's Bureau">Freedmen's Bureau</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Civil_rights_movement_(1865%E2%80%931896)" title="Civil rights movement (1865–1896)">Civil rights movement (1865–1896)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Family_reunification_ads_after_emancipation" title="Family reunification ads after emancipation">Family reunification ads after emancipation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Freedmen%27s_town" title="Freedmen's town">Freedmen's town</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_freedmen%27s_towns" title="List of freedmen's towns">list</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="African_Americans" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2" style="background: #d1eaeb;"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:African_American_topics" title="Template:African American topics"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:African_American_topics" title="Template talk:African American topics"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:African_American_topics" title="Special:EditPage/Template:African American topics"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="African_Americans" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/African_Americans" title="African Americans">African Americans</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #d1eaeb;;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/African-American_history" title="African-American history">History</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_African-American_history" title="Timeline of African-American history">Timeline</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abolitionism_in_the_United_States" title="Abolitionism in the United States">Abolitionism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_American_founding_fathers_of_the_United_States" title="African American founding fathers of the United States">African American founding fathers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Afrocentrism" title="Afrocentrism">Afrocentrism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/American_Civil_War" title="American Civil War">American Civil War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Atlantic_slave_trade" title="Atlantic slave trade">Atlantic slave trade</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Black_Codes_(United_States)" title="Black Codes (United States)">Black Codes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Black_cowboys" title="Black cowboys">Black cowboys</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Black_genocide" class="mw-redirect" title="Black genocide">Black genocide</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Black_Lives_Matter" title="Black Lives Matter">Black Lives Matter</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Brown_v._Board_of_Education" title="Brown v. Board of Education">Brown v. Board of Education</a> (1954)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Children_of_the_plantation" title="Children of the plantation">Children of the plantation</a></li> <li>Civil Rights Acts <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Civil_Rights_Act_of_1964" title="Civil Rights Act of 1964">1964</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Voting_Rights_Act_of_1965" title="Voting Rights Act of 1965">Voting Rights Act of 1965</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Civil_Rights_Act_of_1968" title="Civil Rights Act of 1968">1968</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Civil_rights_movement_(1865%E2%80%931896)" title="Civil rights movement (1865–1896)">Civil rights movement 1865–1896</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Civil_rights_movement_(1896%E2%80%931954)" title="Civil rights movement (1896–1954)">Civil right movement 1896–1954</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Civil_rights_movement" title="Civil rights movement">Civil rights movement 1954–1968</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Montgomery_bus_boycott" title="Montgomery bus boycott">Montgomery bus boycott</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Browder_v._Gayle" title="Browder v. Gayle">Browder v. Gayle</a> (1956)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sit-in_movement" title="Sit-in movement">Sit-in movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Freedom_Riders" title="Freedom Riders">Freedom Riders</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Birmingham_campaign" title="Birmingham campaign">Birmingham movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/March_on_Washington_for_Jobs_and_Freedom" title="March on Washington for Jobs and Freedom">March on Washington</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Freedom_Summer" title="Freedom Summer">Freedom Summer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Selma_to_Montgomery_marches" title="Selma to Montgomery marches">Selma to Montgomery marches</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chicago_Freedom_Movement" title="Chicago Freedom Movement">Chicago Freedom Movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Post%E2%80%93civil_rights_era_in_African-American_history" title="Post–civil rights era in African-American history">Post–civil rights era</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cornerstone_Speech" title="Cornerstone Speech">Cornerstone Speech</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Impact_of_the_COVID-19_pandemic_on_African_communities" class="mw-redirect" title="Impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on African communities">COVID-19 impact</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dred_Scott_v._Sandford" title="Dred Scott v. Sandford">Dred Scott v. Sandford</a> (1857)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Free_Negro" title="Free Negro">Free Negro</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Free_people_of_color" title="Free people of color">Free people of color</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/George_Floyd_protests" title="George Floyd protests">George Floyd protests</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Great_Migration_(African_American)" title="Great Migration (African American)">Great Migration</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Second_Great_Migration_(African_American)" title="Second Great Migration (African American)">Second</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/New_Great_Migration" title="New Great Migration">New</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Exodusters" title="Exodusters">Exodusters</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/First_inauguration_of_Barack_Obama" title="First inauguration of Barack Obama">Inauguration of Barack Obama 2009</a> / <a href="/wiki/Second_inauguration_of_Barack_Obama" title="Second inauguration of Barack Obama">Inauguration of Barack Obama 2013</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jim_Crow_laws" title="Jim Crow laws">Jim Crow laws</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lynching_in_the_United_States" title="Lynching in the United States">Lynching</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Military_history_of_African_Americans" title="Military history of African Americans">Military history</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Million_Man_March" title="Million Man March">Million Man March</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nadir_of_American_race_relations" title="Nadir of American race relations">Nadir of American race relations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Negro_Motorist_Green_Book" title="The Negro Motorist Green Book">The Negro Motorist Green Book</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Partus_sequitur_ventrem" title="Partus sequitur ventrem">Partus sequitur ventrem</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plantation_complexes_in_the_Southern_United_States" title="Plantation complexes in the Southern United States">Plantations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plessy_v._Ferguson" title="Plessy v. Ferguson">Plessy v. Ferguson</a> (1896)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reconstruction_Amendments" title="Reconstruction Amendments">Reconstruction Amendments</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reconstruction_era" title="Reconstruction era">Reconstruction era</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Redlining" title="Redlining">Redlining</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Separate_but_equal" title="Separate but equal">Separate but equal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Silent_Parade" title="Silent Parade">Silent Parade</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_the_United_States" title="Slavery in the United States">Slavery</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Treatment_of_slaves_in_the_United_States" title="Treatment of slaves in the United States">Treatment of slaves</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tulsa_race_massacre" title="Tulsa race massacre">Tulsa race massacre</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Underground Railroad</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African-American_women%27s_suffrage_movement" title="African-American women's suffrage movement">Women's suffrage movement</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #d1eaeb;;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/African-American_culture" title="African-American culture">Culture</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Afrofuturism" title="Afrofuturism">Afrofuturism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African-American_art" title="African-American art">Art</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Black_mecca" title="Black mecca">Black mecca</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Black-owned_business" title="Black-owned business">Businesses</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African-American_dance" title="African-American dance">Dance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African-American_family_structure" title="African-American family structure">Family structure</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Black_film" title="Black film">Film</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African-American_folktales" title="African-American folktales">Folktales</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African-American_hair" title="African-American hair">Hair</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Harlem_Renaissance" title="Harlem Renaissance">Harlem Renaissance</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/New_Negro" title="New Negro">New Negro</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hoodoo_(spirituality)" title="Hoodoo (spirituality)">Hoodoo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Juneteenth" title="Juneteenth">Juneteenth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kwanzaa" title="Kwanzaa">Kwanzaa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African-American_LGBT_community" class="mw-redirect" title="African-American LGBT community">LGBT community</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African-American_literature" title="African-American literature">Literature</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African-American_music" title="African-American music">Music</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African-American_musical_theater" title="African-American musical theater">Musical theater</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African-American_names" title="African-American names">Names</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lift_Every_Voice_and_Sing" title="Lift Every Voice and Sing">Negro National Anthem</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African-American_neighborhood" title="African-American neighborhood">Neighborhoods</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_American_newspapers" title="African American newspapers">Newspapers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Soul_food" title="Soul food">Soul food</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stereotypes_of_African_Americans" title="Stereotypes of African Americans">Stereotypes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African-American_middle_class" title="African-American middle class">Middle class</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African-American_upper_class" title="African-American upper class">Upper class</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #d1eaeb;;width:1%">Notable people</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ralph_Abernathy" title="Ralph Abernathy">Ralph Abernathy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maya_Angelou" title="Maya Angelou">Maya Angelou</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crispus_Attucks" title="Crispus Attucks">Crispus Attucks</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_Baldwin" title="James Baldwin">James Baldwin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_Bevel" title="James Bevel">James Bevel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Julian_Bond" title="Julian Bond">Julian Bond</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Amelia_Boynton_Robinson" title="Amelia Boynton Robinson">Amelia Boynton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_Bradley_(former_slave)" title="James Bradley (former slave)">James Bradley</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carol_Moseley_Braun" title="Carol Moseley Braun">Carol Moseley Braun</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Edward_Brooke" title="Edward Brooke">Edward Brooke</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Blanche_Bruce" title="Blanche Bruce">Blanche Bruce</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ralph_Bunche" title="Ralph Bunche">Ralph Bunche</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/George_Washington_Carver" title="George Washington Carver">George Washington Carver</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shirley_Chisholm" title="Shirley Chisholm">Shirley Chisholm</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Claudette_Colvin" title="Claudette Colvin">Claudette Colvin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Frederick_Douglass" title="Frederick Douglass">Frederick Douglass</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/W._E._B._Du_Bois" title="W. E. B. Du Bois">W. E. B. Du Bois</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Medgar_Evers" title="Medgar Evers">Medgar Evers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_Farmer" title="James Farmer">James Farmer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Henry_Highland_Garnet" title="Henry Highland Garnet">Henry Highland Garnet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marcus_Garvey" title="Marcus Garvey">Marcus Garvey</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fred_Gray_(attorney)" title="Fred Gray (attorney)">Fred Gray</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fannie_Lou_Hamer" title="Fannie Lou Hamer">Fannie Lou Hamer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kamala_Harris" title="Kamala Harris">Kamala Harris</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jimi_Hendrix" title="Jimi Hendrix">Jimi Hendrix</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jesse_Jackson" title="Jesse Jackson">Jesse Jackson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ketanji_Brown_Jackson" title="Ketanji Brown Jackson">Ketanji Brown Jackson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Michael_Jackson" title="Michael Jackson">Michael Jackson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Harriet_Jacobs" title="Harriet Jacobs">Harriet Jacobs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Barbara_Jordan" title="Barbara Jordan">Barbara Jordan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Coretta_Scott_King" title="Coretta Scott King">Coretta Scott King</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Martin_Luther_King_Jr." title="Martin Luther King Jr.">Martin Luther King Jr.