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id="toc-International_and_Japanese_law-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Historical_and_geographical_extent" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Historical_and_geographical_extent"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 1.2 Historical and geographical extent </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Historical_and_geographical_extent-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Background" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Background"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2 Background </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Background-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Background subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Background-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Japanese_militarism,_nationalism,_imperialism_and_racism" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Japanese_militarism,_nationalism,_imperialism_and_racism"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.1 Japanese militarism, nationalism, imperialism and racism </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Japanese_militarism,_nationalism,_imperialism_and_racism-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-The_events_of_the_1930s_and_1940s" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#The_events_of_the_1930s_and_1940s"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.2 The events of the 1930s and 1940s </div> </a> <ul id="toc-The_events_of_the_1930s_and_1940s-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-War_crimes" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#War_crimes"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3 War crimes </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-War_crimes-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle War crimes subsection </button> <ul id="toc-War_crimes-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Attacks_on_neutral_powers" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Attacks_on_neutral_powers"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.1 Attacks on neutral powers </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Attacks_on_neutral_powers-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Mass_killings" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Mass_killings"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.2 Mass killings </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Mass_killings-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Human_experimentation_and_biological_warfare" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Human_experimentation_and_biological_warfare"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.3 Human experimentation and biological warfare </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Human_experimentation_and_biological_warfare-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Use_of_chemical_weapons" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Use_of_chemical_weapons"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.4 Use of chemical weapons </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Use_of_chemical_weapons-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Torture_of_prisoners_of_war" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Torture_of_prisoners_of_war"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.5 Torture of prisoners of war </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Torture_of_prisoners_of_war-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Execution_and_killing_of_captured_Allied_airmen" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Execution_and_killing_of_captured_Allied_airmen"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.6 Execution and killing of captured Allied airmen </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Execution_and_killing_of_captured_Allied_airmen-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Execution_and_killing_of_captured_Allied_seamen" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Execution_and_killing_of_captured_Allied_seamen"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.7 Execution and killing of captured Allied seamen </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Execution_and_killing_of_captured_Allied_seamen-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Using_Allied_nationals_as_human_shields" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Using_Allied_nationals_as_human_shields"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.8 Using Allied nationals as human shields </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Using_Allied_nationals_as_human_shields-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Battle_of_Manila_(1945)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Battle_of_Manila_(1945)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.8.1 Battle of Manila (1945) </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Battle_of_Manila_(1945)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Cannibalism" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Cannibalism"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.9 Cannibalism </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Cannibalism-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Avoidable_hunger" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Avoidable_hunger"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.10 Avoidable hunger </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Avoidable_hunger-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Forced_labor" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Forced_labor"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.11 Forced labor </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Forced_labor-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Rape" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Rape"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.12 Rape </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Rape-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Looting_and_destruction_of_heritage" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Looting_and_destruction_of_heritage"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.13 Looting and destruction of heritage </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Looting_and_destruction_of_heritage-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Perfidy" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Perfidy"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.14 Perfidy </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Perfidy-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Attacks_on_hospital_ships" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Attacks_on_hospital_ships"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.15 Attacks on hospital ships </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Attacks_on_hospital_ships-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-War_crimes_in_Vietnam" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#War_crimes_in_Vietnam"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.16 War crimes in Vietnam </div> </a> <ul id="toc-War_crimes_in_Vietnam-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-War_crimes_trials" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#War_crimes_trials"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4 War crimes trials </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-War_crimes_trials-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle War crimes trials subsection </button> <ul id="toc-War_crimes_trials-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Tokyo_Trials" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Tokyo_Trials"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.1 Tokyo Trials </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Tokyo_Trials-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Other_trials" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Other_trials"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.2 Other trials </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Other_trials-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Post-war_events_and_reactions" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Post-war_events_and_reactions"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5 Post-war events and reactions </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Post-war_events_and_reactions-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Post-war events and reactions subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Post-war_events_and_reactions-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-The_parole-for-war-criminals_movement" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#The_parole-for-war-criminals_movement"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.1 The parole-for-war-criminals movement </div> </a> <ul id="toc-The_parole-for-war-criminals_movement-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Official_apologies" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Official_apologies"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.2 Official apologies </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Official_apologies-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Compensation" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Compensation"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.3 Compensation </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Compensation-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Compensation_under_the_San_Francisco_Treaty" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Compensation_under_the_San_Francisco_Treaty"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.3.1 Compensation under the San Francisco Treaty </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Compensation_under_the_San_Francisco_Treaty-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Compensation_from_Japanese_overseas_assets" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-4"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Compensation_from_Japanese_overseas_assets"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.3.1.1 Compensation from Japanese overseas assets </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Compensation_from_Japanese_overseas_assets-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Compensation_to_Allied_POWs" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-4"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Compensation_to_Allied_POWs"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.3.1.2 Compensation to Allied POWs </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Compensation_to_Allied_POWs-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Allied_territories_occupied_by_Japan" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-4"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Allied_territories_occupied_by_Japan"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.3.1.3 Allied territories occupied by Japan </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Allied_territories_occupied_by_Japan-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Historical_negationism_and_denialism_in_Japan" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Historical_negationism_and_denialism_in_Japan"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.4 Historical negationism and denialism in Japan </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Historical_negationism_and_denialism_in_Japan-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Textbook_controversy" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Textbook_controversy"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.4.1 Textbook controversy </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Textbook_controversy-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Later_investigations" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Later_investigations"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.5 Later investigations </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Later_investigations-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Concerns_of_the_Japanese_imperial_family" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Concerns_of_the_Japanese_imperial_family"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.6 Concerns of the Japanese imperial family </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Concerns_of_the_Japanese_imperial_family-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-List_of_major_crimes" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#List_of_major_crimes"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6 List of major crimes </div> </a> <ul id="toc-List_of_major_crimes-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7 See also </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Notes" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Notes"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 8 Notes </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Notes-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 9 References </div> </a> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Sources" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Sources"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 10 Sources </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Sources-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Further_reading" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Further_reading"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 11 Further reading </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Further_reading-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Further reading subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Further_reading-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Audio/visual_media" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Audio/visual_media"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 11.1 Audio/visual media </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Audio/visual_media-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 12 External links </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" > Toggle the table of contents </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading">Japanese war crimes</h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. Available in 26 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-26" aria-hidden="true" > 26 languages </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-af mw-list-item"><a href="https://af.wikipedia.org/wiki/Japannese_oorlogsmisdade" title="Japannese oorlogsmisdade – Afrikaans" lang="af" hreflang="af" data-title="Japannese oorlogsmisdade" data-language-autonym="Afrikaans" data-language-local-name="Afrikaans" class="interlanguage-link-target">Afrikaans</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AC%D8%B1%D8%A7%D8%A6%D9%85_%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%AD%D8%B1%D8%A8_%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%8A%D8%A7%D8%A8%D8%A7%D9%86%D9%8A%D8%A9" title="جرائم الحرب اليابانية – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="جرائم الحرب اليابانية" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target">العربية</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs mw-list-item"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Japonsk%C3%A9_v%C3%A1le%C4%8Dn%C3%A9_zlo%C4%8Diny" title="Japonské válečné zločiny – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="Japonské válečné zločiny" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="Czech" class="interlanguage-link-target">Čeština</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Japanische_Kriegsverbrechen_im_Zweiten_Weltkrieg" title="Japanische Kriegsverbrechen im Zweiten Weltkrieg – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Japanische Kriegsverbrechen im Zweiten Weltkrieg" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target">Deutsch</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-el mw-list-item"><a href="https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%99%CE%B1%CF%80%CF%89%CE%BD%CE%B9%CE%BA%CE%AC_%CE%B5%CE%B3%CE%BA%CE%BB%CE%AE%CE%BC%CE%B1%CF%84%CE%B1_%CF%80%CE%BF%CE%BB%CE%AD%CE%BC%CE%BF%CF%85" title="Ιαπωνικά εγκλήματα πολέμου – Greek" lang="el" hreflang="el" data-title="Ιαπωνικά εγκλήματα πολέμου" data-language-autonym="Ελληνικά" data-language-local-name="Greek" class="interlanguage-link-target">Ελληνικά</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cr%C3%ADmenes_de_guerra_del_Imperio_del_Jap%C3%B3n" title="Crímenes de guerra del Imperio del Japón – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Crímenes de guerra del Imperio del Japón" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Español</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eo mw-list-item"><a href="https://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Japanaj_militkrimoj" title="Japanaj militkrimoj – Esperanto" lang="eo" hreflang="eo" data-title="Japanaj militkrimoj" data-language-autonym="Esperanto" data-language-local-name="Esperanto" class="interlanguage-link-target">Esperanto</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AC%D9%86%D8%A7%DB%8C%D8%A7%D8%AA_%D8%AC%D9%86%DA%AF%DB%8C_%DA%98%D8%A7%D9%BE%D9%86" title="جنایات جنگی ژاپن – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="جنایات جنگی ژاپن" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target">فارسی</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Crimes_de_guerre_du_Japon_Sh%C5%8Dwa" title="Crimes de guerre du Japon Shōwa – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Crimes de guerre du Japon Shōwa" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target">Français</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EC%9D%BC%EB%B3%B8%EC%9D%B4_%EC%A0%80%EC%A7%80%EB%A5%B8_%EC%A0%84%EC%9F%81_%EB%B2%94%EC%A3%84" title="일본이 저지른 전쟁 범죄 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="일본이 저지른 전쟁 범죄" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target">한국어</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hr mw-list-item"><a href="https://hr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Japanski_ratni_zlo%C4%8Dini" title="Japanski ratni zločini – Croatian" lang="hr" hreflang="hr" data-title="Japanski ratni zločini" data-language-autonym="Hrvatski" data-language-local-name="Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Hrvatski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kejahatan_perang_Jepang" title="Kejahatan perang Jepang – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Kejahatan perang Jepang" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Bahasa Indonesia</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Crimini_di_guerra_giapponesi" title="Crimini di guerra giapponesi – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Crimini di guerra giapponesi" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Italiano</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ms mw-list-item"><a href="https://ms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jenayah_perang_Jepun" title="Jenayah perang Jepun – Malay" lang="ms" hreflang="ms" data-title="Jenayah perang Jepun" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Melayu" data-language-local-name="Malay" class="interlanguage-link-target">Bahasa Melayu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Japanse_oorlogsmisdaden" title="Japanse oorlogsmisdaden – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Japanse 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<div id="siteSub" class="noprint">From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia</div> </div> <div id="contentSub"><div id="mw-content-subtitle"></div></div> <div id="mw-content-text" class="mw-body-content"><div class="mw-content-ltr mw-parser-output" lang="en" dir="ltr"><div class="shortdescription nomobile noexcerpt noprint searchaux" style="display:none">War crimes committed by Imperial Japan</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1257001546">.mw-parser-output .infobox-subbox{padding:0;border:none;margin:-3px;width:auto;min-width:100%;font-size:100%;clear:none;float:none;background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .infobox-3cols-child{margin:auto}.mw-parser-output .infobox .navbar{font-size:100%}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data:not(.notheme)>div:not(.notheme)[style]{background:#1f1f23!important;color:#f8f9fa}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data:not(.notheme) div:not(.notheme){background:#1f1f23!important;color:#f8f9fa}}@media(min-width:640px){body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table{display:table!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table>caption{display:table-caption!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table>tbody{display:table-row-group}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table tr{display:table-row!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table th,body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table td{padding-left:inherit;padding-right:inherit}}</style><table class="infobox vevent"><tbody><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-above summary" style="font-size:125%;">Japanese war crimes</th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-subheader">Part of the <a href="/wiki/Territorial_conquests_of_the_Empire_of_Japan" class="mw-redirect" title="Territorial conquests of the Empire of Japan">territorial conquests of the Empire of Japan</a></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-image"><a href="/wiki/File:Nanking_bodies_1937.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/72/Nanking_bodies_1937.jpg/220px-Nanking_bodies_1937.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="154" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/72/Nanking_bodies_1937.jpg/330px-Nanking_bodies_1937.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/72/Nanking_bodies_1937.jpg/440px-Nanking_bodies_1937.jpg 2x" data-file-width="800" data-file-height="559" /></a><div class="infobox-caption">Bodies of victims along the <a href="/wiki/Qinhuai_River" title="Qinhuai River">Qinhuai River</a>, out of <a href="/wiki/Nanjing" title="Nanjing">Nanjing</a>'s west gate during the <a href="/wiki/Nanjing_Massacre" title="Nanjing Massacre">Nanjing Massacre</a></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Location</th><td class="infobox-data location">In and around East Asia, Southeast Asia, and the Pacific</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Date</th><td class="infobox-data">1927–1945<a href="#cite_note-1">[1]</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><div style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0;">Attack type</div></th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/War_crimes" class="mw-redirect" title="War crimes">war crimes</a>, <a href="/wiki/Mass_murder" title="Mass murder">mass murder</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ethnic_cleansing" title="Ethnic cleansing">ethnic cleansing</a> and other <a href="/wiki/Crimes_against_humanity" title="Crimes against humanity">crimes against humanity</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Deaths</th><td class="infobox-data">10 million and 20 million<a href="#cite_note-2">[2]</a>- <abbr title="circa">c.</abbr> 19,000,000<a href="#cite_note-3">[3]</a><a href="#cite_note-4">[4]</a><a href="#cite_note-5">[5]</a> – <abbr title="circa">c.</abbr> 30,000,000<a href="#cite_note-6">[6]</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Perpetrator</th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Empire_of_Japan" title="Empire of Japan">Empire of Japan</a><div><ul><li><a href="/wiki/Imperial_Japanese_Army" title="Imperial Japanese Army">Imperial Japanese Army</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Imperial_Japanese_Navy" title="Imperial Japanese Navy">Imperial Japanese Navy</a></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Motive</th><td class="infobox-data"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1129693374">.mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul{margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt,.mw-parser-output .hlist li{margin:0;display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul ul{display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist .mw-empty-li{display:none}.mw-parser-output .hlist dt::after{content:": "}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li::after{content:" · ";font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li:last-child::after{content:none}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd dd:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dd dt:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dd li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt dd:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt dt:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dd:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dt:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li li:first-child::before{content:" (";font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dd dt:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dd li:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt dt:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt li:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dt:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li li:last-child::after{content:")";font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .hlist ol{counter-reset:listitem}.mw-parser-output .hlist ol>li{counter-increment:listitem}.mw-parser-output .hlist ol>li::before{content:" "counter(listitem)"\a0 "}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd ol>li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt ol>li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li ol>li:first-child::before{content:" ("counter(listitem)"\a0 "}</style><div class="hlist"><ul><li><a href="/wiki/Imperialism" title="Imperialism">Imperialism</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Japanese_nationalism" title="Japanese nationalism">Japanese nationalism</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Ultranationalism" title="Ultranationalism">Ultranationalism</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Racism_in_Japan" title="Racism in Japan">Racism</a></li></ul></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1257001546"></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Trials</th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/International_Military_Tribunal_for_the_Far_East" title="International Military Tribunal for the Far East">Tokyo Trial</a>, and <a href="#Other_trials">others</a></td></tr><tr style="display:none"><td colspan="2"> </td></tr></tbody></table> During its imperial era, the <a href="/wiki/Empire_of_Japan" title="Empire of Japan">Empire of Japan</a> committed numerous <a href="/wiki/War_crime" title="War crime">war crimes</a> and <a href="/wiki/Crimes_against_humanity" title="Crimes against humanity">crimes against humanity</a> across various Asian-Pacific nations, notably during the <a href="/wiki/Second_Sino-Japanese_War" title="Second Sino-Japanese War">Second Sino-Japanese</a> and <a href="/wiki/Pacific_War" title="Pacific War">Pacific Wars</a>. These incidents have been referred to as "the Asian <a href="/wiki/The_Holocaust" title="The Holocaust">Holocaust</a>",<a href="#cite_note-nyt-1999-7">[7]</a><a href="#cite_note-latimes-1995-8">[8]</a> and "Japan's Holocaust",<a href="#cite_note-9">[9]</a> and also as the "Rape of Asia".<a href="#cite_note-10">[10]</a> The crimes occurred during the early part of the <a href="/wiki/Sh%C5%8Dwa_era" title="Shōwa era">Shōwa era</a>, under <a href="/wiki/Hirohito" title="Hirohito">Hirohito</a>'s reign. The <a href="/wiki/Imperial_Japanese_Army" title="Imperial Japanese Army">Imperial Japanese Army</a> (IJA) and the <a href="/wiki/Imperial_Japanese_Navy" title="Imperial Japanese Navy">Imperial Japanese Navy</a> (IJN) were responsible for a multitude of war crimes leading to millions of deaths. War crimes ranged from sexual slavery and massacres to human experimentation, torture, starvation, and forced labor, all either directly committed or condoned by the Japanese military and government.<a href="#cite_note-11">[11]</a><a href="#cite_note-12">[12]</a><a href="#cite_note-13">[13]</a><a href="#cite_note-Gruhl_2017-14">[14]</a><a href="#cite_note-15">[15]</a> Evidence of these crimes, including oral testimonies and written records such as diaries and war journals, has been provided by Japanese veterans.<a href="#cite_note-16">[16]</a> The Japanese political and military leadership knew of its military's crimes, yet continued to allow it and even support it, with the majority of Japanese troops stationed in Asia either taking part in or supporting the killings.<a href="#cite_note-17">[17]</a> The <a href="/wiki/Imperial_Japanese_Army_Air_Service" title="Imperial Japanese Army Air Service">Imperial Japanese Army Air Service</a> participated in <a href="/wiki/Chemical_warfare" title="Chemical warfare">chemical</a> and <a href="/wiki/Biological_warfare" title="Biological warfare">biological attacks</a> on civilians during the Second Sino-Japanese War and <a href="/wiki/World_War_II" title="World War II">World War II</a>, violating international agreements that Japan had previously signed, including the <a href="/wiki/Hague_Conventions_of_1899_and_1907" title="Hague Conventions of 1899 and 1907">Hague Conventions</a>, which prohibited the use of "poison or poisoned weapons" in warfare.<a href="#cite_note-18">[18]</a><a href="#cite_note-19">[19]</a> Since the 1950s, <a href="/wiki/List_of_war_apology_statements_issued_by_Japan" title="List of war apology statements issued by Japan">numerous apologies for the war crimes</a> have been issued by senior Japanese government officials; however, apologies issued by Japanese officials have been criticized by some as insincere. Japan's <a href="/wiki/Ministry_of_Foreign_Affairs_(Japan)" title="Ministry of Foreign Affairs (Japan)">Ministry of Foreign Affairs</a> has acknowledged the country's role in causing "tremendous damage and suffering" before and during World War II, particularly the <a href="/wiki/Nanjing_Massacre" title="Nanjing Massacre">massacre and rape of civilians in Nanjing</a> by the IJA.<a href="#cite_note-mofa_jp-20">[20]</a> However, the issue remains controversial, with some members of the Japanese government, including former prime ministers <a href="/wiki/Junichiro_Koizumi" title="Junichiro Koizumi">Junichiro Koizumi</a> and <a href="/wiki/Shinzo_Abe" title="Shinzo Abe">Shinzō Abe</a>, having paid respects at the <a href="/wiki/Yasukuni_Shrine" title="Yasukuni Shrine">Yasukuni Shrine</a>, which honors all Japanese war dead, including convicted Class A war criminals. Furthermore, some <a href="/wiki/Japanese_history_textbook_controversies" title="Japanese history textbook controversies">Japanese history textbooks</a> provide only brief references to the war crimes,<a href="#cite_note-21">[21]</a> and certain members of the <a href="/wiki/Liberal_Democratic_Party_(Japan)" title="Liberal Democratic Party (Japan)">Liberal Democratic Party</a> have denied some of the atrocities, such as the government's involvement in abducting women to serve as "<a href="/wiki/Comfort_women" title="Comfort women">comfort women</a>", a <a href="/wiki/Euphemism" title="Euphemism">euphemism</a> for sex slaves.<a href="#cite_note-Tabuchi-22">[22]</a><a href="#cite_note-Associated_Press-23">[23]</a> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Definitions">Definitions</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Japanese_war_crimes&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Definitions">edit</a>]</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Definitions_of_Japanese_war_crimes" title="Definitions of Japanese war crimes">Definitions of Japanese war crimes</a></div> The <a href="/wiki/Tokyo_Charter" title="Tokyo Charter">Tokyo Charter</a> defines <a href="/wiki/War_crime" title="War crime">war crimes</a> as "violations of the <a href="/wiki/Laws_or_customs_of_war" class="mw-redirect" title="Laws or customs of war">laws or customs of war</a>,"<a href="#cite_note-24">[24]</a> which involves acts using prohibited weapons, violating <a href="/wiki/Battle" title="Battle">battlefield</a> norms while engaging in <a href="/wiki/Combat" title="Combat">combat</a> with the enemy <a href="/wiki/Combatant" title="Combatant">combatants</a>, or against <a href="/wiki/Protected_persons" title="Protected persons">protected persons</a>,<a href="#cite_note-25">[25]</a> including enemy civilians and <a href="/wiki/Citizens" class="mw-redirect" title="Citizens">citizens</a> and <a href="/wiki/Property" title="Property">property</a> of <a href="/wiki/Neutrality_(international_relations)" class="mw-redirect" title="Neutrality (international relations)">neutral states</a> as in the case of the <a href="/wiki/Attack_on_Pearl_Harbor" title="Attack on Pearl Harbor">attack on Pearl Harbor</a>.<a href="#cite_note-26">[26]</a> Military personnel from the <a href="/wiki/Empire_of_Japan" title="Empire of Japan">Empire of Japan</a> have been convicted of committing many such acts during the period of <a href="/wiki/Japanese_expansionism" class="mw-redirect" title="Japanese expansionism">Japanese imperialism</a> from the late 19th to mid-20th centuries. Japanese military soldiers conducted a series of <a href="/wiki/Human_rights_abuse" class="mw-redirect" title="Human rights abuse">human rights abuses</a> against civilians and prisoners of war throughout East Asia and the western <a href="/wiki/Pacific_Ocean" title="Pacific Ocean">Pacific</a> region. These events reached their height during the <a href="/wiki/Second_Sino-Japanese_War" title="Second Sino-Japanese War">Second Sino-Japanese War</a> of 1937–45 and the <a href="/wiki/Pacific_War" title="Pacific War">Asian and Pacific campaigns of World War II</a> (1941–45). <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="International_and_Japanese_law">International and Japanese law</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Japanese_war_crimes&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: International and Japanese law">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Chinese_civilians_to_be_buried_alive.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/67/Chinese_civilians_to_be_buried_alive.jpg/220px-Chinese_civilians_to_be_buried_alive.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="191" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/67/Chinese_civilians_to_be_buried_alive.jpg/330px-Chinese_civilians_to_be_buried_alive.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/67/Chinese_civilians_to_be_buried_alive.jpg/440px-Chinese_civilians_to_be_buried_alive.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1280" data-file-height="1111" /></a><figcaption>Chinese civilians being buried alive by Japanese troops</figcaption></figure> Japan signed the <a href="/wiki/Geneva_Convention_on_Prisoners_of_War_(1929)" class="mw-redirect" title="Geneva Convention on Prisoners of War (1929)">1929 Geneva Convention on the Prisoners of War</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Geneva_Convention_for_the_Amelioration_of_the_Condition_of_the_Wounded_and_Sick_in_Armies_in_the_Field_(1929)" class="mw-redirect" title="Geneva Convention for the Amelioration of the Condition of the Wounded and Sick in Armies in the Field (1929)">1929 Geneva Convention on the Sick and Wounded</a>,<a href="#cite_note-icrc.org-27">[27]</a> but the Japanese government declined to ratify the POW Convention. In 1942, the Japanese government stated that it would abide by the terms of the Convention <a href="/wiki/Mutatis_mutandis" title="Mutatis mutandis">mutatis mutandis</a> ('changing what has to be changed').<a href="#cite_note-28">[28]</a> The crimes committed also fall under other aspects of international and Japanese law. For example, many of the crimes committed by Japanese personnel during World War II broke Japanese <a href="/wiki/Military_law" class="mw-redirect" title="Military law">military law</a>, and were subject to <a href="/wiki/Court_martial" class="mw-redirect" title="Court martial">court martial</a>, as required by that law.<a href="#cite_note-29">[29]</a> The Empire also violated international agreements signed by Japan, including provisions of the <a href="/wiki/Hague_Conventions_(1899_and_1907)" class="mw-redirect" title="Hague Conventions (1899 and 1907)">Hague Conventions (1899 and 1907)</a> such as protections for <a href="/wiki/Prisoners_of_war" class="mw-redirect" title="Prisoners of war">prisoners of war</a> and a ban on the use of <a href="/wiki/Chemical_weapons" class="mw-redirect" title="Chemical weapons">chemical weapons</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Forced_Labour_Convention" title="Forced Labour Convention">1930 Forced Labour Convention</a> which prohibited <a href="/wiki/Forced_labor" class="mw-redirect" title="Forced labor">forced labor</a>, the <a href="/wiki/1921_International_Convention_for_the_Suppression_of_the_Traffic_in_Women_and_Children" class="mw-redirect" title="1921 International Convention for the Suppression of the Traffic in Women and Children">1921 International Convention for the Suppression of the Traffic in Women and Children</a> which prohibited <a href="/wiki/Human_trafficking" title="Human trafficking">human trafficking</a>, and other agreements.<a href="#cite_note-chang-barker-2003-30">[30]</a><a href="#cite_note-31">[31]</a> The Japanese government also signed the <a href="/wiki/Kellogg%E2%80%93Briand_Pact" title="Kellogg–Briand Pact">Kellogg–Briand Pact</a> (1929), thereby rendering its actions in 1937–45 liable to charges of <a href="/wiki/Crimes_against_peace" class="mw-redirect" title="Crimes against peace">crimes against peace</a>,<a href="#cite_note-lippman-2004-32">[32]</a> a charge that was introduced at the <a href="/wiki/Tokyo_Trials" class="mw-redirect" title="Tokyo Trials">Tokyo Trials</a> to prosecute "Class A" war criminals. "Class B" war criminals were those found guilty of war crimes per se, and "Class C" war criminals were those guilty of <a href="/wiki/Crimes_against_humanity" title="Crimes against humanity">crimes against humanity</a>. The Japanese government also accepted the terms set by the <a href="/wiki/Potsdam_Declaration" title="Potsdam Declaration">Potsdam Declaration</a> (1945) after the end of the war, including the provision in Article 10 of punishment for "all war criminals, including those who have visited cruelties upon our prisoners". Japanese law does not define those convicted in the post-1945 trials as criminals, despite the fact that Japan's governments have accepted the judgments made in the trials, and in the <a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_San_Francisco" title="Treaty of San Francisco">Treaty of San Francisco</a> (1952).[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Please_clarify" title="Wikipedia:Please clarify">clarification needed</a>] Former Prime Minister <a href="/wiki/Shinz%C5%8D_Abe" class="mw-redirect" title="Shinzō Abe">Shinzō Abe</a> had advocated the position that Japan accepted the Tokyo tribunal and its judgements as a condition for ending the war, but that its verdicts have no relation to domestic law. According to Abe, those convicted of war crimes are not criminals under Japanese law.<a href="#cite_note-japan-times-2006-33">[33]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Historical_and_geographical_extent">Historical and geographical extent</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Japanese_war_crimes&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Historical and geographical extent">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Satsuma-samurai-during-boshin-war-period.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5c/Satsuma-samurai-during-boshin-war-period.jpg/220px-Satsuma-samurai-during-boshin-war-period.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="173" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5c/Satsuma-samurai-during-boshin-war-period.jpg/330px-Satsuma-samurai-during-boshin-war-period.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5c/Satsuma-samurai-during-boshin-war-period.jpg/440px-Satsuma-samurai-during-boshin-war-period.jpg 2x" data-file-width="999" data-file-height="786" /></a><figcaption>Samurai warriors of the Chosyu clan, during the Boshin War period of the 1860s</figcaption></figure> Outside Japan, different societies use widely different timeframes when they define Japanese war crimes.[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] For example, <a href="/wiki/Japan%E2%80%93Korea_Treaty_of_1910" title="Japan–Korea Treaty of 1910">the annexation of Korea by Japan in 1910</a> was enforced by the Japanese military, and the Society of <a href="/wiki/Joseon" title="Joseon">Yi Dynasty Korea</a> was switched to the political system of the <a href="/wiki/Empire_of_Japan" title="Empire of Japan">Empire of Japan</a>. Thus, <a href="/wiki/North_Korea" title="North Korea">North</a> and <a href="/wiki/South_Korea" title="South Korea">South Korea</a> both refer to "Japanese war crimes" as events which occurred during the period of <a href="/wiki/Korea_under_Japanese_rule" title="Korea under Japanese rule">Korea under Japanese rule</a>.<a href="#cite_note-34">[34]</a> By comparison, the <a href="/wiki/Allies_of_World_War_I" title="Allies of World War I">Western Allies</a> did not come into a military conflict with Japan until 1941, and <a href="/wiki/North_Americans" class="mw-redirect" title="North Americans">North Americans</a>, Australians, <a href="/wiki/South_East_Asia" class="mw-redirect" title="South East Asia">South East Asians</a> and Europeans may consider "Japanese war crimes" to be events that occurred from 1942 to 1945.<a href="#cite_note-35">[35]</a> Japanese war crimes were not always carried out by <a href="/wiki/Japanese_people" title="Japanese people">ethnic Japanese</a><a href="#cite_note-The_Korea_Times-36">[36]</a> personnel. A small minority of people in every Asian and Pacific country invaded or occupied by Japan <a href="/wiki/Collaboration" title="Collaboration">collaborated</a> with the Japanese military, or even served in it, for a wide variety of reasons, such as economic hardship, coercion, or antipathy to other <a href="/wiki/Imperialism" title="Imperialism">imperialist</a> powers.<a href="#cite_note-37">[37]</a> In addition to Japanese civil and military personnel, Chinese (including <a href="/wiki/Manchu_People" class="mw-redirect" title="Manchu People">Manchus</a>), Koreans, and Taiwanese who were forced to serve in the military of the Empire of Japan were also found to have committed war crimes as part of the Japanese Imperial Army.<a href="#cite_note-Harmsen,_Peter_2012,_p._4-38">[38]</a><a href="#cite_note-Breen-39">[39]</a><a href="#cite_note-The_Korea_Times-36">[36]</a><a href="#cite_note-40">[40]</a> Both South Korea and North Korea have stated that the <a href="/wiki/Japan%E2%80%93Korea_Treaty_of_1910" title="Japan–Korea Treaty of 1910">Japan–Korea Treaty of 1910</a>, which lead to the annexation of Korea by Japan, was concluded illegally.<a href="#cite_note-Kawasaki-1996-41">[41]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Background">Background</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Japanese_war_crimes&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Background">edit</a>]</div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Japanese_militarism,_nationalism,_imperialism_and_racism">Japanese militarism, nationalism, imperialism and racism</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Japanese_war_crimes&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Japanese militarism, nationalism, imperialism and racism">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Bushido" title="Bushido">Bushido</a>, <a href="/wiki/Statism_in_Sh%C5%8Dwa_Japan" title="Statism in Shōwa Japan">Statism in Shōwa Japan</a>, <a href="/wiki/Japanese_militarism" title="Japanese militarism">Japanese militarism</a>, <a href="/wiki/Japanese_nationalism" title="Japanese nationalism">Japanese nationalism</a>, <a href="/wiki/Eugenics_in_Japan" title="Eugenics in Japan">Eugenics in Japan</a>, <a href="/wiki/Fascism_in_Asia#Japan" title="Fascism in Asia">Fascism in Asia § Japan</a>, <a href="/wiki/Racism_in_Asia#Japan" title="Racism in Asia">Racism in Asia § Japan</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Racism_in_Japan" title="Racism in Japan">Racism in Japan</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Illustration_of_the_Decapitation_of_Violent_Chinese_Soldiers_by_Utagawa_Kokunimasa_1894.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/25/Illustration_of_the_Decapitation_of_Violent_Chinese_Soldiers_by_Utagawa_Kokunimasa_1894.png/220px-Illustration_of_the_Decapitation_of_Violent_Chinese_Soldiers_by_Utagawa_Kokunimasa_1894.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="112" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/25/Illustration_of_the_Decapitation_of_Violent_Chinese_Soldiers_by_Utagawa_Kokunimasa_1894.png/330px-Illustration_of_the_Decapitation_of_Violent_Chinese_Soldiers_by_Utagawa_Kokunimasa_1894.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/25/Illustration_of_the_Decapitation_of_Violent_Chinese_Soldiers_by_Utagawa_Kokunimasa_1894.png/440px-Illustration_of_the_Decapitation_of_Violent_Chinese_Soldiers_by_Utagawa_Kokunimasa_1894.png 2x" data-file-width="6417" data-file-height="3271" /></a><figcaption>Japanese illustration depicting the <a href="/wiki/Decapitation" title="Decapitation">beheading</a> of Chinese captives during the <a href="/wiki/First_Sino-Japanese_War" title="First Sino-Japanese War">Sino-Japanese War</a> of 1894–1895</figcaption></figure> <a href="/wiki/Militarism" title="Militarism">Militarism</a>, <a href="/wiki/Nationalism" title="Nationalism">nationalism</a> and <a href="/wiki/Racism" title="Racism">racism</a>, especially during Japan's imperialist expansion, had great bearings on the conduct of the Japanese armed forces both before and during the <a href="/wiki/World_War_II" title="World War II">Second World War</a>. After the <a href="/wiki/Meiji_Restoration" title="Meiji Restoration">Meiji Restoration</a> and the collapse of the <a href="/wiki/Tokugawa_shogunate" title="Tokugawa shogunate">Tokugawa shogunate</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Emperor_of_Japan" title="Emperor of Japan">Emperor</a> became the focus of military loyalty, nationalism and racism. During the so-called "Age of Imperialism" in the late 19th century, Japan followed the lead of other world powers by establishing a colonial empire, an objective which it aggressively pursued. Unlike many other major powers, Japan never ratified the <a href="/wiki/Geneva_Convention_on_Prisoners_of_War_(1929)" class="mw-redirect" title="Geneva Convention on Prisoners of War (1929)">Geneva Convention of 1929</a>—also known as the Convention relative to the Treatment of Prisoners of War, Geneva 27 July 1929—which was the version of the Geneva Convention that covered the treatment of prisoners of war during World War II.<a href="#cite_note-42">[42]</a> Nevertheless, Japan ratified the <a href="/wiki/Hague_Conventions_of_1899_and_1907" title="Hague Conventions of 1899 and 1907">Hague Conventions of 1899 and 1907</a> which contained provisions regarding prisoners of war<a href="#cite_note-43">[43]</a> and an Imperial Proclamation in 1894 stated that Japanese soldiers should make every effort to win the war without violating international laws. According to Japanese historian <a href="/wiki/Yuki_Tanaka_(historian)" title="Yuki Tanaka (historian)">Yuki Tanaka</a>, Japanese forces during the First Sino-Japanese War released 1,790 Chinese prisoners without harm, once they signed an agreement not to take up arms against Japan if they were released.<a href="#cite_note-Tanaka_Hidden_Horrors_pp72-73-44">[44]</a> After the <a href="/wiki/Russo-Japanese_War" title="Russo-Japanese War">Russo-Japanese War</a> of 1904–1905, all of the 79,367 <a href="/wiki/Russian_Empire" title="Russian Empire">Russian</a> prisoners who were held by the Japanese were released and they were also paid for the labor which they performed for the Japanese, in accordance with the Hague Convention.<a href="#cite_note-Tanaka_Hidden_Horrors_pp72-73-44">[44]</a> Similarly, the behavior of the Japanese military in <a href="/wiki/World_War_I" title="World War I">World War I</a> was at least as humane as that of other militaries which fought during the war,[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] with some <a href="/wiki/German_Empire" title="German Empire">German</a> prisoners of the Japanese finding life in Japan so agreeable that they stayed and settled in Japan after the war.<a href="#cite_note-45">[45]</a><a href="#cite_note-46">[46]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Contest_To_Cut_Down_100_People.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/59/Contest_To_Cut_Down_100_People.jpg/220px-Contest_To_Cut_Down_100_People.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="195" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/59/Contest_To_Cut_Down_100_People.jpg/330px-Contest_To_Cut_Down_100_People.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/59/Contest_To_Cut_Down_100_People.jpg/440px-Contest_To_Cut_Down_100_People.jpg 2x" data-file-width="642" data-file-height="568" /></a><figcaption>Two Japanese commanders, Toshiaki Mukai and Tsuyoshi Noda competing to see who could kill (with a sword) one hundred people first. The headline reads, "'Incredible Record' (in the <a href="/wiki/Contest_to_kill_100_people_using_a_sword" class="mw-redirect" title="Contest to kill 100 people using a sword">Contest to Decapitate 100 People</a>)—Mukai 106 – 105 Noda—Both 2nd Lieutenants Go Into Extra Innings".</figcaption></figure> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1244412712">.mw-parser-output .templatequote{overflow:hidden;margin:1em 0;padding:0 32px}.mw-parser-output .templatequotecite{line-height:1.5em;text-align:left;margin-top:0}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .templatequotecite{padding-left:1.6em}}</style><blockquote class="templatequote">As Japan continued its modernization in the early 20th century, her armed forces became convinced that success in battle would be assured if Japanese soldiers, sailors, and airmen had the "spirit" of <a href="/wiki/Bushido" title="Bushido">Bushido</a>. ... The result was that the Bushido code of behavior "was inculcated into the Japanese soldier as part of his basic training." Each soldier was indoctrinated to accept that it was the greatest honor to die for the Emperor and it was cowardly to surrender to the enemy. ... Bushido therefore explains why the Japanese soldiers who were stationed in the <a href="/wiki/Dutch_East_Indies" title="Dutch East Indies">NEI</a> so mistreated POWs in their custody. Those who had surrendered to the Japanese—regardless of how courageously or honorably they had fought—merited nothing but contempt; they had forfeited all honor and literally deserved nothing. Consequently, when the Japanese murdered POWs by shooting, beheading, and drowning, these acts were excused since they involved the killing of men who had forfeited all rights to be treated with dignity or respect. While civilian internees were certainly in a different category from POWs, it is reasonable to think that there was a "spill-over" effect from the tenets of Bushido.<div class="templatequotecite">— <cite><a href="/wiki/Fred_Borch" title="Fred Borch">Fred Borch</a>, Military Trials of War Criminals in the Netherlands East Indies 1946–1949<a href="#cite_note-47">[47]</a></cite></div></blockquote>Propaganda depictions of the Japanese military as superior and of others such as the Chinese or Koreans as cowards, pigs, rats or mice occurred in the use of woodcuts produced for wide consumption which were intended to provide a cruel amusement. The Myrdal-Kessle woodcut cartoon collection donated to the <a href="/wiki/Museum_of_Far_Eastern_Antiquities,_Stockholm" title="Museum of Far Eastern Antiquities, Stockholm">Museum of Far Eastern Antiquities</a>, Stockholm, Sweden, was the subject of a catalogued exhibition in 2011 and includes examples of this type of material from the Meiji period.<a href="#cite_note-48">[48]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="The_events_of_the_1930s_and_1940s">The events of the 1930s and 1940s</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Japanese_war_crimes&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: The events of the 1930s and 1940s">edit</a>]</div> By the late 1930s, the rise of militarism in Japan created at least superficial similarities between the wider Japanese military culture and that of <a href="/wiki/Nazi_Germany" title="Nazi Germany">Germany</a>. Japan also had a military <a href="/wiki/Secret_police" title="Secret police">secret police</a> force within the <a href="/wiki/Imperial_Japanese_Army" title="Imperial Japanese Army">IJA</a>, known as the <a href="/wiki/Kenpeitai" class="mw-redirect" title="Kenpeitai">Kenpeitai</a>, which resembled the Nazi <a href="/wiki/Gestapo" title="Gestapo">Gestapo</a> in its role in annexed and occupied countries, but which had existed for nearly a decade before <a href="/wiki/Adolf_Hitler" title="Adolf Hitler">Hitler's</a> own birth.<a href="#cite_note-49">[49]</a> Perceived failure or insufficient devotion to the Emperor would attract punishment, frequently of the physical kind.<a href="#cite_note-toland301-50">[50]</a> In the military, officers would assault and beat men under their command, who would pass the beating all the way down on to the lowest ranks. In <a href="/wiki/Prisoner-of-war_camp" title="Prisoner-of-war camp">POW camps</a>, this meant that prisoners of war received the worst beatings of all,<a href="#cite_note-51">[51]</a> partly in the belief that such punishments were merely the proper technique to deal with disobedience.<a href="#cite_note-toland301-50">[50]</a> The phenomenon of <a href="/wiki/Gekokuj%C5%8D" title="Gekokujō">gekokujō</a> (下克上) which involves lower-ranking officers overthrowing or assassinating their superiors, as evidenced by the multiple coups and assassinations carried out on the mainland, also allowed for the proliferation of war crimes because if commanders tried to restrict atrocities they would either face mutiny or reassignment. Historians have also attributed war crimes to the lack of supervision and disorganization within the military which without stronger control over units and effective court martial procedures allowed for war crimes to go unpunished and therefore continue.<a href="#cite_note-52">[52]</a><a href="#cite_note-53">[53]</a> Compared to the German <a href="/wiki/Einsatzgruppen" title="Einsatzgruppen">Einsatzgruppen</a>, which carried out mass shootings on the <a href="/wiki/Eastern_Front_(World_War_II)" title="Eastern Front (World War II)">Eastern Front</a> in Europe and who suffered from psychological issues as a result, no such problems occurred with Japanese soldiers, as the vast majority of soldiers participated in murder and rape and seemingly enjoyed it.<a href="#cite_note-54">[54]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="War_crimes">War crimes</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Japanese_war_crimes&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: War crimes">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Beheading_of_Leonard_George_Siffleet.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/75/Beheading_of_Leonard_George_Siffleet.jpg/170px-Beheading_of_Leonard_George_Siffleet.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="251" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/75/Beheading_of_Leonard_George_Siffleet.jpg/255px-Beheading_of_Leonard_George_Siffleet.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/75/Beheading_of_Leonard_George_Siffleet.jpg/340px-Beheading_of_Leonard_George_Siffleet.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1186" data-file-height="1754" /></a><figcaption>An Australian <a href="/wiki/Prisoner_of_war" title="Prisoner of war">POW</a>, Sgt. <a href="/wiki/Leonard_Siffleet" title="Leonard Siffleet">Leonard Siffleet</a>, captured in New Guinea, about to be beheaded by a Japanese officer with a <a href="/wiki/Gunt%C5%8D" title="Guntō">guntō</a>, 1943.</figcaption></figure> Much of the controversy regarding Japan's role in World War II revolves around the death rates of prisoners of war and civilians under Japanese occupation. Historian <a href="/wiki/Sterling_Seagrave" title="Sterling Seagrave">Sterling Seagrave</a> has written that: <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"><blockquote class="templatequote">Arriving at a probable number of Japan's war victims who died is difficult for several interesting reasons, which have to do with Western perceptions. Both Americans and Europeans fell into the unfortunate habit of seeing <a href="/wiki/World_War_I" title="World War I">WW1</a> and <a href="/wiki/World_War_II" title="World War II">WW2</a> as separate wars, failing to comprehend that they were interlaced in a multitude of ways (not merely that one was the consequence of the other, or of the rash behavior of the victors after WW1). Wholly aside from this basic misconception, most Americans think of WW2 in Asia as having begun with <a href="/wiki/Attack_on_Pearl_Harbor" title="Attack on Pearl Harbor">Pearl Harbor</a>, the British with the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Singapore" class="mw-redirect" title="Battle of Singapore">fall of Singapore</a>, and so forth. The Chinese would correct this by identifying the <a href="/wiki/Marco_Polo_Bridge_incident" title="Marco Polo Bridge incident">Marco Polo Bridge incident</a> as the start, or the earlier <a href="/wiki/Japanese_invasion_of_Manchuria" title="Japanese invasion of Manchuria">Japanese seizure of Manchuria</a>. It really began in 1895 with Japan's <a href="/wiki/Assassination_of_Empress_Myeongseong" title="Assassination of Empress Myeongseong">assassination of Korea's Queen Min</a>, and invasion of Korea, resulting in its absorption into Japan, followed quickly by Japan's seizure of southern Manchuria, etc. – establishing that Japan was at war from 1895 to 1945. Prior to 1895, <a href="/wiki/Japanese_invasions_of_Korea_(1592%E2%80%931598)" title="Japanese invasions of Korea (1592–1598)">Japan had only briefly invaded Korea during the Shogunate</a>, long before the <a href="/wiki/Meiji_Restoration" title="Meiji Restoration">Meiji Restoration</a>, and the invasion failed. Therefore, <a href="/wiki/Rudolph_Rummel" class="mw-redirect" title="Rudolph Rummel">Rummel</a>'s estimate of 6-million to 10-million dead between 1937 (the <a href="/wiki/Rape_of_Nanjing" class="mw-redirect" title="Rape of Nanjing">Rape of Nanjing</a>) and 1945, may be roughly corollary to the time-frame of the <a href="/wiki/The_Holocaust" title="The Holocaust">Nazi Holocaust</a>, but it falls far short of the actual numbers killed by the Japanese war machine. If you add, say, 2-million Koreans, 2-million Manchurians, Chinese, Russians, many <a href="/wiki/Eastern_European_Jewry" title="Eastern European Jewry">East European Jews</a> (both <a href="/wiki/Sephardi_Jews" class="mw-redirect" title="Sephardi Jews">Sephardic</a> and <a href="/wiki/Ashkenazi_Jews" title="Ashkenazi Jews">Ashkenazi</a>), and others killed by Japan between 1895 and 1937 (conservative figures), the total of Japanese victims is more like 10-million to 14-million. Of these, I would suggest that between 6-million and 8-million were ethnic Chinese, regardless of where they were resident.<a href="#cite_note-sterling-55">[55]</a></blockquote> In 1943, <a href="/wiki/Prince_Mikasa" class="mw-redirect" title="Prince Mikasa">Prince Mikasa</a>, the younger brother of Hirohito and a member of the <a href="/wiki/Imperial_House_of_Japan" title="Imperial House of Japan">Imperial House of Japan</a>, served as an officer in the Imperial Japanese Army stationed in China. <a href="#cite_note-scmp.com-56">[56]</a> He authored a book published in 1984, in which he revealed his shock at the atrocities carried out by the Japanese military during his one-year deployment in China.<a href="#cite_note-scmp.com-56">[56]</a> In 1994, the Japanese newspaper outlet <a href="/wiki/Yomiuri_Shimbun" title="Yomiuri Shimbun">Yomiuri Shimbun</a> conducted an interview with him.<a href="#cite_note-auto3-57">[57]</a> He provided an account of Japanese atrocities committed against the Chinese, and verified that he had denounced the aggression in a speech addressed to Japanese soldiers in China during World War II.<a href="#cite_note-auto3-57">[57]</a> He discovered that military officers utilized Chinese prisoners of war for bayonet drills to bolster the resolve of Japanese soldiers.<a href="#cite_note-auto3-57">[57]</a> Additionally, he noted that POWs were asphyxiated and shot in large numbers while being restrained to posts.<a href="#cite_note-auto3-57">[57]</a> He emphasized that killing POWs in a gruesome manner constitutes a massacre, affirming without doubt that Japanese soldiers indeed committed such atrocious acts.<a href="#cite_note-auto3-57">[57]</a> According to Werner Gruhl, approximately eight million Chinese civilian deaths were attributable directly to Japanese aggression.<a href="#cite_note-Gruhl_2017-14">[14]</a> According to the findings of the Tokyo Tribunal, the death rate among prisoners of war from Asian countries held by Japan was 27.1%.<a href="#cite_note-Tanaka-58">[58]</a> The death rate of Chinese prisoners of war were much higher because—under a directive ratified on 5 August 1937, by Emperor <a href="/wiki/Hirohito" title="Hirohito">Hirohito</a>—the constraints of international law on treatment of those prisoners was removed.<a href="#cite_note-59">[59]</a> Only 56 Chinese prisoners of war were released after the <a href="/wiki/Surrender_of_Japan" title="Surrender of Japan">surrender of Japan</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Tanaka-58">[58]</a><a href="#cite_note-60">[60]</a> After 20 March 1943, officers of the Imperial Japanese Navy ordered and encouraged the Navy to execute all prisoners taken at sea. According to British historian <a href="/wiki/Mark_Felton" title="Mark Felton">Mark Felton</a>, "officers of the Imperial Japanese Navy ordered the deliberately sadistic murders of more than 20,000 Allied seamen and countless civilians in cold-blooded defiance of the Geneva Convention." At least 12,500 British sailors and 7,500 Australians were murdered. The Japanese Navy sank Allied merchant and Red Cross vessels, then murdered the survivors floating in the sea or in lifeboats. During Naval landing parties, the Japanese Navy rounded up, raped, then massacred civilians. Some of the victims were fed to sharks, others were killed by sledge-hammer, bayonet, crucifixion, drowning, hanging and beheading.<a href="#cite_note-standard.co.uk-61">[61]</a><a href="#cite_note-62">[62]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Attacks_on_neutral_powers">Attacks on neutral powers</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Japanese_war_crimes&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Attacks on neutral powers">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Attack_on_Pearl_Harbor" title="Attack on Pearl Harbor">Attack on Pearl Harbor</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:The_USS_Arizona_(BB-39)_burning_after_the_Japanese_attack_on_Pearl_Harbor_-_NARA_195617_-_Edit.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/09/The_USS_Arizona_%28BB-39%29_burning_after_the_Japanese_attack_on_Pearl_Harbor_-_NARA_195617_-_Edit.jpg/220px-The_USS_Arizona_%28BB-39%29_burning_after_the_Japanese_attack_on_Pearl_Harbor_-_NARA_195617_-_Edit.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="174" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/09/The_USS_Arizona_%28BB-39%29_burning_after_the_Japanese_attack_on_Pearl_Harbor_-_NARA_195617_-_Edit.jpg/330px-The_USS_Arizona_%28BB-39%29_burning_after_the_Japanese_attack_on_Pearl_Harbor_-_NARA_195617_-_Edit.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/09/The_USS_Arizona_%28BB-39%29_burning_after_the_Japanese_attack_on_Pearl_Harbor_-_NARA_195617_-_Edit.jpg/440px-The_USS_Arizona_%28BB-39%29_burning_after_the_Japanese_attack_on_Pearl_Harbor_-_NARA_195617_-_Edit.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2940" data-file-height="2326" /></a><figcaption>The <a href="/wiki/USS_Arizona_(BB-39)" class="mw-redirect" title="USS Arizona (BB-39)">USS Arizona</a> burning during the Japanese <a href="/wiki/Attack_on_Pearl_Harbor" title="Attack on Pearl Harbor">attack on Pearl Harbor</a></figcaption></figure> Article 1 of the <a href="/wiki/Hague_Convention_of_1907" class="mw-redirect" title="Hague Convention of 1907">1907 Hague Convention</a> III – The Opening of Hostilities prohibited the initiation of hostilities against neutral powers "without previous and explicit warning, in the form either of a reasoned <a href="/wiki/Declaration_of_war" title="Declaration of war">declaration of war</a> or of an <a href="/wiki/Ultimatum" title="Ultimatum">ultimatum</a> with conditional declaration of war" and Article 2 further stated that "[t]he existence of a state of war must be notified to the neutral Powers without delay, and shall not take effect in regard to them until after the receipt of a notification, which may, however, be given by telegraph." Japanese diplomats intended to deliver the notice to the United States thirty minutes before the <a href="/wiki/Attack_on_Pearl_Harbor" title="Attack on Pearl Harbor">attack on Pearl Harbor</a> occurred on 7 December 1941, but it was delivered to the <a href="/wiki/Federal_government_of_the_United_States" title="Federal government of the United States">U.S. government</a> an hour after the attack was over. Tokyo transmitted the 5,000-word notification (commonly called the "14-Part Message") in two blocks to the <a href="/wiki/List_of_ambassadors_of_Japan_to_the_United_States" title="List of ambassadors of Japan to the United States">Japanese Embassy in Washington</a>, but transcribing the message took too long for the Japanese ambassador to deliver it in time.<a href="#cite_note-63">[63]</a> The 14-Part Message was not moreover a declaration of war, but was instead about sending a message to U.S. officials that peace negotiations between Japan and the U.S. were likely to be terminated. Japanese officials were well aware that the 14-Part Message was not a proper declaration of war as required by the 1907 Hague Convention III – The Opening of Hostilities. They decided not to issue a proper declaration of war anyway as they feared that doing so would expose their secret attack on Pearl Harbor to the Americans.<a href="#cite_note-64">[64]</a><a href="#cite_note-Pearl_Harbor-65">[65]</a> Some <a href="/wiki/Historical_negationism" title="Historical negationism">historical negationists</a> and <a href="/wiki/Conspiracy_theory" title="Conspiracy theory">conspiracy theorists</a> charge that President <a href="/wiki/Franklin_D._Roosevelt" title="Franklin D. Roosevelt">Franklin D. Roosevelt</a> willingly allowed the attack to happen to create a pretext for war, but no credible evidence exists to support the claim.<a href="#cite_note-66">[66]</a><a href="#cite_note-67">[67]</a><a href="#cite_note-68">[68]</a> The diary of <a href="/wiki/Henry_L._Stimson" title="Henry L. Stimson">Henry L. Stimson</a>, Roosevelt's <a href="/wiki/United_States_Secretary_of_War" title="United States Secretary of War">Secretary of War</a>, showed that Roosevelt believed in late November 1941 that a Japanese attack on British or Dutch soil was "likely," but was "confident that the Japanese would not dare to start hostilities against the United States."<a href="#cite_note-69">[69]</a> The day after the attack on Pearl Harbor, <a href="/wiki/Japanese_declaration_of_war_on_the_United_States_and_the_British_Empire" title="Japanese declaration of war on the United States and the British Empire">Japan declared war on the U.S.</a> and the U.S. likewise <a href="/wiki/United_States_declaration_of_war_upon_Japan" class="mw-redirect" title="United States declaration of war upon Japan">declared war on Japan</a>. Simultaneously with the bombing of Pearl Harbor on 7 December 1941 (Honolulu time), Japan <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Malaya" class="mw-redirect" title="Battle of Malaya">invaded the British colony of Malaya</a> and <a href="/wiki/Bombing_of_Singapore_(1941)" title="Bombing of Singapore (1941)">bombed Singapore</a>, and began <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Hong_Kong" title="Battle of Hong Kong">land actions in Hong Kong</a>, without a declaration of war or an ultimatum. Both the United States and United Kingdom were neutral when Japan attacked their territories without explicit warning of a state of war.<a href="#cite_note-70">[70]</a> The U.S. officially classified all 3,649 military and civilian casualties and destruction of military property at Pearl Harbor as <a href="/wiki/Non-combatant" title="Non-combatant">non-combatants</a> as there was no state of war between the U.S. and Japan when the attack occurred.<a href="#cite_note-71">[71]</a>[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Verifiability" title="Wikipedia:Verifiability">failed verification</a>]<a href="#cite_note-72">[72]</a>[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources">page range too broad</a>][<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Verifiability#Self-published_sources" title="Wikipedia:Verifiability">self-published source</a>] <a href="/wiki/Joseph_B._Keenan" title="Joseph B. Keenan">Joseph B. Keenan</a>, the chief prosecutor in the Tokyo Trials, says that the attack on Pearl Harbor not only happened without a declaration of war but was also a "<a href="/wiki/Betrayal" title="Betrayal">treacherous</a> and <a href="/wiki/Deception" title="Deception">deceitful</a> act". In fact, Japan and the U.S. were still negotiating for a possible peace agreement which kept U.S. officials distracted up to the point that Japanese planes launched their attack on Pearl Harbor. Keenan explained the definition of a war of aggression and the criminality of the attack on Pearl Harbor: <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"><blockquote class="templatequote">The concept of aggressive war may not be expressed with the precision of a scientific formula, or described like the objective data of the physical sciences. Aggressive War is not entirely a physical fact to be observed and defined like the operation of the laws of matter. It is rather an activity involving injustice between nations, rising to the level of criminality because of its disastrous effects upon the common good of international society. The injustice of a war of aggression is criminal of its extreme grosses, considered both from the point of view of the will of the aggressor to inflict injury and from the evil effects which ensue ... Unjust war are plainly crimes and not simply torts or breaches of contracts. The act comprises the willful, intentional, and unreasonable destruction of life, limb, and property, subject matter which has been regarded as criminal by the laws of all civilized peoples ... The Pearl Harbor attack breached the Kellogg–Briand Pact and the Hague Convention III. In addition, it violated Article 23 of the Annex to the Hague Convention IV, of October 1907 ... But the attack of Pearl Harbor did not alone result in murder and the slaughter of thousands of human beings. It did not eventuate only in the destruction of property. It was an outright act of undermining and destroying the hope of a world for peace. When a nation employs a deceit and treachery, using periods of negotiations and the negotiations themselves as a cloak to screen a <a href="/wiki/Perfidy" title="Perfidy">perfidious</a> attack, then there is a prime example of the crime of all crimes.<a href="#cite_note-73">[73]</a><a href="#cite_note-74">[74]</a></blockquote> Admiral <a href="/wiki/Isoroku_Yamamoto" title="Isoroku Yamamoto">Isoroku Yamamoto</a>, who planned the attack on Pearl Harbor, was fully aware that if Japan lost the war, he would be tried as a war criminal for that attack; [<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] as it turned out, he was killed by the <a href="/wiki/United_States_Army_Air_Forces" title="United States Army Air Forces">USAAF</a> in <a href="/wiki/Operation_Vengeance" title="Operation Vengeance">Operation Vengeance</a> in 1943. At the Tokyo Trials, Prime Minister <a href="/wiki/Hideki_Tojo" title="Hideki Tojo">Hideki Tojo</a>, <a href="/wiki/Shigenori_T%C5%8Dg%C5%8D" title="Shigenori Tōgō">Shigenori Tōgō</a>, then <a href="/wiki/Minister_for_Foreign_Affairs_(Japan)" title="Minister for Foreign Affairs (Japan)">Foreign Minister</a>, <a href="/wiki/Shigetar%C5%8D_Shimada" title="Shigetarō Shimada">Shigetarō Shimada</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Ministry_of_the_Navy_of_Japan" class="mw-redirect" title="Ministry of the Navy of Japan">Minister of the Navy</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Osami_Nagano" title="Osami Nagano">Osami Nagano</a>, <a href="/wiki/Imperial_Japanese_Navy_General_Staff" title="Imperial Japanese Navy General Staff">Chief of Naval General Staff</a>, were charged with <a href="/wiki/Crimes_against_peace" class="mw-redirect" title="Crimes against peace">crimes against peace</a> (charges 1 to 36) and murder (charges 37 to 52) in connection with the attack on Pearl Harbor. Along with <a href="/wiki/War_crimes" class="mw-redirect" title="War crimes">war crimes</a> and <a href="/wiki/Crimes_against_humanity" title="Crimes against humanity">crimes against humanity</a> (charges 53 to 55), Tojo was among the seven Japanese leaders sentenced to death and executed by <a href="/wiki/Hanging" title="Hanging">hanging</a> in 1948, Shigenori Tōgō received a 20-year sentence, Shimada received a <a href="/wiki/Life_imprisonment" title="Life imprisonment">life sentence</a>, and Nagano died of natural causes during the Trial in 1947.<a href="#cite_note-Pearl_Harbor-65">[65]</a><a href="#cite_note-75">[75]</a> Over the years, many <a href="/wiki/Japanese_nationalism" title="Japanese nationalism">Japanese nationalists</a> argued that the attack on Pearl Harbor was justified as an act of self-defense in response to the <a href="/wiki/Second_Sino-Japanese_War#Oil_embargo_(Sino-Japanese_War)" title="Second Sino-Japanese War">oil embargo</a> imposed by the United States. Most historians and scholars agree that the oil embargo cannot be used as justification for using military force against a foreign nation imposing the embargo because there is a clear distinction between a perception of something being essential to the welfare of the nation-state and a threat sufficiently serious to warrant an act of force in response, which Japan had failed to consider. Japanese scholar and diplomat Takeo Iguchi states that it is "[h]ard to say from the perspective of international law that exercising the right of self-defense against economic pressures is considered valid." While Japan felt that its dreams of further expansion would be brought to a halt by the American embargo, this "need" cannot be considered <a href="/wiki/Proportionality_(law)" title="Proportionality (law)">proportional</a> with the destruction suffered by the <a href="/wiki/United_States_Pacific_Fleet" title="United States Pacific Fleet">U.S. Pacific Fleet</a> at Pearl Harbor, intended by Japanese military planners to be as devastating as possible.<a href="#cite_note-Pearl_Harbor-65">[65]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Mass_killings">Mass killings</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Japanese_war_crimes&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Mass killings">edit</a>]</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1237032888/mw-parser-output/.tmulti">.mw-parser-output .tmulti .multiimageinner{display:flex;flex-direction:column}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .trow{display:flex;flex-direction:row;clear:left;flex-wrap:wrap;width:100%;box-sizing:border-box}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .tsingle{margin:1px;float:left}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .theader{clear:both;font-weight:bold;text-align:center;align-self:center;background-color:transparent;width:100%}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .thumbcaption{background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .text-align-left{text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .text-align-right{text-align:right}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .text-align-center{text-align:center}@media all and (max-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .tmulti .thumbinner{width:100%!important;box-sizing:border-box;max-width:none!important;align-items:center}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .trow{justify-content:center}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .tsingle{float:none!important;max-width:100%!important;box-sizing:border-box;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .tsingle .thumbcaption{text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .trow>.thumbcaption{text-align:center}}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .tmulti .multiimageinner img{background-color:white}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .tmulti .multiimageinner img{background-color:white}}</style><div class="thumb tmulti tright"><div class="thumbinner multiimageinner" style="width:224px;max-width:224px"><div class="trow"><div class="tsingle" style="width:222px;max-width:222px"><div class="thumbimage"><a href="/wiki/File:Japanese_shooting_blindfolded_Sikh_prisoners.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d5/Japanese_shooting_blindfolded_Sikh_prisoners.jpg/220px-Japanese_shooting_blindfolded_Sikh_prisoners.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="137" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d5/Japanese_shooting_blindfolded_Sikh_prisoners.jpg/330px-Japanese_shooting_blindfolded_Sikh_prisoners.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d5/Japanese_shooting_blindfolded_Sikh_prisoners.jpg/440px-Japanese_shooting_blindfolded_Sikh_prisoners.jpg 2x" data-file-width="697" data-file-height="434" /></a></div></div></div><div class="trow"><div class="tsingle" style="width:222px;max-width:222px"><div class="thumbimage"><a href="/wiki/File:Japanese_atrocities_imperial_war_museum_K9923.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c4/Japanese_atrocities_imperial_war_museum_K9923.jpg/220px-Japanese_atrocities_imperial_war_museum_K9923.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="149" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c4/Japanese_atrocities_imperial_war_museum_K9923.jpg/330px-Japanese_atrocities_imperial_war_museum_K9923.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c4/Japanese_atrocities_imperial_war_museum_K9923.jpg/440px-Japanese_atrocities_imperial_war_museum_K9923.jpg 2x" data-file-width="775" data-file-height="524" /></a></div></div></div><div class="trow" style="display:flex"><div class="thumbcaption">Japanese soldiers shooting blindfolded Sikh prisoners and then bayonetting them. Photos discovered after the <a href="/wiki/Operation_Tiderace" title="Operation Tiderace">liberation of Singapore</a>.</div></div></div></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Chinese_killed_by_Japanese_Army_in_a_ditch,_Hsuchow.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8d/Chinese_killed_by_Japanese_Army_in_a_ditch%2C_Hsuchow.jpg/220px-Chinese_killed_by_Japanese_Army_in_a_ditch%2C_Hsuchow.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="249" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8d/Chinese_killed_by_Japanese_Army_in_a_ditch%2C_Hsuchow.jpg/330px-Chinese_killed_by_Japanese_Army_in_a_ditch%2C_Hsuchow.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/8d/Chinese_killed_by_Japanese_Army_in_a_ditch%2C_Hsuchow.jpg 2x" data-file-width="400" data-file-height="453" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Xuzhou" title="Xuzhou">Xuzhou</a>, China, 1938. A mass grave filled with bodies of Chinese civilians, murdered by Japanese soldiers.<a href="#cite_note-76">[76]</a></figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Chinese_old_woman_raped_and_killed_by_Japanese_at_Tai%27erzhuang.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/90/Chinese_old_woman_raped_and_killed_by_Japanese_at_Tai%27erzhuang.jpg/220px-Chinese_old_woman_raped_and_killed_by_Japanese_at_Tai%27erzhuang.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="153" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/90/Chinese_old_woman_raped_and_killed_by_Japanese_at_Tai%27erzhuang.jpg/330px-Chinese_old_woman_raped_and_killed_by_Japanese_at_Tai%27erzhuang.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/90/Chinese_old_woman_raped_and_killed_by_Japanese_at_Tai%27erzhuang.jpg/440px-Chinese_old_woman_raped_and_killed_by_Japanese_at_Tai%27erzhuang.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1112" data-file-height="771" /></a><figcaption>Photo taken in <a href="/wiki/Xuzhou" title="Xuzhou">Xuzhou</a>, showing the body of a Chinese woman who was raped and killed by Japanese soldiers</figcaption></figure> The estimated number of people killed by Japanese troops varies. <a href="/wiki/R._J._Rummel" title="R. J. Rummel">R. J. Rummel</a>, a professor of political science at the <a href="/wiki/University_of_Hawaii" class="mw-redirect" title="University of Hawaii">University of Hawaii</a>, estimates that between 1937 and 1945, the Japanese military murdered from nearly three to over ten million people, most likely six million Chinese, Indians, <a href="/wiki/Koreans" title="Koreans">Koreans</a>, <a href="/wiki/Malays_(ethnic_group)" title="Malays (ethnic group)">Malays</a>, <a href="/wiki/Indonesians" title="Indonesians">Indonesians</a>, <a href="/wiki/Filipinos" title="Filipinos">Filipinos</a> and <a href="/wiki/Vietnamese_people" title="Vietnamese people">Indochinese</a>, among others, including European, American and Australian prisoners of war. According to Rummel, "This <a href="/wiki/Democide" title="Democide">democide</a> [i.e., death by government] was due to a morally bankrupt political and military strategy, military expediency and custom, and national culture."<a href="#cite_note-rummel-77">[77]</a> According to Rummel, in China alone, from 1937 to 1945, approximately 3.9 million Chinese were killed, mostly civilians, as a direct result of the Japanese operations and a total of 10.2 million Chinese were killed in the course of the war.<a href="#cite_note-78">[78]</a> According to the British historian <a href="/wiki/M._R._D._Foot" title="M. R. D. Foot">M. R. D. Foot</a>, civilian deaths were between 10 million and 20 million.<a href="#cite_note-79">[79]</a> British historian <a href="/wiki/Mark_Felton" title="Mark Felton">Mark Felton</a> claims that up to 30 million people were killed, most of them civilians.:<a href="#cite_note-The_Routledge_History_of_Genocide-80">[80]</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"><blockquote class="templatequote">The Japanese murdered 30 million civilians while "liberating" what it called the <a href="/wiki/Greater_East_Asia_Co-Prosperity_Sphere" title="Greater East Asia Co-Prosperity Sphere">Greater East Asia Co-Prosperity Sphere</a> from colonial rule. About 23 million of these were ethnic Chinese. It is a crime that in sheer numbers is far greater than the Nazi Holocaust. In Germany, Holocaust denial is a crime. In Japan, it is government policy. But the evidence against the navy – precious little of which you will find in Japan itself – is damning.<a href="#cite_note-81">[81]</a><a href="#cite_note-82">[82]</a><a href="#cite_note-83">[83]</a></blockquote> One of the major atrocities committed during this period was the <a href="/wiki/Nanjing_Massacre" title="Nanjing Massacre">Nanjing Massacre</a> of 1937–38, when, according to the findings of the <a href="/wiki/International_Military_Tribunal_for_the_Far_East" title="International Military Tribunal for the Far East">International Military Tribunal for the Far East</a>, the Japanese Army massacred as many as 260,000 civilians and prisoners of war, though some[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Manual_of_Style/Words_to_watch#Unsupported_attributions" title="Wikipedia:Manual of Style/Words to watch">who?</a>] have placed the figure as high as 350,000.<a href="#cite_note-84">[84]</a> The <a href="/wiki/Memorial_Hall_of_the_Victims_in_Nanjing_Massacre_by_Japanese_Invaders" title="Memorial Hall of the Victims in Nanjing Massacre by Japanese Invaders">Memorial Hall of the Victims in Nanjing Massacre by Japanese Invaders</a> has the death figure of 300,000 inscribed on its entrance.