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Available in 16 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-16" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-language-progressive mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-language-progressive"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">16 languages</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Diamant_de_xoc" title="Diamant de xoc – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Diamant de xoc" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Català</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Machscher_Knoten" title="Machscher Knoten – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Machscher Knoten" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Deutsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Diamante_de_choque" title="Diamante de choque – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Diamante de choque" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Español</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%85%D8%A7%D8%B3%E2%80%8C%D9%87%D8%A7%DB%8C_%D8%B6%D8%B1%D8%A8%D9%87%E2%80%8C%D8%A7%DB%8C" title="الماس‌های ضربه‌ای – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="الماس‌های ضربه‌ای" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>فارسی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Disque_de_Mach" title="Disque de Mach – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Disque de Mach" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Français</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EB%A7%88%ED%95%98_%EB%94%94%EC%8A%A4%ED%81%AC" title="마하 디스크 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="마하 디스크" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>한국어</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dischi_di_Mach" title="Dischi di Mach – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Dischi di Mach" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Italiano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he mw-list-item"><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%99%D7%94%D7%9C%D7%95%D7%9E%D7%99_%D7%9E%D7%90%D7%9A" title="יהלומי מאך – Hebrew" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="יהלומי מאך" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="Hebrew" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>עברית</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Diamenty_Macha" title="Diamenty Macha – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="Diamenty Macha" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Polish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Polski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Diamante_de_choque" title="Diamante de choque – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Diamante de choque" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Português</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%94%D0%B8%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B8_%D0%9C%D0%B0%D1%85%D0%B0" title="Диски Маха – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Диски Маха" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Русский</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ckb mw-list-item"><a href="https://ckb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A6%DB%95%DA%B5%D9%85%D8%A7%D8%B3%DB%95%DA%A9%D8%A7%D9%86%DB%8C_%D8%B4%DB%86%DA%A9" title="ئەڵماسەکانی شۆک – Central Kurdish" lang="ckb" hreflang="ckb" data-title="ئەڵماسەکانی شۆک" data-language-autonym="کوردی" data-language-local-name="Central Kurdish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>کوردی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sr mw-list-item"><a href="https://sr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9C%D0%B0%D1%85%D0%BE%D0%B2%D0%B8_%D0%B4%D0%B8%D1%98%D0%B0%D0%BC%D0%B0%D0%BD%D1%82%D0%B8" title="Махови дијаманти – Serbian" lang="sr" hreflang="sr" data-title="Махови дијаманти" data-language-autonym="Српски / srpski" data-language-local-name="Serbian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Српски / srpski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uk mw-list-item"><a href="https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A3%D0%B4%D0%B0%D1%80%D0%BD%D1%96_%D0%B4%D1%96%D0%B0%D0%BC%D0%B0%D0%BD%D1%82%D0%B8" title="Ударні діаманти – Ukrainian" lang="uk" hreflang="uk" data-title="Ударні діаманти" data-language-autonym="Українська" data-language-local-name="Ukrainian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Українська</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vi mw-list-item"><a href="https://vi.wikipedia.org/wiki/S%C3%B3ng_xung_k%C3%ADch_kim_c%C6%B0%C6%A1ng" title="Sóng xung kích kim cương – Vietnamese" lang="vi" hreflang="vi" 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data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-appearance.unpin">hide</button> </div> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div id="bodyContent" class="vector-body" aria-labelledby="firstHeading" data-mw-ve-target-container> <div class="vector-body-before-content"> <div class="mw-indicators"> </div> <div id="siteSub" class="noprint">From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia</div> </div> <div id="contentSub"><div id="mw-content-subtitle"></div></div> <div id="mw-content-text" class="mw-body-content"><div class="mw-content-ltr mw-parser-output" lang="en" dir="ltr"><div class="shortdescription nomobile noexcerpt noprint searchaux" style="display:none">Visible wave pattern in a supersonic exhaust plume</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Not to be confused with the mineral <a href="/wiki/Diamond" title="Diamond">diamond</a>.