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id="toc-Calligraphy-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Painting" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Painting"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3</span> <span>Painting</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Painting-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Rugs_and_carpets" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Rugs_and_carpets"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> <span>Rugs and carpets</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Rugs_and_carpets-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Ceramics" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Ceramics"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>Ceramics</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Ceramics-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only 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id="toc-Metalwork-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Other_applied_arts" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Other_applied_arts"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8</span> <span>Other applied arts</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Other_applied_arts-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Other applied arts subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Other_applied_arts-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Precious_stones" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Precious_stones"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8.1</span> <span>Precious stones</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Precious_stones-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-House_and_furniture" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#House_and_furniture"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8.2</span> <span>House and furniture</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-House_and_furniture-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Ivory" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Ivory"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8.3</span> <span>Ivory</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Ivory-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Silk" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Silk"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8.4</span> <span>Silk</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Silk-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Indonesian_batik" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Indonesian_batik"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8.5</span> <span>Indonesian batik</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Indonesian_batik-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Architecture" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Architecture"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9</span> <span>Architecture</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Architecture-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-History" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#History"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">10</span> <span>History</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-History-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle History subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-History-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Beginnings" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Beginnings"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">10.1</span> <span>Beginnings</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Beginnings-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Pre-dynastic" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Pre-dynastic"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">10.1.1</span> <span>Pre-dynastic</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Pre-dynastic-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Umayyad" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Umayyad"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">10.1.2</span> <span>Umayyad</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Umayyad-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Abbasid" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Abbasid"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">10.1.3</span> <span>Abbasid</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Abbasid-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Medieval_period_(9th–15th_centuries)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Medieval_period_(9th–15th_centuries)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">10.2</span> <span>Medieval period (9th–15th centuries)</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Medieval_period_(9th–15th_centuries)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Spain_and_the_Maghreb" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Spain_and_the_Maghreb"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">10.2.1</span> <span>Spain and the Maghreb</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Spain_and_the_Maghreb-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Arab_Mashriq" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Arab_Mashriq"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">10.2.2</span> <span>Arab Mashriq</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Arab_Mashriq-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Iran_and_Central_Asia" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Iran_and_Central_Asia"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">10.2.3</span> <span>Iran and Central Asia</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Iran_and_Central_Asia-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Ilkhanids" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-4"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Ilkhanids"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">10.2.3.1</span> <span>Ilkhanids</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Ilkhanids-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-The_Golden_Horde_and_the_Timurids" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-4"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#The_Golden_Horde_and_the_Timurids"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">10.2.3.2</span> <span>The Golden Horde and the Timurids</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-The_Golden_Horde_and_the_Timurids-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Syria,_Iraq,_Anatolia" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Syria,_Iraq,_Anatolia"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">10.2.4</span> <span>Syria, Iraq, Anatolia</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Syria,_Iraq,_Anatolia-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Indian_subcontinent" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Indian_subcontinent"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">10.2.5</span> <span>Indian subcontinent</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Indian_subcontinent-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-The_Three_Empires" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#The_Three_Empires"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">10.3</span> <span>The Three Empires</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-The_Three_Empires-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Ottomans" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Ottomans"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">10.3.1</span> <span>Ottomans</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Ottomans-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Mughals" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Mughals"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">10.3.2</span> <span>Mughals</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Mughals-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Safavids_and_Qajars" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Safavids_and_Qajars"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">10.3.3</span> <span>Safavids and Qajars</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Safavids_and_Qajars-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Modern_period" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Modern_period"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">10.4</span> <span>Modern period</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Modern_period-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">11</span> <span>See also</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Notes" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Notes"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">12</span> <span>Notes</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Notes-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">13</span> <span>References</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Further_reading" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Further_reading"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">14</span> <span>Further reading</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Further_reading-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">15</span> <span>External links</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-listBullet mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-listBullet"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Toggle the table of contents</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading"><span class="mw-page-title-main">Islamic art</span></h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. Available in 57 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-57" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-language-progressive mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-language-progressive"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">57 languages</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%81%D9%86_%D8%A5%D8%B3%D9%84%D8%A7%D9%85%D9%8A" title="فن إسلامي – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="فن إسلامي" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>العربية</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ast mw-list-item"><a href="https://ast.