<a href="#cite_note-85">[85]</a> In the early 1980s, after conducting extensive interviews with Chinese survivors and reviewing existing Japanese records, Japanese journalist Honda Katsuichi concluded that the violence perpetrated by Japanese troops in the <a href="/wiki/Nanjing_Massacre" title="Nanjing Massacre">Nanjing Massacre</a> was not an isolated event. Instead, it was part of a broader pattern of Japanese atrocities against the Chinese in the Lower Yangtze region since the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Shanghai" title="Battle of Shanghai">Battle of Shanghai</a>.<a href="#cite_note-86">[86]</a> Hosaka Akira was an army physician, and his infantry battalion was stationed in China. In his diary, he admitted to following an order to murder civilians in the Chinese city of Changzhou.<a href="#cite_note-87">[87]</a> Hosaka's diary documenting the Japanese atrocities in Changzhou has been supported by various Japanese sources. In 1987, his squad leader, Kitayama, confessed to killing civilians in Changzhou.<a href="#cite_note-88">[88]</a> Makihara Nobuo was part of a infantry platoon that entered a Chinese town. In Makihara's diary, he recorded that his Machine Gun <a href="/wiki/Company_(military_unit)" title="Company (military unit)">Company</a> followed orders to indiscriminately kill all civilians in the town.<a href="#cite_note-89">[89]</a> During the <a href="/wiki/Second_Sino-Japanese_War" title="Second Sino-Japanese War">Second Sino-Japanese War</a>, the Japanese followed what has been called a "killing policy", including killings committed against minorities such as <a href="/wiki/Hui_people" title="Hui people">Hui Muslims</a> in China. According to Wan Lei, "In a Hui clustered village in <a href="/wiki/Gaocheng_District" class="mw-redirect" title="Gaocheng District">Gaocheng county</a> of <a href="/wiki/Hebei" title="Hebei">Hebei</a>, the Japanese captured twenty Hui men among whom they only set two younger men free through "redemption", and buried alive the other eighteen Hui men. In <a href="/wiki/Mengcun_Hui_Autonomous_County" title="Mengcun Hui Autonomous County">Mengcun</a> village of Hebei, the Japanese killed more than 1,300 Hui people within three years of their occupation of that area." Mosques were also desecrated and destroyed by the Japanese, and Hui cemeteries were also destroyed. After the Nanjing Massacre, mosques in <a href="/wiki/Nanjing" title="Nanjing">Nanjing</a> were found filled with dead bodies.<a href="#cite_note-90">[90]</a> Many Hui Muslims in the Second Sino-Japanese War <a href="/wiki/Chinese_Muslims_in_the_Second_Sino-Japanese_War" title="Chinese Muslims in the Second Sino-Japanese War">fought against</a> the Japanese military.[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] In addition, <a href="/wiki/Dachang_Hui_Autonomous_County" title="Dachang Hui Autonomous County">The Hui Muslim county of Dachang</a> was subjected to massacres by the Japanese military.<a href="#cite_note-91">[91]</a> Another massacre during this period was the <a href="/wiki/Parit_Sulong_massacre" class="mw-redirect" title="Parit Sulong massacre">Parit Sulong massacre</a> in <a href="/wiki/Japanese-occupied_Malaya" class="mw-redirect" title="Japanese-occupied Malaya">Japanese-occupied Malaya</a>, when, according to the findings of the <a href="/wiki/International_Military_Tribunal_for_the_Far_East" title="International Military Tribunal for the Far East">International Military Tribunal for the Far East</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Imperial_Japanese_Army" title="Imperial Japanese Army">Imperial Japanese Army</a> massacred approximately five hundred prisoners of war, although higher estimates exist.[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] A similar crime committed was the <a href="/wiki/Changjiao_massacre" title="Changjiao massacre">Changjiao massacre</a> in China. Back in Southeast Asia, the <a href="/wiki/Laha_massacre" class="mw-redirect" title="Laha massacre">Laha massacre</a> resulted in the deaths of 705 prisoners of war on <a href="/wiki/Japanese_occupation_of_the_Dutch_East_Indies" title="Japanese occupation of the Dutch East Indies">Japanese-occupied Indonesia</a>'s Ambon Island, and in <a href="/wiki/Japanese-occupied_Singapore" class="mw-redirect" title="Japanese-occupied Singapore">Japanese-occupied Singapore</a>'s <a href="/wiki/Alexandra_Hospital_massacre" class="mw-redirect" title="Alexandra Hospital massacre">Alexandra Hospital massacre</a>, hundreds of wounded Allied soldiers, innocent citizens and medical staff were murdered by Japanese soldiers. [<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] In Southeast Asia, the <a href="/wiki/Manila_massacre" title="Manila massacre">Manila massacre</a> of February 1945 resulted in the death of 100,000 civilians in the <a href="/wiki/Japanese-occupied_Philippines" class="mw-redirect" title="Japanese-occupied Philippines">Japanese-occupied Philippines</a>. It is estimated that at least one out of every 20 Filipinos died at the hands of the Japanese during the occupation.<a href="#cite_note-92">[92]</a><a href="#cite_note-93">[93]</a> In Singapore during February and March 1942, the <a href="/wiki/Sook_Ching_massacre" class="mw-redirect" title="Sook Ching massacre">Sook Ching massacre</a> was a systematic <a href="/wiki/Genocide" title="Genocide">extermination</a> of "anti-Japanese" elements among the <a href="/wiki/Chinese_Singaporean" class="mw-redirect" title="Chinese Singaporean">Chinese population</a>; however, Japanese soldiers did not try to identify who was "anti-Japanese". As a result, the Japanese soldiers engaged in indiscriminate killing.<a href="#cite_note-94">[94]</a> Former <a href="/wiki/Prime_Minister_of_Singapore" title="Prime Minister of Singapore">Prime Minister of Singapore</a> <a href="/wiki/Lee_Kuan_Yew" title="Lee Kuan Yew">Lee Kuan Yew</a>, who was almost a victim of the Sook Ching Massacre, has stated that there were between 50,000 and 90,000 casualties.<a href="#cite_note-95">[95]</a> According to Lieutenant Colonel Hishakari Takafumi, a newspaper correspondent at the time, the plan was to ultimately kill about 50,000 Chinese, and 25,000 had already been murdered when the order was received to scale down the operation.<a href="#cite_note-96">[96]</a> There were other massacres of civilians, such as the <a href="/wiki/Kalagon_massacre" title="Kalagon massacre">Kalagon massacre</a>. In wartime Southeast Asia, the <a href="/wiki/Overseas_Chinese" title="Overseas Chinese">Overseas Chinese</a> and <a href="/wiki/European_diaspora" class="mw-redirect" title="European diaspora">European diaspora</a> were particular targets of Japanese abuse; in the former case, this was motivated by a <a href="/wiki/Sinophobic" class="mw-redirect" title="Sinophobic">Sinophobic</a> resentment of the historic expanse and influence of <a href="/wiki/Chinese_culture" title="Chinese culture">Chinese culture</a>, and in the latter, by a <a href="/wiki/Racism" title="Racism">racist</a> <a href="/wiki/Pan-Asianism" title="Pan-Asianism">Pan-Asianism</a> and a desire to show former colonial subjects the impotence of their former rulers.<a href="#cite_note-97">[97]</a> The Japanese executed all the Malay Sultans on Kalimantan and wiped out the Malay elite in the <a href="/wiki/Pontianak_incidents" title="Pontianak incidents">Pontianak incidents</a>. In the <a href="/wiki/Jesselton_Revolt" class="mw-redirect" title="Jesselton Revolt">Jesselton Revolt</a>, the Japanese killed thousands of native civilians during the <a href="/wiki/Japanese_occupation_of_British_Borneo" title="Japanese occupation of British Borneo">Japanese occupation of British Borneo</a> and nearly wiped out the entire <a href="/wiki/Suluk_people" class="mw-redirect" title="Suluk people">Suluk Muslim</a> population of the coastal islands. During the <a href="/wiki/Japanese_occupation_of_the_Philippines" title="Japanese occupation of the Philippines">Japanese occupation of the Philippines</a>, when a <a href="/wiki/Moro_people" title="Moro people">Moro Muslim</a> <a href="/wiki/Juramentado" title="Juramentado">juramentado</a> <a href="/wiki/Swordsmanship#Filipino" title="Swordsmanship">swordsman</a> launched a suicide attack against the Japanese, the Japanese would massacre the man's entire family or village.[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] However, Chinese immigrants in Southeast Asia were sometimes spared if they supported the war effort, whether sincerely or not. This also applied to other ethnicities.<a href="#cite_note-:3-98">[98]</a> 50 Moros were vivisected by a Japanese unit, the 33rd coast guard squad in Zamboanga in Mindanao in which Akira Makino served in. Moro guerillas armed with spears were the main enemies of the Japanese in the area.<a href="#cite_note-99">[99]</a><a href="#cite_note-100">[100]</a><a href="#cite_note-101">[101]</a> Historian Mitsuyoshi Himeta reports that a "<a href="/wiki/Three_Alls_Policy" class="mw-redirect" title="Three Alls Policy">Three Alls Policy</a>" (Sankō Sakusen) was implemented in China from 1942 to 1945 and was in itself responsible for the deaths of "more than 2.7 million" Chinese civilians.<a href="#cite_note-Stich-WW2-102">[102]</a> This <a href="/wiki/Scorched_earth" title="Scorched earth">scorched earth</a> strategy, sanctioned by <a href="/wiki/Hirohito" title="Hirohito">Hirohito</a> himself,<a href="#cite_note-Stich-WW2-102">[102]</a><a href="#cite_note-103">[103]</a> directed Japanese forces to "kill all, burn all, and loot all", which caused many massacres such as the <a href="/wiki/Panjiayu_massacre" class="mw-redirect" title="Panjiayu massacre">Panjiayu massacre</a>, where 1,230 Chinese people were killed. Additionally, captured Allied servicemen and civilians were massacred in various incidents, including the following: <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Alexandra_Hospital_massacre" class="mw-redirect" title="Alexandra Hospital massacre">Alexandra Hospital massacre</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Laha_massacre" class="mw-redirect" title="Laha massacre">Laha massacre</a><a href="#cite_note-Laha-104">[104]</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bangka_Island_massacre" title="Bangka Island massacre">Bangka Island massacre</a><a href="#cite_note-Bangka-105">[105]</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Parit_Sulong_Massacre" title="Parit Sulong Massacre">Parit Sulong Massacre</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Palawan_massacre" title="Palawan massacre">Palawan massacre</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Behar_massacre" class="mw-redirect" title="Behar massacre">SS Behar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/SS_Tjisalak" title="SS Tjisalak">SS Tjisalak</a> massacre perpetrated by <a href="/wiki/Japanese_submarine_I-8" title="Japanese submarine I-8">Japanese submarine I-8</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wake_Island_massacre" class="mw-redirect" title="Wake Island massacre">Wake Island massacre</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tinta_Massacre_Site" title="Tinta Massacre Site">Tinta Massacre</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bataan_Death_March" title="Bataan Death March">Bataan Death March</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sandakan_Death_Marches" title="Sandakan Death Marches">Sandakan Death Marches</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shin%27y%C5%8D_Maru_incident" title="Shin'yō Maru incident">Shin'yō Maru Incident</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sulug_Island_massacre" class="mw-redirect" title="Sulug Island massacre">Sulug Island massacre</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pontianak_incident" class="mw-redirect" title="Pontianak incident">Pontianak incidents</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Manila_massacre" title="Manila massacre">Manila massacre</a> (concurrent with the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Manila_(1945)" title="Battle of Manila (1945)">Battle of Manila</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Balikpapan_massacre" title="Balikpapan massacre">Balikpapan massacre</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dutch_East_Indies_massacres" class="mw-redirect" title="Dutch East Indies massacres">Dutch East Indies massacres</a></li></ul> The Japanese massacred Hui Muslims in their mosques in Nanjing and destroyed Hui mosques in other parts of China.<a href="#cite_note-106">[106]</a> Shen Xi’en and his father Shen Decheng witnessed the corpses of Hui Muslims slaughtered by the Japanese in Nanjing, when he was asked by Hui people to help bury their relatives. The Hui security maintenance leader Sun Shurong and Hui Imams Zhang Zihui, Ma Zihe, Ge Changfa, Wang Shouren, Ma Changfa were involved in collecting Hui corpses and burying them after the Nanjing massacre. The Ji'e lane Mosque caretaker father Zhang was in his 60s when killed by the Japanese and his decomposing corpse was the first to be washed in accordance to Islamic custom and buried. They buried the Hui corpses in Jiuhua mountain, Dongguashi, Hongtu Bridge (where Guangzhou road is now located), Wutai mountain, Donguashi (where Nanjing Normal University is located). Shen Xi'en helped bury  400 Hui bodies including children, women and men. Shen recalled burying  a 7 or 8 year old boy in addition to his mother among the Hui bodies.<a href="#cite_note-107">[107]</a> Japanese used machine guns to massacre Muslim Suluk children and women at a mosque in the aftermath of the <a href="/wiki/Jesselton_revolt" title="Jesselton revolt">Jesselton revolt</a>.<a href="#cite_note-108">[108]</a> In the <a href="/wiki/Pontianak_incidents" title="Pontianak incidents">Pontianak incidents</a>, the Japanese justified their mass execution of the twelve Arab and Malay Muslim Sultans by claiming they were planning to rebel and that the Arabs, Sultans and Chinese were all working to "massacre Japanese". The Japanese report on the incident noted that there were anti-Dutch Chinese independence movements before and linked them to the anti-Japanese conspiracy. On 28 June 1944 the Japanese executed the Sultans of West Kalimantan including Pontianak after a naval court martial. The accusations against the Sultans were printed in Borneo Shimbun on 1 July 1944.<a href="#cite_note-109">[109]</a><a href="#cite_note-110">[110]</a><a href="#cite_note-111">[111]</a> The Japanese slaughter of the Malay sultans of west Kalimantan led to Dayaks ascending to the political scene after the violent destruction of the Malay nobility at the hands of Japan.<a href="#cite_note-112">[112]</a><a href="#cite_note-113">[113]</a><a href="#cite_note-114">[114]</a><a href="#cite_note-115">[115]</a><a href="#cite_note-116">[116]</a><a href="#cite_note-117">[117]</a><a href="#cite_note-118">[118]</a><a href="#cite_note-119">[119]</a><a href="#cite_note-120">[120]</a><a href="#cite_note-121">[121]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Human_experimentation_and_biological_warfare">Human experimentation and biological warfare</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Japanese_war_crimes&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Human experimentation and biological warfare">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Unit_731" title="Unit 731">Unit 731</a> and <a href="/wiki/Japan_and_weapons_of_mass_destruction#Bioweapons" title="Japan and weapons of mass destruction">Japan and weapons of mass destruction § Bioweapons</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Unit_731_cold_experiment.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/42/Unit_731_cold_experiment.jpg/220px-Unit_731_cold_experiment.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="147" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/42/Unit_731_cold_experiment.jpg/330px-Unit_731_cold_experiment.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/42/Unit_731_cold_experiment.jpg/440px-Unit_731_cold_experiment.jpg 2x" data-file-width="600" data-file-height="400" /></a><figcaption>A <a href="/wiki/Hypothermia" title="Hypothermia">hypothermia</a> experiment, using Chinese prisoners as <a href="/wiki/Research_participant" title="Research participant">subjects</a> under surveillance by Japanese soldiers in 731</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Shiro-ishii.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ae/Shiro-ishii.jpg/170px-Shiro-ishii.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="242" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ae/Shiro-ishii.jpg/255px-Shiro-ishii.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ae/Shiro-ishii.jpg/340px-Shiro-ishii.jpg 2x" data-file-width="760" data-file-height="1082" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Shir%C5%8D_Ishii" title="Shirō Ishii">Shirō Ishii</a>, commander of <a href="/wiki/Unit_731" title="Unit 731">Unit 731</a></figcaption></figure> Special Japanese military units conducted experiments on civilians and POWs in China. The purpose of experimentation was to develop biological weapons that could be used for aggression. Biological agents and gasses developed from these experiments were used against the Chinese Army and civilian population.<a href="#cite_note-Gruhl_2017-14">[14]</a> These included <a href="/wiki/Unit_731" title="Unit 731">Unit 731</a> under <a href="/wiki/Shir%C5%8D_Ishii" title="Shirō Ishii">Shirō Ishii</a>. Victims were subjected to experiments including but not limited to <a href="/wiki/Vivisection" title="Vivisection">vivisection</a>, amputations without anesthesia, testing of <a href="/wiki/Biological_weapons" class="mw-redirect" title="Biological weapons">biological weapons</a>, horse blood transfusions, and injection of animal blood into their corpses.<a href="#cite_note-122">[122]</a> Anesthesia was not used because it was believed that anesthetics would adversely affect the results of the experiments.<a href="#cite_note-123">[123]</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"><blockquote class="templatequote">To determine the treatment of frostbite, prisoners were taken outside in freezing weather and left with exposed arms, periodically drenched with water until frozen solid. The arm was later amputated; the doctor would repeat the process on the victim's upper arm to the shoulder. After both arms were gone, the doctors moved on to the legs until only a head and torso remained. The victim was then used for plague and pathogens experiments.<a href="#cite_note-124">[124]</a></blockquote> A former unit 731 member testified: <blockquote>As soon as the symptoms were observed, the prisoner was taken from the cell and into the dissection room...he was strapped down, still screaming frightfully. One of the doctors stuffed a towel into his mouth, then with one quick slice of the scalpel he was opened up." Witnesses at vivisections report that the victim usually lets out a horrible scream when the cut is made, and the voice stops soon after.<a href="#cite_note-125">[125]</a></blockquote> Furthermore, according to the 2002 International Symposium on the Crimes of Bacteriological Warfare, the number of people killed by the Imperial Japanese Army germ warfare and human experiments is around 580,000.<a href="#cite_note-126">[126]</a> Top officers of Unit 731 were not prosecuted for war crimes after the war, in exchange for turning over the results of their research to the Allies. They were also reportedly given responsible positions in Japan's pharmaceutical industry, medical schools and health ministry.<a href="#cite_note-127">[127]</a><a href="#cite_note-128">[128]</a> While Unit 731 is the most infamous facility, scholars have shown that Japanese biological and chemical warfare units stationed in Beijing (Unit 1855), Nanjing (Unit 1644) and Canton (Unit 1688) also experimented on human subjects.<a href="#cite_note-129">[129]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Unit_731_victim.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/44/Unit_731_victim.jpg/220px-Unit_731_victim.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="147" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/44/Unit_731_victim.jpg/330px-Unit_731_victim.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/44/Unit_731_victim.jpg/440px-Unit_731_victim.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1500" data-file-height="1000" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Unit_731" title="Unit 731">Unit 731</a> members spraying a noxious substance onto a victim as part of their research</figcaption></figure> One case of human experimentation occurred in Japan itself. At least nine of 11 members of Lt. Marvin Watkins' 29th Bomb Group crew (of the 6th Bomb Squadron) survived the crash of their <a href="/wiki/U.S._Army_Air_Forces" class="mw-redirect" title="U.S. Army Air Forces">U.S. Army Air Forces</a> <a href="/wiki/B-29_Superfortress" class="mw-redirect" title="B-29 Superfortress">B-29</a> <a href="/wiki/Bomber" title="Bomber">bomber</a> on <a href="/wiki/Ky%C5%ABsh%C5%AB" class="mw-redirect" title="Kyūshū">Kyūshū</a>, on 5 May 1945.<a href="#cite_note-130">[130]</a> The bomber's commander was separated from his crew and sent to Tokyo for interrogation, while the other survivors were taken to the anatomy department of <a href="/wiki/Kyushu_University" title="Kyushu University">Kyushu University</a>, at <a href="/wiki/Fukuoka,_Fukuoka" class="mw-redirect" title="Fukuoka, Fukuoka">Fukuoka</a>, where they were subjected to vivisection or killed.<a href="#cite_note-131">[131]</a><a href="#cite_note-132">[132]</a> In 1939, Unit 731 launched 100 periodic biological attacks on military and civilian targets. Attacks include contaminating wells with intestinal pathogens, distribution of microbe-laced foods, air drops of plague inflected fleas, and aerial spray of contaminants.<a href="#cite_note-auto1-133">[133]</a> Although the effectiveness of the biological attacks is hard to assess, civilian casualties are estimated to be high, with several hundred thousand killed.<a href="#cite_note-auto1-133">[133]</a> Some Japanese physicians killed their victims with <a href="/wiki/Potassium_cyanide" title="Potassium cyanide">potassium cyanide</a> before dissecting them, while others used <a href="/wiki/Chloroform" title="Chloroform">chloroform</a>. Yoshio Onodera, who conducted human experiments within Unit 1644, testified that his group conducted experiments on roughly 100-150 people. They would then murder their victims by injecting them with chloroform.<a href="#cite_note-134">[134]</a> On 11 March 1948, 30 people, including several doctors and one female nurse, were brought to trial by American military tribunal. Fukujiro Ishiyama, the doctor most responsible for the experimentation, killed himself before the trial started. Charges of cannibalism were dropped, but 23 people were found guilty of vivisection or wrongful removal of body parts. Five were sentenced to death, four to life imprisonment, and the rest to shorter terms. In 1950, the military governor of Japan, General <a href="/wiki/Douglas_MacArthur" title="Douglas MacArthur">Douglas MacArthur</a>, commuted all of the death sentences and significantly reduced most of the prison terms. All of those involved in relation to the university vivisection, with the exception of <a href="/wiki/Isamu_Yokoyama" title="Isamu Yokoyama">Isamu Yokoyama</a>, the general most responsible for allowing the experimentation to happen, walked free no later than 1958. Yokoyama died in prison in 1952. In 1980, an author found that one of the doctors who was supposed to be executed was still alive and practicing medicine.<a href="#cite_note-135">[135]</a><a href="#cite_note-136">[136]</a> In China, the Japanese waged ruthless biological warfare against Chinese civilians and soldiers. Japanese aviators sprayed fleas carrying plague germs over metropolitan areas, creating <a href="/wiki/Bubonic_plague" title="Bubonic plague">bubonic plague</a> epidemics.<a href="#cite_note-ciadoc-137">[137]</a><a href="#cite_note-138">[138]</a> Japanese soldiers used flasks of diseases-causing microbes, which included <a href="/wiki/Cholera" title="Cholera">cholera</a>, <a href="/wiki/Dysentery" title="Dysentery">dysentery</a>, <a href="/wiki/Typhoid" class="mw-redirect" title="Typhoid">typhoid</a>, <a href="/wiki/Anthrax" title="Anthrax">anthrax</a> and <a href="/wiki/Paratyphoid" class="mw-redirect" title="Paratyphoid">paratyphoid</a>, to contaminate rivers, wells, reservoirs and houses; mixed food with deadly bacteria to infect hungry Chinese civilians; and even passed out chocolate filled with anthrax bacteria to the local children.<a href="#cite_note-139">[139]</a> During the final months of World War II, Japan had planned to use plague as a biological weapon against U.S. civilians in <a href="/wiki/San_Diego" title="San Diego">San Diego, California</a>, during <a href="/wiki/Operation_Cherry_Blossoms_at_Night" class="mw-redirect" title="Operation Cherry Blossoms at Night">Operation Cherry Blossoms at Night</a>, hoping that the plague would spread terror to the American population, and thereby dissuade America from attacking Japan. The plan was set to launch at night on 22 September 1945, but Japan surrendered five weeks earlier.<a href="#cite_note-140">[140]</a><a href="#cite_note-141">[141]</a><a href="#cite_note-142">[142]</a> In July 1989, a mass grave of more than one hundred skeletons was unearthed at a construction site in Tokyo, which was the former location of the Army Medical College from 1929 to 1945. Investigators determined that the bones belonged to various ethnic Asian groups of foreign origin, as indicated by the skulls.<a href="#cite_note-Indiana_University_Press-143">[143]</a> Investigators also discovered skulls that were marked with scalpels, cut by a sword, or pierced by bullets from a pistol.<a href="#cite_note-Indiana_University_Press-143">[143]</a> From these findings, it's inferred that Japanese military physicians conducted experiments on the brains of individuals on the battlefield, and that the evidence was subsequently disposed of and buried at that location.<a href="#cite_note-Indiana_University_Press-143">[143]</a> In 2006, former IJN medical officer <a href="/wiki/Akira_Makino" title="Akira Makino">Akira Makino</a> stated that he was ordered—as part of his training—to carry out vivisection on about 30 civilian prisoners in the Philippines between December 1944 and February 1945.<a href="#cite_note-144">[144]</a> The surgery included amputations.<a href="#cite_note-145">[145]</a> Most of Makino's victims were <a href="/wiki/Moro_people" title="Moro people">Moro Muslims</a>.<a href="#cite_note-146">[146]</a><a href="#cite_note-147">[147]</a><a href="#cite_note-148">[148]</a><a href="#cite_note-149">[149]</a><a href="#cite_note-150">[150]</a> <a href="/wiki/Ken_Yuasa" title="Ken Yuasa">Ken Yuasa</a>, a former military doctor in China, has also admitted to similar incidents in which he was aggressively performing live vivisections on live Chinese victims, blaming the nationalistic indoctrination of his schooling for his conduct and lack of remorse.<a href="#cite_note-151">[151]</a> Yuasa admitted to killing Chinese captives while training others in surgery.<a href="#cite_note-books.google.ca-152">[152]</a> He further added that in order to quickly train military physicians for the battlefield, physicians would gather every few months to perform "surgery drills" in China.<a href="#cite_note-books.google.ca-152">[152]</a> Surgery drills involved capturing local citizens, shooting them in the thigh with a bullet, and monitoring the amount of time it would take to extract the bullet.<a href="#cite_note-books.google.ca-152">[152]</a> The drills were widespread in China, with most instances involving the abduction of local citizens by the military and their subsequent delivery to the Army's medical division.<a href="#cite_note-books.google.ca-152">[152]</a> The <a href="/wiki/Imperial_House_of_Japan" title="Imperial House of Japan">Imperial House of Japan</a> was responsible for the human experimentation programs, as members of the imperial family, including <a href="/wiki/Prince_Higashikuni_Naruhiko" class="mw-redirect" title="Prince Higashikuni Naruhiko">Prince Higashikuni Naruhiko</a>, <a href="/wiki/Prince_Chichibu" class="mw-redirect" title="Prince Chichibu">Prince Chichibu</a>, <a href="/wiki/Prince_Mikasa" class="mw-redirect" title="Prince Mikasa">Prince Mikasa</a> and <a href="/wiki/Prince_Takeda_Tsuneyoshi" class="mw-redirect" title="Prince Takeda Tsuneyoshi">Prince Takeda Tsuneyoshi</a>, participated in the programs in various ways, which included authorizing, funding, supplying, and inspecting biomedical facilities.<a href="#cite_note-153">[153]</a><a href="#cite_note-154">[154]</a> Shiro Ishii was demoted after the cholera attack he directed in 1942 against Chinese civilians accidentally infected and killed Japanese soldiers and he did not direct anymore bioglocial attacks for the rest of the war.<a href="#cite_note-155">[155]</a> Ishii boasted about his role in the 1940-1941 biological disease attacks and boasted to the Japanese army in the 1942 attacks that he would kill even more, until he accidentally killed Japanese troops with his own weapons, causing a disaster among Japanese ranks and he was forced out and replaced.<a href="#cite_note-156">[156]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Use_of_chemical_weapons">Use of chemical weapons</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Japanese_war_crimes&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Use of chemical weapons">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Changde_chemical_weapon_attack" class="mw-redirect" title="Changde chemical weapon attack">Changde chemical weapon attack</a> and <a href="/wiki/Japan_and_weapons_of_mass_destruction#Chemical_weapons" title="Japan and weapons of mass destruction">Japan and weapons of mass destruction § Chemical weapons</a></div> Throughout the war with China from 1937 to 1945, Japan deployed chemical weapons, including poisonous and irritating gases, against both Chinese military personnel and civilians. This action was denounced by the League of Nations in May 1938.<a href="#cite_note-157">[157]</a> According to Walter E. Grunden, history professor at <a href="/wiki/Bowling_Green_State_University" title="Bowling Green State University">Bowling Green State University</a>, the Japanese incorporated <a href="/wiki/Chemical_warfare" title="Chemical warfare">gas warfare</a> into many aspects of their army's war against China because they concluded that Chinese forces were unable to retaliate in kind.<a href="#cite_note-auto-158">[158]</a> Their utilization of gas warfare involved deploying specialized gas troops, as well as infantry, artillery, engineers, and air force units.<a href="#cite_note-159">[159]</a> Grunden further added that "from 1937 to 1945, the military services of Japan used chemical weapons on over 2000 occasions, primarily in the <a href="/wiki/Second_Sino-Japanese_War" title="Second Sino-Japanese War">China Theater of Operations</a>."<a href="#cite_note-auto-158">[158]</a> The Narashino Military Academy near Tokyo had assembled a compilation of fifty-six case studies detailing the use of chemical weapons by Japan in China during World War II. This collection included information on lethal agents like Yperite, commonly known as mustard gas.<a href="#cite_note-auto2-160">[160]</a> The document was discovered at the <a href="/wiki/National_Archives_and_Records_Administration" title="National Archives and Records Administration">National Archives and Records Administration</a> by a Japanese historian.<a href="#cite_note-auto2-160">[160]</a> According to historians <a href="/wiki/Yoshiaki_Yoshimi" title="Yoshiaki Yoshimi">Yoshiaki Yoshimi</a> and Kentaro Awaya, during the <a href="/wiki/Second_Sino-Japanese_War" title="Second Sino-Japanese War">Second Sino-Japanese War</a>, <a href="/wiki/Chemical_warfare" title="Chemical warfare">gas weapons</a>, such as <a href="/wiki/Tear_gas" title="Tear gas">tear gas</a>, were sporadically used in 1937, but in early 1938, the <a href="/wiki/Imperial_Japanese_Army" title="Imperial Japanese Army">Imperial Japanese Army</a> resorted to the full-scale use of <a href="/wiki/Phosgene" title="Phosgene">phosgene</a>, <a href="/wiki/Chlorine" title="Chlorine">chlorine</a>, <a href="/wiki/Lewisite" title="Lewisite">Lewisite</a> and <a href="/wiki/Chloropicrin" title="Chloropicrin">nausea gas</a> (red), and from mid-1939, <a href="/wiki/Mustard_gas" title="Mustard gas">mustard gas</a> (yellow) was used against both <a href="/wiki/Kuomintang" title="Kuomintang">Kuomintang</a> and <a href="/wiki/Chinese_Communist_Party" title="Chinese Communist Party">Communist Chinese</a> troops.<a href="#cite_note-161">[161]</a><a href="#cite_note-162">[162]</a> In 2004, Yoshimi and Yuki Tanaka discovered documents in the Australian National Archives which state that <a href="/wiki/Cyanide" title="Cyanide">cyanide</a> gas was tested on Australian and Dutch prisoners in November 1944 on <a href="/wiki/Kai_Islands" title="Kai Islands">Kai Islands</a> (Indonesia).<a href="#cite_note-163">[163]</a> According to Yoshimi and Seiya Matsuno, <a href="/wiki/Emperor_Hirohito" class="mw-redirect" title="Emperor Hirohito">Emperor Hirohito</a> signed orders which specified the use of chemical weapons in China.<a href="#cite_note-164">[164]</a> For example, during the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Wuhan" title="Battle of Wuhan">Battle of Wuhan</a> from August to October 1938, the Emperor authorized the use of toxic gas on 375 separate occasions, despite the <a href="/wiki/Hague_Convention_of_1899#Hague_Convention_of_1899" class="mw-redirect" title="Hague Convention of 1899">1899 Hague Declaration</a> IV, 2 – Declaration on the Use of Projectiles the Object of Which is the Diffusion of Asphyxiating or Deleterious Gases<a href="#cite_note-165">[165]</a> and Article 23 (a) of the <a href="/wiki/Hague_Convention_of_1907" class="mw-redirect" title="Hague Convention of 1907">1907 Hague Convention</a> IV – The Laws and Customs of War on Land.<a href="#cite_note-chang-barker-2003-30">[30]</a><a href="#cite_note-166">[166]</a> A resolution adopted by the <a href="/wiki/League_of_Nations" title="League of Nations">League of Nations</a> on 14 May condemned the use of poison gas by Japan. According to <a href="/wiki/Takahito,_Prince_Mikasa" title="Takahito, Prince Mikasa">Prince Mikasa</a>, a member of the imperial family of Japan, he watched an army film that showed Japanese troops gassing Chinese prisoners who were tied to stakes.<a href="#cite_note-167">[167]</a> Another incident of chemical warfare occurred during the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Yichang" class="mw-redirect" title="Battle of Yichang">Battle of Yichang</a> in October 1941, during which the 19th Artillery Regiment helped the 13th Brigade of the <a href="/wiki/Eleventh_Army_(Japan)" title="Eleventh Army (Japan)">IJA 11th Army</a> by launching 1,000 yellow gas shells and 1,500 red gas shells at the Chinese <a href="/wiki/National_Revolutionary_Army" title="National Revolutionary Army">National Revolutionary Army</a>. The area was crowded with Chinese civilians unable to evacuate. Some 3,000 Chinese soldiers were in the area and 1,600 were affected. The Japanese report stated that "the effect of gas seems considerable".<a href="#cite_note-168">[168]</a> In 2004, Yoshimi Yoshiaki published the most comprehensive study of Japan's military use of poisonous gases in China and Southeast Asia. Yoshimi discovered a battle report by a Japanese Infantry Brigade that detailed its use of mustard gas in a major operation against the Communist-led <a href="/wiki/Eighth_Route_Army" title="Eighth Route Army">Eighth Route Army</a> in <a href="/wiki/Shanxi_Province" class="mw-redirect" title="Shanxi Province">Shanxi Province</a> in the winter of 1942. The unit which carried out the operation noted the severity of the mustard gas attack, and it also commented about the anti-Japanese sentiment which existed among the members of the civilian population who were affected by the mustard gas.<a href="#cite_note-169">[169]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Torture_of_prisoners_of_war">Torture of prisoners of war</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Japanese_war_crimes&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Torture of prisoners of war">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Bamboo_torture" title="Bamboo torture">Bamboo torture</a> and <a href="/wiki/Effectiveness_of_torture_for_interrogation" class="mw-redirect" title="Effectiveness of torture for interrogation">Effectiveness of torture for interrogation</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Photograph_of_American_Prisoners_Using_Improvised_Litters_to_Carry_Comrades,_05-1942_-_NARA_-_535564.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8f/Photograph_of_American_Prisoners_Using_Improvised_Litters_to_Carry_Comrades%2C_05-1942_-_NARA_-_535564.jpg/220px-Photograph_of_American_Prisoners_Using_Improvised_Litters_to_Carry_Comrades%2C_05-1942_-_NARA_-_535564.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="161" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8f/Photograph_of_American_Prisoners_Using_Improvised_Litters_to_Carry_Comrades%2C_05-1942_-_NARA_-_535564.jpg/330px-Photograph_of_American_Prisoners_Using_Improvised_Litters_to_Carry_Comrades%2C_05-1942_-_NARA_-_535564.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8f/Photograph_of_American_Prisoners_Using_Improvised_Litters_to_Carry_Comrades%2C_05-1942_-_NARA_-_535564.jpg/440px-Photograph_of_American_Prisoners_Using_Improvised_Litters_to_Carry_Comrades%2C_05-1942_-_NARA_-_535564.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3000" data-file-height="2199" /></a><figcaption>A burial detail of American and Filipino <a href="/wiki/Prisoner_of_war" title="Prisoner of war">POWs</a> killed during the <a href="/wiki/Bataan_Death_March" title="Bataan Death March">Bataan Death March</a>, 1942</figcaption></figure> Japanese imperial forces employed widespread use of <a href="/wiki/Torture" title="Torture">torture</a> on prisoners of war, usually in an effort to gather military intelligence quickly.<a href="#cite_note-170">[170]</a> Tortured POWs were often later executed. A former Japanese Army officer who served in China, Uno Shintaro, stated: <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"><blockquote class="templatequote">The major means of getting intelligence was to extract information by interrogating prisoners. Torture was an unavoidable necessity. Murdering and burying them follows naturally. You do it so you won't be found out. I believed and acted this way because I was convinced of what I was doing. We carried out our duty as instructed by our masters. We did it for the sake of our country. From our filial obligation to our ancestors. On the battlefield, we never really considered the Chinese humans. When you're winning, the losers look really miserable. We concluded that the <a href="/wiki/Yamato_people" title="Yamato people">Yamato [Japanese] race</a> was superior.<a href="#cite_note-171">[171]</a></blockquote> After the <a href="/wiki/Atomic_bombing_of_Hiroshima" class="mw-redirect" title="Atomic bombing of Hiroshima">atomic bombing of Hiroshima</a> during World War II, the <a href="/wiki/Japanese_secret_police" class="mw-redirect" title="Japanese secret police">Japanese secret police</a> tortured a captured American <a href="/wiki/P-51" class="mw-redirect" title="P-51">P-51</a> <a href="/wiki/Fighter_pilot" title="Fighter pilot">fighter pilot</a> named <a href="/wiki/Marcus_McDilda" title="Marcus McDilda">Marcus McDilda</a> to discover how many <a href="/wiki/Atomic_bombs" class="mw-redirect" title="Atomic bombs">atomic bombs</a> the <a href="/wiki/Allies_of_World_War_II" title="Allies of World War II">Allies</a> had and what the future targets were. McDilda, who had originally told his captors he knew nothing about the atomic bomb (and who indeed knew nothing about <a href="/wiki/Nuclear_fission" title="Nuclear fission">nuclear fission</a>), "confessed" under further torture that the US had 100 atomic bombs and that Tokyo and <a href="/wiki/Kyoto" title="Kyoto">Kyoto</a> were the next targets: <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"><blockquote class="templatequote">As you know, when atoms are split, there are a lot of <a href="/wiki/Electric_charge" title="Electric charge">pluses and minuses</a> released. Well, we've taken these and put them in a huge container and separated them from each other with a lead shield. When the box is dropped out of a plane, we melt the lead shield and the pluses and minuses come together. When that happens, it causes a tremendous bolt of lightning and all the atmosphere over a city is pushed back! Then when the atmosphere rolls back, it brings about a tremendous thunderclap, which knocks down everything beneath it.<div class="templatequotecite">— <cite>Marcus McDilda, <a href="#cite_note-Jerome_T._Hagen_1996-172">[172]</a></cite></div></blockquote> According to many historians, one of the favorite techniques of Japanese torturers was "<a href="/wiki/Waterboarding" title="Waterboarding">simulated drowning</a>", in which water was poured over the immobilized victim's head, until they suffocated and lost consciousness. They were then resuscitated brutally (usually with the torturer jumping on their abdomen to expel the water) and then subjected to a new session of torture. The entire process could be repeated for about twenty minutes.<a href="#cite_note-176">[a]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Execution_and_killing_of_captured_Allied_airmen">Execution and killing of captured Allied airmen</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Japanese_war_crimes&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: Execution and killing of captured Allied airmen">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Doolittle_Raider_RL_Hite_blindfolded_by_Japanese_1942.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/79/Doolittle_Raider_RL_Hite_blindfolded_by_Japanese_1942.jpg/220px-Doolittle_Raider_RL_Hite_blindfolded_by_Japanese_1942.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="160" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/79/Doolittle_Raider_RL_Hite_blindfolded_by_Japanese_1942.jpg/330px-Doolittle_Raider_RL_Hite_blindfolded_by_Japanese_1942.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/79/Doolittle_Raider_RL_Hite_blindfolded_by_Japanese_1942.jpg/440px-Doolittle_Raider_RL_Hite_blindfolded_by_Japanese_1942.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1800" data-file-height="1313" /></a><figcaption>A blindfolded <a href="/wiki/Doolittle_Raid" title="Doolittle Raid">Doolittle Raider</a> taken captive in 1942</figcaption></figure> Many Allied airmen captured by the Japanese on land or at sea were executed in accordance with official Japanese policy. During the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Midway" title="Battle of Midway">Battle of Midway</a> in June 1942, three American airmen who were shot down and landed at sea were spotted and captured by <a href="/wiki/Imperial_Japanese_Navy" title="Imperial Japanese Navy">Imperial Japanese Navy</a> warships. After being tortured, machinist mate first class <a href="/wiki/Bruno_Gaido" title="Bruno Gaido">Bruno Gaido</a> and his pilot Ensign Frank O'Flaherty, were tied to five-gallon kerosene cans filled with water and dumped overboard from the <a href="/wiki/Japanese_destroyer_Makigumo_(1941)" title="Japanese destroyer Makigumo (1941)">Japanese destroyer Makigumo</a>;<a href="#cite_note-177">[176]</a> a third airman, Ensign Wesley Osmus, was fatally wounded with an axe before being pushed into the sea from the stern of the <a href="/wiki/Japanese_destroyer_Arashi" title="Japanese destroyer Arashi">Arashi</a>.<a href="#cite_note-178">[177]</a><a href="#cite_note-179">[178]</a> On 13 August 1942, Japan passed the <a href="/wiki/Enemy_Airmen%27s_Act" title="Enemy Airmen's Act">Enemy Airmen's Act</a>, which stated that Allied pilots who bombed non-military targets in the <a href="/wiki/Pacific_Ocean_theatre_of_World_War_II" class="mw-redirect" title="Pacific Ocean theatre of World War II">Pacific Theater</a> and were captured by Japanese forces were subject to trial and punishment, despite the absence of any international law containing provisions regarding <a href="/wiki/Aerial_warfare" title="Aerial warfare">aerial warfare</a>.<a href="#cite_note-ICRC-180">[179]</a> This legislation was passed in response to the <a href="/wiki/Doolittle_Raid" title="Doolittle Raid">Doolittle Raid</a> on 18 April 1942, in which American <a href="/wiki/North_American_B-25_Mitchell" title="North American B-25 Mitchell">B-25</a> bombers under the command of <a href="/wiki/Lieutenant_Colonel" class="mw-redirect" title="Lieutenant Colonel">Lieutenant Colonel</a> <a href="/wiki/Jimmy_Doolittle" title="Jimmy Doolittle">James Doolittle</a> bombed Tokyo and other Japanese cities. According to the <a href="/wiki/Hague_Convention_of_1907" class="mw-redirect" title="Hague Convention of 1907">Hague Convention of 1907</a> (the only convention Japan had ratified regarding the treatment of prisoners of war), any military personnel captured on land or at sea by enemy troops were to be treated as prisoners of war and not punished for simply being lawful combatants. Eight Doolittle Raiders captured upon landing in China (four months before the passage of the Act) were the first Allied aircrew to be brought before a <a href="/wiki/Kangaroo_court" title="Kangaroo court">kangaroo court</a> in Shanghai under the act, charged with alleged (but unproven) strafing of Japanese civilians during the Doolittle Raid. The eight aircrew were forbidden to present any defense and, despite the lack of legitimate evidence, were found guilty of participating in aerial military operations against Japan. Five of the eight sentences were commuted to life imprisonment; the other three airmen were taken to a cemetery outside Shanghai, where they were <a href="/wiki/Execution_by_firing_squad" title="Execution by firing squad">executed by firing squad</a> on 14 October 1942.<a href="#cite_note-181">[180]</a><a href="#cite_note-182">[181]</a> The Enemy Airmen's Act contributed to the deaths of hundreds of Allied airmen throughout the Pacific War. An estimated 132 Allied airmen shot down during the <a href="/wiki/Air_raids_on_Japan" title="Air raids on Japan">bombing campaign against Japan</a> in 1944–1945 were <a href="/wiki/Summarily_executed" class="mw-redirect" title="Summarily executed">summarily executed</a> after short kangaroo trials or <a href="/wiki/Drumhead_court-martial" title="Drumhead court-martial">drumhead courts-martial</a>. Imperial Japanese military personnel deliberately killed 33 American airmen at <a href="/wiki/Fukuoka" title="Fukuoka">Fukuoka</a>, including fifteen who were beheaded shortly after the Japanese Government's intention to surrender was announced on 15 August 1945.<a href="#cite_note-183">[182]</a>[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources#What_information_to_include" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources">full citation needed</a>] Mobs of civilians also killed several Allied airmen before the Japanese military arrived to take the airmen into custody.<a href="#cite_note-184">[183]</a> Another 94 airmen died from other causes while in Japanese custody, including 52 who were killed when they were deliberately abandoned in a prison during the <a href="/wiki/Bombing_of_Tokyo" title="Bombing of Tokyo">bombing of Tokyo</a> on 24–25 May 1945.<a href="#cite_note-Takai_Sakaida_114-185">[184]</a><a href="#cite_note-186">[185]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Execution_and_killing_of_captured_Allied_seamen">Execution and killing of captured Allied seamen</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Japanese_war_crimes&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: Execution and killing of captured Allied seamen">edit</a>]</div> <ul><li>Rear Admiral Takero Kouta, commander of the Japanese First Submarine Force at Truk, on 20 March 1943 sent out to subs under his command an order to kill <a href="/wiki/Merchant_Navy" class="mw-redirect" title="Merchant Navy">Merchant Navy</a> crewman after the ship was sunk.<a href="#cite_note-187">[186]</a>[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources#What_information_to_include" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources">full citation needed</a>]<a href="#cite_note-188">[187]</a>[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources#What_information_to_include" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources">full citation needed</a>]</li> <li>The <a href="/wiki/World_War_II_United_States_Merchant_Navy" title="World War II United States Merchant Navy">United States Merchant Navy</a> ship <a href="/wiki/Japanese_submarine_I-8_attack_on_SS_Jean_Nicolet" class="mw-redirect" title="Japanese submarine I-8 attack on SS Jean Nicolet">SS Jean Nicolet</a>, torpedoed by <a href="/wiki/Japanese_submarine_I-8" title="Japanese submarine I-8">Japanese submarine I-8</a> on 2 July 1944, off <a href="/wiki/Ceylon" class="mw-redirect" title="Ceylon">Ceylon</a> at <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1156832818">.mw-parser-output .geo-default,.mw-parser-output .geo-dms,.mw-parser-output .geo-dec{display:inline}.mw-parser-output .geo-nondefault,.mw-parser-output .geo-multi-punct,.mw-parser-output .geo-inline-hidden{display:none}.mw-parser-output .longitude,.mw-parser-output .latitude{white-space:nowrap}</style><a class="external text" href="https://geohack.toolforge.org/geohack.php?pagename=Japanese_war_crimes&params=03_28_S_074_30_E_">03°28′S 074°30′E / 3.467°S 74.500°E / -3.467; 74.500</a>. All of the crew and passengers made it into the <a href="/wiki/Lifeboat_(shipboard)" title="Lifeboat (shipboard)">lifeboats</a> safely. The I-8 forced the 100 onto the deck of the submarine and then killed most of them. The I-8 crew shot at both the crew and the lifeboats. The submarine crew took the crew's valuables. Those not shot, about 30 crew members, were hit and stabbed on the deck. Seeing a plane, the submarine crew tossed overboard the remaining crew and dived. A <a href="/wiki/Consolidated_PBY_Catalina" title="Consolidated PBY Catalina">Catalina</a> flying boat spotted the crew in the water and sent <a href="/wiki/Royal_Navy" title="Royal Navy">Royal Navy</a> <a href="/wiki/Armed_trawler" class="mw-redirect" title="Armed trawler">armed trawler</a> <a href="/w/index.php?title=HMS_Hoxa_(T16)&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="HMS Hoxa (T16) (page does not exist)">HMS Hoxa</a> rescued the men. After over 30 hours in the water the crew was rescued on 4 July 1944.<a href="#cite_note-combinedfleetI8-189">[188]</a><a href="#cite_note-190">[189]</a><a href="#cite_note-ijnsubsiteI8-191">[190]</a><a href="#cite_note-armedguard-192">[191]</a></li> <li>Merchant Navy <a href="/wiki/Behar_massacre" class="mw-redirect" title="Behar massacre">SS Behar</a> sank on 6 March 1944, in the <a href="/wiki/Indian_Ocean" title="Indian Ocean">Indian Ocean</a>, seventy-two merchant seamen made it into lifeboats. They were taken aboard the <a href="/wiki/Japanese_cruiser_Tone_(1937)" title="Japanese cruiser Tone (1937)">heavy cruiser Tone</a> and the crew's valuables taken. The crew was roped up in painful positions, beaten, and locked in an extremely hot store room. By order of Vice Admiral Sakonju, the crew, men and women, were killed. Sakonju was executed for his war crimes in 1947.<a href="#cite_note-193">[192]</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Japanese_submarine_I-26" title="Japanese submarine I-26">Japanese submarine I-26</a>, after sinking the merchant ship SS Richard Hovey in the <a href="/wiki/Arabian_Sea" title="Arabian Sea">Arabian Sea</a>, shot at the crew in their three lifeboats and a two <a href="/wiki/Life_raft" class="mw-redirect" title="Life raft">life rafts</a>. I-26 rammed one lifeboats <a href="/wiki/Capsizing" title="Capsizing">capsizing</a> it. I-26 took the captain and three crew POWs.<a href="#cite_note-194">[193]</a> The four survived and were repatriated after the end of the war.</li> <li>Planes from the <a href="/wiki/Japanese_aircraft_carrier_Hiry%C5%AB" title="Japanese aircraft carrier Hiryū">Japanese aircraft carrier Hiryū</a> sank and killed crew and passengers in the <a href="/w/index.php?title=SS_Poelau_Bras&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="SS Poelau Bras (page does not exist)">SS Poelau Bras</a>'s lifeboats, sinking six of the nine boats off <a href="/wiki/Sumatra" title="Sumatra">Sumatra</a>.<a href="#cite_note-195">[194]</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Japanese_submarine_I-37" title="Japanese submarine I-37">I-37</a> on 27 November 1943 shot and killed eight crewmen in the MV Scotia lifeboats. On 22 February 1944 shot at <a href="/wiki/SS_British_Chivalry" title="SS British Chivalry">SS British Chivalry</a>'s lifeboats, 13 were killed. On 29 February 1944 SS Ascot's lifeboats were shot at, leaving only seven survivors.<a href="#cite_note-combinedfleetI8-189">[188]</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Japanese_submarine_I-165" title="Japanese submarine I-165">I-165</a> on 18 March 1944 shot at <a href="/wiki/SS_Nancy_Moller" title="SS Nancy Moller">SS Nancy Moller</a>'s lifeboats, killing 23.<a href="#cite_note-196">[195]</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Japanese_submarine_I-12" title="Japanese submarine I-12">I-12</a> on 28 October 1944 shot at the lifeboats of the SS John A. Johnson, killing eleven.<a href="#cite_note-197">[196]</a></li> <li>One survivor, <a href="/wiki/Lord_James_Blears" title="Lord James Blears">James Blears</a>, a 21-year-old radio operator, of the crew of the <a href="/wiki/SS_Tjisalak" title="SS Tjisalak">SS Tjisalak</a>, lived to tell of the torture and execution of the lifeboat crew by submarine I-8. How many other lifeboat crews did not have survivors is not known.<a href="#cite_note-Ben-Yehuda2013-198">[197]</a><a href="#cite_note-EastWatt1985-199">[198]</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Japanese_submarine_I-158#Second_war_patrol" title="Japanese submarine I-158">Cargo ship Langkoeas lifeboats attacked by I-158</a> I-158 on 3 January 1942 sank the Dutch cargo ship <a href="/w/index.php?title=SS_Langkoeas&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="SS Langkoeas (page does not exist)">SS Langkoeas</a> and subsequently attacked its lifeboats with machine guns. After interrogating the crew under threat of torture, its commander threw them back into the sea without their lifeboats.</li> <li>Tanker Augustina massacre, in the Western Java Sea, 1942, lifeboats machine-gunned, only 2 survived.<a href="#cite_note-200">[199]</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Using_Allied_nationals_as_human_shields">Using Allied nationals as human shields</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Japanese_war_crimes&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: Using Allied nationals as human shields">edit</a>]</div> The prohibition of using enemy nationals as <a href="/wiki/Human_shield" title="Human shield">human shields</a> is based on Article 23 under Section II of the 1907 Fourth Hague Convention, which states: "A belligerent is […] forbidden to compel the nationals of the hostile party to take part in the operations of war directed against their own country".<a href="#cite_note-201">[200]</a> A <a href="/wiki/World_War_I" title="World War I">World War I</a>-era 1915 Belgian report stated "[i]f it be not permissible to compel a man to fire on his fellow citizens, neither can he be forced to protect the enemy and to serve as a living screen."<a href="#cite_note-202">[201]</a> The application is limited to only enemy nationals and it does not apply to the same persons exposed to dangers from <a href="/wiki/Aerial_warfare" title="Aerial warfare">aerial</a> and <a href="/wiki/Naval_warfare" title="Naval warfare">naval attack</a> since the Fourth Hague Convention only governs <a href="/wiki/Land_warfare" title="Land warfare">land warfare</a>. The 1949 <a href="/wiki/Fourth_Geneva_Convention" title="Fourth Geneva Convention">Fourth Geneva Convention</a> prohibits parties to the international conflict from using protected persons regardless of nationality as human shields against any type of enemy attacks,<a href="#cite_note-203">[202]</a> closing the gaps mentioned in the preceding sentence.<a href="#cite_note-204">[203]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Battle_of_Manila_(1945)">Battle of Manila (1945)</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Japanese_war_crimes&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: Battle of Manila (1945)">edit</a>]</div> During the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Manila_(1945)" title="Battle of Manila (1945)">Battle of Manila</a> in 1945, Japanese forces used Filipino civilians as human shields to protect their positions against the liberating American troops.<a href="#cite_note-205">[204]</a> Author <a href="/wiki/Damien_Lewis_(filmmaker)" title="Damien Lewis (filmmaker)">Damien Lewis</a> wrote "The Japanese defenders had taken thousand of Filipinos–men, females and children alike–hostage, and were holding them as human shields. Many died in the bombardment and subsequent battles that followed, as the walled city was cleared in bitter street-to-street fighting."<a href="#cite_note-206">[205]</a> Alec Wahlman wrote:<a href="#cite_note-207">[206]</a> <blockquote> Unlike US forces, the Japanese in Manila did not allow the presence of the civilian population to interfere with their operations. In fact, they actively used the population as both shields and targets . . . On one occasion, an American <a href="/wiki/Artillery_observer" title="Artillery observer">forward observer</a> spotted some Japanese moving supplies, while twenty Filipinos were held at gunpoint nearby, including a Filipino girl tied naked to a tree, to avoid drawing American artillery fire. </blockquote> An American WWII veteran who fought in the 1945 Battle of Manila stated "the Japanese would use Philippine civilians as human shields when they were trying to get away. The Japs would grab them and drag them in front of them. We couldn't shoot at the Japanese when they had the civilians in front of them."<a href="#cite_note-208">[207]</a> When American forces reached <a href="/wiki/Intramuros" title="Intramuros">Intramuros</a>, they realized 4,000 Filipino civilians were held hostage within the wall, most of whom were rounded up by the Japanese and used as human shields. U.S. commanders demanded the Japanese soldiers to surrender or release the hostages but were met in response with silence. American artillery and infantry assaults on the wall began as a result, killing over 1,000 Japanese and taking 25 prisoners, but the ensuing fight with the Japanese defenders also caused considerable and <a href="/wiki/Collateral_damage" title="Collateral damage">collateral damage</a> along the way.<a href="#cite_note-HGXB-209">[208]</a><a href="#cite_note-210">[209]</a> The American assault on Intramuros weakened Japanese defenses, and the Japanese decided to release 3,000 hostages, most of them females and children, because most of the men under Japanese captivity were murdered. At the end, the use of human shields along with the Manila massacre by the Japanese resulted in the deaths of 100,000 civilians in the battle.<a href="#cite_note-HGXB-209">[208]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Cannibalism">Cannibalism</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Japanese_war_crimes&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: Cannibalism">edit</a>]</div> Many written reports and testimonies which were collected by the Australian War Crimes Section of the Tokyo tribunal, and investigated by prosecutor <a href="/wiki/William_Webb_(judge)" title="William Webb (judge)">William Webb</a> (the tribunal's future Judge-in-Chief), indicate that Japanese personnel committed acts of <a href="/wiki/Human_cannibalism" title="Human cannibalism">cannibalism</a> against Allied prisoners of war in many parts of Asia and the Pacific. In many cases, these acts of cannibalism were inspired by ever-increasing Allied attacks on Japanese supply lines, and the death and illness of Japanese personnel which resulted from hunger. According to historian Yuki Tanaka: "cannibalism was often a systematic activity which was conducted by whole squads which were under the command of officers".<a href="#cite_note-211">[210]</a> This frequently involved murder for the purpose of securing bodies. For example, an <a href="/wiki/British_Indian_Army" title="British Indian Army">Indian</a> POW, <a href="/wiki/Havildar" title="Havildar">Havildar</a> Changdi Ram, testified that "[on November 12, 1944] the Kempeitai beheaded [an Allied] pilot. I saw this from behind a tree and watched some of the Japanese cut flesh from his arms, legs, hips, buttocks and carry it off to their quarters ... They cut it [into] small pieces and fried it."<a href="#cite_note-212">[211]</a><a href="#cite_note-213">[212]</a> In some cases, flesh was cut from living people: another Indian POW, <a href="/wiki/Lance_Naik" class="mw-redirect" title="Lance Naik">Lance Naik</a> Hatam Ali (later a citizen of <a href="/wiki/Pakistan" title="Pakistan">Pakistan</a>), testified in <a href="/wiki/New_Guinea" title="New Guinea">New Guinea</a> and stated: <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"><blockquote class="templatequote">... the Japanese started selecting prisoners and every day one prisoner was taken out and killed and eaten by the soldiers. I personally saw this happen and about 100 prisoners were eaten at this place by the Japanese. The remainder of us were taken to another spot 50 miles [80 km] away where 10 prisoners died of sickness. At this place, the Japanese again started selecting prisoners to eat. Those selected were taken to a hut where their flesh was cut from their bodies while they were alive and they were thrown into a ditch where they later died.<a href="#cite_note-214">[213]</a></blockquote> According to another account by Jemadar Abdul Latif of 4/9 Jat Regiment of the Indian Army who was rescued by the <a href="/wiki/Australian_Army" title="Australian Army">Australian Army</a> at the Sepik Bay in 1945: <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"><blockquote class="templatequote">At the village of Suaid, a Japanese medical officer periodically visited the Indian compound and selected each time the healthiest men. These men were taken away ostensibly for carrying out duties, but they never reappeared.<a href="#cite_note-215">[214]</a></blockquote> Perhaps the most senior officer convicted of cannibalism was Lt Gen. <a href="/wiki/Yoshio_Tachibana" title="Yoshio Tachibana">Yoshio Tachibana</a> (立花芳夫,Tachibana Yoshio), who with 11 other Japanese personnel was tried in August 1946 in relation to the execution of U.S. Navy airmen, and the cannibalism of at least one of them, during August 1944, on <a href="/wiki/Chichijima_incident" title="Chichijima incident">Chichi Jima</a>, in the <a href="/wiki/Bonin_Islands" title="Bonin Islands">Bonin Islands</a>. The airmen were beheaded on Tachibana's orders. Because military and international law did not specifically deal with cannibalism, they were tried for murder and "prevention of honorable burial". Tachibana was sentenced to death, and hanged.<a href="#cite_note-216">[215]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Avoidable_hunger">Avoidable hunger</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Japanese_war_crimes&action=edit&section=18" title="Edit section: Avoidable hunger">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:POWs_Burma_Thai_RR.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c1/POWs_Burma_Thai_RR.jpg/220px-POWs_Burma_Thai_RR.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="142" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c1/POWs_Burma_Thai_RR.jpg/330px-POWs_Burma_Thai_RR.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c1/POWs_Burma_Thai_RR.jpg/440px-POWs_Burma_Thai_RR.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3000" data-file-height="1939" /></a><figcaption>Australian and Dutch prisoners of war at <a href="/wiki/Tarsau" class="mw-redirect" title="Tarsau">Tarsau</a> in Thailand, 1943</figcaption></figure> Deaths caused by the diversion of resources to Japanese troops in occupied countries were also considered war crimes,<a href="#cite_note-217">[216]</a><a href="#cite_note-218">[217]</a> because Article 52 under Section III of the 1907 Fourth Hague Convention states that "Requisitions in kind and services ... shall be in proportion to the resources of the country".<a href="#cite_note-219">[218]</a> Millions of civilians in Southeast Asia – especially in <a href="/wiki/Vietnam" title="Vietnam">Vietnam</a> and <a href="/wiki/Dutch_East_Indies" title="Dutch East Indies">Dutch East Indies</a>, which were major producers of rice – died during the avoidable hunger in 1944–45.<a href="#cite_note-220">[219]</a> In the <a href="/wiki/Vietnamese_Famine_of_1945" class="mw-redirect" title="Vietnamese Famine of 1945">Vietnamese Famine of 1945</a> one to two million Vietnamese starved to death in the Red River delta of northern Vietnam due to the Japanese, as the Japanese seized Vietnamese rice without paying for it. In Phat Diem the Vietnamese farmer Di Ho was one of the few survivors who saw the Japanese steal grain.<a href="#cite_note-221">[220]</a> The North Vietnamese government accused both France and Japan of the famine and said 1–2 million Vietnamese died.<a href="#cite_note-222">[221]</a><a href="#cite_note-223">[222]</a> Võ An Ninh took photographs of dead and dying Vietnamese during the great famine.<a href="#cite_note-224">[223]</a><a href="#cite_note-225">[224]</a><a href="#cite_note-226">[225]</a> Starving Vietnamese were dying throughout northern Vietnam in 1945 due to the Japanese seizure of their crops. By the time the Chinese came to disarm the Japanese forces, Vietnamese corpses were on the streets of Hanoi and had to be cleaned up by students.<a href="#cite_note-227">[226]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Forced_labor">Forced labor</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Japanese_war_crimes&action=edit&section=19" title="Edit section: Forced labor">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_Japan" title="Slavery in Japan">Slavery in Japan</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1126788409">.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul{line-height:inherit;list-style:none;margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol li,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul li{margin-bottom:0}</style><style 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0.4em;text-align:left;font-weight:bold;line-height:1.6em;font-size:105%}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-list-title-c{padding:0 0.4em;text-align:center;margin:0 3.3em}@media(max-width:640px){body.mediawiki .mw-parser-output .sidebar{width:100%!important;clear:both;float:none!important;margin-left:0!important;margin-right:0!important}}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .sidebar a>img{max-width:none!important}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-list-title,html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle{background:transparent!important}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle a{color:var(--color-progressive)!important}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-list-title,html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle{background:transparent!important}html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle a{color:var(--color-progressive)!important}}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .sidebar{display:none!important}}</style><table class="sidebar sidebar-collapse nomobile nowraplinks"><tbody><tr><td class="sidebar-pretitle">Part of <a href="/wiki/Category:Antisemitism" title="Category:Antisemitism">a series</a> on</td></tr><tr><th class="sidebar-title-with-pretitle"><a href="/wiki/Koreans_in_Japan" title="Koreans in Japan">Koreans in Japan</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base);border-top:none;">History</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Korea_under_Japanese_rule" title="Korea under Japanese rule">Korea under Japanese rule</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Korean_independence_movement" title="Korean independence movement">Korean independence movement</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hanshin_Education_Incident" title="Hanshin Education Incident">Hanshin Education Incident</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base);border-top:none;">Culture</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ch%C5%8Dsen-seki" title="Chōsen-seki">Chōsen-seki</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/South_Korean_nationality_law" title="South Korean nationality law">South Korean nationality law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Special_permanent_resident_(Japan)" title="Special permanent resident (Japan)">Special permanent resident (Japan)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zainichi_Korean_language" title="Zainichi Korean language">Zainichi Korean language</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base);border-top:none;">Enclaves</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ikuno_Korea_Town" title="Ikuno Korea Town">Ikuno Korea Town</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%C5%8Ckubo,_Tokyo" title="Ōkubo, Tokyo">Ōkubo, Tokyo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Utoro,_Uji" title="Utoro, Uji">Utoro, Uji</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base);border-top:none;">Organizations</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Mindan" title="Mindan">Mindan</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/The_History_Museum_of_J-Koreans" title="The History Museum of J-Koreans">The History Museum of J-Koreans</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chongryon" title="Chongryon">Chongryon</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ch%C5%8Dsen_gakk%C5%8D" title="Chōsen gakkō">Chōsen gakkō</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Choson_Sinbo" title="Choson Sinbo">Choson Sinbo</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Korean_Christian_Church_in_Japan" title="Korean Christian Church in Japan">Korean Christian Church in Japan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Koryo_Museum_of_Art" title="Koryo Museum of Art">Koryo Museum of Art</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_Koreans_in_Japan_official_football_team" class="mw-redirect" title="United Koreans in Japan official football team">United Koreans in Japan official football team</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base);border-top:none;">In media</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Korean_musicians_in_Japan" title="Korean musicians in Japan">Korean musicians in Japan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pachinko_(novel)" title="Pachinko (novel)">Pachinko</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Pachinko_(TV_series)" title="Pachinko (TV series)">TV series</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zainichi_cinema" title="Zainichi cinema">Zainichi cinema</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base);border-top:none;">Discrimination</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Korean_sentiment_in_Japan" title="Anti-Korean sentiment in Japan">Anti-Korean sentiment in Japan</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Comfort_women" title="Comfort women">Comfort women</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kant%C5%8D_Massacre" title="Kantō Massacre">Kantō Massacre</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Makoto_Sakurai" title="Makoto Sakurai">Makoto Sakurai</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Manga_Kenkanryu" title="Manga Kenkanryu">Manga Kenkanryu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Uyoku_dantai" title="Uyoku dantai">Uyoku dantai</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zaitokukai" title="Zaitokukai">Zaitokukai</a></li></ul></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-below plainlist"> <ul><li><img alt="flag" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/9e/Flag_of_Japan.svg/16px-Flag_of_Japan.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="11" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/9e/Flag_of_Japan.svg/24px-Flag_of_Japan.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/9e/Flag_of_Japan.svg/32px-Flag_of_Japan.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /> <a href="/wiki/Portal:Japan" title="Portal:Japan">Japan portal</a></li> <li><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/23px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/31px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /> <a href="/wiki/Category:Anti-Korean_sentiment_in_Japan" title="Category:Anti-Korean sentiment in Japan">Category</a></li></ul></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-navbar"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239400231">.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar ul{display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::before{margin-right:-0.125em;content:"[ 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href="/wiki/Template_talk:Koreans_in_Japan" title="Template talk:Koreans in Japan"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Koreans_in_Japan" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Koreans in Japan"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Baoshan1937-Asahi-01-1a.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/05/Baoshan1937-Asahi-01-1a.jpg/220px-Baoshan1937-Asahi-01-1a.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="144" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/05/Baoshan1937-Asahi-01-1a.jpg/330px-Baoshan1937-Asahi-01-1a.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/05/Baoshan1937-Asahi-01-1a.jpg/440px-Baoshan1937-Asahi-01-1a.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="670" /></a><figcaption>Japanese soldiers escorting Chinese forced-labour farm workers, 1937</figcaption></figure> The Japanese military's use of <a href="/wiki/Forced_labor" class="mw-redirect" title="Forced labor">forced labor</a>, by Asian civilians and POWs, also caused many deaths. According to a joint study by historians including Zhifen Ju, Mitsuyoshi Himeta, Toru Kubo and <a href="/wiki/Mark_Peattie" title="Mark Peattie">Mark Peattie</a>, more than 10 million Chinese civilians were mobilised by the <a href="/wiki/Greater_East_Asia_Co-Prosperity_Sphere#The_Kōa-in" title="Greater East Asia Co-Prosperity Sphere">Kōa-in</a> (Japanese Asia Development Board) to perform forced labour.<a href="#cite_note-228">[227]</a> More than 100,000 civilians and POWs died in the construction of the <a href="/wiki/Death_Railway" class="mw-redirect" title="Death Railway">Burma-Siam Railway</a>.<a href="#cite_note-229">[228]</a> The <a href="/wiki/Library_of_Congress" title="Library of Congress">U.S. Library of Congress</a> estimates that in <a href="/wiki/Java_(island)" class="mw-redirect" title="Java (island)">Java</a> the Japanese military forced between four and ten million <a href="/wiki/Romusha" class="mw-redirect" title="Romusha">romusha</a> (Japanese: "manual laborers") to work.<a href="#cite_note-230">[229]</a> About 270 000 of these Javanese laborers were sent to other Japanese-held areas in Southeast Asia, but only 52 000 were repatriated to Java, likely indicating an eighty percent death rate. According to historian Akira Fujiwara, Emperor <a href="/wiki/Hirohito" title="Hirohito">Hirohito</a> personally ratified the decision to remove the constraints of international law (<a href="/wiki/Hague_Conventions_(1899_and_1907)" class="mw-redirect" title="Hague Conventions (1899 and 1907)">The Hague Conventions</a>) on the treatment of Chinese prisoners of war in the directive of 5 August 1937. This notification also advised staff officers to stop using the term "prisoners of war".<a href="#cite_note-231">[230]</a> The Geneva Convention exempted POWs of <a href="/wiki/Sergeant" title="Sergeant">sergeant</a> rank or higher from manual labour, and stipulated that prisoners performing work should be provided with extra rations and other essentials. Japan was not a signatory to the <a href="/wiki/Geneva_Convention_on_Prisoners_of_War_(1929)" class="mw-redirect" title="Geneva Convention on Prisoners of War (1929)">1929 Geneva Convention on the Prisoners of War</a> at the time, and Japanese forces did not follow the convention, although they ratified the <a href="/wiki/Geneva_Convention_for_the_Amelioration_of_the_Condition_of_the_Wounded_and_Sick_in_Armies_in_the_Field_(1929)" class="mw-redirect" title="Geneva Convention for the Amelioration of the Condition of the Wounded and Sick in Armies in the Field (1929)">1929 Geneva Convention on the Sick And Wounded</a>.<a href="#cite_note-icrc.org-27">[27]</a><a href="#cite_note-232">[231]</a> Shortly after the war, Japan's Foreign Ministry wrote a comprehensive report about Chinese laborers. The report estimated that of some 40,000 Chinese laborers taken to Japan, nearly 7,000 had died by the end of the war. The Japanese burned all copies except for one for the fear of that it might become incriminating evidence at the war crimes trials.<a href="#cite_note-Drea_2006_33-233">[232]</a> In 1958, a Chinese man was discovered hiding in the mountains of <a href="/wiki/Hokkaido" title="Hokkaido">Hokkaido</a>. The man did not know that the war was over, and he was one of thousands of laborers who were taken to Japan. This specific event brought attention to Japan's use of forced Asian labor during the war.<a href="#cite_note-234">[233]</a> Korean men and women were the largest group forced into labor in wartime Japan, and many were not able to return to Korea afterwards.<a href="#cite_note-Drea_2006_33-233">[232]</a> In the 1930s and 1940s the Japanese in Manchukuo forced all members of the indigenous Hezhen ethnic minority into forced labour camps where entire Hezhen clans died, and only 300 Hezhen survived at the end of World War II. The Hezhen population later regrew to 5,000. Hezhen culture was damaged and only a few Hezhen retained traditional knowledge like making fish skin clothing, like the mother of You Wenfeng.<a href="#cite_note-235">[234]</a><a href="#cite_note-236">[235]</a><a href="#cite_note-237">[236]</a><a href="#cite_note-238">[237]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Rape">Rape</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Japanese_war_crimes&action=edit&section=20" title="Edit section: Rape">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Comfort_women" title="Comfort women">Comfort women</a></div> The expressions ianfu (慰安婦, "<a href="/wiki/Comfort_women" title="Comfort women">comfort women</a>") or jūgun ianfu (従軍慰安婦, "women of military comfort") are <a href="/wiki/Euphemism" title="Euphemism">euphemisms</a> for women used in military <a href="/wiki/Brothel" title="Brothel">brothels</a> in occupied countries, many of whom were forcefully recruited or recruited through fraud, and who are considered victims of <a href="/wiki/Sexual_assault" title="Sexual assault">sexual assault</a> and/or <a href="/wiki/Sexual_slavery" title="Sexual slavery">sexual slavery</a>.<a href="#cite_note-239">[238]</a><a href="#cite_note-240">[239]</a> In addition to the systematic use of comfort women, Japanese troops engaged in wholesale rape in Nanjing, China. <a href="/wiki/John_Rabe" title="John Rabe">John Rabe</a>, the leader of a Safety Zone in <a href="/wiki/Nanjing" title="Nanjing">Nanjing</a>, <a href="/wiki/China" title="China">China</a>, kept a diary during the <a href="/wiki/Nanjing_Massacre" title="Nanjing Massacre">Nanjing Massacre</a>, and wrote about the Japanese atrocities committed against the people in the Safety Zone.<a href="#cite_note-241">[240]</a> Japanese soldiers committed mass rapes in <a href="/wiki/Manila_massacre#Mass_rapes" title="Manila massacre">Manila massacre</a> in the Philippines. Japanese soldiers in Bayview Hotel, Manila, raped hundreds of Italian, Russian, Spanish, British, American and Filipino women.<a href="#cite_note-242">[241]</a> In 1992, historian <a href="/wiki/Yoshiaki_Yoshimi" title="Yoshiaki Yoshimi">Yoshiaki Yoshimi</a> published material based on his research in archives at Japan's National Institute for Defense Studies. Yoshimi claimed that there was a direct link between imperial institutions such as the <a href="/wiki/East_Asia_Development_Board" title="East Asia Development Board">Kōain</a> and "comfort stations". When Yoshimi's findings were published in the <a href="/wiki/News_media_in_Japan" class="mw-redirect" title="News media in Japan">Japanese news media</a> on 12 January 1993, they caused a sensation and forced the government, represented by Chief Cabinet Secretary <a href="/wiki/Koichi_Kato_(LDP)" class="mw-redirect" title="Koichi Kato (LDP)">Kato Koichi</a>, to acknowledge some of the facts that same day. On 17 January, Prime Minister <a href="/wiki/Kiichi_Miyazawa" title="Kiichi Miyazawa">Kiichi Miyazawa</a> presented formal apologies for the suffering of the victims, during a trip in South Korea. On 6 July and 4 August, the Japanese government issued two statements by which it recognised that "Comfort stations were operated in response to the request of the military of the day", "The Japanese military was, directly or indirectly, involved in the establishment and management of the comfort stations and the transfer of comfort women", and that the women were "recruited in many cases against their own will through coaxing and coercion".<a href="#cite_note-243">[242]</a> Japanese veteran <a href="/wiki/Yasuji_Kaneko" title="Yasuji Kaneko">Yasuji Kaneko</a> admitted to <a href="/wiki/The_Washington_Post" title="The Washington Post">The Washington Post</a> that the women "cried out, but it didn't matter to us whether the women lived or died. We were the emperor's soldiers. Whether in military brothels or in the villages, we raped without reluctance."<a href="#cite_note-Tabuchi-22">[22]</a> The <a href="/wiki/Bahay_na_Pula" title="Bahay na Pula">Bahay na Pula</a> in the Philippines was an example of a military-operated garrison where local women were raped.<a href="#cite_note-244">[243]</a> On 17 April 2007, Yoshimi and another historian, Hirofumi Hayashi, announced the discovery, in the archives of the Tokyo Trials, of seven official documents suggesting that Imperial military forces, such as the <a href="/wiki/Tokubetsu_Keisatsutai" title="Tokubetsu Keisatsutai">Tokkeitai</a> (naval secret police), directly coerced women to work in frontline brothels in China, Indochina and Indonesia. These documents were initially made public at the war crimes trial. In one of these, a lieutenant is quoted as confessing having organized a brothel and having used it himself. Another source refers to Tokkeitai members having arrested women on the streets, and after enforced medical examinations, putting them in brothels.<a href="#cite_note-245">[244]</a> On 12 May 2007, journalist Taichiro Kaijimura announced the discovery of 30 Dutch government documents submitted to the <a href="/wiki/Tokyo_tribunal" class="mw-redirect" title="Tokyo tribunal">Tokyo tribunal</a> as evidence of a forced massed prostitution incident in 1944 in <a href="/wiki/Magelang" title="Magelang">Magelang</a>.<a href="#cite_note-246">[245]</a> In other cases, some victims from <a href="/wiki/East_Timor" title="East Timor">East Timor</a> testified they were dragged from their homes and forced into prostitution at military brothels even when they were not old enough to have started menstruating and were repeatedly raped by Japanese soldiers "night after night".<a href="#cite_note-247">[246]</a> A Dutch-Indonesian comfort woman, <a href="/wiki/Jan_Ruff_O%27Herne" class="mw-redirect" title="Jan Ruff O'Herne">Jan Ruff O'Herne</a> (who later lived in Australia until her death), who gave evidence to the U.S. committee, said the Japanese Government had failed to take responsibility for its crimes, that it did not want to pay compensation to victims, and that it wanted to rewrite history. Ruff O'Herne said that she had been raped "day and night" for three months by Japanese soldiers when she was 21.<a href="#cite_note-248">[247]</a> On 26 June 2007, the <a href="/wiki/United_States_House_Committee_on_Foreign_Affairs" title="United States House Committee on Foreign Affairs">United States House Committee on Foreign Affairs</a> passed a resolution asking that Japan "should acknowledge, apologize and accept historical responsibility in a clear and unequivocal manner for its military's coercion of women into sexual slavery during the war".<a href="#cite_note-Japan_Times:_U.S._panel_OKs_sex_slave_resolution-249">[248]</a> On 30 July 2007, the House of Representatives passed the resolution. Japanese Prime Minister <a href="/wiki/Shinz%C5%8D_Abe" class="mw-redirect" title="Shinzō Abe">Shinzō Abe</a> said this decision was "regrettable".