</div> <p class="mw-empty-elt"> </p> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:J58_AfterburnerT.jpeg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/60/J58_AfterburnerT.jpeg/300px-J58_AfterburnerT.jpeg" decoding="async" width="300" height="242" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/60/J58_AfterburnerT.jpeg/450px-J58_AfterburnerT.jpeg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/60/J58_AfterburnerT.jpeg/600px-J58_AfterburnerT.jpeg 2x" data-file-width="1576" data-file-height="1273" /></a><figcaption>Shock diamonds are the bright areas seen in the exhaust of this statically mounted <a href="/wiki/Pratt_%26_Whitney_J58" title="Pratt & Whitney J58">Pratt & Whitney J58</a> engine on full <a href="/wiki/Afterburner" title="Afterburner">afterburner</a>.</figcaption></figure> <p><b>Shock diamonds</b> (also known as <b>Mach diamonds</b> or <b>thrust diamonds</b>, and less commonly <b>Mach disks</b>) are a formation of <a href="/wiki/Standing_wave" title="Standing wave">standing wave</a> patterns that appear in the <a href="/wiki/Supersonic" class="mw-redirect" title="Supersonic">supersonic</a> <a href="/wiki/Exhaust_plume" class="mw-redirect" title="Exhaust plume">exhaust plume</a> of an aerospace propulsion system, such as a supersonic <a href="/wiki/Jet_engine" title="Jet engine">jet engine</a>, <a href="/wiki/Rocket" title="Rocket">rocket</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ramjet" title="Ramjet">ramjet</a>, or <a href="/wiki/Scramjet" title="Scramjet">scramjet</a>, when it is operated in an atmosphere. The "diamonds" are actually a complex flow field made visible by abrupt changes in local density and pressure as the exhaust passes through a series of standing <a href="/wiki/Shock_wave" title="Shock wave">shock waves</a> and <a href="/wiki/Prandtl%E2%80%93Meyer_expansion_fan" title="Prandtl–Meyer expansion fan">expansion fans</a>. The physicist <a href="/wiki/Ernst_Mach" title="Ernst Mach">Ernst Mach</a> was the first to describe a strong shock normal to the direction of fluid flow, the presence of which causes the diamond pattern.<sup id="cite_ref-Norman.Winkler.1985_1-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Norman.Winkler.1985-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 48">: 48 </span></sup> </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Mechanism">Mechanism</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Shock_diamond&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Mechanism"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:SR-71_Blackbird_afterburn.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d3/SR-71_Blackbird_afterburn.jpg/250px-SR-71_Blackbird_afterburn.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="124" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d3/SR-71_Blackbird_afterburn.jpg/330px-SR-71_Blackbird_afterburn.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d3/SR-71_Blackbird_afterburn.jpg/500px-SR-71_Blackbird_afterburn.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3000" data-file-height="1688" /></a><figcaption>Shock diamonds behind a <a href="/wiki/Lockheed_SR-71_Blackbird" title="Lockheed SR-71 Blackbird">Lockheed SR-71 Blackbird</a>.</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:South_Carolina_F-16_taking_off_in_Afghanistan.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7a/South_Carolina_F-16_taking_off_in_Afghanistan.jpg/220px-South_Carolina_F-16_taking_off_in_Afghanistan.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="140" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7a/South_Carolina_F-16_taking_off_in_Afghanistan.jpg/330px-South_Carolina_F-16_taking_off_in_Afghanistan.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7a/South_Carolina_F-16_taking_off_in_Afghanistan.jpg/440px-South_Carolina_F-16_taking_off_in_Afghanistan.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1247" data-file-height="792" /></a><figcaption>Shock diamonds from an <a href="/wiki/General_Dynamics_F-16_Fighting_Falcon" title="General Dynamics F-16 Fighting Falcon">F-16</a> taking off with afterburner</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Lockheed_Martin_F-22A_Raptor_JSOH.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/46/Lockheed_Martin_F-22A_Raptor_JSOH.jpg/220px-Lockheed_Martin_F-22A_Raptor_JSOH.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="147" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/46/Lockheed_Martin_F-22A_Raptor_JSOH.jpg/330px-Lockheed_Martin_F-22A_Raptor_JSOH.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/46/Lockheed_Martin_F-22A_Raptor_JSOH.jpg/440px-Lockheed_Martin_F-22A_Raptor_JSOH.