</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bernard_Lafayette" title="Bernard Lafayette">Bernard Lafayette</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_Lawson_(activist)" title="James Lawson (activist)">James Lawson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lead_Belly" title="Lead Belly">Huddie Ledbetter</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Lewis" title="John Lewis">John Lewis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joseph_Lowery" title="Joseph Lowery">Joseph Lowery</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Malcolm_X" title="Malcolm X">Malcolm X</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thurgood_Marshall" title="Thurgood Marshall">Thurgood Marshall</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Toni_Morrison" title="Toni Morrison">Toni Morrison</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bob_Moses_(activist)" title="Bob Moses (activist)">Bob Moses</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Diane_Nash" title="Diane Nash">Diane Nash</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Barack_Obama" title="Barack Obama">Barack Obama</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Michelle_Obama" title="Michelle Obama">Michelle Obama</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rosa_Parks" title="Rosa Parks">Rosa Parks</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Adam_Clayton_Powell_Jr." title="Adam Clayton Powell Jr.">Adam Clayton Powell Jr.</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Colin_Powell" title="Colin Powell">Colin Powell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gabriel_Prosser" class="mw-redirect" title="Gabriel Prosser">Gabriel Prosser</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joseph_Rainey" title="Joseph Rainey">Joseph Rainey</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/A._Philip_Randolph" title="A. Philip Randolph">A. Philip Randolph</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hiram_R._Revels" title="Hiram R. Revels">Hiram Revels</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paul_Robeson" title="Paul Robeson">Paul Robeson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Al_Sharpton" title="Al Sharpton">Al Sharpton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fred_Shuttlesworth" title="Fred Shuttlesworth">Fred Shuttlesworth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Clarence_Thomas" title="Clarence Thomas">Clarence Thomas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Emmett_Till" title="Emmett Till">Emmett Till</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sojourner_Truth" title="Sojourner Truth">Sojourner Truth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Harriet_Tubman" title="Harriet Tubman">Harriet Tubman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nat_Turner%27s_slave_rebellion" class="mw-redirect" title="Nat Turner's slave rebellion">Nat Turner</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Denmark_Vesey" title="Denmark Vesey">Denmark Vesey</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/C._T._Vivian" title="C. T. Vivian">C. T. Vivian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/David_Walker_(abolitionist)" title="David Walker (abolitionist)">David Walker</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Booker_T._Washington" title="Booker T. Washington">Booker T. Washington</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ida_B._Wells" title="Ida B. Wells">Ida B. Wells</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roy_Wilkins" title="Roy Wilkins">Roy Wilkins</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oprah_Winfrey" title="Oprah Winfrey">Oprah Winfrey</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Andrew_Young" title="Andrew Young">Andrew Young</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Whitney_Young" title="Whitney Young">Whitney Young</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #d1eaeb;;width:1%">Education, science and technology</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Black_studies" title="Black studies">Black studies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Black_school" class="mw-redirect" title="Black school">Black schools</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historically_black_colleges_and_universities" title="Historically black colleges and universities">Historically black colleges and universities</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_African-American_inventors_and_scientists" title="List of African-American inventors and scientists">Inventors and scientists</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_museums_focused_on_African_Americans" title="List of museums focused on African Americans">Museums</a></li> <li>Women <ul><li><a href="/wiki/African-American_women_in_computer_science" title="African-American women in computer science">in computer science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_African-American_women_in_medicine" title="List of African-American women in medicine">in medicine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_African-American_women_in_STEM_fields" title="List of African-American women in STEM fields">in STEM fields</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #d1eaeb;;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Religion_of_Black_Americans" title="Religion of Black Americans">Religion</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/African-American_Jews" title="African-American Jews">African-American Jews</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African-American_Muslims" title="African-American Muslims">Islam</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/American_Society_of_Muslims" title="American Society of Muslims">American Society of Muslims</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nation_of_Islam" title="Nation of Islam">Nation of Islam</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Black_church" title="Black church">Black church</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Azusa_Street_Revival" title="Azusa Street Revival">Azusa Street Revival</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Black_Hebrew_Israelites" title="Black Hebrew Israelites">Black Hebrew Israelites</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Black_theology" title="Black theology">Black theology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Doctrine_of_Father_Divine" class="mw-redirect" title="Doctrine of Father Divine">Doctrine of Father Divine</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #d1eaeb;;width:1%">Political movements</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Black_anarchism" title="Black anarchism">Anarchism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Back-to-Africa_movement" title="Back-to-Africa movement">Back-to-Africa movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Black_power" title="Black power">Black power</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Black_power_movement" title="Black power movement">Movement</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Black_capitalism" title="Black capitalism">Capitalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Black_conservatism" title="Black conservatism">Conservatism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African-American_leftism" title="African-American leftism">Leftism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pan-Africanism" title="Pan-Africanism">Pan-Africanism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Black_populism" title="Black populism">Populism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Raised_fist" title="Raised fist">Raised fist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African-American_self-determination" title="African-American self-determination">Self-determination</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Black_nationalism" title="Black nationalism">Nationalism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African-American_socialism" title="African-American socialism">Socialism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #d1eaeb;;width:1%"><div style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0;">Civic and economic groups</div></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Association_for_the_Study_of_African_American_Life_and_History" title="Association for the Study of African American Life and History">Association for the Study of African American Life and History (ASALH)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Black_Panther_Party" title="Black Panther Party">Black Panther Party</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Congress_of_Racial_Equality" title="Congress of Racial Equality">Congress of Racial Equality (CORE)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/NAACP" title="NAACP">National Association for the Advancement of Colored People (NAACP)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nashville_Student_Movement" title="Nashville Student Movement">Nashville Student Movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Black_Chamber_of_Commerce" title="National Black Chamber of Commerce">National Black Chamber of Commerce (NBCC)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Council_of_Negro_Women" title="National Council of Negro Women">National Council of Negro Women (NCNW)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Pan-Hellenic_Council" title="National Pan-Hellenic Council">National Pan-Hellenic Council (NPHC)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Urban_League" title="National Urban League">National Urban League (NUL)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Southern_Christian_Leadership_Conference" title="Southern Christian Leadership Conference">Southern Christian Leadership Conference (SCLC)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Student_Nonviolent_Coordinating_Committee" title="Student Nonviolent Coordinating Committee">Student Nonviolent Coordinating Committee (SNCC)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thurgood_Marshall_College_Fund" title="Thurgood Marshall College Fund">Thurgood Marshall College Fund</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/UNCF" title="UNCF">United Negro College Fund (UNCF)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Universal_Negro_Improvement_Association_and_African_Communities_League" title="Universal Negro Improvement Association and African Communities League">Universal Negro Improvement Association and African Communities League (UNIA-ACL)</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #d1eaeb;;width:1%">Sports</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Negro_league_baseball" title="Negro league baseball">Negro league baseball</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Baseball_color_line" title="Baseball color line">Baseball color line</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Black_players_in_professional_American_football" title="Black players in professional American football">Black players in professional American football</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_black_starting_NFL_quarterbacks" title="List of black starting NFL quarterbacks">Black NFL quarterbacks</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Black_players_in_ice_hockey" title="Black players in ice hockey">Black players in ice hockey</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Muhammad_Ali" title="Muhammad Ali">Muhammad Ali</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arthur_Ashe" title="Arthur Ashe">Arthur Ashe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jack_Johnson_(boxer)" title="Jack Johnson (boxer)">Jack Johnson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joe_Louis" title="Joe Louis">Joe Louis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jesse_Owens" title="Jesse Owens">Jesse Owens</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jackie_Robinson" title="Jackie Robinson">Jackie Robinson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Serena_Williams" title="Serena Williams">Serena Williams</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><div style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0;">Athletic associations and conferences</div></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Central_Intercollegiate_Athletic_Association" title="Central Intercollegiate Athletic Association">Central (CIAA)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mid-Eastern_Athletic_Conference" title="Mid-Eastern Athletic Conference">Mid-Eastern (MEAC)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Southern_Intercollegiate_Athletic_Conference" title="Southern Intercollegiate Athletic Conference">Southern (SIAC)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Southwestern_Athletic_Conference" title="Southwestern Athletic Conference">Southwestern (SWAC)</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #d1eaeb;;width:1%">Ethnic subdivisions</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li>By African descent <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Fula_Americans" title="Fula