<a href="#cite_note-Japan_Times:_U.S._panel_OKs_sex_slave_resolution-249">[248]</a> Scholars have stated that there were as many as 200,000 comfort women, mostly from Korea,<a href="#cite_note-250">[249]</a> and some other countries such as China, Philippines, Burma, the Dutch East Indies,<a href="#cite_note-251">[250]</a><a href="#cite_note-252">[251]</a><a href="#cite_note-253">[252]</a><a href="#cite_note-254">[253]</a><a href="#cite_note-255">[254]</a><a href="#cite_note-256">[255]</a>[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources#Bundling_citations" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources">excessive citations</a>] Netherlands,<a href="#cite_note-257">[256]</a> and Australia<a href="#cite_note-258">[257]</a> were forced to engage in sexual activity.<a href="#cite_note-259">[258]</a><a href="#cite_note-260">[259]</a><a href="#cite_note-261">[260]</a><a href="#cite_note-262">[261]</a>[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources#Bundling_citations" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources">excessive citations</a>] Japanese use of Malays, Javanese<a href="#cite_note-263">[262]</a> Thai, Burmese, Filipino and Vietnamese women as comfort women was corroborated by testimonies. As a result of the rape, many women were infected with sexually transmitted diseases.<a href="#cite_note-264">[263]</a><a href="#cite_note-265">[264]</a><a href="#cite_note-266">[265]</a><a href="#cite_note-267">[266]</a><a href="#cite_note-268">[267]</a>[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources#Bundling_citations" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources">excessive citations</a>] There were comfort women stations in Malaya, Indonesia, Philippines, Burma, Thailand, Cambodia, Vietnam, and Korea.<a href="#cite_note-269">[268]</a><a href="#cite_note-270">[269]</a> After the defeat of Japan, some of the non-European victims received no compensation or apology<a href="#cite_note-271">[270]</a> and the exploitation of them was ignored.<a href="#cite_note-272">[271]</a><a href="#cite_note-273">[272]</a><a href="#cite_note-274">[273]</a> As the Dutch implemented a war of attrition and scorch earth, they forced Chinese on Java to flee inland, and the Dutch destroyed all important assets, including Chinese factories and property. Local Indonesians joined in on the Dutch violence against the Chinese, looting Chinese property and trying to attack Chinese citizens. However, when the Japanese troops landed and seized control of Java from the Dutch, to people's surprise, the Japanese forced the native Indonesians to stop looting and attacking Chinese and warned the Indonesians they would not tolerate anti-Chinese violence in Java. The Japanese viewed the Chinese in Java and their economic power specifically as important and vital to the Japanese war effort, so they did not physically harm the Chinese of Java, and no known execution or torture of Chinese citizens took place (unlike in other places). There was no violent confrontation between Japanese and Chinese on Java, unlike in British Malaya. The Japanese also allowed Chinese of Java in the Federation of Overseas-Chinese Associations (Hua Chiao Tsung Hui) to form the Keibotai, their own armed Chinese defence corps for protection with Japanese military instructors training them how to shoot and use spears. The Chinese viewed this as important to defending themselves from local Indonesians. The majority of Chinese of Java did not die in the war. It was only after the war ended when Japanese control fell and then the native Indonesians again started attacks against the Chinese of Java when the Japanese were unable to protect them.<a href="#cite_note-275">[274]</a> In Java, the Japanese heavily recruited Javanese girls as comfort women and brought them to New Guinea, Malaya, Thailand and other areas foreign to Indonesia besides using them in Java itself. The Japanese brought Javanese women as comfort women to Buru island, and Kalimantan. The Japanese recruited help from local collaborator police of all ethnicities to recruit Javanese girls, with one account accusing Chinese recruiters of tricking a Javanese regent into sending good Javanese girls into prostitution for the Japanese in May 1942. The Japanese also lied to the Javanese telling them that their girls would become waitresses and actresses when recruiting them.<a href="#cite_note-276">[275]</a> The Japanese brought Javanese women as comfort women prostitutes to Kupang in Timor while in East Timor the Japanese took local women in Dili. In Bali, the Japanese sexually harassed Balinese women when they came and started forcing Balinese women into brothels for prostitution, with Balinese men and Chinese men used as recruiters for the Balinese women. All of the brothels in Bali were staffed by Balinese women.<a href="#cite_note-277">[276]</a> In brothels in Kalimantan, native Indonesian women made up 80% of the prostitutes.<a href="#cite_note-278">[277]</a> Javanese girls and local girls were used in a Japanese brothel in Ambon in Batu Gantung. European Dutch women were overrepresented in documents on Dutch East Indies comfort women which did not reflect the actual reality because the Dutch did not care about native Indonesian women being victimised by Japan, refusing to prosecute cases against them since Indonesia was not a UN member at the time.<a href="#cite_note-279">[278]</a> Javanese comfort women who were taken by Japanese to islands outside Java were treated differently depending on whether they stayed on those islands or returned to Java. Since Javanese society was sexually permissive and they kept it secret from other Javanese, the Javanese women who returned to Java fared better, but the Javanese women who stayed on the islands like Buru were treated harsher by their hosts since they locals in Buru were more patriarchal.<a href="#cite_note-280">[279]</a> The Japanese murdered Christians and forced girls into prostitution in Timor and Sumba, desecrating sacred vessels and vestments in churches and using the churches as brothels. Javanese girls were brought as prostitutes by the Japanese to Flores and Buru.<a href="#cite_note-281">[280]</a> Eurasians, Indians, Chinese, Dutch, Menadonese, Bataks, Bugis, Dayaks, Javanese, Arabs and Malays were arrested and massacred in the Mandor affair.<a href="#cite_note-282">[281]</a> The Japanese brought Indonesian Javanese girls to British Borneo as comfort women to be raped by Japanese officers at the Ridge road school and Basel Mission Church, and the Telecommunication Center Station (former rectory of the All Saints Church) in Kota Kinabalu as well as ones in Balikpapan and Beaufort. Japanese soldiers raped Indonesian women and Dutch women in the Netherlands East Indies. Many of the women were infected with STDs as a result.<a href="#cite_note-283">[282]</a><a href="#cite_note-284">[283]</a> Sukarno prostituted Indonesian girls from ethnic groups like Minangkabau to the Japanese.<a href="#cite_note-285">[284]</a><a href="#cite_note-286">[285]</a><a href="#cite_note-287">[286]</a><a href="#cite_note-288">[287]</a><a href="#cite_note-289">[288]</a> The Japanese destroyed many documents related to their rape of Indonesian Javanese girls at the end of the war so the true extent of the mass rape is uncountable, but testimony witnesses records the names and accounts of Indonesian Javanese comfort women.<a href="#cite_note-290">[289]</a> Japanese in one instance tried to disguise the Javanese comfort girls they were raping as red cross nurses with red cross armbands when they surrendered to Australian soldiers in Kupang, Timor.<a href="#cite_note-291">[290]</a><a href="#cite_note-292">[291]</a><a href="#cite_note-293">[292]</a><a href="#cite_note-294">[293]</a><a href="#cite_note-295">[294]</a><a href="#cite_note-296">[295]</a> In addition to disguising the Java girls with Red Cross armbands some Dutch girls were also brought to Kupang and native girls from Kupang were also kidnapped by the Japanese while the native men were forced into hard labour.<a href="#cite_note-297">[296]</a> Indian and Javanese captives in Biak were freed from Japanese control by Allied forces.<a href="#cite_note-298">[297]</a> Only 70,000 Javanese survived out of 260,000 Javanese forced to labour on the death railway between Burma and Thailand.<a href="#cite_note-299">[298]</a><a href="#cite_note-300">[299]</a> In August 1945, the Japanese were getting ready to execute female European internees by shooting in the Dutch East Indies and their plans were only stopped by the atomic bomb with the plans and list of detainees already written down.<a href="#cite_note-301">[300]</a> Francis Stanley (Frank) Terry, an Australian sailor on a naval vessel, participated in the repatriation of Indonesian Javanese comfort women from islands across Indonesia back to their home.<a href="#cite_note-302">[301]</a><a href="#cite_note-303">[302]</a><a href="#cite_note-304">[303]</a> The Dutch royal family and government seized the money from Japanese comfort women prostitution in the Dutch East Indies territory for itself instead of compensating the women.<a href="#cite_note-305">[304]</a><a href="#cite_note-306">[305]</a> The Japanese forced Javanese women to work in brothels and Javanese men to become forced labour at airstrips in Labuan, Borneo. The Javanese men were worked to starvation, resembling skeletons, barely able to move and were sick with beri beri by the time they were freed in June 1945 by Australians.<a href="#cite_note-307">[306]</a><a href="#cite_note-308">[307]</a> The Japanese reserved a house as a brothel and officer's club on Fox Road in Labuan.<a href="#cite_note-309">[308]</a> On 28 August 1945, the British and Australians gave medical treatment to 300 Javanese and Malay men slaves of the Japanese who were malnourished and starving from forced labour.<a href="#cite_note-310">[309]</a><a href="#cite_note-311">[310]</a> Many Indonesian comfort females were reluctant to talk about their experiences due to shame. A 10-year-old Indonesian girl named Niyem from Karamangmojo in Yogyakarta was repeatedly raped for two months by Japanese soldiers along with other Indonesian girls in West Java. She did not tell her parents what the Japanese did to her when she managed to flee.<a href="#cite_note-312">[311]</a><a href="#cite_note-313">[312]</a><a href="#cite_note-314">[313]</a><a href="#cite_note-315">[314]</a><a href="#cite_note-316">[315]</a> The Japanese killed four million Indonesians.<a href="#cite_note-317">[316]</a> After the defeat of Japan, the Dutch generally did not care about Japanese rape of non-white, native Indonesian Muslim girls and most of the time they only charged Japanese war criminals for rape of white Dutch women.<a href="#cite_note-318">[317]</a><a href="#cite_note-319">[318]</a><a href="#cite_note-320">[319]</a> Suharto silenced public discussion in Indonesian on Japanese war crimes in Indonesia in order to stop anti-Japanese sentiment building up but it happened regardless when the movie Romusha came out in 1973 and the Peristiwa Malari (Malari affair) riots broke out in Indonesia in 1974 against Japan. Suharto also sought to silence discussion on Japanese war crimes due to Indonesia's own war crimes in East Timor after 1975, but Indonesians started talking about Indonesian comfort women in the 1990s following the example of Korea. Mardyiem, a Javanese Indonesian comfort woman talked about what happened to her after Indonesian comfort women were interviewed by Japanese lawyers, after decades of being forced to stay silent.<a href="#cite_note-321">[320]</a> Three major revolts happened against Japan by Indonesians in Java. Japanese forced Indonesians of West Java in Cirebon to hand over a massive quota of rice to the Japanese military with Japanese officers using brutality to extract even more than the official quota. The Indonesians in Cirebon rebelled twice and targeted Indonesian collaborator bureaucrats and Japanese officers in 1944. Japan killed a lot of Indonesian rebels while crushing them with deadly force. In Sukmana, Singapurna, the Tasikmalaya regency, the conservative religious teacher Kiai Zainal Mustafa told his followers that in the month when Muhammad was born they would gain divine protection when he gave a sign. In February 1943, Japanese Kempeitai caught wind of what was happening and came to the area but the roads were blocked to stop them. The Indonesian villagers and students began to fight the Japanese and seized the sabre of the Japanese chief to kill him. More Japanese arrived and 86 Japanese and 153 Indonesian villagers died in the fighting. The Japanese then arrested Zainal and 22 others for execution. Supriyadi lead a Peta mutiny against the Japanese in February 1945.<a href="#cite_note-322">[321]</a> Japanese raped Malay comfort women but UMNO leader Najib Razak blocked all attempts by other UMNO members like Mustapha Yakub at asking Japan for compensation and apologies.<a href="#cite_note-323">[322]</a> The threat of Japanese rape against Chitty girls led Chitty families to let Eurasians, Chinese and full blooded Indians to marry Chitty girls and stop practicing endogamy.<a href="#cite_note-324">[323]</a> Japanese soldiers gang raped Indian Tamil girls and women they forced to work on the Burma railway and made them dance naked.<a href="#cite_note-325">[324]</a><a href="#cite_note-326">[325]</a> 150,000 Tamils were killed on the railway by Japanese brutality.<a href="#cite_note-327">[326]</a><a href="#cite_note-328">[327]</a><a href="#cite_note-329">[328]</a><a href="#cite_note-330">[329]</a> Tamils who got sick from cholera were executed by the Japanese.<a href="#cite_note-331">[330]</a> As Tamil women got raped by Japanese, the Japanese soldiers contracted venereal disease like soft sore, syphilis and gonorrhoea and Thai women also spread those diseases to coolies on the railroad.<a href="#cite_note-332">[331]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Looting_and_destruction_of_heritage">Looting and destruction of heritage</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Japanese_war_crimes&action=edit&section=21" title="Edit section: Looting and destruction of heritage">edit</a>]</div> Several scholars have claimed that the Japanese government, along with Japanese military personnel, engaged in widespread <a href="/wiki/Looting" title="Looting">looting</a> during the period of 1895 to 1945.<a href="#cite_note-333">[332]</a><a href="#cite_note-334">[333]</a> The stolen property included private land, as well as many different kinds of valuable goods looted from banks, depositories, <a href="/wiki/Safe_deposit_box" title="Safe deposit box">vaults</a>, temples, churches, mosques, art galleries, commercial offices, libraries (including Buddhist monasteries), museums and other commercial premises, as well as private homes.<a href="#cite_note-335">[334]</a> In China, an eyewitness, journalist F. Tillman of <a href="/wiki/The_New_York_Times" title="The New York Times">The New York Times</a>, sent an article to his newspaper where he described the <a href="/wiki/Imperial_Japanese_Army" title="Imperial Japanese Army">Imperial Japanese Army</a>'s entry into <a href="/wiki/Nanjing" title="Nanjing">Nanjing</a> in December 1937: "The plunder carried out by the Japanese reached almost the entire city. Almost all buildings were entered by Japanese soldiers, often in the sight of their officers, and the men took whatever they wanted. Japanese soldiers often forced Chinese to carry the loot."<a href="#cite_note-336">[335]</a>[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources#What_information_to_include" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources">full citation needed</a>] In Korea, it is estimated that about 100,000 priceless artifacts and cultural goods were looted by Japanese colonial authorities and private collectors during the nearly <a href="/wiki/Korea_under_Japanese_rule" title="Korea under Japanese rule">fifty years of military occupation</a>. The Administration claims that there are 41,109 cultural objects which are located in Japan but remain unreported by the Japanese authorities. Unlike the <a href="/wiki/Nazi_plunder" title="Nazi plunder">works of art looted</a> by <a href="/wiki/Nazi_Germany" title="Nazi Germany">Nazis</a> in Europe, the return of property to its rightful owners, or even the discussion of financial reparations in the post-war period, met with strong resistance from the <a href="/wiki/Federal_government_of_the_United_States" title="Federal government of the United States">American government</a>, particularly General <a href="/wiki/Douglas_MacArthur" title="Douglas MacArthur">Douglas MacArthur</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Time-337">[336]</a>[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources#What_information_to_include" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources">full citation needed</a>] According to several historians, MacArthur's disagreement was not based on issues of rights, ethics or morals, but on <a href="/wiki/Realpolitik" title="Realpolitik">political convenience</a>. He spoke on the topic in a radio message to the <a href="/wiki/United_States_Army" title="United States Army">U.S. Army</a> in May 1948, the transcript of which was found by the magazine <a href="/wiki/Time_(magazine)" title="Time (magazine)">Time</a> in the <a href="/wiki/National_Archives_and_Records_Administration" title="National Archives and Records Administration">U.S. National Archives</a>. In it, MacArthur states: "I am completely at odds with the minority view of replacing lost or destroyed cultural property as a result of military action and occupation". With the advent of the <a href="/wiki/Cold_War" title="Cold War">Cold War</a>, the general feared "embittering the Japanese people towards us and making Japan vulnerable to ideological pressures and a fertile ground for subversive action".<a href="#cite_note-Time-337">[336]</a> Kyoichi Arimitsu, one of the last living survivors of the Japanese <a href="/wiki/Archeology" class="mw-redirect" title="Archeology">archeological</a> missions which operated on the Korean peninsula, which started early in the twentieth century, agrees that the plunder in the 1930s was out of control, but that researchers and <a href="/wiki/Academy" title="Academy">academics</a>, such as himself, had nothing to do with it. However, he recognizes that the excavated pieces which were deemed to be most historically significant were sent to the Japanese governor-general, who then decided what would be sent to Emperor <a href="/wiki/Hirohito" title="Hirohito">Hirohito</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Time-337">[336]</a> In 1965, when Japan and South Korea negotiated a treaty to reestablish diplomatic relations the issue of returning the cultural artifacts was raised. However, the then South Korean dictator, <a href="/wiki/Park_Chung_Hee" title="Park Chung Hee">Park Chung Hee</a>, preferred to receive cash compensation that would allow him to build highways and <a href="/wiki/Steel_mill" title="Steel mill">steelworks</a>; works of art and cultural goods were not a priority. As a result, at the time the Koreans had to settle for the return of only 1,326 items, including 852 rare books and 438 ceramic pieces. The Japanese claim that this put an end to any Korean claim regarding reparation for cultural goods (or of any other nature).<a href="#cite_note-Time-337">[336]</a><a href="#cite_note-Glosserman-338">[337]</a> American journalist Brad Glosserman has stated that an increasing number of South Koreans are raising the issue of the <a href="/wiki/Repatriation" title="Repatriation">repatriation</a> of stolen cultural artifacts from Japan due to rising affluence among the general populace as well as increased national confidence.<a href="#cite_note-Glosserman-338">[337]</a> Hundreds of <a href="/wiki/Utsul" class="mw-redirect" title="Utsul">Utsul</a> Muslim houses and mosques in Sanya, Hainan were destroyed by the Japanese in order to build an airport.<a href="#cite_note-339">[338]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Perfidy">Perfidy</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Japanese_war_crimes&action=edit&section=22" title="Edit section: Perfidy">edit</a>]</div> Throughout the Pacific War, Japanese soldiers often <a href="/wiki/Perfidy" title="Perfidy">feigned injury or surrender</a> to lure approaching American forces before attacking them. An alleged example of this was the "<a href="/wiki/Frank_Goettge#Goettge_Patrol" title="Frank Goettge">Goettge Patrol</a>" during the early days of the <a href="/wiki/Guadalcanal_Campaign" class="mw-redirect" title="Guadalcanal Campaign">Guadalcanal Campaign</a> in August 1942. After the patrol believed they saw a <a href="/wiki/White_flag" title="White flag">white flag</a> displayed on the west bank of <a href="/wiki/Matanikau_River" title="Matanikau River">Matanikau River</a>, <a href="/wiki/United_States_Marine_Corps" title="United States Marine Corps">Marine Corps</a> Lieutenant Colonel <a href="/wiki/Frank_Goettge" title="Frank Goettge">Frank Goettge</a> assembled 25 men, primarily consisting of <a href="/wiki/Military_intelligence" title="Military intelligence">intelligence</a> personnel, to search the area. Unknown to the patrol, the white flag was actually a <a href="/wiki/Flag_of_Japan" title="Flag of Japan">Japanese flag</a> with the <a href="/wiki/Hinomaru" class="mw-redirect" title="Hinomaru">Hinomaru</a> disc insignia obscured. A <a href="/wiki/Japanese_prisoners_of_war_in_World_War_II" title="Japanese prisoners of war in World War II">Japanese prisoner</a> was plied with alcohol and in his drunken state mistakenly revealed that there were a number of Japanese soldiers west of the <a href="/wiki/Matanikau_River" title="Matanikau River">Matanikau River</a> who wanted to surrender.<a href="#cite_note-EARNED-340">[339]</a> The Goettge Patrol landed by boat west of the <a href="/wiki/Lunga_Point" title="Lunga Point">Lunga Point</a> perimeter, between <a href="/wiki/Point_Cruz" title="Point Cruz">Point Cruz</a> and the Matanikau River, on a <a href="/wiki/Reconnaissance" title="Reconnaissance">reconnaissance</a> mission to contact a group of Japanese troops that American forces thought was willing to surrender. The Japanese soldiers were not in fact about to surrender and soon after the patrol landed the group of Japanese naval troops ambushed and almost completely wiped out the patrol. Goettge was among the dead. Only three Americans made it back to American lines in the Lunga Point perimeter alive. News of the killing and supposed treachery by the Japanese outraged the American Marines: <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"><blockquote class="templatequote">This was the first mass killing of the Marines on Guadalcanal. We were shocked. Shocked ... because headquarters had believed anything a Jap had to say ... The loss of this patrol and the particularly cruel way in which they had met death, hardened our hearts toward the Japanese. The idea of taking prisoners was swept from our minds. It was too dangerous.<a href="#cite_note-341">[340]</a></blockquote> Second Lieutenant D. A. Clark of the <a href="/wiki/7th_Marine_Regiment_(United_States)" class="mw-redirect" title="7th Marine Regiment (United States)">7th Marines</a> told a similar story while patrolling Guadalcanal: <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"><blockquote class="templatequote">I was on my first patrol here, and we were moving up a dry stream bed. We saw 3 Japs come down the river bed out of the jungle. The one in front was carrying a white flag. We thought they were surrendering. When they got up to us they dropped the white flag and then all 3 threw hand grenades. We killed 2 of these Japs, but 1 got away. Apparently they do not mind a sacrifice to get information.<a href="#cite_note-EARNED-340">[339]</a></blockquote> <a href="/wiki/Samuel_Eliot_Morison" title="Samuel Eliot Morison">Samuel Eliot Morison</a>, in his book, The Two-Ocean War: A Short History of the United States Navy in the Second World War, wrote: <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"><blockquote class="templatequote">There were innumerable incidents such as a wounded Japanese soldier at Guadalcanal seizing a <a href="/wiki/Scalpel" title="Scalpel">scalpel</a> and burying it in the back of a surgeon who was about to save his life by an operation; and a survivor of the <a href="/wiki/Naval_Battle_of_Vella_Lavella" class="mw-redirect" title="Naval Battle of Vella Lavella">Battle of Vella Lavella</a>, rescued by [torpedo boat] PT-163, pulling a gun and killing a bluejacket [enlisted sailor] in the act of giving a Japanese sailor a cup of coffee.<a href="#cite_note-342">[341]</a></blockquote> These incidents, along with many other perfidious actions of the Japanese throughout the Pacific War, led to an American tendency to shoot dead or wounded Japanese soldiers and those attempting to surrender and not readily take them as prisoners of war. Two Marines of <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Iwo_Jima" title="Battle of Iwo Jima">Iwo Jima</a> told cautionary tales. One confided: <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"><blockquote class="templatequote">They always told you take prisoners but we had some bad experiences on <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Saipan" title="Battle of Saipan">Saipan</a> taking prisoners, you take them and then as soon as they get behind the lines they drop grenades and you lose a few more people. You get a little bit leery of taking prisoners when they are fighting to the death and so are you.</blockquote> Another reported, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"><blockquote class="templatequote">Very few of them came out on their own; when they did, why, usually one in the front he'd come out with his hands up and one behind him, he'd come out with a grenade.<a href="#cite_note-343">[342]</a><a href="#cite_note-344">[343]</a><a href="#cite_note-345">[344]</a></blockquote> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Attacks_on_hospital_ships">Attacks on hospital ships</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Japanese_war_crimes&action=edit&section=23" title="Edit section: Attacks on hospital ships">edit</a>]</div> <a href="/wiki/Hospital_ship" title="Hospital ship">Hospital ships</a> are painted white with large <a href="/wiki/Emblems_of_the_International_Red_Cross_and_Red_Crescent_Movement" title="Emblems of the International Red Cross and Red Crescent Movement">red crosses</a> to show they are not combat ships but vessels carrying wounded people and medical staff. Japan had signed the <a href="/wiki/Hague_Convention_of_1907" class="mw-redirect" title="Hague Convention of 1907">Hague Convention X of 1907</a> that stated attacking a hospital ship is a war crime.<a href="#cite_note-hague10-346">[345]</a><a href="#cite_note-347">[346]</a> <ul><li>On 23 April 1945, <a href="/wiki/USS_Comfort_(AH-6)" title="USS Comfort (AH-6)">USS Comfort</a> was struck by a <a href="/wiki/Kamikaze" title="Kamikaze">Japanese suicide plane</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDANFS:_''Comfort''-348">[347]</a> The plane crashed through three decks, exploding in surgery, which was filled with medical personnel and patients.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECondon-RallCowdrey1998392-349">[348]</a> Casualties were 28 killed (including six nurses) and 48 wounded, with considerable damage done to the ship.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDANFS:_''Comfort''-348">[347]</a><a href="#cite_note-350">[349]</a><a href="#cite_note-351">[350]</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/USS_Hope_(AH-7)" title="USS Hope (AH-7)">USS Hope (AH-7)</a> was attacked and damaged during the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Leyte_Gulf" title="Battle of Leyte Gulf">Battle of Leyte Gulf</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Okinawa" title="Battle of Okinawa">Battle of Okinawa</a>.<a href="#cite_note-352">[351]</a><a href="#cite_note-353">[352]</a><a href="#cite_note-354">[353]</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/USS_Relief_(AH-1)" title="USS Relief (AH-1)">USS Relief</a> was attacked and damaged at <a href="/wiki/Guam" title="Guam">Guam</a> on 2 April 1945.<a href="#cite_note-355">[354]</a></li> <li>On 19 February 1942, the Australian <a href="/wiki/Manunda" title="Manunda">HMHS Manunda</a> was <a href="/wiki/Dive_bomber" title="Dive bomber">dive-bombed</a> during the <a href="/wiki/Bombing_of_Darwin" title="Bombing of Darwin">Japanese air raids on Darwin</a>; twelve crew and hospital staff were killed and nineteen others were seriously wounded.<a href="#cite_note-356">[355]</a></li> <li>On 14 May 1943, the Australian <a href="/wiki/AHS_Centaur" title="AHS Centaur">AHS Centaur</a> was sunk by <a href="/wiki/Japanese_submarine_I-177" title="Japanese submarine I-177">Japanese submarine I-177</a> off <a href="/wiki/Stradbroke_Island,_Queensland" class="mw-redirect" title="Stradbroke Island, Queensland">Stradbroke Island, Queensland</a> with 268 lives lost.<a href="#cite_note-ozatwar.Centaur-357">[356]</a></li> <li>The <a href="/wiki/Royal_Netherlands_Navy" title="Royal Netherlands Navy">Royal Netherlands Navy</a> hospital ship <a href="/wiki/SS_Op_Ten_Noort" title="SS Op Ten Noort">SS Op Ten Noort</a> was bombed on 21 February 1942, in the <a href="/wiki/Java_Sea" title="Java Sea">Java Sea</a>. One surgeon and three nurses were killed, and eleven were badly wounded. After repairs, on 28 February 1942, she was commandeered by the <a href="/wiki/Japanese_destroyer_Amatsukaze_(1939)" title="Japanese destroyer Amatsukaze (1939)">Japanese destroyer Amatsukaze</a> near <a href="/wiki/Bawean" title="Bawean">Bawean Island</a>. The Japanese forced her to transport their <a href="/wiki/POW" class="mw-redirect" title="POW">POWs</a>. On 20 December 1942, she became the Tenno Maru, a Japanese hospital ship, and the Dutch crew became POWs. As the war came to an end, the ship was first modified and later sunk to cover up the crime.<a href="#cite_note-358">[357]</a><a href="#cite_note-359">[358]</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="War_crimes_in_Vietnam">War crimes in Vietnam</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Japanese_war_crimes&action=edit&section=24" title="Edit section: War crimes in Vietnam">edit</a>]</div> The <a href="/wiki/Viet_Minh" title="Viet Minh">Viet Minh</a> had begun fighting the Vichy French in 1944, then began attacking the Japanese in early 1945 after Japan replaced the French government on 9 March 1945.<a href="#cite_note-360">[359]</a><a href="#cite_note-361">[360]</a>[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources#What_information_to_include" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources">full citation needed</a>] After the Viet Minh rejected Japanese demands to cease fighting and support Japan, the Japanese implemented the <a href="/wiki/Three_Alls" class="mw-redirect" title="Three Alls">Three Alls</a> policy (San Kuang) against the Vietnamese, pillaging, burning, killing, torturing, and raping Vietnamese women. Japanese officers ordered their soldiers to behead and burn Vietnamese. Some claimed that Taiwanese and Manchurian soldiers in the Japanese army were participating in atrocities against the Vietnamese.[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] The Japanese on occasion attacked Vietnamese while masquerading as Viet Minh. They also tried to play the Vietnamese against the French by spreading false rumours that the French were massacring Vietnamese at the time to distract the Vietnamese from Japanese atrocities. Similarly, they attempted to play the Laotians against the Vietnamese by inciting Lao people to kill Vietnamese, as Lao murdered seven Vietnamese officials in Luang Prabang and Lao youths were recruited to an anti-Vietnam organization by the Japanese when they took over Luang Prabang.[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] The Japanese also started openly looting the Vietnamese. In addition to taking French-owned properties Japanese soldiers stole watches, pencils, bicycles, money and clothing. Vietnam was in the grip of a famine in 1945 caused in part by Japanese requisition of food without payment; the Japanese beheaded Vietnamese who stole bread and corn while they were starving.<a href="#cite_note-362">[361]</a><a href="#cite_note-363">[362]</a>[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources#What_information_to_include" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources">full citation needed</a>] The Vietnamese professor Văn Tạo and Japanese professor Furuta Moto both conducted a study in the field on the Japanese induced famine of 1945 admitting that Japan killed two million Vietnamese by starvation. On 25 March 2000, the Vietnamese journalist Trần Khuê wrote an article "Dân chủ: Vấn đề của dân tộc và thời đại"(<abbr title="translation">transl.</abbr> Democracy: A problem of the nation and the times) in which he harshly criticized ethnographers and historians in Ho Chi Minh City's Institute of Social Sciences such as Dr. Đinh Văn Liên and Professor Mạc Đường for trying to whitewash Japan's atrocities against the Vietnamese by, among other things, changing the death toll of two million Vietnamese dead at the hands of the Japanese famine to one million, calling the Japanese invasion as a presence and calling Japanese fascists as simply Japanese at the Vietnam-Japan international conference.<a href="#cite_note-364">[363]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="War_crimes_trials">War crimes trials</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Japanese_war_crimes&action=edit&section=25" title="Edit section: War crimes trials">edit</a>]</div> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Japanese_War_Crimes_Trials._Manila_-_NARA_-_292613.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f6/Japanese_War_Crimes_Trials._Manila_-_NARA_-_292613.jpg/240px-Japanese_War_Crimes_Trials._Manila_-_NARA_-_292613.jpg" decoding="async" width="240" height="296" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f6/Japanese_War_Crimes_Trials._Manila_-_NARA_-_292613.jpg/360px-Japanese_War_Crimes_Trials._Manila_-_NARA_-_292613.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f6/Japanese_War_Crimes_Trials._Manila_-_NARA_-_292613.jpg/480px-Japanese_War_Crimes_Trials._Manila_-_NARA_-_292613.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2434" data-file-height="3000" /></a><figcaption>General <a href="/wiki/Tomoyuki_Yamashita" title="Tomoyuki Yamashita">Tomoyuki Yamashita</a> (2nd right) on trial in 1945 by a U.S. <a href="/wiki/Military_justice" title="Military justice">military commission</a> for the <a href="/wiki/Manila_massacre" title="Manila massacre">Manila massacre</a> and other violations in Singapore. He was sentenced to death. The case set a precedent (the "<a href="/wiki/Yamashita_Standard" class="mw-redirect" title="Yamashita Standard">Yamashita Standard</a>") on the responsibility of commanders for war crimes.</figcaption></figure> Soon after the war, the Allied powers indicted 25 persons as <a href="/wiki/International_Military_Tribunal_for_the_Far_East" title="International Military Tribunal for the Far East">Class-A war criminals</a>, and 5,700 persons were indicted as Class-B or Class-C war criminals by Allied criminal courts. Of these, 984 were initially condemned to death, 920 were actually executed, 475 received life sentences, 2,944 received prison terms, 1,018 were acquitted, and 279 were not sentenced or not brought to trial. These indicted war criminals included 178 ethnic Taiwanese and 148 ethnic Koreans people.<a href="#cite_note-365">[364]</a> Class A criminals were all tried by the <a href="/wiki/International_Military_Tribunal_for_the_Far_East" title="International Military Tribunal for the Far East">International Military Tribunal for the Far East</a>, also known as "the Tokyo Trials". Other courts were held in numerous places across Asia and the Pacific. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Tokyo_Trials">Tokyo Trials</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Japanese_war_crimes&action=edit&section=26" title="Edit section: Tokyo Trials">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/International_Military_Tribunal_for_the_Far_East" title="International Military Tribunal for the Far East">International Military Tribunal for the Far East</a></div> The International Military Tribunal for the Far East was formed to try accused people in Japan itself. High-ranking officers who were tried included <a href="/wiki/K%C5%8Dichi_Kido" title="Kōichi Kido">Kōichi Kido</a> and <a href="/wiki/Sadao_Araki" title="Sadao Araki">Sadao Araki</a>. Three former (unelected) <a href="/wiki/Prime_Minister_of_Japan" title="Prime Minister of Japan">prime ministers</a>: <a href="/wiki/K%C5%8Dki_Hirota" title="Kōki Hirota">Kōki Hirota</a>, <a href="/wiki/Hideki_Tojo" title="Hideki Tojo">Hideki Tojo</a> and <a href="/wiki/Kuniaki_Koiso" title="Kuniaki Koiso">Kuniaki Koiso</a> were convicted of Class-A war crimes. Many military leaders were also convicted. Two people convicted as Class-A war criminals later served as ministers in post-war Japanese governments. <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Mamoru_Shigemitsu" title="Mamoru Shigemitsu">Mamoru Shigemitsu</a> served as <a href="/wiki/Minister_for_Foreign_Affairs_(Japan)" title="Minister for Foreign Affairs (Japan)">Minister for Foreign Affairs</a> both during the war and in the post-war <a href="/wiki/Ichir%C5%8D_Hatoyama" title="Ichirō Hatoyama">Hatoyama government</a>.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Okinori_Kaya" title="Okinori Kaya">Okinori Kaya</a> was <a href="/wiki/Minister_of_Finance_(Japan)" title="Minister of Finance (Japan)">Minister of Finance</a> during the war and later served as <a href="/wiki/Minister_of_Justice_(Japan)" title="Minister of Justice (Japan)">Minister of Justice</a> in the government of <a href="/wiki/Hayato_Ikeda" title="Hayato Ikeda">Hayato Ikeda</a>. These two had no direct connection to alleged war crimes committed by Japanese forces, and foreign governments never raised the issue when they were appointed.</li></ul> <a href="/wiki/Hirohito" title="Hirohito">Hirohito</a> and all members of the <a href="/wiki/Imperial_House_of_Japan" title="Imperial House of Japan">Imperial House of Japan</a> implicated in the war such as <a href="/wiki/Prince_Chichibu" class="mw-redirect" title="Prince Chichibu">Prince Chichibu</a>, <a href="/wiki/Prince_Asaka" class="mw-redirect" title="Prince Asaka">Prince Asaka</a>, <a href="/wiki/Prince_Takeda" class="mw-redirect" title="Prince Takeda">Prince Takeda</a> and <a href="/wiki/Prince_Higashikuni" class="mw-redirect" title="Prince Higashikuni">Prince Higashikuni</a> were exonerated from criminal prosecutions by <a href="/wiki/Douglas_MacArthur" title="Douglas MacArthur">Douglas MacArthur</a>, with the help of <a href="/wiki/Bonner_Fellers" title="Bonner Fellers">Bonner Fellers</a> who allowed the major criminal suspects to coordinate their stories so that the Emperor would be spared from indictment.<a href="#cite_note-366">[365]</a> Some historians criticize this decision. According to John Dower, "with the full support of <a href="/wiki/Supreme_Commander_for_the_Allied_Powers" title="Supreme Commander for the Allied Powers">MacArthur's headquarters</a>, the prosecution functioned, in effect, as a defense team for the emperor"<a href="#cite_note-367">[366]</a> and even Japanese activists who endorse the ideals of the Nuremberg and Tokyo charters, and who have labored to document and publicize the atrocities of the <a href="/wiki/Sh%C5%8Dwa_(1926%E2%80%931989)" class="mw-redirect" title="Shōwa (1926–1989)">Showa regime</a> "cannot defend the American decision to exonerate the emperor of war responsibility and then, in the chill of the <a href="/wiki/Cold_War" title="Cold War">Cold War</a>, release and soon afterwards openly embrace accused right-winged war criminals like the later prime minister <a href="/wiki/Nobusuke_Kishi" title="Nobusuke Kishi">Nobusuke Kishi</a>."<a href="#cite_note-368">[367]</a> For Herbert Bix, "MacArthur's truly extraordinary measures to save Hirohito from trial as a war criminal had a lasting and profoundly distorting impact on Japanese understanding of the lost war."<a href="#cite_note-369">[368]</a> MacArthur's reasoning was that if the emperor were executed or sentenced to life imprisonment, there would be a violent backlash and revolution from the Japanese from all social classes, which would interfere with his primary goal to change Japan from a militarist, semi-feudal society to a pro-Western modern democracy. In a cable sent to General <a href="/wiki/Dwight_D._Eisenhower" title="Dwight D. Eisenhower">Dwight D. Eisenhower</a> in February 1946, MacArthur said executing or imprisoning the emperor would require the use of one million occupation soldiers to keep the peace.<a href="#cite_note-370">[369]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Other_trials">Other trials</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Japanese_war_crimes&action=edit&section=27" title="Edit section: Other trials">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Khabarovsk_War_Crime_Trials" class="mw-redirect" title="Khabarovsk War Crime Trials">Khabarovsk War Crime Trials</a>, <a href="/wiki/Nanjing_War_Crimes_Tribunal" title="Nanjing War Crimes Tribunal">Nanjing War Crimes Tribunal</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Yokohama_War_Crimes_Trials" title="Yokohama War Crimes Trials">Yokohama War Crimes Trials</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:AWM_121782_sandakan.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0f/AWM_121782_sandakan.jpg/220px-AWM_121782_sandakan.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="171" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0f/AWM_121782_sandakan.jpg/330px-AWM_121782_sandakan.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0f/AWM_121782_sandakan.jpg/440px-AWM_121782_sandakan.jpg 2x" data-file-width="640" data-file-height="496" /></a><figcaption>Sergeant Hosotani Naoji of the <a href="/wiki/Kempeitai" title="Kempeitai">Kempeitai</a> unit at Sandakan (<a href="/wiki/North_Borneo" title="North Borneo">North Borneo</a>), is interrogated on 26 October 1945, by <a href="/wiki/Squadron_Leader" class="mw-redirect" title="Squadron Leader">Squadron Leader</a> F.G. Birchall of the Royal Australian Air Force, and Sergeant Mamo (a <a href="/wiki/Nisei_Japanese_American" class="mw-redirect" title="Nisei Japanese American">Nisei</a> interpreter). Naoji confessed to shooting two Australian POWs and five ethnic Chinese civilians.</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Japanese_War_Crimes_Trial_in_Singapore_SE6985.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f5/Japanese_War_Crimes_Trial_in_Singapore_SE6985.jpg/220px-Japanese_War_Crimes_Trial_in_Singapore_SE6985.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="220" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f5/Japanese_War_Crimes_Trial_in_Singapore_SE6985.jpg/330px-Japanese_War_Crimes_Trial_in_Singapore_SE6985.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f5/Japanese_War_Crimes_Trial_in_Singapore_SE6985.jpg/440px-Japanese_War_Crimes_Trial_in_Singapore_SE6985.jpg 2x" data-file-width="799" data-file-height="800" /></a><figcaption>In Singapore, a hooded Lieutenant Nakamura is led to the scaffold after being convicted of beheading an <a href="/wiki/Indian_Army_during_World_War_II" title="Indian Army during World War II">Indian soldier</a> on the <a href="/wiki/Palau_Islands" class="mw-redirect" title="Palau Islands">Palau Islands</a>, March 1946.</figcaption></figure> Between 1945 and 1956, the Chinese, Americans, British, Australians, Dutch, French, and Filipinos held trials at forty-nine locations.<a href="#cite_note-371">[370]</a> Australian prosecutors collaborated with British and American courts to hold Japanese individuals accountable, conducting trials for numerous individuals in Amboina, Dutch East Indies, and Rabaul, New Britain. China prosecuted at least 800 individuals, including some linked to the Nanjing massacre, while France and the Netherlands tried several hundred others. The French prosecuted a Japanese civilian in Java for forcing many women into military prostitution, and the Dutch sentenced Japanese individuals to death for murdering local residents and Dutch prisoners. In late 1949, the Soviet Union also put twelve Japanese on trial in Khabarovsk for biological warfare offenses—six were from Unit 731, two from <a href="/wiki/Unit_100" title="Unit 100">Unit 100</a>, and four from other groups. Later, several hundred Japanese people suspected of war crimes were handed over to the People's Republic of China, where they faced trials in the mid-1950s.<a href="#cite_note-372">[371]</a> Approximately 4,300 of the 5,379 Japanese, 173 Taiwanese, and 148 Koreans tried as Class B and C war criminals were convicted of conventional crimes, such as rape, murder, violations of the rules of war, and mistreatment of prisoners of war. Hundreds were given life sentences, while nearly 1,000 were given death sentences.<a href="#cite_note-373">[372]</a> The largest single trial was that of 93 Japanese personnel charged with the <a href="/wiki/Summary_execution" title="Summary execution">summary execution</a> of more than 300 Allied POWs in the <a href="/wiki/Laha_massacre" class="mw-redirect" title="Laha massacre">Laha massacre</a> (1942). The most prominent ethnic Korean convicted was Lieutenant General <a href="/wiki/Hong_Sa_Ik" class="mw-redirect" title="Hong Sa Ik">Hong Sa Ik</a>, who orchestrated the organisation of prisoner of war camps in Southeast Asia. In 2006, the South Korean government "<a href="/wiki/Pardon" title="Pardon">pardoned</a>" 83 of the 148 convicted Korean war criminals.<a href="#cite_note-Breen-39">[39]</a> One hundred-sixty Taiwanese who had served in the forces of the Empire of Japan were convicted of war crimes; 11 were executed.<a href="#cite_note-Harmsen,_Peter_2012,_p._4-38">[38]</a> While <a href="/wiki/Nuremberg_trials" title="Nuremberg trials">German doctors were prosecuted</a> and their crimes made public, the U.S. kept details of Japanese biological warfare experiments hidden and granted immunity to those responsible. In contrast to the immunity given to those involved with Unit 731, the U.S. conducted a tribunal in <a href="/wiki/Yokohama" title="Yokohama">Yokohama</a> in 1948, where nine Japanese physician professors and medical students were charged with vivisecting captured American pilots. Two professors received death sentences, and the others were sentenced to 15–20 years in prison.<a href="#cite_note-experimentation220-374">[373]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Post-war_events_and_reactions">Post-war events and reactions</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Japanese_war_crimes&action=edit&section=28" title="Edit section: Post-war events and reactions">edit</a>]</div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="The_parole-for-war-criminals_movement">The parole-for-war-criminals movement</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Japanese_war_crimes&action=edit&section=29" title="Edit section: The parole-for-war-criminals movement">edit</a>]</div> The British authorities lacked the resources and will to fully commit themselves to pursuing Japanese war criminals.<a href="#cite_note-standard.co.uk-61">[61]</a> On 4 September 1952, President <a href="/wiki/Harry_S._Truman" title="Harry S. Truman">Truman</a> issued Executive Order 10393, establishing a Clemency and Parole Board for War Criminals to advise the President with respect to recommendations by the Government of Japan for clemency, reduction of sentence, or parole, with respect to sentences imposed on Japanese war criminals by military tribunals.<a href="#cite_note-375">[374]</a> On 26 May 1954, Secretary of State <a href="/wiki/John_Foster_Dulles" title="John Foster Dulles">John Foster Dulles</a> rejected a proposed amnesty for the imprisoned war criminals but instead agreed to "change the ground rules" by reducing the period required for eligibility for parole from 15 years to 10.<a href="#cite_note-376">[375]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Official_apologies">Official apologies</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Japanese_war_crimes&action=edit&section=30" title="Edit section: Official apologies">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/List_of_war_apology_statements_issued_by_Japan" title="List of war apology statements issued by Japan">List of war apology statements issued by Japan</a></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1251242444">.mw-parser-output .ambox{border:1px solid #a2a9b1;border-left:10px solid #36c;background-color:#fbfbfb;box-sizing:border-box}.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+style+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+style+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+link+.ambox{margin-top:-1px}html body.mediawiki .mw-parser-output .ambox.mbox-small-left{margin:4px 1em 4px 0;overflow:hidden;width:238px;border-collapse:collapse;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em}.mw-parser-output .ambox-speedy{border-left:10px solid #b32424;background-color:#fee7e6}.mw-parser-output .ambox-delete{border-left:10px solid #b32424}.mw-parser-output .ambox-content{border-left:10px solid #f28500}.mw-parser-output .ambox-style{border-left:10px solid #fc3}.mw-parser-output .ambox-move{border-left:10px solid #9932cc}.mw-parser-output .ambox-protection{border-left:10px solid #a2a9b1}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-text{border:none;padding:0.25em 0.5em;width:100%}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-image{border:none;padding:2px 0 2px 0.5em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-imageright{border:none;padding:2px 0.5em 2px 0;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-empty-cell{border:none;padding:0;width:1px}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-image-div{width:52px}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .ambox{margin:0 10%}}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .ambox{display:none!important}}</style><table class="box-Synthesis plainlinks metadata ambox ambox-content" role="presentation"><tbody><tr><td class="mbox-image"><div class="mbox-image-div"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1b/Ambox_question.svg/40px-Ambox_question.svg.png" decoding="async" width="40" height="40" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1b/Ambox_question.svg/60px-Ambox_question.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1b/Ambox_question.svg/80px-Ambox_question.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="40" data-file-height="40" /></div></td><td class="mbox-text"><div class="mbox-text-span">This section possibly contains <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:No_original_research#Synthesis_of_published_material" title="Wikipedia:No original research">synthesis of material</a> which does not <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Verifiability" title="Wikipedia:Verifiability">verifiably mention</a> or <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Content_removal#Irrelevant_information" title="Wikipedia:Content removal">relate</a> to the main topic. Relevant discussion may be found on the <a href="/wiki/Talk:Japanese_war_crimes##" title="Talk:Japanese war crimes">talk page</a>. (October 2008) (<a href="/wiki/Help:Maintenance_template_removal" title="Help:Maintenance template removal">Learn how and when to remove this message</a>)</div></td></tr></tbody></table> Several Japanese government officials and former Japanese emperors have acknowledged Japanese war atrocities committed in China.<a href="#cite_note-377">[376]</a> The Japanese government considers that the legal and moral positions in regard to war crimes are separate. Therefore, while maintaining that Japan violated no international law or treaties, Japanese governments have officially recognised the suffering which the Japanese military caused, and numerous apologies have been issued by the Japanese government. For example, Prime Minister <a href="/wiki/Tomiichi_Murayama" title="Tomiichi Murayama">Tomiichi Murayama</a>, in August 1995, <a href="/wiki/Murayama_Statement" title="Murayama Statement">stated</a> that Japan "through its colonial rule and aggression, caused tremendous damage and suffering to the people of many countries, particularly to those of Asian nations", and he expressed his "feelings of deep remorse" and stated his "heartfelt apology". Also, on 29 September 1972, Japanese Prime Minister <a href="/wiki/Kakuei_Tanaka" title="Kakuei Tanaka">Kakuei Tanaka</a> stated: "[t]he Japanese side is keenly conscious of the responsibility for the serious damage that Japan caused in the past to the Chinese people through war, and deeply reproaches itself."<a href="#cite_note-378">[377]</a> However, apologizes made by Japanese officials have been criticized as insincere.<a href="#cite_note-tandfonline.com-379">[378]</a> For example, in the <a href="/wiki/Kono_Statement" title="Kono Statement">Kono Statement</a>, while Japanese officials acknowledge the japanese military's involvement in the comfort women system, they denied the coercion and forced transportation of the woman and refused to offer compensation to the victims.<a href="#cite_note-tandfonline.com-379">[378]</a> The official apologies are widely viewed as inadequate or only a symbolic exchange by many of the survivors of such crimes or the families of dead victims. In October 2006, while Prime Minister Shinzo Abe expressed an apology for the damage caused by its colonial rule and aggression, more than 80 Japanese lawmakers from the ruling <a href="/wiki/Liberal_Democratic_Party_(Japan)" title="Liberal Democratic Party (Japan)">Liberal Democratic Party</a> paid visits to the <a href="/wiki/Yasukuni_Shrine" title="Yasukuni Shrine">Yasukuni Shrine</a>. Many people aggrieved by Japanese war crimes also maintain that no apology has been issued for particular acts or that the Japanese government has merely expressed "regret" or "remorse".<a href="#cite_note-380">[379]</a> On 2 March 2007, the issue was raised again by Japanese prime minister <a href="/wiki/Shinz%C5%8D_Abe" class="mw-redirect" title="Shinzō Abe">Shinzō Abe</a>, in which he denied that the military had forced women into sexual slavery during World War II. He stated, "The fact is, there is no evidence to prove there was coercion." Before he spoke, a group of LDP lawmakers also sought to revise the Kono Statement.<a href="#cite_note-Tabuchi-22">[22]</a><a href="#cite_note-Associated_Press-23">[23]</a> This provoked negative reaction from Asian and Western countries. <a href="/wiki/Emperor_Showa" class="mw-redirect" title="Emperor Showa">Emperor Showa</a> initiated an official boycott of the Yasukuni Shrine after learning that Class-A war criminals had been covertly enshrined there after the war. This boycott remained in place from 1978 until his death and has been upheld by his successors, <a href="/wiki/Akihito" title="Akihito">Akihito</a> and <a href="/wiki/Naruhito" title="Naruhito">Naruhito</a>.<a href="#cite_note-381">[380]</a> On 31 October 2008, the <a href="/wiki/Chief_of_staff" title="Chief of staff">chief of staff</a> of Japan's <a href="/wiki/Japan_Air_Self-Defense_Force" title="Japan Air Self-Defense Force">Air Self-Defense Force</a> <a href="/wiki/Toshio_Tamogami" title="Toshio Tamogami">Toshio Tamogami</a> was dismissed with a 60 million yen allowance<a href="#cite_note-Tamogami-382">[381]</a> due to an essay he published, arguing that Japan was not an aggressor during <a href="/wiki/World_War_II" title="World War II">World War II</a>, that the war brought prosperity to China, Taiwan and Korea, that the <a href="/wiki/Imperial_Japanese_Army" title="Imperial Japanese Army">Imperial Japanese Army</a>'s conduct was not violent and that the <a href="/wiki/Greater_East_Asia_War" class="mw-redirect" title="Greater East Asia War">Greater East Asia War</a> is viewed in a positive way by many Asian countries and criticizing the <a href="/wiki/Tokyo_tribunal" class="mw-redirect" title="Tokyo tribunal">war crimes trials</a> which followed the war.<a href="#cite_note-383">[382]</a> On 11 November, Tamogami added before the Diet that the personal apology made in 1995 by former prime minister <a href="/wiki/Tomiichi_Murayama" title="Tomiichi Murayama">Tomiichi Murayama</a> was "a tool to suppress free speech".<a href="#cite_note-Tamogami-382">[381]</a> Some in Japan have asserted that what is being demanded is that the <a href="/wiki/Prime_Minister_of_Japan" title="Prime Minister of Japan">Japanese Prime Minister</a> or the <a href="/wiki/Emperor_of_Japan" title="Emperor of Japan">Emperor</a> perform <a href="/wiki/Dogeza" title="Dogeza">dogeza</a>, in which an individual kneels and bows his head to the ground—a high form of apology in East Asian societies that Japan appears unwilling to do.<a href="#cite_note-384">[383]</a> Some point to an act by <a href="/wiki/Chancellor_of_Germany_(Federal_Republic)" class="mw-redirect" title="Chancellor of Germany (Federal Republic)">West German Chancellor</a> <a href="/wiki/Willy_Brandt" title="Willy Brandt">Willy Brandt</a>, who <a href="/wiki/Warschauer_Kniefall" class="mw-redirect" title="Warschauer Kniefall">knelt</a> at a monument to the Jewish victims of the <a href="/wiki/Warsaw_Ghetto" title="Warsaw Ghetto">Warsaw Ghetto</a>, in 1970, as an example of a powerful and effective act of apology and reconciliation similar to dogeza.<a href="#cite_note-385">[384]</a> On 13 September 2010, Japanese Foreign Minister <a href="/wiki/Katsuya_Okada" title="Katsuya Okada">Katsuya Okada</a> met in Tokyo with six former American POWs of the Japanese and apologized for their treatment during World War II. Okada said: "You have all been through hardships during World War II, being taken prisoner by the Japanese military, and suffered extremely inhumane treatment. On behalf of the Japanese government and as the foreign minister, I would like to offer you my heartfelt apology."<a href="#cite_note-386">[385]</a> On 29 November 2011, Japanese Foreign Minister <a href="/wiki/K%C5%8Dichir%C5%8D_Genba" title="Kōichirō Genba">Kōichirō Genba</a> apologized to former Australian POWs on behalf of the Japanese government for pain and suffering inflicted on them during the war.<a href="#cite_note-387">[386]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Compensation">Compensation</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Japanese_war_crimes&action=edit&section=31" title="Edit section: Compensation">edit</a>]</div> The Japanese government, while admitting no legal responsibility for <a href="/wiki/Comfort_women" title="Comfort women">comfort women</a>, set up the <a href="/wiki/Asian_Women%27s_Fund" title="Asian Women's Fund">Asian Women's Fund</a> in 1995, which gives money to people who were forced into prostitution during the war. Though the organisation was established by the government, legally, it has been created such that it is an independent charity. The activities of the fund have been controversial in Japan, as well as with international organisations supporting the women concerned.[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] Some argue that such a fund is part of an ongoing refusal by the Japanese government to face up to its responsibilities, while others say that the Japanese government has long since finalised its responsibility to individual victims and is merely correcting the failures of the victims' own governments. California <a href="/wiki/Congressman" class="mw-redirect" title="Congressman">Congressman</a> <a href="/wiki/Mike_Honda" title="Mike Honda">Mike Honda</a>, speaking before U.S. House of Representatives on behalf of the women, said that "without a sincere and unequivocal apology from the government of Japan, the majority of surviving Comfort Women refused to accept these funds. In fact, as you will hear today, many Comfort Women returned the Prime Minister's letter of apology accompanying the monetary compensation, saying they felt the apology was artificial and disingenuous."<a href="#cite_note-388">[387]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Compensation_under_the_San_Francisco_Treaty">Compensation under the San Francisco Treaty</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Japanese_war_crimes&action=edit&section=32" title="Edit section: Compensation under the San Francisco Treaty">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_San_Francisco" title="Treaty of San Francisco">Treaty of San Francisco</a></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading5"><h5 id="Compensation_from_Japanese_overseas_assets">Compensation from Japanese overseas assets</h5>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Japanese_war_crimes&action=edit&section=33" title="Edit section: Compensation from Japanese overseas assets">edit</a>]</div> <table class="wikitable" style="text-align: right; float: right; margin: 1em;"> <tbody><tr> <th colspan="10">Japanese overseas assets in 1945 </th></tr> <tr> <th>Country/region</th> <th>Value (1945, <a href="/wiki/Yen" class="mw-redirect" title="Yen">¥</a>15=US$1)</th> <th>2024 US dollars<a href="#cite_note-inflation-US-389">[388]</a> </th></tr> <tr> <td>North East China</td> <td>146,532,000,000</td> <td>$165 billion </td></tr> <tr> <td>Korea</td> <td>70,256,000,000</td> <td>$79.3 billion </td></tr> <tr> <td>North China</td> <td>55,437,000,000</td> <td>$62.5 billion </td></tr> <tr> <td>Taiwan</td> <td>42,542,000,000</td> <td>$48 billion </td></tr> <tr> <td>Central South China</td> <td>36,718,000,000</td> <td>$41.4 billion </td></tr> <tr> <td>Others</td> <td>28,014,000,000</td> <td>$31.6 billion </td></tr> <tr> <td>Total</td> <td>¥379,499,000,000</td> <td>$428 billion </td></tr></tbody></table> "Japanese overseas assets" refers to all assets which were owned by the Japanese government, firms, organizations and private citizens, in colonized or occupied countries. In accordance with Clause 14 of the San Francisco Treaty, Allied forces confiscated all Japanese overseas assets, except those in China, which were dealt with under Clause 21. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading5"><h5 id="Compensation_to_Allied_POWs">Compensation to Allied POWs</h5>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Japanese_war_crimes&action=edit&section=34" title="Edit section: Compensation to Allied POWs">edit</a>]</div> According to historian Linda Goetz Holmes, many funds used by the government of Japan were not Japanese funds but relief funds contributed by the governments of the US, the UK and the Netherlands and sequestered in the <a href="/wiki/Yokohama_Specie_Bank" title="Yokohama Specie Bank">Yokohama Specie Bank</a> during the final year of the war.<a href="#cite_note-390">[389]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading5"><h5 id="Allied_territories_occupied_by_Japan">Allied territories occupied by Japan</h5>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Japanese_war_crimes&action=edit&section=35" title="Edit section: Allied territories occupied by Japan">edit</a>]</div> <table class="wikitable" style="text-align: right; float: right; margin: 1em;"> <tbody><tr> <th colspan="10">Japanese compensation to countries occupied during 1941–45 </th></tr> <tr> <th>Country</th> <th>Amount in Yen</th> <th>Amount in US$</th> <th>2024 US dollars<a href="#cite_note-inflation-US-389">[388]</a></th> <th>Date of treaty </th></tr> <tr> <td>Burma</td> <td>72,000,000,000</td> <td>200,000,000</td> <td>$2.27 billion</td> <td>5 November 1955 </td></tr> <tr> <td>Philippines</td> <td>198,000,000,000</td> <td>550,000,000</td> <td>$6.16 billion</td> <td>9 May 1956 </td></tr> <tr> <td>Indonesia</td> <td>80,388,000,000</td> <td>223,080,000</td> <td>$2.36 billion</td> <td>20 January 1958 </td></tr> <tr> <td>South Vietnam</td> <td>14,400,000,000</td> <td>38,000,000</td> <td>$397 million</td> <td>13 May 1959 </td></tr> <tr> <td>Total</td> <td>¥364,348,800,000</td> <td>US$1,012,080,000</td> <td></td> <td> </td></tr></tbody></table> Clause 14 of the treaty stated that Japan would enter into negotiations with the Allied nations whose territories were occupied and suffered damage by Japanese forces, with a view to Japan compensating those countries for the damage. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Historical_negationism_and_denialism_in_Japan">Historical negationism and denialism in Japan</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Japanese_war_crimes&action=edit&section=36" title="Edit section: Historical negationism and denialism in Japan">edit</a>]</div> In numerous historical debates within the region, Japan has been criticized for its failure to adequately address its imperial past.<a href="#cite_note-jstor.org-391">[390]</a> Key issuess include the visits of Japanese prime ministers to the contentious Yasukuni Shrine, ongoing denials of state involvement in the system of forced wartime prostitution, efforts to justify the Asia-Pacific War, legal rulings rejecting state compensation for forced labor, and the positive assessments of Japan's colonial period.<a href="#cite_note-jstor.org-391">[390]</a> These issues have periodically strained Japan's relations with its crucial neighbors, particularly the People's Republic of China and the Republic of Korea.<a href="#cite_note-jstor.org-391">[390]</a> <a href="/wiki/Nippon_Kaigi" title="Nippon Kaigi">Nippon Kaigi</a> is an influential ultra-right-wing lobby group that wields considerable power in shaping Japanese politics. As of 2015, its membership boasts prominent figures such as former Prime Minister Shinzo Abe, approximately 80% of the cabinet, and nearly half of the country's parliamentarians.<a href="#cite_note-abc.net.au-392">[391]</a> This organization is infamous for its <a href="/wiki/Historical_negationism" title="Historical negationism">historical negationism</a> and denial of certain war crimes<a href="#cite_note-abc.net.au-392">[391]</a> The organization denies the Nanjing Massacre, labelling it as exaggerated or fabricated.<a href="#cite_note-393">[392]</a> Historical negationism concerning the comfort women issue has been predominantly led by the Nippon Kaigi since the mid-1990s, with significant efforts notably observed during both the initial and second Abe administration.<a href="#cite_note-divinity.uchicago.edu-394">[393]</a> Following a Cabinet meeting during Shinzo Abe's initial tenure as prime minister in 2007, the administration said that there was no documented evidence supporting the coerced recruitment of comfort women. This stance was the official position of the administration and is reinforced through collaboration with Japanese right-wing media outlets.<a href="#cite_note-divinity.uchicago.edu-394">[393]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Textbook_controversy">Textbook controversy</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Japanese_war_crimes&action=edit&section=37" title="Edit section: Textbook controversy">edit</a>]</div> The existing regulations regarding textbooks grant the government absolute authority to determine which textbooks should be adopted by local schools.<a href="#cite_note-thediplomat.com-395">[394]</a> School boards, teacher unions and local citizens, traditionally more left-leaning groups that have opposed government-approved books, have experienced a significant erosion of their autonomy in selecting textbooks, compelling them to adopt government-censored textbooks.<a href="#cite_note-thediplomat.com-395">[394]</a> In 1952, the Japanese government instructed Japanese historian <a href="/wiki/Ienaga_Saburo" class="mw-redirect" title="Ienaga Saburo">Ienaga Saburo</a> to eliminate information and references from his textbook regarding Unit 731, despite having his claims corroborated by other scholars.<a href="#cite_note-396">[395]</a> While Ienaga's legal action against the Japanese government initially compelled them to publish his textbooks detailing Japanese war crimes, the Japanese Supreme Court overturned this decision in 1993.<a href="#cite_note-nytimes.com-397">[396]</a> The Supreme Court's 1993 ruling affirmed the government's authority to compel Mr. Ienaga to remove unsettling specifics concerning the Japanese invasions of Machuria and Korea, as well as the rapes and killings committed by Japanese military personnel during their occupation of East and Southeast Asia.<a href="#cite_note-nytimes.com-397">[396]</a> Textbooks approved for junior high schools in 1997 typically presented relatively high estimates of the number of victims, but those published in 2005 often refrained from providing specific numbers altogether. Similarly, the term "massacre" was largely replaced with the term "incident."<a href="#cite_note-398">[397]</a> In 2014, the Japanese government attempted to pressure <a href="/wiki/McGraw_Hill" class="mw-redirect" title="McGraw Hill">McGraw Hill</a>, an American publishing company, to remove two paragraphs addressing the issue of comfort women from one of their textbooks. McGraw Hill rejected the demands from the Japanese government, and American historians condemned Japan's attempt to alter the historical account of comfort women.<a href="#cite_note-399">[398]</a> In 2015, other alterations involve six out of seven textbooks reducing the criticism of the Japanese military's role in mass suicides among Okinawans in 1945. Additionally, only one textbook addressed the topic of comfort women.<a href="#cite_note-thediplomat.com-395">[394]</a> In 2022, the Japanese government made changes to 14 textbooks covering Japanese and world history. The ministry replaced the words "forced arrest" and "forced conscription" with "mobilization" and "conscription" when recounting the history of forced laborers in Japan, including Koreans during the period of Japanese annexation of Korea from 1910 to 1945.<a href="#cite_note-400">[399]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Later_investigations">Later investigations</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Japanese_war_crimes&action=edit&section=38" title="Edit section: Later investigations">edit</a>]</div> As with investigations of <a href="/wiki/Nazi_war_crimes" class="mw-redirect" title="Nazi war crimes">Nazi war criminals</a>, official investigations and inquiries are still ongoing.[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Manual_of_Style/Dates_and_numbers#Chronological_items" title="Wikipedia:Manual of Style/Dates and numbers">as of?</a>] During the 1990s, the South Korean government started investigating some people who had allegedly become wealthy while <a href="/wiki/Collaboration_with_Imperial_Japan" title="Collaboration with Imperial Japan">collaborating with the Japanese military</a>.<a href="#cite_note-401">[400]</a><a href="#cite_note-koreatimes.co.kr-402">[401]</a> In South Korea, it is also alleged that during the political climate of the <a href="/wiki/Cold_War" title="Cold War">Cold War</a>, many such people or their associates or relatives were able to acquire influence with the wealth they had acquired collaborating with the Japanese and assisted in the covering-up, or non-investigation, of war crimes in order not to incriminate themselves. With the wealth they had amassed during the years of collaboration, they were able to further benefit their families by obtaining higher education for their relatives.<a href="#cite_note-koreatimes.co.kr-402">[401]</a> Further evidence has been discovered as a result of these investigations. It has been claimed that the Japanese government intentionally destroyed the reports on Korean comfort women.<a href="#cite_note-autogenerated1-403">[402]</a><a href="#cite_note-autogenerated2-404">[403]</a> Some have cited Japanese inventory logs and employee sheets on the battlefield as evidence for this claim. For example, one of the names on the list was of a comfort woman who stated she was forced to be a prostitute by the Japanese. She was classified as a nurse along with at least a dozen other verified comfort women who were not nurses or secretaries. Currently, the South Korean government is looking into the hundreds of other names on these lists.<a href="#cite_note-405">[404]</a> In 2011, it was alleged in an article published in the <a href="/wiki/The_Japan_Times" title="The Japan Times">Japan Times</a> newspaper by Jason Coskrey that the <a href="/wiki/Government_of_the_United_Kingdom" title="Government of the United Kingdom">British government</a> covered up a Japanese massacre of British and Dutch <a href="/wiki/Prisoner_of_war" title="Prisoner of war">POWs</a> to avoid straining the <a href="/wiki/Japan%E2%80%93United_Kingdom_relations" title="Japan–United Kingdom relations">recently re-opened relationship with Japan</a>, along with their belief that Japan needed to be a post-war bulwark against the spread of <a href="/wiki/Communism" title="Communism">communism</a>.<a href="#cite_note-406">[405]</a> <a href="/wiki/Tamaki_Matsuoka" title="Tamaki Matsuoka">Tamaki Matsuoka</a>'s 2009 documentary <a href="/wiki/Torn_Memories_of_Nanjing" title="Torn Memories of Nanjing">Torn Memories of Nanjing</a> includes interviews with Japanese <a href="/wiki/Veteran" title="Veteran">veterans</a> who admit to raping and killing Chinese civilians.<a href="#cite_note-407">[406]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Concerns_of_the_Japanese_imperial_family">Concerns of the Japanese imperial family</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Japanese_war_crimes&action=edit&section=39" title="Edit section: Concerns of the Japanese imperial family">edit</a>]</div> Potentially in contrast to Prime Minister Abe's example of his Yasukuni Shrine visits, by February 2015, some concern within the <a href="/wiki/Imperial_House_of_Japan" title="Imperial House of Japan">Imperial House of Japan</a> — which normally does not issue such statements – over the issue was voiced by then-<a href="/wiki/Naruhito" title="Naruhito">Crown Prince Naruhito</a>,<a href="#cite_note-408">[407]</a> who succeeded <a href="/wiki/Akihito" title="Akihito">his father</a> <a href="/wiki/Japanese_imperial_transition,_2019" class="mw-redirect" title="Japanese imperial transition, 2019">on 1 May 2019</a>. Naruhito stated on his 55th birthday (23 February 2015) that it was "important to look back on the past humbly and correctly", in reference to Japan's role in World War II-era war crimes, and that he was concerned about the ongoing need to "correctly pass down tragic experiences and the history behind Japan to the generations who have no direct knowledge of the war, at the time memories of the war are about to fade".<a href="#cite_note-409">[408]</a> Two visits to the <a href="/wiki/Yasukuni_Shrine" title="Yasukuni Shrine">Yasukuni Shrine</a> in the second half of 2016 by Japan's former foreign minister, <a href="/wiki/Masahiro_Imamura" title="Masahiro Imamura">Masahiro Imamura</a>, were again followed by controversy that still showed potential for concern over how Japan's World War II history may be remembered by its citizens<a href="#cite_note-410">[409]</a><a href="#cite_note-411">[410]</a> as it entered the <a href="/wiki/Reiwa" class="mw-redirect" title="Reiwa">Reiwa</a> era. <a href="/wiki/Hirohito" title="Hirohito">Emperor Shōwa</a> upheld an official boycott of Yasukuni Shrine after he discovered that Class-A war criminals had been secretly enshrined after the war. This boycott lasted from 1978 until his death, and his successors, <a href="/wiki/Akihito" title="Akihito">Akihito</a> and <a href="/wiki/Naruhito" title="Naruhito">Naruhito</a>, have continued the boycott.<a href="#cite_note-412">[411]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="List_of_major_crimes">List of major crimes</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Japanese_war_crimes&action=edit&section=40" title="Edit section: List of major crimes">edit</a>]</div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Japanese_occupation_of_the_Andaman_Islands" class="mw-redirect" title="Japanese occupation of the Andaman Islands">Andaman Islands occupation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Japanese_occupation_of_Attu" title="Japanese occupation of Attu">Japanese occupation of Attu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Japanese_occupation_of_Kiska" title="Japanese occupation of Kiska">Japanese occupation of Kiska</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Balalae_Island" title="Balalae Island">Balalae Island occupation</a></li></ul> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1216972533">.mw-parser-output .col-begin{border-collapse:collapse;padding:0;color:inherit;width:100%;border:0;margin:0}.mw-parser-output .col-begin-small{font-size:90%}.mw-parser-output .col-break{vertical-align:top;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .col-break-2{width:50%}.mw-parser-output .col-break-3{width:33.3%}.mw-parser-output .col-break-4{width:25%}.mw-parser-output .col-break-5{width:20%}@media(max-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .col-begin,.mw-parser-output .col-begin>tbody,.mw-parser-output .col-begin>tbody>tr,.mw-parser-output .col-begin>tbody>tr>td{display:block!important;width:100%!important}.mw-parser-output .col-break{padding-left:0!important}}</style><div> <table class="col-begin" role="presentation"> <tbody><tr> <td class="col-break"> Massacres <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Alexandra_Hospital_massacre" class="mw-redirect" title="Alexandra Hospital massacre">Alexandra Hospital massacre</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Akikaze_massacre" title="Akikaze massacre">Akikaze massacre</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arakan_massacres_in_1942" title="Arakan massacres in 1942">Arakan massacres in 1942</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Balalae_Island_mass_graves" title="Balalae Island mass graves">Balalae Island mass graves</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Balikpapan_massacre" title="Balikpapan massacre">Balikpapan massacre</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bangka_Island_massacre" title="Bangka Island massacre">Bangka Island massacre</a><a href="#cite_note-Bangka-105">[105]</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Changjiao_massacre" title="Changjiao massacre">Changjiao massacre</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chaqui%27an_Massacre_Site" title="Chaqui'an Massacre Site">Chaqui'an Massacre Site</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fena_Massacre" title="Fena Massacre">Fena Massacre</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gando_massacre" class="mw-redirect" title="Gando massacre">Gando massacre</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Homfreyganj_massacre" title="Homfreyganj massacre">Homfreyganj massacre</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kalagon_massacre" title="Kalagon massacre">Kalagon massacre</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Laha_massacre" class="mw-redirect" title="Laha massacre">Laha massacre</a><a href="#cite_note-Laha-104">[104]</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Manila_massacre" title="Manila massacre">Manila massacre</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nanjing_Massacre" title="Nanjing Massacre">Nanjing Massacre</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nanshitou_massacre" title="Nanshitou massacre">Nanshitou massacre</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Palawan_massacre" title="Palawan massacre">Palawan massacre</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Panjiayu_massacre" class="mw-redirect" title="Panjiayu massacre">Panjiayu massacre</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pantingan_River_massacre" title="Pantingan River massacre">Pantingan River massacre</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Parit_Sulong_massacre" class="mw-redirect" title="Parit Sulong massacre">Parit Sulong massacre</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pig-basket_atrocity" class="mw-redirect" title="Pig-basket atrocity">Pig-basket atrocity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pontianak_Incident" class="mw-redirect" title="Pontianak Incident">Pontianak Massacre</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sook_Ching_massacre" class="mw-redirect" title="Sook Ching massacre">Sook Ching massacre</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/St._Stephen%27s_College_massacre" title="St. Stephen's College massacre">St. Stephen's College massacre</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Rabaul_(1942)#Tol_Plantation_massacre" title="Battle of Rabaul (1942)">Tol Plantation massacre</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wake_Island_massacre" class="mw-redirect" title="Wake Island massacre">Wake Island massacre</a></li></ul> Units <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Unit_100" title="Unit 100">Unit 100</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Unit_516" title="Unit 516">Unit 516</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Unit_543" title="Unit 543">Unit 543</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Unit_731" title="Unit 731">Unit 731</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Unit_1644" class="mw-redirect" title="Unit 1644">Unit 1644</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Unit_1855" title="Unit 1855">Unit 1855</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Unit_8604" title="Unit 8604">Unit 8604</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Unit_9420" title="Unit 9420">Unit 9420</a></li></ul> </td> <td class="col-break"> War crimes <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bataan_Death_March" title="Bataan Death March">Bataan Death March</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Burma_Railway" title="Burma Railway">Burma Railway</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Changteh_chemical_weapon_attack" class="mw-redirect" title="Changteh chemical weapon attack">Changteh chemical weapon attack</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chichijima_incident" title="Chichijima incident">Chichijima incident</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Niihau_incident" title="Niihau incident">Niihau incident</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Comfort_women" title="Comfort women">Comfort women</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Contest_to_kill_100_people_using_a_sword" class="mw-redirect" title="Contest to kill 100 people using a sword">Contest to kill 100 people using a sword</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hell_ship" title="Hell ship">Hell ships</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kaimingye_germ_weapon_attack" class="mw-redirect" title="Kaimingye germ weapon attack">Kaimingye germ weapon attack</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Romusha" class="mw-redirect" title="Romusha">Romusha</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sandakan_Death_Marches" title="Sandakan Death Marches">Sandakan Death Marches</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Selarang_Barracks_incident" title="Selarang Barracks incident">Selarang Barracks incident</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Shanghai" title="Battle of Shanghai">Shanghai gas attacks</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Three_Alls_Policy" class="mw-redirect" title="Three Alls Policy">Three Alls Policy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/War_crimes_in_Manchukuo" title="War crimes in Manchukuo">War crimes in Manchukuo</a></li></ul> </td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Japanese_war_crimes&action=edit&section=41" title="Edit section: See also">edit</a>]</div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/American_cover-up_of_Japanese_war_crimes" title="American cover-up of Japanese war crimes">American cover-up of Japanese war crimes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eugenics_in_Japan" title="Eugenics in Japan">Eugenics in Japan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Japan_during_World_War_II" title="Japan during World War II">Japan during World War II</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Military_history_of_Japan" title="Military history of Japan">Military history of Japan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Taiwanese_Resistance_to_the_Japanese_Invasion_(1895)" title="Taiwanese Resistance to the Japanese Invasion (1895)">Taiwanese Resistance to the Japanese Invasion (1895)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tanaka_Memorial" title="Tanaka Memorial">Tanaka Memorial</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Japanese_nationalism" title="Japanese nationalism">Japanese nationalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Japanese_settlers_in_Manchuria" title="Japanese settlers in Manchuria">Japanese settlers in Manchuria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Japanese_War_Crimes:_Murder_Under_the_Sun" title="Japanese War Crimes: Murder Under the Sun">Japanese War Crimes: Murder Under the Sun</a>, historical film</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Political_extremism_in_Japan" title="Political extremism in Japan">Political extremism in Japan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Racism_in_Japan" title="Racism in Japan">Racism in Japan</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Notes">Notes</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Japanese_war_crimes&action=edit&section=42" title="Edit section: Notes">edit</a>]</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist reflist-lower-alpha"> <div class="mw-references-wrap"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-176"><a href="#cite_ref-176">^</a> "Interestingly, although the United States condemned these practices, notably during the <a href="/wiki/Tokyo_Trial" class="mw-redirect" title="Tokyo Trial">Tokyo Trial</a>, its <a href="/wiki/United_States_Armed_Forces" title="United States Armed Forces">armed forces</a> used the same technique several times in the context of the <a href="/wiki/War_on_Terror" class="mw-redirect" title="War on Terror">War on Terror</a>. They then proceeded to deny that simulated drowning was torture, an opinion shared by at least <a href="/wiki/The_Wall_Street_Journal" title="The Wall Street Journal">The Wall Street Journal</a> which, on 12 November 2005, commenting on the torture of alleged terrorists of <a href="/wiki/Al-Qaeda" title="Al-Qaeda">Al-Qaeda</a>, published an editorial denying that the technique had "any proximity to torture".