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arte_isl%C3%A1micu" title="Arte islámicu – Asturian" lang="ast" hreflang="ast" data-title="Arte islámicu" data-language-autonym="Asturianu" data-language-local-name="Asturian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Asturianu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bn mw-list-item"><a href="https://bn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A6%87%E0%A6%B8%E0%A6%B2%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%AE%E0%A6%BF_%E0%A6%B6%E0%A6%BF%E0%A6%B2%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%AA" title="ইসলামি শিল্প – Bangla" lang="bn" hreflang="bn" data-title="ইসলামি শিল্প" data-language-autonym="বাংলা" data-language-local-name="Bangla" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>বাংলা</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be mw-list-item"><a href="https://be.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%86%D1%81%D0%BB%D0%B0%D0%BC%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B0%D0%B5_%D0%BC%D0%B0%D1%81%D1%82%D0%B0%D1%86%D1%82%D0%B2%D0%B0" title="Ісламскае мастацтва – Belarusian" lang="be" hreflang="be" data-title="Ісламскае мастацтва" data-language-autonym="Беларуская" data-language-local-name="Belarusian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Беларуская</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bg mw-list-item"><a href="https://bg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%98%D1%81%D0%BB%D1%8F%D0%BC%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%BE_%D0%B8%D0%B7%D0%BA%D1%83%D1%81%D1%82%D0%B2%D0%BE" title="Ислямско изкуство – Bulgarian" lang="bg" hreflang="bg" data-title="Ислямско изкуство" data-language-autonym="Български" data-language-local-name="Bulgarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Български</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bs mw-list-item"><a href="https://bs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Islamska_umjetnost" title="Islamska umjetnost – Bosnian" lang="bs" hreflang="bs" data-title="Islamska umjetnost" data-language-autonym="Bosanski" data-language-local-name="Bosnian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bosanski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Art_isl%C3%A0mic" title="Art islàmic – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Art islàmic" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Català</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs mw-list-item"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Isl%C3%A1msk%C3%A9_um%C4%9Bn%C3%AD" title="Islámské umění – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="Islámské umění" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="Czech" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Čeština</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cy mw-list-item"><a href="https://cy.wikipedia.org/wiki/Celf_Islamaidd" title="Celf Islamaidd – Welsh" lang="cy" hreflang="cy" data-title="Celf Islamaidd" data-language-autonym="Cymraeg" data-language-local-name="Welsh" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Cymraeg</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-da mw-list-item"><a href="https://da.wikipedia.org/wiki/Islamisk_kunst" title="Islamisk kunst – Danish" lang="da" hreflang="da" data-title="Islamisk kunst" data-language-autonym="Dansk" data-language-local-name="Danish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Dansk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Islamische_Kunst" title="Islamische Kunst – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Islamische Kunst" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Deutsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-dv mw-list-item"><a href="https://dv.wikipedia.org/wiki/%DE%8A%DE%A6%DE%87%DE%B0%DE%82%DE%AA" title="ފައްނު – Divehi" lang="dv" hreflang="dv" data-title="ފައްނު" data-language-autonym="ދިވެހިބަސް" data-language-local-name="Divehi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ދިވެހިބަސް</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-el mw-list-item"><a href="https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%99%CF%83%CE%BB%CE%B1%CE%BC%CE%B9%CE%BA%CE%AE_%CF%84%CE%AD%CF%87%CE%BD%CE%B7" title="Ισλαμική τέχνη – Greek" lang="el" hreflang="el" data-title="Ισλαμική τέχνη" data-language-autonym="Ελληνικά" data-language-local-name="Greek" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ελληνικά</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arte_isl%C3%A1mico" title="Arte islámico – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Arte islámico" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Español</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eo mw-list-item"><a href="https://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Islama_arto" title="Islama arto – Esperanto" lang="eo" hreflang="eo" data-title="Islama arto" data-language-autonym="Esperanto" data-language-local-name="Esperanto" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Esperanto</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eu mw-list-item"><a href="https://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Islamdar_arte" title="Islamdar arte – Basque" lang="eu" hreflang="eu" data-title="Islamdar arte" data-language-autonym="Euskara" data-language-local-name="Basque" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Euskara</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%87%D9%86%D8%B1_%D8%A7%D8%B3%D9%84%D8%A7%D9%85%DB%8C" title="هنر اسلامی – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="هنر اسلامی" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>فارسی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr badge-Q17437796 badge-featuredarticle mw-list-item" title="featured article badge"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arts_de_l%27Islam" title="Arts de l'Islam – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Arts de l'Islam" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Français</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ga mw-list-item"><a href="https://ga.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eala%C3%ADn_Ioslamach" title="Ealaín Ioslamach – Irish" lang="ga" hreflang="ga" data-title="Ealaín Ioslamach" data-language-autonym="Gaeilge" data-language-local-name="Irish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Gaeilge</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gl mw-list-item"><a href="https://gl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arte_isl%C3%A1mica" title="Arte islámica – Galician" lang="gl" hreflang="gl" data-title="Arte islámica" data-language-autonym="Galego" data-language-local-name="Galician" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Galego</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EC%9D%B4%EC%8A%AC%EB%9E%8C_%EB%AF%B8%EC%88%A0" title="이슬람 미술 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="이슬람 미술" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>한국어</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hy mw-list-item"><a href="https://hy.