Americans">Fula</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gullah" title="Gullah">Gullah</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Igbo_Americans" title="Igbo Americans">Igbo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yoruba_Americans" title="Yoruba Americans">Yoruba</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alabama_Creole_people" title="Alabama Creole people">Alabama Creole</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Black_Indians_in_the_United_States" title="Black Indians in the United States">Black Indians</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Black_Seminoles" title="Black Seminoles">Black Seminoles</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cherokee_freedmen_controversy" title="Cherokee freedmen controversy">Cherokee freedmen controversy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Choctaw_freedmen" title="Choctaw freedmen">Choctaw freedmen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Creek_Freedmen" title="Creek Freedmen">Creek Freedmen</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Black_Southerners" title="Black Southerners">Black Southerners</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Blaxican" title="Blaxican">Blaxicans</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Great_Dismal_Swamp_maroons" title="Great Dismal Swamp maroons">Great Dismal Swamp maroons</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Louisiana_Creole_people" title="Louisiana Creole people">Louisiana Creole</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Creoles_of_color" title="Creoles of color">of color</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Melungeon" title="Melungeon">Melungeon</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #d1eaeb;;width:1%">Demographics</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/African-American_neighborhood" title="African-American neighborhood">Neighborhoods</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_African-American_neighborhoods" title="List of African-American neighborhoods">list</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_U.S._cities_with_large_Black_populations" title="List of U.S. cities with large Black populations">U.S. cities with large populations</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_U.S._communities_with_African-American_majority_populations_in_2000" title="List of U.S. communities with African-American majority populations in 2000">2000 majorities</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_U.S._communities_with_African-American_majority_populations_in_2010" title="List of U.S. communities with African-American majority populations in 2010">2010 majorities</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_U.S._metropolitan_areas_with_large_African-American_populations" title="List of U.S. metropolitan areas with large African-American populations">Metropolitan areas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_U.S._states_and_territories_by_African-American_population" title="List of U.S. states and territories by African-American population">States and territories</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #d1eaeb;;width:1%">Languages</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Afro-Seminole_Creole" title="Afro-Seminole Creole">Afro-Seminole Creole</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/American_Sign_Language" title="American Sign Language">American Sign</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Black_American_Sign_Language" title="Black American Sign Language">Black American Sign</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/English_language" title="English language">English</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/American_English" title="American English">American English</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African-American_English" title="African-American English">African-American English</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/African-American_Vernacular_English" title="African-American Vernacular English">African-American Vernacular English</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African-American_Vernacular_English_and_social_context" title="African-American Vernacular English and social context">social context</a></li></ul></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gullah_language" title="Gullah language">Gullah</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Louisiana_Creole" title="Louisiana Creole">Louisiana Creole</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #d1eaeb;;width:1%">By state/city</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/African_Americans_in_Alabama" title="African Americans in Alabama">Alabama</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_Americans_in_Arkansas" title="African Americans in Arkansas">Arkansas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_Americans_in_California" title="African Americans in California">California</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_African_Americans_in_Los_Angeles" title="History of African Americans in Los Angeles">Los Angeles</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_Americans_in_San_Francisco" title="African Americans in San Francisco">San Francisco</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_Americans_in_Cleveland" class="mw-redirect" title="African Americans in Cleveland">Cleveland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_Americans_in_Florida" title="African Americans in Florida">Florida</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_African_Americans_in_Jacksonville" title="History of African Americans in Jacksonville">Jacksonville</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Tallahassee,_Florida#Black_history" title="History of Tallahassee, Florida">Tallahassee</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_Americans_in_Georgia" title="African Americans in Georgia">Georgia</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/African_Americans_in_Atlanta" title="African Americans in Atlanta">Atlanta</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Africans_in_Hawaii" title="Africans in Hawaii">Hawaii</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_Americans_in_Illinois" title="African Americans in Illinois">Illinois</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_African_Americans_in_Chicago" title="History of African Americans in Chicago">Chicago</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_Americans_in_Indiana" class="mw-redirect" title="African Americans in Indiana">Indiana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_Americans_in_Iowa" class="mw-redirect" title="African Americans in Iowa">Iowa</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/African_Americans_in_Davenport,_Iowa" title="African Americans in Davenport, Iowa">Davenport</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_African_Americans_in_Kansas" class="mw-redirect" title="History of African Americans in Kansas">Kansas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_African_Americans_in_Kentucky" title="History of African Americans in Kentucky">Kentucky</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/African-American_neighborhoods_in_Lexington,_Kentucky" title="African-American neighborhoods in Lexington, Kentucky">Lexington</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_Americans_in_Louisiana" title="African Americans in Louisiana">Louisiana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_Americans_in_Maryland" title="African Americans in Maryland">Maryland</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_African_Americans_in_Baltimore" title="History of African Americans in Baltimore">Baltimore</a></li></ul></li> <li>Massachusetts <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_African_Americans_in_Boston" title="History of African Americans in Boston">Boston</a></li></ul></li> <li>Michigan <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_African_Americans_in_Detroit" title="History of African Americans in Detroit">Detroit</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_Americans_in_Mississippi" title="African Americans in Mississippi">Mississippi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_American_history_of_Nebraska" class="mw-redirect" title="African American history of Nebraska">Nebraska</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/African_Americans_in_Omaha,_Nebraska" title="African Americans in Omaha, Nebraska">Omaha</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_Americans_in_New_Jersey" title="African Americans in New Jersey">New Jersey</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_Americans_in_New_York" class="mw-redirect" title="African Americans in New York">New York</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/African_Americans_in_New_York_City" title="African Americans in New York City">New York City</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_Americans_in_North_Carolina" title="African Americans in North Carolina">North Carolina</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_Americans_in_Ohio" title="African Americans in Ohio">Ohio</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_Americans_in_Oklahoma" title="African Americans in Oklahoma">Oklahoma</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_Americans_in_Oregon" title="African Americans in Oregon">Oregon</a></li> <li>Pennsylvania <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_African_Americans_in_Philadelphia" title="History of African Americans in Philadelphia">Philadelphia</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Afro%E2%80%93Puerto_Ricans" title="Afro–Puerto Ricans">Puerto Rico</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_Americans_in_South_Carolina" title="African Americans in South Carolina">South Carolina</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_Americans_in_South_Dakota" title="African Americans in South Dakota">South Dakota</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_Americans_in_Tennessee" title="African Americans in Tennessee">Tennessee</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_African_Americans_in_Texas" title="History of African Americans in Texas">Texas</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_African_Americans_in_Austin" title="History of African Americans in Austin">Austin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_African_Americans_in_Dallas%E2%80%93Fort_Worth" title="History of African Americans in Dallas–Fort Worth">Dallas–Fort Worth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_African_Americans_in_Houston" title="History of African Americans in Houston">Houston</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_African_Americans_in_San_Antonio" title="History of African Americans in San Antonio">San Antonio</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_African_Americans_in_Utah" title="History of African Americans in Utah">Utah</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_Americans_in_Virginia" title="African Americans in Virginia">Virginia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_Americans_in_West_Virginia" title="African Americans in West Virginia">West Virginia</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #d1eaeb;;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/African-American_diaspora" title="African-American diaspora">Diaspora</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/African_Americans_in_Africa" title="African Americans in Africa">Africa</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Gambian_Creole_people" title="Gambian Creole people">Gambia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_Americans_in_Ghana" title="African Americans in Ghana">Ghana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Americo-Liberian_people" title="Americo-Liberian people">Liberia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sierra_Leone_Creole_people" title="Sierra Leone Creole people">Sierra Leone</a></li></ul></li> <li>America <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Black_Nova_Scotians" title="Black Nova Scotians">Canada</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Saman%C3%A1_Americans" title="Samaná Americans">Dominican Republic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Haitian_emigration" title="Haitian emigration">Haiti</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mascogos" title="Mascogos">Mexico</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Merikins" title="Merikins">Trinidad and Tobago</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_Americans_in_Israel" title="African Americans in Israel">Israel</a></li> <li>Europe <ul><li><a href="/wiki/African_Americans_in_France" title="African Americans in France">France</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #d1eaeb;;width:1%">Lists</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Lists_of_African_Americans" title="Lists of African Americans">African Americans</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_African-American_activists" title="List of African-American activists">Activists</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_African-American_actors" title="List of African-American actors">Actors</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_African-American_astronauts" title="List of African-American astronauts">Astronauts</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Black_billionaires" title="Black billionaires">Billionaires</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_African_American_journalists" title="List of African American journalists">Journalists</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_African-American_jurists" class="mw-redirect" title="List of African-American jurists">Jurists</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_African-American_mathematicians" title="List of African-American mathematicians">Mathematicians</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_African-American_Republicans" title="List of African-American Republicans">Republicans</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_African-American_singers" title="List of African-American singers">Singers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_African_American_sportspeople" title="List of African American sportspeople">Sportspeople</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spingarn_Medal" title="Spingarn Medal">Spingarn Medal winners</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_African-American_United_States_Cabinet_members" title="List