<a href="#cite_note-173">[173]</a> During the <a href="/wiki/2008_United_States_elections" title="2008 United States elections">presidential elections in the United States in 2008</a>, these interpretations were the subject of controversy, with candidates <a href="/wiki/John_McCain" title="John McCain">John McCain</a> and <a href="/wiki/Barack_Obama" title="Barack Obama">Barack Obama</a><a href="#cite_note-174">[174]</a> considering the practice as torture, as opposed to other <a href="/wiki/Republican_Party_(United_States)" title="Republican Party (United States)">republican</a> candidates.<a href="#cite_note-175">[175]</a> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Japanese_war_crimes&action=edit&section=43" title="Edit section: References">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239543626"><div class="reflist reflist-columns references-column-width" style="column-width: 30em;"> <ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-1"><a href="#cite_ref-1">^</a> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite id="CITEREFRigg2024" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Bryan_Mark_Rigg" title="Bryan Mark Rigg">Rigg, Bryan Mark</a> (2024). Japan's Holocaust: History of Imperial Japan's Mass Murder and Rape During World War II. Knox Press. pp. 13–14, 23, 54, 190–191, 289. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781637586884" title="Special:BookSources/9781637586884"><bdi>9781637586884</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Japan%27s+Holocaust%3A+History+of+Imperial+Japan%27s+Mass+Murder+and+Rape+During+World+War+II&rft.pages=13-14%2C+23%2C+54%2C+190-191%2C+289&rft.pub=Knox+Press&rft.date=2024&rft.isbn=9781637586884&rft.aulast=Rigg&rft.aufirst=Bryan+Mark&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJapanese+war+crimes" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-2"><a href="#cite_ref-2">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDearFoot2001" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/I._C._B._Dear" title="I. C. B. Dear">Dear, I. C. B.</a>; <a href="/wiki/M._R._D._Foot" title="M. R. D. Foot">Foot, M. R. D.</a>, eds. (2001) [1995]. The Oxford Companion to World War II. Oxford: <a href="/wiki/Oxford_University_Press" title="Oxford University Press">Oxford University Press</a>. p. 182. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-860446-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-860446-4"><bdi>978-0-19-860446-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Oxford+Companion+to+World+War+II&rft.place=Oxford&rft.pages=182&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2001&rft.isbn=978-0-19-860446-4&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJapanese+war+crimes" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-3"><a href="#cite_ref-3">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=DrTS3lsjLWA">"Downfall-Why Japan Surrendered with very special guest Richard Frank-Episode 225"</a>. <a href="/wiki/YouTube" title="YouTube">YouTube</a>. 15 August 2023.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=YouTube&rft.atitle=Downfall-Why+Japan+Surrendered+with+very+special+guest+Richard+Frank-Episode+225&rft.date=2023-08-15&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.youtube.com%2Fwatch%3Fv%3DDrTS3lsjLWA&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJapanese+war+crimes" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-4"><a href="#cite_ref-4">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.routledge.com/Imperial-Japans-World-War-Two-1931-1945/Gruhl/p/book/9781412811040">"Imperial Japan's World War Two: 1931-1945"</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Imperial+Japan%27s+World+War+Two%3A+1931-1945&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.routledge.com%2FImperial-Japans-World-War-Two-1931-1945%2FGruhl%2Fp%2Fbook%2F9781412811040&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJapanese+war+crimes" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-5"><a href="#cite_ref-5">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://networks.h-net.org/node/22055/reviews/22104/selden-dower-embracing-defeat-japan-wake-world-war-ii">"Selden on Dower, 'Embracing Defeat. Japan in the Wake of World War II' | H-Net"</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Selden+on+Dower%2C+%27Embracing+Defeat.+Japan+in+the+Wake+of+World+War+II%27+%26%23124%3B+H-Net&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fnetworks.h-net.org%2Fnode%2F22055%2Freviews%2F22104%2Fselden-dower-embracing-defeat-japan-wake-world-war-ii&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJapanese+war+crimes" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-6"><a href="#cite_ref-6">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRigg2024" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Bryan_Mark_Rigg" title="Bryan Mark Rigg">Rigg, Bryan Mark</a> (2024). Japan's Holocaust: History of Imperial Japan's Mass Murder and Rape During World War II. 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Retrieved 2 October 2011.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Foreign+Policy+Q%26A&rft.atitle=Q8%3A+What+is+the+view+of+the+Government+of+Japan+on+the+incident+known+as+the+%22Nanjing+Massacre%22%3F&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.mofa.go.jp%2Fpolicy%2Fq_a%2Ffaq16.html%23q8&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJapanese+war+crimes" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-21"><a href="#cite_ref-21">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKasahara" class="citation web cs1">Kasahara, Tokushi. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.usip.org/sites/default/files/file/kasahara.pdf">"Reconciling Narratives of the Nanjing Massacre in Japanese and Chinese Textbooks"</a> (PDF). Tsuru Bunka University. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20131231183120/http://www.usip.org/sites/default/files/file/kasahara.pdf">Archived</a> (PDF) from the original on 31 December 2013. Retrieved 19 October 2023.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Reconciling+Narratives+of+the+Nanjing+Massacre+in+Japanese+and+Chinese+Textbooks&rft.pub=Tsuru+Bunka+University&rft.aulast=Kasahara&rft.aufirst=Tokushi&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.usip.org%2Fsites%2Fdefault%2Ffiles%2Ffile%2Fkasahara.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJapanese+war+crimes" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Tabuchi-22">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Tabuchi_22-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Tabuchi_22-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Tabuchi_22-2">c</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFTabuchi" class="citation news cs1"><a href="/wiki/Hiroko_Tabuchi" title="Hiroko Tabuchi">Tabuchi, Hiroko</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2007/03/01/AR2007030100578.html">"Japan's Abe: No Proof of WWII Sex Slaves"</a>. The Washington Post. Associated Press. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20121103190750/http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2007/03/01/AR2007030100578.html">Archived</a> from the original on 3 November 2012. Retrieved 1 March 2007.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Washington+Post&rft.atitle=Japan%27s+Abe%3A+No+Proof+of+WWII+Sex+Slaves&rft.aulast=Tabuchi&rft.aufirst=Hiroko&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.washingtonpost.com%2Fwp-dyn%2Fcontent%2Farticle%2F2007%2F03%2F01%2FAR2007030100578.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJapanese+war+crimes" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Associated_Press-23">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Associated_Press_23-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Associated_Press_23-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation news cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.nytimes.com/aponline/world/AP-Japan-Sex-Slaves.html?ref=world">"Japan's Abe Denies Proof of World War II Sex Slaves"</a>. The New York Times. 1 March 2007. Retrieved 1 March 2007.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+New+York+Times&rft.atitle=Japan%27s+Abe+Denies+Proof+of+World+War+II+Sex+Slaves&rft.date=2007-03-01&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.nytimes.com%2Faponline%2Fworld%2FAP-Japan-Sex-Slaves.html%3Fref%3Dworld&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJapanese+war+crimes" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-24"><a href="#cite_ref-24">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jus.uio.no/english/services/library/treaties/04/4-06/military-tribunal-far-east.xml">"International Military Tribunal for the Far East Charter (IMTFE Charter) – The Faculty of Law"</a>. jus.uio.no. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20190529083141/https://www.jus.uio.no/english/services/library/treaties/04/4-06/military-tribunal-far-east.xml">Archived</a> from the original on 29 May 2019. Retrieved 28 January 2020.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=jus.uio.no&rft.atitle=International+Military+Tribunal+for+the+Far+East+Charter+%28IMTFE+Charter%29+%E2%80%93+The+Faculty+of+Law&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jus.uio.no%2Fenglish%2Fservices%2Flibrary%2Ftreaties%2F04%2F4-06%2Fmilitary-tribunal-far-east.xml&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJapanese+war+crimes" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-25"><a href="#cite_ref-25">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.derechos.org/peace/dia/doc/dia48.html">""Defining International Aggression: The Search for World Peace""</a>. derechos.org. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20131213032227/http://www.derechos.org/peace/dia/doc/dia48.html">Archived</a> from the original on 13 December 2013. Retrieved 28 January 2020.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=derechos.org&rft.atitle=%22Defining+International+Aggression%3A+The+Search+for+World+Peace%22.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.derechos.org%2Fpeace%2Fdia%2Fdoc%2Fdia48.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJapanese+war+crimes" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-26"><a href="#cite_ref-26">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGilbert2006" class="citation book cs1">Gilbert, Geoff (30 September 2006). Responding to International Crime (International Studies in Human Rights). Martinus Nijhoff Publishers. p. 358. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/90-04-15276-8" title="Special:BookSources/90-04-15276-8"><bdi>90-04-15276-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Responding+to+International+Crime+%28International+Studies+in+Human+Rights%29&rft.pages=358&rft.pub=Martinus+Nijhoff+Publishers&rft.date=2006-09-30&rft.isbn=90-04-15276-8&rft.aulast=Gilbert&rft.aufirst=Geoff&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJapanese+war+crimes" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-icrc.org-27">^ <a href="#cite_ref-icrc.org_27-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-icrc.org_27-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.icrc.org/applic/ihl/ihl.nsf/States.xsp?xp_viewStates=XPages_NORMStatesParties&xp_treatySelected=300">"Convention for the Amelioration of the Condition of the Wounded and Sick in Armies in the Field. Geneva, 27 July 1929"</a>. <a href="/wiki/International_Committee_of_the_Red_Cross" title="International Committee of the Red Cross">International Committee of the Red Cross</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20131023011215/http://www.icrc.org/applic/ihl/ihl.nsf/States.xsp?xp_viewStates=XPages_NORMStatesParties&xp_treatySelected=300">Archived</a> from the original on 23 October 2013. Retrieved 6 July 2013.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Convention+for+the+Amelioration+of+the+Condition+of+the+Wounded+and+Sick+in+Armies+in+the+Field.+Geneva%2C+27+July+1929.&rft.pub=International+Committee+of+the+Red+Cross&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.icrc.org%2Fapplic%2Fihl%2Fihl.nsf%2FStates.xsp%3Fxp_viewStates%3DXPages_NORMStatesParties%26xp_treatySelected%3D300&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJapanese+war+crimes" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-28"><a href="#cite_ref-28">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20130718091123/http://www.historyonthenet.com/WW2/geneva_convention.htm">"World War Two – Geneva Convention"</a>. Historyonthenet.com. 25 February 2013. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://historyonthenet.com/WW2/geneva_convention.htm">the original</a> on 18 July 2013. Retrieved 21 July 2013.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=World+War+Two+%E2%80%93+Geneva+Convention&rft.pub=Historyonthenet.com&rft.date=2013-02-25&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fhistoryonthenet.com%2FWW2%2Fgeneva_convention.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJapanese+war+crimes" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-29"><a href="#cite_ref-29">^</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://yale.edu/gsp/publications/WaiKeng.doc">See, for example: Wai Keng Kwok, 2001, "Justice Done? Criminal and Moral Responsibility Issues In the Chinese Massacres Trial Singapore, 1947"</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20070614140107/http://yale.edu/gsp/publications/WaiKeng.doc">Archived</a> 14 June 2007 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> (Genocide Studies Program Working Paper No. 18, Yale University), p. 27. Access date: 23 April 2007. </li> <li id="cite_note-chang-barker-2003-30">^ <a href="#cite_ref-chang-barker-2003_30-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-chang-barker-2003_30-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFChangBarker2003" class="citation book cs1">Chang, Maria Hsia; Barker, Robert P. (2003). "Victor's Justice and Japan's Amnesia". In Peter, Li (ed.). Japanese War Crimes: The Search for Justice. Transaction Publishers. p. 44. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-7658-0890-0" title="Special:BookSources/0-7658-0890-0"><bdi>0-7658-0890-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Victor%27s+Justice+and+Japan%27s+Amnesia&rft.btitle=Japanese+War+Crimes%3A+The+Search+for+Justice&rft.pages=44&rft.pub=Transaction+Publishers&rft.date=2003&rft.isbn=0-7658-0890-0&rft.aulast=Chang&rft.aufirst=Maria+Hsia&rft.au=Barker%2C+Robert+P.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJapanese+war+crimes" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-31"><a href="#cite_ref-31">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFStetzBonnie_BC_Oh2001" class="citation book cs1">Stetz, Margaret; Bonnie BC Oh, eds. (August 2001). The Legacies of the Comfort Women of World War II. <a href="/wiki/M._E._Sharpe" title="M. E. Sharpe">M. E. Sharpe</a>. pp. 154–156. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-7656-0543-0" title="Special:BookSources/0-7656-0543-0"><bdi>0-7656-0543-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Legacies+of+the+Comfort+Women+of+World+War+II&rft.pages=154-156&rft.pub=M.+E.+Sharpe&rft.date=2001-08&rft.isbn=0-7656-0543-0&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJapanese+war+crimes" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-lippman-2004-32"><a href="#cite_ref-lippman-2004_32-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLippman2004" class="citation journal cs1">Lippman, Matthew (1 January 2004). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20081001004334/http://findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_qa5433/is_200401/ai_n21362456/pg_1?tag=artBody;col1">"The history, development, and decline of crimes against peace"</a>. George Washington International Law Review. 36 (5): 25. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_qa5433/is_200401/ai_n21362456/pg_1?tag=artBody;col1">the original</a> on 1 October 2008. Retrieved 26 July 2008.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=George+Washington+International+Law+Review&rft.atitle=The+history%2C+development%2C+and+decline+of+crimes+against+peace&rft.volume=36&rft.issue=5&rft.pages=25&rft.date=2004-01-01&rft.aulast=Lippman&rft.aufirst=Matthew&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Ffindarticles.com%2Fp%2Farticles%2Fmi_qa5433%2Fis_200401%2Fai_n21362456%2Fpg_1%3Ftag%3DartBody%3Bcol1&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJapanese+war+crimes" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-japan-times-2006-33"><a href="#cite_ref-japan-times-2006_33-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation news cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20081216084244/http://search.japantimes.co.jp/cgi-bin/nn20061007a4.html">"Under Japanese law, 14 at Yasukuni not criminals: Abe"</a>. <a href="/wiki/The_Japan_Times" title="The Japan Times">The Japan Times</a>. 7 October 2006. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://search.japantimes.co.jp/cgi-bin/nn20061007a4.html">the original</a> on 16 December 2008. Retrieved 26 July 2008.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Japan+Times&rft.atitle=Under+Japanese+law%2C+14+at+Yasukuni+not+criminals%3A+Abe&rft.date=2006-10-07&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fsearch.japantimes.co.jp%2Fcgi-bin%2Fnn20061007a4.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJapanese+war+crimes" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-34"><a href="#cite_ref-34">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFZhao2006" class="citation journal cs1">Zhao, Yali (2006). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.socialstudies.org/system/files/publications/articles/se_700706424.pdf">"Countering Textbook Distortion: War Atrocities in Asia, 1937–1945"</a> (PDF). National Council for the Social Studies. 7: 424–430. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230322174118/https://www.socialstudies.org/system/files/publications/articles/se_700706424.pdf">Archived</a> (PDF) from the original on 22 March 2023. Retrieved 19 October 2023.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=National+Council+for+the+Social+Studies&rft.atitle=Countering+Textbook+Distortion%3A+War+Atrocities+in+Asia%2C+1937%E2%80%931945&rft.volume=7&rft.pages=424-430&rft.date=2006&rft.aulast=Zhao&rft.aufirst=Yali&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.socialstudies.org%2Fsystem%2Ffiles%2Fpublications%2Farticles%2Fse_700706424.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJapanese+war+crimes" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-35"><a href="#cite_ref-35">^</a> See, for example: <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.airpower.maxwell.af.mil/airchronicles/aureview/1979/nov-dec/symonds.html">Craig Symonds, "War, Politics, and Grand Strategy in the Pacific, 1941–1945", Air University Review, November–December 1979</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20061004230225/http://www.airpower.maxwell.af.mil/airchronicles/aureview/1979/nov-dec/symonds.html">Archived</a> 4 October 2006 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> (Access date: 15 February 2007): "most American historians, date the war from December 1941". See also <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.archives.gov/iwg/japanese-war-crimes/introductory-essays.pdf">Edward Drea, "Introduction", in Edward Drea, Greg Bradsher, Robert Hanyok, James Lide, Michael Petersen & Daqing Yang, 2006, Researching Japanese War Crimes Records</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20160303000000/http://www.archives.gov/iwg/japanese-war-crimes/introductory-essays.pdf">Archived</a> 3 March 2016 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> (National Archives and Records Administration, Washington D.C.; p. 15): "The atrocities at Nanjing occurred four years before the United States entered the war. At that time, the U.S. government did not have a large military or diplomatic intelligence network in China. A handful of trained military or embassy personnel reported on events, sometimes second-hand; compared with the sensational press coverage, the official U.S. documentation was scant. As a result, with the exception of the records produced during the postwar Class A war crimes trial of the commanding general of Japanese forces deemed responsible for the Rape of Nanking, there are few materials on this subject at the National Archives." See also, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.history.ac.uk/reviews/paper/shillonyBA.html">Ben-Ami Shillony, "Book Review, Book Title: A History of Japan, 1582–1941 Internal and External Worlds, Author: L. M. Cullen Professor of History, Trinity College, Dublin", (Institute of Historical Research, February 2004)</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20060928210616/http://www.history.ac.uk/reviews/paper/shillonyBA.html">Archived</a> 28 September 2006 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> (Access date: 15 February 2007); Grant K. Goodman, "Review 'The Kempei Tai in the Philippines: 1941–1945' by Ma. Felisa A. Syjuco" Pacific Affairs, v. 64, no. 2 (Summer 1991), pp. 282–83 (Access date: 15 February 2007); <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www1.umn.edu/humanrts/undocs/html/IDEC601.HTM">United Nations Human Rights Committee, "Fifty-Ninth Session, 24 March – 11 April 1997, Decisions, Communication No. 601/1994" (3 April 1997)</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20140521031910/http://www1.umn.edu/humanrts/undocs/html/IDEC601.HTM">Archived</a> 21 May 2014 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> (Access date: 15 February 2007);<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.house.gov/bordallo/gwcrc/RL30606.pdf">Gary K. Reynolds, 2002, U.S. Prisoners of War and Civilian American Citizens Captured and Interned by Japan in World War II: The Issue of Compensation by Japan(Congressional Research Service, The Library of Congress, 17 December 2002)</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20111214144911/http://www.house.gov/bordallo/gwcrc/RL30606.pdf">Archived</a> 14 December 2011 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> Access date: 15 February 2007. </li> <li id="cite_note-The_Korea_Times-36">^ <a href="#cite_ref-The_Korea_Times_36-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-The_Korea_Times_36-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFShin2017" class="citation web cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">Shin, Hee-seok (10 February 2017). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20181227230607/http://m.koreatimes.co.kr/phone/news/view.jsp?req_newsidx=103587">"Korean War criminals tried as Japanese"</a>. <a href="/wiki/The_Korea_Times" title="The Korea Times">The Korea Times</a> (in Korean). Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://m.koreatimes.co.kr/phone/news/view.jsp?req_newsidx=103587">the original</a> on 27 December 2018. Retrieved 10 February 2017.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=The+Korea+Times&rft.atitle=Korean+War+criminals+tried+as+Japanese&rft.date=2017-02-10&rft.aulast=Shin&rft.aufirst=Hee-seok&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fm.koreatimes.co.kr%2Fphone%2Fnews%2Fview.jsp%3Freq_newsidx%3D103587&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJapanese+war+crimes" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-37"><a href="#cite_ref-37">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFde_Jong2002" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Loe_de_Jong" title="Loe de Jong">de Jong, Louis</a> (2002). The collapse of a colonial society. The Dutch in Indonesia during the Second World War. Verhandelingen van het Koninklijk Instituut voor Taal-, Land- en Volkenkunde 206. translation J. Kilian, C. Kist and J. Rudge, introduction J. Kemperman. Leiden, The Netherlands: KITLV Press. pp. 40, 42, 45, 203–04, 305–07, 311–12, 328, 373–74, 386, 391, 393, 429, 488. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/90-6718-203-6" title="Special:BookSources/90-6718-203-6"><bdi>90-6718-203-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+collapse+of+a+colonial+society.+The+Dutch+in+Indonesia+during+the+Second+World+War&rft.place=Leiden%2C+The+Netherlands&rft.series=Verhandelingen+van+het+Koninklijk+Instituut+voor+Taal-%2C+Land-+en+Volkenkunde+206&rft.pages=40%2C+42%2C+45%2C+203-04%2C+305-07%2C+311-12%2C+328%2C+373-74%2C+386%2C+391%2C+393%2C+429%2C+488&rft.pub=KITLV+Press&rft.date=2002&rft.isbn=90-6718-203-6&rft.aulast=de+Jong&rft.aufirst=Louis&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJapanese+war+crimes" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Harmsen,_Peter_2012,_p._4-38">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Harmsen,_Peter_2012,_p._4_38-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Harmsen,_Peter_2012,_p._4_38-1">b</a> Harmsen, Peter, <a href="/wiki/Jiji_Press" title="Jiji Press">Jiji Press</a>, "Taiwanese seeks payback for brutal service in Imperial Army", <a href="/wiki/The_Japan_Times" title="The Japan Times">The Japan Times</a>, 26 September 2012, p. 4 </li> <li id="cite_note-Breen-39">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Breen_39-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Breen_39-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBreen" class="citation web cs1">Breen, Michael. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20070216020355/http://times.hankooki.com/lpage/opinion/200611/kt2006111619251454330.htm">"Truth Commission Should Be Truthful"</a>. <a href="/wiki/The_Korea_Times" title="The Korea Times">The Korea Times</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://times.hankooki.com/lpage/opinion/200611/kt2006111619251454330.htm">the original</a> on 16 February 2007. <q>The Truth Commission on Forced Mobilization under the Japanese Imperialism (sic) announced on Monday that 83 of the 148 Koreans convicted of war crimes were victims of Japan and should not be blamed. A ruling on three more is pending, and families have requested a review of the 23 Koreans who were executed.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=The+Korea+Times&rft.atitle=Truth+Commission+Should+Be+Truthful&rft.aulast=Breen&rft.aufirst=Michael&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Ftimes.hankooki.com%2Flpage%2Fopinion%2F200611%2Fkt2006111619251454330.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJapanese+war+crimes" class="Z3988"> (<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20240608152933/http://ingakankei.blog130.fc2.com/blog-entry-126.html?sp">article text</a>) </li> <li id="cite_note-40"><a href="#cite_ref-40">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRyall2014" class="citation news cs1">Ryall, Julian (11 November 2014). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/asia/japan/11220761/British-ex-POW-in-Japanese-camp-disgusted-by-guard-demands-for-compensation.html">"British ex-POW in Japanese camp "disgusted" by guard demands for compensation"</a>. The Daily Telegraph. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20220111/https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/asia/japan/11220761/British-ex-POW-in-Japanese-camp-disgusted-by-guard-demands-for-compensation.html">Archived</a> from the original on 11 January 2022. Retrieved 10 February 2017.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Daily+Telegraph&rft.atitle=British+ex-POW+in+Japanese+camp+%22disgusted%22+by+guard+demands+for+compensation&rft.date=2014-11-11&rft.aulast=Ryall&rft.aufirst=Julian&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.telegraph.co.uk%2Fnews%2Fworldnews%2Fasia%2Fjapan%2F11220761%2FBritish-ex-POW-in-Japanese-camp-disgusted-by-guard-demands-for-compensation.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJapanese+war+crimes" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Kawasaki-1996-41"><a href="#cite_ref-Kawasaki-1996_41-0">^</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.murdoch.edu.au/elaw/issues/v3n2/kawasaki.html">Yutaka Kawasaki, "Was the 1910 Annexation Treaty Between Korea and Japan Concluded Legally?" Murdoch University Electronic Journal of Law, v. 3, no. 2 (July 1996)</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20190216011130/http://www.murdoch.edu.au/elaw/issues/v3n2/kawasaki.html">Archived</a> 16 February 2019 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-42"><a href="#cite_ref-42">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20120205211218/http://www.cicr.org/ihl.nsf/WebSign?ReadForm&id=305&ps=P">"ICRC databases on international humanitarian law"</a>. Cicr.org. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.cicr.org/ihl.nsf/WebSign?ReadForm&id=305&ps=P">the original</a> on 5 February 2012. Retrieved 21 July 2013.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=ICRC+databases+on+international+humanitarian+law&rft.pub=Cicr.org&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.cicr.org%2Fihl.nsf%2FWebSign%3FReadForm%26id%3D305%26ps%3DP&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJapanese+war+crimes" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-43"><a href="#cite_ref-43">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBlackburnHack2011" class="citation book cs1">Blackburn, Kevin; Hack, Karl, eds. (13 October 2011). Forgotten Captives in Japanese-Occupied Asia (Routledge Studies in the Modern History of Asia). <a href="/wiki/Routledge" title="Routledge">Routledge</a>. p. 12. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-415-69005-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-415-69005-8"><bdi>978-0-415-69005-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Forgotten+Captives+in+Japanese-Occupied+Asia+%28Routledge+Studies+in+the+Modern+History+of+Asia%29&rft.pages=12&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=2011-10-13&rft.isbn=978-0-415-69005-8&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJapanese+war+crimes" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Tanaka_Hidden_Horrors_pp72-73-44">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Tanaka_Hidden_Horrors_pp72-73_44-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Tanaka_Hidden_Horrors_pp72-73_44-1">b</a> Tanaka Hidden Horrors pp. 72–73 </li> <li id="cite_note-45"><a href="#cite_ref-45">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation news cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20081216075736/http://findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_m0XPQ/is_/ai_59198009">"German-POW camp reveals little-known history of Japan"</a>. <a href="/wiki/Kyodo_News" title="Kyodo News">Kyodo News</a>. 31 January 2000. 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Retrieved 20 October 2008.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.atitle=German-POW+camp+reveals+little-known+history+of+Japan&rft.date=2000-01-31&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Ffindarticles.com%2Fp%2Farticles%2Fmi_m0XPQ%2Fis_%2Fai_59198009&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJapanese+war+crimes" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-46"><a href="#cite_ref-46">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation news cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.taipeitimes.com/News/feat/archives/2004/03/23/2003107480">"Japanese POW camp was a little slice of home"</a>. <a href="/wiki/Agence_France-Presse" title="Agence France-Presse">Agence France-Presse</a>. 23 March 2004. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20190825100420/http://www.taipeitimes.com/News/feat/archives/2004/03/23/2003107480">Archived</a> from the original on 25 August 2019. Retrieved 20 October 2008.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.atitle=Japanese+POW+camp+was+a+little+slice+of+home&rft.date=2004-03-23&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.taipeitimes.com%2FNews%2Ffeat%2Farchives%2F2004%2F03%2F23%2F2003107480&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJapanese+war+crimes" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-47"><a href="#cite_ref-47">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBorch2017" class="citation book cs1">Borch, Fred (2017). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=sn8yDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA31">Military Trials of War Criminals in the Netherlands East Indies 1946–1949</a>. Oxford University Press. pp. 31–32. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0191082955" title="Special:BookSources/978-0191082955"><bdi>978-0191082955</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20231019132936/https://books.google.com/books?id=sn8yDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA31#v=onepage&q&f=false">Archived</a> from the original on 19 October 2023. Retrieved 19 October 2023.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Military+Trials+of+War+Criminals+in+the+Netherlands+East+Indies+1946%E2%80%931949&rft.pages=31-32&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2017&rft.isbn=978-0191082955&rft.aulast=Borch&rft.aufirst=Fred&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Dsn8yDwAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPA31&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJapanese+war+crimes" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-48"><a href="#cite_ref-48">^</a> De hundra skratten, Japanska träsnitt som maktens bildspråk (The hundred laughs, Japanese woodcuts as an imagery of power), edited Lars Vargö. Carlssons in cooperation with the Museum of Far Eastern Antiquities (2011) ISBN 978 919790371 4 </li> <li id="cite_note-49"><a href="#cite_ref-49">^</a> Lamong-Brown, Raymond. "Kempeitai: Japan's Dreaded Military Police". Sutton Publishing, 1998. </li> <li id="cite_note-toland301-50">^ <a href="#cite_ref-toland301_50-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-toland301_50-1">b</a> <a href="/wiki/John_Toland_(author)" class="mw-redirect" title="John Toland (author)">John Toland</a>, <a href="/wiki/The_Rising_Sun:_The_Decline_and_Fall_of_the_Japanese_Empire_1936%E2%80%931945" class="mw-redirect" title="The Rising Sun: The Decline and Fall of the Japanese Empire 1936–1945">The Rising Sun: The Decline and Fall of the Japanese Empire 1936–1945</a>. p. 301. Random House. New York. 1970 </li> <li id="cite_note-51"><a href="#cite_ref-51">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFde_Jong2002" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Loe_de_Jong" title="Loe de Jong">de Jong, Louis</a> (2002) [2002]. The collapse of a colonial society. The Dutch in Indonesia during the Second World War. Verhandelingen van het Koninklijk Instituut voor Taal-, Land- en Volkenkunde 206. translation J. Kilian, C. Kist and J. Rudge, introduction J. Kemperman. Leiden, The Netherlands: KITLV Press. pp. 289, 311, 417. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/90-6718-203-6" title="Special:BookSources/90-6718-203-6"><bdi>90-6718-203-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+collapse+of+a+colonial+society.+The+Dutch+in+Indonesia+during+the+Second+World+War&rft.place=Leiden%2C+The+Netherlands&rft.series=Verhandelingen+van+het+Koninklijk+Instituut+voor+Taal-%2C+Land-+en+Volkenkunde+206&rft.pages=289%2C+311%2C+417&rft.pub=KITLV+Press&rft.date=2002&rft.isbn=90-6718-203-6&rft.aulast=de+Jong&rft.aufirst=Louis&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJapanese+war+crimes" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-52"><a href="#cite_ref-52">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSmith2014" class="citation web cs1">Smith, Noah (9 December 2014). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.japantimes.co.jp/opinion/2014/12/09/commentary/japan-commentary/high-level-disorganization-still-hobbles-japan/">"High-level disorganization still hobbles Japan"</a>. 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New York: Modern Library. pp. 23–24. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8129-6858-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8129-6858-3"><bdi>978-0-8129-6858-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+rising+sun%3A+the+decline+and+fall+of+the+Japanese+empire%2C+1936-1945&rft.place=New+York&rft.series=Modern+Library+war&rft.pages=23-24&rft.edition=Modern+Library+pbk&rft.pub=Modern+Library&rft.date=2003&rft.isbn=978-0-8129-6858-3&rft.aulast=Toland&rft.aufirst=John&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJapanese+war+crimes" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-54"><a href="#cite_ref-54">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRigg2024" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Bryan_Mark_Rigg" title="Bryan Mark Rigg">Rigg, Bryan Mark</a> (2024). Japan's Holocaust: History of Imperial Japan's Mass Murder and Rape During World War II. Knox Press. p. 15. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781637586884" title="Special:BookSources/9781637586884"><bdi>9781637586884</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Japan%27s+Holocaust%3A+History+of+Imperial+Japan%27s+Mass+Murder+and+Rape+During+World+War+II&rft.pages=15&rft.pub=Knox+Press&rft.date=2024&rft.isbn=9781637586884&rft.aulast=Rigg&rft.aufirst=Bryan+Mark&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJapanese+war+crimes" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-sterling-55"><a href="#cite_ref-sterling_55-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation news cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://educationforum.ipbhost.com/index.php?showtopic=9196">"Sterling and Peggy Seagrave: Gold Warriors"</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20080613202437/http://educationforum.ipbhost.com/index.php?showtopic=9196">Archived</a> from the original on 13 June 2008. 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Retrieved 19 October 2023.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Alive+and+safe%2C+the+brutal+Japanese+soldiers+who+butchered+20%2C000&rft.date=2012-04-12&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.standard.co.uk%2Fhp%2Ffront%2Falive-and-safe-the-brutal-japanese-soldiers-who-butchered-20-000-allied-seamen-in-cold-blood-6636703.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJapanese+war+crimes" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-62"><a href="#cite_ref-62">^</a> Mark Felton, Slaughter at Sea: The Story of Japan's Naval War Crimes (2007). </li> <li id="cite_note-63"><a href="#cite_ref-63">^</a> Toland, Infamy </li> <li id="cite_note-64"><a href="#cite_ref-64">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20140201191435/http://www.law.virginia.edu/html/news/2006_fall/iguchi.htm">"Japan's Military Stopped Warning of Pearl Harbor Attack, Says Iguchi"</a>. 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Retrieved 22 October 2006.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=China+Weekly+Review%2C+October+22%2C+1938.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww2u.biglobe.ne.jp%2F%257Esus%2Fcrime%2581%40q.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJapanese+war+crimes" class="Z3988">[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Link_rot" title="Wikipedia:Link rot">dead link</a>‍] </li> <li id="cite_note-rummel-77"><a href="#cite_ref-rummel_77-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.hawaii.edu/powerkills/SOD.CHAP3.HTM">"Rummell, Statistics"</a>. Hawaii.edu. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20100323044733/http://www.hawaii.edu/powerkills/SOD.CHAP3.HTM">Archived</a> from the original on 23 March 2010. 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Oxford: <a href="/wiki/Oxford_University_Press" title="Oxford University Press">Oxford University Press</a>. p. 182. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-860446-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-860446-4"><bdi>978-0-19-860446-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Oxford+Companion+to+World+War+II&rft.place=Oxford&rft.pages=182&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2001&rft.isbn=978-0-19-860446-4&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJapanese+war+crimes" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-The_Routledge_History_of_Genocide-80"><a href="#cite_ref-The_Routledge_History_of_Genocide_80-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCarmichaelMaguire2015" class="citation book cs1">Carmichael, Cathie; Maguire, Richard (2015). 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Retrieved 19 October 2023.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Forgotten+Campaign%3A+The+Dutch+East+Indies+Campaign+1941%E2%80%931942&rft.atitle=The+Carnage+at+Laha%2C+February+1942&rft.date=1999%2F2000&rft.aulast=L&rft.aufirst=Klemen&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwarfare.gq%2Fdutcheastindies%2Flaha_massacre.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJapanese+war+crimes" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Bangka-105">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Bangka_105-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Bangka_105-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFL1999–2000" class="citation web cs1">L, Klemen (1999–2000). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://warfare.gq/dutcheastindies/bangka_massacre.html">"The Bangka Island Massacre, February 1942"</a>. 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Dîvân Dısıplınlerarasi Çalişmalar Dergısi. 15 (29): 133–170.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=D%C3%AEv%C3%A2n+D%C4%B1s%C4%B1pl%C4%B1nlerarasi+%C3%87ali%C5%9Fmalar+Derg%C4%B1si&rft.atitle=The+Chinese+Islamic+%22Goodwill+Mission+to+the+Middle+East%22+During+the+Anti-Japanese+War&rft.volume=15&rft.issue=29&rft.pages=133-170&rft.date=2010-02&rft.aulast=Wan&rft.aufirst=Lei&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdergipark.org.tr%2Ftr%2Fdownload%2Farticle-file%2F254594&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJapanese+war+crimes" class="Z3988"> archive url=<a rel="nofollow" class="external free" href="https://isamveri.org/pdfdrg/D01525/2010_29/2010_29_LEIW.pdf">https://isamveri.org/pdfdrg/D01525/2010_29/2010_29_LEIW.pdf</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external free" href="http://ktp.isam.org.tr/detayilhmklzt.php?navdil=eng">http://ktp.isam.org.tr/detayilhmklzt.php?navdil=eng</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-107"><a href="#cite_ref-107">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.19371213.com.cn/en/venerating/testimonies/201811/t20181107_2231834.html">"Testimony of Shen Xi'enpublisher=The Memorial Hall of the Victims in Nanjing Massacre by Japanese Invaders"</a>. Add: No. 418, Shui Simen street, Nanjing.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Testimony+of+Shen+Xi%27enpublisher%3DThe+Memorial+Hall+of+the+Victims+in+Nanjing+Massacre+by+Japanese+Invaders&rft.place=Add%3A+No.+418%2C+Shui+Simen+street%2C+Nanjing&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.19371213.com.cn%2Fen%2Fvenerating%2Ftestimonies%2F201811%2Ft20181107_2231834.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJapanese+war+crimes" class="Z3988"><code class="cs1-code">{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Cite_web" title="Template:Cite web">cite web</a>}}</code>: CS1 maint: location (<a href="/wiki/Category:CS1_maint:_location" title="Category:CS1 maint: location">link</a>) </li> <li id="cite_note-108"><a href="#cite_ref-108">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20100308023941/https://www.history.com/this-day-in-history/chinese-and-suluks-revolt-against-japanese-in-north-borneo">"Oct 19, 1943: Chinese and Suluks revolt against Japanese in North Borneo"</a>. History.com. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.history.com/this-day-in-history/chinese-and-suluks-revolt-against-japanese-in-north-borneo">the original</a> on 8 March 2010.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=History.com&rft.atitle=Oct+19%2C+1943%3A+Chinese+and+Suluks+revolt+against+Japanese+in+North+Borneo&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.history.com%2Fthis-day-in-history%2Fchinese-and-suluks-revolt-against-japanese-in-north-borneo&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJapanese+war+crimes" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-109"><a href="#cite_ref-109">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMaekawa2013" class="citation book cs1">Maekawa, Kaori (2013). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=NZWqvMBu80kC&dq=%22trials+took+place+only+for+selected+cases%2C+and+many+people+were+killed+without+trial%22&pg=PA160">"Chapter Ten The Pontianak Incidents and the Ethnic Chinese in Wartime Western Borneo"</a>. In Kratoska, Paul H. (ed.). Southeast Asian Minorities in the Wartime Japanese Empire. Routledge. p. 160. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1136125065" title="Special:BookSources/978-1136125065"><bdi>978-1136125065</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Chapter+Ten+The+Pontianak+Incidents+and+the+Ethnic+Chinese+in+Wartime+Western+Borneo&rft.btitle=Southeast+Asian+Minorities+in+the+Wartime+Japanese+Empire&rft.pages=160&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=2013&rft.isbn=978-1136125065&rft.aulast=Maekawa&rft.aufirst=Kaori&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DNZWqvMBu80kC%26dq%3D%2522trials%2Btook%2Bplace%2Bonly%2Bfor%2Bselected%2Bcases%252C%2Band%2Bmany%2Bpeople%2Bwere%2Bkilled%2Bwithout%2Btrial%2522%26pg%3DPA160&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJapanese+war+crimes" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-110"><a href="#cite_ref-110">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPost2009" class="citation book cs1">Post, Peter, ed. (2009). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=4t95DwAAQBAJ&dq=%22victims+of+the+killings+had+varying+ethnic+backgrounds%3A+Dutch%2C+Eurasian%2C+Malay%2C+bugis%22&pg=PA212">"4. Occupation: Coercion and Control"</a>. The Encyclopedia of Indonesia in the Pacific War: In cooperation with the Netherlands Institute for War Documentation. Handbook of Oriental Studies. Section 3 Southeast Asia. BRILL. p. 212. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-9004190177" title="Special:BookSources/978-9004190177"><bdi>978-9004190177</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=4.+Occupation%3A+Coercion+and+Control&rft.btitle=The+Encyclopedia+of+Indonesia+in+the+Pacific+War%3A+In+cooperation+with+the+Netherlands+Institute+for+War+Documentation&rft.series=Handbook+of+Oriental+Studies.+Section+3+Southeast+Asia&rft.pages=212&rft.pub=BRILL&rft.date=2009&rft.isbn=978-9004190177&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D4t95DwAAQBAJ%26dq%3D%2522victims%2Bof%2Bthe%2Bkillings%2Bhad%2Bvarying%2Bethnic%2Bbackgrounds%253A%2BDutch%252C%2BEurasian%252C%2BMalay%252C%2Bbugis%2522%26pg%3DPA212&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJapanese+war+crimes" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-111"><a href="#cite_ref-111">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFTanasaldy2012" class="citation book cs1">Tanasaldy, Taufiq (2012). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=PbFiAAAAQBAJ&dq=%22many+Malay+aristocrats%2C+political+activists%2C+community+leaders%2C+and%22&pg=PA74">Regime Change and Ethnic Politics in Indonesia: Dayak Politics of West Kalimantan</a>. 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BRILL. pp. 74, 75. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-9004253483" title="Special:BookSources/978-9004253483"><bdi>978-9004253483</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Regime+Change+and+Ethnic+Politics+in+Indonesia%3A+Dayak+Politics+of+West+Kalimantan&rft.series=Verhandelingen+van+het+Koninklijk+Instituut+voor+Taal-%2C+Land-+en+Volkenkunde%2C+Land-+en+Volkenkunde.Leiden+Koninklijk+Instituut+voor+Taal-&rft.pages=74%2C+75&rft.edition=reprint&rft.pub=BRILL&rft.date=2012&rft.isbn=978-9004253483&rft.aulast=Tanasaldy&rft.aufirst=Taufiq&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DPbFiAAAAQBAJ%26dq%3D%2522many%2BMalay%2Baristocrats%252C%2Bpolitical%2Bactivists%252C%2Bcommunity%2Bleaders%252C%2Band%2522%26pg%3DPA74&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJapanese+war+crimes" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-112"><a href="#cite_ref-112">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFTanasaldy2012" class="citation book cs1">Tanasaldy, Taufiq (2012). "3 Dayaks prior to independence (up to 1945)". <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://brill.com/downloadpdf/book/9789004253483/B9789004253483-s004.xml">Regime Change and Ethnic Politics in Indonesia : Dayak Politics of West Kalimantan</a>. Verhandelingen van het Koninklijk Instituut voor Taal-, Land- en Volkenkunde. Vol. 278. Leiden: BRILL. p. 50, 60. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-90-04-25348-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-90-04-25348-3"><bdi>978-90-04-25348-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=3+Dayaks+prior+to+independence+%28up+to+1945%29&rft.btitle=Regime+Change+and+Ethnic+Politics+in+Indonesia+%3A+Dayak+Politics+of+West+Kalimantan&rft.place=Leiden&rft.series=Verhandelingen+van+het+Koninklijk+Instituut+voor+Taal-%2C+Land-+en+Volkenkunde&rft.pages=50%2C+60&rft.pub=BRILL&rft.date=2012&rft.isbn=978-90-04-25348-3&rft.aulast=Tanasaldy&rft.aufirst=Taufiq&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbrill.com%2Fdownloadpdf%2Fbook%2F9789004253483%2FB9789004253483-s004.xml&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJapanese+war+crimes" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-113"><a href="#cite_ref-113">^</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external free" href="https://brill.com/downloadpdf/book/9789004253483/B9789004253483-s004.pdf?pdfJsInlineViewToken=1557905106&inlineView=true">https://brill.com/downloadpdf/book/9789004253483/B9789004253483-s004.pdf?pdfJsInlineViewToken=1557905106&inlineView=true</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-114"><a href="#cite_ref-114">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFTanasaldy2012" class="citation book cs1">Tanasaldy, Taufiq (2012). 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Brill. pp. 49–78. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/10.1163/j.ctvbnm4q8.6">10.1163/j.ctvbnm4q8.6</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Dayaks+Prior+to+Independence+%28up+to+1945%29&rft.btitle=Regime+Change+and+Ethnic+Politics+in+Indonesia%3A+Dayak+Politics+of+West+Kalimantan&rft.pages=49-78&rft.pub=Brill&rft.date=2012&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F10.1163%2Fj.ctvbnm4q8.6%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.aulast=Tanasaldy&rft.aufirst=Taufiq&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F10.1163%2Fj.ctvbnm4q8.6&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJapanese+war+crimes" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-115"><a href="#cite_ref-115">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://web.archive.org/web/20170722214245/https://oapen.org/download?type=document&docid=421239">"OAPEN Home"</a>. 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A Plague upon Humanity: The Secret Genocide of Axis Japan's Germ Warfare Operation. HarperCollins Publishers. pp. 78–79. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-06-018625-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-06-018625-8"><bdi>978-0-06-018625-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+Plague+upon+Humanity%3A+The+Secret+Genocide+of+Axis+Japan%27s+Germ+Warfare+Operation&rft.pages=78-79&rft.pub=HarperCollins+Publishers&rft.date=2004&rft.isbn=978-0-06-018625-8&rft.aulast=Barenblatt&rft.aufirst=Daniel&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJapanese+war+crimes" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-123"><a href="#cite_ref-123">^</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://query.nytimes.com/gst/fullpage.html?res=990CE2D71630F934A25750C0A963958260&sec=health&spon=&pagewanted=print">"Unmasking Horror"</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20110317115032/http://query.nytimes.com/gst/fullpage.html?res=990CE2D71630F934A25750C0A963958260&sec=health&spon=&pagewanted=print">Archived</a> 17 March 2011 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>. Nicholas D. Kristof (17 March 1995) New York Times. A special report.; Japan Confronting Gruesome War Atrocity </li> <li id="cite_note-124"><a href="#cite_ref-124">^</a> Byrd, Gregory Dean, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://etd-submit.etsu.edu/etd/theses/available/etd-0403105-134542/unrestricted/ByrdG042805f.pdf">General Ishii Shiro: His Legacy is that of a Genius and Madman</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20060618072831/http://etd-submit.etsu.edu/etd/theses/available/etd-0403105-134542/unrestricted/ByrdG042805f.pdf">Archived</a> 2006-06-18 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>, p. 33. </li> <li id="cite_note-125"><a href="#cite_ref-125">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGruhl2017" class="citation book cs1">Gruhl, Werner (2017). Imperial Japan's World War Two: 1931-1945. Routledge. p. 82. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-351-51324-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-351-51324-1"><bdi>978-1-351-51324-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Imperial+Japan%27s+World+War+Two%3A+1931-1945&rft.pages=82&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=2017&rft.isbn=978-1-351-51324-1&rft.aulast=Gruhl&rft.aufirst=Werner&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJapanese+war+crimes" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-126"><a href="#cite_ref-126">^</a> Daniel Barenblatt, A Plague upon Humanity, 2004, pp. xii, 173. </li> <li id="cite_note-127"><a href="#cite_ref-127">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation news cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/asia/japan/8338842/Japan-digs-up-site-linked-to-World-War-2-human-experiments.html">"Japan digs up site linked to WWII human experiments"</a>. The Telegraph. London. 21 February 2011. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20220111/https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/asia/japan/8338842/Japan-digs-up-site-linked-to-World-War-2-human-experiments.html">Archived</a> from the original on 11 January 2022.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Telegraph&rft.atitle=Japan+digs+up+site+linked+to+WWII+human+experiments&rft.date=2011-02-21&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.telegraph.co.uk%2Fnews%2Fworldnews%2Fasia%2Fjapan%2F8338842%2FJapan-digs-up-site-linked-to-World-War-2-human-experiments.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJapanese+war+crimes" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-128"><a href="#cite_ref-128">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMcNeill2011" class="citation news cs1">McNeill, David (22 February 2011). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.independent.co.uk/news/world/asia/japan-confronts-truth-about-its-germ-warfare-tests-on-prisoners-of-war-2221715.html">"Japan confronts truth about its germ warfare tests on prisoners of war"</a>. The Independent. London. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20220217095028/https://www.independent.co.uk/news/world/asia/japan-confronts-truth-about-its-germ-warfare-tests-on-prisoners-of-war-2221715.html">Archived</a> from the original on 17 February 2022. Retrieved 19 October 2023.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Independent&rft.atitle=Japan+confronts+truth+about+its+germ+warfare+tests+on+prisoners+of+war&rft.date=2011-02-22&rft.aulast=McNeill&rft.aufirst=David&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.independent.co.uk%2Fnews%2Fworld%2Fasia%2Fjapan-confronts-truth-about-its-germ-warfare-tests-on-prisoners-of-war-2221715.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJapanese+war+crimes" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-129"><a href="#cite_ref-129">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDrea2006" class="citation book cs1">Drea, Edward (2006). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.archives.gov/files/iwg/japanese-war-crimes/introductory-essays.pdf">Researching Japanese War Crimes Records</a> (PDF). p. 37. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20160303190336/http://www.archives.gov/iwg/japanese-war-crimes/introductory-essays.pdf">Archived</a> (PDF) from the original on 3 March 2016. Retrieved 19 October 2023.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Researching+Japanese+War+Crimes+Records&rft.pages=37&rft.date=2006&rft.aulast=Drea&rft.aufirst=Edward&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.archives.gov%2Ffiles%2Fiwg%2Fjapanese-war-crimes%2Fintroductory-essays.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJapanese+war+crimes" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-130"><a href="#cite_ref-130">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://pacificwrecks.com/">"Pacific Wrecks"</a>. pacificwrecks.com. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20200629123105/https://pacificwrecks.com/">Archived</a> from the original on 29 June 2020. Retrieved 19 October 2023.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=pacificwrecks.com&rft.atitle=Pacific+Wrecks&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fpacificwrecks.com%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJapanese+war+crimes" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-131"><a href="#cite_ref-131">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20111214144911/http://www.house.gov/bordallo/gwcrc/RL30606.pdf">"The Denver Post, June 1, 1995, cited by Gary K. Reynolds, 2002, "U.S. Prisoners of War and Civilian American Citizens Captured and Interned by Japan in World War II: The Issue of Compensation by Japan" (Library of Congress)"</a> (PDF). Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.house.gov/bordallo/gwcrc/RL30606.pdf">the original</a> (PDF) on 14 December 2011.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=The+Denver+Post%2C+June+1%2C+1995%2C+cited+by+Gary+K.+Reynolds%2C+2002%2C+%22U.S.+Prisoners+of+War+and+Civilian+American+Citizens+Captured+and+Interned+by+Japan+in+World+War+II%3A+The+Issue+of+Compensation+by+Japan%22+%28Library+of+Congress%29&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.house.gov%2Fbordallo%2Fgwcrc%2FRL30606.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJapanese+war+crimes" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-132"><a href="#cite_ref-132">^</a> Landas, Marc, The Fallen: A True Story of American POWs and Japanese Wartime Atrocities, Hoboken John Wiley 2004 <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-471-42119-7" title="Special:BookSources/0-471-42119-7">0-471-42119-7</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-auto1-133">^ <a href="#cite_ref-auto1_133-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-auto1_133-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFTóth2006" class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-long-vol">Tóth, Tibor (2006). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=NAzlBwAAQBAJ&dq=When+the+Japanese+army+advanced+again+into+contaminated+territory,+an+outbreak+of+intestinal+disease+caused+up+to+10,000&pg=PA19">The Implementation of Legally Binding Measures to Strengthen the Biological and Toxin Weapons Convention: Proceedings of the NATO Advanced Study Institute, held in Budapest, Hungary, 2001</a>. Vol. 150 of NATO Science Series II: Mathematics, Physics and Chemistry (illustrated ed.). Springer Science & Business Media. p. 19. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/1402020988" title="Special:BookSources/1402020988"><bdi>1402020988</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20231005004434/https://books.google.com/books?id=NAzlBwAAQBAJ&dq=When+the+Japanese+army+advanced+again+into+contaminated+territory,+an+outbreak+of+intestinal+disease+caused+up+to+10,000&pg=PA19">Archived</a> from the original on 5 October 2023. Retrieved 19 October 2023.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Implementation+of+Legally+Binding+Measures+to+Strengthen+the+Biological+and+Toxin+Weapons+Convention%3A+Proceedings+of+the+NATO+Advanced+Study+Institute%2C+held+in+Budapest%2C+Hungary%2C+2001&rft.pages=19&rft.edition=illustrated&rft.pub=Springer+Science+%26+Business+Media&rft.date=2006&rft.isbn=1402020988&rft.aulast=T%C3%B3th&rft.aufirst=Tibor&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DNAzlBwAAQBAJ%26dq%3DWhen%2Bthe%2BJapanese%2Barmy%2Badvanced%2Bagain%2Binto%2Bcontaminated%2Bterritory%2C%2Ban%2Boutbreak%2Bof%2Bintestinal%2Bdisease%2Bcaused%2Bup%2Bto%2B10%2C000%26pg%3DPA19&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJapanese+war+crimes" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-134"><a href="#cite_ref-134">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLaFleurBöhmeShimazono2007" class="citation book cs1">LaFleur, William; Böhme, Gernot; Shimazono, Susumu (2007). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=gGQYOvo9-AsC&q=Yoshimura+">Dark medicine: rationalizing unethical medical research</a>. US: Indiana University Press. p. 75. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-253-22041-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-253-22041-7"><bdi>978-0-253-22041-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Dark+medicine%3A+rationalizing+unethical+medical+research&rft.place=US&rft.pages=75&rft.pub=Indiana+University+Press&rft.date=2007&rft.isbn=978-0-253-22041-7&rft.aulast=LaFleur&rft.aufirst=William&rft.au=B%C3%B6hme%2C+Gernot&rft.au=Shimazono%2C+Susumu&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DgGQYOvo9-AsC%26q%3DYoshimura%2B&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJapanese+war+crimes" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-135"><a href="#cite_ref-135">^</a> Landas p.255 </li> <li id="cite_note-136"><a href="#cite_ref-136">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFTanabe1980" class="citation news cs1">Tanabe, Kunio Francis (12 October 1980). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.washingtonpost.com/archive/entertainment/books/1980/10/12/facts-and-fiction-of-a-japanese-war-crime/f459239a-2511-4b61-83d2-aa0d3205c394/">"Facts and Fiction of a Japanese War Crime"</a>. Washington Post. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0190-8286">0190-8286</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20170828154025/https://www.washingtonpost.com/archive/entertainment/books/1980/10/12/facts-and-fiction-of-a-japanese-war-crime/f459239a-2511-4b61-83d2-aa0d3205c394/">Archived</a> from the original on 28 August 2017. Retrieved 19 June 2023.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Washington+Post&rft.atitle=Facts+and+Fiction+of+a+Japanese+War+Crime&rft.date=1980-10-12&rft.issn=0190-8286&rft.aulast=Tanabe&rft.aufirst=Kunio+Francis&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.washingtonpost.com%2Farchive%2Fentertainment%2Fbooks%2F1980%2F10%2F12%2Ffacts-and-fiction-of-a-japanese-war-crime%2Ff459239a-2511-4b61-83d2-aa0d3205c394%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJapanese+war+crimes" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-ciadoc-137"><a href="#cite_ref-ciadoc_137-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.cia.gov/readingroom/docs/ISHII%2C%20SHIRO_0005.pdf">"CIA Special Collection ISHII, SHIRO_0005"</a> (PDF). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210531174750/https://www.cia.gov/readingroom/docs/ISHII%2C%20SHIRO_0005.pdf">Archived</a> (PDF) from the original on 31 May 2021. Retrieved 5 June 2021.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=CIA+Special+Collection+ISHII%2C+SHIRO_0005&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.cia.gov%2Freadingroom%2Fdocs%2FISHII%252C%2520SHIRO_0005.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJapanese+war+crimes" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-138"><a href="#cite_ref-138">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBarenblatt2004" class="citation book cs1">Barenblatt, Daniel (2004). A Plague upon Humanity: The Secret Genocide of Axis Japan's Germ Warfare Operation. HarperCollins Publishers. pp. 32–33. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-06-018625-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-06-018625-8"><bdi>978-0-06-018625-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+Plague+upon+Humanity%3A+The+Secret+Genocide+of+Axis+Japan%27s+Germ+Warfare+Operation&rft.pages=32-33&rft.pub=HarperCollins+Publishers&rft.date=2004&rft.isbn=978-0-06-018625-8&rft.aulast=Barenblatt&rft.aufirst=Daniel&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJapanese+war+crimes" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-139"><a href="#cite_ref-139">^</a> Sheldon H. Harris, Factories of Death: Japanese Biological Warfare, 1932–45, and the American Cover-up, 1994, p. 77–78 </li> <li id="cite_note-140"><a href="#cite_ref-140">^</a> Naomi Baumslag, Murderous Medicine: Nazi Doctors, Human Experimentation, and Typhus, 2005, p. 207 </li> <li id="cite_note-141"><a href="#cite_ref-141">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFStewart2011" class="citation news cs1">Stewart, Amy (25 April 2011). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.npr.org/2011/04/25/135638924/where-to-find-the-worlds-most-wicked-bugs">"Where To Find The World's Most 'Wicked Bugs': Fleas"</a>. NPR. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20190421145109/https://www.npr.org/2011/04/25/135638924/where-to-find-the-worlds-most-wicked-bugs">Archived</a> from the original on 21 April 2019. Retrieved 19 October 2023.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=NPR&rft.atitle=Where+To+Find+The+World%27s+Most+%27Wicked+Bugs%27%3A+Fleas&rft.date=2011-04-25&rft.aulast=Stewart&rft.aufirst=Amy&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.npr.org%2F2011%2F04%2F25%2F135638924%2Fwhere-to-find-the-worlds-most-wicked-bugs&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJapanese+war+crimes" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-142"><a href="#cite_ref-142">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWorking2001" class="citation web cs1">Working, Russell (5 June 2001). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.japantimes.co.jp/opinion/2001/06/05/commentary/world-commentary/the-trial-of-unit-731/">"The trial of Unit 731"</a>. <a href="/wiki/The_Japan_Times" title="The Japan Times">The Japan Times</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20170726065251/http://www.japantimes.co.jp/opinion/2001/06/05/commentary/world-commentary/the-trial-of-unit-731/">Archived</a> from the original on 26 July 2017. Retrieved 19 October 2023.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=The+Japan+Times&rft.atitle=The+trial+of+Unit+731&rft.date=2001-06-05&rft.aulast=Working&rft.aufirst=Russell&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.japantimes.co.jp%2Fopinion%2F2001%2F06%2F05%2Fcommentary%2Fworld-commentary%2Fthe-trial-of-unit-731%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJapanese+war+crimes" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Indiana_University_Press-143">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Indiana_University_Press_143-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Indiana_University_Press_143-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Indiana_University_Press_143-2">c</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLaFleurBöhmeShimazono2007" class="citation book cs1">LaFleur, William; Böhme, Gernot; Shimazono, Susumu (2007). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=gGQYOvo9-AsC&q=Yoshimura+">Dark medicine: rationalizing unethical medical research</a>. US: Indiana University Press. pp. 77–78. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-253-22041-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-253-22041-7"><bdi>978-0-253-22041-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Dark+medicine%3A+rationalizing+unethical+medical+research&rft.place=US&rft.pages=77-78&rft.pub=Indiana+University+Press&rft.date=2007&rft.isbn=978-0-253-22041-7&rft.aulast=LaFleur&rft.aufirst=William&rft.au=B%C3%B6hme%2C+Gernot&rft.au=Shimazono%2C+Susumu&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DgGQYOvo9-AsC%26q%3DYoshimura%2B&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJapanese+war+crimes" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-144"><a href="#cite_ref-144">^</a> BBC <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/americas/6185442.stm">"Japanese doctor admits POW abuse"</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20220217105938/http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/americas/6185442.stm">Archived</a> 17 February 2022 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>. BBC News. Accessed 26 November 2006. </li> <li id="cite_note-145"><a href="#cite_ref-145">^</a> Kyodo News Agency, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://asia.news.yahoo.com/061125/kyodo/d8lk5da00.html">"Ex-navy officer admits to vivisection of war prisoners in Philippines"</a>, Yahoo! Asia News[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Link_rot" title="Wikipedia:Link rot">dead link</a>‍] </li> <li id="cite_note-146"><a href="#cite_ref-146">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20141213021214/http://www.bt.com.bn/focus/2007/10/31/a_life_haunted_by_wwii_surgical_killings">"A life haunted by WWII surgical killings : BT News"</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.bt.com.bn/focus/2007/10/31/a_life_haunted_by_wwii_surgical_killings">the original</a> on 13 December 2014. Retrieved 8 May 2023.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=A+life+haunted+by+WWII+surgical+killings+%3A+BT+News&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.bt.com.bn%2Ffocus%2F2007%2F10%2F31%2Fa_life_haunted_by_wwii_surgical_killings&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJapanese+war+crimes" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-147"><a href="#cite_ref-147">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20140317024425/https://www.google.com/hostednews/afp/article/ALeqM5ht5P8U54dLa7dH9mqjKyurq0zQMw?hl=en">"AFP: Japanese veteran haunted by WWII surgical killings"</a>. 17 March 2014. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.google.com/hostednews/afp/article/ALeqM5ht5P8U54dLa7dH9mqjKyurq0zQMw?hl=en">the original</a> on 17 March 2014.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=AFP%3A+Japanese+veteran+haunted+by+WWII+surgical+killings&rft.date=2014-03-17&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.google.com%2Fhostednews%2Fafp%2Farticle%2FALeqM5ht5P8U54dLa7dH9mqjKyurq0zQMw%3Fhl%3Den&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJapanese+war+crimes" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-148"><a href="#cite_ref-148">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.taipeitimes.com/News/editorials/archives/2007/11/06/2003386494">"Japanese war veteran speaks of atrocities in the Philippines"</a>. Taipei Times. 6 November 2007. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20220217095028/http://www.taipeitimes.com/News/editorials/archives/2007/11/06/2003386494">Archived</a> from the original on 17 February 2022. Retrieved 19 October 2023.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Taipei+Times&rft.atitle=Japanese+war+veteran+speaks+of+atrocities+in+the+Philippines&rft.date=2007-11-06&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.taipeitimes.com%2FNews%2Feditorials%2Farchives%2F2007%2F11%2F06%2F2003386494&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJapanese+war+crimes" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-149"><a href="#cite_ref-149">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFParry2007" class="citation web cs1">Parry (2007). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.theaustralian.com.au/news/world/dissect-them-alive-chilling-imperial-that-order-could-not-be-di/story-e6frg6so-1111113061584">"Dissect them alive: chilling Imperial that order could not be disobeyed"</a>. The Australian. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150214145048/http://www.theaustralian.com.au/news/world/dissect-them-alive-chilling-imperial-that-order-could-not-be-di/story-e6frg6so-1111113061584">Archived</a> from the original on 14 February 2015. Retrieved 19 October 2023.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=The+Australian&rft.atitle=Dissect+them+alive%3A+chilling+Imperial+that+order+could+not+be+disobeyed&rft.date=2007&rft.au=Parry&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.theaustralian.com.au%2Fnews%2Fworld%2Fdissect-them-alive-chilling-imperial-that-order-could-not-be-di%2Fstory-e6frg6so-1111113061584&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJapanese+war+crimes" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-150"><a href="#cite_ref-150">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFParry2007" class="citation news cs1">Parry, Richard Lloyd (25 February 2007). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20070228095300/http://www.timesonline.co.uk/tol/news/world/asia/article1438491.ece">"Dissect them alive: order not to be disobeyed"</a>. <a href="/wiki/The_Times" title="The Times">The Times</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.thetimes.co.uk/tto/news/world/asia/article2606909.ece">the original</a> on 28 February 2007. Retrieved 19 May 2014.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Times&rft.atitle=Dissect+them+alive%3A+order+not+to+be+disobeyed&rft.date=2007-02-25&rft.aulast=Parry&rft.aufirst=Richard+Lloyd&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.thetimes.co.uk%2Ftto%2Fnews%2Fworld%2Fasia%2Farticle2606909.ece&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJapanese+war+crimes" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-151"><a href="#cite_ref-151">^</a> "Vivisectionist recalls his day of reckoning". The Japan Times. 24 October 2007. p. 3. </li> <li id="cite_note-books.google.ca-152">^ <a href="#cite_ref-books.google.ca_152-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-books.google.ca_152-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-books.google.ca_152-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-books.google.ca_152-3">d</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLaFleurBöhmeShimazono2007" class="citation book cs1">LaFleur, William; Böhme, Gernot; Shimazono, Susumu (2007). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=gGQYOvo9-AsC&q=Yoshimura+">Dark medicine: rationalizing unethical medical research</a>. US: Indiana University Press. p. 78. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-253-22041-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-253-22041-7"><bdi>978-0-253-22041-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Dark+medicine%3A+rationalizing+unethical+medical+research&rft.place=US&rft.pages=78&rft.pub=Indiana+University+Press&rft.date=2007&rft.isbn=978-0-253-22041-7&rft.aulast=LaFleur&rft.aufirst=William&rft.au=B%C3%B6hme%2C+Gernot&rft.au=Shimazono%2C+Susumu&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DgGQYOvo9-AsC%26q%3DYoshimura%2B&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJapanese+war+crimes" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-153"><a href="#cite_ref-153">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHarris1995" class="citation book cs1">Harris, Sheldon (1995). Factories of Death: Japanese Biological Warfare, 1932–45, and the American Cover-Up. Routledge. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0415932141" title="Special:BookSources/978-0415932141"><bdi>978-0415932141</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Factories+of+Death%3A+Japanese+Biological+Warfare%2C+1932%E2%80%9345%2C+and+the+American+Cover-Up&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=1995&rft.isbn=978-0415932141&rft.aulast=Harris&rft.aufirst=Sheldon&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJapanese+war+crimes" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-154"><a href="#cite_ref-154">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLarge1995" class="citation book cs1">Large, Stephen (1995). Emperor Hirohito and Showa Japan, A Political Biography. Routledge. pp. 67–68, 134, 117–119, 144–145. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781-138009110" title="Special:BookSources/9781-138009110"><bdi>9781-138009110</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Emperor+Hirohito+and+Showa+Japan%2C+A+Political+Biography&rft.pages=67-68%2C+134%2C+117-119%2C+144-145&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=1995&rft.isbn=9781-138009110&rft.aulast=Large&rft.aufirst=Stephen&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJapanese+war+crimes" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-155"><a href="#cite_ref-155">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGuillemin2010" class="citation book cs1">Guillemin, Jeanne (2010). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=8UpCNpAJanIC&dq=general+ishii+demoted&pg=PA257">"12 National Security, Weapons of Mass Destruction, and the Selective Pursuit of Justice at the Tokyo War Crimes Trial, 1946-1948"</a>. Mirrors of Justice: Law and Power in the Post-Cold War Era. Cambridge University Press. p. 257. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0521195379" title="Special:BookSources/978-0521195379"><bdi>978-0521195379</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=12+National+Security%2C+Weapons+of+Mass+Destruction%2C+and+the+Selective+Pursuit+of+Justice+at+the+Tokyo+War+Crimes+Trial%2C+1946-1948&rft.btitle=Mirrors+of+Justice%3A+Law+and+Power+in+the+Post-Cold+War+Era&rft.pages=257&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2010&rft.isbn=978-0521195379&rft.aulast=Guillemin&rft.aufirst=Jeanne&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D8UpCNpAJanIC%26dq%3Dgeneral%2Bishii%2Bdemoted%26pg%3DPA257&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJapanese+war+crimes" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-156"><a href="#cite_ref-156">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGuillemin2017" class="citation book cs1">Guillemin, Jeanne (2017). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=iUs1DwAAQBAJ&dq=general+ishii+demoted&pg=PT201">Hidden Atrocities: Japanese Germ Warfare and American Obstruction of Justice at the Tokyo Trial</a>. Columbia University Press. p. 194. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0231544986" title="Special:BookSources/978-0231544986"><bdi>978-0231544986</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Hidden+Atrocities%3A+Japanese+Germ+Warfare+and+American+Obstruction+of+Justice+at+the+Tokyo+Trial&rft.pages=194&rft.pub=Columbia+University+Press&rft.date=2017&rft.isbn=978-0231544986&rft.aulast=Guillemin&rft.aufirst=Jeanne&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DiUs1DwAAQBAJ%26dq%3Dgeneral%2Bishii%2Bdemoted%26pg%3DPT201&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJapanese+war+crimes" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-157"><a href="#cite_ref-157">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDrea2006" class="citation book cs1">Drea, Edward (2006). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.archives.gov/files/iwg/japanese-war-crimes/introductory-essays.pdf">Researching Japanese War Crimes Introductory Essay</a> (PDF). National Archives and Records Administration for the Nazi War Crimes and Japanese Imperial Government Records Interagency Working Group. p. 142. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/1-880875-28-4" title="Special:BookSources/1-880875-28-4"><bdi>1-880875-28-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Researching+Japanese+War+Crimes+Introductory+Essay&rft.pages=142&rft.pub=National+Archives+and+Records+Administration+for+the+Nazi+War+Crimes+and+Japanese+Imperial+Government+Records+Interagency+Working+Group&rft.date=2006&rft.isbn=1-880875-28-4&rft.aulast=Drea&rft.aufirst=Edward&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.archives.gov%2Ffiles%2Fiwg%2Fjapanese-war-crimes%2Fintroductory-essays.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJapanese+war+crimes" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-auto-158">^ <a href="#cite_ref-auto_158-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-auto_158-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGrunden2017" class="citation book cs1">Grunden, Walter E. (22 June 2017). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://link.springer.com/chapter/10.1007/978-3-319-51664-6_14">"No Retaliation in Kind: Japanese Chemical Warfare Policy in World War II"</a>. In Friedrich, Bretislav; Hoffmann, Dieter; Renn, Jürgen; Schmaltz, Florian; Wolf, Martin (eds.). One Hundred Years of Chemical Warfare: Research, Deployment, Consequences. Springer International Publishing. pp. 259–271. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1007%2F978-3-319-51664-6_14">10.1007/978-3-319-51664-6_14</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3-319-51663-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-3-319-51663-9"><bdi>978-3-319-51663-9</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:158528688">158528688</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20221016161215/https://link.springer.com/chapter/10.1007/978-3-319-51664-6_14">Archived</a> from the original on 16 October 2022. Retrieved 19 October 2023 – via Springer Link.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=No+Retaliation+in+Kind%3A+Japanese+Chemical+Warfare+Policy+in+World+War+II&rft.btitle=One+Hundred+Years+of+Chemical+Warfare%3A+Research%2C+Deployment%2C+Consequences&rft.pages=259-271&rft.pub=Springer+International+Publishing&rft.date=2017-06-22&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A158528688%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1007%2F978-3-319-51664-6_14&rft.isbn=978-3-319-51663-9&rft.aulast=Grunden&rft.aufirst=Walter+E.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Flink.springer.com%2Fchapter%2F10.1007%2F978-3-319-51664-6_14&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJapanese+war+crimes" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-159"><a href="#cite_ref-159">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFUnited_States._War_Department._Military_Intelligence_Division1944" class="citation book cs1">United States. War Department. Military Intelligence Division (1944). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=gq1BAAAAIAAJ&dq=japanese+gas+hand+to+hand+combat&pg=PA81">Enemy Tactics in Chemical Warfare</a>. 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National Archives and Records Administration for the Nazi War Crimes and Japanese Imperial Government Records Interagency Working Group. p. 38. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/1-880875-28-4" title="Special:BookSources/1-880875-28-4"><bdi>1-880875-28-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Researching+Japanese+War+Crimes+Introductory+Essay&rft.pages=38&rft.pub=National+Archives+and+Records+Administration+for+the+Nazi+War+Crimes+and+Japanese+Imperial+Government+Records+Interagency+Working+Group&rft.date=2006&rft.isbn=1-880875-28-4&rft.aulast=Drea&rft.aufirst=Edward&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.archives.gov%2Ffiles%2Fiwg%2Fjapanese-war-crimes%2Fintroductory-essays.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJapanese+war+crimes" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-161"><a href="#cite_ref-161">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFTanaka2015" class="citation journal cs1">Tanaka, Yuki (2015). 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The Hague, 18 October 1907"</a>. <a href="/wiki/International_Committee_of_the_Red_Cross" title="International Committee of the Red Cross">International Committee of the Red Cross</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.icrc.org/ihl/385ec082b509e76c41256739003e636d/1d1726425f6955aec125641e0038bfd6?OpenDocument">the original</a> on 26 September 2013. 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Associated Press News. 6 July 1994. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20220427214026/https://apnews.com/article/54751e3cfe7e286626e76b7fd43fb757">Archived</a> from the original on 27 April 2022. 