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D4%BB%D5%BD%D5%AC%D5%A1%D5%B4%D5%A1%D5%AF%D5%A1%D5%B6_%D5%A1%D6%80%D5%BE%D5%A5%D5%BD%D5%BF" title="Իսլամական արվեստ – Armenian" lang="hy" hreflang="hy" data-title="Իսլամական արվեստ" data-language-autonym="Հայերեն" data-language-local-name="Armenian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Հայերեն</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hi mw-list-item"><a href="https://hi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%87%E0%A4%B8%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B2%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%AE%E0%A5%80_%E0%A4%95%E0%A4%B2%E0%A4%BE" title="इस्लामी कला – Hindi" lang="hi" hreflang="hi" data-title="इस्लामी कला" data-language-autonym="हिन्दी" data-language-local-name="Hindi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>हिन्दी</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hr badge-Q17437796 badge-featuredarticle mw-list-item" title="featured article badge"><a href="https://hr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Islamska_umjetnost" title="Islamska umjetnost – Croatian" lang="hr" hreflang="hr" data-title="Islamska umjetnost" data-language-autonym="Hrvatski" data-language-local-name="Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Hrvatski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Seni_rupa_Islam" title="Seni rupa Islam – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Seni rupa Islam" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Indonesia</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arte_islamica" title="Arte islamica – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Arte islamica" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Italiano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he mw-list-item"><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%90%D7%9E%D7%A0%D7%95%D7%AA_%D7%94%D7%90%D7%A1%D7%9C%D7%90%D7%9D" title="אמנות האסלאם – Hebrew" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="אמנות האסלאם" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="Hebrew" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>עברית</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-jv mw-list-item"><a href="https://jv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Seni_rupa_Islam" title="Seni rupa Islam – Javanese" lang="jv" hreflang="jv" data-title="Seni rupa Islam" data-language-autonym="Jawa" data-language-local-name="Javanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Jawa</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ka mw-list-item"><a href="https://ka.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%98%E1%83%A1%E1%83%9A%E1%83%90%E1%83%9B%E1%83%A3%E1%83%A0%E1%83%98_%E1%83%AE%E1%83%94%E1%83%9A%E1%83%9D%E1%83%95%E1%83%9C%E1%83%94%E1%83%91%E1%83%90" title="ისლამური ხელოვნება – Georgian" lang="ka" hreflang="ka" data-title="ისლამური ხელოვნება" data-language-autonym="ქართული" data-language-local-name="Georgian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ქართული</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kk mw-list-item"><a href="https://kk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%98%D1%81%D0%BB%D0%B0%D0%BC_%D3%A9%D0%BD%D0%B5%D1%80%D1%96" title="Ислам өнері – Kazakh" lang="kk" hreflang="kk" data-title="Ислам өнері" data-language-autonym="Қазақша" data-language-local-name="Kazakh" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Қазақша</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lt mw-list-item"><a href="https://lt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Islamo_menas" title="Islamo menas – Lithuanian" lang="lt" hreflang="lt" data-title="Islamo menas" data-language-autonym="Lietuvių" data-language-local-name="Lithuanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Lietuvių</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hu mw-list-item"><a href="https://hu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Az_iszl%C3%A1m_m%C5%B1v%C3%A9szete" title="Az iszlám művészete – Hungarian" lang="hu" hreflang="hu" data-title="Az iszlám művészete" data-language-autonym="Magyar" data-language-local-name="Hungarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Magyar</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mk badge-Q17437796 badge-featuredarticle mw-list-item" title="featured article badge"><a href="https://mk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%98%D1%81%D0%BB%D0%B0%D0%BC%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B0_%D1%83%D0%BC%D0%B5%D1%82%D0%BD%D0%BE%D1%81%D1%82" title="Исламска уметност – Macedonian" lang="mk" hreflang="mk" data-title="Исламска уметност" data-language-autonym="Македонски" data-language-local-name="Macedonian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Македонски</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ml mw-list-item"><a href="https://ml.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B4%AE%E0%B5%81%E0%B4%B8%E0%B5%8D%E2%80%8C%E0%B4%B2%E0%B4%BF%E0%B4%82_%E0%B4%95%E0%B4%B2" title="മുസ്‌ലിം കല – Malayalam" lang="ml" hreflang="ml" data-title="മുസ്‌ലിം കല" data-language-autonym="മലയാളം" data-language-local-name="Malayalam" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>മലയാളം</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-arz mw-list-item"><a href="https://arz.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%81%D9%86_%D8%A7%D8%B3%D9%84%D8%A7%D9%85%D9%89" title="فن اسلامى – Egyptian Arabic" lang="arz" hreflang="arz" data-title="فن اسلامى" data-language-autonym="مصرى" data-language-local-name="Egyptian Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>مصرى</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ms mw-list-item"><a href="https://ms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kesenian_Islam" title="Kesenian Islam – Malay" lang="ms" hreflang="ms" data-title="Kesenian Islam" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Melayu" data-language-local-name="Malay" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Melayu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Islamitische_kunst" title="Islamitische kunst – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Islamitische kunst" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Nederlands</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja badge-Q17437798 badge-goodarticle mw-list-item" title="good article badge"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E3%82%A4%E3%82%B9%E3%83%A9%E3%83%A0%E7%BE%8E%E8%A1%93" title="イスラム美術 – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="イスラム美術" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>日本語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-no mw-list-item"><a href="https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Islamsk_kunst" title="Islamsk kunst – Norwegian Bokmål" lang="nb" hreflang="nb" data-title="Islamsk kunst" data-language-autonym="Norsk bokmål" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Bokmål" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk bokmål</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-or mw-list-item"><a href="https://or.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%AC%95%E0%AD%81%E0%AC%AC%E0%AD%87%E0%AC%B0_%E0%AC%95%E0%AD%8B%E0%AC%B2%E0%AC%BE%E0%AC%AE" title="କୁବେର କୋଲାମ – Odia" lang="or" hreflang="or" data-title="କୁବେର କୋଲାମ" data-language-autonym="ଓଡ଼ିଆ" data-language-local-name="Odia" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ଓଡ଼ିଆ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ps mw-list-item"><a href="https://ps.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A7%D8%B3%D9%84%D8%A7%D9%85%D9%8A_%D9%87%D9%86%D8%B1" title="اسلامي هنر – Pashto" lang="ps" hreflang="ps" data-title="اسلامي هنر" data-language-autonym="پښتو" data-language-local-name="Pashto" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>پښتو</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sztuka_islamu" title="Sztuka islamu – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="Sztuka islamu" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Polish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Polski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arte_isl%C3%A2mica" title="Arte islâmica – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Arte islâmica" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Português</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ro mw-list-item"><a href="https://ro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arta_islamic%C4%83" title="Arta islamică – Romanian" lang="ro" hreflang="ro" data-title="Arta islamică" data-language-autonym="Română" data-language-local-name="Romanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Română</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%98%D1%81%D0%BB%D0%B0%D0%BC%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%BE%D0%B5_%D0%B8%D1%81%D0%BA%D1%83%D1%81%D1%81%D1%82%D0%B2%D0%BE" title="Исламское искусство – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Исламское искусство" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Русский</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sq badge-Q17437796 badge-featuredarticle mw-list-item" title="featured article badge"><a href="https://sq.