of African-American United States Cabinet members">US cabinet members</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_African-American_United_States_representatives" title="List of African-American United States representatives">US representatives</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_African-American_United_States_senators" title="List of African-American United States senators">US senators</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_African-American_visual_artists" title="List of African-American visual artists">Visual artists</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_African-American_writers" title="List of African-American writers">Writers</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_African-American_firsts" class="mw-redirect" title="List of African-American firsts">African-American firsts</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_first_African-American_mayors" title="List of first African-American mayors">Mayors</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_African-American_sports_firsts" title="List of African-American sports firsts">Sports firsts</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_African-American_U.S._state_firsts" title="List of African-American U.S. state firsts">US state firsts</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_African-American_historic_places" title="List of African-American historic places">Historic places</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Index_of_articles_related_to_African_Americans" title="Index of articles related to African Americans">Index of related articles</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_landmark_African-American_legislation" title="List of landmark African-American legislation">Landmark African-American legislation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_lynching_victims_in_the_United_States" title="List of lynching victims in the United States">Lynching victims</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_monuments_to_African_Americans" title="List of monuments to African Americans">Monuments</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_African-American_neighborhoods" title="List of African-American neighborhoods">Neighborhoods</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_topics_related_to_the_African_diaspora" title="List of topics related to the African diaspora">Topics related to the African diaspora</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2" style="background: #d1eaeb;;font-weight:bold;"><div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Category:African-American_society" title="Category:African-American society">Category</a></li> <li><img alt="flag" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/a/a4/Flag_of_the_United_States.svg/32px-Flag_of_the_United_States.svg.png" decoding="async" width="32" height="17" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/a/a4/Flag_of_the_United_States.svg/48px-Flag_of_the_United_States.svg.png 1.5x, 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rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:American_Civil_War" title="Template:American Civil War"><abbr title="View this template" style="color:inherit">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:American_Civil_War" title="Template talk:American Civil War"><abbr title="Discuss this template" style="color:inherit">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:American_Civil_War" title="Special:EditPage/Template:American Civil War"><abbr title="Edit this template" style="color:inherit">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="American_Civil_War" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/American_Civil_War" title="American Civil War">American Civil War</a></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2" style="background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;"><div id="Origins" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Origins</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0;;wide"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:9.0em;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;"><div class="hlist"><ul><li><a href="/wiki/Origins_of_the_American_Civil_War" title="Origins of the American Civil War">Origins</a></li></ul></div></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_events_leading_to_the_American_Civil_War" title="Timeline of events leading to the American Civil War">Timeline leading to the War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bleeding_Kansas" title="Bleeding Kansas">Bleeding Kansas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Border_states_(American_Civil_War)" title="Border states (American Civil War)">Border states</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Compromise_of_1850" title="Compromise of 1850">Compromise of 1850</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Brown%27s_raid_on_Harpers_Ferry" title="John Brown's raid on Harpers Ferry">John Brown's raid on Harpers Ferry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kansas-Nebraska_Act" class="mw-redirect" title="Kansas-Nebraska Act">Kansas-Nebraska Act</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lincoln%E2%80%93Douglas_debates" title="Lincoln–Douglas debates">Lincoln–Douglas debates</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Missouri_Compromise" title="Missouri Compromise">Missouri Compromise</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nullification_crisis" title="Nullification crisis">Nullification crisis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Origins_of_the_American_Civil_War" title="Origins of the American Civil War">Origins of the American Civil War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Panic_of_1857" title="Panic of 1857">Panic of 1857</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Popular_sovereignty_in_the_United_States" title="Popular sovereignty in the United States">Popular sovereignty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Secession_in_the_United_States" title="Secession in the United States">Secession</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/South_Carolina_Declaration_of_Secession" title="South Carolina Declaration of Secession">South Carolina Declaration of Secession</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/States%27_rights" title="States' rights">States' rights</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/President_Lincoln%27s_75,000_volunteers" title="President Lincoln's 75,000 volunteers">President Lincoln's 75,000 volunteers</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:9.0em;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;"><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_the_United_States" title="Slavery in the United States">Slavery</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Military_history_of_African_Americans_in_the_American_Civil_War" title="Military history of African Americans in the American Civil War">African Americans</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cornerstone_Speech" title="Cornerstone Speech">Cornerstone Speech</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crittenden_Compromise" title="Crittenden Compromise">Crittenden Compromise</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dred_Scott_v._Sandford" title="Dred Scott v. Sandford">Dred Scott v. Sandford</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Emancipation_Proclamation" title="Emancipation Proclamation">Emancipation Proclamation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fire-Eaters" title="Fire-Eaters">Fire-Eaters</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fugitive_slave_laws_in_the_United_States" title="Fugitive slave laws in the United States">Fugitive slave laws</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plantation_complexes_in_the_Southern_United_States" title="Plantation complexes in the Southern United States">Plantations in the American South</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_as_a_positive_good_in_the_United_States" title="Slavery as a positive good in the United States">Positive good</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slave_Power" title="Slave Power">Slave Power</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_the_United_States" title="Slavery in the United States">Slavery in the United States</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Treatment_of_slaves_in_the_United_States" title="Treatment of slaves in the United States">Treatment of slaves in the United States</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Uncle_Tom%27s_Cabin" title="Uncle Tom's Cabin">Uncle Tom's Cabin</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:9.0em;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;"><a href="/wiki/Abolitionism_in_the_United_States" title="Abolitionism in the United States">Abolitionism</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Abolitionism_in_the_United_States" title="Abolitionism in the United States">Abolitionism in the United States</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Susan_B._Anthony" title="Susan B. Anthony">Susan B. Anthony</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_G._Birney" title="James G. Birney">James G. Birney</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Brown_(abolitionist)" title="John Brown (abolitionist)">John Brown</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Frederick_Douglass" title="Frederick Douglass">Frederick Douglass</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_Lloyd_Garrison" title="William Lloyd Garrison">William Lloyd Garrison</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lane_Debates_on_Slavery" class="mw-redirect" title="Lane Debates on Slavery">Lane Debates on Slavery</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Elijah_Parish_Lovejoy" title="Elijah Parish Lovejoy">Elijah Parish Lovejoy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/J._Sella_Martin" title="J. Sella Martin">J. Sella Martin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lysander_Spooner" title="Lysander Spooner">Lysander Spooner</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/George_Luther_Stearns" title="George Luther Stearns">George Luther Stearns</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thaddeus_Stevens" title="Thaddeus Stevens">Thaddeus Stevens</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charles_Sumner" title="Charles Sumner">Charles Sumner</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Caning_of_Charles_Sumner" title="Caning of Charles Sumner">Caning</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Harriet_Tubman" title="Harriet Tubman">Harriet Tubman</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Underground Railroad</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2" style="background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;"><div id="CombatantsTheatersCampaignsBattlesStates" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><div class="hlist"><ul><li>Combatants</li><li>Theaters</li><li>Campaigns</li><li>Battles</li><li>States</li></ul></div></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0;;wide"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:9.0em;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;">Combatants</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0;;wide"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;font-weight:normal; background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;"><a href="/wiki/Union_(American_Civil_War)" title="Union (American Civil War)">Union</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Union_army" title="Union army">Army</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Union_Navy" title="Union Navy">Navy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_Marine_Corps" title="United States Marine Corps">Marine Corps</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_Revenue_Cutter_Service" title="United States Revenue Cutter Service">Revenue Cutter Service</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;font-weight:normal; background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;"><a href="/wiki/Confederate_States_of_America" title="Confederate States of America">Confederacy</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Confederate_States_Army" title="Confederate States Army">Army</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Confederate_States_Navy" title="Confederate States Navy">Navy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Confederate_States_Marine_Corps" title="Confederate States Marine Corps">Marine Corps</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:9.0em;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;">Theaters</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Eastern_theater_of_the_American_Civil_War" title="Eastern theater of the American Civil War">Eastern</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Western_theater_of_the_American_Civil_War" title="Western theater of the American Civil War">Western</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lower_seaboard_theater_of_the_American_Civil_War" title="Lower seaboard theater of the American Civil War">Lower Seaboard</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trans-Mississippi_theater_of_the_American_Civil_War" title="Trans-Mississippi theater of the American Civil War">Trans-Mississippi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pacific_coast_theater_of_the_American_Civil_War" title="Pacific coast theater of the American Civil War">Pacific Coast</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Union_blockade" title="Union blockade">Union naval blockade</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:9.0em;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;">Major <a href="/wiki/Campaigns_of_the_American_Civil_War" title="Campaigns of the American Civil War">campaigns</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anaconda_Plan" title="Anaconda Plan">Anaconda Plan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Blockade_runners_of_the_American_Civil_War" title="Blockade runners of the American Civil War">Blockade runners</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/New_Mexico_campaign" title="New Mexico campaign">New Mexico</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jackson%27s_Valley_campaign" title="Jackson's Valley campaign">Jackson's Valley</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peninsula_campaign" title="Peninsula campaign">Peninsula</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Northern_Virginia_campaign" title="Northern