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National Archives and Records Administration for the Nazi War Crimes and Japanese Imperial Government Records Interagency Working Group. p. 38. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/1-880875-28-4" title="Special:BookSources/1-880875-28-4"><bdi>1-880875-28-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Researching+Japanese+War+Crimes+Introductory+Essay&rft.pages=38&rft.pub=National+Archives+and+Records+Administration+for+the+Nazi+War+Crimes+and+Japanese+Imperial+Government+Records+Interagency+Working+Group&rft.date=2006&rft.isbn=1-880875-28-4&rft.aulast=Drea&rft.aufirst=Edward&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJapanese+war+crimes" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-170"><a href="#cite_ref-170">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFde_Jong2002" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Loe_de_Jong" title="Loe de Jong">de Jong, Louis</a> (2002) [2002]. 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Retrieved 7 December 2021.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Naval+History+and+Heritage+Command&rft.atitle=Toughness%E2%80%94Aviation+Machinist+Mate+1st+Class+Bruno+Peter+Gaido&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.history.navy.mil%2Fcontent%2Fhistory%2Fnhhc%2Fabout-us%2Fleadership%2Fdirector%2Fdirectors-corner%2Fh-grams%2Fh-gram-004%2Fh-004-5.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJapanese+war+crimes" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-178"><a href="#cite_ref-178">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFChūichi_Nagumo1942" class="citation web cs1">Chūichi Nagumo (June 1942). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.ibiblio.org/hyperwar/Japan/IJN/rep/Midway/Nagumo/">"CINC First Air Fleet Detailed Battle Report no. 6"</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20060526093630/http://www.ibiblio.org/hyperwar/Japan/IJN/rep/Midway/Nagumo/">Archived</a> from the original on 26 May 2006. Retrieved 19 October 2023.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=CINC+First+Air+Fleet+Detailed+Battle+Report+no.+6&rft.date=1942-06&rft.au=Ch%C5%ABichi+Nagumo&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.ibiblio.org%2Fhyperwar%2FJapan%2FIJN%2Frep%2FMidway%2FNagumo%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJapanese+war+crimes" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-179"><a href="#cite_ref-179">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCressman1999" class="citation book cs1">Cressman, Robert (1999). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/TheOfficialChronologyOfTheUSNavyInWorldWarII">The Official Chronology of the U.S. Navy in World War II</a>. Naval Institute Press. p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/TheOfficialChronologyOfTheUSNavyInWorldWarII/page/n100">101</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/1-55750-149-1" title="Special:BookSources/1-55750-149-1"><bdi>1-55750-149-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Official+Chronology+of+the+U.S.+Navy+in+World+War+II&rft.pages=101&rft.pub=Naval+Institute+Press&rft.date=1999&rft.isbn=1-55750-149-1&rft.aulast=Cressman&rft.aufirst=Robert&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2FTheOfficialChronologyOfTheUSNavyInWorldWarII&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJapanese+war+crimes" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-ICRC-180"><a href="#cite_ref-ICRC_180-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJavier_Guisández_Gómez1998" class="citation journal cs1">Javier Guisández Gómez (30 June 1998). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20130425044944/http://www.icrc.org/eng/resources/documents/misc/57jpcl.htm">"The Law of Air Warfare"</a>. International Review of the Red Cross (323): 347–63. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.icrc.org/eng/resources/documents/misc/57jpcl.htm">the original</a> on 25 April 2013.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=International+Review+of+the+Red+Cross&rft.atitle=The+Law+of+Air+Warfare&rft.issue=323&rft.pages=347-63&rft.date=1998-06-30&rft.au=Javier+Guis%C3%A1ndez+G%C3%B3mez&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.icrc.org%2Feng%2Fresources%2Fdocuments%2Fmisc%2F57jpcl.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJapanese+war+crimes" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-181"><a href="#cite_ref-181">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFChun2006" class="citation book cs1">Chun, Clayton (31 January 2006). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/doolittleraid19400chun/page/85">The Doolittle Raid 1942: America's first strike back at Japan (Campaign)</a>. <a href="/wiki/Osprey_Publishing" title="Osprey Publishing">Osprey Publishing</a>. p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/doolittleraid19400chun/page/85">85</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/1-84176-918-5" title="Special:BookSources/1-84176-918-5"><bdi>1-84176-918-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Doolittle+Raid+1942%3A+America%27s+first+strike+back+at+Japan+%28Campaign%29&rft.pages=85&rft.pub=Osprey+Publishing&rft.date=2006-01-31&rft.isbn=1-84176-918-5&rft.aulast=Chun&rft.aufirst=Clayton&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fdoolittleraid19400chun%2Fpage%2F85&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJapanese+war+crimes" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-182"><a href="#cite_ref-182">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFStewart_Halsey_Ross2002" class="citation book cs1">Stewart Halsey Ross (13 December 2002). Strategic Bombing by the United States in World War II: The Myths and the Facts. <a href="/wiki/Osprey_Publishing" title="Osprey Publishing">Osprey Publishing</a>. p. 59. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-7864-1412-X" title="Special:BookSources/0-7864-1412-X"><bdi>0-7864-1412-X</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Strategic+Bombing+by+the+United+States+in+World+War+II%3A+The+Myths+and+the+Facts&rft.pages=59&rft.pub=Osprey+Publishing&rft.date=2002-12-13&rft.isbn=0-7864-1412-X&rft.au=Stewart+Halsey+Ross&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJapanese+war+crimes" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-183"><a href="#cite_ref-183">^</a> Francis (1997), pp. 471–72 </li> <li id="cite_note-184"><a href="#cite_ref-184">^</a> Tillman (2010), p. 170 </li> <li id="cite_note-Takai_Sakaida_114-185"><a href="#cite_ref-Takai_Sakaida_114_185-0">^</a> Takai and Sakaida (2001), p. 114 </li> <li id="cite_note-186"><a href="#cite_ref-186">^</a> Tillman (2010), pp. 171–72 </li> <li id="cite_note-187"><a href="#cite_ref-187">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210307092639/http://pacificwar.org.au/JapWarCrimes/TenWarCrimes/WarCrimes_Jap_Navy.html">"War crimes of the Imperial Japanese Navy"</a>. www.pacificwar.org.au. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.pacificwar.org.au/JapWarCrimes/TenWarCrimes/WarCrimes_Jap_Navy.html">the original</a> on 7 March 2021. Retrieved 8 May 2023.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=www.pacificwar.org.au&rft.atitle=War+crimes+of+the+Imperial+Japanese+Navy&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.pacificwar.org.au%2FJapWarCrimes%2FTenWarCrimes%2FWarCrimes_Jap_Navy.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJapanese+war+crimes" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-188"><a href="#cite_ref-188">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://library.icrc.org/library/docs/DOC/irrc-902-papanicolopulu.pdf">"Red Cross, The duty to rescue at sea, in peacetime and in war"</a> (PDF). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230315215644/https://library.icrc.org/library/docs/DOC/irrc-902-papanicolopulu.pdf">Archived</a> (PDF) from the original on 15 March 2023. Retrieved 19 October 2023.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Red+Cross%2C+The+duty+to+rescue+at+sea%2C+in+peacetime+and+in+war&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Flibrary.icrc.org%2Flibrary%2Fdocs%2FDOC%2Firrc-902-papanicolopulu.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJapanese+war+crimes" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-combinedfleetI8-189">^ <a href="#cite_ref-combinedfleetI8_189-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-combinedfleetI8_189-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHackettKingsepp2016" class="citation web cs1">Hackett, Bob; Kingsepp, Sander (1 July 2016). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.combinedfleet.com/I-8.htm">"IJN Submarine I-8: Tabular Record of Movement"</a>. combinedfleet.com. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20211123180859/http://www.combinedfleet.com/I-8.htm">Archived</a> from the original on 23 November 2021. Retrieved 20 December 2021.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=combinedfleet.com&rft.atitle=IJN+Submarine+I-8%3A+Tabular+Record+of+Movement&rft.date=2016-07-01&rft.aulast=Hackett&rft.aufirst=Bob&rft.au=Kingsepp%2C+Sander&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.combinedfleet.com%2FI-8.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJapanese+war+crimes" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-190"><a href="#cite_ref-190">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBridgland2002" class="citation book cs1">Bridgland, Tony (2002). Waves of Hate. Pen & Sword. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-85052-822-4" title="Special:BookSources/0-85052-822-4"><bdi>0-85052-822-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Waves+of+Hate&rft.pub=Pen+%26+Sword&rft.date=2002&rft.isbn=0-85052-822-4&rft.aulast=Bridgland&rft.aufirst=Tony&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJapanese+war+crimes" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-ijnsubsiteI8-191"><a href="#cite_ref-ijnsubsiteI8_191-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.ijnsubsite.info/I-Sub%20Details/I-8.htm">"I_8"</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230405012945/http://www.ijnsubsite.info/I-Sub%20Details/I-8.htm">Archived</a> from the original on 5 April 2023. Retrieved 8 May 2023.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=I_8&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.ijnsubsite.info%2FI-Sub%2520Details%2FI-8.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJapanese+war+crimes" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-armedguard-192"><a href="#cite_ref-armedguard_192-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.armed-guard.com/ag87.html">"Moore"</a>. armed-guard.com. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230720134546/http://www.armed-guard.com/ag87.html">Archived</a> from the original on 20 July 2023. Retrieved 19 October 2023.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=armed-guard.com&rft.atitle=Moore&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.armed-guard.com%2Fag87.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJapanese+war+crimes" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-193"><a href="#cite_ref-193">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLamont-Brown2002" class="citation book cs1">Lamont-Brown, Raymond (2002). Ships From Hell: Japanese War Crimes on the High Seas. Stroud, Gloucestershire: Sutton. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-7509-2719-4" title="Special:BookSources/0-7509-2719-4"><bdi>0-7509-2719-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Ships+From+Hell%3A+Japanese+War+Crimes+on+the+High+Seas&rft.place=Stroud%2C+Gloucestershire&rft.pub=Sutton&rft.date=2002&rft.isbn=0-7509-2719-4&rft.aulast=Lamont-Brown&rft.aufirst=Raymond&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJapanese+war+crimes" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-194"><a href="#cite_ref-194">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.usmm.org/felknorhovey.html">"SS Richard Hovey: a Tale of Japanese Atrocities and Survival by Bruce Felknor"</a>. www.usmm.org. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210329232541/http://www.usmm.org/felknorhovey.html">Archived</a> from the original on 29 March 2021. Retrieved 8 May 2023.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=www.usmm.org&rft.atitle=SS+Richard+Hovey%3A+a+Tale+of+Japanese+Atrocities+and+Survival+by+Bruce+Felknor&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.usmm.org%2Ffelknorhovey.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJapanese+war+crimes" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-195"><a href="#cite_ref-195">^</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://muntokpeacemuseum.org/?page_id=27">"SS Poelau Bras Attacked"</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230607190326/https://muntokpeacemuseum.org/?page_id=27">Archived</a> 7 June 2023 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>. Muntok Peace Museum. </li> <li id="cite_note-196"><a href="#cite_ref-196">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFEdwards1997" class="citation book cs1">Edwards, Bernard (1997). Blood and Bushido: Japanese Atrocities at Sea 1941–1945. New York: Brick Tower Press. p. 162. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/1-883283-18-3" title="Special:BookSources/1-883283-18-3"><bdi>1-883283-18-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Blood+and+Bushido%3A+Japanese+Atrocities+at+Sea+1941%E2%80%931945&rft.place=New+York&rft.pages=162&rft.pub=Brick+Tower+Press&rft.date=1997&rft.isbn=1-883283-18-3&rft.aulast=Edwards&rft.aufirst=Bernard&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJapanese+war+crimes" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-197"><a href="#cite_ref-197">^</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.history.navy.mil/research/library/online-reading-room/title-list-alphabetically/n/naval-armed-guard-service-in-world-war-ii/japanese-atrocities.html">"Japanese Atrocities"</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230720134155/https://www.history.navy.mil/research/library/online-reading-room/title-list-alphabetically/n/naval-armed-guard-service-in-world-war-ii/japanese-atrocities.html">Archived</a> 20 July 2023 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>. US Navy. </li> <li id="cite_note-Ben-Yehuda2013-198"><a href="#cite_ref-Ben-Yehuda2013_198-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBen-Yehuda2013" class="citation book cs1">Ben-Yehuda, Nachman (15 July 2013). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=AapQAAAAQBAJ&pg=PA1">Atrocity, Deviance, and Submarine Warfare: Norms and Practices During the World Wars</a>. University of Michigan Press. p. 1. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-472-11889-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-472-11889-2"><bdi>978-0-472-11889-2</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20231019132939/https://books.google.com/books?id=AapQAAAAQBAJ&pg=PA1#v=onepage&q&f=false">Archived</a> from the original on 19 October 2023. Retrieved 19 October 2023.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Atrocity%2C+Deviance%2C+and+Submarine+Warfare%3A+Norms+and+Practices+During+the+World+Wars&rft.pages=1&rft.pub=University+of+Michigan+Press&rft.date=2013-07-15&rft.isbn=978-0-472-11889-2&rft.aulast=Ben-Yehuda&rft.aufirst=Nachman&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DAapQAAAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPA1&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJapanese+war+crimes" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-EastWatt1985-199"><a href="#cite_ref-EastWatt1985_199-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWatt1985" class="citation book cs1">Watt, Donald Cameron (1985). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=iMFWAAAAYAAJ">The Tokyo war crimes trial: index and guide</a>. 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UCL Discovery: 170–171. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.14324%2F111.2052-1871.083">10.14324/111.2052-1871.083</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=UCL+Discovery&rft.atitle=Legality+of+Attacks+Against+Human+Shields+in+Armed+Conflict&rft.pages=170-171&rft.date=2017&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.14324%2F111.2052-1871.083&rft.au=Eduard+Hovsepyan&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdiscovery.ucl.ac.uk%2Fid%2Feprint%2F1553304%2F1%2F7.%2520Hovsepyan%2520FINAL.pdf%23page%3D3&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJapanese+war+crimes" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-203"><a href="#cite_ref-203">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ihl-databases.icrc.org/en/ihl-treaties/gciv-1949/article-28?activeTab=undefined">"Convention (IV) relative to the Protection of Civilian Persons in Time of War. Geneva, 12 August 1949.: Article 28 - Treatment II. Danger zones"</a>. <a href="/wiki/International_Committee_of_the_Red_Cross" title="International Committee of the Red Cross">International Committee of the Red Cross</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Convention+%28IV%29+relative+to+the+Protection+of+Civilian+Persons+in+Time+of+War.+Geneva%2C+12+August+1949.%3A+Article+28+-+Treatment+II.+Danger+zones&rft.pub=International+Committee+of+the+Red+Cross&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fihl-databases.icrc.org%2Fen%2Fihl-treaties%2Fgciv-1949%2Farticle-28%3FactiveTab%3Dundefined&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJapanese+war+crimes" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-204"><a href="#cite_ref-204">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ihl-databases.icrc.org/en/ihl-treaties/gciv-1949/article-28/commentary/1958?activeTab=undefined">"Convention (IV) relative to the Protection of Civilian Persons in Time of War. Geneva, 12 August 1949.: Commentary of 1958: Article 28 - Treatment II. Danger zones"</a>. <a href="/wiki/International_Committee_of_the_Red_Cross" title="International Committee of the Red Cross">International Committee of the Red Cross</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Convention+%28IV%29+relative+to+the+Protection+of+Civilian+Persons+in+Time+of+War.+Geneva%2C+12+August+1949.%3A+Commentary+of+1958%3A+Article+28+-+Treatment+II.+Danger+zones&rft.pub=International+Committee+of+the+Red+Cross&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fihl-databases.icrc.org%2Fen%2Fihl-treaties%2Fgciv-1949%2Farticle-28%2Fcommentary%2F1958%3FactiveTab%3Dundefined&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJapanese+war+crimes" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-205"><a href="#cite_ref-205">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://warfarehistorynetwork.com/article/macarthurs-battle-to-liberate-manila-amid-murder-mayhem/">"MacArthur's Battle to Liberate Manila Amid Murder & Mayhem"</a>. Warfare History Network. 2019.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Warfare+History+Network&rft.atitle=MacArthur%27s+Battle+to+Liberate+Manila+Amid+Murder+%26+Mayhem&rft.date=2019&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwarfarehistorynetwork.com%2Farticle%2Fmacarthurs-battle-to-liberate-manila-amid-murder-mayhem%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJapanese+war+crimes" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-206"><a href="#cite_ref-206">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDamien_Lewis2018" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Damien_Lewis_(filmmaker)" title="Damien Lewis (filmmaker)">Damien Lewis</a> (4 December 2018). Smoky the Brave: How a Feisty Yorkshire Terrier Mascot Became a Comrade-in-Arms During World War II. <a href="/wiki/Hachette_Book_Group" title="Hachette Book Group">Hachette Book Group</a>. pp. 196–197. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9-7803-0692-2565" title="Special:BookSources/9-7803-0692-2565"><bdi>9-7803-0692-2565</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Smoky+the+Brave%3A+How+a+Feisty+Yorkshire+Terrier+Mascot+Became+a+Comrade-in-Arms+During+World+War+II&rft.pages=196-197&rft.pub=Hachette+Book+Group&rft.date=2018-12-04&rft.isbn=9-7803-0692-2565&rft.au=Damien+Lewis&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJapanese+war+crimes" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-207"><a href="#cite_ref-207">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAlec_Wahlman2015" class="citation book cs1">Alec Wahlman (2015). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=6dG5CgAAQBAJ&dq=Filipino+civilians+human+shields+Manila+Japanese&pg=PA113">Storming the City: U.S. Military Performance in Urban Warfare from World War II to Vietnam</a>. <a href="/wiki/University_of_North_Texas_Press" title="University of North Texas Press">University of North Texas Press</a>. pp. 113–114. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9-7815-7441-6190" title="Special:BookSources/9-7815-7441-6190"><bdi>9-7815-7441-6190</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Storming+the+City%3A+U.S.+Military+Performance+in+Urban+Warfare+from+World+War+II+to+Vietnam&rft.pages=113-114&rft.pub=University+of+North+Texas+Press&rft.date=2015&rft.isbn=9-7815-7441-6190&rft.au=Alec+Wahlman&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D6dG5CgAAQBAJ%26dq%3DFilipino%2Bcivilians%2Bhuman%2Bshields%2BManila%2BJapanese%26pg%3DPA113&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJapanese+war+crimes" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-208"><a href="#cite_ref-208">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGerald_A._Meehl,_Rex_Alan_Smith2011" class="citation book cs1">Gerald A. 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Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.pacificwar.org.au/JapWarCrimes/Cross-section_JapWarCrimes.html">the original</a> on 30 September 2020. Retrieved 19 October 2023.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=pacificwar.org.au&rft.atitle=Ten+of+Japan%27s+worst+War+Crimes&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.pacificwar.org.au%2FJapWarCrimes%2FCross-section_JapWarCrimes.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJapanese+war+crimes" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-214"><a href="#cite_ref-214">^</a> <a href="/wiki/Lord_Russell_of_Liverpool" class="mw-redirect" title="Lord Russell of Liverpool">Lord Russell of Liverpool</a> (Edward Russell), The Knights of Bushido, a short history of Japanese War Crimes, Greenhill books, 2002, p. 121. </li> <li id="cite_note-215"><a href="#cite_ref-215">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation news cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/india/Japanese-ate-Indian-PoWs-used-them-as-live-targets-in-WWII/articleshow/40017577.cms">"Japanese ate Indian PoWs, used them as live targets in WWII"</a>. 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Retrieved 6 March 2017.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Times+of+India&rft.atitle=Japanese+ate+Indian+PoWs%2C+used+them+as+live+targets+in+WWII&rft.date=2014-08-11&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Ftimesofindia.indiatimes.com%2Findia%2FJapanese-ate-Indian-PoWs-used-them-as-live-targets-in-WWII%2Farticleshow%2F40017577.cms&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJapanese+war+crimes" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-216"><a href="#cite_ref-216">^</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external autonumber" href="http://www.ess.uwe.ac.uk/WCC/yamashita6.htm">[1]</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20061208093731/http://www.ess.uwe.ac.uk/WCC/yamashita6.htm">Archived</a> 8 December 2006 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> Case No. 21 Trial Of General Tomoyuki Yamashita, United States Military Commission, Manila, (8 October-7 December 1945), and the Supreme Court of the United States (Judgments Delivered On 4 February 1946). Part VI (Retrieved on 18 December 2006); <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.pegc.us/archive/Articles/welch_naval_MCs.pdf">Jeanie M. Welch, "Without a Hangman, Without a Rope: Navy War Crimes Trials After World War II", International Journal of Naval History, v.1, No. 1, April 2002, pp. 5–6</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20191103132545/http://www.pegc.us/archive/Articles/welch_naval_MCs.pdf">Archived</a> 3 November 2019 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-217"><a href="#cite_ref-217">^</a> Marcel Junod, International Red Cross </li> <li id="cite_note-218"><a href="#cite_ref-218">^</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.archives.gov/files/iwg/japanese-war-crimes/introductory-essays.pdf">Researching Japanese War Crimes</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20160303190336/http://www.archives.gov/iwg/japanese-war-crimes/introductory-essays.pdf">Archived</a> 3 March 2016 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> January 28, 2015, National Archives </li> <li id="cite_note-219"><a href="#cite_ref-219">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRudolf_Bernhardt2014" class="citation book cs1">Rudolf Bernhardt (12 May 2014). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=wDW0BQAAQBAJ&pg=PA186">Use of Force · War and Neutrality Peace Treaties (N-Z)</a>. <a href="/wiki/Elsevier" title="Elsevier">Elsevier</a>. p. 186. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9-7814-8325-7006" title="Special:BookSources/9-7814-8325-7006"><bdi>9-7814-8325-7006</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20231019132940/https://www.google.com/books/edition/Use_of_Force_War_and_Neutrality_Peace_Tr/wDW0BQAAQBAJ?hl=en&gbpv=1&dq=&pg=PA186&printsec=frontcover">Archived</a> from the original on 19 October 2023. Retrieved 19 October 2023.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Use+of+Force+%C2%B7+War+and+Neutrality+Peace+Treaties+%28N-Z%29&rft.pages=186&rft.pub=Elsevier&rft.date=2014-05-12&rft.isbn=9-7814-8325-7006&rft.au=Rudolf+Bernhardt&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DwDW0BQAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPA186&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJapanese+war+crimes" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-220"><a href="#cite_ref-220">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFde_Jong2002" class="citation book cs1">de Jong, Louis (2002). "III Starvation in the Indies". The collapse of a colonial society. The Dutch in Indonesia during the Second World War. Verhandelingen van het Koninklijk Instituut voor Taal-, Land- en Volkenkunde 206. translation by J. Kilian, C. Kist and J. Rudge, introduction by J. Kemperman. Leiden, Netherlands: KITLV Press. pp. 227–281. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/90-6718-203-6" title="Special:BookSources/90-6718-203-6"><bdi>90-6718-203-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=III+Starvation+in+the+Indies&rft.btitle=The+collapse+of+a+colonial+society.+The+Dutch+in+Indonesia+during+the+Second+World+War&rft.place=Leiden%2C+Netherlands&rft.series=Verhandelingen+van+het+Koninklijk+Instituut+voor+Taal-%2C+Land-+en+Volkenkunde+206&rft.pages=227-281&rft.pub=KITLV+Press&rft.date=2002&rft.isbn=90-6718-203-6&rft.aulast=de+Jong&rft.aufirst=Louis&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJapanese+war+crimes" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-221"><a href="#cite_ref-221">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGunn2015" class="citation web cs1">Gunn, Geoffrey (17 August 2015). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.endofempire.asia/0817-6-the-great-vietnam-famine-4/">"The great Vietnam famine"</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20220617211855/https://www.endofempire.asia/0817-6-the-great-vietnam-famine-4/">Archived</a> from the original on 17 June 2022. Retrieved 19 October 2023.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=The+great+Vietnam+famine&rft.date=2015-08-17&rft.aulast=Gunn&rft.aufirst=Geoffrey&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.endofempire.asia%2F0817-6-the-great-vietnam-famine-4%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJapanese+war+crimes" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-222"><a href="#cite_ref-222">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGunn2011" class="citation journal cs1">Gunn, Geoffrey (24 January 2011). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://apjjf.org/2011/9/5/Geoffrey-Gunn/3483/article.html">"The Great Vietnamese Famine of 1944–45 Revisited 1944–45年ヴィエトナム大飢饉再訪"</a>. The Asia-Pacific Journal. 9 (5 Number 4). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20190107131837/https://apjjf.org/2011/9/5/Geoffrey-Gunn/3483/article.html">Archived</a> from the original on 7 January 2019. 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Modern Asian Studies. 29 (3). Cambridge University Press: 573–618. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1017%2FS0026749X00014001">10.1017/S0026749X00014001</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:145374444">145374444</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20180610045032/https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/modern-asian-studies/article/japans-role-in-the-vietnamese-starvation-of-194445/8A5205371AAECFB6D6CBE8AD7F70C41F">Archived</a> from the original on 10 June 2018. Retrieved 19 October 2023.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Modern+Asian+Studies&rft.atitle=Japan%27s+Role+in+the+Vietnamese+Starvation+of+1944%E2%80%9345&rft.volume=29&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=573-618&rft.date=1995&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1017%2FS0026749X00014001&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A145374444%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.aulast=D%C5%A9ng&rft.aufirst=B%C3%B9i+Minh&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.cambridge.org%2Fcore%2Fjournals%2Fmodern-asian-studies%2Farticle%2Fjapans-role-in-the-vietnamese-starvation-of-194445%2F8A5205371AAECFB6D6CBE8AD7F70C41F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJapanese+war+crimes" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-224"><a href="#cite_ref-224">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHien2013" class="citation journal cs1">Hien, Nina (Spring 2013). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://quod.lib.umich.edu/t/tap/7977573.0003.202/--good-the-bad-and-the-not-beautiful-in-the-street?rgn=main;view=fulltext">"The Good, the Bad, and the Not Beautiful: In the Street and on the Ground in Vietnam"</a>. Local Culture/Global Photography. 3 (2). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210421041425/https://quod.lib.umich.edu/t/tap/7977573.0003.202/--good-the-bad-and-the-not-beautiful-in-the-street?rgn=main;view=fulltext">Archived</a> from the original on 21 April 2021. 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Up to 2 million Vietnamese died of starvation</a>. AKG3807269. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20220622003638/https://www.akg-images.com/archive/-2UMEBM2Y85NV.html">Archived</a> from the original on 22 June 2022. 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Indiana University Press. pp. 39, 40. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0253335396" title="Special:BookSources/0253335396"><bdi>0253335396</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20231019132938/https://books.google.com/books?id=Opb_14GLdXcC&pg=PA40#v=onepage&q&f=false">Archived</a> from the original on 19 October 2023. 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Voice of America. 24 January 2020.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Voice+of+America&rft.atitle=Fish+Skin+Clothing+Tradition+at+Risk+of+Dying+Out&rft.date=2020-01-24&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Flearningenglish.voanews.com%2Fa%2F5259090.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJapanese+war+crimes" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-238"><a href="#cite_ref-238">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBryant2020" class="citation news cs1">Bryant, Alice (29 January 2020). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://voa-story.com/2020-01-29-fish-skin-clothing-tradition-at-risk-of-dying-out/">"2020-01-29 Fish Skin Clothing Tradition at Risk of Dying Out"</a>. Reuters, Voice of America.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Reuters%2C+Voice+of+America&rft.atitle=2020-01-29+Fish+Skin+Clothing+Tradition+at+Risk+of+Dying+Out&rft.date=2020-01-29&rft.aulast=Bryant&rft.aufirst=Alice&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fvoa-story.com%2F2020-01-29-fish-skin-clothing-tradition-at-risk-of-dying-out%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJapanese+war+crimes" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-239"><a href="#cite_ref-239">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation news cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20081216122655/http://edition.cnn.com/2001/WORLD/asiapcf/east/03/29/japan.comfort.women.02/">"Japanese comfort women ruling overturned"</a>. CNN. 29 March 2001. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://edition.cnn.com/2001/WORLD/asiapcf/east/03/29/japan.comfort.women.02/">the original</a> on 16 December 2008.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=CNN&rft.atitle=Japanese+comfort+women+ruling+overturned&rft.date=2001-03-29&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fedition.cnn.com%2F2001%2FWORLD%2Fasiapcf%2Feast%2F03%2F29%2Fjapan.comfort.women.02%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJapanese+war+crimes" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-240"><a href="#cite_ref-240">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSheridan2005" class="citation news cs1">Sheridan, Michael (31 July 2005). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20080727011159/http://www.timesonline.co.uk/tol/news/world/article549954.ece">"Black museum of Japan's war crimes"</a>. The Times. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.timesonline.co.uk/tol/news/world/article549954.ece">the original</a> on 27 July 2008. Retrieved 19 October 2023.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Times&rft.atitle=Black+museum+of+Japan%27s+war+crimes&rft.date=2005-07-31&rft.aulast=Sheridan&rft.aufirst=Michael&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.timesonline.co.uk%2Ftol%2Fnews%2Fworld%2Farticle549954.ece&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJapanese+war+crimes" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-241"><a href="#cite_ref-241">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWoods1998" class="citation book cs1">Woods, John E. (1998). The Good Man of Nanking: The Diaries of John Rabe. p. 77. <q>Two Japanese soldiers have climbed over the garden wall and are about to break into our house. When I appear they give the excuse that they saw two Chinese soldiers climb over the wall. When I show them my party badge, they return the same way. In one of the houses in the narrow street behind my garden wall, a woman was raped, and then wounded in the neck with a bayonet. I managed to get an ambulance so we can take her to Kulou Hospital ... Last night up to 1,000 women and girls are said to have been raped, about 100 girls at <a href="/wiki/Ginling_College" title="Ginling College">Ginling College</a> ... alone. You hear nothing but rape. If husbands or brothers intervene, they're shot. What you hear and see on all sides is the brutality and bestiality of the Japanese soldiers.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Good+Man+of+Nanking%3A+The+Diaries+of+John+Rabe&rft.pages=77&rft.date=1998&rft.aulast=Woods&rft.aufirst=John+E.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJapanese+war+crimes" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-242"><a href="#cite_ref-242">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMin2021" class="citation book cs1">Min, Pyong Gap (2021). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=j5QdEAAAQBAJ&dq=russian+italian+bayview+raped&pg=PT70">Korean "Comfort Women": Military Brothels, Brutality, and the Redress Movement</a>. Rutgers University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1978814981" title="Special:BookSources/978-1978814981"><bdi>978-1978814981</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20231005004433/https://books.google.com/books?id=j5QdEAAAQBAJ&dq=russian+italian+bayview+raped&pg=PT70">Archived</a> from the original on 5 October 2023. Retrieved 19 October 2023.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Korean+%22Comfort+Women%22%3A+Military+Brothels%2C+Brutality%2C+and+the+Redress+Movement&rft.pub=Rutgers+University+Press&rft.date=2021&rft.isbn=978-1978814981&rft.aulast=Min&rft.aufirst=Pyong+Gap&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Dj5QdEAAAQBAJ%26dq%3Drussian%2Bitalian%2Bbayview%2Braped%26pg%3DPT70&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJapanese+war+crimes" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-243"><a href="#cite_ref-243">^</a> Yoshiaki Yoshimi, 2001–02, Comfort Women: Sexual Slavery in the Japanese Military during World War II. 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Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://search.japantimes.co.jp/cgi-bin/nn20070418a5.html">the original</a> on 19 November 2007.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Japan+Times&rft.atitle=Evidence+documenting+sex-slave+coercion+revealed&rft.date=2007-04-18&rft.aulast=Yoshida&rft.aufirst=Reiji&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fsearch.japantimes.co.jp%2Fcgi-bin%2Fnn20070418a5.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJapanese+war+crimes" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-246"><a href="#cite_ref-246">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation news cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.japantimes.co.jp/news/2007/05/12/news/files-females-forced-into-sexual-servitude-in-wartime-indonesia/">"Files: Females forced into sexual servitude in wartime Indonesia"</a>. <a href="/wiki/The_Japan_Times" title="The Japan Times">The Japan Times</a>. 12 May 2007. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20171112185516/https://www.japantimes.co.jp/news/2007/05/12/news/files-females-forced-into-sexual-servitude-in-wartime-indonesia/">Archived</a> from the original on 12 November 2017. Retrieved 28 December 2016.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Japan+Times&rft.atitle=Files%3A+Females+forced+into+sexual+servitude+in+wartime+Indonesia&rft.date=2007-05-12&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.japantimes.co.jp%2Fnews%2F2007%2F05%2F12%2Fnews%2Ffiles-females-forced-into-sexual-servitude-in-wartime-indonesia%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJapanese+war+crimes" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-247"><a href="#cite_ref-247">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHirano2007" class="citation news cs1">Hirano, Keiji (28 April 2007). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20081201095546/http://search.japantimes.co.jp/cgi-bin/nn20070428f1.html">"East Timor former sex slaves speak out"</a>. <a href="/wiki/The_Japan_Times" title="The Japan Times">The Japan Times</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://search.japantimes.co.jp/cgi-bin/nn20070428f1.html">the original</a> on 1 December 2008.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Japan+Times&rft.atitle=East+Timor+former+sex+slaves+speak+out&rft.date=2007-04-28&rft.aulast=Hirano&rft.aufirst=Keiji&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fsearch.japantimes.co.jp%2Fcgi-bin%2Fnn20070428f1.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJapanese+war+crimes" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-248"><a href="#cite_ref-248">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCardy2007" class="citation news cs1">Cardy, Todd (5 March 2007). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20071015164728/http://news.com.au/story/0%2C23599%2C21327548-2%2C00.html">"Japanese PM's denial upsets 'comfort woman'"</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.news.com.au/story/0,23599,21327548-2,00.html">the original</a> on 15 October 2007.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.atitle=Japanese+PM%27s+denial+upsets+%27comfort+woman%27&rft.date=2007-03-05&rft.aulast=Cardy&rft.aufirst=Todd&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.news.com.au%2Fstory%2F0%2C23599%2C21327548-2%2C00.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJapanese+war+crimes" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Japan_Times:_U.S._panel_OKs_sex_slave_resolution-249">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Japan_Times:_U.S._panel_OKs_sex_slave_resolution_249-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Japan_Times:_U.S._panel_OKs_sex_slave_resolution_249-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation news cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.japantimes.co.jp/news/2007/06/28/national/u-s-panel-oks-sex-slave-resolution/">"U.S. panel OKs sex slave resolution"</a>. <a href="/wiki/The_Japan_Times" title="The Japan Times">The Japan Times</a>. 28 June 2007. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230406095439/https://www.japantimes.co.jp/news/2007/06/28/national/u-s-panel-oks-sex-slave-resolution/">Archived</a> from the original on 6 April 2023. Retrieved 19 October 2023.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Japan+Times&rft.atitle=U.S.+panel+OKs+sex+slave+resolution&rft.date=2007-06-28&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.japantimes.co.jp%2Fnews%2F2007%2F06%2F28%2Fnational%2Fu-s-panel-oks-sex-slave-resolution%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJapanese+war+crimes" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-250"><a href="#cite_ref-250">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMin2021" class="citation book cs1">Min, Pyong Gap (2021). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=j5QdEAAAQBAJ&dq=%22Filipino%2C+Vietnamese%2C+Thai%2C+Indonesian+and+Burmese+women+collectively+also+seem+to+have+made+up+a+significant+proportion+of+the+ACW.%22&pg=PT70">Korean 'Comfort Women': Military Brothels, Brutality, and the Redress Movement</a>. Genocide, Political Violence, Human Rights. Rutgers University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1978814981" title="Special:BookSources/978-1978814981"><bdi>978-1978814981</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20231019132937/https://books.google.com/books?id=j5QdEAAAQBAJ&dq=%22Filipino%2C+Vietnamese%2C+Thai%2C+Indonesian+and+Burmese+women+collectively+also+seem+to+have+made+up+a+significant+proportion+of+the+ACW.%22&pg=PT70#v=onepage&q=%22Filipino%2C%20Vietnamese%2C%20Thai%2C%20Indonesian%20and%20Burmese%20women%20collectively%20also%20seem%20to%20have%20made%20up%20a%20significant%20proportion%20of%20the%20ACW.%22&f=false">Archived</a> from the original on 19 October 2023. 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Retrieved 10 April 2023.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=JEBAT&rft.atitle=Japanese+war+crimes+and+Allied+crimes+trials+in+Borneo+during+World+War+II&rft.volume=29&rft.pages=10%2C+11&rft.date=2002&rft.aulast=Narayanan&rft.aufirst=Arujunan&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fjournalarticle.ukm.my%2F404%2F1%2F1.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJapanese+war+crimes" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-252"><a href="#cite_ref-252">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation journal cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://core.ac.uk/download/pdf/364935212.pdf">"At the Mercy of the Enemy: the Record of a Japanese War Criminal"</a> (PDF). 教育学論究. 29 (12): 29–40. 15 December 2020. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230512001213/https://core.ac.uk/download/pdf/364935212.pdf">Archived</a> (PDF) from the original on 12 May 2023. Retrieved 19 October 2023.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=%E6%95%99%E8%82%B2%E5%AD%A6%E8%AB%96%E7%A9%B6&rft.atitle=At+the+Mercy+of+the+Enemy%3A+the+Record+of+a+Japanese+War+Criminal&rft.volume=29&rft.issue=12&rft.pages=29-40&rft.date=2020-12-15&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fcore.ac.uk%2Fdownload%2Fpdf%2F364935212.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJapanese+war+crimes" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-253"><a href="#cite_ref-253">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSalbiah_bt_Mohamed_SallehJamil_bin_AhmadMohd_Aderi_bin_Che_NohAminudin_bin_Hehsan2018" class="citation journal cs1">Salbiah bt Mohamed Salleh; Jamil bin Ahmad; Mohd Aderi bin Che Noh; Aminudin bin Hehsan (2018). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.11113%2Fumran2018.5n2.187">"Profil Akhlak Guru Pendidikan Islam Di Malaysia"</a>. International Journal of Islamic and Civilizational Studies. 5 (1): 80–93. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.11113%2Fumran2018.5n2.187">10.11113/umran2018.5n2.187</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=International+Journal+of+Islamic+and+Civilizational+Studies&rft.atitle=Profil+Akhlak+Guru+Pendidikan+Islam+Di+Malaysia&rft.volume=5&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=80-93&rft.date=2018&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.11113%2Fumran2018.5n2.187&rft.au=Salbiah+bt+Mohamed+Salleh&rft.au=Jamil+bin+Ahmad&rft.au=Mohd+Aderi+bin+Che+Noh&rft.au=Aminudin+bin+Hehsan&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.11113%252Fumran2018.5n2.187&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJapanese+war+crimes" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-254"><a href="#cite_ref-254">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKrausseKrausseKrausse1994" class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-long-vol">Krausse, Gerald H.; Krausse, Sylvia Engelen; Krausse, Sylvia C. Engelen (1994). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=7KoUAQAAIAAJ&q=%22had+to+wear+identification+tags+.+Some+270%2C000+Indonesians+were+conscripted+to+work+in+Burma+%2C+but+only+7%2C000+returned+%3B+many+thousands+were+kept+in+Japan+as+prisoners+of+war+and+never+came+back+.+Indonesian+women+were+routinely+rounded+up+to+serve+as+prostitutes+in+Japanese+army+camps+.%22">Indonesia</a>. Volume 170 of World bibliographical series. Vol. 170 of ABC-CLIO World Bibliographical (2 ed.). Clio Press. p. xxviii. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/1851091270" title="Special:BookSources/1851091270"><bdi>1851091270</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230531003241/https://books.google.com/books?id=7KoUAQAAIAAJ&q=%22had+to+wear+identification+tags+.+Some+270,000+Indonesians+were+conscripted+to+work+in+Burma+,+but+only+7,000+returned+;+many+thousands+were+kept+in+Japan+as+prisoners+of+war+and+never+came+back+.+Indonesian+women+were+routinely+rounded+up+to+serve+as+prostitutes+in+Japanese+army+camps+.%22">Archived</a> from the original on 31 May 2023. Retrieved 19 October 2023.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Indonesia&rft.series=Volume+170+of+World+bibliographical+series&rft.pages=xxviii&rft.edition=2&rft.pub=Clio+Press&rft.date=1994&rft.isbn=1851091270&rft.aulast=Krausse&rft.aufirst=Gerald+H.&rft.au=Krausse%2C+Sylvia+Engelen&rft.au=Krausse%2C+Sylvia+C.+Engelen&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D7KoUAQAAIAAJ%26q%3D%2522had%2Bto%2Bwear%2Bidentification%2Btags%2B.%2BSome%2B270%252C000%2BIndonesians%2Bwere%2Bconscripted%2Bto%2Bwork%2Bin%2BBurma%2B%252C%2Bbut%2Bonly%2B7%252C000%2Breturned%2B%253B%2Bmany%2Bthousands%2Bwere%2Bkept%2Bin%2BJapan%2Bas%2Bprisoners%2Bof%2Bwar%2Band%2Bnever%2Bcame%2Bback%2B.%2BIndonesian%2Bwomen%2Bwere%2Broutinely%2Brounded%2Bup%2Bto%2Bserve%2Bas%2Bprostitutes%2Bin%2BJapanese%2Barmy%2Bcamps%2B.%2522&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJapanese+war+crimes" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-255"><a href="#cite_ref-255">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFO'Neill2017" class="citation news cs1">O'Neill, Claire (4 June 2017). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.npr.org/sections/pictureshow/2011/06/04/134271795/comfort-women-untold-stories-of-wartime-abuse">"Comfort Women: Untold Stories Of Wartime Abuse"</a>. 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(2015). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=YqhUdrlRDFUC&dq=%22women+were+forced+into+prostitution+and+often+kept+for+months+in+the+barracks+of+the%22&pg=PA145">A Gecko for Luck: 18 years in Indonesia</a> (2 ed.). BoD – Books on Demand. p. 145. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3839152485" title="Special:BookSources/978-3839152485"><bdi>978-3839152485</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230720135615/https://books.google.com/books?id=YqhUdrlRDFUC&dq=%22women+were+forced+into+prostitution+and+often+kept+for+months+in+the+barracks+of+the%22&pg=PA145">Archived</a> from the original on 20 July 2023. Retrieved 19 October 2023.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+Gecko+for+Luck%3A+18+years+in+Indonesia&rft.pages=145&rft.edition=2&rft.pub=BoD+%E2%80%93+Books+on+Demand&rft.date=2015&rft.isbn=978-3839152485&rft.aulast=Geerken&rft.aufirst=Horst+H.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DYqhUdrlRDFUC%26dq%3D%2522women%2Bwere%2Bforced%2Binto%2Bprostitution%2Band%2Boften%2Bkept%2Bfor%2Bmonths%2Bin%2Bthe%2Bbarracks%2Bof%2Bthe%2522%26pg%3DPA145&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJapanese+war+crimes" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-257"><a href="#cite_ref-257">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation news cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://english.chosun.com/site/data/html_dir/2007/03/19/2007031961023.html">"Comfort Women Were 'Raped': U.S. Ambassador to Japan"</a>. <a href="/wiki/The_Chosun_Ilbo" title="The Chosun Ilbo">The Chosun Ilbo</a> & Chosun. 19 March 2007. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20220217095038/http://english.chosun.com/site/data/html_dir/2007/03/19/2007031961023.html">Archived</a> from the original on 17 February 2022. 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Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.theage.com.au/news/world/abe-ignores-evidence-say-australias-comfort-women/2007/03/02/1172338881441.html">the original</a> on 13 October 2007. 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Sarah (May 2001). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.today/20120628222046/http://www.jpri.org/publications/workingpapers/wp77.html">"Japan's Responsibility Toward Comfort Women Survivors"</a>. Japan Policy Research Institute. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.jpri.org/publications/workingpapers/wp77.html">the original</a> on 28 June 2012. Retrieved 8 October 2006.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Japan%27s+Responsibility+Toward+Comfort+Women+Survivors&rft.pub=Japan+Policy+Research+Institute&rft.date=2001-05&rft.aulast=Soh&rft.aufirst=C.+Sarah&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.jpri.org%2Fpublications%2Fworkingpapers%2Fwp77.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJapanese+war+crimes" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-261"><a href="#cite_ref-261">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFNozaki2005" class="citation web cs1">Nozaki, Yoshiko (3 September 2005). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://historynewsnetwork.org/article/13533">"The Horrible History of the 'Comfort Women' and the Fight to Suppress Their Story"</a>. History News Network. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230720135538/http://historynewsnetwork.org/article/13533">Archived</a> from the original on 20 July 2023. Retrieved 19 October 2023.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=The+Horrible+History+of+the+%27Comfort+Women%27+and+the+Fight+to+Suppress+Their+Story&rft.pub=History+News+Network&rft.date=2005-09-03&rft.aulast=Nozaki&rft.aufirst=Yoshiko&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fhistorynewsnetwork.org%2Farticle%2F13533&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJapanese+war+crimes" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-262"><a href="#cite_ref-262">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDudden2006" class="citation web cs1">Dudden, Alexis (25 April 2006). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20060430130545/http://www.zmag.org/content/showarticle.cfm?ItemID=10155">"US Congressional Resolution Calls on Japan to Accept Responsibility for Wartime Comfort Women"</a>. ZNet. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.zmag.org/content/showarticle.cfm?ItemID=10155">the original</a> on 30 April 2006.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=US+Congressional+Resolution+Calls+on+Japan+to+Accept+Responsibility+for+Wartime+Comfort+Women&rft.pub=ZNet&rft.date=2006-04-25&rft.aulast=Dudden&rft.aufirst=Alexis&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.zmag.org%2Fcontent%2Fshowarticle.cfm%3FItemID%3D10155&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJapanese+war+crimes" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-263"><a href="#cite_ref-263">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFStetzOh2015" class="citation book cs1">Stetz, Margaret D.; Oh, Bonnie B. C. (2015). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=RW2mBgAAQBAJ&dq=%22fifty+Javanese+girls+were+strictly+supervised+by+a+Japanese+woman%22&pg=PA62">Legacies of the Comfort Women of World War II</a> (illustrated ed.). Routledge. pp. 61–64. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1317466253" title="Special:BookSources/978-1317466253"><bdi>978-1317466253</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230720135754/https://books.google.com/books?id=RW2mBgAAQBAJ&dq=%22fifty+Javanese+girls+were+strictly+supervised+by+a+Japanese+woman%22&pg=PA62">Archived</a> from the original on 20 July 2023. Retrieved 19 October 2023.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Legacies+of+the+Comfort+Women+of+World+War+II&rft.pages=61-64&rft.edition=illustrated&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=2015&rft.isbn=978-1317466253&rft.aulast=Stetz&rft.aufirst=Margaret+D.&rft.au=Oh%2C+Bonnie+B.+C.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DRW2mBgAAQBAJ%26dq%3D%2522fifty%2BJavanese%2Bgirls%2Bwere%2Bstrictly%2Bsupervised%2Bby%2Ba%2BJapanese%2Bwoman%2522%26pg%3DPA62&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJapanese+war+crimes" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-264"><a href="#cite_ref-264">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFTanaka2003" class="citation book cs1">Tanaka, Yuki (2003). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=mV5dymPXNBgC&dq=%22verify+that+other+Asian+women,+such+as+Vietnamese+and+Malaysians,+were+also+exploited+for+the+same+purpose+by+the+Japanese%22&pg=PA60">Japan's Comfort Women</a>. Routledge. p. 60. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/1134650124" title="Special:BookSources/1134650124"><bdi>1134650124</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20220722182502/https://dokumen.pub/japans-comfort-women-asias-transformations-1nbsped-0415194008-9780415194006.html">Archived</a> from the original on 22 July 2022.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Japan%27s+Comfort+Women&rft.pages=60&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=2003&rft.isbn=1134650124&rft.aulast=Tanaka&rft.aufirst=Yuki&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DmV5dymPXNBgC%26dq%3D%2522verify%2Bthat%2Bother%2BAsian%2Bwomen%2C%2Bsuch%2Bas%2BVietnamese%2Band%2BMalaysians%2C%2Bwere%2Balso%2Bexploited%2Bfor%2Bthe%2Bsame%2Bpurpose%2Bby%2Bthe%2BJapanese%2522%26pg%3DPA60&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJapanese+war+crimes" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-265"><a href="#cite_ref-265">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFStetzOh2015" class="citation book cs1">Stetz, Margaret D.; Oh, Bonnie B. C. (12 February 2015). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=RW2mBgAAQBAJ&dq=tanaka+comfort+vietnamese+burmese&pg=PA126">Legacies of the Comfort Women of World War II</a> (illustrated ed.). Routledge. p. 126. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1317466253" title="Special:BookSources/978-1317466253"><bdi>978-1317466253</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20231019132937/https://books.google.com/books?id=RW2mBgAAQBAJ&dq=tanaka+comfort+vietnamese+burmese&pg=PA126#v=onepage&q=tanaka%20comfort%20vietnamese%20burmese&f=false">Archived</a> from the original on 19 October 2023. Retrieved 19 October 2023.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Legacies+of+the+Comfort+Women+of+World+War+II&rft.pages=126&rft.edition=illustrated&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=2015-02-12&rft.isbn=978-1317466253&rft.aulast=Stetz&rft.aufirst=Margaret+D.&rft.au=Oh%2C+Bonnie+B.+C.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DRW2mBgAAQBAJ%26dq%3Dtanaka%2Bcomfort%2Bvietnamese%2Bburmese%26pg%3DPA126&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJapanese+war+crimes" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-266"><a href="#cite_ref-266">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMin2021" class="citation book cs1">Min, Pyong Gap (2021). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=j5QdEAAAQBAJ&dq=tanaka+comfort+vietnamese+burmese&pg=PT70">Korean 'Comfort Women': Military Brothels, Brutality, and the Redress Movement</a>. Genocide, Political Violence, Human Rights. Rutgers University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1978814981" title="Special:BookSources/978-1978814981"><bdi>978-1978814981</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20231019133429/https://books.google.com/books?id=j5QdEAAAQBAJ&dq=tanaka+comfort+vietnamese+burmese&pg=PT70#v=onepage&q=tanaka%20comfort%20vietnamese%20burmese&f=false">Archived</a> from the original on 19 October 2023. Retrieved 19 October 2023.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Korean+%27Comfort+Women%27%3A+Military+Brothels%2C+Brutality%2C+and+the+Redress+Movement&rft.series=Genocide%2C+Political+Violence%2C+Human+Rights&rft.pub=Rutgers+University+Press&rft.date=2021&rft.isbn=978-1978814981&rft.aulast=Min&rft.aufirst=Pyong+Gap&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Dj5QdEAAAQBAJ%26dq%3Dtanaka%2Bcomfort%2Bvietnamese%2Bburmese%26pg%3DPT70&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJapanese+war+crimes" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-267"><a href="#cite_ref-267">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation book cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=nIeBYY-TpMsC&dq=tanaka+comfort+vietnamese+burmese&pg=PA209">Double Agency: Acts of Impersonation in Asian American Literature and Culture</a>. Stanford University Press. 2005. p. 209. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0804751862" title="Special:BookSources/0804751862"><bdi>0804751862</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20231019133523/https://books.google.com/books?id=nIeBYY-TpMsC&dq=tanaka+comfort+vietnamese+burmese&pg=PA209#v=onepage&q=tanaka%20comfort%20vietnamese%20burmese&f=false">Archived</a> from the original on 19 October 2023. Retrieved 19 October 2023.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Double+Agency%3A+Acts+of+Impersonation+in+Asian+American+Literature+and+Culture&rft.pages=209&rft.pub=Stanford+University+Press&rft.date=2005&rft.isbn=0804751862&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DnIeBYY-TpMsC%26dq%3Dtanaka%2Bcomfort%2Bvietnamese%2Bburmese%26pg%3DPA209&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJapanese+war+crimes" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-268"><a href="#cite_ref-268">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFThoma2004" class="citation book cs1">Thoma, Pamela (2004). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=CNZ-DsVg5T8C&dq=tanaka+comfort+vietnamese+burmese&pg=PA175">"Cultural Autobiography, Testimonial, and Asian American Transnational Feminist Coalition in the 'Comfort Women of World War II' Conference"</a>. In Vo, Linda Trinh; Sciachitano, Marian (eds.). Asian American Women: The Frontiers Reader (illustrated, reprinted ed.). U of Nebraska Press. p. 175. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0803296274" title="Special:BookSources/0803296274"><bdi>0803296274</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20231019133437/https://books.google.com/books?id=CNZ-DsVg5T8C&dq=tanaka+comfort+vietnamese+burmese&pg=PA175#v=onepage&q=tanaka%20comfort%20vietnamese%20burmese&f=false">Archived</a> from the original on 19 October 2023. Retrieved 19 October 2023.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Cultural+Autobiography%2C+Testimonial%2C+and+Asian+American+Transnational+Feminist+Coalition+in+the+%27Comfort+Women+of+World+War+II%27+Conference&rft.btitle=Asian+American+Women%3A+The+Frontiers+Reader&rft.pages=175&rft.edition=illustrated%2C+reprinted&rft.pub=U+of+Nebraska+Press&rft.date=2004&rft.isbn=0803296274&rft.aulast=Thoma&rft.aufirst=Pamela&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DCNZ-DsVg5T8C%26dq%3Dtanaka%2Bcomfort%2Bvietnamese%2Bburmese%26pg%3DPA175&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJapanese+war+crimes" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-269"><a href="#cite_ref-269">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFYoon2015" class="citation book cs1">Yoon, Bang-Soon L. (2015). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=6Tq2CAAAQBAJ&dq=tanaka+comfort+vietnamese+burmese&pg=PA464">"Chapter 20: Sexualized Racism, Gender and Nationalism: The Case of Japan's Sexual Enslavement of Korean 'Comfort Women'"</a>. In Kowner, Rotem; Demel, Walter (eds.). Race and Racism in Modern East Asia: Interactions, Nationalism, Gender and Lineage. Brill's Series on Modern East Asia in a Global Historical Perspective (reprint ed.). BRILL. p. 464. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-9004292932" title="Special:BookSources/978-9004292932"><bdi>978-9004292932</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20231019133951/https://books.google.com/books?id=6Tq2CAAAQBAJ&dq=tanaka+comfort+vietnamese+burmese&pg=PA464#v=onepage&q=tanaka%20comfort%20vietnamese%20burmese&f=false">Archived</a> from the original on 19 October 2023. Retrieved 19 October 2023.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Chapter+20%3A+Sexualized+Racism%2C+Gender+and+Nationalism%3A+The+Case+of+Japan%27s+Sexual+Enslavement+of+Korean+%27Comfort+Women%27&rft.btitle=Race+and+Racism+in+Modern+East+Asia%3A+Interactions%2C+Nationalism%2C+Gender+and+Lineage&rft.series=Brill%27s+Series+on+Modern+East+Asia+in+a+Global+Historical+Perspective&rft.pages=464&rft.edition=reprint&rft.pub=BRILL&rft.date=2015&rft.isbn=978-9004292932&rft.aulast=Yoon&rft.aufirst=Bang-Soon+L.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D6Tq2CAAAQBAJ%26dq%3Dtanaka%2Bcomfort%2Bvietnamese%2Bburmese%26pg%3DPA464&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJapanese+war+crimes" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-270"><a href="#cite_ref-270">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFQiuSuChen2014" class="citation book cs1">Qiu, Peipei; Su, Zhiliang; Chen, Lifei (2014). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=HDyFAwAAQBAJ&dq=tanaka+comfort+vietnamese+burmese&pg=PA215">Chinese Comfort Women: Testimonies from Imperial Japan's Sex Slaves</a>. Oxford oral history series (illustrated ed.). Oxford University Press. p. 215. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0199373895" title="Special:BookSources/978-0199373895"><bdi>978-0199373895</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20231019133948/https://books.google.com/books?id=HDyFAwAAQBAJ&dq=tanaka+comfort+vietnamese+burmese&pg=PA215#v=onepage&q=tanaka%20comfort%20vietnamese%20burmese&f=false">Archived</a> from the original on 19 October 2023. Retrieved 19 October 2023.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Chinese+Comfort+Women%3A+Testimonies+from+Imperial+Japan%27s+Sex+Slaves&rft.series=Oxford+oral+history+series&rft.pages=215&rft.edition=illustrated&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2014&rft.isbn=978-0199373895&rft.aulast=Qiu&rft.aufirst=Peipei&rft.au=Su%2C+Zhiliang&rft.au=Chen%2C+Lifei&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DHDyFAwAAQBAJ%26dq%3Dtanaka%2Bcomfort%2Bvietnamese%2Bburmese%26pg%3DPA215&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJapanese+war+crimes" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-271"><a href="#cite_ref-271">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFO'Neill2011" class="citation news cs1">O'Neill, Claire (4 June 2011). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.npr.org/sections/pictureshow/2011/06/04/134271795/comfort-women-untold-stories-of-wartime-abuse">"Comfort Women: Untold Stories of Wartime Abuse"</a>. NPR. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230720135519/https://www.npr.org/sections/pictureshow/2011/06/04/134271795/comfort-women-untold-stories-of-wartime-abuse">Archived</a> from the original on 20 July 2023. Retrieved 19 October 2023.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=NPR&rft.atitle=Comfort+Women%3A+Untold+Stories+of+Wartime+Abuse&rft.date=2011-06-04&rft.aulast=O%27Neill&rft.aufirst=Claire&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.npr.org%2Fsections%2Fpictureshow%2F2011%2F06%2F04%2F134271795%2Fcomfort-women-untold-stories-of-wartime-abuse&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJapanese+war+crimes" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-272"><a href="#cite_ref-272">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFTanaka2003" class="citation book cs1">Tanaka, Yuki (2003). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=mV5dymPXNBgC&dq=%22Dutch+were+equally+indifferent+to+victims+who+were+not+white+and+Dutch%22&pg=PA78">Japan's Comfort Women</a>. Routledge. pp. 78–82, 85, 86. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/1134650124" title="Special:BookSources/1134650124"><bdi>1134650124</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230423140214/https://books.google.com/books?id=mV5dymPXNBgC&dq=%22Dutch+were+equally+indifferent+to+victims+who+were+not+white+and+Dutch%22&pg=PA78">Archived</a> from the original on 23 April 2023. Retrieved 19 October 2023. <q>As much as the Japanese were unconcerned about the exploitation of non-Europeans, the Dutch were equally indifferent to victims who were not white and Dutch. However, there were at least two exceptional cases brought by the Dutch ...</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Japan%27s+Comfort+Women&rft.pages=78-82%2C+85%2C+86&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=2003&rft.isbn=1134650124&rft.aulast=Tanaka&rft.aufirst=Yuki&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DmV5dymPXNBgC%26dq%3D%2522Dutch%2Bwere%2Bequally%2Bindifferent%2Bto%2Bvictims%2Bwho%2Bwere%2Bnot%2Bwhite%2Band%2BDutch%2522%26pg%3DPA78&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJapanese+war+crimes" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-273"><a href="#cite_ref-273">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFTanaka2002" class="citation book cs1">Tanaka, Toshiyuki (2002). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://dokumen.pub/japans-comfort-women-asias-transformations-1nbsped-0415194008-9780415194006.html">Japan's Comfort Women (Asia's Transformations)</a> (1st ed.). Psychology Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780415194006" title="Special:BookSources/9780415194006"><bdi>9780415194006</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20220725051737/https://dokumen.pub/japans-comfort-women-asias-transformations-1nbsped-0415194008-9780415194006.html">Archived</a> from the original on 25 July 2022. Retrieved 19 October 2023.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Japan%27s+Comfort+Women+%28Asia%27s+Transformations%29&rft.edition=1st&rft.pub=Psychology+Press&rft.date=2002&rft.isbn=9780415194006&rft.aulast=Tanaka&rft.aufirst=Toshiyuki&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdokumen.pub%2Fjapans-comfort-women-asias-transformations-1nbsped-0415194008-9780415194006.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJapanese+war+crimes" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-274"><a href="#cite_ref-274">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFStetzOh2015" class="citation book cs1">Stetz, Margaret D.; Oh, Bonnie B. C. (2015). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=RW2mBgAAQBAJ&dq=%22Dutch+were+equally+indifferent+to+victims+who+were+not+white+and+Dutch%22&pg=PA61">Legacies of the Comfort Women of World War II</a> (illustrated ed.). Routledge. pp. 61–68. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1317466253" title="Special:BookSources/978-1317466253"><bdi>978-1317466253</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230423140212/https://books.google.com/books?id=RW2mBgAAQBAJ&dq=%22Dutch+were+equally+indifferent+to+victims+who+were+not+white+and+Dutch%22&pg=PA61">Archived</a> from the original on 23 April 2023. Retrieved 19 October 2023. <q>Japanese were unconcerned about the non-Europeans, so too the Dutch were equally indifferent to non-European victims who were not white and Dutch.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Legacies+of+the+Comfort+Women+of+World+War+II&rft.pages=61-68&rft.edition=illustrated&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=2015&rft.isbn=978-1317466253&rft.aulast=Stetz&rft.aufirst=Margaret+D.&rft.au=Oh%2C+Bonnie+B.+C.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DRW2mBgAAQBAJ%26dq%3D%2522Dutch%2Bwere%2Bequally%2Bindifferent%2Bto%2Bvictims%2Bwho%2Bwere%2Bnot%2Bwhite%2Band%2BDutch%2522%26pg%3DPA61&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJapanese+war+crimes" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-275"><a href="#cite_ref-275">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFTouwen-Bouwsma2013" class="citation book cs1">Touwen-Bouwsma, Elly (2013). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=NZWqvMBu80kC&pg=PA57">"Four: Japanese Policy towards the Chinese on Java, 1942-1945: A Preliminary Outline"</a>. In Kratoska, Paul H. (ed.). Southeast Asian Minorities in the Wartime Japanese Empire. Routledge. pp. 57–61. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1136125065" title="Special:BookSources/978-1136125065"><bdi>978-1136125065</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Four%3A+Japanese+Policy+towards+the+Chinese+on+Java%2C+1942-1945%3A+A+Preliminary+Outline&rft.btitle=Southeast+Asian+Minorities+in+the+Wartime+Japanese+Empire&rft.pages=57-61&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=2013&rft.isbn=978-1136125065&rft.aulast=Touwen-Bouwsma&rft.aufirst=Elly&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DNZWqvMBu80kC%26pg%3DPA57&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJapanese+war+crimes" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-276"><a href="#cite_ref-276">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPost2009" class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-long-vol">Post, Peter, ed. (2009). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=4t95DwAAQBAJ&pg=PA191">The Encyclopedia of Indonesia in the Pacific War: In cooperation with the Netherlands Institute for War Documentation</a>. Vol. 19 of Handbook of Oriental Studies. Section 3 Southeast Asia. BRILL. p. 191. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-9004190177" title="Special:BookSources/978-9004190177"><bdi>978-9004190177</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Encyclopedia+of+Indonesia+in+the+Pacific+War%3A+In+cooperation+with+the+Netherlands+Institute+for+War+Documentation&rft.pages=191&rft.pub=BRILL&rft.date=2009&rft.isbn=978-9004190177&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D4t95DwAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPA191&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJapanese+war+crimes" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-277"><a href="#cite_ref-277">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPost2009" class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-long-vol">Post, Peter, ed. (2009). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=4t95DwAAQBAJ&dq=chinese+men+and+a+couple+of+balinese+men&pg=PA192">The Encyclopedia of Indonesia in the Pacific War: In cooperation with the Netherlands Institute for War Documentation</a>. Vol. 19 of Handbook of Oriental Studies. Section 3 Southeast Asia. BRILL. p. 193. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-9004190177" title="Special:BookSources/978-9004190177"><bdi>978-9004190177</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Encyclopedia+of+Indonesia+in+the+Pacific+War%3A+In+cooperation+with+the+Netherlands+Institute+for+War+Documentation&rft.pages=193&rft.pub=BRILL&rft.date=2009&rft.isbn=978-9004190177&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D4t95DwAAQBAJ%26dq%3Dchinese%2Bmen%2Band%2Ba%2Bcouple%2Bof%2Bbalinese%2Bmen%26pg%3DPA192&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJapanese+war+crimes" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-278"><a href="#cite_ref-278">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPost2009" class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-long-vol">Post, Peter, ed. (2009). The Encyclopedia of Indonesia in the Pacific War: In cooperation with the Netherlands Institute for War Documentation. Vol. 19 of Handbook of Oriental Studies. Section 3 Southeast Asia. BRILL. p. 193. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-9004190177" title="Special:BookSources/978-9004190177"><bdi>978-9004190177</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Encyclopedia+of+Indonesia+in+the+Pacific+War%3A+In+cooperation+with+the+Netherlands+Institute+for+War+Documentation&rft.pages=193&rft.pub=BRILL&rft.date=2009&rft.isbn=978-9004190177&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJapanese+war+crimes" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-279"><a href="#cite_ref-279">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPost2009" class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-long-vol">Post, Peter, ed. (2009). The Encyclopedia of Indonesia in the Pacific War: In cooperation with the Netherlands Institute for War Documentation. Vol. 19 of Handbook of Oriental Studies. Section 3 Southeast Asiapublisher=BRILL. BRILL. p. 195. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-9004190177" title="Special:BookSources/978-9004190177"><bdi>978-9004190177</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Encyclopedia+of+Indonesia+in+the+Pacific+War%3A+In+cooperation+with+the+Netherlands+Institute+for+War+Documentation&rft.pages=195&rft.pub=BRILL&rft.date=2009&rft.isbn=978-9004190177&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJapanese+war+crimes" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-280"><a href="#cite_ref-280">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPost2009" class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-long-vol">Post, Peter, ed. (2009). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=4t95DwAAQBAJ&dq=relatively+permissive+javanese&pg=PA196">The Encyclopedia of Indonesia in the Pacific War: In cooperation with the Netherlands Institute for War Documentation</a>. Vol. 19 of Handbook of Oriental Studies. Section 3 Southeast Asia. BRILL. p. 196. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-9004190177" title="Special:BookSources/978-9004190177"><bdi>978-9004190177</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Encyclopedia+of+Indonesia+in+the+Pacific+War%3A+In+cooperation+with+the+Netherlands+Institute+for+War+Documentation&rft.pages=196&rft.pub=BRILL&rft.date=2009&rft.isbn=978-9004190177&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D4t95DwAAQBAJ%26dq%3Drelatively%2Bpermissive%2Bjavanese%26pg%3DPA196&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJapanese+war+crimes" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-281"><a href="#cite_ref-281">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHului2021" class="citation magazine cs1">Hului, Patricia (19 July 2021). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://kajomag.com/the-influence-of-catholicism-on-flores-island-during-wwii/">"The influence of Catholicism on Flores island during WWII"</a>. Kajo Mag.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Kajo+Mag&rft.atitle=The+influence+of+Catholicism+on+Flores+island+during+WWII&rft.date=2021-07-19&rft.aulast=Hului&rft.aufirst=Patricia&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fkajomag.com%2Fthe-influence-of-catholicism-on-flores-island-during-wwii%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJapanese+war+crimes" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-282"><a href="#cite_ref-282">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHului2019" class="citation magazine cs1">Hului, Patricia (18 September 2019). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://kajomag.com/the-mandor-affair-the-massacres-in-west-kalimantan-during-wwii/">"The Mandor Affair, the massacres in West Kalimantan during WWII"</a>. Kajo Mag.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Kajo+Mag&rft.atitle=The+Mandor+Affair%2C+the+massacres+in+West+Kalimantan+during+WWII&rft.date=2019-09-18&rft.aulast=Hului&rft.aufirst=Patricia&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fkajomag.com%2Fthe-mandor-affair-the-massacres-in-west-kalimantan-during-wwii%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJapanese+war+crimes" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-283"><a href="#cite_ref-283">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFNarayanan2002" class="citation journal cs1">Narayanan, Arujunan (2002). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230404043656/http://journalarticle.ukm.my/404/1/1.pdf">"Japanese war crimes and Allied crimes trials in Borneo during World War II"</a> (PDF). JEBAT. 29: 10, 11. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://journalarticle.ukm.my/404/1/1.pdf">the original</a> (PDF) on 4 April 2023. Retrieved 8 April 2023.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=JEBAT&rft.atitle=Japanese+war+crimes+and+Allied+crimes+trials+in+Borneo+during+World+War+II&rft.volume=29&rft.pages=10%2C+11&rft.date=2002&rft.aulast=Narayanan&rft.aufirst=Arujunan&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fjournalarticle.ukm.my%2F404%2F1%2F1.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJapanese+war+crimes" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-284"><a href="#cite_ref-284">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation journal cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://core.ac.uk/download/pdf/364935212.pdf">"At the Mercy of the Enemy: the Record of a Japanese War Criminal"</a> (PDF). 教育学論究. 29 (12): 29–40. 15 December 2020.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=%E6%95%99%E8%82%B2%E5%AD%A6%E8%AB%96%E7%A9%B6&rft.atitle=At+the+Mercy+of+the+Enemy%3A+the+Record+of+a+Japanese+War+Criminal&rft.volume=29&rft.issue=12&rft.pages=29-40&rft.date=2020-12-15&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fcore.ac.uk%2Fdownload%2Fpdf%2F364935212.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJapanese+war+crimes" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-285"><a href="#cite_ref-285">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPenders1974" class="citation book cs1">Penders, Christian Lambert Maria (1974). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=WswLAAAAIAAJ&q=%22This+impression+is+reinforced+by+Sukarno%27s+own+glowing+reports26+of+how+he+was+successful+in+regulating+rice+supplies+in+Padang+and+in+procuring+prostitutes+for+the+Japanese+soldiers+,+activities+which+cannot+exactly+be+described+as+...%22">The Life and Times of Sukarno</a> (illustrated ed.). Sidgwick & Jackson. p. 64. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0283484144" title="Special:BookSources/0283484144"><bdi>0283484144</bdi></a>. <q>This impression is reinforced by Sukarno's own glowing reports26 of how he was successful in regulating rice supplies in Padang and in procuring prostitutes for the Japanese soldiers , activities which cannot exactly be described as ...</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Life+and+Times+of+Sukarno&rft.pages=64&rft.edition=illustrated&rft.pub=Sidgwick+%26+Jackson&rft.date=1974&rft.isbn=0283484144&rft.aulast=Penders&rft.aufirst=Christian+Lambert+Maria&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DWswLAAAAIAAJ%26q%3D%2522This%2Bimpression%2Bis%2Breinforced%2Bby%2BSukarno%2527s%2Bown%2Bglowing%2Breports26%2Bof%2Bhow%2Bhe%2Bwas%2Bsuccessful%2Bin%2Bregulating%2Brice%2Bsupplies%2Bin%2BPadang%2Band%2Bin%2Bprocuring%2Bprostitutes%2Bfor%2Bthe%2BJapanese%2Bsoldiers%2B%2C%2Bactivities%2Bwhich%2Bcannot%2Bexactly%2Bbe%2Bdescribed%2Bas%2B...%2522&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJapanese+war+crimes" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-286"><a href="#cite_ref-286">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFriend2009" class="citation book cs1">Friend, Theodore (2009). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=_w6Mn4xRLt8C&dq=sukarno+prostitution+japanese&pg=PA27">Indonesian Destinies</a> (unabridged ed.). Harvard University Press. p. 27. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0674037359" title="Special:BookSources/978-0674037359"><bdi>978-0674037359</bdi></a>. <q>Sukarno's first administrative act, he acknowledges, was to gather 120 prostitutes as "volunteers" to be penned in a special camp for service to Japanese soldiers. He congratulated himself on simultaneously enhancing the women's income, sating the lust of the invaders, and thereby protecting virtuous Minangkabau maidens.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Indonesian+Destinies&rft.pages=27&rft.edition=unabridged&rft.pub=Harvard+University+Press&rft.date=2009&rft.isbn=978-0674037359&rft.aulast=Friend&rft.aufirst=Theodore&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D_w6Mn4xRLt8C%26dq%3Dsukarno%2Bprostitution%2Bjapanese%26pg%3DPA27&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJapanese+war+crimes" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-287"><a href="#cite_ref-287">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLevenda2011" class="citation book cs1">Levenda, Peter (2011). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=UsyhkoJTqzYC&dq=sukarno+prostitution+japanese&pg=PA52">Tantric Temples: Eros and Magic in Java</a>. Nicolas-Hays, Inc. p. 52. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0892546015" title="Special:BookSources/978-0892546015"><bdi>978-0892546015</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Tantric+Temples%3A+Eros+and+Magic+in+Java&rft.pages=52&rft.pub=Nicolas-Hays%2C+Inc.&rft.date=2011&rft.isbn=978-0892546015&rft.aulast=Levenda&rft.aufirst=Peter&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DUsyhkoJTqzYC%26dq%3Dsukarno%2Bprostitution%2Bjapanese%26pg%3DPA52&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJapanese+war+crimes" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-288"><a href="#cite_ref-288">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGeerken2015" class="citation book cs1">Geerken, Horst H. (2015). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=YqhUdrlRDFUC&dq=peta+prostitutes+japanese+indonesian&pg=PA145">A Gecko for Luck: 18 years in Indonesia</a> (2 ed.). BoD – Books on Demand. p. 145. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3839152485" title="Special:BookSources/978-3839152485"><bdi>978-3839152485</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+Gecko+for+Luck%3A+18+years+in+Indonesia&rft.pages=145&rft.edition=2&rft.pub=BoD+%E2%80%93+Books+on+Demand&rft.date=2015&rft.isbn=978-3839152485&rft.aulast=Geerken&rft.aufirst=Horst+H.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DYqhUdrlRDFUC%26dq%3Dpeta%2Bprostitutes%2Bjapanese%2Bindonesian%26pg%3DPA145&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJapanese+war+crimes" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-289"><a href="#cite_ref-289">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKrausseKrausse1994" class="citation book cs1">Krausse, Gerald H.; Krausse, Sylvia C. Engelen (1994). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=7KoUAQAAIAAJ&q=%22had+to+wear+identification+tags+.+Some+270,000+Indonesians+were+conscripted+to+work+in+Burma+,+but+only+7,000+returned+;+many+thousands+were+kept+in+Japan+as+prisoners+of+war+and+never+came+back+.+Indonesian+women+were+routinely+rounded+up+to+serve+as+prostitutes+in+Japanese+army+camps+.%22">Indonesia</a> (2nd ed.). Clio Press. p. xxviii. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/1851091270" title="Special:BookSources/1851091270"><bdi>1851091270</bdi></a>. <q>had to wear identification tags. Some 270,000 Indonesians were conscripted to work in Burma, but only 7,000 returned; many thousands were kept in Japan as prisoners of war and never came back. Indonesian women were routinely rounded up to serve as prostitutes in Japanese army camps.