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arti_islam" title="Arti islam – Albanian" lang="sq" hreflang="sq" data-title="Arti islam" data-language-autonym="Shqip" data-language-local-name="Albanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Shqip</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sk mw-list-item"><a href="https://sk.wikipedia.org/wiki/Islamsk%C3%A9_umenie" title="Islamské umenie – Slovak" lang="sk" hreflang="sk" data-title="Islamské umenie" data-language-autonym="Slovenčina" data-language-local-name="Slovak" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Slovenčina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sl mw-list-item"><a href="https://sl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Islamska_umetnost" title="Islamska umetnost – Slovenian" lang="sl" hreflang="sl" data-title="Islamska umetnost" data-language-autonym="Slovenščina" data-language-local-name="Slovenian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Slovenščina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sr mw-list-item"><a href="https://sr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%98%D1%81%D0%BB%D0%B0%D0%BC%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B0_%D1%83%D0%BC%D0%B5%D1%82%D0%BD%D0%BE%D1%81%D1%82" title="Исламска уметност – Serbian" lang="sr" hreflang="sr" data-title="Исламска уметност" data-language-autonym="Српски / srpski" data-language-local-name="Serbian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Српски / srpski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sh mw-list-item"><a href="https://sh.wikipedia.org/wiki/Islamska_umjetnost" title="Islamska umjetnost – Serbo-Croatian" lang="sh" hreflang="sh" data-title="Islamska umjetnost" data-language-autonym="Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски" data-language-local-name="Serbo-Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fi mw-list-item"><a href="https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Islamilainen_taide" title="Islamilainen taide – Finnish" lang="fi" hreflang="fi" data-title="Islamilainen taide" data-language-autonym="Suomi" data-language-local-name="Finnish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Suomi</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sv mw-list-item"><a href="https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Islamisk_konst" title="Islamisk konst – Swedish" lang="sv" hreflang="sv" data-title="Islamisk konst" data-language-autonym="Svenska" data-language-local-name="Swedish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Svenska</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tg mw-list-item"><a href="https://tg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A1%D0%B0%D0%BD%D1%8A%D0%B0%D1%82%D0%B8_%D0%B8%D1%81%D0%BB%D0%BE%D0%BC%D3%A3" title="Санъати исломӣ – Tajik" lang="tg" hreflang="tg" data-title="Санъати исломӣ" data-language-autonym="Тоҷикӣ" data-language-local-name="Tajik" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Тоҷикӣ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tr mw-list-item"><a href="https://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C4%B0slam_sanat%C4%B1" title="İslam sanatı – Turkish" lang="tr" hreflang="tr" data-title="İslam sanatı" data-language-autonym="Türkçe" data-language-local-name="Turkish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Türkçe</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uk mw-list-item"><a href="https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%86%D1%81%D0%BB%D0%B0%D0%BC%D1%81%D1%8C%D0%BA%D0%B5_%D0%BC%D0%B8%D1%81%D1%82%D0%B5%D1%86%D1%82%D0%B2%D0%BE" title="Ісламське мистецтво – Ukrainian" lang="uk" hreflang="uk" data-title="Ісламське мистецтво" data-language-autonym="Українська" data-language-local-name="Ukrainian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Українська</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ur mw-list-item"><a href="https://ur.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A7%D8%B3%D9%84%D8%A7%D9%85%DB%8C_%D9%81%D9%86%D9%88%D9%86" title="اسلامی فنون – Urdu" lang="ur" hreflang="ur" data-title="اسلامی فنون" data-language-autonym="اردو" data-language-local-name="Urdu" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>اردو</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E4%BC%8A%E6%96%AF%E8%98%AD%E8%97%9D%E8%A1%93" title="伊斯蘭藝術 – Chinese" lang="zh" hreflang="zh" data-title="伊斯蘭藝術" data-language-autonym="中文" data-language-local-name="Chinese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>中文</span></a></li> </ul> <div class="after-portlet after-portlet-lang"><span class="wb-langlinks-edit wb-langlinks-link"><a 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dir="ltr"><div class="shortdescription nomobile noexcerpt noprint searchaux" style="display:none">Visual art forms associated with Muslims</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">This article is about the <a href="/wiki/Visual_arts" title="Visual arts">visual arts</a> in <a href="/wiki/Art_history" title="Art history">art history</a>. For the architecture associated with Muslims, see <a href="/wiki/Islamic_architecture" title="Islamic architecture">Islamic architecture</a>. For other uses, see <a href="/wiki/Islamic_culture" title="Islamic culture">Islamic culture</a>.</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Atauriques.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2f/Atauriques.jpg/220px-Atauriques.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="146" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2f/Atauriques.jpg/330px-Atauriques.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2f/Atauriques.jpg/440px-Atauriques.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3008" data-file-height="2000" /></a><figcaption>Detail of <a href="/wiki/Arabesque_(Islamic_art)" class="mw-redirect" title="Arabesque (Islamic art)">arabesque</a> decoration at the <a href="/wiki/Alhambra" title="Alhambra">Alhambra</a> in Spain</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Ardabil_Carpet.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/71/Ardabil_Carpet.jpg/220px-Ardabil_Carpet.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="425" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/71/Ardabil_Carpet.jpg/330px-Ardabil_Carpet.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/71/Ardabil_Carpet.jpg/440px-Ardabil_Carpet.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1248" data-file-height="2411" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/The_Ardabil_Carpet" class="mw-redirect" title="The Ardabil Carpet">The Ardabil Carpet</a>, probably the finest surviving <a href="/wiki/Persian_carpet" title="Persian carpet">Persian carpet</a>, <a href="/wiki/Tabriz" title="Tabriz">Tabriz</a>, mid-16th century</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Brooklyn_Museum_-_Hunters_at_a_Stream_-_Riza_%60Abbasi.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d9/Brooklyn_Museum_-_Hunters_at_a_Stream_-_Riza_%60Abbasi.jpg/220px-Brooklyn_Museum_-_Hunters_at_a_Stream_-_Riza_%60Abbasi.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="323" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d9/Brooklyn_Museum_-_Hunters_at_a_Stream_-_Riza_%60Abbasi.jpg/330px-Brooklyn_Museum_-_Hunters_at_a_Stream_-_Riza_%60Abbasi.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d9/Brooklyn_Museum_-_Hunters_at_a_Stream_-_Riza_%60Abbasi.jpg/440px-Brooklyn_Museum_-_Hunters_at_a_Stream_-_Riza_%60Abbasi.jpg 2x" data-file-width="523" data-file-height="768" /></a><figcaption>Hunters at a Stream - Riza `Abbasi, <abbr title="circa">c.</abbr><span style="white-space:nowrap;"> 1625</span> <a href="/wiki/Brooklyn_Museum" title="Brooklyn Museum">Brooklyn Museum</a></figcaption></figure> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1129693374">.mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist 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class="sidebar-title-with-pretitle fn org country-name adr"><a href="/wiki/Arab_culture" title="Arab culture">Arabic culture</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-image"><span class="notpageimage" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Maq%C4%81ma_21_(fols._58v%E2%80%9359r,_double-page_spread_as_a_unit),_Maqamat_al-Harari,_1237.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c9/Maq%C4%81ma_21_%28fols._58v%E2%80%9359r%2C_double-page_spread_as_a_unit%29%2C_Maqamat_al-Harari%2C_1237.jpg/260px-Maq%C4%81ma_21_%28fols._58v%E2%80%9359r%2C_double-page_spread_as_a_unit%29%2C_Maqamat_al-Harari%2C_1237.jpg" decoding="async" width="260" height="160" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c9/Maq%C4%81ma_21_%28fols._58v%E2%80%9359r%2C_double-page_spread_as_a_unit%29%2C_Maqamat_al-Harari%2C_1237.jpg/390px-Maq%C4%81ma_21_%28fols._58v%E2%80%9359r%2C_double-page_spread_as_a_unit%29%2C_Maqamat_al-Harari%2C_1237.