Virginia campaign">Northern Virginia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maryland_campaign" title="Maryland campaign">Maryland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Stones_River" title="Battle of Stones River">Stones River</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vicksburg_campaign" title="Vicksburg campaign">Vicksburg</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tullahoma_campaign" title="Tullahoma campaign">Tullahoma</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gettysburg_campaign" title="Gettysburg campaign">Gettysburg</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Morgan%27s_Raid" title="Morgan's Raid">Morgan's Raid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bristoe_campaign" title="Bristoe campaign">Bristoe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Knoxville_campaign" title="Knoxville campaign">Knoxville</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Red_River_campaign" title="Red River campaign">Red River</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Overland_Campaign" title="Overland Campaign">Overland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Atlanta_campaign" title="Atlanta campaign">Atlanta</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Valley_campaigns_of_1864" title="Valley campaigns of 1864">Valley 1864</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bermuda_Hundred_campaign" title="Bermuda Hundred campaign">Bermuda Hundred</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Petersburg" title="Siege of Petersburg">Richmond-Petersburg</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Franklin%E2%80%93Nashville_campaign" title="Franklin–Nashville campaign">Franklin–Nashville</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Price%27s_Missouri_Expedition" title="Price's Missouri Expedition">Price's Missouri Expedition</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sherman%27s_March_to_the_Sea" title="Sherman's March to the Sea">Sherman's March</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Campaign_of_the_Carolinas" class="mw-redirect" title="Campaign of the Carolinas">Carolinas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mobile_campaign_(1865)" title="Mobile campaign (1865)">Mobile</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Appomattox_campaign" title="Appomattox campaign">Appomattox</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:9.0em;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;">Major <a href="/wiki/List_of_American_Civil_War_battles" title="List of American Civil War battles">battles</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Fort_Sumter" title="Battle of Fort Sumter">Fort Sumter</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/First_Battle_of_Bull_Run" title="First Battle of Bull Run">1st Bull Run</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Wilson%27s_Creek" title="Battle of Wilson's Creek">Wilson's Creek</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Fort_Donelson" title="Battle of Fort Donelson">Fort Donelson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Pea_Ridge" title="Battle of Pea Ridge">Pea Ridge</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Hampton_Roads" title="Battle of Hampton Roads">Hampton Roads</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Shiloh" title="Battle of Shiloh">Shiloh</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Forts_Jackson_and_St._Philip" title="Battle of Forts Jackson and St. Philip">New Orleans</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Corinth" title="Siege of Corinth">Corinth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Seven_Pines" title="Battle of Seven Pines">Seven Pines</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Seven_Days_Battles" title="Seven Days Battles">Seven Days</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Second_Battle_of_Bull_Run" title="Second Battle of Bull Run">2nd Bull Run</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Antietam" title="Battle of Antietam">Antietam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Perryville" title="Battle of Perryville">Perryville</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Fredericksburg" title="Battle of Fredericksburg">Fredericksburg</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Stones_River" title="Battle of Stones River">Stones River</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Chancellorsville" title="Battle of Chancellorsville">Chancellorsville</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Gettysburg" title="Battle of Gettysburg">Gettysburg</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Vicksburg" title="Siege of Vicksburg">Vicksburg</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Chickamauga" title="Battle of Chickamauga">Chickamauga</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chattanooga_campaign" title="Chattanooga campaign">Chattanooga</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_the_Wilderness" title="Battle of the Wilderness">Wilderness</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Fort_Pillow" title="Battle of Fort Pillow">Fort Pillow</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Spotsylvania_Court_House" title="Battle of Spotsylvania Court House">Spotsylvania</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Cold_Harbor" title="Battle of Cold Harbor">Cold Harbor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Atlanta" title="Battle of Atlanta">Atlanta</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_the_Crater" title="Battle of the Crater">Crater</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Mobile_Bay" title="Battle of Mobile Bay">Mobile Bay</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Franklin_(1864)" class="mw-redirect" title="Battle of Franklin (1864)">Franklin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Nashville" title="Battle of Nashville">Nashville</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Five_Forks" title="Battle of Five Forks">Five Forks</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:9.0em;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;">Involvement</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0;;wide"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:5.0em;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;font-weight:normal;">States and territories</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Alabama_in_the_American_Civil_War" title="Alabama in the American Civil War">Alabama</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arkansas_in_the_American_Civil_War" title="Arkansas in the American Civil War">Arkansas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Confederate_Arizona" title="Confederate Arizona">Arizona</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/California_in_the_American_Civil_War" title="California in the American Civil War">California</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Colorado_in_the_American_Civil_War" class="mw-redirect" title="Colorado in the American Civil War">Colorado</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Connecticut_in_the_American_Civil_War" title="Connecticut in the American Civil War">Connecticut</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dakota_Territory#Dakota_Territory_in_the_American_Civil_War" title="Dakota Territory">Dakota Territory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Washington,_D.C.,_in_the_American_Civil_War" title="Washington, D.C., in the American Civil War">District of Columbia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Delaware#Delaware_in_the_Civil_War" title="History of Delaware">Delaware</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Florida_in_the_American_Civil_War" title="Florida in the American Civil War">Florida</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Georgia_in_the_American_Civil_War" title="Georgia in the American Civil War">Georgia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hawaii_and_the_American_Civil_War" title="Hawaii and the American Civil War">Hawaii</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Idaho_in_the_American_Civil_War" class="mw-redirect" title="Idaho in the American Civil War">Idaho</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Illinois_in_the_American_Civil_War" title="Illinois in the American Civil War">Illinois</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indian_Territory_in_the_American_Civil_War" title="Indian Territory in the American Civil War">Indian Territory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indiana_in_the_American_Civil_War" title="Indiana in the American Civil War">Indiana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iowa_in_the_American_Civil_War" title="Iowa in the American Civil War">Iowa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kansas_in_the_American_Civil_War" title="Kansas in the American Civil War">Kansas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kentucky_in_the_American_Civil_War" title="Kentucky in the American Civil War">Kentucky</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Louisiana_in_the_American_Civil_War" title="Louisiana in the American Civil War">Louisiana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maine_in_the_American_Civil_War" title="Maine in the American Civil War">Maine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maryland_in_the_American_Civil_War" title="Maryland in the American Civil War">Maryland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Massachusetts_in_the_American_Civil_War" title="Massachusetts in the American Civil War">Massachusetts</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Michigan_in_the_American_Civil_War" title="Michigan in the American Civil War">Michigan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Minnesota#Civil_War_era_and_Dakota_War_of_1862" title="History of Minnesota">Minnesota</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mississippi_in_the_American_Civil_War" title="Mississippi in the American Civil War">Mississippi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Missouri_in_the_American_Civil_War" title="Missouri in the American Civil War">Missouri</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Montana_in_the_American_Civil_War" class="mw-redirect" title="Montana in the American Civil War">Montana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nebraska_Territory_in_the_American_Civil_War" title="Nebraska Territory in the American Civil War">Nebraska</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nevada_in_the_American_Civil_War" title="Nevada in the American Civil War">Nevada</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_New_Hampshire#Civil_War:_1861–1865" title="History of New Hampshire">New Hampshire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/New_Jersey_in_the_American_Civil_War" title="New Jersey in the American Civil War">New Jersey</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/New_Mexico_Territory_in_the_American_Civil_War" title="New Mexico Territory in the American Civil War">New Mexico</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/New_York_in_the_American_Civil_War" title="New York in the American Civil War">New York</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/North_Carolina_in_the_American_Civil_War" title="North Carolina in the American Civil War">North Carolina</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ohio_in_the_American_Civil_War" title="Ohio in the American Civil War">Ohio</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oregon_in_the_American_Civil_War" title="Oregon in the American Civil War">Oregon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pennsylvania_in_the_American_Civil_War" title="Pennsylvania in the American Civil War">Pennsylvania</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rhode_Island_in_the_American_Civil_War" title="Rhode Island in the American Civil War">Rhode Island</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/South_Carolina_in_the_American_Civil_War" title="South Carolina in the American Civil War">South Carolina</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tennessee_in_the_American_Civil_War" title="Tennessee in the American Civil War">Tennessee</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Texas_in_the_American_Civil_War" title="Texas in the American Civil War">Texas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Utah_in_the_American_Civil_War" class="mw-redirect" title="Utah in the American Civil War">Utah</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vermont_in_the_American_Civil_War" title="Vermont in the American Civil War">Vermont</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Virginia_in_the_American_Civil_War" title="Virginia in the American Civil War">Virginia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Washington_in_the_American_Civil_War" class="mw-redirect" title="Washington in the American Civil War">Washington</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/West_Virginia_in_the_American_Civil_War" title="West Virginia in the American Civil War">West Virginia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wisconsin_in_the_American_Civil_War" title="Wisconsin in the American Civil War">Wisconsin</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:5.0em;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;font-weight:normal;">Cities</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Atlanta_in_the_American_Civil_War" title="Atlanta in the American Civil War">Atlanta</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charleston_in_the_American_Civil_War" title="Charleston in the American Civil War">Charleston</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chattanooga_in_the_American_Civil_War" title="Chattanooga in the American Civil War">Chattanooga</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/New_Orleans_in_the_American_Civil_War" title="New Orleans in the American Civil War">New Orleans</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Richmond_in_the_American_Civil_War" title="Richmond in the American Civil War">Richmond</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Washington,_D.C.,_in_the_American_Civil_War" title="Washington, D.C., in the American Civil War">Washington, D.C.