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2736" data-file-height="1822" /></a><figcaption>An <a href="/wiki/F-22_Raptor" class="mw-redirect" title="F-22 Raptor">F-22 Raptor</a> with shock diamonds behind it</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:F22afterburneratAirventure.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="USAF F-22 Raptor flying in knife edge during a high-speed low-altitude pass over Airventure in full afterburner with Mach diamonds at sunset" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/79/F22afterburneratAirventure.jpg/220px-F22afterburneratAirventure.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="147" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/79/F22afterburneratAirventure.jpg/330px-F22afterburneratAirventure.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/79/F22afterburneratAirventure.jpg/440px-F22afterburneratAirventure.jpg 2x" data-file-width="6720" data-file-height="4480" /></a><figcaption>USAF F-22 Raptor flying in knife edge during a high-speed low-altitude pass over Airventure in full afterburner with shock diamonds at sunset</figcaption></figure> <p>Shock diamonds form when the supersonic exhaust from a <a href="/wiki/Propelling_nozzle" title="Propelling nozzle">propelling nozzle</a> is slightly over-expanded, meaning that the <a href="/wiki/Static_pressure#Static_pressure_in_fluid_dynamics" title="Static pressure">static pressure</a> of the gases exiting the nozzle is less than the ambient <a href="/wiki/Air_pressure" class="mw-redirect" title="Air pressure">air pressure</a>. The higher ambient pressure compresses the flow, and since the resulting pressure increase in the <a href="/wiki/Exhaust_gas" title="Exhaust gas">exhaust gas</a> stream is <a href="/wiki/Adiabatic_process" title="Adiabatic process">adiabatic</a>, a reduction in velocity causes its static temperature to be substantially increased.<sup id="cite_ref-aero_2-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-aero-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The exhaust is typically over-expanded at low altitudes, where air pressure is higher. </p><p>As the flow exits the nozzle, ambient air pressure will compress the flow.<sup id="cite_ref-aero_2-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-aero-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The external compression is caused by <a href="/wiki/Oblique_shock_wave" class="mw-redirect" title="Oblique shock wave">oblique shock waves</a> inclined at an angle to the flow. The compressed flow is alternately expanded by <a href="/wiki/Prandtl-Meyer_expansion_fan" class="mw-redirect" title="Prandtl-Meyer expansion fan">Prandtl-Meyer expansion fans</a>, and each "diamond" is formed by the pairing of an oblique shock with an expansion fan. When the compressed flow becomes parallel to the center line, a shock wave perpendicular to the flow forms, called a <a href="/wiki/Normal_shock_wave" class="mw-redirect" title="Normal shock wave">normal shock wave</a> or <b>Mach disk</b>. This locates the first shock diamond, and the space between it and the nozzle is called the "zone of silence".<sup id="cite_ref-lcms_3-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-lcms-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The distance from the nozzle to the first shock diamond can be approximated by </p><p><span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-display mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math display="block" xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle x=0.67D_{0}{\sqrt {\frac {P_{0}}{P_{1}}}},}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mi>x</mi> <mo>=</mo> <mn>0.67</mn> <msub> <mi>D</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mn>0</mn> </mrow> </msub> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <msqrt> <mfrac> <msub> <mi>P</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mn>0</mn> </mrow> </msub> <msub> <mi>P</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mn>1</mn> </mrow> </msub> </mfrac> </msqrt> </mrow> <mo>,</mo> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle x=0.67D_{0}{\sqrt {\frac {P_{0}}{P_{1}}}},}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/a054abdcb956126ac26cfb0f20adc9f4848e4081" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-display mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -3.171ex; width:17.894ex; height:7.676ex;" alt="{\displaystyle x=0.67D_{0}{\sqrt {\frac {P_{0}}{P_{1}}}},}" /></span> </p><p>where <i>x</i> is the distance, <i>D</i><sub>0</sub> is the nozzle diameter, <i>P</i><sub>0</sub> is flow pressure, and <i>P</i><sub>1</sub> is atmospheric pressure.<sup id="cite_ref-lcms_3-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-lcms-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>As the exhaust passes through the normal shock wave, its temperature increases, igniting excess fuel and causing the glow that makes the shock diamonds visible.<sup id="cite_ref-aero_2-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-aero-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The illuminated regions either appear as disks or <a href="/wiki/Diamond_(shape)" class="mw-redirect" title="Diamond (shape)">diamonds</a>, giving them their name. </p><p>Eventually the flow expands enough so that its pressure is again below ambient, at which point the expansion fan reflects from the contact discontinuity (the outer edge of the flow). The reflected waves, called the compression fan, cause the flow to compress.