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c9/Maq%C4%81ma_21_%28fols._58v%E2%80%9359r%2C_double-page_spread_as_a_unit%29%2C_Maqamat_al-Harari%2C_1237.jpg/520px-Maq%C4%81ma_21_%28fols._58v%E2%80%9359r%2C_double-page_spread_as_a_unit%29%2C_Maqamat_al-Harari%2C_1237.jpg 2x" data-file-width="852" data-file-height="524" /></a></span></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="padding-bottom:0; margin-bottom:0;"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="white-space:nowrap; font-size:12.5px; text-align:center; border-top:solid 1px #aaa; font-variant: small-caps;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Category:Arabic_architecture" title="Category:Arabic architecture">Architecture</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content plainlist" style="border-top:solid 1px #aaa;"><div class="hlist"><b>Styles</b> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Islamic_architecture" title="Islamic architecture">Islamic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Architecture_of_Yemen" title="Architecture of Yemen">Yemeni</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nabataean_architecture" title="Nabataean architecture">Nabataean</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Umayyad_architecture" title="Umayyad architecture">Umayyad</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abbasid_architecture" title="Abbasid architecture">Abbasid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fatimid_architecture" title="Fatimid architecture">Fatimid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Moorish_architecture" title="Moorish architecture">Moorish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mamluk_architecture" title="Mamluk architecture">Mamluk</a></li></ul> <p><br /> <b>Features </b> </p> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ablaq" title="Ablaq">Ablaq</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alfiz" title="Alfiz">Alfiz</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arabesque" title="Arabesque">Arabesque</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_medieval_Arabic_and_Western_European_domes" title="History of medieval Arabic and Western European domes"> Arabic dome</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Banna%27i" title="Banna'i">Banna'i</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islamic_garden" title="Islamic garden">Gardens</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Girih" title="Girih">Girih</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Horseshoe_arch" title="Horseshoe arch">Horseshoe arch</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Howz" title="Howz">Howz</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hypostyle" title="Hypostyle">Hypostyle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islamic_calligraphy" title="Islamic calligraphy">Islamic calligraphy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islamic_geometric_patterns" title="Islamic geometric patterns">Islamic geometric patterns</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islamic_ornament" title="Islamic ornament">Islamic ornament</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iwan" title="Iwan">Iwan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liwan" title="Liwan">Liwan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mashrabiya" title="Mashrabiya">Mashrabiya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Riad_(architecture)" title="Riad (architecture)">Riad</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mosaic#Arab" title="Mosaic">Mosaic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Multifoil_arch" title="Multifoil arch">Multifoil arch</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Muqarnas" title="Muqarnas">Muqarnas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nagash_painting" class="mw-redirect" title="Nagash painting">Nagash painting</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Qadad" title="Qadad">Qadad</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reflecting_pool" title="Reflecting pool">Reflecting pool</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Riwaq_(arcade)" title="Riwaq (arcade)">Riwaq</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sahn" title="Sahn">Sahn</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Socarrat" title="Socarrat">Socarrat</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stucco_decoration_in_Islamic_architecture" title="Stucco decoration in Islamic architecture">Stucco decoration</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tadelakt" title="Tadelakt">Tadelakt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vaulting" class="mw-redirect" title="Vaulting">Vaulting</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Voussoir" title="Voussoir">Voussoir</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Windcatcher" title="Windcatcher">Windcatcher</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zellij" title="Zellij">Zellij</a></li></ul> <p><b>Types</b> </p> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Albarrana_tower" title="Albarrana tower">Albarrana tower</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alc%C3%A1zar" title="Alcázar">Alcázar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bazaar" title="Bazaar">Bazaar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Caravanserai" title="Caravanserai">Caravanserai</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bimaristan" title="Bimaristan">Bimaristan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hammam" title="Hammam">Hammam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kasbah" title="Kasbah">Kasbah</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Madrasa" title="Madrasa">Madrasa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maqam_(shrine)" title="Maqam (shrine)">Maqam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mazar_(mausoleum)" title="Mazar (mausoleum)">Mazar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mosque" title="Mosque">Mosque</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Medina_quarter" title="Medina quarter">Medina quarter</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Qalat_(fortress)" title="Qalat (fortress)">Qalat</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ribat" title="Ribat">Ribat</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sebil" class="mw-redirect" title="Sebil">Sabil</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shadirvan" title="Shadirvan">Shadirvan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tekyeh" class="mw-redirect" title="Tekyeh">Tekyeh</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Well_house" class="mw-redirect" title="Well house">Well house</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zawiya_(institution)" title="Zawiya (institution)">Zawiya</a></li></ul> <p><br /> </p> </div></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="padding-bottom:0; margin-bottom:0;"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="white-space:nowrap; font-size:12.5px; text-align:center; border-top:solid 1px #aaa; font-variant: small-caps;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Category:Arabic_art" title="Category:Arabic art">Art</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content plainlist" style="border-top:solid 1px #aaa;"><div class="hlist"><b>Styles</b> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_South_Arabian_art" title="Ancient South Arabian art">Ancient South Arabian art</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nabataean_art" title="Nabataean art">Nabataean art</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Islamic art</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Fatimid_art" title="Fatimid art">Fatimid art</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mamluk_Sultanate#Art" title="Mamluk Sultanate">Mamluk art</a></li></ul></li></ul> <p><b>Types</b> </p> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Arabic_calligraphy" title="Arabic calligraphy">Arabic calligraphy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islamic_graffiti" title="Islamic graffiti">Arabic graffiti</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arab_carpet" class="mw-redirect" title="Arab carpet">Arab carpet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arabic_miniature" title="Arabic miniature">Arabic miniature</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Arabic_pottery" title="Category:Arabic pottery">Arabic pottery</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Olive_wood_carving_in_Palestine" title="Olive wood carving in Palestine">Palestinian wood carving</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islamic_embroidery" title="Islamic embroidery">Islamic embroidery</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hardstone_carving#Islamic_hardstone_carving" title="Hardstone carving">Islamic hardstone carving</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islamic_garden" title="Islamic garden">Islamic garden</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islamic_glass" title="Islamic glass">Islamic glass</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ivory_carving#Islamic_ivory" title="Ivory carving">Islamic ivory carving</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink-fragment" href="#Islamic_brasswork">Islamic Metalwork</a></li></ul> <p><b>Features </b> </p> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Arabesque_(Islamic_art)" class="mw-redirect" title="Arabesque (Islamic art)">Arabesque</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arabic_geometric_patterns" class="mw-redirect" title="Arabic geometric patterns">Arabic geometric patterns</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Banna%27i" title="Banna'i">Banna'i</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Damascus_steel" title="Damascus steel">Damascus steel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Damask" title="Damask">Damask</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Girih_tiles" title="Girih tiles">Girih tiles</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hedwig_glass" title="Hedwig glass">Hedwig glass</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kiswah" title="Kiswah">Kiswah</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Muqarnas" title="Muqarnas">Muqarnas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pseudo-Arabic" class="mw-redirect" title="Pseudo-Arabic">Pseudo-Arabic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zellij" title="Zellij">Zellij</a></li></ul> <p><br /> </p> </div></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="padding-bottom:0; margin-bottom:0;"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="white-space:nowrap; font-size:12.5px; text-align:center; border-top:solid 1px #aaa; font-variant: small-caps;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Arab_cuisine" title="Arab cuisine">Cuisine</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content plainlist" style="border-top:solid 1px #aaa;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Eastern_Arabian_cuisine" title="Eastern Arabian cuisine">Khalij <span style="font-size:85%;">(Arabian Peninsula)</span></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Levantine_cuisine" title="Levantine cuisine">Arab Mashriq <span style="font-size:85%;">(Levant)</span></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iraqi_cuisine" title="Iraqi cuisine">Mashriq <span style="font-size:85%;">(Mesopotamia)</span></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Egyptian_cuisine" title="Egyptian cuisine">Mawset <span style="font-size:85%;">(Egypt)</span></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sudanese_cuisine" title="Sudanese cuisine">Mawset <span style="font-size:85%;">(Sudan)</span></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maghreb_cuisine" class="mw-redirect" title="Maghreb cuisine">Arab Maghreb <span style="font-size:85%;">(North Africa)</span></a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="padding-bottom:0; margin-bottom:0;"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="white-space:nowrap; font-size:12.5px; text-align:center; border-top:solid 1px #aaa; font-variant: small-caps;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Category:Arabic_clothing" title="Category:Arabic clothing">Dress</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content plainlist" style="border-top:solid 1px #aaa;"><div class="hlist"><b>Headwear</b> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Agal_(accessory)" title="Agal (accessory)">Agal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battoulah" title="Battoulah">Battoulah</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Haik_(garment)" title="Haik (garment)"> Haik</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Keffiyeh" title="Keffiyeh">Keffiyeh</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Litham" title="Litham">Litham</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Madhalla" title="Madhalla">Madhalla</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Taqiyah_(cap)" title="Taqiyah (cap)">Taqiyah</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tantour" title="Tantour">Tantour</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fez_(hat)" title="Fez (hat)">Tarboush (fez)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Turban" title="Turban">Turban</a></li></ul> <p><b>Clothing</b> </p> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Abaya" title="Abaya">Abaya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bisht_(clothing)" title="Bisht (clothing)">Bisht</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Burnous" title="Burnous">Burnous</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Djellaba" title="Djellaba">Djellaba</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Durra%27ah" title="Durra'ah">Durra'ah</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fouta_towel" title="Fouta towel">Fouta towel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Izaar" title="Izaar">Izaar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jellabiya" title="Jellabiya">Jellabiya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kaftan" title="Kaftan">Kaftan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sarong#Somalia" title="Sarong">Macawis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robe_of_honour" title="Robe of honour">Robe of honour</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sirwal" title="Sirwal">Sirwal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Takchita" class="mw-redirect" title="Takchita">Takchita</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thawb" title="Thawb">Thawb</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tiraz" title="Tiraz">Tiraz</a></li></ul> </div></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="padding-bottom:0; margin-bottom:0;"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="white-space:nowrap; font-size:12.5px; text-align:center; border-top:solid 1px #aaa; font-variant: small-caps;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Arabic_music" title="Arabic music">Music</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content plainlist" style="border-top:solid 1px #aaa;"><div class="hlist"><b>Theory</b> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Arabic_maqam" title="Arabic maqam">Arabic maqam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arab_tone_system" title="Arab tone system">Arab tone system</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Algerian_scale" title="Algerian scale">Algerian scale</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rhythm_in_Arabic_music" title="Rhythm in Arabic music">Rhythm in Arabic music</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Taqsim" title="Taqsim">Taqsim</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jins" title="Jins">Jins</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lazma" title="Lazma">Lazma</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Teslim" title="Teslim">Teslim</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quarter_tone" title="Quarter tone">Quarter tone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Arabic_musical_instruments" title="Category:Arabic musical instruments">Arabic musical instruments</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kitab_al-Musiqa_al-Kabir" title="Kitab al-Musiqa al-Kabir"> Great Book of Music</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kitab_al-Aghani" title="Kitab al-Aghani"> Kitab al-Aghani</a></li></ul> <p><b>Genres</b> </p> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Arabic_pop" title="Arabic pop">Arabic pop</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arabic_hip_hop" title="Arabic hip hop">Arabic hip hop</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arabic_rock" title="Arabic rock">Arabic rock</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arabic_music#Arabic_jazz" title="Arabic music"> Arabic jazz</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arabic_music#20th_century" title="Arabic music"> Classical Arab music</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Opera_in_Arabic" title="Opera in Arabic">Opera</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Al_Jeel" title="Al Jeel">Al Jeel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Khaliji_(music)" title="Khaliji (music)">Khaliji</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ra%C3%AF" title="Raï">Raï</a></li></ul> <p><b>Art music</b> </p> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Andalusian_classical_music" class="mw-redirect" title="Andalusian classical music">Andalusian classical music</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Andalusi_nubah" title="Andalusi nubah">Andalusi nubah</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bashraf" class="mw-redirect" title="Bashraf">Bashraf</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dawr" title="Dawr">Dawr</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dulab" class="mw-redirect" title="Dulab">Dulab</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Layali" title="Layali">Layali</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Malhun" title="Malhun">Malhun</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iraqi_maqam" title="Iraqi maqam">Iraqi maqam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mawwal" title="Mawwal">Mawwal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Muwashshah" title="Muwashshah">Muwashshah</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Qasidah" class="mw-redirect" title="Qasidah">Qasidah</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Qudud_Halabiya" title="Qudud Halabiya">Qudud Halabiya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sama%27i" title="Sama'i">Sama'i</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tahmilah" title="Tahmilah">Tahmilah</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Taqsim" title="Taqsim">Taqsim</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Waslah" title="Waslah">Waslah</a></li></ul> <p><b>Folk</b> </p> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ataaba" title="Ataaba">Ataaba</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ra%C3%AF" title="Raï">Algerian Raï</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bedouin_music" title="Bedouin music"> Bedouin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chaabi_(Algeria)" title="Chaabi (Algeria)">Chaabi (Algeria)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chaabi_(Morocco)" title="Chaabi (Morocco)">Chaabi (Morocco)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Baladi" title="Baladi">Egyptian