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Indonesia&rft.pages=xxviii&rft.edition=2nd&rft.pub=Clio+Press&rft.date=1994&rft.isbn=1851091270&rft.aulast=Krausse&rft.aufirst=Gerald+H.&rft.au=Krausse%2C+Sylvia+C.+Engelen&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D7KoUAQAAIAAJ%26q%3D%2522had%2Bto%2Bwear%2Bidentification%2Btags%2B.%2BSome%2B270%2C000%2BIndonesians%2Bwere%2Bconscripted%2Bto%2Bwork%2Bin%2BBurma%2B%2C%2Bbut%2Bonly%2B7%2C000%2Breturned%2B%3B%2Bmany%2Bthousands%2Bwere%2Bkept%2Bin%2BJapan%2Bas%2Bprisoners%2Bof%2Bwar%2Band%2Bnever%2Bcame%2Bback%2B.%2BIndonesian%2Bwomen%2Bwere%2Broutinely%2Brounded%2Bup%2Bto%2Bserve%2Bas%2Bprostitutes%2Bin%2BJapanese%2Barmy%2Bcamps%2B.%2522&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJapanese+war+crimes" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-290"><a href="#cite_ref-290">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFStetzOh2015" class="citation book cs1">Stetz, Margaret D.; Oh, Bonnie B. C. (2015). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=RW2mBgAAQBAJ&dq=%22fifty+Javanese+girls+were+strictly+supervised+by+a+Japanese+woman%22&pg=PA62">Legacies of the Comfort Women of World War II</a> (illustrated ed.). Routledge. pp. 61–64. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1317466253" title="Special:BookSources/978-1317466253"><bdi>978-1317466253</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Legacies+of+the+Comfort+Women+of+World+War+II&rft.pages=61-64&rft.edition=illustrated&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=2015&rft.isbn=978-1317466253&rft.aulast=Stetz&rft.aufirst=Margaret+D.&rft.au=Oh%2C+Bonnie+B.+C.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DRW2mBgAAQBAJ%26dq%3D%2522fifty%2BJavanese%2Bgirls%2Bwere%2Bstrictly%2Bsupervised%2Bby%2Ba%2BJapanese%2Bwoman%2522%26pg%3DPA62&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJapanese+war+crimes" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-291"><a href="#cite_ref-291">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation audio-visual cs1">comfort women (2 October 1945). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.awm.gov.au/collection/120083">Koepang, Timor 1945-10-02. Timforce. Twenty Six Javanese Girls Who Were Liberated at Koepang From Japanese Brothels. Just Prior to Their Release the Japanese Issued Them With Red Cross Arm Bands in an Attempt to Camouflage the Foul Manner in Which These Girls Had Been Used. Young Lady in Chief of the Girls Is Komoriah. She is Holding the Doll She Kept Throughout Her Enforced Stay in Japanese Hands. (Photographer K. B. Davis)</a>. Australian War Memorial. 120083.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Koepang%2C+Timor+1945-10-02.+Timforce.+Twenty+Six+Javanese+Girls+Who+Were+Liberated+at+Koepang+From+Japanese+Brothels.+Just+Prior+to+Their+Release+the+Japanese+Issued+Them+With+Red+Cross+Arm+Bands+in+an+Attempt+to+Camouflage+the+Foul+Manner+in+Which+These+Girls+Had+Been+Used.+Young+Lady+in+Chief+of+the+Girls+Is+Komoriah.+She+is+Holding+the+Doll+She+Kept+Throughout+Her+Enforced+Stay+in+Japanese+Hands.+%28Photographer+K.+B.+Davis%29&rft.pub=Australian+War+Memorial&rft.date=1945-10-02&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.awm.gov.au%2Fcollection%2F120083&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJapanese+war+crimes" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-292"><a href="#cite_ref-292">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation audio-visual cs1">comfort women (2 October 1945). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.awm.gov.au/collection/120087">Koepang, Timor 1945-10-02. Timforce. Twenty Six Javanese Girls Who Were Liberated at Koepang From Japanese Brothels. Just Prior to Their Release the Japanese Issued Them With Red Cross Arm Bands in an Attempt to Camouflage the Foul Manner in Which These Girls Had Been Used. These Girls Will Now Be Cared For By The Netherlands Indies Civil Administration. (Photographer K. B. Davis)</a>. Australian War Memorial. 120087.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Koepang%2C+Timor+1945-10-02.+Timforce.+Twenty+Six+Javanese+Girls+Who+Were+Liberated+at+Koepang+From+Japanese+Brothels.+Just+Prior+to+Their+Release+the+Japanese+Issued+Them+With+Red+Cross+Arm+Bands+in+an+Attempt+to+Camouflage+the+Foul+Manner+in+Which+These+Girls+Had+Been+Used.+These+Girls+Will+Now+Be+Cared+For+By+The+Netherlands+Indies+Civil+Administration.+%28Photographer+K.+B.+Davis%29&rft.pub=Australian+War+Memorial&rft.date=1945-10-02&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.awm.gov.au%2Fcollection%2F120087&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJapanese+war+crimes" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-293"><a href="#cite_ref-293">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFTanaka2003" class="citation book cs1">Tanaka, Yuki (2003). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=mV5dymPXNBgC&dq=They+were+living+in+the+ruins+of+the+Japanese+comfort+station+at+Beaufort+(presently+Weston)+on+the+Padas+River+in+...+The+Japanese+tried+to+camouflage+this+by+making+them+wear+Red+Cross+armbands.63+The+Australian+forces+apparently+had+...&pg=PA81">Japan's Comfort Women</a>. Routledge. p. 81. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/1134650124" title="Special:BookSources/1134650124"><bdi>1134650124</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Japan%27s+Comfort+Women&rft.pages=81&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=2003&rft.isbn=1134650124&rft.aulast=Tanaka&rft.aufirst=Yuki&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DmV5dymPXNBgC%26dq%3DThey%2Bwere%2Bliving%2Bin%2Bthe%2Bruins%2Bof%2Bthe%2BJapanese%2Bcomfort%2Bstation%2Bat%2BBeaufort%2B%28presently%2BWeston%29%2Bon%2Bthe%2BPadas%2BRiver%2Bin%2B...%2BThe%2BJapanese%2Btried%2Bto%2Bcamouflage%2Bthis%2Bby%2Bmaking%2Bthem%2Bwear%2BRed%2BCross%2Barmbands.63%2BThe%2BAustralian%2Bforces%2Bapparently%2Bhad%2B...%26pg%3DPA81&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJapanese+war+crimes" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-294"><a href="#cite_ref-294">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFStetzOh2015" class="citation book cs1">Stetz, Margaret D.; Oh, Bonnie B. C. (2015). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=RW2mBgAAQBAJ&dq=The+Japanese+tried+to+camouflage+this+by+making+them+wear+Red+Cross+armbands.%22+It+seems+that+the+Australian+forces+had+no+intention+of+finding+out+which+Japanese+were+responsible+for+crimes+against+these+Indonesian+women.&pg=PA63">Legacies of the Comfort Women of World War II</a> (illustrated ed.). Routledge. p. 63. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1317466253" title="Special:BookSources/978-1317466253"><bdi>978-1317466253</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Legacies+of+the+Comfort+Women+of+World+War+II&rft.pages=63&rft.edition=illustrated&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=2015&rft.isbn=978-1317466253&rft.aulast=Stetz&rft.aufirst=Margaret+D.&rft.au=Oh%2C+Bonnie+B.+C.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DRW2mBgAAQBAJ%26dq%3DThe%2BJapanese%2Btried%2Bto%2Bcamouflage%2Bthis%2Bby%2Bmaking%2Bthem%2Bwear%2BRed%2BCross%2Barmbands.%2522%2BIt%2Bseems%2Bthat%2Bthe%2BAustralian%2Bforces%2Bhad%2Bno%2Bintention%2Bof%2Bfinding%2Bout%2Bwhich%2BJapanese%2Bwere%2Bresponsible%2Bfor%2Bcrimes%2Bagainst%2Bthese%2BIndonesian%2Bwomen.%26pg%3DPA63&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJapanese+war+crimes" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-295"><a href="#cite_ref-295">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation book cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=B1u7AAAAIAAJ&q=Japan%27s+Comfort+Women+,+Theirs+and+Ours+by+Murray+Sayle+Late+in+August+1944+,+Australian+troops+securing+the+island+of+Timor+after+Japan%27s+surrender+came+across+a+group+of+40+young+Javanese+women+wearing+Red+Cross+armbands+,+although">JPRI Critique: A Publication of the Japan Policy Research Institute, Volume 9</a>. Japan Policy Research Institute. p. 1.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=JPRI+Critique%3A+A+Publication+of+the+Japan+Policy+Research+Institute%2C+Volume+9&rft.pages=1&rft.pub=Japan+Policy+Research+Institute&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DB1u7AAAAIAAJ%26q%3DJapan%2527s%2BComfort%2BWomen%2B%2C%2BTheirs%2Band%2BOurs%2Bby%2BMurray%2BSayle%2BLate%2Bin%2BAugust%2B1944%2B%2C%2BAustralian%2Btroops%2Bsecuring%2Bthe%2Bisland%2Bof%2BTimor%2Bafter%2BJapan%2527s%2Bsurrender%2Bcame%2Bacross%2Ba%2Bgroup%2Bof%2B40%2Byoung%2BJavanese%2Bwomen%2Bwearing%2BRed%2BCross%2Barmbands%2B%2C%2Balthough&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJapanese+war+crimes" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-296"><a href="#cite_ref-296">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPost2009" class="citation book cs1">Post, Peter (2009). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=4t95DwAAQBAJ&dq=Twenty-six+Javanese+girls,+liberated+from+Japanese+brothels+in+Kupang+(Timor).+Just+before+their+release,+the+Japanese+issued+them+with+Red+Cross+arm+bands+in+an+attempt+to+camouflage+the+fact+that+they+had+been+used+Because+r%C5%8Dmusha+...&pg=PA194">"4. Occupation: Coercion and Control"</a>. In Post, Peter (ed.). The Encyclopedia of Indonesia in the Pacific War: In cooperation with the Netherlands Institute for War Documentation. Brill. p. 194; column 19; van Handbook of Oriental Studies. Section 3 Southeast Asia. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-9004190177" title="Special:BookSources/978-9004190177"><bdi>978-9004190177</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=4.+Occupation%3A+Coercion+and+Control&rft.btitle=The+Encyclopedia+of+Indonesia+in+the+Pacific+War%3A+In+cooperation+with+the+Netherlands+Institute+for+War+Documentation&rft.pages=p.+194%3B+column+19%3B+van+Handbook+of+Oriental+Studies.+Section+3+Southeast+Asia&rft.pub=Brill&rft.date=2009&rft.isbn=978-9004190177&rft.aulast=Post&rft.aufirst=Peter&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D4t95DwAAQBAJ%26dq%3DTwenty-six%2BJavanese%2Bgirls%2C%2Bliberated%2Bfrom%2BJapanese%2Bbrothels%2Bin%2BKupang%2B%28Timor%29.%2BJust%2Bbefore%2Btheir%2Brelease%2C%2Bthe%2BJapanese%2Bissued%2Bthem%2Bwith%2BRed%2BCross%2Barm%2Bbands%2Bin%2Ban%2Battempt%2Bto%2Bcamouflage%2Bthe%2Bfact%2Bthat%2Bthey%2Bhad%2Bbeen%2Bused%2BBecause%2Br%25C5%258Dmusha%2B...%26pg%3DPA194&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJapanese+war+crimes" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-297"><a href="#cite_ref-297">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMackie2017" class="citation book cs1">Mackie, Vera (2017). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=tiUlDwAAQBAJ&dq=A+native+who+worked+in+a+Koepang+cafe+before+the+war+said+that+the+Japanese+forfeited+co-operation+of+the+natives+by+...+japanese+returned+them+to+bima+dressed+in+the+red+cross+uniforms+they+originally+wore+to+timor+break+the+japanese+...&pg=PA140">"Gender, geopolitics and gaps in the records"</a>. In Reid, Kirsty; Paisley, Fiona (eds.). Sources and Methods in Histories of Colonialism: Approaching the Imperial Archive. Routledge Guides to Using Historical Sources (illustrated ed.). Taylor & Francis. p. 140. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1351986632" title="Special:BookSources/978-1351986632"><bdi>978-1351986632</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Gender%2C+geopolitics+and+gaps+in+the+records&rft.btitle=Sources+and+Methods+in+Histories+of+Colonialism%3A+Approaching+the+Imperial+Archive&rft.series=Routledge+Guides+to+Using+Historical+Sources&rft.pages=140&rft.edition=illustrated&rft.pub=Taylor+%26+Francis&rft.date=2017&rft.isbn=978-1351986632&rft.aulast=Mackie&rft.aufirst=Vera&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DtiUlDwAAQBAJ%26dq%3DA%2Bnative%2Bwho%2Bworked%2Bin%2Ba%2BKoepang%2Bcafe%2Bbefore%2Bthe%2Bwar%2Bsaid%2Bthat%2Bthe%2BJapanese%2Bforfeited%2Bco-operation%2Bof%2Bthe%2Bnatives%2Bby%2B...%2Bjapanese%2Breturned%2Bthem%2Bto%2Bbima%2Bdressed%2Bin%2Bthe%2Bred%2Bcross%2Buniforms%2Bthey%2Boriginally%2Bwore%2Bto%2Btimor%2Bbreak%2Bthe%2Bjapanese%2B...%26pg%3DPA140&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJapanese+war+crimes" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-298"><a href="#cite_ref-298">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBoyer2017" class="citation book cs1">Boyer, Allen D (2017). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=4QylDgAAQBAJ&dq=...+lumber+and+sawmills;+officers%27+clubs;+pornography;+proposed+Red+Cross+post+clubs;+PX+(post+exchange)+operations;+...+improvements+and+comforts;+infantry+fighting;+Japanese+resistance;+Javanese+and+Indian+prisoners+liberated;+...&pg=PT227">Rocky Boyer's War: An Unvarnished History of the Air Blitz that Won the War in the Southwest Pacific</a>. Naval Institute Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1682470978" title="Special:BookSources/978-1682470978"><bdi>978-1682470978</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Rocky+Boyer%27s+War%3A+An+Unvarnished+History+of+the+Air+Blitz+that+Won+the+War+in+the+Southwest+Pacific&rft.pub=Naval+Institute+Press&rft.date=2017&rft.isbn=978-1682470978&rft.aulast=Boyer&rft.aufirst=Allen+D&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D4QylDgAAQBAJ%26dq%3D...%2Blumber%2Band%2Bsawmills%3B%2Bofficers%2527%2Bclubs%3B%2Bpornography%3B%2Bproposed%2BRed%2BCross%2Bpost%2Bclubs%3B%2BPX%2B%28post%2Bexchange%29%2Boperations%3B%2B...%2Bimprovements%2Band%2Bcomforts%3B%2Binfantry%2Bfighting%3B%2BJapanese%2Bresistance%3B%2BJavanese%2Band%2BIndian%2Bprisoners%2Bliberated%3B%2B...%26pg%3DPT227&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJapanese+war+crimes" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-299"><a href="#cite_ref-299">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFTrevor2001" class="citation book cs1">Trevor, Malcolm (2001). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=PrAoHzoP1QkC&dq=...+260,000+Javanese+sent+to+the+railway+and+else-+where+,+only+70,000+returned+home+.+Those+working+on+the+railway+included+Burmese+,+Chinese+,+Indians+,+Malays+,+Thais+and+Vietnamese+.+Acting+for+the+Red+Cross+,+the+British+government+...&pg=PA124">Japan: Restless Competitor : the Pursuit of Economic Nationalism</a> (illustrated ed.). Psychology Press. p. 124. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/1903350026" title="Special:BookSources/1903350026"><bdi>1903350026</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Japan%3A+Restless+Competitor+%3A+the+Pursuit+of+Economic+Nationalism&rft.pages=124&rft.edition=illustrated&rft.pub=Psychology+Press&rft.date=2001&rft.isbn=1903350026&rft.aulast=Trevor&rft.aufirst=Malcolm&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DPrAoHzoP1QkC%26dq%3D...%2B260%2C000%2BJavanese%2Bsent%2Bto%2Bthe%2Brailway%2Band%2Belse-%2Bwhere%2B%2C%2Bonly%2B70%2C000%2Breturned%2Bhome%2B.%2BThose%2Bworking%2Bon%2Bthe%2Brailway%2Bincluded%2BBurmese%2B%2C%2BChinese%2B%2C%2BIndians%2B%2C%2BMalays%2B%2C%2BThais%2Band%2BVietnamese%2B.%2BActing%2Bfor%2Bthe%2BRed%2BCross%2B%2C%2Bthe%2BBritish%2Bgovernment%2B...%26pg%3DPA124&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJapanese+war+crimes" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-300"><a href="#cite_ref-300">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFTrevor2013" class="citation book cs1">Trevor, Malcolm (2013). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=arldAgAAQBAJ&dq=...+260,000+Javanese+sent+to+the+railway+and+else-+where+,+only+70,000+returned+home+.+Those+working+on+the+railway+included+Burmese+,+Chinese+,+Indians+,+Malays+,+Thais+and+Vietnamese+.+Acting+for+the+Red+Cross+,+the+British+government+...&pg=PA124">Japan - Restless Competitor: The Pursuit of Economic Nationalism</a>. Routledge. p. 124. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1134278411" title="Special:BookSources/978-1134278411"><bdi>978-1134278411</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Japan+-+Restless+Competitor%3A+The+Pursuit+of+Economic+Nationalism&rft.pages=124&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=2013&rft.isbn=978-1134278411&rft.aulast=Trevor&rft.aufirst=Malcolm&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DarldAgAAQBAJ%26dq%3D...%2B260%2C000%2BJavanese%2Bsent%2Bto%2Bthe%2Brailway%2Band%2Belse-%2Bwhere%2B%2C%2Bonly%2B70%2C000%2Breturned%2Bhome%2B.%2BThose%2Bworking%2Bon%2Bthe%2Brailway%2Bincluded%2BBurmese%2B%2C%2BChinese%2B%2C%2BIndians%2B%2C%2BMalays%2B%2C%2BThais%2Band%2BVietnamese%2B.%2BActing%2Bfor%2Bthe%2BRed%2BCross%2B%2C%2Bthe%2BBritish%2Bgovernment%2B...%26pg%3DPA124&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJapanese+war+crimes" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-301"><a href="#cite_ref-301">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJenningsJennings2021" class="citation book cs1">Jennings, Captain Mick; Jennings, Margery (2021). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=FhMZEAAAQBAJ&dq=The+Javanese+nationalist+movement+who+wanted+to+take+back+Indonesia+from+the+Dutch+were+on+the+rampage.+...+The+Japanese,+afraid+of+retribution+from+the+Allies,+started+handing+out+Red+Cross+parcels+and+mail+and+even+gave+a+concert+for+...&pg=PA168">Escape to Japanese Captivity: A Couple's Tragic Ordeal in Sumatra, 1942–1945</a>. Pen and Sword Military. p. 168. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1526783127" title="Special:BookSources/978-1526783127"><bdi>978-1526783127</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Escape+to+Japanese+Captivity%3A+A+Couple%27s+Tragic+Ordeal+in+Sumatra%2C+1942%E2%80%931945&rft.pages=168&rft.pub=Pen+and+Sword+Military&rft.date=2021&rft.isbn=978-1526783127&rft.aulast=Jennings&rft.aufirst=Captain+Mick&rft.au=Jennings%2C+Margery&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DFhMZEAAAQBAJ%26dq%3DThe%2BJavanese%2Bnationalist%2Bmovement%2Bwho%2Bwanted%2Bto%2Btake%2Bback%2BIndonesia%2Bfrom%2Bthe%2BDutch%2Bwere%2Bon%2Bthe%2Brampage.%2B...%2BThe%2BJapanese%2C%2Bafraid%2Bof%2Bretribution%2Bfrom%2Bthe%2BAllies%2C%2Bstarted%2Bhanding%2Bout%2BRed%2BCross%2Bparcels%2Band%2Bmail%2Band%2Beven%2Bgave%2Ba%2Bconcert%2Bfor%2B...%26pg%3DPA168&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJapanese+war+crimes" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-302"><a href="#cite_ref-302">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation audio-visual cs1">Terry, Francis Stanley (Frank) Roberts, Niall John (27 July 1995). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.awm.gov.au/collection/S01794">F3781 Francis Stanley Terry as a cook; minesweeper HMAS Mercedes and corvette HMAS Warrnambool; Australian western approaches and northern and eastern waters; 1941-1946; interviewed by John Roberts</a> (TDK D60 Cassette). Event occurs at ! Hour Australian War Memorial. S01794.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=F3781+Francis+Stanley+Terry+as+a+cook%3B+minesweeper+HMAS+Mercedes+and+corvette+HMAS+Warrnambool%3B+Australian+western+approaches+and+northern+and+eastern+waters%3B+1941-1946%3B+interviewed+by+John+Roberts&rft.date=1995-07-27&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.awm.gov.au%2Fcollection%2FS01794&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJapanese+war+crimes" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-303"><a href="#cite_ref-303">^</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external free" href="https://s3-ap-southeast-2.amazonaws.com/awm-media/collection/S01794/document/1866247.PDF">https://s3-ap-southeast-2.amazonaws.com/awm-media/collection/S01794/document/1866247.PDF</a> [<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Bare_URLs" title="Wikipedia:Bare URLs">bare URL</a>] </li> <li id="cite_note-304"><a href="#cite_ref-304">^</a> Francis Stanley Terry (cook; minesweeper HMAS Mercedes and corvette HMAS Warrnambool; Australian western approaches and northern and eastern waters; 1941-1946), oral history interview, 27 July 1995, AWM, S01794. </li> <li id="cite_note-305"><a href="#cite_ref-305">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMolemansPark2022" class="citation web cs1">Molemans, Griselda; Park, Hee Seok (15 August 2022). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.pabst-science-publishers.com/current/news-archiv/details-archive/both-the-state-and-the-royal-family-benefited-from-the-earnings-of-dutch-east-indies-comfort-women.html">"Both the State and the royal family benefited from the earnings of Dutch East Indies 'comfort women'"</a>. Follow The Money.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Follow+The+Money&rft.atitle=Both+the+State+and+the+royal+family+benefited+from+the+earnings+of+Dutch+East+Indies+%27comfort+women%27&rft.date=2022-08-15&rft.aulast=Molemans&rft.aufirst=Griselda&rft.au=Park%2C+Hee+Seok&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.pabst-science-publishers.com%2Fcurrent%2Fnews-archiv%2Fdetails-archive%2Fboth-the-state-and-the-royal-family-benefited-from-the-earnings-of-dutch-east-indies-comfort-women.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJapanese+war+crimes" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-306"><a href="#cite_ref-306">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMolemansPark2022" class="citation web cs1">Molemans, Griselda; Park, Hee Seok (15 August 2022). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ftm.eu/articles/dutch-state-and-royal-family-profited-from-money-comfort-women?share=oGtVAb11Rh%2BAGTmJxQgR9t2033uPclbxiZiOALN1ovwnfKYlf3MPVNkKTcbf1zc%3D">"Both the State and the royal family benefited from the earnings of Dutch East Indies 'comfort women'"</a>. Follow The Money.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Follow+The+Money&rft.atitle=Both+the+State+and+the+royal+family+benefited+from+the+earnings+of+Dutch+East+Indies+%27comfort+women%27&rft.date=2022-08-15&rft.aulast=Molemans&rft.aufirst=Griselda&rft.au=Park%2C+Hee+Seok&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ftm.eu%2Farticles%2Fdutch-state-and-royal-family-profited-from-money-comfort-women%3Fshare%3DoGtVAb11Rh%252BAGTmJxQgR9t2033uPclbxiZiOALN1ovwnfKYlf3MPVNkKTcbf1zc%253D&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJapanese+war+crimes" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-307"><a href="#cite_ref-307">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation audio-visual cs1">slaves, Friend, Donald (1945). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.awm.gov.au/collection/C170219">Javanese slaves in native compound sick ward</a>. Australian War Memorial. C170219.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Javanese+slaves+in+native+compound+sick+ward&rft.pub=Australian+War+Memorial&rft.date=1945&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.awm.gov.au%2Fcollection%2FC170219&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJapanese+war+crimes" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-308"><a href="#cite_ref-308">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation audio-visual cs1">slaves, Friend, Donald (1945). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.awm.gov.au/collection/C170216">Javanese slaves in native compound sick ward</a>. Australian War Memorial. C170216.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Javanese+slaves+in+native+compound+sick+ward&rft.pub=Australian+War+Memorial&rft.date=1945&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.awm.gov.au%2Fcollection%2FC170216&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJapanese+war+crimes" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-309"><a href="#cite_ref-309">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation audio-visual cs1">brothel (1945). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.awm.gov.au/collection/C375607">Labuan. September 1945. A private house in Fox Road used by the Japanese as an Officer's club and brothel. (Donor R. Fullford)</a>. Australian War Memorial. C375607.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Labuan.+September+1945.+A+private+house+in+Fox+Road+used+by+the+Japanese+as+an+Officer%27s+club+and+brothel.+%28Donor+R.+Fullford%29&rft.pub=Australian+War+Memorial&rft.date=1945&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.awm.gov.au%2Fcollection%2FC375607&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJapanese+war+crimes" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-310"><a href="#cite_ref-310">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation audio-visual cs1">Malay and Javanese (28 August 1945). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.awm.gov.au/collection/115185">Miri, Borneo. 1945-08-28. Over 300 Natives, Malay and Javanese, Escaped From the Japanese and Are Now in the British Borneo Civil Administration Compound. Shown Above, a Group of Men Typical of the Malnutrition Cases Being Treated at the Compound</a>. Australian War Memorial. 115185.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Miri%2C+Borneo.+1945-08-28.+Over+300+Natives%2C+Malay+and+Javanese%2C+Escaped+From+the+Japanese+and+Are+Now+in+the+British+Borneo+Civil+Administration+Compound.+Shown+Above%2C+a+Group+of+Men+Typical+of+the+Malnutrition+Cases+Being+Treated+at+the+Compound.&rft.pub=Australian+War+Memorial&rft.date=1945-08-28&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.awm.gov.au%2Fcollection%2F115185&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJapanese+war+crimes" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-311"><a href="#cite_ref-311">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation audio-visual cs1">Malay and Javanese (28 August 1945). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.awm.gov.au/collection/115187">Miri, Borneo. 1945-08-28. Some of the 300 Natives, Malay and Japanese, Who Escaped From the Japanese and Are Now in the British Borneo Civil Administration Compound</a>. Australian War Memorial. 115187.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Miri%2C+Borneo.+1945-08-28.+Some+of+the+300+Natives%2C+Malay+and+Japanese%2C+Who+Escaped+From+the+Japanese+and+Are+Now+in+the+British+Borneo+Civil+Administration+Compound.&rft.pub=Australian+War+Memorial&rft.date=1945-08-28&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.awm.gov.au%2Fcollection%2F115187&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJapanese+war+crimes" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-312"><a href="#cite_ref-312">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFO'Neill2011" class="citation news cs1">O'Neill, Claire (4 June 2011). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.npr.org/sections/pictureshow/2011/06/04/134271795/comfort-women-untold-stories-of-wartime-abuse">"Comfort Women: Untold Stories Of Wartime Abuse"</a>. NPR.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=NPR&rft.atitle=Comfort+Women%3A+Untold+Stories+Of+Wartime+Abuse&rft.date=2011-06-04&rft.aulast=O%27Neill&rft.aufirst=Claire&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.npr.org%2Fsections%2Fpictureshow%2F2011%2F06%2F04%2F134271795%2Fcomfort-women-untold-stories-of-wartime-abuse&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJapanese+war+crimes" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-313"><a href="#cite_ref-313">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHirano2015" class="citation news cs1">Hirano, Keiji (19 October 2015). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.japantimes.co.jp/culture/2015/10/19/arts/photo-exhibition-shows-pain-indonesian-former-comfort-women/">"Photo exhibition shows pain of Indonesian former 'comfort women'"</a>. <a href="/wiki/The_Japan_Times" title="The Japan Times">The Japan Times</a>. Kyodo.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Japan+Times&rft.atitle=Photo+exhibition+shows+pain+of+Indonesian+former+%27comfort+women%27&rft.date=2015-10-19&rft.aulast=Hirano&rft.aufirst=Keiji&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.japantimes.co.jp%2Fculture%2F2015%2F10%2F19%2Farts%2Fphoto-exhibition-shows-pain-indonesian-former-comfort-women%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJapanese+war+crimes" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-314"><a href="#cite_ref-314">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFO'Neill2011" class="citation news cs1">O'Neill, Claire (4 June 2011). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.wbur.org/npr/134271795/comfort-women-untold-stories-of-wartime-abuse">"Comfort Women: Untold Stories Of Wartime Abuse"</a>. wbur.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=wbur&rft.atitle=Comfort+Women%3A+Untold+Stories+Of+Wartime+Abuse&rft.date=2011-06-04&rft.aulast=O%27Neill&rft.aufirst=Claire&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.wbur.org%2Fnpr%2F134271795%2Fcomfort-women-untold-stories-of-wartime-abuse&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJapanese+war+crimes" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-315"><a href="#cite_ref-315">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation audio-visual cs1">Niyem (born 1933), Jan Banning. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://library.panos.co.uk/stock-photo-niyem-born-1933-was-one-of-tens-of-thousands-of-comfort-women-forced-panos-image00117720.html">Comfort Women</a> (picture). Karangmojo, Yogyakarta, Java, Indonesia: panos pictures. JBA00738INN.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Comfort+Women&rft.place=Karangmojo%2C+Yogyakarta%2C+Java%2C+Indonesia&rft.pub=panos+pictures&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Flibrary.panos.co.uk%2Fstock-photo-niyem-born-1933-was-one-of-tens-of-thousands-of-comfort-women-forced-panos-image00117720.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJapanese+war+crimes" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-316"><a href="#cite_ref-316">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation audio-visual cs1">Niyem (born 1933), Jan Banning. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://library.panos.co.uk/features/stories/comfort-women.html#0_00117720">Comfort Women</a> (picture). Karangmojo, Yogyakarta, Java, Indonesia: panos pictures. JBA00738INN.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Comfort+Women&rft.place=Karangmojo%2C+Yogyakarta%2C+Java%2C+Indonesia&rft.pub=panos+pictures&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Flibrary.panos.co.uk%2Ffeatures%2Fstories%2Fcomfort-women.html%230_00117720&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJapanese+war+crimes" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-317"><a href="#cite_ref-317">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBaird2016" class="citation journal cs1">Baird, J. Kevin (1 January 2016). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://apjjf.org/2016/01/4-Baird.html">"War Crimes in Japan-Occupied Indonesia: Unraveling the Persecution of Achmad Mochtar"</a>. Japan Focus: The Asia-Pacific Journal. 14 (1).</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Japan+Focus%3A+The+Asia-Pacific+Journal&rft.atitle=War+Crimes+in+Japan-Occupied+Indonesia%3A+Unraveling+the+Persecution+of+Achmad+Mochtar&rft.volume=14&rft.issue=1&rft.date=2016-01-01&rft.aulast=Baird&rft.aufirst=J.+Kevin&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapjjf.org%2F2016%2F01%2F4-Baird.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJapanese+war+crimes" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-318"><a href="#cite_ref-318">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFTanaka2003" class="citation book cs1">Tanaka, Yuki (2003). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=mV5dymPXNBgC&dq=%22Dutch+were+equally+indifferent+to+victims+who+were+not+white+and+Dutch%22&pg=PA78">Japan's Comfort Women</a>. Routledge. pp. 78–82, 85, 86. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/1134650124" title="Special:BookSources/1134650124"><bdi>1134650124</bdi></a>. <q>As much as the Japanese were unconcerned about the exploitation of non-Europeans, the Dutch were equally indifferent to victims who were not white and Dutch. However, there were at least two exceptional cases brought by the Dutch ...</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Japan%27s+Comfort+Women&rft.pages=78-82%2C+85%2C+86&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=2003&rft.isbn=1134650124&rft.aulast=Tanaka&rft.aufirst=Yuki&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DmV5dymPXNBgC%26dq%3D%2522Dutch%2Bwere%2Bequally%2Bindifferent%2Bto%2Bvictims%2Bwho%2Bwere%2Bnot%2Bwhite%2Band%2BDutch%2522%26pg%3DPA78&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJapanese+war+crimes" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-319"><a href="#cite_ref-319">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://dokumen.pub/japans-comfort-women-asias-transformations-1nbsped-0415194008-9780415194006.html">"Japan's Comfort Women (Asia's Transformations) [1 ed.] 0415194008, 9780415194006"</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Japan%27s+Comfort+Women+%28Asia%27s+Transformations%29+%26%2391%3B1+ed.%26%2393%3B+0415194008%2C+9780415194006&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdokumen.pub%2Fjapans-comfort-women-asias-transformations-1nbsped-0415194008-9780415194006.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJapanese+war+crimes" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-320"><a href="#cite_ref-320">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFStetzOh2015" class="citation book cs1">Stetz, Margaret D.; Oh, Bonnie B. C. (2015). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=RW2mBgAAQBAJ&dq=%22Dutch+were+equally+indifferent+to+victims+who+were+not+white+and+Dutch%22&pg=PA61">Legacies of the Comfort Women of World War II</a> (illustrated ed.). Routledge. pp. 61–68. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1317466253" title="Special:BookSources/978-1317466253"><bdi>978-1317466253</bdi></a>. <q>... Japanese were unconcerned about the exploitation of non-Europeans, so too the Dutch were equally indifferent to victims who were not white and Dutch.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Legacies+of+the+Comfort+Women+of+World+War+II&rft.pages=61-68&rft.edition=illustrated&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=2015&rft.isbn=978-1317466253&rft.aulast=Stetz&rft.aufirst=Margaret+D.&rft.au=Oh%2C+Bonnie+B.+C.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DRW2mBgAAQBAJ%26dq%3D%2522Dutch%2Bwere%2Bequally%2Bindifferent%2Bto%2Bvictims%2Bwho%2Bwere%2Bnot%2Bwhite%2Band%2BDutch%2522%26pg%3DPA61&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJapanese+war+crimes" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-321"><a href="#cite_ref-321">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRickum2014" class="citation book cs1">Rickum, Boryano (2014). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=m5QCBQAAQBAJ&dq=japanese+mardyiem&pg=PA184">"Marginalized by Silence- Victims of Japanese Occupation in Indonesia's Political Memory"</a>. In Stodulka, Thomas; Röttger-Rössler, Birgitt (eds.). Feelings at the Margins: Dealing with Violence, Stigma and Isolation in Indonesia (illustrated ed.). Campus Verlag. p. 184. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3593500058" title="Special:BookSources/978-3593500058"><bdi>978-3593500058</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Marginalized+by+Silence-+Victims+of+Japanese+Occupation+in+Indonesia%27s+Political+Memory&rft.btitle=Feelings+at+the+Margins%3A+Dealing+with+Violence%2C+Stigma+and+Isolation+in+Indonesia&rft.pages=184&rft.edition=illustrated&rft.pub=Campus+Verlag&rft.date=2014&rft.isbn=978-3593500058&rft.aulast=Rickum&rft.aufirst=Boryano&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Dm5QCBQAAQBAJ%26dq%3Djapanese%2Bmardyiem%26pg%3DPA184&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJapanese+war+crimes" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-322"><a href="#cite_ref-322">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFriend2014" class="citation book cs1">Friend, Theodore (2014). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=UQMABAAAQBAJ&dq=kenpeitai+executed&pg=RA1-PA176">The Blue-Eyed Enemy: Japan against the West in Java and Luzon, 1942-1945</a>. Princeton University Press. p. 175,176. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1400859467" title="Special:BookSources/978-1400859467"><bdi>978-1400859467</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Blue-Eyed+Enemy%3A+Japan+against+the+West+in+Java+and+Luzon%2C+1942-1945&rft.pages=175%2C176&rft.pub=Princeton+University+Press&rft.date=2014&rft.isbn=978-1400859467&rft.aulast=Friend&rft.aufirst=Theodore&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DUQMABAAAQBAJ%26dq%3Dkenpeitai%2Bexecuted%26pg%3DRA1-PA176&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJapanese+war+crimes" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-323"><a href="#cite_ref-323">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFNanda2017" class="citation news cs1">Nanda, Akshita (23 January 2017). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.straitstimes.com/lifestyle/arts/stirring-look-at-comfort-women-in-singapore">"Stirring look at comfort women in Singapore"</a>. The Straits Times.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Straits+Times&rft.atitle=Stirring+look+at+comfort+women+in+Singapore&rft.date=2017-01-23&rft.aulast=Nanda&rft.aufirst=Akshita&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.straitstimes.com%2Flifestyle%2Farts%2Fstirring-look-at-comfort-women-in-singapore&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJapanese+war+crimes" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-324"><a href="#cite_ref-324">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPillai2016" class="citation book cs1">Pillai, Patrick (2016). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=Uh1qDwAAQBAJ&dq=">"Chitty+girls+being+hastily"&pg=PP66 Yearning to Belong</a>. Flipside Digital Content Company Inc. p. 47. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-9814762007" title="Special:BookSources/978-9814762007"><bdi>978-9814762007</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Yearning+to+Belong&rft.pages=47&rft.pub=Flipside+Digital+Content+Company+Inc.&rft.date=2016&rft.isbn=978-9814762007&rft.aulast=Pillai&rft.aufirst=Patrick&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DUh1qDwAAQBAJ%26dq%3D%22Chitty%2Bgirls%2Bbeing%2Bhastily%22%26pg%3DPP66&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJapanese+war+crimes" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-325"><a href="#cite_ref-325">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRussell2016" class="citation book cs1">Russell, Edward Frederick Langley (2016). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=cRw_DwAAQBAJ&dq=%22young+Tamil+women+were+forced+to+dance%22&pg=PA93">The Knights of Bushido: A History of Japanese War Crimes during World War II</a>. Frontline Books. p. 93. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1473887596" title="Special:BookSources/978-1473887596"><bdi>978-1473887596</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Knights+of+Bushido%3A+A+History+of+Japanese+War+Crimes+during+World+War+II&rft.pages=93&rft.pub=Frontline+Books&rft.date=2016&rft.isbn=978-1473887596&rft.aulast=Russell&rft.aufirst=Edward+Frederick+Langley&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DcRw_DwAAQBAJ%26dq%3D%2522young%2BTamil%2Bwomen%2Bwere%2Bforced%2Bto%2Bdance%2522%26pg%3DPA93&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJapanese+war+crimes" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-326"><a href="#cite_ref-326">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRussell2016" class="citation book cs1">Russell, Edward Frederick Langley (2016). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=LiL_DQAAQBAJ&dq=">"young+Tamil+women+were+forced+to+dance"&pg=PT107 The Knights of Bushido: A History of Japanese War Crimes During World War II</a> (reprint ed.). Simon and Schuster. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1510710375" title="Special:BookSources/978-1510710375"><bdi>978-1510710375</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Knights+of+Bushido%3A+A+History+of+Japanese+War+Crimes+During+World+War+II&rft.edition=reprint&rft.pub=Simon+and+Schuster&rft.date=2016&rft.isbn=978-1510710375&rft.aulast=Russell&rft.aufirst=Edward+Frederick+Langley&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DLiL_DQAAQBAJ%26dq%3D%22young%2BTamil%2Bwomen%2Bwere%2Bforced%2Bto%2Bdance%22%26pg%3DPT107&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJapanese+war+crimes" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-327"><a href="#cite_ref-327">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation news cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.thehindu.com/news/national/tamil-nadu/The-real-Kwai-killed-over-1.50-lakh-Tamils/article14593113.ece">"The real Kwai killed over 1.50 lakh Tamils"</a>. The Hindu. Chennai. 27 August 2016.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Hindu&rft.atitle=The+real+Kwai+killed+over+1.50+lakh+Tamils&rft.date=2016-08-27&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.thehindu.com%2Fnews%2Fnational%2Ftamil-nadu%2FThe-real-Kwai-killed-over-1.50-lakh-Tamils%2Farticle14593113.ece&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJapanese+war+crimes" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-328"><a href="#cite_ref-328">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKOLAPPAN2016" class="citation news cs1">KOLAPPAN, B. (27 August 2016). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.thehindu.com/news/national/tamil-nadu/the-real-kwai-killed-over-150-lakh-tamils/article9037199.ece">"The real Kwai killed over 1.50 lakh Tamils"</a>. The Hindu. Chennai.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Hindu&rft.atitle=The+real+Kwai+killed+over+1.50+lakh+Tamils&rft.date=2016-08-27&rft.aulast=KOLAPPAN&rft.aufirst=B.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.thehindu.com%2Fnews%2Fnational%2Ftamil-nadu%2Fthe-real-kwai-killed-over-150-lakh-tamils%2Farticle9037199.ece&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJapanese+war+crimes" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-329"><a href="#cite_ref-329">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation news cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.tamilmurasu.com.sg/tabla/india/remembering-death-railway-labourers">"Remembering Death Railway labourers"</a>. Tamil Murasu. 30 June 2023.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Tamil+Murasu&rft.atitle=Remembering+Death+Railway+labourers&rft.date=2023-06-30&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.tamilmurasu.com.sg%2Ftabla%2Findia%2Fremembering-death-railway-labourers&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJapanese+war+crimes" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-330"><a href="#cite_ref-330">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation journal cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20191222004455/http://www.kyoto-seika.ac.jp/researchlab/wp/wp-content/uploads/kiyo/pdf-data/no25/david.pdf">"Notes on the Thai-Burma Railway Part VII: Tamil Workers on the Railway"</a> (PDF). Journal of Kyoto Seika University (25): 2–22. 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Lee, 1997, Korea and East Asia: The Story of a Phoenix, Westport, Connecticut: Greenwood Publishing Group </li> <li id="cite_note-334"><a href="#cite_ref-334">^</a> Sterling & Peggy Seagrave, 2003, Gold warriors: America's secret recovery of Yamashita's gold, London: Verso Books (<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/1-85984-542-8" title="Special:BookSources/1-85984-542-8">1-85984-542-8</a>) </li> <li id="cite_note-335"><a href="#cite_ref-335">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJohnson2003" class="citation news cs1">Johnson, Chalmers (20 November 2003). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.lrb.co.uk/v25/n22/chalmers-johnson/the-looting-of-asia">"The Looting of Asia"</a>. London Review of Books. pp. 3–6. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0260-9592">0260-9592</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20190407185616/https://www.lrb.co.uk/v25/n22/chalmers-johnson/the-looting-of-asia">Archived</a> from the original on 7 April 2019. 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Time. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230720135513/https://content.time.com/time/subscriber/article/0,33009,197704,00.html">Archived</a> from the original on 20 July 2023. 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Retrieved 13 September 2020.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=The+Japan+Times&rft.atitle=Japan+slams+the+door+on+stolen+artwork&rft.date=2002-12-04&rft.aulast=Glosserman&rft.aufirst=Brad&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.japantimes.co.jp%2Fopinion%2F2002%2F12%2F04%2Fcommentary%2Fjapan-slams-the-door-on-stolen-artwork%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJapanese+war+crimes" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-339"><a href="#cite_ref-339">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFThurgoodThurgoodLi2014" class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-long-vol">Thurgood, Graham; Thurgood, Ela; Li, Fengxiang (2014). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=xzDnBQAAQBAJ&pg=PA20">A Grammatical Sketch of Hainan Cham: History, Contact, and Phonology</a>. Vol. 643 of Pacific Linguistics [PL] (reprint ed.). Walter de Gruyter GmbH & Co KG. p. 20. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1614516040" title="Special:BookSources/978-1614516040"><bdi>978-1614516040</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20231005004433/https://books.google.com/books?id=xzDnBQAAQBAJ&pg=PA20">Archived</a> from the original on 5 October 2023. 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Retrieved 2 August 2009.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Convention+for+the+adaptation+to+maritime+war+of+the+principles+of+the+Geneva+Convention&rft.pub=Yale+University&rft.date=1907-10-18&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Favalon.law.yale.edu%2F20th_century%2Fhague10.asp&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJapanese+war+crimes" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-347"><a href="#cite_ref-347">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.today/20130616131847/http://www.minbuza.nl/en/key-topics/treaties/search-the-treaty-database/1899/7/002339.html">"Convention for the adaptation to maritime warfare of the principles of the Geneva Convention"</a>. Netherlands: Ministry of Foreign Affairs. 16 June 2013. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.minbuza.nl/en/key-topics/treaties/search-the-treaty-database/1899/7/002339.html">the original</a> on 16 June 2013.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Convention+for+the+adaptation+to+maritime+warfare+of+the+principles+of+the+Geneva+Convention&rft.place=Netherlands&rft.pub=Ministry+of+Foreign+Affairs&rft.date=2013-06-16&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.minbuza.nl%2Fen%2Fkey-topics%2Ftreaties%2Fsearch-the-treaty-database%2F1899%2F7%2F002339.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJapanese+war+crimes" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEDANFS:_''Comfort''-348">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDANFS:_''Comfort''_348-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDANFS:_''Comfort''_348-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFDANFS:_Comfort">DANFS: Comfort</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTECondon-RallCowdrey1998392-349"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTECondon-RallCowdrey1998392_349-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFCondon-RallCowdrey1998">Condon-Rall & Cowdrey 1998</a>, p. 392. </li> <li id="cite_note-350"><a href="#cite_ref-350">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation audio-visual cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/gov.archives.arc.39062">Video U.S. Turns To Japan After German Defeat [ETC.] (1945)</a>. 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Retrieved 20 February 2012.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Video%3A+Funeral+Pyres+of+Nazidom%2C+1945%2F05%2F10+%281945%29&rft.pub=Universal+Newsreels&rft.date=1945-05-10&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2F1945-05-10_Funeral_Pyres_of_Nazidom&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJapanese+war+crimes" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-352"><a href="#cite_ref-352">^</a> <img alt="Public Domain" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/6/62/PD-icon.svg/12px-PD-icon.svg.png" decoding="async" width="12" height="12" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/6/62/PD-icon.svg/18px-PD-icon.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/6/62/PD-icon.svg/24px-PD-icon.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="196" data-file-height="196" /> This article incorporates text from the <a href="/wiki/Public_domain" title="Public domain">public domain</a> <a href="/wiki/Dictionary_of_American_Naval_Fighting_Ships" title="Dictionary of American Naval Fighting Ships">Dictionary of American Naval Fighting Ships</a>. The entry can be found <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.history.navy.mil/danfs/h7/hope.htm">here</a>.[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Link_rot" title="Wikipedia:Link rot">dead link</a>‍] </li> <li id="cite_note-353"><a href="#cite_ref-353">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCondon-RallCowdrey1998" class="citation book cs1">Condon-Rall, Mary Ellen; Cowdrey, Albert E. (1998). The Technical Services—The Medical Department: Medical Service In The War Against Japan. United States Army in World War II. 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Retrieved 19 October 2023.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=battleforaustralia.asn.au&rft.atitle=Bombing+of+2%2F1st+Australian+Hospital+Ship+Manunda+in+Darwin&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.battleforaustralia.asn.au%2FHospital_Ship.php&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJapanese+war+crimes" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-ozatwar.Centaur-357"><a href="#cite_ref-ozatwar.Centaur_357-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.ozatwar.com/ozatwar/centaur.htm">"Sinking of the 2/3 hospital ship A.H.S. Centaur"</a>. ozatwar.com. 2010. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20151129065702/http://www.ozatwar.com/ozatwar/centaur.htm">Archived</a> from the original on 29 November 2015. Retrieved 8 November 2011.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Sinking+of+the+2%2F3+hospital+ship+A.H.S.+Centaur&rft.pub=ozatwar.com&rft.date=2010&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.ozatwar.com%2Fozatwar%2Fcentaur.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJapanese+war+crimes" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-358"><a href="#cite_ref-358">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://ssmaritime.com/SS-Op-Ten-Noort.htm">"KPN SS Op Ten Noort an 6,000 ton 1927 Dutch Passenger-Cargo liner based in Dutch East Indies (Indonesia)"</a>. ssmaritime.com. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230607055933/http://ssmaritime.com/SS-Op-Ten-Noort.htm">Archived</a> from the original on 7 June 2023. Retrieved 19 October 2023.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=ssmaritime.com&rft.atitle=KPN+SS+Op+Ten+Noort+an+6%2C000+ton+1927+Dutch+Passenger-Cargo+liner+based+in+Dutch+East+Indies+%28Indonesia%29&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fssmaritime.com%2FSS-Op-Ten-Noort.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJapanese+war+crimes" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-359"><a href="#cite_ref-359">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.netherlandsnavy.nl/Noort.htm">"Op ten Noort, hospitalship"</a>. netherlandsnavy.nl. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230405012946/https://www.netherlandsnavy.nl/Noort.htm">Archived</a> from the original on 5 April 2023. Retrieved 19 October 2023.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=netherlandsnavy.nl&rft.atitle=Op+ten+Noort%2C+hospitalship&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.netherlandsnavy.nl%2FNoort.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJapanese+war+crimes" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-360"><a href="#cite_ref-360">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFTruong1971" class="citation book cs1">Truong, Chinh (1971). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=sTrcAAAAIAAJ&dq=%22The+Japanese+were+disarmed+in+many+places%22&pg=RA2-PA13">"Revolution or Coup d'Etat, JPRS 53169 19 May 1971 Translations on North Vietnam No. 940 Documents on the August Revolution"</a>. Translations on North Vietnam, Volume 17. JPRS (Series). Contributor United States. Joint Publications Research Service. 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U.S. Joint Publications Research Service. pp. 8–13. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20231019133953/https://books.google.com/books?id=sTrcAAAAIAAJ&dq=%22Wherever+they+went%2C+the+Japanese+forces+burned+down+homes%2C+murdered+law-abiding+citizens%2C+raped+women%2C+and+stole+possessions.%22&pg=RA2-PA9#v=onepage&q=%22Wherever%20they%20went%2C%20the%20Japanese%20forces%20burned%20down%20homes%2C%20murdered%20law-abiding%20citizens%2C%20raped%20women%2C%20and%20stole%20possessions.%22&f=false">Archived</a> from the original on 19 October 2023. 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Bix, Hirohito and the making of modern Japan, 2000, p.583, 584 </li> <li id="cite_note-367"><a href="#cite_ref-367">^</a> Dower,Embracing defeat, 1999, p.326 </li> <li id="cite_note-368"><a href="#cite_ref-368">^</a> Dower, Hirohito, p.562. </li> <li id="cite_note-369"><a href="#cite_ref-369">^</a> Bix, Hirohito, p.585, 583 </li> <li id="cite_note-370"><a href="#cite_ref-370">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSebestyen2015" class="citation web cs1">Sebestyen, Victor (11 November 2015). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://longreads.com/2015/11/11/how-the-emperor-became-human-and-macarthur-became-divine/">"How the Emperor Became Human (and MacArthur Became Divine)"</a>. 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Retrieved 21 April 2021.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Longreads&rft.atitle=How+the+Emperor+Became+Human+%28and+MacArthur+Became+Divine%29&rft.date=2015-11-11&rft.aulast=Sebestyen&rft.aufirst=Victor&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Flongreads.com%2F2015%2F11%2F11%2Fhow-the-emperor-became-human-and-macarthur-became-divine%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJapanese+war+crimes" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-371"><a href="#cite_ref-371">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDrea2006" class="citation book cs1">Drea, Edward (2006). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.archives.gov/files/iwg/japanese-war-crimes/introductory-essays.pdf">Researching Japanese War Crimes</a> (PDF). National Archives and Records Administration for the Nazi War Crimes and Japanese Imperial Government Records Interagency Working Group. pp. 6–7.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Researching+Japanese+War+Crimes&rft.pages=6-7&rft.pub=National+Archives+and+Records+Administration+for+the+Nazi+War+Crimes+and+Japanese+Imperial+Government+Records+Interagency+Working+Group&rft.date=2006&rft.aulast=Drea&rft.aufirst=Edward&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.archives.gov%2Ffiles%2Fiwg%2Fjapanese-war-crimes%2Fintroductory-essays.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJapanese+war+crimes" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-372"><a href="#cite_ref-372">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDrea2006" class="citation book cs1">Drea, Edward (2006). Researching Japanese War Crimes. National Archives and Records Administration for the Nazi War Crimes and Japanese Imperial Government Records Interagency Working Group. pp. 6–7.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Researching+Japanese+War+Crimes&rft.pages=6-7&rft.pub=National+Archives+and+Records+Administration+for+the+Nazi+War+Crimes+and+Japanese+Imperial+Government+Records+Interagency+Working+Group&rft.date=2006&rft.aulast=Drea&rft.aufirst=Edward&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJapanese+war+crimes" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-373"><a href="#cite_ref-373">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDrea2006" class="citation book cs1">Drea, Edward (2006). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.archives.gov/files/iwg/japanese-war-crimes/introductory-essays.pdf">Researching Japanese War Crimes</a> (PDF). National Archives and Records Administration for the Nazi War Crimes and Japanese Imperial Government Records Interagency Working Group. pp. 6–7.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Researching+Japanese+War+Crimes&rft.pages=6-7&rft.pub=National+Archives+and+Records+Administration+for+the+Nazi+War+Crimes+and+Japanese+Imperial+Government+Records+Interagency+Working+Group&rft.date=2006&rft.aulast=Drea&rft.aufirst=Edward&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.archives.gov%2Ffiles%2Fiwg%2Fjapanese-war-crimes%2Fintroductory-essays.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJapanese+war+crimes" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-experimentation220-374"><a href="#cite_ref-experimentation220_374-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBrodyLeonardNieWeindling2014" class="citation journal cs1">Brody, H.; Leonard, S. E.; Nie, J. B.; Weindling, P. (2014). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4487829">"United States Responses to Japanese Wartime Inhuman Experimentation after World War II: National Security and Wartime Exigency"</a>. <a href="/wiki/Cambridge_Quarterly_of_Healthcare_Ethics" title="Cambridge Quarterly of Healthcare Ethics">Cambridge Quarterly of Healthcare Ethics</a>. 23 (2): 220–230. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1017%2FS0963180113000753">10.1017/S0963180113000753</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4487829">4487829</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/24534743">24534743</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Cambridge+Quarterly+of+Healthcare+Ethics&rft.atitle=United+States+Responses+to+Japanese+Wartime+Inhuman+Experimentation+after+World+War+II%3A+National+Security+and+Wartime+Exigency&rft.volume=23&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=220-230&rft.date=2014&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC4487829%23id-name%3DPMC&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F24534743&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1017%2FS0963180113000753&rft.aulast=Brody&rft.aufirst=H.&rft.au=Leonard%2C+S.+E.&rft.au=Nie%2C+J.+B.&rft.au=Weindling%2C+P.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC4487829&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJapanese+war+crimes" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-375"><a href="#cite_ref-375">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.presidency.ucsb.edu/ws/index.php?pid=78495">"Harry S. Truman – Executive Order 10393 – Establishment of the Clemency and Parole Board for War Criminals"</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20090529013643/http://www.presidency.ucsb.edu/ws/index.php?pid=78495">Archived</a> from the original on 29 May 2009. Retrieved 13 April 2009.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Harry+S.+Truman+%E2%80%93+Executive+Order+10393+%E2%80%93+Establishment+of+the+Clemency+and+Parole+Board+for+War+Criminals&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.presidency.ucsb.edu%2Fws%2Findex.php%3Fpid%3D78495&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJapanese+war+crimes" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-376"><a href="#cite_ref-376">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMaguire2000" class="citation book cs1">Maguire, Peter H. (2000). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/lawwaramerican00magu">Law and War</a>. Columbia University Press. p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/lawwaramerican00magu/page/255">255</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-231-12051-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-231-12051-7"><bdi>978-0-231-12051-7</bdi></a>. <q>parole war criminals.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Law+and+War&rft.pages=255&rft.pub=Columbia+University+Press&rft.date=2000&rft.isbn=978-0-231-12051-7&rft.aulast=Maguire&rft.aufirst=Peter+H.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Flawwaramerican00magu&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJapanese+war+crimes" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-377"><a href="#cite_ref-377">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.nytimes.com/interactive/2015/08/13/world/asia/japan-ww2-shinzo-abe.html,%20https://www.nytimes.com/interactive/2015/08/13/world/asia/japan-ww2-shinzo-abe.html">"Japan's Apologies for World War II"</a>. 13 August 2015 – via NYTimes.com.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Japan%27s+Apologies+for+World+War+II&rft.date=2015-08-13&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.nytimes.com%2Finteractive%2F2015%2F08%2F13%2Fworld%2Fasia%2Fjapan-ww2-shinzo-abe.html%2C%2520https%3A%2F%2Fwww.nytimes.com%2Finteractive%2F2015%2F08%2F13%2Fworld%2Fasia%2Fjapan-ww2-shinzo-abe.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJapanese+war+crimes" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-378"><a href="#cite_ref-378">^</a> Ministry of Foreign Affairs of Japan (quoted on the Taiwan Documents Project), Joint Communiqué of the Government of Japan and the Government of the People's Republic of China, <a rel="nofollow" class="external autonumber" href="http://www.taiwandocuments.org/japan01.htm">[2]</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20160702141131/http://www.taiwandocuments.org/japan01.htm">Archived</a> 2 July 2016 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-tandfonline.com-379">^ <a href="#cite_ref-tandfonline.com_379-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-tandfonline.com_379-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLee2022" class="citation journal cs1">Lee, Hyunsuk (2022). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1080%2F12259276.2021.2025324">"Themes of the "comfort women" and "we" in K. Min's Herstory"</a>. Asian Journal of Women's Studies. 28 (1): 131–142. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1080%2F12259276.2021.2025324">10.1080/12259276.2021.2025324</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Asian+Journal+of+Women%27s+Studies&rft.atitle=Themes+of+the+%22comfort+women%22+and+%22we%22+in+K.+Min%27s+Herstory&rft.volume=28&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=131-142&rft.date=2022&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1080%2F12259276.2021.2025324&rft.aulast=Lee&rft.aufirst=Hyunsuk&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.1080%252F12259276.2021.2025324&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJapanese+war+crimes" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-380"><a href="#cite_ref-380">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20080222005155/http://www.pbs.org/newshour/bb/asia/july-dec98/china_12-1.html">"PBS. Online NewsHour: I'm Sorry – December 1, 1998"</a>. <a href="/wiki/PBS" title="PBS">PBS</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.pbs.org/newshour/bb/asia/july-dec98/china_12-1.html">the original</a> on 22 February 2008. Retrieved 1 September 2017.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=PBS.+Online+NewsHour%3A+I%27m+Sorry+%E2%80%93+December+1%2C+1998&rft.pub=PBS&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.pbs.org%2Fnewshour%2Fbb%2Fasia%2Fjuly-dec98%2Fchina_12-1.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJapanese+war+crimes" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-381"><a href="#cite_ref-381">^</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external free" href="https://www.reuters.com/world/asia-pacific/why-yasukuni-shrine-is-controversial-symbol-japans-war-legacy-2021-08-13/">https://www.reuters.com/world/asia-pacific/why-yasukuni-shrine-is-controversial-symbol-japans-war-legacy-2021-08-13/</a> [<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Bare_URLs" title="Wikipedia:Bare URLs">bare URL</a>] </li> <li id="cite_note-Tamogami-382">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Tamogami_382-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Tamogami_382-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20081216083653/http://search.japantimes.co.jp/cgi-bin/nn20081112a1.html">"Tamogami ups Nationalist rhetoric"</a>. 12 November 2008. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://search.japantimes.co.jp/cgi-bin/nn20081112a1.html">the original</a> on 16 December 2008.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Tamogami+ups+Nationalist+rhetoric&rft.date=2008-11-12&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fsearch.japantimes.co.jp%2Fcgi-bin%2Fnn20081112a1.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJapanese+war+crimes" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-383"><a href="#cite_ref-383">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20130513223146/http://www.apa.co.jp/book_report/images/2008jyusyou_saiyuusyu_english.pdf">"Text of original essay"</a> (PDF). Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.apa.co.jp/book_report/images/2008jyusyou_saiyuusyu_english.pdf">the original</a> (PDF) on 13 May 2013. Retrieved 21 July 2013.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Text+of+original+essay&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.apa.co.jp%2Fbook_report%2Fimages%2F2008jyusyou_saiyuusyu_english.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJapanese+war+crimes" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-384"><a href="#cite_ref-384">^</a> Freeman, Laurie A., "Japan's Press Clubs as Information Cartels," Japan Policy Research Institute, (April 1996), <a rel="nofollow" class="external autonumber" href="http://www.jpri.org/publications/workingpapers/wp18.html">[3]</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20170317055305/http://www.jpri.org/publications/workingpapers/wp18.html">Archived</a> 17 March 2017 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>. Discusses impending visit in 1990 to Japan by Korean president Roh Tae Woo in which Japanese cabinet secretary Ozawa Ichiro reportedly said, "it is because we have reflected on the past that we cooperate with Korea economically. Is it really necessary to grovel on our hands and knees and prostrate ourselves any more than we already have?". This alleged remark is called the dogeza hatsugen (prostration comment). </li> <li id="cite_note-385"><a href="#cite_ref-385">^</a> Facing History and Ourselves, Willy Brandt's Silent Apology, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20060722112121/http://www.facinghistory.org/Campus/Memorials.nsf/0/DC396F572BD4D99F85256FA80055E9B1">"Archived copy"</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.facinghistory.org/Campus/Memorials.nsf/0/DC396F572BD4D99F85256FA80055E9B1">the original</a> on 22 July 2006. Retrieved 30 July 2006.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Archived+copy&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.facinghistory.org%2FCampus%2FMemorials.nsf%2F0%2FDC396F572BD4D99F85256FA80055E9B1&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJapanese+war+crimes" class="Z3988"><code class="cs1-code">{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Cite_web" title="Template:Cite web">cite web</a>}}</code>: CS1 maint: archived copy as title (<a href="/wiki/Category:CS1_maint:_archived_copy_as_title" title="Category:CS1 maint: archived copy as title">link</a>) </li> <li id="cite_note-386"><a href="#cite_ref-386">^</a> Ito, Masami, "<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://search.japantimes.co.jp/cgi-bin/nn20100914a3.html">Okada apologizes for U.S. POWs' treatment</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20100916050041/http://search.japantimes.co.jp/cgi-bin/nn20100914a3.html">Archived</a> 16 September 2010 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>", <a href="/wiki/The_Japan_Times" title="The Japan Times">The Japan Times</a>, 14 September 2010, p. 2. </li> <li id="cite_note-387"><a href="#cite_ref-387">^</a> Martin, Alex, "<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.japantimes.co.jp/text/nn20111217f1.html">Aussies recall POW ordeals, forgive</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20120111080834/http://www.japantimes.co.jp/text/nn20111217f1.html">Archived</a> 11 January 2012 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>", <a href="/wiki/The_Japan_Times" title="The Japan Times">The Japan Times</a>, 17 December 2011, p. 3. </li> <li id="cite_note-388"><a href="#cite_ref-388">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHonda2007" class="citation web cs1">Honda, Mike (15 February 2007). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20130419123818/http://www.honda.house.gov/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=205">"Honda Testifies in Support of Comfort Women"</a>. U.S. House of Representative. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://honda.house.gov/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=205">the original</a> on 19 April 2013.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Honda+Testifies+in+Support+of+Comfort+Women&rft.pub=U.S.+House+of+Representative&rft.date=2007-02-15&rft.aulast=Honda&rft.aufirst=Mike&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fhonda.house.gov%2Findex.php%3Foption%3Dcom_content%26view%3Darticle%26id%3D205&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJapanese+war+crimes" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-inflation-US-389">^ <a href="#cite_ref-inflation-US_389-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-inflation-US_389-1">b</a> 1634–1699: <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMcCusker1997" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/John_J._McCusker" title="John J. McCusker">McCusker, J. J.</a> (1997). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.americanantiquarian.org/proceedings/44525121.pdf">How Much Is That in Real Money? A Historical Price Index for Use as a Deflator of Money Values in the Economy of the United States: Addenda et Corrigenda</a> (PDF). <a href="/wiki/American_Antiquarian_Society" title="American Antiquarian Society">American Antiquarian Society</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=How+Much+Is+That+in+Real+Money%3F+A+Historical+Price+Index+for+Use+as+a+Deflator+of+Money+Values+in+the+Economy+of+the+United+States%3A+Addenda+et+Corrigenda&rft.pub=American+Antiquarian+Society&rft.date=1997&rft.aulast=McCusker&rft.aufirst=J.+J.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.americanantiquarian.org%2Fproceedings%2F44525121.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJapanese+war+crimes" class="Z3988"> 1700–1799: <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMcCusker1992" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/John_J._McCusker" title="John J. McCusker">McCusker, J. J.</a> (1992). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.americanantiquarian.org/proceedings/44517778.pdf">How Much Is That in Real Money? A Historical Price Index for Use as a Deflator of Money Values in the Economy of the United States</a> (PDF). <a href="/wiki/American_Antiquarian_Society" title="American Antiquarian Society">American Antiquarian Society</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=How+Much+Is+That+in+Real+Money%3F+A+Historical+Price+Index+for+Use+as+a+Deflator+of+Money+Values+in+the+Economy+of+the+United+States&rft.pub=American+Antiquarian+Society&rft.date=1992&rft.aulast=McCusker&rft.aufirst=J.+J.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.americanantiquarian.org%2Fproceedings%2F44517778.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJapanese+war+crimes" class="Z3988"> 1800–present: <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFederal_Reserve_Bank_of_Minneapolis" class="citation web cs1">Federal Reserve Bank of Minneapolis. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.minneapolisfed.org/about-us/monetary-policy/inflation-calculator/consumer-price-index-1800-">"Consumer Price Index (estimate) 1800–"</a>. 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Retrieved 19 October 2023.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Salon&rft.atitle=New+film+has+Japan+vets+confessing+to+Nanjing+rape&rft.date=2010-03-31&rft.au=Lee%2C+Min&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.salon.com%2F2010%2F03%2F31%2Fas_film_japan_massacre_documentary%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJapanese+war+crimes" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-408"><a href="#cite_ref-408">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFYamamoto2015" class="citation web cs1">Yamamoto, Arata (9 April 2015). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.nbcnews.com/news/world/japanese-experiments-u-s-pows-exhibit-shows-brutal-history-n338231">"Japan's Experiments on U.S. POWs: Exhibit Highlights Horrific History"</a>. 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Retrieved 11 July 2023.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.atitle=Explainer%3A+Why+Yasukuni+shrine+is+a+controversial+symbol+of+Japan%27s+war+legacy&rft.date=2021-08-15&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.reuters.com%2Fworld%2Fasia-pacific%2Fwhy-yasukuni-shrine-is-controversial-symbol-japans-war-legacy-2021-08-13%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJapanese+war+crimes" class="Z3988"> </li> </ol></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Sources">Sources</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Japanese_war_crimes&action=edit&section=44" title="Edit section: Sources">edit</a>]</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239549316">.mw-parser-output .refbegin{margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul{margin-left:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{margin-left:0;padding-left:3.2em;text-indent:-3.2em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul,.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul li{list-style:none}@media(max-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{padding-left:1.6em;text-indent:-1.6em}}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns ul{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .refbegin{font-size:90%}}</style><div class="refbegin refbegin-columns references-column-width" style="column-width: 30em"> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation news cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20141213021214/http://www.bt.com.bn/focus/2007/10/31/a_life_haunted_by_wwii_surgical_killings">"A life haunted by WWII surgical killings"</a>. 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Retrieved 20 August 2015.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.atitle=South+Korean+Comfort+Women+Threaten+to+Sue+Japan+for+%2420+Million+in+the+U.S&rft.aulast=Fields&rft.aufirst=Liz&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fnews.vice.com%2Farticle%2Fsouth-korean-comfort-women-threaten-to-sue-japan-for-20-million-in-the-us&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJapanese+war+crimes" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://en.gsbc.or.kr/category/sub3/sub3_2_view.asp?sn=152">"Forive but Never Forget"</a>. GSBC. 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Forgotten Campaign: The Dutch East Indies Campaign 1941–1942. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20110919092423/http://www.dutcheastindies.webs.com/massacres.html">Archived</a> from the original on 19 September 2011.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Forgotten+Campaign%3A+The+Dutch+East+Indies+Campaign+1941%E2%80%931942&rft.atitle=Massacres+of+POWs%2C+Dutch+East+Indies%2C+1941%E2%80%931942&rft.date=1999%2F2000&rft.aulast=L&rft.aufirst=Klemen&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwarfare.gq%2Fdutcheastindies%2Fmassacres.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJapanese+war+crimes" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLandas2004" class="citation book cs1">Landas, Wiley (2004). The Fallen A True Story of American POWs and Japanese Wartime Atrocities. Hoboken: John Wiley. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-471-42119-7" title="Special:BookSources/0-471-42119-7"><bdi>0-471-42119-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Fallen+A+True+Story+of+American+POWs+and+Japanese+Wartime+Atrocities&rft.place=Hoboken&rft.pub=John+Wiley&rft.date=2004&rft.isbn=0-471-42119-7&rft.aulast=Landas&rft.aufirst=Wiley&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJapanese+war+crimes" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLegaultPrescott2009" class="citation journal cs1">Legault, Barbara; Prescott, John F. (2009). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2711476">"'The arch agitator:' Dr. Frank W. Schofield and the Korean independence movement"</a>. The Canadian Veterinary Journal. 50 (8): 865–72. <a href="/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2711476">2711476</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/19881928">19881928</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Canadian+Veterinary+Journal&rft.atitle=%27The+arch+agitator%3A%27+Dr.+Frank+W.+Schofield+and+the+Korean+independence+movement&rft.volume=50&rft.issue=8&rft.pages=865-72&rft.date=2009&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC2711476%23id-name%3DPMC&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F19881928&rft.aulast=Legault&rft.aufirst=Barbara&rft.au=Prescott%2C+John+F.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC2711476&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJapanese+war+crimes" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMcCurry" class="citation news cs1">McCurry, Justin. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.theguardian.com/world/2015/aug/14/shinzo-abe-japan-no-new-apology-second-world-war-anniversary-speech">"Japanese PM Shinzo Abe Stops Short of New Apology in War Anniversary Speech"</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20200128204645/https://www.theguardian.com/world/2015/aug/14/shinzo-abe-japan-no-new-apology-second-world-war-anniversary-speech">Archived</a> from the original on 28 January 2020. Retrieved 20 August 2015.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.atitle=Japanese+PM+Shinzo+Abe+Stops+Short+of+New+Apology+in+War+Anniversary+Speech&rft.aulast=McCurry&rft.aufirst=Justin&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.theguardian.com%2Fworld%2F2015%2Faug%2F14%2Fshinzo-abe-japan-no-new-apology-second-world-war-anniversary-speech&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJapanese+war+crimes" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFNoh" class="citation news cs1">Noh, Jooeun. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.harvard-yenching.org/the-great-kanto-earthquake">"The Great Kantō Earthquake"</a>. Harvard-Yenching Institute. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20200128210031/https://harvard-yenching.org/the-great-kanto-earthquake">Archived</a> from the original on 28 January 2020. Retrieved 20 August 2015.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Harvard-Yenching+Institute&rft.atitle=The+Great+Kant%C5%8D+Earthquake&rft.aulast=Noh&rft.aufirst=Jooeun&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.harvard-yenching.org%2Fthe-great-kanto-earthquake&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJapanese+war+crimes" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFOzawa2007" class="citation news cs1">Ozawa, Harumi (6 November 2007). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.taipeitimes.com/News/editorials/archives/2007/11/06/2003386494">"Japanese war veteran speaks of atrocities in the Philippines"</a>. Taipei Times. p. 9. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20190820144936/http://www.taipeitimes.com/News/editorials/archives/2007/11/06/2003386494">Archived</a> from the original on 20 August 2019. Retrieved 16 May 2014.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Taipei+Times&rft.atitle=Japanese+war+veteran+speaks+of+atrocities+in+the+Philippines&rft.pages=9&rft.date=2007-11-06&rft.aulast=Ozawa&rft.aufirst=Harumi&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.taipeitimes.com%2FNews%2Feditorials%2Farchives%2F2007%2F11%2F06%2F2003386494&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJapanese+war+crimes" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFParry2007" class="citation news cs1">Parry, Richard Lloyd (26 February 2007). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150214145048/http://www.theaustralian.com.au/news/world/dissect-them-alive-chilling-imperial-that-order-could-not-be-di/story-e6frg6so-1111113061584">"Dissect them alive: chilling Imperial that order could not be disobeyed"</a>. The Australian. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.theaustralian.com.au/news/world/dissect-them-alive-chilling-imperial-that-order-could-not-be-di/story-e6frg6so-1111113061584">the original</a> on 14 February 2015.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Australian&rft.atitle=Dissect+them+alive%3A+chilling+Imperial+that+order+could+not+be+disobeyed&rft.date=2007-02-26&rft.aulast=Parry&rft.aufirst=Richard+Lloyd&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.theaustralian.com.au%2Fnews%2Fworld%2Fdissect-them-alive-chilling-imperial-that-order-could-not-be-di%2Fstory-e6frg6so-1111113061584&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJapanese+war+crimes" class="Z3988"><div class="paragraphbreak" style="margin-top:0.5em"></div><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFParry2007" class="citation news cs1">Parry, Richard Lloyd (25 February 2007). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20130101040816/http://www.forties.net/japconfession.html">"Dissect them alive: order not to be disobeyed"</a>. The Times. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.forties.net/japconfession.html">the original</a> on 1 January 2013. Retrieved 16 May 2014.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Times&rft.atitle=Dissect+them+alive%3A+order+not+to+be+disobeyed&rft.date=2007-02-25&rft.aulast=Parry&rft.aufirst=Richard+Lloyd&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.forties.net%2Fjapconfession.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJapanese+war+crimes" class="Z3988"><div class="paragraphbreak" style="margin-top:0.5em"></div><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFParry2007" class="citation news cs1">Parry, Richard Lloyd (25 February 2007). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20070228095300/http://www.timesonline.co.uk/tol/news/world/asia/article1438491.ece">"Dissect them alive: order not to be disobeyed"</a>. The Times. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.thetimes.co.uk/tto/news/world/asia/article2606909.ece">the original</a> on 28 February 2007. Retrieved 16 May 2014.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Times&rft.atitle=Dissect+them+alive%3A+order+not+to+be+disobeyed&rft.date=2007-02-25&rft.aulast=Parry&rft.aufirst=Richard+Lloyd&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.thetimes.co.uk%2Ftto%2Fnews%2Fworld%2Fasia%2Farticle2606909.ece&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJapanese+war+crimes" class="Z3988"><div class="paragraphbreak" style="margin-top:0.5em"></div><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRichard_Lloyd_Parry2007" class="citation news cs1">Richard Lloyd Parry (25 February 2007). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20110523225449/http://www.timesonline.co.uk/tol/news/world/asia/article1438491.ece">"Dissect them alive: order not to be disobeyed"</a>. The Times. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.timesonline.co.uk/tol/news/world/asia/article1438491.ece">the original</a> on 23 May 2011. Retrieved 10 December 2009.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Times&rft.atitle=Dissect+them+alive%3A+order+not+to+be+disobeyed&rft.date=2007-02-25&rft.au=Richard+Lloyd+Parry&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.timesonline.co.uk%2Ftol%2Fnews%2Fworld%2Fasia%2Farticle1438491.ece&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJapanese+war+crimes" class="Z3988"></li> <li>Ramsey, Edwin, and Stephen Rivele. (1990). Lieutenant Ramsey's War. Knightsbridge Publishing Co., New York. ASIN: B000IC3PDE</li> <li>Schmidt, Larry. (1982). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20110509140327/http://www.dtic.mil/cgi-bin/GetTRDoc?AD=ADB068659&Location=U2&doc=GetTRDoc.pdf">American Involvement in the Filipino Resistance on Mindanao During the Japanese Occupation, 1942–1945</a>. (PDF). M.S. Thesis. U.S. Army Command and General Staff College. 