</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Winchester,_Virginia_in_the_American_Civil_War" class="mw-redirect" title="Winchester, Virginia in the American Civil War">Winchester</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2" style="background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;"><div id="Leaders" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Military_leadership_in_the_American_Civil_War" title="Military leadership in the American Civil War">Leaders</a></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0;;wide"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.0em;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;">Confederate</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0;;wide"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:5.0em;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;font-weight:normal;">Military</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Richard_H._Anderson_(general)" title="Richard H. Anderson (general)">R. H. Anderson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/P._G._T._Beauregard" title="P. G. T. Beauregard">Beauregard</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Braxton_Bragg" title="Braxton Bragg">Bragg</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Franklin_Buchanan" title="Franklin Buchanan">Buchanan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Samuel_Cooper_(general)" title="Samuel Cooper (general)">Cooper</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jubal_Early" title="Jubal Early">Early</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Richard_S._Ewell" title="Richard S. Ewell">Ewell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nathan_Bedford_Forrest" title="Nathan Bedford Forrest">Forrest</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Josiah_Gorgas" title="Josiah Gorgas">Gorgas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/A._P._Hill" title="A. P. Hill">Hill</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Bell_Hood" title="John Bell Hood">Hood</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stonewall_Jackson" title="Stonewall Jackson">Jackson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Albert_Sidney_Johnston" title="Albert Sidney Johnston">A. S. Johnston</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joseph_E._Johnston" title="Joseph E. Johnston">J. E. Johnston</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robert_E._Lee" title="Robert E. Lee">Lee</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_Longstreet" title="James Longstreet">Longstreet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Hunt_Morgan" title="John Hunt Morgan">Morgan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_S._Mosby" title="John S. Mosby">Mosby</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Leonidas_Polk" title="Leonidas Polk">Polk</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sterling_Price" title="Sterling Price">Price</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Raphael_Semmes" title="Raphael Semmes">Semmes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Edmund_Kirby_Smith" title="Edmund Kirby Smith">E. K. Smith</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/J._E._B._Stuart" title="J. E. B. Stuart">Stuart</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Richard_Taylor_(Confederate_general)" title="Richard Taylor (Confederate general)">Taylor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joseph_Wheeler" title="Joseph Wheeler">Wheeler</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:5.0em;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;font-weight:normal;">Civilian</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Judah_P._Benjamin" title="Judah P. Benjamin">Benjamin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_S._Bocock" title="Thomas S. Bocock">Bocock</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_C._Breckinridge" title="John C. Breckinridge">Breckinridge</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jefferson_Davis" title="Jefferson Davis">Davis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robert_M._T._Hunter" title="Robert M. T. Hunter">Hunter</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stephen_Mallory" title="Stephen Mallory">Mallory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christopher_Memminger" title="Christopher Memminger">Memminger</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_Seddon" title="James Seddon">Seddon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alexander_H._Stephens" title="Alexander H. Stephens">Stephens</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.0em;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;">Union</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0;;wide"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:5.0em;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;font-weight:normal;">Military</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Robert_Anderson_(Civil_War)" title="Robert Anderson (Civil War)">Anderson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Don_Carlos_Buell" title="Don Carlos Buell">Buell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ambrose_Burnside" title="Ambrose Burnside">Burnside</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Benjamin_Butler" title="Benjamin Butler">Butler</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Samuel_Francis_Du_Pont" title="Samuel Francis Du Pont">Du Pont</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/David_Farragut" title="David Farragut">Farragut</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Andrew_Hull_Foote" title="Andrew Hull Foote">Foote</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_C._Fr%C3%A9mont" title="John C. Frémont">Frémont</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ulysses_S._Grant" title="Ulysses S. Grant">Grant</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Henry_Halleck" title="Henry Halleck">Halleck</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joseph_Hooker" title="Joseph Hooker">Hooker</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Henry_Jackson_Hunt" title="Henry Jackson Hunt">Hunt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/George_B._McClellan" title="George B. McClellan">McClellan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Irvin_McDowell" title="Irvin McDowell">McDowell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/George_Meade" title="George Meade">Meade</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Montgomery_C._Meigs" title="Montgomery C. Meigs">Meigs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Edward_Ord" title="Edward Ord">Ord</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Pope_(military_officer)" class="mw-redirect" title="John Pope (military officer)">Pope</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/David_Dixon_Porter" title="David Dixon Porter">D. D. Porter</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_Rosecrans" title="William Rosecrans">Rosecrans</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Winfield_Scott" title="Winfield Scott">Scott</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philip_Sheridan" title="Philip Sheridan">Sheridan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_Tecumseh_Sherman" title="William Tecumseh Sherman">Sherman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/George_Henry_Thomas" title="George Henry Thomas">Thomas</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:5.0em;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;font-weight:normal;">Civilian</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Charles_Francis_Adams_Sr." title="Charles Francis Adams Sr.">Adams</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Salmon_P._Chase" title="Salmon P. Chase">Chase</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Ericsson" title="John Ericsson">Ericsson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hannibal_Hamlin" title="Hannibal Hamlin">Hamlin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abraham_Lincoln" title="Abraham Lincoln">Lincoln</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Allan_Pinkerton" title="Allan Pinkerton">Pinkerton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_H._Seward" title="William H. Seward">Seward</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Edwin_Stanton" title="Edwin Stanton">Stanton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thaddeus_Stevens" title="Thaddeus Stevens">Stevens</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Benjamin_Wade" title="Benjamin Wade">Wade</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gideon_Welles" title="Gideon Welles">Welles</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2" style="background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;"><div id="Aftermath" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Aftermath</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0;;wide"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:9.0em;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;"><a href="/wiki/Constitution_of_the_United_States" title="Constitution of the United States">Constitution</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Reconstruction_Amendments" title="Reconstruction Amendments">Reconstruction Amendments</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Thirteenth_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Thirteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution">13th Amendment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fourteenth_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Fourteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution">14th Amendment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fifteenth_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Fifteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution">15th Amendment</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:9.0em;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;"><a href="/wiki/Reconstruction_era" title="Reconstruction era">Reconstruction</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Alabama_Claims" title="Alabama Claims">Alabama Claims</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Brooks%E2%80%93Baxter_War" title="Brooks–Baxter War">Brooks–Baxter War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carpetbagger" title="Carpetbagger">Carpetbaggers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Colfax_massacre" title="Colfax massacre">Colfax riot of 1873</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Compromise_of_1877" title="Compromise of 1877">Compromise of 1877</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Confederate_colonies" title="Confederate colonies">Confederate refugees</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Confederados" title="Confederados">Confederados</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Election_riot_of_1874" class="mw-redirect" title="Election riot of 1874">Eufaula riot of 1874</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Freedmen%27s_Bureau" title="Freedmen's Bureau">Freedmen's Bureau</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Freedman%27s_Savings_Bank" title="Freedman's Savings Bank">Freedman's Savings Bank</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Homestead_Acts" title="Homestead Acts">Homestead Acts</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Southern_Homestead_Act_of_1866" title="Southern Homestead Act of 1866">Southern Homestead Act of 1866</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Timber_Culture_Act" title="Timber Culture Act">Timber Culture Act</a> of 1873</li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Impeachment_of_Andrew_Johnson" title="Impeachment of Andrew Johnson">Impeachment of Andrew Johnson</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Impeachment_trial_of_Andrew_Johnson" title="Impeachment trial of Andrew Johnson">trial</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Efforts_to_impeach_Andrew_Johnson" title="Efforts to impeach Andrew Johnson">efforts</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_the_impeachment_of_Andrew_Johnson" title="Timeline of the impeachment of Andrew Johnson">timeline</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/First_impeachment_inquiry_into_Andrew_Johnson" title="First impeachment inquiry into Andrew Johnson">first inquiry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Second_impeachment_inquiry_into_Andrew_Johnson" title="Second impeachment inquiry into Andrew Johnson">second inquiry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1868_impeachment_managers_investigation" title="1868 impeachment managers investigation">impeachment managers investigation</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kirk%E2%80%93Holden_war" title="Kirk–Holden war">Kirk–Holden war</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Knights_of_the_White_Camelia" title="Knights of the White Camelia">Knights of the White Camelia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ku_Klux_Klan" title="Ku Klux Klan">Ku Klux Klan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethnic_violence" class="mw-redirect" title="Ethnic violence">Ethnic violence</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Memphis_riots_of_1866" class="mw-redirect" title="Memphis riots of 1866">Memphis riots of 1866</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Meridian_race_riot_of_1871" title="Meridian race riot of 1871">Meridian riot of 1871</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/New_Orleans_massacre_of_1866" class="mw-redirect" title="New Orleans massacre of 1866">New Orleans riot of 1866</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pulaski_riot" title="Pulaski riot">Pulaski (Tennessee) riot of 1867</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/South_Carolina_civil_disturbances_of_1876" title="South Carolina civil disturbances of 1876">South Carolina riots of 1876</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reconstruction_Acts" title="Reconstruction Acts">Reconstruction acts</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Habeas_Corpus_Act_of_1867" title="Habeas Corpus Act of 1867">Habeas Corpus Act of 1867</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Enforcement_Act_of_1870" title="Enforcement Act of 1870">Enforcement Act of 1870</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Second_Enforcement_Act" title="Second Enforcement Act">Enforcement Act of February 1871</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Third_Enforcement_Act" class="mw-redirect" title="Third Enforcement Act">Enforcement Act of April 1871</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reconstruction_era" title="Reconstruction era">Reconstruction era</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reconstruction_military_districts" title="Reconstruction military districts">Reconstruction military