<sup id="cite_ref-aero_2-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-aero-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> If the compression fan is strong enough, another oblique shock wave will form, creating a second Mach disk and shock diamond. The pattern of disks and diamonds would repeat indefinitely if the gases were ideal and frictionless;<sup id="cite_ref-aero_2-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-aero-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> however, <a href="/wiki/Turbulent" class="mw-redirect" title="Turbulent">turbulent</a> shear at the contact discontinuity causes the wave pattern to dissipate with distance.<sup id="cite_ref-fiu_4-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-fiu-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Diamond patterns can similarly form when a nozzle is under-expanded (exit pressure higher than ambient) in lower atmospheric pressure at higher altitudes. In this case, the expansion fan is first to form, followed by the oblique shock.<sup id="cite_ref-aero_2-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-aero-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Alternative_sources">Alternative sources</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Shock_diamond&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Alternative sources"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Kluft-photo-MSS-Xoie-LLC-L2-landing-Img_1282.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1d/Kluft-photo-MSS-Xoie-LLC-L2-landing-Img_1282.jpg/220px-Kluft-photo-MSS-Xoie-LLC-L2-landing-Img_1282.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="147" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1d/Kluft-photo-MSS-Xoie-LLC-L2-landing-Img_1282.jpg/330px-Kluft-photo-MSS-Xoie-LLC-L2-landing-Img_1282.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1d/Kluft-photo-MSS-Xoie-LLC-L2-landing-Img_1282.jpg/440px-Kluft-photo-MSS-Xoie-LLC-L2-landing-Img_1282.jpg 2x" data-file-width="4272" data-file-height="2848" /></a><figcaption>Shock diamonds beneath <a href="/wiki/Masten_Space_Systems" title="Masten Space Systems">Masten Space Systems</a> Xoie rocket during the <a href="/wiki/Lunar_Lander_Challenge" title="Lunar Lander Challenge">Lunar Lander Challenge</a> competition-winning landing.</figcaption></figure> <p>Shock diamonds are most commonly associated with jet and rocket propulsion, but they can form in other systems. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Artillery">Artillery</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Shock_diamond&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Artillery"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>When artillery pieces are fired, gas exits the cannon muzzle at supersonic speeds and produces a series of shock diamonds. The diamonds cause a bright <a href="/wiki/Muzzle_flash" title="Muzzle flash">muzzle flash</a> which can expose the location of gun emplacements to the enemy. It was found that when the ratio between the flow pressure and atmospheric pressure is close, which can be achieved with a <a href="/wiki/Flash_suppressor" title="Flash suppressor">flash suppressor</a>, the shock diamonds were greatly minimized. Adding a <a href="/wiki/Muzzle_brake" title="Muzzle brake">muzzle brake</a> to the end of the muzzle balances the pressures and prevents shock diamonds.<sup id="cite_ref-Norman.Winkler.1985_1-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Norman.Winkler.1985-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 41">: 41 </span></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Radio_jets">Radio jets</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Shock_diamond&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Radio jets"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Some <a href="/wiki/Radio_jets" class="mw-redirect" title="Radio jets">radio jets</a>, powerful jets of plasma that emanate from <a href="/wiki/Quasar" title="Quasar">quasars</a> and <a href="/wiki/Radio_galaxies" class="mw-redirect" title="Radio galaxies">radio galaxies</a>, are observed to have regularly-spaced knots of enhanced radio emissions.<sup id="cite_ref-Norman.Winkler.1985_1-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Norman.Winkler.1985-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 68">: 68 </span></sup> The jets travel at supersonic speed through a thin "atmosphere" of gas in space,<sup id="cite_ref-Norman.Winkler.1985_1-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Norman.Winkler.1985-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 51">: 51 </span></sup> so it is hypothesized that these knots are shock diamonds.