274 pp.</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFTakaiSakaida,_Henry2001" class="citation book cs1">Takai, Kōji; Sakaida, Henry (2001). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=4p1pDSXzZZUC&q=Raid+on+Yawata">B-29 Hunters of the JAAF</a>. Aviation Elite Units. Oxford: Osprey Publishing. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/1-84176-161-3" title="Special:BookSources/1-84176-161-3"><bdi>1-84176-161-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=B-29+Hunters+of+the+JAAF&rft.place=Oxford&rft.series=Aviation+Elite+Units&rft.pub=Osprey+Publishing&rft.date=2001&rft.isbn=1-84176-161-3&rft.aulast=Takai&rft.aufirst=K%C5%8Dji&rft.au=Sakaida%2C+Henry&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D4p1pDSXzZZUC%26q%3DRaid%2Bon%2BYawata&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJapanese+war+crimes" class="Z3988">[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Link_rot" title="Wikipedia:Link rot">permanent dead link</a>‍]</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFTanaka1996" class="citation book cs1">Tanaka, Yuki (1996). Hidden Horrors. Westview press.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Hidden+Horrors&rft.pub=Westview+press&rft.date=1996&rft.aulast=Tanaka&rft.aufirst=Yuki&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJapanese+war+crimes" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFTanaka1988" class="citation journal cs1">Tanaka, Yuki (October 1988). "Poison Gas, the Story Japan Would Like to Forget". Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists. 44 (8): 10. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1988BuAtS..44h..10T">1988BuAtS..44h..10T</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1080%2F00963402.1988.11456210">10.1080/00963402.1988.11456210</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Bulletin+of+the+Atomic+Scientists&rft.atitle=Poison+Gas%2C+the+Story+Japan+Would+Like+to+Forget&rft.volume=44&rft.issue=8&rft.pages=10&rft.date=1988-10&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1080%2F00963402.1988.11456210&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F1988BuAtS..44h..10T&rft.aulast=Tanaka&rft.aufirst=Yuki&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJapanese+war+crimes" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation book cs1">The Knights of Bushido: A Short History of Japanese War Crimes. Greenhill Books. 2006. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/1-85367-651-9" title="Special:BookSources/1-85367-651-9"><bdi>1-85367-651-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Knights+of+Bushido%3A+A+Short+History+of+Japanese+War+Crimes&rft.pub=Greenhill+Books&rft.date=2006&rft.isbn=1-85367-651-9&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJapanese+war+crimes" class="Z3988"></li> <li>Cheung, Raymond. OSPREY AIRCRAFT OF THE ACES 126: Aces of the Republic of China Air Force. Oxford: Osprey Publishing, 2015. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978%2B14728%2B05614" title="Special:BookSources/978+14728+05614">978 14728 05614</a>.</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFTillman2010" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Barrett_Tillman" title="Barrett Tillman">Tillman, Barrett</a> (2010). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/whirlwindairwara00till">Whirlwind: The Air War Against Japan 1942–1945</a>. New York City: Simon & Schuster. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4165-8440-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-4165-8440-7"><bdi>978-1-4165-8440-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Whirlwind%3A+The+Air+War+Against+Japan+1942%E2%80%931945&rft.place=New+York+City&rft.pub=Simon+%26+Schuster&rft.date=2010&rft.isbn=978-1-4165-8440-7&rft.aulast=Tillman&rft.aufirst=Barrett&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fwhirlwindairwara00till&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJapanese+war+crimes" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSissons" class="citation book cs1">Sissons, D. C. S. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.ocf.berkeley.edu/~changmin/documents/Sissons%20Final%20War%20Crimes%20Text%2018-3-06.pdf">The Australian War Crimes Trials and Investigations 1942–51</a> (PDF). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20190817235704/https://www.ocf.berkeley.edu/~changmin/documents/Sissons%20Final%20War%20Crimes%20Text%2018-3-06.pdf">Archived</a> (PDF) from the original on 17 August 2019. Retrieved 19 October 2023.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Australian+War+Crimes+Trials+and+Investigations+1942%E2%80%9351&rft.aulast=Sissons&rft.aufirst=D.+C.+S.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.ocf.berkeley.edu%2F~changmin%2Fdocuments%2FSissons%2520Final%2520War%2520Crimes%2520Text%252018-3-06.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJapanese+war+crimes" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20160413200013/http://www1.korea-np.co.jp/pk/033rd_issue/98031103.htm">"Wartime Cabinet Document Discloses Conscription of 290,000 Koreans in 1944"</a>. The People's Korea. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www1.korea-np.co.jp/pk/033rd_issue/98031103.htm">the original</a> on 13 April 2016. Retrieved 20 August 2015.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=The+People%27s+Korea&rft.atitle=Wartime+Cabinet+Document+Discloses+Conscription+of+290%2C000+Koreans+in+1944&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww1.korea-np.co.jp%2Fpk%2F033rd_issue%2F98031103.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJapanese+war+crimes" class="Z3988"></li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Further_reading">Further reading</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Japanese_war_crimes&action=edit&section=45" title="Edit section: Further reading">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239549316"><div class="refbegin refbegin-columns references-column-width" style="column-width: 30em"> <ul><li>Barnaby, Wendy. The Plague Makers: The Secret World of Biological Warfare, Frog Ltd, 1999. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/1-883319-85-4" title="Special:BookSources/1-883319-85-4">1-883319-85-4</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-7567-5698-7" title="Special:BookSources/0-7567-5698-7">0-7567-5698-7</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-8264-1258-0" title="Special:BookSources/0-8264-1258-0">0-8264-1258-0</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-8264-1415-X" title="Special:BookSources/0-8264-1415-X">0-8264-1415-X</a></li> <li>Bass, Gary Jonathan. Stay the Hand of Vengeance: The Politics of War Crimes Trials. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 2000.</li> <li>Bayly, C. A. & Harper T. Forgotten Armies. The Fall of British Asia 1941-5 (London: Allen Lane) 2004</li> <li>Bergamini, David. Japan's Imperial Conspiracy, William Morrow, New York, 1971.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arnold_Brackman" title="Arnold Brackman">Brackman, Arnold C.</a>: The Other Nuremberg: the Untold Story of the Tokyo War Crimes Trial. New York: William Morrow and Company, 1987. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-688-04783-1" title="Special:BookSources/0-688-04783-1">0-688-04783-1</a></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDower1987" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/John_W._Dower" title="John W. Dower">Dower, John W.</a> (1987). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/warwithoutmercy00john_0">War Without Mercy: Race and Power in the Pacific War</a>. New York: <a href="/wiki/Pantheon_Books" title="Pantheon Books">Pantheon</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-394-75172-8" title="Special:BookSources/0-394-75172-8"><bdi>0-394-75172-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=War+Without+Mercy%3A+Race+and+Power+in+the+Pacific+War&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=Pantheon&rft.date=1987&rft.isbn=0-394-75172-8&rft.aulast=Dower&rft.aufirst=John+W.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fwarwithoutmercy00john_0&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJapanese+war+crimes" class="Z3988"></li> <li>Endicott, Stephen and Edward Hagerman. The United States and Biological Warfare: Secrets from the Early Cold War and Korea, Indiana University Press, 1999. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-253-33472-1" title="Special:BookSources/0-253-33472-1">0-253-33472-1</a></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFelton2007" class="citation book cs1">Felton, Mark (2007). Slaughter at Sea: The Story of Japan's Naval War Crimes. Annapolis, Maryland: Naval Institute Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-59114-263-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-59114-263-8"><bdi>978-1-59114-263-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Slaughter+at+Sea%3A+The+Story+of+Japan%27s+Naval+War+Crimes&rft.place=Annapolis%2C+Maryland&rft.pub=Naval+Institute+Press&rft.date=2007&rft.isbn=978-1-59114-263-8&rft.aulast=Felton&rft.aufirst=Mark&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJapanese+war+crimes" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFrank1999" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Richard_B._Frank" title="Richard B. Frank">Frank, Richard B.</a> (1999). Downfall: The End of the Imperial Japanese Empire. New York: Penguin Books.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Downfall%3A+The+End+of+the+Imperial+Japanese+Empire&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=Penguin+Books&rft.date=1999&rft.aulast=Frank&rft.aufirst=Richard+B.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJapanese+war+crimes" class="Z3988"></li> <li>Gold, Hal. Unit 731 Testimony, Charles E Tuttle Co., 1996. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/4-900737-39-9" title="Special:BookSources/4-900737-39-9">4-900737-39-9</a></li> <li>Handelman, Stephen and Ken Alibek. Biohazard: The Chilling True Story of the Largest Covert Biological Weapons Program in the World—Told from Inside by the Man Who Ran It, Random House, 1999. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-375-50231-9" title="Special:BookSources/0-375-50231-9">0-375-50231-9</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-385-33496-6" title="Special:BookSources/0-385-33496-6">0-385-33496-6</a></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHarriesHarries1994" class="citation book cs1">Harries, Meirion; Harries, Susie (1994). Soldiers of the Sun: The Rise and Fall of the Imperial Japanese Army. New York: <a href="/wiki/Random_House" title="Random House">Random House</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-679-75303-6" title="Special:BookSources/0-679-75303-6"><bdi>0-679-75303-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Soldiers+of+the+Sun%3A+The+Rise+and+Fall+of+the+Imperial+Japanese+Army&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=Random+House&rft.date=1994&rft.isbn=0-679-75303-6&rft.aulast=Harries&rft.aufirst=Meirion&rft.au=Harries%2C+Susie&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJapanese+war+crimes" class="Z3988"></li> <li>Harris, Robert and Jeremy Paxman. A Higher Form of Killing: The Secret History of Chemical and Biological Warfare, Random House, 2002. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-8129-6653-8" title="Special:BookSources/0-8129-6653-8">0-8129-6653-8</a></li> <li>Harris, Sheldon H. Factories of Death: Japanese Biological Warfare 1932–45 and the American Cover-Up, Routledge, 1994. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-415-09105-5" title="Special:BookSources/0-415-09105-5">0-415-09105-5</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-415-93214-9" title="Special:BookSources/0-415-93214-9">0-415-93214-9</a></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHolmes2001" class="citation book cs1">Holmes, Linda Goetz (2001). Unjust Enrichment: How Japan's Companies Built Postwar Fortunes Using American POWs. Mechanicsburg, PA, USA: Stackpole Books.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Unjust+Enrichment%3A+How+Japan%27s+Companies+Built+Postwar+Fortunes+Using+American+POWs&rft.place=Mechanicsburg%2C+PA%2C+USA&rft.pub=Stackpole+Books&rft.date=2001&rft.aulast=Holmes&rft.aufirst=Linda+Goetz&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJapanese+war+crimes" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHolmes2010" class="citation book cs1">Holmes, Linda Goetz (2010). Guests of the Emperor: The Secret History of Japan's Mukden POW Camp. Naval Institute Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-59114-377-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-59114-377-2"><bdi>978-1-59114-377-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Guests+of+the+Emperor%3A+The+Secret+History+of+Japan%27s+Mukden+POW+Camp&rft.pub=Naval+Institute+Press&rft.date=2010&rft.isbn=978-1-59114-377-2&rft.aulast=Holmes&rft.aufirst=Linda+Goetz&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJapanese+war+crimes" class="Z3988"></li> <li>Horowitz, Solis. "The Tokyo Trial" International Conciliation 465 (November 1950), 473–584.</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKratoksa2005" class="citation book cs1">Kratoksa, Paul (2005). Asian Labor in the Wartime Japanese Empire: Unknown Histories. M.E. Sharpe and Singapore University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-7656-1263-1" title="Special:BookSources/0-7656-1263-1"><bdi>0-7656-1263-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Asian+Labor+in+the+Wartime+Japanese+Empire%3A+Unknown+Histories&rft.pub=M.E.+Sharpe+and+Singapore+University+Press&rft.date=2005&rft.isbn=0-7656-1263-1&rft.aulast=Kratoksa&rft.aufirst=Paul&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJapanese+war+crimes" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLael1982" class="citation book cs1">Lael, Richard L. (1982). The Yamashita Precedent: War Crimes and Command Responsibility. Wilmington, Del, USA: Scholarly Resources.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Yamashita+Precedent%3A+War+Crimes+and+Command+Responsibility&rft.place=Wilmington%2C+Del%2C+USA&rft.pub=Scholarly+Resources&rft.date=1982&rft.aulast=Lael&rft.aufirst=Richard+L.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJapanese+war+crimes" class="Z3988"></li> <li>Latimer, Jon, Burma: The Forgotten War, London: John Murray, 2004. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-7195-6576-6" title="Special:BookSources/0-7195-6576-6">0-7195-6576-6</a></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMacArthur2005" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Brian_MacArthur" title="Brian MacArthur">MacArthur, Brian</a> (2005). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/survivingswordpr00maca">Surviving the Sword: Prisoners of the Japanese in the Far East, 1942–45</a>. Random House. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/1-4000-6413-9" title="Special:BookSources/1-4000-6413-9"><bdi>1-4000-6413-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Surviving+the+Sword%3A+Prisoners+of+the+Japanese+in+the+Far+East%2C+1942%E2%80%9345&rft.pub=Random+House&rft.date=2005&rft.isbn=1-4000-6413-9&rft.aulast=MacArthur&rft.aufirst=Brian&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fsurvivingswordpr00maca&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJapanese+war+crimes" class="Z3988"></li> <li>Lingen, Kerstin von, ed. War Crimes Trials in the Wake of Decolonization and Cold War in Asia, 1945-1956. (Palgrave Macmillan, Cham, 2016) <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.palgrave.com/gp/book/9783319827100">online</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210308143028/https://www.palgrave.com/gp/book/9783319827100">Archived</a> 8 March 2021 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMinear1971" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Richard_Minear" title="Richard Minear">Minear, Richard H.</a> (1971). Victor's Justice: The Tokyo War Crimes Trial. Princeton, NJ, USA: Princeton University Press.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Victor%27s+Justice%3A+The+Tokyo+War+Crimes+Trial&rft.place=Princeton%2C+NJ%2C+USA&rft.pub=Princeton+University+Press&rft.date=1971&rft.aulast=Minear&rft.aufirst=Richard+H.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJapanese+war+crimes" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMaga2001" class="citation book cs1">Maga, Timothy P. (2001). Judgment at Tokyo: The Japanese War Crimes Trials. University Press of Kentucky. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-8131-2177-9" title="Special:BookSources/0-8131-2177-9"><bdi>0-8131-2177-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Judgment+at+Tokyo%3A+The+Japanese+War+Crimes+Trials&rft.pub=University+Press+of+Kentucky&rft.date=2001&rft.isbn=0-8131-2177-9&rft.aulast=Maga&rft.aufirst=Timothy+P.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJapanese+war+crimes" class="Z3988"></li> <li>Neier, Aryeh. War Crimes: Brutality, Genocide, Terror and the Struggle for Justice, Times Books, Random House, New York, 1998.</li> <li>O'Hanlon, Michael E. The Senkaku Paradox: Risking Great Power War Over Small Stakes (Brookings Institution, 2019) <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.h-net.org/reviews/showrev.php?id=55868">online review</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20220217095037/https://www.h-net.org/reviews/showrev.php?id=55868">Archived</a> 17 February 2022 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPiccigallo1979" class="citation book cs1">Piccigallo, Philip R. (1979). The Japanese on Trial: Allied War Crimes Operations in the East, 1945–1951. Austin, Texas, USA: University of Texas Press.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Japanese+on+Trial%3A+Allied+War+Crimes+Operations+in+the+East%2C+1945%E2%80%931951&rft.place=Austin%2C+Texas%2C+USA&rft.pub=University+of+Texas+Press&rft.date=1979&rft.aulast=Piccigallo&rft.aufirst=Philip+R.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJapanese+war+crimes" class="Z3988"></li> <li>Rees, Laurence. Horror in the East, published 2001 by the British Broadcasting Company</li> <li>Seagrave, Sterling & Peggy. Gold Warriors: America's secret recovery of Yamashita's gold. Verso Books, 2003. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/1-85984-542-8" title="Special:BookSources/1-85984-542-8">1-85984-542-8</a></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSherman2001" class="citation book cs1">Sherman, Christine (2001). War Crimes: International Military Tribunal. Turner Publishing Company. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/1-56311-728-2" title="Special:BookSources/1-56311-728-2"><bdi>1-56311-728-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=War+Crimes%3A+International+Military+Tribunal&rft.pub=Turner+Publishing+Company&rft.date=2001&rft.isbn=1-56311-728-2&rft.aulast=Sherman&rft.aufirst=Christine&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJapanese+war+crimes" class="Z3988"> Detailed account of the <a href="/wiki/International_Military_Tribunal_for_the_Far_East" title="International Military Tribunal for the Far East">International Military Tribunal for the Far East</a> proceedings in Tokyo</li> <li>Trefalt, Beatrice . "Japanese War Criminals in Indochina and the French Pursuit of Justice: Local and International Constraints." Journal of Contemporary History 49.4 (2014): 727–742.</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFTsurumi1970" class="citation book cs1">Tsurumi, Kazuko (1970). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/socialchangeindi0000tsur">Social Change and the Individual: Japan before and after defeat in World War II</a>. Princeton, USA: Princeton University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-691-09347-4" title="Special:BookSources/0-691-09347-4"><bdi>0-691-09347-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Social+Change+and+the+Individual%3A+Japan+before+and+after+defeat+in+World+War+II&rft.place=Princeton%2C+USA&rft.pub=Princeton+University+Press&rft.date=1970&rft.isbn=0-691-09347-4&rft.aulast=Tsurumi&rft.aufirst=Kazuko&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fsocialchangeindi0000tsur&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJapanese+war+crimes" class="Z3988"></li> <li>Williams, Peter. Unit 731: Japan's Secret Biological Warfare in World War II, Free Press, 1989. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-02-935301-7" title="Special:BookSources/0-02-935301-7">0-02-935301-7</a></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWilson2017" class="citation book cs1">Wilson, Sandra; et al. (2017). Japanese War Criminals: The Politics of Justice After the Second World War. New York City: Columbia University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780231179225" title="Special:BookSources/9780231179225"><bdi>9780231179225</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Japanese+War+Criminals%3A+The+Politics+of+Justice+After+the+Second+World+War&rft.place=New+York+City&rft.pub=Columbia+University+Press&rft.date=2017&rft.isbn=9780231179225&rft.aulast=Wilson&rft.aufirst=Sandra&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJapanese+war+crimes" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFYamamoto2000" class="citation book cs1">Yamamoto, Masahiro (2000). Nanking: Anatomy of an Atrocity. Praeger Publishers. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-275-96904-5" title="Special:BookSources/0-275-96904-5"><bdi>0-275-96904-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Nanking%3A+Anatomy+of+an+Atrocity&rft.pub=Praeger+Publishers&rft.date=2000&rft.isbn=0-275-96904-5&rft.aulast=Yamamoto&rft.aufirst=Masahiro&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJapanese+war+crimes" class="Z3988"> A rebuttal to Iris Chang's book on the Nanking massacre.</li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Audio/visual_media">Audio/visual media</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Japanese_war_crimes&action=edit&section=46" title="Edit section: Audio/visual media">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239549316"><div class="refbegin" style=""> <ul><li>Minoru Matsui (2001), Japanese Devils, a documentary which is based on interviews which were conducted with veteran soldiers of the Imperial Japanese Army (Japanese Devils sheds light on a dark past) CNN <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.midnighteye.com/reviews/japdevil.shtml">Japanese Devils</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20120506170411/http://www.midnighteye.com/reviews/japdevil.shtml">Archived</a> 6 May 2012 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>, Midnight Eye,</li></ul></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation audio-visual cs1">The History Channel (2000). Japanese War Crimes: Murder Under The Sun (Video documentary (DVD & VHS)). A & E Home Video.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Japanese+War+Crimes%3A+Murder+Under+The+Sun&rft.pub=A+%26+E+Home+Video&rft.date=2000&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJapanese+war+crimes" class="Z3988"></li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Japanese_war_crimes&action=edit&section=47" title="Edit section: External links">edit</a>]</div> <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20070609112646/http://home.pacbell.net/fbaldie/Battling_Bastards_of_Bataan.html">Battling Bastards of Bataan</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20080113004217/http://www.sjwar.org/">"Biochemical Warfare – Unit 731". Alliance for Preserving the Truth of Sino-Japanese War.</a> No date.</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.warbirdforum.com/cannibal.htm">"Cannibalism". Dan Ford, "Japan at War, 1931–1945"</a> September 2007.</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.centurychina.com/wiihist/confess/index.html">"Confessions of Japanese war criminals".</a> No date.</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://fas.org/nuke/guide/japan/bw/">"History of Japan's biological weapons program"</a> <a href="/wiki/Federation_of_American_Scientists" title="Federation of American Scientists">Federation of American Scientists</a>, 2000-04-16</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.systemclub.co.kr/">Ji Man-Won's website (in Korean)</a> Various dates.</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.theguardian.com/elsewhere/journalist/story/0,7792,1338296,00.html">Justin McCurry, "Japan's sins of the past"</a> in <a href="/wiki/The_Guardian" title="The Guardian">The Guardian</a>, 2004-10-28</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.archives.gov/iwg/">Nazi War Crimes and Japanese Imperial Government Records Interagency Working Group (IWG) </a> U.S. <a href="/wiki/National_Archives_and_Records_Administration" title="National Archives and Records Administration">National Archives and Records Administration</a> (NARA). No date.</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.skycitygallery.com/japan/japan.html">"The Other Holocaust"</a> No date.</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20041009171355/http://www.kimsoft.com/2002/jp-rape.htm">"Rape of Queen MIN"</a> 2002</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.hawaii.edu/powerkills/SOD.CHAP3.HTM">R.J. Rummel, "Statistics Of Japanese Democide: Estimates, Calculations, And Sources" </a> <a href="/wiki/University_of_Hawaii" class="mw-redirect" title="University of Hawaii">University of Hawaii</a>, 2002</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.theage.com.au/articles/2002/08/28/1030508070534.html">Shane Green. "The Asian Auschwitz of Unit 731" </a> in <a href="/wiki/The_Age" title="The Age">The Age</a>, 2002-08-29</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.mofa.go.jp/announce/press/pm/murayama/9508.html">"Statement by Prime Minister Tomiichi Murayama"</a> 1995-08-15</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.technologyartist.com/unit_731/">"Steven Butler, "A half century of denial: the hidden truth about Japan's unit 731""</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20061119053825/http://www.technologyartist.com/unit_731/">Archived</a> from the original on 19 November 2006. Retrieved 31 October 2004.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Steven+Butler%2C+%22A+half+century+of+denial%3A+the+hidden+truth+about+Japan%27s+unit+731%22&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.technologyartist.com%2Funit_731%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJapanese+war+crimes" class="Z3988"> in <a href="/wiki/U.S._News_%26_World_Report" title="U.S. News & World Report">U.S. News & World Report</a> 1995-07-31</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://histclo.com/essay/war/ww2/pow/pow-jap.html">Japanese Treatment of World War II POWs</a></li></ul> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236075235">.mw-parser-output .navbox{box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #a2a9b1;width:100%;clear:both;font-size:88%;text-align:center;padding:1px;margin:1em auto 0}.mw-parser-output .navbox .navbox{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .navbox+.navbox,.mw-parser-output .navbox+.navbox-styles+.navbox{margin-top:-1px}.mw-parser-output .navbox-inner,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup{width:100%}.mw-parser-output .navbox-group,.mw-parser-output .navbox-title,.mw-parser-output .navbox-abovebelow{padding:0.25em 1em;line-height:1.5em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .navbox-group{white-space:nowrap;text-align:right}.mw-parser-output .navbox,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup{background-color:#fdfdfd}.mw-parser-output .navbox-list{line-height:1.5em;border-color:#fdfdfd}.mw-parser-output .navbox-list-with-group{text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid}.mw-parser-output tr+tr>.navbox-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output tr+tr>.navbox-group,.mw-parser-output tr+tr>.navbox-image,.mw-parser-output tr+tr>.navbox-list{border-top:2px solid #fdfdfd}.mw-parser-output .navbox-title{background-color:#ccf}.mw-parser-output .navbox-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output .navbox-group,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup .navbox-title{background-color:#ddf}.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup .navbox-group,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup .navbox-abovebelow{background-color:#e6e6ff}.mw-parser-output .navbox-even{background-color:#f7f7f7}.mw-parser-output .navbox-odd{background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td dl,.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td ol,.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td ul,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist ul{padding:0.125em 0}.mw-parser-output .navbox .navbar{display:block;font-size:100%}.mw-parser-output .navbox-title .navbar{float:left;text-align:left;margin-right:0.5em}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .navbox-image img{max-width:none!important}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .navbox{display:none!important}}</style></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Empire_of_Japan" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="3"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Empire_of_Japan" title="Template:Empire of Japan"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Empire_of_Japan" title="Template talk:Empire of Japan"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Empire_of_Japan" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Empire of Japan"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Empire_of_Japan" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Empire_of_Japan" title="Empire of Japan">Empire of Japan</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Overview</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Agriculture_in_the_Empire_of_Japan" title="Agriculture in the Empire of Japan">Agriculture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Censorship_in_the_Empire_of_Japan" title="Censorship in the Empire of Japan">Censorship</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Demography_of_the_Empire_of_Japan" class="mw-redirect" title="Demography of the Empire of Japan">Demographics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Economy_of_the_Empire_of_Japan" title="Economy of the Empire of Japan">Economy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Economic_history_of_Japan#Prewar_period" title="Economic history of Japan">Economic history</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_the_Empire_of_Japan" title="Education in the Empire of Japan">Education</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Emperor_system" title="Emperor system">System</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eugenics_in_Japan" title="Eugenics in Japan">Eugenics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Foreign_commerce_and_shipping_of_the_Empire_of_Japan" title="Foreign commerce and shipping of the Empire of Japan">Foreign commerce and shipping</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Industrial_production_in_Sh%C5%8Dwa_Japan" title="Industrial production in Shōwa Japan">Industrial production</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Japanese_militarism" title="Japanese militarism">Militarism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Japanese_nationalism" title="Japanese nationalism">Nationalism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/National_essentialism" title="National essentialism">Essentialism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Politics_of_the_Empire_of_Japan_(1914%E2%80%931944)" title="Politics of the Empire of Japan (1914–1944)">Politics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Statism_in_Sh%C5%8Dwa_Japan" title="Statism in Shōwa Japan">Statism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/State_Shinto" title="State Shinto">State Shinto</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kazoku" title="Kazoku">Kazoku</a></li></ul> </div></td><td class="noviewer navbox-image" rowspan="9" style="width:1px;padding:0 0 0 2px"><div><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/37/Imperial_Seal_of_Japan.svg/80px-Imperial_Seal_of_Japan.svg.png" decoding="async" width="80" height="80" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/37/Imperial_Seal_of_Japan.svg/120px-Imperial_Seal_of_Japan.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/37/Imperial_Seal_of_Japan.svg/160px-Imperial_Seal_of_Japan.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="990" data-file-height="990" /></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Emperors</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Emperor_Meiji" title="Emperor Meiji">Meiji (Mutsuhito)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Emperor_Taish%C5%8D" title="Emperor Taishō">Taishō (Yoshihito)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hirohito" title="Hirohito">Shōwa (Hirohito)</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Symbols</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Flag_of_Japan" title="Flag of Japan">Flag of Japan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rising_Sun_Flag" title="Rising Sun Flag">Rising Sun Flag</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_seals_of_Japan" title="National seals of Japan">National seals of Japan</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Imperial_Seal_of_Japan" title="Imperial Seal of Japan">Imperial Seal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Government_Seal_of_Japan" title="Government Seal of Japan">Government Seal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/State_Seal_of_Japan" title="State Seal of Japan">State Seal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Privy_Seal_of_Japan" title="Privy Seal of Japan">Privy Seal</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kimigayo" title="Kimigayo">Kimigayo</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Policies</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Meiji_Constitution" title="Meiji Constitution">Constitution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charter_Oath" title="Charter Oath">Charter Oath</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Foreign_relations_of_Meiji_Japan" title="Foreign relations of Meiji Japan">Foreign relations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Imperial_Rescript_on_Education" title="Imperial Rescript on Education">Imperial Rescript on Education</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Imperial_Rule_Assistance_Association" title="Imperial Rule Assistance Association">Imperial Rule Assistance Association</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yokusan_Sonendan" title="Yokusan Sonendan">Yokusan Sonendan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Great_Japan_Youth_Party" title="Great Japan Youth Party">Great Japan Youth Party</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kokutai" title="Kokutai">Kokutai</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mokusatsu" title="Mokusatsu">Mokusatsu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Spiritual_Mobilization_Movement" title="National Spiritual Mobilization Movement">National Spiritual Mobilization Movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peace_Preservation_Law" title="Peace Preservation Law">Peace Preservation Law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Political_parties_of_the_Empire_of_Japan" title="Political parties of the Empire of Japan">Political parties</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Supreme_Court_of_Judicature_of_Japan" title="Supreme Court of Judicature of Japan">Supreme Court of Judicature</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tokubetsu_K%C5%8Dt%C5%8D_Keisatsu" class="mw-redirect" title="Tokubetsu Kōtō Keisatsu">Tokkō</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tonarigumi" title="Tonarigumi">Tonarigumi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Greater_East_Asia_Conference" title="Greater East Asia Conference">Greater East Asia Conference</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Senbu" title="Senbu">Senbu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Imperial_Japanese_Airways" title="Imperial Japanese Airways">Imperial Japanese Airways</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Government</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><div style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0;"><a href="/wiki/Administrative_structure_of_the_Imperial_Japanese_Government" title="Administrative structure of the Imperial Japanese Government">Administration (ministries)</a></div></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ministry_of_the_Imperial_Household" title="Ministry of the Imperial Household">Imperial Household</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Home_Ministry" title="Home Ministry">Home Ministry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ministry_of_War_(pre-modern_Japan)" title="Ministry of War (pre-modern Japan)">War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Army_Ministry" title="Army Ministry">Army</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ministry_of_the_Navy_(Japan)" title="Ministry of the Navy (Japan)">Navy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ministry_of_the_Treasury" title="Ministry of the Treasury">Treasury</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ministry_of_Foreign_Affairs_(Japan)" title="Ministry of Foreign Affairs (Japan)">Foreign Affairs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ministry_of_Agriculture_and_Commerce" title="Ministry of Agriculture and Commerce">Agriculture and Commerce</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ministry_of_Commerce_and_Industry_(Japan)" title="Ministry of Commerce and Industry (Japan)">Commerce and Industry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ministry_of_Munitions_(Japan)" title="Ministry of Munitions (Japan)">Munitions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ministry_of_Colonial_Affairs_(Japan)" title="Ministry of Colonial Affairs (Japan)">Colonial Affairs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ministry_of_Greater_East_Asia" title="Ministry of Greater East Asia">Greater East Asia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/East_Asia_Development_Board" title="East Asia Development Board">East Asia Development Board (Kōain)</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><div style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0;"><a href="/wiki/Administrative_structure_of_the_Imperial_Japanese_Government" title="Administrative structure of the Imperial Japanese Government">Legislative and deliberative bodies</a></div></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Daij%C5%8D-kan" title="Daijō-kan">Daijō-kan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Privy_Council_of_Japan" title="Privy Council of Japan">Privy Council</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gozen_Kaigi" title="Gozen Kaigi">Gozen Kaigi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Diet#History" title="National Diet">Imperial Diet</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/House_of_Peers_(Japan)" title="House of Peers (Japan)">Peers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/House_of_Representatives_(Japan)" title="House of Representatives (Japan)">Representatives</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Military</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><div style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0;"><a href="/wiki/Imperial_Japanese_Armed_Forces" title="Imperial Japanese Armed Forces">Armed Forces</a></div></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Imperial_General_Headquarters" title="Imperial General Headquarters">Imperial General Headquarters</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Imperial_Japanese_Army_General_Staff_Office" title="Imperial Japanese Army General Staff Office">Imperial Japanese Army General Staff Office</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Imperial_Japanese_Navy_General_Staff" title="Imperial Japanese Navy General Staff">Imperial Japanese Navy General Staff</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Imperial_Rescript_to_Soldiers_and_Sailors" title="Imperial Rescript to Soldiers and Sailors">Imperial Rescript to Soldiers and Sailors</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Senjinkun_military_code" title="Senjinkun military code">Senjinkun military code</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Japanese_nuclear_weapons_program" title="Japanese nuclear weapons program">Nuclear weapons program</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kamikaze" title="Kamikaze">Kamikaze</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">War crimes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Supreme_War_Council_(Japan)" title="Supreme War Council (Japan)">Supreme War Council</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Conscription_in_Japan&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Conscription in Japan (page does not exist)">Conscription</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><div style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0;"><a href="/wiki/Imperial_Japanese_Army" title="Imperial Japanese Army">Imperial Japanese Army</a></div></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Imperial_Japanese_Army_General_Staff_Office" title="Imperial Japanese Army General Staff Office">General Staff</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Imperial_Japanese_Army_Air_Service" title="Imperial Japanese Army Air Service">Air Service</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Imperial_Japanese_Army_Railways_and_Shipping_Section" title="Imperial Japanese Army Railways and Shipping Section">Railways and Shipping</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Imperial_Guard_(Japan)" title="Imperial Guard (Japan)">Imperial Guard</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Imperial_Way_Faction" title="Imperial Way Faction">Imperial Way Faction (Kōdōha)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Japanese_holdout" title="Japanese holdout">Japanese holdout</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Taiwan_Army_of_Japan" title="Taiwan Army of Japan">Taiwan Army of Japan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/T%C5%8Dseiha" title="Tōseiha">Control Faction (Tōseiha)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kempeitai" title="Kempeitai">Kempeitai</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><div style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0;"><a href="/wiki/Imperial_Japanese_Navy" title="Imperial Japanese Navy">Imperial Japanese Navy</a></div></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Imperial_Japanese_Navy_General_Staff" title="Imperial Japanese Navy General Staff">General Staff</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Imperial_Japanese_Navy_Air_Service" title="Imperial Japanese Navy Air Service">Air Service</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Imperial_Japanese_Marines" class="mw-redirect" title="Imperial Japanese Marines">Marines</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tokubetsu_Keisatsutai" title="Tokubetsu Keisatsutai">Tokkeitai</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fleet_Faction" title="Fleet Faction">Fleet Faction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Treaty_Faction" title="Treaty Faction">Treaty Faction</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">History</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><div style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0;"><a href="/wiki/Meiji_era" title="Meiji era">Meiji era</a></div></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Meiji_Restoration" title="Meiji Restoration">Meiji Restoration</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Beipu_uprising" title="Beipu uprising">Beipu uprising</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Boshin_War" title="Boshin War">Boshin War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Two_Lords_Incident" title="Two Lords Incident">Two Lords Incident</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Satsuma_Rebellion" title="Satsuma Rebellion">Satsuma Rebellion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/First_Sino-Japanese_War" title="First Sino-Japanese War">First Sino-Japanese War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Triple_Intervention" title="Triple Intervention">Triple Intervention</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Boxer_Rebellion" title="Boxer Rebellion">Boxer Rebellion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anglo%E2%80%93Japanese_Alliance" class="mw-redirect" title="Anglo–Japanese Alliance">Anglo–Japanese Alliance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Russo-Japanese_War" title="Russo-Japanese War">Russo-Japanese War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Japanese_invasion_of_Taiwan_(1874)" title="Japanese invasion of Taiwan (1874)">Invasion of Taiwan (1874)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Japanese_invasion_of_Taiwan_(1895)" title="Japanese invasion of Taiwan (1895)">Invasion of Taiwan (1895)</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Taish%C5%8D_era" title="Taishō era">Taishō era</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Japan_during_World_War_I" title="Japan during World War I">World War I</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Japanese_entry_into_World_War_I" title="Japanese entry into World War I">Entry</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Japanese_intervention_in_Siberia" title="Japanese intervention in Siberia">Siberian Intervention</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/General_Election_Law" class="mw-redirect" title="General Election Law">General Election Law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Washington_Naval_Treaty" title="Washington Naval Treaty">Washington Naval Treaty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Manchuria%E2%80%93Mongolia_problem" title="Manchuria–Mongolia problem">Manchuria–Mongolia problem</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Taish%C5%8D_Democracy" title="Taishō Democracy">Taishō Democracy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Taish%C5%8D_Roman" title="Taishō Roman">Taishō Roman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tapani_incident" title="Tapani incident">Tapani incident</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Truku_War" title="Truku War">Truku War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Racial_Equality_Proposal" title="Racial Equality Proposal">Racial Equality Proposal</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Sh%C5%8Dwa_era" title="Shōwa era">Shōwa era</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Sh%C5%8Dwa_financial_crisis" title="Shōwa financial crisis">Shōwa financial crisis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jinan_incident" title="Jinan incident">Jinan incident</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/London_Naval_Treaty" title="London Naval Treaty">London Naval Treaty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Musha_Incident" title="Musha Incident">Musha Incident</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pacification_of_Manchukuo" title="Pacification of Manchukuo">Pacification of Manchukuo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/January_28_incident" title="January 28 incident">January 28 incident</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Motherland_controversy" title="Motherland controversy">Motherland controversy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Comintern_Pact" title="Anti-Comintern Pact">Anti-Comintern Pact</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Second_Sino-Japanese_War" title="Second Sino-Japanese War">Second Sino-Japanese War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Soviet%E2%80%93Japanese_border_conflicts" title="Soviet–Japanese border conflicts">Soviet–Japanese border conflicts</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nanjing_Massacre" title="Nanjing Massacre">Rape of Nanking</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tripartite_Pact" title="Tripartite Pact">Tripartite Pact</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Soviet%E2%80%93Japanese_Neutrality_Pact" title="Soviet–Japanese Neutrality Pact">Soviet–Japanese Neutrality Pact</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Japan_during_World_War_II" title="Japan during World War II">Japan during World War II</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pacific_War" title="Pacific War">Pacific War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Atomic_bombings_of_Hiroshima_and_Nagasaki" title="Atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki">Atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Soviet%E2%80%93Japanese_War" title="Soviet–Japanese War">Soviet–Japanese War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Surrender_of_Japan" title="Surrender of Japan">Surrender</a> (<a href="/wiki/Potsdam_Declaration" title="Potsdam Declaration">Potsdam Declaration</a>, <a href="/wiki/Hirohito_surrender_broadcast" title="Hirohito surrender broadcast">Hirohito surrender broadcast</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Occupation_of_Japan" title="Occupation of Japan">Occupation</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Territories</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;">Colonies</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Karafuto_Prefecture" title="Karafuto Prefecture">Karafuto</a> (<a href="/wiki/Naichi" class="mw-redirect" title="Naichi">naichi</a> after 1943)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Korea_under_Japanese_rule" title="Korea under Japanese rule">Chōsen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kwantung_Leased_Territory" title="Kwantung Leased Territory">Kantō-shū</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/South_Seas_Mandate" title="South Seas Mandate">Nan'yō</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Taiwan_under_Japanese_rule" title="Taiwan under Japanese rule">Taiwan</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;">Puppet states</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Manchukuo" title="Manchukuo">Manchukuo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mengjiang" title="Mengjiang">Mengjiang</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wang_Jingwei_regime" title="Wang Jingwei regime">Wang Jingwei regime</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Second_Philippine_Republic" title="Second Philippine Republic">Second Philippine Republic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Empire_of_Vietnam" title="Empire of Vietnam">Empire of Vietnam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/State_of_Burma" title="State of Burma">State of Burma</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Azad_Hind" title="Azad Hind">Azad Hind</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/List_of_territories_acquired_by_the_Empire_of_Japan" title="List of territories acquired by the Empire of Japan">Occupied territories</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Japanese_occupation_of_British_Borneo" title="Japanese occupation of British Borneo">Borneo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Japanese_occupation_of_Burma" title="Japanese occupation of Burma">Burma</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Japanese_occupation_of_the_Dutch_East_Indies" title="Japanese occupation of the Dutch East Indies">Dutch East Indies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/French_Indochina_in_World_War_II" title="French Indochina in World War II">French Indochina</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Japanese_occupation_of_Hong_Kong" title="Japanese occupation of Hong Kong">Hong Kong</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Japanese_occupation_of_Malaya" title="Japanese occupation of Malaya">Malaya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Japanese_occupation_of_the_Philippines" title="Japanese occupation of the Philippines">Philippines</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Japanese_occupation_of_Singapore" title="Japanese occupation of Singapore">Singapore</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thailand_in_World_War_II" title="Thailand in World War II">Thailand</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;">Ideology</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Greater_East_Asia_Co-Prosperity_Sphere" title="Greater East Asia Co-Prosperity Sphere">Greater East Asia Co-Prosperity Sphere</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Yen_bloc" title="Yen bloc">Yen bloc</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Other topics</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Sonn%C5%8D_j%C5%8Di" title="Sonnō jōi">Sonnō jōi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fukoku_ky%C5%8Dhei" title="Fukoku kyōhei">Fukoku kyōhei</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hakk%C5%8D_ichiu" title="Hakkō ichiu">Hakkō ichiu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Japanese_settlers_in_Manchuria" title="Japanese settlers in Manchuria">Japanese settlers in Manchuria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Japanese-run_internment_camps_during_World_War_II" title="List of Japanese-run internment camps during World War II">Internment camps</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/German%E2%80%93Japanese_industrial_co-operation_before_World_War_II" class="mw-redirect" title="German–Japanese industrial co-operation before World War II">German pre–World War II industrial co-operation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shinmin_no_Michi" title="Shinmin no Michi">Shinmin no Michi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sh%C5%8Dwa_Modan" title="Shōwa Modan">Shōwa Modan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Socialist_thought_in_Imperial_Japan" title="Socialist thought in Imperial Japan">Socialist thought</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Taiwanese_Imperial_Japan_Serviceman" title="Taiwanese Imperial Japan Serviceman">Taiwanese Imperial Japan Serviceman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yasukuni_Shrine" title="Yasukuni Shrine">Yasukuni Shrine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/International_Military_Tribunal_for_the_Far_East" title="International Military Tribunal for the Far East">International Military Tribunal for the Far East</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Political_dissidence_in_the_Empire_of_Japan" title="Political dissidence in the Empire of Japan">Political dissidence</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Imperial_Japanese_Army_Epidemic_Prevention_and_Water_Purification_Department" style=";wide;padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2" style="background-color:#C3D6EF;color:inherit;"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:IJA_special_research_units" title="Template:IJA special research units"><abbr title="View this template" style="color:inherit">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:IJA_special_research_units" title="Template talk:IJA special research units"><abbr title="Discuss this template" style="color:inherit">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:IJA_special_research_units" title="Special:EditPage/Template:IJA special research units"><abbr title="Edit this template" style="color:inherit">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Imperial_Japanese_Army_Epidemic_Prevention_and_Water_Purification_Department" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Imperial_Japanese_Army" title="Imperial Japanese Army">Imperial Japanese Army</a> <a href="/wiki/Epidemic_Prevention_and_Water_Purification_Department" title="Epidemic Prevention and Water Purification Department">Epidemic Prevention and Water Purification Department</a></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Unit_100" title="Unit 100">Unit 100</a> (<a href="/wiki/Changchun" title="Changchun">Changchun</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Unit_731" title="Unit 731">Unit 731</a> (<a href="/wiki/Pingfang_District" class="mw-redirect" title="Pingfang District">Pingfang</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Unit_516" title="Unit 516">Unit 516</a> (<a href="/wiki/Qiqihar" title="Qiqihar">Qiqihar</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Unit_543" title="Unit 543">Unit 543</a> (<a href="/wiki/Hailar_District" title="Hailar District">Hailar</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Unit_Ei_1644" title="Unit Ei 1644">Unit Ei 1644</a> or Tama Unit (<a href="/wiki/Nanjing" title="Nanjing">Nanjing</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Unit_1855" title="Unit 1855">Unit 1855</a> (<a href="/wiki/Beijing" title="Beijing">Beijing</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Unit_8604" title="Unit 8604">Unit 8604</a> or Nami Unit (<a href="/wiki/Guangzhou" title="Guangzhou">Guangzhou</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Unit_9420" title="Unit 9420">Unit 9420</a> or Oka Unit (<a href="/wiki/Japanese_occupation_of_Malaya" title="Japanese occupation of Malaya">Malaya</a> and <a href="/wiki/Singapore" title="Singapore">Singapore</a>)</li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div><div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="War_crimes" style=";wide;padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2" style="background-color:#C3D6EF;color:inherit;"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:War_crimes" title="Template:War crimes"><abbr title="View this template" style="color:inherit">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:War_crimes" title="Template talk:War crimes"><abbr title="Discuss this template" style="color:inherit">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:War_crimes" title="Special:EditPage/Template:War crimes"><abbr title="Edit this template" style="color:inherit">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="War_crimes" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/War_crime" title="War crime">War crimes</a></div></th></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2" style="background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;"><div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_war_crimes" title="List of war crimes">List of war crimes</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;text-align:left;"><a href="/wiki/International_humanitarian_law" title="International humanitarian law">International humanitarian law</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0;;wide"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Sources_of_international_law" title="Sources of international law">Sources</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Lieber_Code" title="Lieber Code">Lieber Code</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Saint_Petersburg_Declaration_of_1868" title="Saint Petersburg Declaration of 1868">Saint Petersburg Declaration of 1868</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hague_Conventions_of_1899_and_1907" title="Hague Conventions of 1899 and 1907">Hague Conventions of 1899 and 1907</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geneva_Protocol" title="Geneva Protocol">Geneva Protocol</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geneva_Conventions" title="Geneva Conventions">Geneva Conventions</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/1864_Geneva_Convention" class="mw-redirect" title="1864 Geneva Convention">1864</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/First_Geneva_Convention" title="First Geneva Convention">First (1949)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Second_Geneva_Convention" title="Second Geneva Convention">Second (1949)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Third_Geneva_Convention" title="Third Geneva Convention">Third (1949)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fourth_Geneva_Convention" title="Fourth Geneva Convention">Fourth (1949)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Protocol_I" title="Protocol I">Protocol I (1977)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Protocol_II" title="Protocol II">Protocol II (1977)</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Responsibility_to_protect" title="Responsibility to protect">Responsibility to protect</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rome_Statute" title="Rome Statute">Rome Statute</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/International_Criminal_Court" title="International Criminal Court">International Criminal Court</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;font-weight:normal;">Topics</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Civilian" title="Civilian">Civilians</a> and <a href="/wiki/Non-combatant" title="Non-combatant">non-combatants</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Civilian_casualty" title="Civilian casualty">Civilian casualties</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Command_responsibility" title="Command responsibility">Command responsibility</a> / <a href="/wiki/Superior_orders" title="Superior orders">Superior orders</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Distinction_(law)" title="Distinction (law)">Distinction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hors_de_combat" title="Hors de combat">Hors de combat</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Intention_(criminal_law)" title="Intention (criminal law)">Intent</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joint_criminal_enterprise" title="Joint criminal enterprise">Joint criminal enterprise</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Medical_neutrality" title="Medical neutrality">Medical neutrality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Military_necessity" title="Military necessity">Military necessity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prisoner_of_war" title="Prisoner of war">Prisoners of war</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Proportionality_(law)" title="Proportionality (law)">Proportionality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Protected_persons" title="Protected persons">Protected persons</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ruse_de_guerre" title="Ruse de guerre">Ruse de guerre</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Safe_conduct" title="Safe conduct">Safe conduct</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;text-align:left;">War crimes by type</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li>Attacks on <a href="/wiki/Attacks_on_humanitarian_workers" title="Attacks on humanitarian workers">humanitarian workers</a> / <a href="/wiki/Attacks_on_parachutists" title="Attacks on parachutists">parachutists</a>‡</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Children_in_the_military" title="Children in the military">Child soldiers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Collective_punishment" title="Collective punishment">Collective punishment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Criminal_order_(international_law)" title="Criminal order (international law)">Criminal orders</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Death_flights" title="Death flights">Death flights</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Death_march" title="Death march">Death marches</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Desecration_of_graves" class="mw-redirect" title="Desecration of graves">Desecration of graves</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Enforced_disappearance" title="Enforced disappearance">Enforced disappearances</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Extrajudicial_killing" title="Extrajudicial killing">Extrajudicial killings</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hostage" title="Hostage">Hostage-taking</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_trophy_collecting" title="Human trophy collecting">Human trophy collecting</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indiscriminate_attack" title="Indiscriminate attack">Indiscriminate attacks</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Looting" title="Looting">Looting</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Massacre" title="Massacre">Massacres</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Mass_killing" title="Mass killing">Mass killings</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/No_quarter" title="No quarter">No quarter</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Perfidy" title="Perfidy">Perfidy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Starvation_(crime)" title="Starvation (crime)">Starvation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Torture" title="Torture">Torture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_shield_(law)" title="Human shield (law)">Use of human shields</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wartime_sexual_violence" title="Wartime sexual violence">Wartime sexual violence</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;text-align:left;">War crimes committed by...</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Croatian_war_crimes" title="Croatian war crimes">Croatia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/German_war_crimes" title="German war crimes">Germany</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/War_crimes_of_the_Wehrmacht" title="War crimes of the Wehrmacht">Wehrmacht</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Israeli_war_crimes" title="Israeli war crimes">Israel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Italian_war_crimes" title="Italian war crimes">Italy</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Japan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Palestinian_political_violence" title="Palestinian political violence">Palestine</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hamas_war_crimes" title="Hamas war crimes">Hamas</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Russian_war_crimes" title="Russian war crimes">Russia</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Soviet_war_crimes" title="Soviet war crimes">Soviet Union</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Serbian_war_crimes" title="Serbian war crimes">Serbia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Turkish_war_crimes" title="Turkish war crimes">Turkey</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_Arab_Emirates_war_crimes" title="United Arab Emirates war crimes">United Arab Emirates</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/British_war_crimes" title="British war crimes">United Kingdom</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_war_crimes" title="United States war crimes">United States</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;text-align:left;">War crimes by war</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/War_crimes_in_Afghanistan" title="War crimes in Afghanistan">Afghanistan wars</a></li> <li>Gaza–Israel conflict <ul><li><a href="/wiki/War_crimes_in_the_Gaza_War_(2008%E2%80%932009)" title="War crimes in the Gaza War (2008–2009)">2008–2009</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/War_crimes_in_the_Israel%E2%80%93Hamas_war" title="War crimes in the Israel–Hamas war">2023–present</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Israeli_war_crimes_in_the_Israel%E2%80%93Hamas_war" title="Israeli war crimes in the Israel–Hamas war">by Israel</a></li></ul></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/War_crimes_in_the_Iraq_War" class="mw-redirect" title="War crimes in the Iraq War">Iraq War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/War_crimes_in_the_Korean_War" title="War crimes in the Korean War">Korean War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/War_crimes_in_the_2006_Lebanon_War" title="War crimes in the 2006 Lebanon War">2006 Lebanon War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_rights_violations_during_the_Libyan_civil_war_(2011)" title="Human rights violations during the Libyan civil war (2011)">Libyan civil war (2011)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/War_crimes_during_the_Myanmar_civil_war_(2021%E2%80%93present)" title="War crimes during the Myanmar civil war (2021–present)">Myanmar civil war (2021–present)</a></li> <li>Nagorno-Karabakh conflict <ul><li><a href="/wiki/War_crimes_in_the_First_Nagorno-Karabakh_War" class="mw-redirect" title="War crimes in the First Nagorno-Karabakh War">First war</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/War_crimes_in_the_Second_Nagorno-Karabakh_War" title="War crimes in the Second Nagorno-Karabakh War">Second war</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Atrocity_crimes_during_the_Russo-Ukrainian_War" title="Atrocity crimes during the Russo-Ukrainian War">Russo-Ukrainian War</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Humanitarian_situation_during_the_war_in_Donbas" title="Humanitarian situation during the war in Donbas">War in Donbas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/War_crimes_in_the_Russian_invasion_of_Ukraine" title="War crimes in the Russian invasion of Ukraine">Russian invasion of Ukraine</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Second_Chechen_War_crimes_and_terrorism" title="Second Chechen War crimes and terrorism">Second Chechen War</a></li> <li>Second Sino-Japanese War <ul><li><a href="/wiki/War_crimes_in_Manchukuo" title="War crimes in Manchukuo">Manchukuo</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/War_crimes_during_the_final_stages_of_the_Sri_Lankan_civil_war" title="War crimes during the final stages of the Sri Lankan civil war">Sri Lankan civil war</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/War_crimes_in_the_Syrian_civil_war" title="War crimes in the Syrian civil war">Syrian civil war</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/War_crimes_in_the_Tigray_war" title="War crimes in the Tigray war">Tigray war‎</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/War_crimes_during_the_Sudanese_civil_war_(2023%E2%80%93present)" title="War crimes during the Sudanese civil war (2023–present)">Sudanese civil war (2023–present)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/War_crimes_in_World_War_I" title="War crimes in World War I">World War I</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/War_crimes_in_World_War_II" title="War crimes in World War II">World War II</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Allied_war_crimes_during_World_War_II" title="Allied war crimes during World War II">Allied</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Axis_war_crimes" class="mw-redirect" title="Axis war crimes">Axis</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/War_crimes_in_the_Yemeni_civil_war_(2014%E2%80%93present)" title="War crimes in the Yemeni civil war (2014–present)">Yemeni civil war (2014–present)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/War_crimes_in_the_Yugoslav_Wars" class="mw-redirect" title="War crimes in the Yugoslav Wars">Yugoslav Wars</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/War_crimes_in_the_Kosovo_War" title="War crimes in the Kosovo War">Kosovo War</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;text-align:left;">Related topics</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/War_crimes_trial" title="War crimes trial">War crimes trials</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/War_crime_apologia" title="War crime apologia">War crime apologia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_global_issues" title="List of global issues">List of global issues</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Post-conflict_reception_of_war_criminals" title="Post-conflict reception of war criminals">Post-conflict reception of war criminals</a></li></ul> </div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0;;wide"><tbody><tr><th id="Other_international_crimes" scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;font-weight:normal;">Other <a href="/wiki/International_criminal_law" title="International criminal law">international crimes</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Atrocity_crime" title="Atrocity crime">Atrocity crimes</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Crimes_against_humanity" title="Crimes against humanity">Crimes against humanity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crime_of_aggression" title="Crime of aggression">Crimes of aggression</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Genocide" title="Genocide">Genocide</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow hlist" colspan="2" style="background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;"><div>‡ Does not apply to <a href="/wiki/Airborne_forces" title="Airborne forces">airborne forces</a> (i.e. <a href="/wiki/Paratrooper" title="Paratrooper">paratroopers</a>) <ul><li><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/23px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/31px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /> <a href="/wiki/Category:War_crimes" title="Category:War crimes">Category</a></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div><div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Anti-Chinese_sentiment_(Sinophobia)" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Anti-Chinese_sentiment" title="Template:Anti-Chinese sentiment"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Anti-Chinese_sentiment" title="Template talk:Anti-Chinese sentiment"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Anti-Chinese_sentiment" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Anti-Chinese sentiment"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Anti-Chinese_sentiment_(Sinophobia)" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Anti-Chinese_sentiment" title="Anti-Chinese sentiment">Anti-Chinese sentiment</a> (Sinophobia)</div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Background</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <li><a href="/wiki/Coolie" title="Coolie">Coolie</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yellow_Peril" title="Yellow Peril">Yellow Peril</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_emigration" title="Chinese emigration">Chinese emigration</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Unparalleled_Invasion" title="The Unparalleled Invasion">The Unparalleled Invasion</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Japanese_nationalism" title="Japanese nationalism">Japanese nationalism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ethnic_nationalism_in_Japan" title="Ethnic nationalism in Japan">Minzoku</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/De-Sinicization" title="De-Sinicization">De-Sinicization</a></li> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">By persecutor</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Adriaan_Valckenier" title="Adriaan Valckenier">Adriaan Valckenier</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Andrew_Jackson_Bryant" title="Andrew Jackson Bryant">Andrew Jackson Bryant</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Denis_Kearney" title="Denis Kearney">Denis Kearney</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hideki_Tojo" title="Hideki Tojo">Hideki Tojo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Suharto" title="Suharto">Suharto</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pol_Pot" title="Pol Pot">Pol Pot</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plaek_Phibunsongkhram" title="Plaek Phibunsongkhram">Plaek Phibunsongkhram</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">By country</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hong_Kong%E2%80%93Mainland_China_conflict" title="Hong Kong–Mainland China conflict">Hong Kong</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Persecution_of_Chinese_Indians" class="mw-redirect" title="Persecution of Chinese Indians">India</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Discrimination_against_Chinese_Indonesians" title="Discrimination against Chinese Indonesians">Indonesia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Chinese_sentiment_in_Japan" title="Anti-Chinese sentiment in Japan">Japan</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Racism_in_Japan" title="Racism in Japan">Racism in Japan</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Chinese_sentiment_in_Korea" title="Anti-Chinese sentiment in Korea">Korea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sinophobia#Laos_and_Thailand" class="mw-redirect" title="Sinophobia">Laos</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sinophobia#Malaysia" class="mw-redirect" title="Sinophobia">Malaysia</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Racism_in_Malaysia" title="Racism in Malaysia">Racism in Malaysia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ketuanan_Melayu" title="Ketuanan Melayu">Ketuanan Melayu</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sinophobia#Myanmar" class="mw-redirect" title="Sinophobia">Myanmar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Persecution_of_Chinese_people_in_Nazi_Germany" title="Persecution of Chinese people in Nazi Germany">Nazi Germany</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sinophobia#Philippines" class="mw-redirect" title="Sinophobia">Philippines</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sinophobia#Singapore" class="mw-redirect" title="Sinophobia">Singapore</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Chinese_sentiment#Taiwan" title="Anti-Chinese sentiment">Taiwan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sinophobia#Laos_and_Thailand" class="mw-redirect" title="Sinophobia">Thailand</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Chinese_sentiment_in_the_United_States" title="Anti-Chinese sentiment in the United States">United States</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/China_Initiative" title="China Initiative">China Initiative</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sinophobia#Vietnam" class="mw-redirect" title="Sinophobia">Vietnam</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">By institution</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Chinese_Union" title="Anti-Chinese Union">Anti-Chinese Union</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Asiatic_Exclusion_League" title="Asiatic Exclusion League">Asiatic Exclusion League</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Canadian_Brotherhood_of_Railway_Employees" title="Canadian Brotherhood of Railway Employees">Canadian Brotherhood of Railway Employees</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tsagaan_Khas" title="Tsagaan Khas">Tsagaan Khas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Uyoku_dantai" title="Uyoku dantai">Uyoku dantai</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">By incident</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align:center;">17th century</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Sangley_Rebellion" title="Sangley Rebellion">Sangley Rebellion</a> (1603)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/2nd_Sangley_Rebellion_(1639)" class="mw-redirect" title="2nd Sangley Rebellion (1639)">2nd Sangley Rebellion (1639)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sangley_Massacre_(1662)" title="Sangley Massacre (1662)">Sangley Massacre (1662)</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align:center;">18th century</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/1740_Batavia_massacre" title="1740 Batavia massacre">1740 Batavia massacre</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1782_Saigon_massacre" title="1782 Saigon massacre">1782 Saigon massacre</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align:center;">19th century</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Buckland_Riot" class="mw-redirect" title="Buckland Riot">Buckland Riot</a> (1857)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lambing_Flat_riots" title="Lambing Flat riots">Lambing Flat riots</a> (1860–1861)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Coolie_Act" title="Anti-Coolie Act">Anti-Coolie Act</a> (1862)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_massacre_of_1871" class="mw-redirect" title="Chinese massacre of 1871">Chinese massacre of 1871</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pigtail_Ordinance" title="Pigtail Ordinance">Pigtail Ordinance</a> (1873)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Page_Act_of_1875" title="Page Act of 1875">Page Act of 1875</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trout_Creek_Outrage" title="Trout Creek Outrage">Trout Creek Outrage</a> (1876)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/San_Francisco_riot_of_1877" title="San Francisco riot of 1877">San Francisco riot of 1877</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/New_Zealand_head_tax" title="New Zealand head tax">New Zealand head tax</a> (1881–1944)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_Exclusion_Act" title="Chinese Exclusion Act">Chinese Exclusion Act</a> (1882–1943)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Royal_Commission_on_Chinese_Immigration_(1885)" class="mw-redirect" title="Royal Commission on Chinese Immigration (1885)">Royal Commission on Chinese Immigration (1885)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_Immigration_Act_of_1885" class="mw-redirect" title="Chinese Immigration Act of 1885">Chinese Immigration Act of 1885</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Attack_on_Squak_Valley_Chinese_laborers,_1885" title="Attack on Squak Valley Chinese laborers, 1885">Attack on Squak Valley Chinese laborers, 1885</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Issaquah_riot_of_1885" class="mw-redirect" title="Issaquah riot of 1885">Issaquah riot of 1885</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tacoma_riot_of_1885" title="Tacoma riot of 1885">Tacoma riot of 1885</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rock_Springs_massacre" title="Rock Springs massacre">Rock Springs massacre</a> (1885)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/1885_Chinese_expulsion_from_Eureka" title="1885 Chinese expulsion from Eureka">1885 Chinese expulsion from Eureka</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_head_tax_in_Canada" class="mw-redirect" title="Chinese head tax in Canada">Chinese head tax in Canada</a> (1885–1923)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Seattle_riot_of_1886" title="Seattle riot of 1886">Seattle riot of 1886</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vancouver_anti-Chinese_riots,_1886" class="mw-redirect" title="Vancouver anti-Chinese riots, 1886">Vancouver anti-Chinese riots, 1886</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hells_Canyon_Massacre" class="mw-redirect" title="Hells Canyon Massacre">Hells Canyon Massacre</a> (1887)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scott_Act_(1888)" title="Scott Act (1888)">Scott Act (1888)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geary_Act" title="Geary Act">Geary Act</a> (1892–1943)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Union_Colliery_Co_of_British_Columbia_v_Bryden" title="Union Colliery Co of British Columbia v Bryden">Union Colliery Co of British Columbia v Bryden</a> (1899)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align:center;">20th century</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/White_Australia_policy" title="White Australia policy">White Australia policy</a> (1901–1973)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vancouver_anti-Asian_riots" class="mw-redirect" title="Vancouver anti-Asian riots">Vancouver anti-Asian riots</a> (1907)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Beipu_uprising" title="Beipu uprising">Beipu uprising</a> (1907)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Torre%C3%B3n_massacre" title="Torreón massacre">Torreón massacre</a> (1911)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/1918_Kudus_riot" title="1918 Kudus riot">1918 Kudus riot</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Soviet_deportations_of_Chinese_people" title="Soviet deportations of Chinese people">Soviet deportations of Chinese people</a> (1920s–1930s)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_Immigration_Act,_1923" title="Chinese Immigration Act, 1923">Chinese Immigration Act, 1923</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wanpaoshan_Incident" title="Wanpaoshan Incident">Wanpaoshan Incident</a> (1931)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Second_Sino-Japanese_War" title="Second Sino-Japanese War">Second Sino-Japanese War</a> (1937-1945) <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Nanking_Massacre" class="mw-redirect" title="Nanking Massacre">Nanking Massacre</a> (1937–1938)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nanshitou_Massacre" class="mw-redirect" title="Nanshitou