districts</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reconstruction_Treaties" title="Reconstruction Treaties">Reconstruction Treaties</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Fort_Smith_Council" title="Fort Smith Council">Indian Council at Fort Smith</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Red_Shirts_(United_States)" title="Red Shirts (United States)">Red Shirts</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Redeemers" title="Redeemers">Redeemers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scalawag" title="Scalawag">Scalawags</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/South_Carolina_civil_disturbances_of_1876" title="South Carolina civil disturbances of 1876">South Carolina riots of 1876</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Southern_Claims_Commission" title="Southern Claims Commission">Southern Claims Commission</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/White_League" title="White League">White League</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:9.0em;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;">Post- Reconstruction</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Commemoration_of_the_American_Civil_War" title="Commemoration of the American Civil War">Commemoration</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/American_Civil_War_Centennial" title="American Civil War Centennial">Centennial</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Civil_War_Discovery_Trail" title="Civil War Discovery Trail">Civil War Discovery Trail</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Civil_War_Roundtable" title="Civil War Roundtable">Civil War Roundtables</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Civil_War_Trails_Program" title="Civil War Trails Program">Civil War Trails Program</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Civil_War_Trust" class="mw-redirect" title="Civil War Trust">Civil War Trust</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Confederate_History_Month" title="Confederate History Month">Confederate History Month</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Confederate_Memorial_Day" title="Confederate Memorial Day">Confederate Memorial Day</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Memorial_Day" title="Memorial Day">Decoration Day</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/American_Civil_War_reenactment" title="American Civil War reenactment">Historical reenactment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robert_E._Lee_Day" title="Robert E. Lee Day">Robert E. Lee Day</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Confederate_Memorial_Hall" title="Confederate Memorial Hall">Confederate Memorial Hall</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Disenfranchisement_after_the_Reconstruction_era" class="mw-redirect" title="Disenfranchisement after the Reconstruction era">Disenfranchisement</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Black_Codes_(United_States)" title="Black Codes (United States)">Black Codes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jim_Crow_laws" title="Jim Crow laws">Jim Crow</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historiographic_issues_about_the_American_Civil_War" title="Historiographic issues about the American Civil War">Historiographic issues</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lost_Cause_of_the_Confederacy" title="Lost Cause of the Confederacy">Lost Cause mythology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Modern_display_of_the_Confederate_battle_flag" title="Modern display of the Confederate battle flag">Modern display of the Confederate flag</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Red_Shirts_(United_States)" title="Red Shirts (United States)">Red Shirts</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sons_of_Confederate_Veterans" title="Sons of Confederate Veterans">Sons of Confederate Veterans</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sons_of_Union_Veterans_of_the_Civil_War" title="Sons of Union Veterans of the Civil War">Sons of Union Veterans of the Civil War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Southern_Historical_Society" title="Southern Historical Society">Southern Historical Society</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_Confederate_Veterans" title="United Confederate Veterans">United Confederate Veterans</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_Daughters_of_the_Confederacy" title="United Daughters of the Confederacy">United Daughters of the Confederacy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Children_of_the_Confederacy" class="mw-redirect" title="Children of the Confederacy">Children of the Confederacy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wilmington_insurrection_of_1898" class="mw-redirect" title="Wilmington insurrection of 1898">Wilmington insurrection of 1898</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:9.0em;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;">Monuments and memorials</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0;;wide"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:5.0em;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;font-weight:normal;">Union</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Union_Civil_War_monuments_and_memorials" title="List of Union Civil War monuments and memorials">List</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_memorials_to_the_Grand_Army_of_the_Republic" title="List of memorials to the Grand Army of the Republic">Grand Army of the Republic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_memorials_to_Abraham_Lincoln" title="List of memorials to Abraham Lincoln">memorials to Lincoln</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:5.0em;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;font-weight:normal;">Confederate</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Confederate_monuments_and_memorials" class="mw-redirect" title="List of Confederate monuments and memorials">List</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Confederate_artworks_in_the_United_States_Capitol" title="Confederate artworks in the United States Capitol">artworks in Capitol</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_memorials_to_Jefferson_Davis" title="List of memorials to Jefferson Davis">memorials to Davis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_memorials_to_Robert_E._Lee" title="List of memorials to Robert E. Lee">memorials to Lee</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Removal_of_Confederate_monuments_and_memorials" title="Removal of Confederate monuments and memorials">Removal</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:9.0em;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;">Cemeteries</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ladies%27_Memorial_Association" title="Ladies' Memorial Association">Ladies' Memorial Associations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Civil_War_Era_National_Cemeteries_MPS" title="Civil War Era National Cemeteries MPS">U.S. national cemeteries</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:9.0em;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;">Veterans</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/1913_Gettysburg_reunion" title="1913 Gettysburg reunion">1913 Gettysburg reunion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1938_Gettysburg_reunion" title="1938 Gettysburg reunion">1938 Gettysburg reunion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Confederate_Memorial_Hall" title="Confederate Memorial Hall">Confederate Memorial Hall</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Confederate_Veteran" title="Confederate Veteran">Confederate Veteran</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Grand_Army_of_the_Republic" title="Grand Army of the Republic">Grand Army of the Republic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Military_Order_of_the_Loyal_Legion_of_the_United_States" title="Military Order of the Loyal Legion of the United States">Military Order of the Loyal Legion of the U.S.</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Old_soldiers%27_home" title="Old soldiers' home">Old soldiers' homes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Southern_Cross_of_Honor" title="Southern Cross of Honor">Southern Cross of Honor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_Confederate_Veterans" title="United Confederate Veterans">United Confederate Veterans</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2" style="background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;"><div id="Related_topics" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><div class="hlist"><ul><li>Related topics</li></ul></div></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0;;wide"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:5.0em;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;">Military</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_weapons_in_the_American_Civil_War" title="List of weapons in the American Civil War">Arms</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Civil_War_Campaign_Medal" title="Civil War Campaign Medal">Campaign Medal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cavalry_in_the_American_Civil_War" title="Cavalry in the American Civil War">Cavalry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Confederate_Home_Guard" title="Confederate Home Guard">Confederate Home Guard</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Confederate_railroads_in_the_American_Civil_War" title="Confederate railroads in the American Civil War">Confederate railroads</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Confederate_revolving_cannon" title="Confederate revolving cannon">Confederate revolving cannon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Field_artillery_in_the_American_Civil_War" title="Field artillery in the American Civil War">Field artillery</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_American_Civil_War_Medal_of_Honor_recipients" title="List of American Civil War Medal of Honor recipients">Medal of Honor recipients</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Medicine_in_the_American_Civil_War" title="Medicine in the American Civil War">Medicine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_naval_battles_of_the_American_Civil_War" title="List of naval battles of the American Civil War">Naval battles</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Official_Records_of_the_Union_and_Confederate_Armies" title="Official Records of the Union and Confederate Armies">Official Records</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Partisan_Ranger_Act" title="Partisan Ranger Act">Partisan rangers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/American_Civil_War_prison_camps" title="American Civil War prison camps">POW camps</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Foods_of_the_American_Civil_War" title="Foods of the American Civil War">Rations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Signal_Corps_in_the_American_Civil_War" title="Signal Corps in the American Civil War">Signal Corps</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Turning_point_of_the_American_Civil_War" title="Turning point of the American Civil War">Turning point</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/American_Civil_War_Corps_Badges" title="American Civil War Corps Badges">Union corps badges</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Union_Army_Balloon_Corps" title="Union Army Balloon Corps">U.S. Balloon Corps</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Home_Guard_(Union)" title="Home Guard (Union)">U.S. Home Guard</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_Military_Railroad" title="United States Military Railroad">U.S. Military Railroad</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:5.0em;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;">Political</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/United_States_Congress_Joint_Committee_on_the_Conduct_of_the_War" class="mw-redirect" title="United States Congress Joint Committee on the Conduct of the War">Committee on the Conduct of the War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Confederate_States_presidential_election" class="mw-redirect" title="Confederate States presidential election">Confederate States presidential election of 1861</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Confiscation_Act_of_1861" title="Confiscation Act of 1861">Confiscation Act of 1861</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Confiscation_Act_of_1862" title="Confiscation Act of 1862">Confiscation Act of 1862</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Copperhead_(politics)" title="Copperhead (politics)">Copperheads</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Diplomacy_of_the_American_Civil_War" title="Diplomacy of the American Civil War">Diplomacy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Emancipation_Proclamation" title="Emancipation Proclamation">Emancipation Proclamation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Habeas_Corpus_Suspension_Act_(1863)" title="Habeas Corpus Suspension Act (1863)">Habeas Corpus Act of 1863</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hampton_Roads_Conference" title="Hampton Roads Conference">Hampton Roads Conference</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Union_Party_(United_States)" title="National Union Party (United States)">National Union Party</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_politicians_killed_in_the_American_Civil_War" title="List of politicians killed in the American Civil War">Politicians killed</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Radical_Republicans" title="Radical Republicans">Radical Republicans</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trent_Affair" title="Trent Affair">Trent Affair</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Union_League" title="Union League">Union Leagues</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1864_United_States_presidential_election" title="1864 United States presidential election">U.S. Presidential Election of 1864</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/War_Democrat" title="War Democrat">War Democrats</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:5.0em;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;"><a href="/wiki/Music_of_the_American_Civil_War" title="Music of the American Civil War">Music</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Battle_Hymn_of_the_Republic" title="Battle Hymn of the Republic">Battle