<sup id="cite_ref-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Shock_diamond&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Index_of_aviation_articles" title="Index of aviation articles">Index of aviation articles</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plume_(hydrodynamics)" class="mw-redirect" title="Plume (hydrodynamics)">Plume (hydrodynamics)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rocket_engine_nozzle" title="Rocket engine nozzle">Rocket engine nozzle</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Shock_diamond&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-Norman.Winkler.1985-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Norman.Winkler.1985_1-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Norman.Winkler.1985_1-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Norman.Winkler.1985_1-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Norman.Winkler.1985_1-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite id="CITEREFMichael_L._NormanKarl-Heinz_A._Winkler1985" class="citation journal cs1">Michael L. Norman; Karl-Heinz A. Winkler (July 1985). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://la-science.lanl.gov/lascience12.shtml">"Supersonic Jets"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/Los_Alamos_Science" title="Los Alamos Science">Los Alamos Science</a></i>. <b>12</b>: <span class="nowrap">38–</span>71.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Los+Alamos+Science&rft.atitle=Supersonic+Jets&rft.volume=12&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E38-%3C%2Fspan%3E71&rft.date=1985-07&rft.au=Michael+L.+Norman&rft.au=Karl-Heinz+A.+Winkler&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fla-science.lanl.gov%2Flascience12.shtml&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AShock+diamond" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-aero-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-aero_2-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-aero_2-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-aero_2-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-aero_2-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-aero_2-4"><sup><i><b>e</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-aero_2-5"><sup><i><b>f</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFScott2005" class="citation web cs1">Scott, Jeff (17 April 2005). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.aerospaceweb.org/question/propulsion/q0224.shtml">"Shock Diamonds and Mach Disks"</a>. 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(1999). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=oSnKlgDBzJEC"><i>Liquid chromatography-mass spectrometry</i></a>. Vol. 79. <a href="/wiki/CRC_Press" title="CRC Press">CRC Press</a>. p. 84. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8247-1936-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8247-1936-4"><bdi>978-0-8247-1936-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Liquid+chromatography-mass+spectrometry&rft.pages=84&rft.pub=CRC+Press&rft.date=1999&rft.isbn=978-0-8247-1936-4&rft.aulast=Niessen&rft.aufirst=Wilfried+M.+A.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DoSnKlgDBzJEC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AShock+diamond" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-fiu-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-fiu_4-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20111207013610/http://www.allstar.fiu.edu/aero/rocket3.htm">"Exhaust Gases' Diamond Pattern"</a>. <a href="/wiki/Florida_International_University" title="Florida International University">Florida International University</a>. 12 March 2004. 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Retrieved <span class="nowrap">6 November</span> 2011</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Exhaust+Gases%27+Diamond+Pattern&rft.pub=Florida+International+University&rft.date=2004-03-12&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.allstar.fiu.edu%2Faero%2Frocket3.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AShock+diamond" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-5">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.science20.com/news_articles/shock_diamonds_space_extragalactic_afterburner_pks_0637752-95488">"Shock Diamonds In Space: Extragalactic Afterburner From PKS 0637-752 | Science 2.0"</a>. <i>www.science20.com</i>. 27 August 2014<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">13 March</span> 2024</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=www.science20.com&rft.atitle=Shock+Diamonds+In+Space%3A+Extragalactic+Afterburner+From+PKS+0637-752+%7C+Science+2.0&rft.date=2014-08-27&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.science20.com%2Fnews_articles%2Fshock_diamonds_space_extragalactic_afterburner_pks_0637752-95488&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AShock+diamond" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-6"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-6">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFBarnesFilipovicNorrisVelović" class="citation web cs1">Barnes, Luke; Filipovic, Miroslav; Norris, Ray; Velović, Velibor; Conversation, The. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://phys.org/news/2022-08-astronomers-biggest-black-hole-jets.html">"Astronomers have detected one of the biggest black hole jets in the sky"</a>. <i>phys.org</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. 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