Massacre">Nanshitou Massacre</a> (1942-1945)</li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Japanese war crimes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Three_Alls_Policy" class="mw-redirect" title="Three Alls Policy">Three Alls Policy</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sook_Ching_massacre" class="mw-redirect" title="Sook Ching massacre">Sook Ching massacre</a> (1942)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Changkiao_massacre" class="mw-redirect" title="Changkiao massacre">Changkiao massacre</a> (1943)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Home_Office_213/926" title="Home Office 213/926">Home Office 213/926</a> (1945–1946)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bersiap" title="Bersiap">Bersiap</a> (1945–1947) <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Mergosono_massacre" title="Mergosono massacre">Mergosono massacre</a> (1947)</li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Legislation_on_Chinese_Indonesians" title="Legislation on Chinese Indonesians">Legislation on Chinese Indonesians</a> (1950s-)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_Confession_Program" title="Chinese Confession Program">Chinese Confession Program</a> (1956–1965)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Internment_of_Chinese-Indians" title="Internment of Chinese-Indians">Internment of Chinese-Indians</a> (1962)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/1964_race_riots_in_Singapore" title="1964 race riots in Singapore">1964 race riots in Singapore</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indonesian_mass_killings_of_1965%E2%80%9366" title="Indonesian mass killings of 1965–66">Indonesian mass killings of 1965–66</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1967_anti-Chinese_riots_in_Burma" title="1967 anti-Chinese riots in Burma">1967 anti-Chinese riots in Burma</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Monosodium_glutamate#Controversy" title="Monosodium glutamate">Monosodium glutamate controversy (Chinese restaurant syndrome)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/13_May_incident_(Malaysia)" class="mw-redirect" title="13 May incident (Malaysia)">13 May incident (Malaysia)</a> (1969)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/1969_race_riots_of_Singapore" title="1969 race riots of Singapore">1969 race riots of Singapore</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Malari_incident" title="Malari incident">Malari incident</a> (1974)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cambodian_genocide" title="Cambodian genocide">Cambodian genocide</a> (1975–1979)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/1997_Banjarmasin_riot" title="1997 Banjarmasin riot">1997 Banjarmasin riot</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/May_1998_riots_of_Indonesia" title="May 1998 riots of Indonesia">May 1998 riots of Indonesia</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align:center;">21st century</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/2006_Nuku%CA%BBalofa_riots" title="2006 Nukuʻalofa riots">2006 Nukuʻalofa riots</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abacus_Federal_Savings_Bank#Prosecution_and_exoneration" title="Abacus Federal Savings Bank">Abacus Bank prosecution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/2008_Kunming_bus_bombings" title="2008 Kunming bus bombings">2008 Kunming bus bombings</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/July_2009_%C3%9Cr%C3%BCmqi_riots" title="July 2009 Ürümqi riots">July 2009 Ürümqi riots</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/2011_Kashgar_attacks" title="2011 Kashgar attacks">2011 Kashgar attacks</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wolf_Amendment" title="Wolf Amendment">Wolf Amendment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/2013_Tiananmen_Square_attack" title="2013 Tiananmen Square attack">2013 Tiananmen Square attack</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/2014_Vietnam_anti-China_protests" title="2014 Vietnam anti-China protests">2014 Vietnam anti-China protests</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/2014_Kunming_attack" title="2014 Kunming attack">2014 Kunming attack</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/April_2014_%C3%9Cr%C3%BCmqi_attack" title="April 2014 Ürümqi attack">April 2014 Ürümqi attack</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/May_2014_%C3%9Cr%C3%BCmqi_attack" title="May 2014 Ürümqi attack">May 2014 Ürümqi attack</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/2015_Plaza_Low_Yat_riot" title="2015 Plaza Low Yat riot">2015 Plaza Low Yat riot</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/2015_Aksu_colliery_attack" title="2015 Aksu colliery attack">2015 Aksu colliery attack</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/China%E2%80%93United_States_trade_war" title="China–United States trade war">China–United States trade war</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Trump_tariffs" title="Trump tariffs">Trump tariffs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Artificial_Intelligence_Cold_War" title="Artificial Intelligence Cold War">Artificial Intelligence Cold War</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/China_Initiative" title="China Initiative">China Initiative</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Xenophobia_and_racism_related_to_the_COVID-19_pandemic" title="Xenophobia and racism related to the COVID-19 pandemic">COVID-19 pandemic incidents</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/2021_Atlanta_spa_shootings" title="2021 Atlanta spa shootings">2021 Atlanta spa shootings</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/2021_Solomon_Islands_unrest" title="2021 Solomon Islands unrest">2021 Solomon Islands unrest</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/2024_Papua_New_Guinean_unrest" title="2024 Papua New Guinean unrest">2024 Papua New Guinean unrest</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Boycotts_of_Chinese_products" title="Boycotts of Chinese products">Boycotts of Chinese products</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">By victim</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align:center;">19th century</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Chae_Chan_Ping_v._United_States" title="Chae Chan Ping v. United States">Chae Chan Ping</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fong_Yue_Ting_v._United_States" title="Fong Yue Ting v. United States">Fong Yue Ting</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tape_v._Hurley" title="Tape v. Hurley">Mary Tape</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_v._Wong_Kim_Ark" title="United States v. Wong Kim Ark">Wong Kim Ark</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yick_Wo_v._Hopkins" title="Yick Wo v. Hopkins">Yick Wo</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align:center;">20th century</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Killing_of_Vincent_Chin" title="Killing of Vincent Chin">Vincent Chin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ita_Martadinata_Haryono" title="Ita Martadinata Haryono">Ita Martadinata Haryono</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Qian_Xuesen" title="Qian Xuesen">Qian Xuesen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Velma_Demerson" title="Velma Demerson">Velma Demerson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wen_Ho_Lee" title="Wen Ho Lee">Wen Ho Lee</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align:center;">21st century</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Trial_of_Anming_Hu" title="Trial of Anming Hu">Anming Hu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Suicide_of_Danny_Chen" title="Suicide of Danny Chen">Danny Chen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Murder_of_Ee_Lee" title="Murder of Ee Lee">Ee Lee</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eileen_Gu" title="Eileen Gu">Eileen Gu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Franklin_Feng_Tao" class="mw-redirect" title="Franklin Feng Tao">Franklin Feng Tao</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gang_Chen_(engineer)" title="Gang Chen (engineer)">Gang Chen</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Haoyang_Yu&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Haoyang Yu (page does not exist)">Haoyang Yu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Murder_of_Jiansheng_Chen" title="Murder of Jiansheng Chen">Jiansheng Chen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jiayang_Fan" title="Jiayang Fan">Jiayang Fan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Immolation_of_Leung_Chi-cheung" class="mw-redirect" title="Immolation of Leung Chi-cheung">Leung Chi-cheung</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Murder_of_Mi_Gao_Huang_Chen" title="Murder of Mi Gao Huang Chen">Mi Gao Huang Chen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sherry_Chen_(hydrologist)" title="Sherry Chen (hydrologist)">Sherry Chen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Teoh_Beng_Hock" title="Teoh Beng Hock">Teoh Beng Hock</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Xiaoxing_Xi#False_accusation_of_spying" title="Xiaoxing Xi">Xiaoxing Xi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Killing_of_Yao_Pan_Ma" title="Killing of Yao Pan Ma">Yao Pan Ma</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Death_of_Michelle_Go" class="mw-redirect" title="Death of Michelle Go">Michelle Go</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Slurs</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Chinaman" title="Chinaman">Chinaman</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Chinaman%27s_chance" title="Chinaman's chance">Chinaman's chance</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chinese,_Japanese,_dirty_knees" title="Chinese, Japanese, dirty knees">Chinese, Japanese, dirty knees</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ching_chong" title="Ching chong">Ching chong</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chink" title="Chink">Chink</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Locust_(ethnic_slur)" title="Locust (ethnic slur)">Locust/Wongchung</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shina_(word)" title="Shina (word)">Shina/Zhina</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sick_man_of_Asia" title="Sick man of Asia">Sick man of Asia</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Related</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_imperialism" title="Chinese imperialism">Chinese imperialism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hong_Kong_nationalism" title="Hong Kong nationalism">Hong Kong nationalism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="World_War_II" style=";wide;padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2" style="background-color:#C3D6EF;color:inherit;"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:World_War_II" title="Template:World War II"><abbr title="View this template" style="color:inherit">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:World_War_II" title="Template talk:World War II"><abbr title="Discuss this template" style="color:inherit">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:World_War_II" title="Special:EditPage/Template:World War II"><abbr title="Edit this template" style="color:inherit">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="World_War_II" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/World_War_II" title="World War II">World War II</a></div></th></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2" style="background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;"><div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Outline_of_World_War_II" title="Outline of World War II">Outline</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_World_War_II_battles" title="List of World War II battles">Battles</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_World_War_II_military_operations" title="List of World War II military operations">Operations</a></li></ul></li> <li>Leaders <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Allied_leaders_of_World_War_II" title="Allied leaders of World War II">Allied</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Axis_leaders_of_World_War_II" title="Axis leaders of World War II">Axis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Commanders_of_World_War_II" title="Commanders of World War II">Commanders</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/World_War_II_casualties" title="World War II casualties">Casualties</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Allied_World_War_II_conferences" title="List of Allied World War II conferences">Conferences</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;vertical-align:top;">General</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0;;wide"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:5.5em;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;vertical-align:top;"><a href="/wiki/Lists_of_World_War_II_topics" title="Lists of World War II topics">Topics</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Air_warfare_of_World_War_II" title="Air warfare of World War II">Air warfare of World War II</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_air_operations_during_the_Battle_of_Europe" title="List of air operations during the Battle of Europe">In Europe</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Blitzkrieg" title="Blitzkrieg">Blitzkrieg</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Comparative_officer_ranks_of_World_War_II" title="Comparative officer ranks of World War II">Comparative military ranks</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/World_War_II_cryptography" title="World War II cryptography">Cryptography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Declarations_of_war_during_World_War_II" title="Declarations of war during World War II">Declarations of war</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Diplomatic_history_of_World_War_II" title="Diplomatic history of World War II">Diplomacy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_governments_in_exile_during_World_War_II" title="List of governments in exile during World War II">Governments in exile</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Home_front_during_World_War_II" title="Home front during World War II">Home front</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Australian_home_front_during_World_War_II" title="Australian home front during World War II">Australian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_Kingdom_home_front_during_World_War_II" title="United Kingdom home front during World War II">United Kingdom</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_home_front_during_World_War_II" title="United States home front during World War II">United States</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lend-Lease" title="Lend-Lease">Lend-Lease</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Manhattan_Project" title="Manhattan Project">Manhattan Project</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/British_contribution_to_the_Manhattan_Project" title="British contribution to the Manhattan Project">British contribution</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_military_awards_and_decorations_of_World_War_II" title="List of military awards and decorations of World War II">Military awards</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lists_of_World_War_II_military_equipment" title="Lists of World War II military equipment">Military equipment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Military_production_during_World_War_II" title="Military production during World War II">Military production</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Naval_history_of_World_War_II" title="Naval history of World War II">Naval history</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nazi_plunder" title="Nazi plunder">Nazi plunder</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Opposition_to_World_War_II" title="Opposition to World War II">Opposition</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Technology_during_World_War_II" title="Technology during World War II">Technology</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Allied_technological_cooperation_during_World_War_II" title="Allied technological cooperation during World War II">Allied cooperation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mulberry_harbour" class="mw-redirect" title="Mulberry harbour">Mulberry harbour</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Total_war#World_War_II" title="Total war">Total war</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Strategic_bombing_during_World_War_II" title="Strategic bombing during World War II">Strategic bombing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_World_War_II_puppet_states" title="List of World War II puppet states">Puppet states</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women_in_World_War_II" title="Women in World War II">Women</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Art_and_World_War_II" title="Art and World War II">Art and World War II</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Music_in_World_War_II" title="Music in World War II">Music in World War II</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Weather_events_during_wars#World_War_II" title="Weather events during wars">Weather events during World War II</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:5.5em;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;vertical-align:top;"><a href="/wiki/List_of_theaters_and_campaigns_of_World_War_II" title="List of theaters and campaigns of World War II">Theaters</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Asiatic-Pacific_theater" title="Asiatic-Pacific theater">Asia and Pacific</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Second_Sino-Japanese_War" title="Second Sino-Japanese War">China</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/South-East_Asian_theatre_of_World_War_II" title="South-East Asian theatre of World War II">South-East Asia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pacific_War" title="Pacific War">Pacific</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pacific_Ocean_theater_of_World_War_II" title="Pacific Ocean theater of World War II">North and Central Pacific</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/South_West_Pacific_theatre_of_World_War_II" title="South West Pacific theatre of World War II">South-West Pacific</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indian_Ocean_in_World_War_II" title="Indian Ocean in World War II">Indian Ocean</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/European_theatre_of_World_War_II" title="European theatre of World War II">Europe</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Western_Front_(World_War_II)" title="Western Front (World War II)">Western Front</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eastern_Front_(World_War_II)" title="Eastern Front (World War II)">Eastern Front</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mediterranean_and_Middle_East_theatre_of_World_War_II" title="Mediterranean and Middle East theatre of World War II">Mediterranean and Middle East</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/North_African_campaign" title="North African campaign">North Africa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/East_African_campaign_(World_War_II)" title="East African campaign (World War II)">East Africa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Italian_campaign_(World_War_II)" title="Italian campaign (World War II)">Italy</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/French_West_Africa_in_World_War_II" title="French West Africa in World War II">West Africa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_the_Atlantic" title="Battle of the Atlantic">Atlantic</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_the_Battle_of_the_Atlantic" title="Timeline of the Battle of the Atlantic">timeline</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/American_Theater_(World_War_II)" class="mw-redirect" title="American Theater (World War II)">Americas</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:5.5em;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;vertical-align:top;"><a href="/wiki/Aftermath_of_World_War_II" title="Aftermath of World War II">Aftermath</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_Civil_War" title="Chinese Civil War">Chinese Civil War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cold_War" title="Cold War">Cold War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Decolonization" title="Decolonization">Decolonization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Division_of_Korea" title="Division of Korea">Division of Korea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/First_Indochina_War" title="First Indochina War">First Indochina War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Flight_and_expulsion_of_Germans_(1944%E2%80%931950)" title="Flight and expulsion of Germans (1944–1950)">Expulsion of Germans</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Greek_Civil_War" title="Greek Civil War">Greek Civil War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indonesian_National_Revolution" title="Indonesian National Revolution">Indonesian National Revolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Operation_Keelhaul" title="Operation Keelhaul">Keelhaul</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marshall_Plan" title="Marshall Plan">Marshall Plan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Allied-occupied_Germany" title="Allied-occupied Germany">Occupation of Germany</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Occupation_of_Japan" title="Occupation of Japan">Occupation of Japan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Operation_Osoaviakhim" title="Operation Osoaviakhim">Osoaviakhim</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Operation_Paperclip" title="Operation Paperclip">Paperclip</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Military_occupations_by_the_Soviet_Union" title="Military occupations by the Soviet Union">Soviet occupations</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Occupation_of_the_Baltic_states" title="Occupation of the Baltic states">Baltic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hungary%E2%80%93Soviet_Union_relations" title="Hungary–Soviet Union relations">Hungary</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Polish_People%27s_Republic" title="Polish People's Republic">Poland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Soviet_occupation_of_Romania" title="Soviet occupation of Romania">Romania</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oder%E2%80%93Neisse_line" title="Oder–Neisse line">Territorial changes of Germany</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Treaty_on_the_Final_Settlement_with_Respect_to_Germany" title="Treaty on the Final Settlement with Respect to Germany">Treaty on the Final Settlement with Respect to Germany</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_Nations" title="United Nations">United Nations</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:5.5em;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;vertical-align:top;"><a href="/wiki/War_crimes_in_World_War_II" title="War crimes in World War II">War crimes</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Allied_war_crimes_during_World_War_II" title="Allied war crimes during World War II">Allied war crimes</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Soviet_war_crimes#World_War_II" title="Soviet war crimes">Soviet war crimes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/British_war_crimes#World_War_II" title="British war crimes">British war crimes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_war_crimes#World_War_II" title="United States war crimes">United States war crimes</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/German_war_crimes#World_War_II" title="German war crimes">German war crimes</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Forced_labour_under_German_rule_during_World_War_II" title="Forced labour under German rule during World War II">forced labour</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/War_crimes_of_the_Wehrmacht" title="War crimes of the Wehrmacht">Wehrmacht war crimes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Holocaust" title="The Holocaust">The Holocaust</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Aftermath_of_the_Holocaust" title="Aftermath of the Holocaust">Aftermath</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/International_response_to_the_Holocaust" title="International response to the Holocaust">Response</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nuremberg_trials" title="Nuremberg trials">Nuremberg trials</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Italian_war_crimes" title="Italian war crimes">Italian war crimes</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Japanese war crimes</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Nanjing_Massacre" title="Nanjing Massacre">Nanjing Massacre</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Unit_731" title="Unit 731">Unit 731</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/International_Military_Tribunal_for_the_Far_East" title="International Military Tribunal for the Far East">Prosecution</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Usta%C5%A1e" title="Ustaše">Croatian war crimes</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Genocide_of_Serbs_in_the_Independent_State_of_Croatia" title="Genocide of Serbs in the Independent State of Croatia">Genocide of Serbs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Holocaust_in_the_Independent_State_of_Croatia" title="The Holocaust in the Independent State of Croatia">Persecution of Jews</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Romania#The_Holocaust" title="History of the Jews in Romania">Romanian war crimes</a></li> <li>Sexual violence <ul><li><a href="/wiki/German_military_brothels_in_World_War_II" title="German military brothels in World War II">German military brothels</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/German_camp_brothels_in_World_War_II" title="German camp brothels in World War II">Camp brothels</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rape_during_the_occupation_of_Germany" title="Rape during the occupation of Germany">Rape during the occupation of Germany</a>  / <a href="/wiki/Rape_during_the_occupation_of_Japan" title="Rape during the occupation of Japan">Japan</a>  / <a href="/wiki/Rape_during_the_Soviet_occupation_of_Poland" title="Rape during the Soviet occupation of Poland">Poland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rape_during_the_liberation_of_France" title="Rape during the liberation of France">Rape during the liberation of France</a>  / <a href="/wiki/Rape_during_the_liberation_of_Serbia" title="Rape during the liberation of Serbia">Serbia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sook_Ching" title="Sook Ching">Sook Ching</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Comfort_women" title="Comfort women">Comfort women</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Manila_massacre#Mass_rapes" title="Manila massacre">Rape of Manila</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marocchinate" title="Marocchinate">Marocchinate</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;vertical-align:top;"><a href="/wiki/World_War_II_by_country" title="World War II by country">Participants</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0;;wide"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:5.5em;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;vertical-align:top;"><a href="/wiki/Allies_of_World_War_II" title="Allies of World War II">Allies</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Algeria_in_World_War_II" title="Algeria in World War II">Algeria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Military_history_of_Australia_during_World_War_II" title="Military history of Australia during World War II">Australia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Belgium_in_World_War_II" title="Belgium in World War II">Belgium</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Brazil_in_World_War_II" title="Brazil in World War II">Brazil</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bulgaria_during_World_War_II" title="Bulgaria during World War II">Bulgaria</a> (<a href="/wiki/1944_Bulgarian_coup_d%27%C3%A9tat" title="1944 Bulgarian coup d'état">from September 1944</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Canada_in_World_War_II" title="Canada in World War II">Canada</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Second_Sino-Japanese_War" title="Second Sino-Japanese War">China</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cuba_during_World_War_II" title="Cuba during World War II">Cuba</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Occupation_of_Czechoslovakia_(1938%E2%80%931945)" title="Occupation of Czechoslovakia (1938–1945)">Czechoslovakia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Denmark_in_World_War_II" title="Denmark in World War II">Denmark</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Second_Italo-Ethiopian_War" title="Second Italo-Ethiopian War">Ethiopia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eswatini_in_World_War_II" title="Eswatini in World War II">Eswatini</a> (formerly Swaziland)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Finland_in_World_War_II" title="Finland in World War II">Finland</a> (<a href="/wiki/Lapland_War" title="Lapland War">from September 1944</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/France_during_World_War_II" title="France during World War II">France</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Free_France" title="Free France">Free France</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Military_history_of_Greece_during_World_War_II" title="Military history of Greece during World War II">Greece</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/India_in_World_War_II" title="India in World War II">India</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Italian_Co-belligerent_Army" title="Italian Co-belligerent Army">Italy</a> (<a href="/wiki/Italian_Civil_War" title="Italian Civil War">from September 1943</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Luxembourg_in_World_War_II" title="Luxembourg in World War II">Luxembourg</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mexico_during_World_War_II" title="Mexico during World War II">Mexico</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Military_history_of_the_Netherlands_during_World_War_II" title="Military history of the Netherlands during World War II">Netherlands</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Military_history_of_Newfoundland_during_World_War_II" title="Military history of Newfoundland during World War II">Newfoundland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Military_history_of_New_Zealand_during_World_War_II" title="Military history of New Zealand during World War II">New Zealand</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Norwegian_campaign" title="Norwegian campaign">Norway</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Military_history_of_the_Philippines_during_World_War_II" title="Military history of the Philippines during World War II">Philippines</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Poland_(1939%E2%80%931945)" title="History of Poland (1939–1945)">Poland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Romania_in_World_War_II" title="Romania in World War II">Romania</a> (<a href="/wiki/1944_Romanian_coup_d%27%C3%A9tat" title="1944 Romanian coup d'état">from August 1944</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sierra_Leone_in_World_War_II" title="Sierra Leone in World War II">Sierra Leone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Military_history_of_South_Africa_during_World_War_II" title="Military history of South Africa during World War II">South Africa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Southern_Rhodesia_in_World_War_II" title="Southern Rhodesia in World War II">Southern Rhodesia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Soviet_Union_in_World_War_II" title="Soviet Union in World War II">Soviet Union</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tuva_in_World_War_II" title="Tuva in World War II">Tuva</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Military_history_of_the_United_Kingdom_during_World_War_II" title="Military history of the United Kingdom during World War II">United Kingdom</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/British_Empire_in_World_War_II" title="British Empire in World War II">British Empire</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Military_history_of_the_United_States_during_World_War_II" title="Military history of the United States during World War II">United States</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Puerto_Ricans_in_World_War_II" title="Puerto Ricans in World War II">Puerto Rico</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/World_War_II_in_Yugoslavia" title="World War II in Yugoslavia">Yugoslavia</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:5.5em;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;vertical-align:top;"><a href="/wiki/Axis_powers" title="Axis powers">Axis</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Italian_protectorate_of_Albania_(1939%E2%80%931943)" title="Italian protectorate of Albania (1939–1943)">Albania protectorate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bulgaria_during_World_War_II" title="Bulgaria during World War II">Bulgaria</a> (until September 1944)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wang_Jingwei_regime" title="Wang Jingwei regime">Wang Jingwei regime</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Independent_State_of_Croatia" title="Independent State of Croatia">Independent State of Croatia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Finland_in_World_War_II" title="Finland in World War II">Finland</a> (until September 1944)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nazi_Germany" title="Nazi Germany">German Reich</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hungary_in_World_War_II" title="Hungary in World War II">Hungary</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Azad_Hind" title="Azad Hind">Azad Hind</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/French_Indochina_in_World_War_II" title="French Indochina in World War II">French Indochina</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anglo-Iraqi_War" title="Anglo-Iraqi War">Iraq</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Military_history_of_Italy_during_World_War_II" title="Military history of Italy during World War II">Italy</a> (until September 1943) <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Italian_Social_Republic" title="Italian Social Republic">Italian Social Republic</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Empire_of_Japan" title="Empire of Japan">Empire of Japan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Manchukuo" title="Manchukuo">Manchukuo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Second_Philippine_Republic" title="Second Philippine Republic">Philippines</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Romania_in_World_War_II" title="Romania in World War II">Romania</a> (until August 1944)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slovak_Republic_(1939%E2%80%931945)" title="Slovak Republic (1939–1945)">Slovak Republic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thailand_in_World_War_II" title="Thailand in World War II">Thailand</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vichy_France" title="Vichy France">Vichy France</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Template:Collaboration_with_Axis_Powers" title="Template:Collaboration with Axis Powers">Collaboration</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:5.5em;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;vertical-align:top;"><a href="/wiki/Neutral_powers_during_World_War_II" title="Neutral powers during World War II">Neutral</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Afghanistan" title="Kingdom of Afghanistan">Afghanistan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Andorra#20th_and_21st_centuries" title="History of Andorra">Andorra</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bhutan" title="Bhutan">Bhutan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Irish_neutrality_during_World_War_II" title="Irish neutrality during World War II">Ireland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liechtenstein_in_World_War_II" class="mw-redirect" title="Liechtenstein in World War II">Liechtenstein</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Portugal_during_World_War_II" title="Portugal during World War II">Portugal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spain_during_World_War_II" title="Spain during World War II">Spain</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sweden_during_World_War_II" title="Sweden during World War II">Sweden</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Switzerland_during_the_World_Wars" class="mw-redirect" title="Switzerland during the World Wars">Switzerland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tibet_(1912%E2%80%931951)" title="Tibet (1912–1951)">Tibet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vatican_City_during_World_War_II" title="Vatican City during World War II">Vatican City</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:5.5em;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;vertical-align:top;"><a href="/wiki/Resistance_during_World_War_II" title="Resistance during World War II">Resistance</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/World_War_II_in_Albania" title="World War II in Albania">Albania</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Austrian_resistance" title="Austrian resistance">Austria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Belgian_Resistance" title="Belgian Resistance">Belgium</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bulgarian_resistance_movement_during_World_War_II" title="Bulgarian resistance movement during World War II">Bulgaria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Resistance_in_the_Protectorate_of_Bohemia_and_Moravia" title="Resistance in the Protectorate of Bohemia and Moravia">Czech lands</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Danish_resistance_movement" title="Danish resistance movement">Denmark</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Japanese_occupation_of_the_Dutch_East_Indies#Underground_resistance" title="Japanese occupation of the Dutch East Indies">Dutch East Indies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Estonian_anti-German_resistance_movement_1941%E2%80%931944" title="Estonian anti-German resistance movement 1941–1944">Estonia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arbegnoch" title="Arbegnoch">Ethiopia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/French_Resistance" title="French Resistance">France</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/German_resistance_to_Nazism" title="German resistance to Nazism">Germany</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Greek_resistance" title="Greek resistance">Greece</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Japanese_occupation_of_Hong_Kong#Anti-Japanese_resistance" title="Japanese occupation of Hong Kong">Hong Kong</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Italian_resistance_movement" title="Italian resistance movement">Italy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Political_dissidence_in_the_Empire_of_Japan#Dissidence_during_World_War_II" title="Political dissidence in the Empire of Japan">Japan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_resistance_in_German-occupied_Europe" title="Jewish resistance in German-occupied Europe">Jews</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Korea" title="Korea">Korea</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Korean_Liberation_Army" title="Korean Liberation Army">Korean Liberation Army</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Korean_Volunteer_Army" title="Korean Volunteer Army">Korean Volunteer Army</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Latvian_anti-Nazi_resistance_movement_1941%E2%80%931945" title="Latvian anti-Nazi resistance movement 1941–1945">Latvia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Resistance_in_Lithuania_during_World_War_II" title="Resistance in Lithuania during World War II">Lithuania</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Luxembourg_Resistance" title="Luxembourg Resistance">Luxembourg</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Malayan_Peoples%27_Anti-Japanese_Army" title="Malayan Peoples' Anti-Japanese Army">Malaya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dutch_resistance" title="Dutch resistance">Netherlands</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Northeast_Anti-Japanese_United_Army" class="mw-redirect" title="Northeast Anti-Japanese United Army">Northeast China</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Norwegian_resistance_movement" title="Norwegian resistance movement">Norway</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philippine_resistance_against_Japan" title="Philippine resistance against Japan">Philippines</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Polish_resistance_movement_in_World_War_II" title="Polish resistance movement in World War II">Poland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Romanian_anti-communist_resistance_movement" title="Romanian anti-communist resistance movement">Romania</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Free_Thai_Movement" title="Free Thai Movement">Thailand</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Soviet_partisans" title="Soviet partisans">Soviet Union</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slovak_National_Uprising" title="Slovak National Uprising">Slovakia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ukrainian_Insurgent_Army" title="Ukrainian Insurgent Army">Western Ukraine</a></li> <li>Vietnam <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Vi%E1%BB%87t_Nam_Qu%E1%BB%91c_D%C3%A2n_%C4%90%E1%BA%A3ng" title="Việt Nam Quốc Dân Đảng">Quốc dân Đảng</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Viet_Minh" title="Viet Minh">Viet Minh</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yugoslav_Partisans" title="Yugoslav Partisans">Yugoslavia</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:5.5em;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;vertical-align:top;"><a href="/wiki/Prisoner_of_war" title="Prisoner of war">POWs</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Finnish_prisoners_of_war_in_the_Soviet_Union" title="Finnish prisoners of war in the Soviet Union">Finnish prisoners in the Soviet Union</a></li> <li>German prisoners <ul><li><a href="/wiki/German_prisoners_of_war_in_the_Soviet_Union" title="German prisoners of war in the Soviet Union">Soviet Union</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/German_prisoners_of_war_in_Azerbaijan" title="German prisoners of war in Azerbaijan">Azerbaijan</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/German_prisoners_of_war_in_the_United_States" title="German prisoners of war in the United States">United States</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/German_prisoners_of_war_in_the_United_Kingdom" title="German prisoners of war in the United Kingdom">United Kingdom</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Italian_prisoners_of_war_in_the_Soviet_Union" title="Italian prisoners of war in the Soviet Union">Italian prisoners in the Soviet Union</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Japanese_prisoners_of_war_in_World_War_II" title="Japanese prisoners of war in World War II">Japanese prisoners</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Japanese_prisoners_of_war_in_the_Soviet_Union" title="Japanese prisoners of war in the Soviet Union">Soviet Union</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/German_atrocities_committed_against_Polish_prisoners_of_war" title="German atrocities committed against Polish prisoners of war">German atrocities against Polish POWs</a></li> <li>Soviet prisoners <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Soviet_prisoners_of_war_in_Finland" title="Soviet prisoners of war in Finland">Finland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/German_atrocities_committed_against_Soviet_prisoners_of_war" title="German atrocities committed against Soviet prisoners of war">atrocities by Germans</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Polish_prisoners-of-war_in_the_Soviet_Union_after_1939" class="mw-redirect" title="Polish prisoners-of-war in the Soviet Union after 1939">Polish prisoners in the Soviet Union</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Romanian_prisoners_of_war_in_the_Soviet_Union" title="Romanian prisoners of war in the Soviet Union">Romanian prisoners in the Soviet Union</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;vertical-align:top;"><a href="/wiki/List_of_timelines_of_World_War_II" title="List of timelines of World War II">Timeline</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0;;wide"><tbody><tr><th id="Prelude" scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:5.5em;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;vertical-align:top;"><a href="/wiki/Causes_of_World_War_II" title="Causes of World War II">Prelude</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Abyssinia_Crisis" title="Abyssinia Crisis">Africa</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Second_Italo-Ethiopian_War" title="Second Italo-Ethiopian War">Second Italo-Ethiopian War</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Events_preceding_World_War_II_in_Asia" title="Events preceding World War II in Asia">Asia</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Second_Sino-Japanese_War" title="Second Sino-Japanese War">Second Sino-Japanese War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battles_of_Khalkhin_Gol" title="Battles of Khalkhin Gol">Battles of Khalkhin Gol</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Events_preceding_World_War_II_in_Europe" title="Events preceding World War II in Europe">Europe</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anschluss" title="Anschluss">Anschluss</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Munich_Agreement" title="Munich Agreement">Munich Agreement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Occupation_of_Czechoslovakia_(1938%E2%80%931945)" title="Occupation of Czechoslovakia (1938–1945)">Occupation of Czechoslovakia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Operation_Himmler" title="Operation Himmler">Operation Himmler</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Italian_invasion_of_Albania" title="Italian invasion of Albania">Italian invasion of Albania</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:5.5em;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;vertical-align:top;"><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_World_War_II_(1939)" title="Timeline of World War II (1939)">1939</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Invasion_of_Poland" title="Invasion of Poland">Invasion of Poland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_the_Atlantic" title="Battle of the Atlantic">Battle of the Atlantic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phoney_War" title="Phoney War">Phoney War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Changsha_(1939)" title="Battle of Changsha (1939)">First Battle of Changsha</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_South_Guangxi" title="Battle of South Guangxi">Battle of South Guangxi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Winter_War" title="Winter War">Winter War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1939%E2%80%931940_Winter_Offensive" title="1939–1940 Winter Offensive">1939–1940 Winter Offensive</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:5.5em;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;vertical-align:top;"><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_World_War_II_(1940)" title="Timeline of World War II (1940)">1940</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Norwegian_campaign" title="Norwegian campaign">Norwegian campaign</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/German_invasion_of_Denmark_(1940)" title="German invasion of Denmark (1940)">German invasion of Denmark</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Zaoyang%E2%80%93Yichang" title="Battle of Zaoyang–Yichang">Battle of Zaoyang–Yichang</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/German_invasion_of_Luxembourg" title="German invasion of Luxembourg">German invasion of Luxembourg</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/German_invasion_of_the_Netherlands" title="German invasion of the Netherlands">German invasion of the Netherlands</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/German_invasion_of_Belgium_(1940)" title="German invasion of Belgium (1940)">German invasion of Belgium</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_France" title="Battle of France">Battle of France</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dunkirk_evacuation" title="Dunkirk evacuation">Dunkirk evacuation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Britain" title="Battle of Britain">Battle of Britain</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_the_Mediterranean" title="Battle of the Mediterranean">Battle of the Mediterranean</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Western_Desert_campaign" title="Western Desert campaign">North Africa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/French_West_Africa_in_World_War_II" title="French West Africa in World War II">West Africa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Italian_invasion_of_British_Somaliland" title="Italian invasion of British Somaliland">British Somaliland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hundred_Regiments_Offensive" title="Hundred Regiments Offensive">Hundred Regiments Offensive</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Occupation_of_the_Baltic_states" title="Occupation of the Baltic states">Baltic states</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Soviet_occupation_of_Bessarabia_and_Northern_Bukovina" title="Soviet occupation of Bessarabia and Northern Bukovina">Eastern Romania</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Japanese_invasion_of_French_Indochina" title="Japanese invasion of French Indochina">Japanese invasion of French Indochina</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Greco-Italian_War" title="Greco-Italian War">Italian invasion of Greece</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Operation_Compass" title="Operation Compass">Compass</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:5.5em;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;vertical-align:top;"><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_World_War_II_(1941)" title="Timeline of World War II (1941)">1941</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_South_Henan" title="Battle of South Henan">Battle of South Henan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Shanggao" title="Battle of Shanggao">Battle of Shanggao</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Invasion_of_Yugoslavia" title="Invasion of Yugoslavia">Invasion of Yugoslavia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/German_invasion_of_Greece" title="German invasion of Greece">German invasion of Greece</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Crete" title="Battle of Crete">Battle of Crete</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anglo-Iraqi_War" title="Anglo-Iraqi War">Anglo-Iraqi War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_South_Shanxi" title="Battle of South Shanxi">Battle of South Shanxi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Syria%E2%80%93Lebanon_campaign" title="Syria–Lebanon campaign">Syria–Lebanon campaign</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/East_African_campaign_(World_War_II)" title="East African campaign (World War II)">East African campaign</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Operation_Barbarossa" title="Operation Barbarossa">Invasion of the Soviet Union</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Summer_War" title="Summer War">Summer War</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Continuation_War" title="Continuation War">Finland</a> (<a href="/wiki/Operation_Silver_Fox" title="Operation Silver Fox">Silver Fox</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/June_Uprising_in_Lithuania" title="June Uprising in Lithuania">Lithuania</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Kiev_(1941)" title="Battle of Kiev (1941)">Battle of Kiev</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anglo-Soviet_invasion_of_Iran" title="Anglo-Soviet invasion of Iran">Anglo-Soviet invasion of Iran</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Changsha_(1941)" title="Battle of Changsha (1941)">Second Battle of Changsha</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Leningrad" title="Siege of Leningrad">Siege of Leningrad</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Moscow" title="Battle of Moscow">Battle of Moscow</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bombing_of_Gorky_in_World_War_II" title="Bombing of Gorky in World War II">Bombing of Gorky</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Sevastopol_(1941%E2%80%931942)" title="Siege of Sevastopol (1941–1942)">Siege of Sevastopol</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Attack_on_Pearl_Harbor" title="Attack on Pearl Harbor">Attack on Pearl Harbor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Japanese_invasion_of_Thailand" title="Japanese invasion of Thailand">Japanese invasion of Thailand</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Hong_Kong" title="Battle of Hong Kong">Fall of Hong Kong</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philippines_campaign_(1941%E2%80%931942)" title="Philippines campaign (1941–1942)">Fall of the Philippines</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Guam_(1941)" title="Battle of Guam (1941)">Battle of Guam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Wake_Island" title="Battle of Wake Island">Battle of Wake Island</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Malayan_campaign" title="Malayan campaign">Malayan campaign</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Borneo_(1941%E2%80%931942)" title="Battle of Borneo (1941–1942)">Battle of Borneo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Japanese_invasion_of_Burma" title="Japanese invasion of Burma">Japanese invasion of Burma</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Changsha_(1941%E2%80%931942)" title="Battle of Changsha (1941–1942)">Third Battle of Changsha</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Great_Famine_(Greece)" title="Great Famine (Greece)">Greek famine of 1941–1944</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:5.5em;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;vertical-align:top;"><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_World_War_II_(1942)" title="Timeline of World War II (1942)">1942</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Fall_of_Singapore" title="Fall of Singapore">Fall of Singapore</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_the_Java_Sea" title="Battle of the Java Sea">Battle of the Java Sea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/St_Nazaire_Raid" title="St Nazaire Raid">St Nazaire Raid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Christmas_Island" title="Battle of Christmas Island">Battle of Christmas Island</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_the_Coral_Sea" title="Battle of the Coral Sea">Battle of the Coral Sea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Madagascar" title="Battle of Madagascar">Battle of Madagascar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zhejiang-Jiangxi_campaign" title="Zhejiang-Jiangxi campaign">Zhejiang-Jiangxi campaign</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Gazala" title="Battle of Gazala">Battle of Gazala</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Dutch_Harbor" title="Battle of Dutch Harbor">Battle of Dutch Harbor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Midway" title="Battle of Midway">Battle of Midway</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aleutian_Islands_campaign" title="Aleutian Islands campaign">Aleutian Islands campaign</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Japanese_occupation_of_Kiska" title="Japanese occupation of Kiska">Kiska</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Japanese_occupation_of_Attu" title="Japanese occupation of Attu"> Attu</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Case_Blue" title="Case Blue">Blue</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/First_Battle_of_El_Alamein" title="First Battle of El Alamein">First Battle of El Alamein</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Stalingrad" title="Battle of Stalingrad">Battle of Stalingrad</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kokoda_Track_campaign" title="Kokoda Track campaign">Kokoda Track campaign</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Rzhev,_summer_1942" title="Battle of Rzhev, summer 1942">Rzhev</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dieppe_Raid" title="Dieppe Raid">Jubilee</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Second_Battle_of_El_Alamein" title="Second Battle of El Alamein">Second Battle of El Alamein</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Guadalcanal_campaign" title="Guadalcanal campaign">Guadalcanal campaign</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Operation_Torch" title="Operation Torch">Torch</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_famine_of_1942%E2%80%931943" title="Chinese famine of 1942–1943">Chinese famine of 1942–1943</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:5.5em;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;vertical-align:top;"><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_World_War_II_(1943)" title="Timeline of World War II (1943)">1943</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Black_May_(1943)" title="Black May (1943)">Black May</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tunisian_campaign" title="Tunisian campaign">Tunisian campaign</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_West_Hubei" title="Battle of West Hubei">Battle of West Hubei</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Attu" title="Battle of Attu">Battle of Attu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bombing_of_Gorky_in_World_War_II#June_1943" title="Bombing of Gorky in World War II">Bombing of Gorky</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Kursk" title="Battle of Kursk">Battle of Kursk</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Allied_invasion_of_Sicily" title="Allied invasion of Sicily">Allied invasion of Sicily</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Smolensk_operation" title="Smolensk operation">Smolensk</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Solomon_Islands_campaign" title="Solomon Islands campaign">Solomon Islands campaign</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Operation_Cottage" title="Operation Cottage">Cottage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_the_Dnieper" title="Battle of the Dnieper">Battle of the Dnieper</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Allied_invasion_of_Italy" title="Allied invasion of Italy">Allied invasion of Italy</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Armistice_of_Cassibile" title="Armistice of Cassibile">Armistice of Cassibile</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Burma_campaign" title="Burma campaign">Burma</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Northern_Burma_and_Western_Yunnan" title="Battle of Northern Burma and Western Yunnan">Northern Burma and Western Yunnan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Changde" title="Battle of Changde">Changde</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Kiev_(1943)" title="Battle of Kiev (1943)">Second Battle of Kiev</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gilbert_and_Marshall_Islands_campaign" title="Gilbert and Marshall Islands campaign">Gilbert and Marshall Islands campaign</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Tarawa" title="Battle of Tarawa">Tarawa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Makin" title="Battle of Makin">Makin</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bengal_famine_of_1943" title="Bengal famine of 1943">Bengal famine of 1943</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:5.5em;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;vertical-align:top;"><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_World_War_II_(1944)" title="Timeline of World War II (1944)">1944</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Operation_Tempest" title="Operation Tempest">Tempest</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Monte_Cassino" title="Battle of Monte Cassino">Monte Cassino</a> / <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Anzio" title="Battle of Anzio">Anzio</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Korsun%E2%80%93Cherkassy" title="Battle of Korsun–Cherkassy">Korsun–Cherkassy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Narva_(1944)" title="Battle of Narva (1944)">Narva</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Operation_Ichi-Go" title="Operation Ichi-Go">Ichi-Go</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Operation_Overlord" title="Operation Overlord">Overlord</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Normandy_landings" title="Normandy landings">Neptune</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mariana_and_Palau_Islands_campaign" title="Mariana and Palau Islands campaign">Mariana and Palau</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Operation_Bagration" title="Operation Bagration">Bagration</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lvov%E2%80%93Sandomierz_offensive" class="mw-redirect" title="Lvov–Sandomierz offensive">Western Ukraine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Guam_(1944)" title="Battle of Guam (1944)">Second Battle of Guam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Tannenberg_Line" title="Battle of Tannenberg Line">Tannenberg Line</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Warsaw_Uprising" title="Warsaw Uprising">Warsaw Uprising</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Second_Jassy%E2%80%93Kishinev_offensive" title="Second Jassy–Kishinev offensive">Eastern Romania</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liberation_of_Paris" title="Liberation of Paris">Liberation of Paris</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Operation_Dragoon" title="Operation Dragoon">Dragoon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gothic_Line" title="Gothic Line">Gothic Line</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Belgrade_offensive" title="Belgrade offensive">Belgrade offensive</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lapland_War" title="Lapland War">Lapland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Operation_Market_Garden" title="Operation Market Garden">Market Garden</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tallinn_offensive" title="Tallinn offensive">Estonia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Operation_Crossbow" title="Operation Crossbow">Crossbow</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Combined_Bomber_Offensive" title="Combined Bomber Offensive">Pointblank</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vietnamese_famine_of_1944%E2%80%931945" title="Vietnamese famine of 1944–1945">Vietnamese famine of 1944–1945</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philippines_campaign_(1944%E2%80%931945)" title="Philippines campaign (1944–1945)">Philippines (1944–1945)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Leyte_Gulf" title="Battle of Leyte Gulf">Leyte</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Syrmian_Front" title="Syrmian Front">Syrmian Front</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Budapest_offensive" title="Budapest offensive">Hungary</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Budapest" title="Siege of Budapest">Budapest</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Burma_campaign_(1944%E2%80%931945)" title="Burma campaign (1944–1945)">Burma (1944–1945)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_the_Bulge" title="Battle of the Bulge">Ardennes</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Operation_Bodenplatte" title="Operation Bodenplatte">Bodenplatte</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dutch_famine_of_1944%E2%80%931945" title="Dutch famine of 1944–1945">Dutch famine of 1944–1945</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:5.5em;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;vertical-align:top;"><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_World_War_II_(1945%E2%80%931991)" title="Timeline of World War II (1945–1991)">1945</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Vistula%E2%80%93Oder_offensive" title="Vistula–Oder offensive">Vistula–Oder</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Manila_(1945)" title="Battle of Manila (1945)">Battle of Manila</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Iwo_Jima" title="Battle of Iwo Jima">Battle of Iwo Jima</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Japanese_coup_d%27%C3%A9tat_in_French_Indochina" title="Japanese coup d'état in French Indochina">Indochina</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vienna_offensive" title="Vienna offensive">Vienna offensive</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Project_Hula" title="Project Hula">Project Hula</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Western_Allied_invasion_of_Germany" title="Western Allied invasion of Germany">Western invasion of Germany</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bratislava%E2%80%93Brno_offensive" title="Bratislava–Brno offensive">Bratislava–Brno offensive</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Okinawa" title="Battle of Okinawa">Battle of Okinawa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Second_Guangxi_campaign" title="Second Guangxi campaign">Second Guangxi campaign</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_West_Hunan" title="Battle of West Hunan">West Hunan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spring_1945_offensive_in_Italy" title="Spring 1945 offensive in Italy">Italy (Spring 1945)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Berlin" title="Battle of Berlin">Battle of Berlin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prague_offensive" title="Prague offensive">Prague offensive</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/End_of_World_War_II_in_Europe" title="End of World War II in Europe">Surrender of Germany</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/German_Instrument_of_Surrender" title="German Instrument of Surrender">document</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Borneo_campaign" title="Borneo campaign">Borneo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Raid_on_Taipei" title="Raid on Taipei">Taipei</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Allied_naval_bombardments_of_Japan_during_World_War_II" title="Allied naval bombardments of Japan during World War II">Naval bombardment of Japan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Soviet_invasion_of_Manchuria" title="Soviet invasion of Manchuria">Manchuria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Atomic_bombings_of_Hiroshima_and_Nagasaki" title="Atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki">Atomic bombings</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Debate_over_the_atomic_bombings_of_Hiroshima_and_Nagasaki" title="Debate over the atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki">Debate</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Soviet_invasion_of_South_Sakhalin" title="Soviet invasion of South Sakhalin">South Sakhalin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Invasion_of_the_Kuril_Islands" title="Invasion of the Kuril Islands">Kuril Islands</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Shumshu" title="Battle of Shumshu">Shumshu</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Surrender_of_Japan" title="Surrender of Japan">Surrender of Japan</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Potsdam_Declaration" title="Potsdam Declaration">Potsdam Declaration</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Japanese_Instrument_of_Surrender" title="Japanese Instrument of Surrender">document</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/End_of_World_War_II_in_Asia" title="End of World War II in Asia">End of World War II in Asia</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2" style="background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;"><div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/File:The_Earth_seen_from_Apollo_17.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/97/The_Earth_seen_from_Apollo_17.jpg/16px-The_Earth_seen_from_Apollo_17.jpg" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/97/The_Earth_seen_from_Apollo_17.jpg/24px-The_Earth_seen_from_Apollo_17.jpg 1.5x, 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id="mw-normal-catlinks" class="mw-normal-catlinks"><a href="/wiki/Help:Category" title="Help:Category">Categories</a>: <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Japanese_war_crimes" title="Category:Japanese war crimes">Japanese war crimes</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Anti-Chinese_sentiment_in_Japan" title="Category:Anti-Chinese sentiment in Japan">Anti-Chinese sentiment in Japan</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Anti-Korean_sentiment_in_Japan" title="Category:Anti-Korean sentiment in Japan">Anti-Korean sentiment in Japan</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Historical_negationism" title="Category:Historical negationism">Historical negationism</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:History_of_Asia" title="Category:History of Asia">History of Asia</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:History_of_Oceania" title="Category:History of Oceania">History of Oceania</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Human_rights_abuses_in_Japan" title="Category:Human rights abuses in Japan">Human rights abuses in 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1,\n [\"CITEREFChalmers2003\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFChangBarker2003\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFChun2006\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFChūichi_Nagumo1942\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFCondon-RallCowdrey1998\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFCookCook1993\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFCoskrey\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFCressman1999\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFDANFS:_Comfort\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFDamien_Lewis2018\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFDe_Jong2002\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFDearFoot2001\"] = 2,\n [\"CITEREFDennis_Edward_Flake2022\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFDower1987\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFDrea2006\"] = 10,\n [\"CITEREFDudden2006\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFDũng1995\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFEduard_Hovsepyan2017\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFEdwards1997\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFFelton2007\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFFields\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFFrank1999\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFFriend2009\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFFriend2014\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGalen_Roger_Perras2003\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGeerken2015\"] = 2,\n [\"CITEREFGerald_A._Meehl,_Rex_Alan_Smith2011\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGilbert2006\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGlosserman2002\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGreg_Sargent2007\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGruhl2007\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGruhl2017\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGrunden2017\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGuillemin2010\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGuillemin2017\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGunn2011\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGunn2015\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHackettKingsepp2016\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHagen1996\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHarriesHarries1994\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHarris1995\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHien2013\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHirano2007\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHirano2015\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHo2013\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHolmes2001\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHolmes2010\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHonda2007\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHorsley2005\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHotta2007\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHului2019\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHului2021\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFIchimura2020\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFItasaka2015\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFJavier_Guisández_Gómez1998\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFJenningsJennings2021\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFJohnson2003\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKOLAPPAN2016\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKang1995\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKasahara\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKato2014\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKeiichi2005\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKratoksa2005\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKratoska2006\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKrausseKrausse1994\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKrausseKrausseKrausse1994\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFL1999–2000\"] = 3,\n [\"CITEREFLaFleurBöhmeShimazono2007\"] = 3,\n [\"CITEREFLael1982\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLamont-Brown2002\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLandas2004\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLarge1995\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLee,_Min2010\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLee2022\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLegaultPrescott2009\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLei2010\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLevenda2011\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLewis2002\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLippman2004\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLomax2014\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMacArthur2005\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMacintyre2002\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMackie2017\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMaekawa2013\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMaga2001\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMaguire2000\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMcCaffrey2004\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMcCormack2005\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMcCurry\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMcMullen2016\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMcNeill2011\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMichael_Cooper_and_Marc_Santora2007\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMiller2013\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMin2021\"] = 3,\n [\"CITEREFMinear1971\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMolemansPark2022\"] = 2,\n [\"CITEREFMoynihan2007\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFNanda2017\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFNarayanan2002\"] = 2,\n [\"CITEREFNoh\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFNozaki2005\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFO\u0026#039;Neill2011\"] = 3,\n [\"CITEREFO\u0026#039;Neill2017\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFOzawa2007\"] = 2,\n [\"CITEREFParry2007\"] = 5,\n [\"CITEREFPenders1974\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFPiccigallo1979\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFPillai2016\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFPost2009\"] = 7,\n [\"CITEREFQiuSuChen2014\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRichard_Lloyd_Parry2007\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRickum2014\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRigg2024\"] = 6,\n [\"CITEREFRobert_Ross_Smith\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRose2007\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRudolf_Bernhardt2014\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRussell2016\"] = 2,\n [\"CITEREFRyall2014\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSalbiah_bt_Mohamed_SallehJamil_bin_AhmadMohd_Aderi_bin_Che_NohAminudin_bin_Hehsan2018\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSamuel_Eliot_Morison2007\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSchneider2008\"] = 2,\n [\"CITEREFSebestyen2015\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSheridan2005\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSherman2001\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFShin2017\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSissons\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSmith1956\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSmith2014\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSoh2001\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFStetzBonnie_BC_Oh2001\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFStetzOh2015\"] = 6,\n [\"CITEREFStewart2011\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFStewart_Halsey_Ross2002\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFStich2010\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFTabuchi\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFTai2019\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFTakaiSakaida,_Henry2001\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFTanabe1980\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFTanaka1988\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFTanaka1996\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFTanaka2002\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFTanaka2003\"] = 4,\n [\"CITEREFTanaka2015\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFTanasaldy\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFTanasaldy2012\"] = 3,\n [\"CITEREFThoma2004\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFThomas_Gallant_Grady1963\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFThurgoodThurgoodLi2014\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFTillman2010\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFToland2003\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFTotani2009\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFTouwen-Bouwsma2013\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFTrevor2001\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFTrevor2013\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFTruong1971\"] = 2,\n [\"CITEREFTsurumi1970\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFTóth2006\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFUnited_States._War_Department._Military_Intelligence_Division1944\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFW._Giles2015\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWan2010\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWatt1985\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWatts2002\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWilson2017\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWoo2020\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWoods1998\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWorking2001\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFYamamoto2000\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFYamamoto2015\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFYang2006\"] = 4,\n [\"CITEREFYoon2015\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFYoshida2007\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFZhao2006\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFde_Jong2002\"] = 4,\n}\ntemplate_list = table#1 {\n [\"'s\"] = 1,\n [\"Anti-Chinese sentiment\"] = 1,\n [\"Anti-Korean sentiment in Japan\"] = 1,\n [\"As of?\"] = 1,\n [\"Bare URL inline\"] = 3,\n [\"Blockquote\"] = 14,\n [\"Bracket\"] = 1,\n [\"Bulleted list\"] = 1,\n [\"CURRENTYEAR\"] = 2,\n [\"Cbignore\"] = 4,\n [\"Circa\"] = 2,\n [\"Citation needed\"] = 10,\n [\"Cite AV media\"] = 14,\n [\"Cite book\"] = 155,\n [\"Cite journal\"] = 26,\n [\"Cite magazine\"] = 4,\n [\"Cite news\"] = 63,\n [\"Cite web\"] = 108,\n [\"Clarify\"] = 1,\n [\"Col-begin\"] = 1,\n [\"Col-break\"] = 2,\n [\"Col-end\"] = 1,\n [\"Convert\"] = 1,\n [\"Coord\"] = 1,\n [\"DANFS\"] = 1,\n [\"Dead link\"] = 5,\n [\"Efn\"] = 1,\n [\"Excessive citations inline\"] = 3,\n [\"Failed verification\"] = 1,\n [\"Formatnum: 705\"] = 1,\n [\"Formatprice\"] = 11,\n [\"Full citation needed\"] = 7,\n [\"Further\"] = 1,\n [\"HMS\"] = 1,\n [\"Hlist\"] = 1,\n [\"IJA special research units\"] = 1,\n [\"ISBN\"] = 20,\n [\"Inflation\"] = 11,\n [\"Inflation-fn\"] = 2,\n [\"Infobox\"] = 1,\n [\"Infobox civilian attack\"] = 1,\n [\"JapanEmpireNavbox\"] = 1,\n [\"Lang\"] = 4,\n [\"Main\"] = 8,\n [\"Multiple image\"] = 1,\n [\"Nbsp\"] = 1,\n [\"Notelist\"] = 1,\n [\"Page range too broad\"] = 1,\n [\"Pb\"] = 3,\n [\"Pd-notice\"] = 1,\n [\"Pipe\"] = 2,\n [\"Refbegin\"] = 3,\n [\"Refend\"] = 3,\n [\"Reflist\"] = 1,\n [\"SS\"] = 6,\n [\"See also\"] = 3,\n [\"Self-published inline\"] = 1,\n [\"Sfn\"] = 3,\n [\"SfnRef\"] = 1,\n [\"Ship\"] = 7,\n [\"Short description\"] = 1,\n [\"Synthesis\"] = 1,\n [\"Trans\"] = 1,\n [\"USS\"] = 2,\n [\"Use American English\"] = 1,\n [\"Use dmy dates\"] = 1,\n [\"War crimes\"] = 1,\n [\"Webarchive\"] = 28,\n [\"Who\"] = 1,\n [\"World War II\"] = 1,\n}\narticle_whitelist = table#1 {\n}\ntable#1 {\n [\"size\"] = \"tiny\",\n}\n","limitreport-profile":[["?","500","16.7"],["MediaWiki\\Extension\\Scribunto\\Engines\\LuaSandbox\\LuaSandboxCallback::callParserFunction","280","9.3"],["recursiveClone \u003CmwInit.lua:45\u003E","280","9.3"],["\u003Cmw.lua:694\u003E","200","6.7"],["MediaWiki\\Extension\\Scribunto\\Engines\\LuaSandbox\\LuaSandboxCallback::find","180","6.0"],["dataWrapper \u003Cmw.lua:672\u003E","160","5.3"],["MediaWiki\\Extension\\Scribunto\\Engines\\LuaSandbox\\LuaSandboxCallback::gsub","160","5.3"],["type","120","4.0"],["pairs","60","2.0"],["makeMessage \u003Cmw.message.lua:76\u003E","60","2.0"],["[others]","1000","33.3"]]},"cachereport":{"origin":"mw-api-int.codfw.main-849f99967d-qsrnv","timestamp":"20241125004619","ttl":2592000,"transientcontent":false}}});});</script> <script type="application/ld+json">{"@context":"https:\/\/schema.org","@type":"Article","name":"Japanese war crimes","url":"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Japanese_war_crimes","sameAs":"http:\/\/www.wikidata.org\/entity\/Q701321","mainEntity":"http:\/\/www.wikidata.org\/entity\/Q701321","author":{"@type":"Organization","name":"Contributors to Wikimedia 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