Hymn of the Republic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dixie_(song)" title="Dixie (song)">Dixie</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Brown%27s_Body" title="John Brown's Body">John Brown's Body</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/A_Lincoln_Portrait" class="mw-redirect" title="A Lincoln Portrait">A Lincoln Portrait</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marching_Through_Georgia" title="Marching Through Georgia">Marching Through Georgia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maryland,_My_Maryland" title="Maryland, My Maryland">Maryland, My Maryland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/When_Johnny_Comes_Marching_Home" title="When Johnny Comes Marching Home">When Johnny Comes Marching Home</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Daar_kom_die_Alibama" title="Daar kom die Alibama">Daar kom die Alibama</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:5.0em;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;">By ethnicity</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Military_history_of_African_Americans_in_the_American_Civil_War" title="Military history of African Americans in the American Civil War">African Americans</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/German_Americans_in_the_American_Civil_War" title="German Americans in the American Civil War">German Americans</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Irish_Americans_in_the_American_Civil_War" title="Irish Americans in the American Civil War">Irish Americans</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Italian_Americans_in_the_Civil_War" title="Italian Americans in the Civil War">Italian Americans</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Native_Americans_in_the_American_Civil_War" title="Native Americans in the American Civil War">Native Americans</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Catawba_in_the_American_Civil_War" title="Catawba in the American Civil War">Catawba</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cherokee_in_the_American_Civil_War" title="Cherokee in the American Civil War">Cherokee</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Choctaw_in_the_American_Civil_War" title="Choctaw in the American Civil War">Choctaw</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Seminole_in_the_American_Civil_War" title="Seminole in the American Civil War">Seminole</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:5.0em;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;">Other topics</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Baltimore_riot_of_1861" title="Baltimore riot of 1861">Baltimore riot of 1861</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/American_Civil_War_battlefield_preservation" title="American Civil War battlefield preservation">Battlefield preservation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bibliography_of_the_American_Civil_War" title="Bibliography of the American Civil War">Bibliography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Confederate_war_finance" title="Confederate war finance">Confederate war finance</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Confederate_States_dollar" title="Confederate States dollar">Confederate States dollar</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/American_Civil_War_spies" title="American Civil War spies">Espionage</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Confederate_Secret_Service" title="Confederate Secret Service">Confederate Secret Service</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Great_Hanging_at_Gainesville" title="Great Hanging at Gainesville">Great Hanging at Gainesville</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Confederate_States_Army_revival" title="Confederate States Army revival">Great Revival of 1863</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gender_issues_in_the_American_Civil_War" title="Gender issues in the American Civil War">Gender issues</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Juneteenth" title="Juneteenth">Juneteenth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Names_of_the_American_Civil_War" title="Names of the American Civil War">Naming the war</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Civil_War_gold_hoax" title="Civil War gold hoax">New York City Gold Hoax of 1864</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/New_York_City_draft_riots" title="New York City draft riots">New York City riots of 1863</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Photographers_of_the_American_Civil_War" title="Photographers of the American Civil War">Photographers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Southern_bread_riots" title="Southern bread riots">Richmond riots of 1863</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Salt_in_the_American_Civil_War" title="Salt in the American Civil War">Salt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Supreme_Court_cases_of_the_American_Civil_War" title="Supreme Court cases of the American Civil War">Supreme Court cases</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Civil_War_token" title="Civil War token">Tokens</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_Sanitary_Commission" title="United States Sanitary Commission">U.S. Sanitary Commission</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_female_American_Civil_War_soldiers" title="List of female American Civil War soldiers">Women soldiers</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:5.0em;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;">Related</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_films_and_television_shows_about_the_American_Civil_War" title="List of films and television shows about the American Civil War">List of films and television shows about the American Civil War</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow hlist" colspan="2" style="background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;"><div> <ul><li><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/23px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/31px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /> <a href="/wiki/Category:American_Civil_War" title="Category:American Civil War">Category</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/File:Symbol_portal_class.svg" class="mw-file-description" title="Portal"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/e/e2/Symbol_portal_class.svg/16px-Symbol_portal_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/e/e2/Symbol_portal_class.svg/23px-Symbol_portal_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/e/e2/Symbol_portal_class.svg/31px-Symbol_portal_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /></a> <a href="/wiki/Portal:American_Civil_War" title="Portal:American Civil War">Portal</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Harriet_Tubman" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Harriet_Tubman" title="Template:Harriet Tubman"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Harriet_Tubman" title="Template talk:Harriet Tubman"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Harriet_Tubman" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Harriet Tubman"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Harriet_Tubman" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Harriet_Tubman" title="Harriet Tubman">Harriet Tubman</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Events</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Underground Railroad</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tilly_Escape" title="Tilly Escape">Tilly Escape</a> (1856)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dover_Eight" title="Dover Eight">Dover Eight</a> (1857)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Raid_on_Combahee_Ferry" title="Raid on Combahee Ferry">Raid on Combahee Ferry</a> (1863)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Locations</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Harriet_Tubman%27s_birthplace" title="Harriet Tubman's birthplace">Birthplace</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Harriet_Tubman_Grave" title="Harriet Tubman Grave">Grave</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Harriet_Tubman%27s_family" title="Harriet Tubman's family">Family</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/John_Tubman" class="mw-redirect" title="John Tubman">John Tubman</a> (husband)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nelson_Charles_Davis" class="mw-redirect" title="Nelson Charles Davis">Nelson Charles Davis</a> (husband)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ben_Ross_(freed_lumberman)" class="mw-redirect" title="Ben Ross (freed lumberman)">Ben Ross</a> (father)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rit_Ross" class="mw-redirect" title="Rit Ross">Harriet "Rit" Ross</a> (mother)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Legacy_of_Harriet_Tubman" title="Legacy of Harriet Tubman">Legacy</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Parks and museums</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Harriet_Tubman_Underground_Railroad_State_Park" title="Harriet Tubman Underground Railroad State Park">Harriet Tubman Underground Railroad State Park</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Harriet_Tubman_Underground_Railroad_Visitor_Center" title="Harriet Tubman Underground Railroad Visitor Center">visitor center</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Harriet_Tubman_Memorial_Garden" title="Harriet Tubman Memorial Garden">Harriet Tubman Memorial Garden</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Harriet_Tubman_Museum" title="Harriet Tubman Museum">Harriet Tubman Museum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Harriet_Tubman_National_Historical_Park" title="Harriet Tubman National Historical Park">Harriet Tubman National Historical Park</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Harriet_Tubman_Park" title="Harriet Tubman Park">Harriet Tubman Park</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Harriet_Tubman_Underground_Railroad_National_Historical_Park" title="Harriet Tubman Underground Railroad National Historical Park">Harriet Tubman Underground Railroad National Historical Park</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/British_Methodist_Episcopal_Church,_Salem_Chapel" title="British Methodist Episcopal Church, Salem Chapel">Salem Chapel National Historic Site</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Homages and memorials</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Harriet_Tubman_Day" title="Harriet Tubman Day">Harriet Tubman Day</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Harriet_Tubman_Square" title="Harriet Tubman Square">Harriet Tubman Square</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Shadow_of_a_Face" title="Shadow of a Face">statue</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Harriet_Tubman_Memorial_(Boston)" title="Harriet Tubman Memorial (Boston)">Harriet Tubman Memorial (Boston)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Statue_of_Harriet_Tubman_(DeDecker)" title="Statue of Harriet Tubman (DeDecker)">Michigan statue</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Harriet_Tubman_Memorial_(New_York_City)" title="Harriet Tubman Memorial (New York City)">Harriet Tubman Memorial (New York City)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/SS_Harriet_Tubman" title="SS Harriet Tubman">SS Harriet Tubman</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Literature and film</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/The_Railroad_to_Freedom" title="The Railroad to Freedom">The Railroad to Freedom: A Story of the Civil War</a> (1932 book)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/A_Woman_Called_Moses_(novel)" title="A Woman Called Moses (novel)">A Woman Called Moses</a> (1976 novel)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/A_Woman_Called_Moses" title="A Woman Called Moses">A Woman Called Moses</a> (1978 miniseries)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Quest_for_Freedom" title="The Quest for Freedom">The Quest for Freedom</a> (1992 film)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Minty_(book)" title="Minty (book)">Minty: A Story of Young Harriet Tubman</a> (1996 book)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Harriet_(film)" title="Harriet (film)">Harriet</a> (2019 film)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Good_Lord_Bird_(miniseries)" title="The Good Lord Bird (miniseries)">The Good Lord Bird</a> (2020 miniseries)</li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox authority-control" aria-label="Navbox" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Help:Authority_control" title="Help:Authority control">Authority control databases</a>: National <a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q868393#identifiers" title="Edit this at Wikidata"><img alt="Edit this at Wikidata" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg/10px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg.png" decoding="async" width="10" height="10" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg/15px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg/20px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="20" data-file-height="20" /></a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://d-nb.info/gnd/4730901-5">Germany</a></li><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://id.loc.gov/authorities/sh85139597">United States</a></li><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://olduli.nli.org.il/F/?func=find-b&local_base=NLX10&find_code=UID&request=987007560934105171">Israel</a></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div>    </div><noscript><img src="https://login.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:CentralAutoLogin/start?type=1x1" alt="" width="1" height="1" style="border: none; position: absolute;"></noscript> <div class="printfooter" data-nosnippet="">Retrieved from "<a dir="ltr" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Underground_Railroad&oldid=1258099277">https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Underground_Railroad&oldid=1258099277</a>"</div></div> <div id="catlinks" class="catlinks" data-mw="interface"><div id="mw-normal-catlinks" class="mw-normal-catlinks"><a href="/wiki/Help:Category" title="Help:Category">Categories</a>: <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Underground_Railroad" title="Category:Underground Railroad">Underground Railroad</a></li><li><a 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