folk</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fann_at-Tanbura" title="Fann at-Tanbura">Fann at-Tanbura</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fijiri" title="Fijiri">Fijiri</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gnawa_music" title="Gnawa music">Gnawa (North Africa)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liwa_(music)" title="Liwa (music)">Liwa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mawwal" title="Mawwal">Mawwal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mezwed" title="Mezwed">Mezwed</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Samri" title="Samri">Samri</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sawt_(music)" title="Sawt (music)">Sawt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shaabi" title="Shaabi">Shaabi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zajal" title="Zajal">Zajal</a></li></ul> <p><br /> </p> </div></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="padding-bottom:0; margin-bottom:0;"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="white-space:nowrap; font-size:12.5px; text-align:center; border-top:solid 1px #aaa; font-variant: small-caps;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Arab_dance" class="mw-redirect" title="Arab dance">Dance</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content plainlist" style="border-top:solid 1px #aaa;"><div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ardah" title="Ardah">Ardah</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Belly_dance" title="Belly dance">Belly dance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dabke" title="Dabke">Dabke</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arab_dance#Deheyeh" class="mw-redirect" title="Arab dance">Deheyeh</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arab_dance#Guedra" class="mw-redirect" title="Arab dance">Guedra</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arab_dance#Hagallah" class="mw-redirect" title="Arab dance">Hagallah</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Khaleegy_(dance)" title="Khaleegy (dance)">Khaleegy </a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liwa_(music)" title="Liwa (music)">Liwa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mizmar_(dance)" class="mw-redirect" title="Mizmar (dance)">Mizmar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ouled_Nail" class="mw-redirect" title="Ouled Nail">Ouled Nail</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Raqs_Sharqi" class="mw-redirect" title="Raqs Sharqi">Raqs Sharqi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Samri" title="Samri">Samri</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arab_dance#Shamadan" class="mw-redirect" title="Arab dance">Shamadan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arab_dance#Schikhatt" class="mw-redirect" title="Arab dance">Schikhatt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tahtib" title="Tahtib">Tahtib</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sufi_whirling#Egyptian_tanoura" title="Sufi whirling">Tanoura</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yowlah" title="Yowlah">Yowlah</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Z%C4%81r" title="Zār">Zār</a></li></ul> </div></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="padding-bottom:0; margin-bottom:0;"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="white-space:nowrap; font-size:12.5px; text-align:center; border-top:solid 1px #aaa; font-variant: small-caps;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Arabic_literature" title="Arabic literature">Literature</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content plainlist" style="border-top:solid 1px #aaa;"><div class="hlist"><b><a href="/wiki/Arabic" title="Arabic">Scripts</a></b> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Old_Arabic" title="Old Arabic"> Old </a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paleo-Arabic" title="Paleo-Arabic"> Paleo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Classical_Arabic" title="Classical Arabic">Classical</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Modern_Standard_Arabic" title="Modern Standard Arabic">Modern</a></li></ul> <p><b>Prose</b> </p> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Arabic_epic_literature" title="Arabic epic literature">Epic literature</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rhymed_prose" title="Rhymed prose">Saj <span style="font-size:85%;">(ryhmed prose)</span></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maqama" title="Maqama">Maqama</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Category:Love_in_Arabic_literature&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Category:Love in Arabic literature (page does not exist)">Love in Arabic literature</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Arabic_erotic_literature" title="Category:Arabic erotic literature">Arabic erotic literature</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Arabic_grimoires" title="Category:Arabic grimoires">Arabic grimoires</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Literary_criticism#Classical_and_medieval_criticism" title="Literary criticism">Literary_criticism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arabic_short_story" title="Arabic short story">Arabic short story</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tabaqat" title="Tabaqat">Tabaqat</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tezkire" title="Tezkire">Tezkire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rihla" title="Rihla">Rihla</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Islamic_mirrors_for_princes" title="Category:Islamic mirrors for princes">Mirrors for princes</a></li></ul> <p><b><a href="/wiki/Islamic_literature" title="Islamic literature">Islamic</a></b> </p> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Quran" title="Quran">Quran</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tafsir" title="Tafsir">Tafsir</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hadith" title="Hadith">Hadith</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/S%C4%ABra" class="mw-redirect" title="Sīra">Sīra</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fiqh" title="Fiqh">Fiqh</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aqidah" title="Aqidah">Aqidah</a></li></ul> <p><b><a href="/wiki/Poetry" title="Poetry">Poetry</a></b> </p> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Arabic_anthologies" title="Category:Arabic anthologies">Anthologies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Arabic-language_poets" title="Category:Arabic-language poets">Poets</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pre-Islamic_Arabic_poetry" title="Pre-Islamic Arabic poetry">Pre-Islamic Arabic poetry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Modern_Arabic_poetry" class="mw-redirect" title="Modern Arabic poetry">Modern Arabic poetry</a></li></ul> <p><b>Genres</b> </p> <ul><li>Madih</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hija" class="mw-redirect" title="Hija">Hija</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rith%C4%81%27" title="Rithā'">Rithā'</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wa%E1%B9%A3f" title="Waṣf">Waṣf</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ghazal" title="Ghazal">Ghazal</a></li> <li>Khamriyyah</li> <li>Tardiyyah</li> <li>Khawal</li> <li>Fakhr</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hamasah" title="Hamasah">Hamasah</a></li></ul> <p><b>Forms</b> </p> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Diwan_(poetry)" title="Diwan (poetry)"> Diwan </a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Qasida" title="Qasida">Qasida</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Muwashshah" title="Muwashshah">Muwashshah</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rajaz_(prosody)" class="mw-redirect" title="Rajaz (prosody)">Urjūza</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mathnawi" title="Mathnawi">Mathnawi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ruba%27i" title="Ruba'i">Ruba'i</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nas%C4%ABb_(poetry)" title="Nasīb (poetry)">Nasīb </a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Riddles_(Arabic)" class="mw-redirect" title="Riddles (Arabic)">Riddles </a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kharja" title="Kharja">Kharja</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zajal" title="Zajal">Zajal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mawwal" title="Mawwal">Mawwal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nabati" title="Nabati">Nabati</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ghinnawa" title="Ghinnawa">Ghinnawa</a></li> <li>Humayni</li></ul> <p><b><a href="/wiki/Arabic_prosody" title="Arabic prosody">Arabic prosody</a></b> </p> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bayt_(poetry)" title="Bayt (poetry)">Bayt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E1%B9%ACaw%C4%ABl" class="mw-redirect" title="Ṭawīl">Ṭawīl</a></li> <li>Madīd</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bas%C4%AB%E1%B9%AD" class="mw-redirect" title="Basīṭ">Basīṭ</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kamil_(metre)" title="Kamil (metre)"> Kamil</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/W%C4%81fir" class="mw-redirect" title="Wāfir">Wāfir</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hazaj_meter" title="Hazaj meter">Hazaj</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rajaz" title="Rajaz">Rajaz </a></li> <li>Ramal</li> <li>Munsariħ</li> <li>Khafīf</li> <li>Muqtaḍab</li> <li>Mujtathth</li> <li>Muḍāriʿ</li> <li>Sarīʿ</li> <li>Mutaqārib</li> <li>Mutadārik</li></ul> <p><b><a href="/wiki/Arabic_literature" title="Arabic literature">National literatures of Arab States</a></b> </p> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Algerian_literature" title="Algerian literature">Algeria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Literature_of_Bahrain" class="mw-redirect" title="Literature of Bahrain">Bahrain</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Comoros" title="Comoros">Comoros</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Literature_of_Djibouti" title="Literature of Djibouti">Djibouti</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Egyptian_literature" title="Egyptian literature">Egypt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iraqi_literature" title="Iraqi literature">Iraq</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Culture_of_Jordan" title="Culture of Jordan">Jordan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kuwaiti_literature" title="Kuwaiti literature">Kuwait</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Culture_of_Lebanon" title="Culture of Lebanon">Lebanon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Libyan_literature" title="Libyan literature">Libya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mauritania" title="Mauritania">Mauritania</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Moroccan_literature" title="Moroccan literature">Morocco</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Culture_of_Oman" title="Culture of Oman">Oman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Palestinian_literature" title="Palestinian literature">Palestine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Qatari_literature" title="Qatari literature">Qatar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Saudi_Arabian_writers" title="List of Saudi Arabian writers">Saudi Arabia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Somali_literature" title="Somali literature">Somalia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sudanese_literature" title="Sudanese literature">Sudan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Syrian_literature" title="Syrian literature">Syria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tunisian_literature" title="Tunisian literature">Tunisia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Culture_of_the_United_Arab_Emirates" title="Culture of the United Arab Emirates">U.A.E.</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Culture_of_Yemen" title="Culture of Yemen">Yemen</a></li></ul> </div></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="padding-bottom:0; margin-bottom:0;"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="white-space:nowrap; font-size:12.5px; text-align:center; border-top:solid 1px #aaa; font-variant: small-caps;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Arabic_science" class="mw-redirect" title="Arabic science">Science</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content plainlist" style="border-top:solid 1px #aaa;"><div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Arabic_alchemy" class="mw-redirect" title="Arabic alchemy">Arabic chemistry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arabic_astrology" class="mw-redirect" title="Arabic astrology">Arabic astrology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arabic_astronomy" class="mw-redirect" title="Arabic astronomy">Arabic astronomy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islamic_geography" class="mw-redirect" title="Islamic geography">Arabic geography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islamic_Golden_Age" title="Islamic Golden Age">Arabic Golden Age</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islamic_mathematics" class="mw-redirect" title="Islamic mathematics">Arabic mathematics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islamic_medicine" class="mw-redirect" title="Islamic medicine">Arabic medicine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islamic_psychology" class="mw-redirect" title="Islamic psychology">Arabic psychology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islamic_technology" class="mw-redirect" title="Islamic technology">Arabic technology</a></li></ul> </div></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="padding-bottom:0; margin-bottom:0;"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="white-space:nowrap; font-size:12.5px; text-align:center; border-top:solid 1px #aaa; font-variant: small-caps;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Arabic_philosophy" class="mw-redirect" title="Arabic philosophy">Philosophy</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content plainlist" style="border-top:solid 1px #aaa;"><div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Early_Islamic_philosophy" title="Early Islamic philosophy">Early Arabic Philosophy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aristotelianism#Islamic_world" title="Aristotelianism">Islamic Aristotelianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Platonism_in_Islamic_Philosophy" class="mw-redirect" title="Platonism in Islamic Philosophy">Islamic Platonism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Logic_in_Islamic_philosophy" title="Logic in Islamic philosophy">Islamic Logic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kalam" title="Kalam">Kalam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sufi_metaphysics" title="Sufi metaphysics">Sufi metaphysics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sufi_philosophy" title="Sufi philosophy">Sufi philosophy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Al-Farabi" title="Al-Farabi">Farabism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Avicennism" title="Avicennism">Avicennism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Averroism" title="Averroism">Averroism</a></li></ul> <p><b>Concepts</b> </p> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Al-aql_al-faal" class="mw-redirect" title="Al-aql al-faal">Al-aql al-faal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aql_bi-l-fi%27l" class="mw-redirect" title="Aql bi-l-fi'l">Aql bi-l-fi'l</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Al-Ins%C4%81n_al-K%C4%81mil" title="Al-Insān al-Kāmil">Al-Insān al-Kāmil</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dhati_in_islamic_philosophy" title="Dhati in islamic philosophy">Dhati</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peace_in_Islamic_philosophy" title="Peace in Islamic philosophy">Peace</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arcs_of_Descent_and_Ascent" title="Arcs of Descent and Ascent">Arcs of Descent and Ascent</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Asabiyyah" title="Asabiyyah">Asabiyyah</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hal_(Sufism)" title="Hal (Sufism)">Hal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Irfan" title="Irfan">Irfan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nafs" title="Nafs">Nafs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Qadar" class="mw-redirect" title="Qadar">Qadar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Qalb" title="Qalb">Qalb</a></li></ul> <p><b>Texts</b> </p> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Liber_de_Causis" title="Liber de Causis">Liber de Causis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Theology_of_Aristotle" class="mw-redirect" title="The Theology of Aristotle">The Theology of Aristotle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Al-isharat_wa_al-tanbihat" class="mw-redirect" title="Al-isharat wa al-tanbihat">Al-isharat</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Book_of_the_Apple" title="The Book of the Apple">The Book of the Apple</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Encyclopedia_of_the_Brethren_of_Purity" title="Encyclopedia of the Brethren of Purity">Encyclopedia of the Brethren of Purity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Incoherence_of_the_Philosophers" title="The Incoherence of the Philosophers">The Incoherence of the Philosophers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Incoherence_of_the_Incoherence" title="The Incoherence of the Incoherence">The Incoherence of the Incoherence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hayy_ibn_Yaqdhan" title="Hayy ibn Yaqdhan">Hayy ibn Yaqdhan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theologus_Autodidactus" title="Theologus Autodidactus">Theologus Autodidactus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/On_the_Harmony_of_Religions_and_Philosophy" title="On the Harmony of Religions and Philosophy">On the Harmony of Religions and Philosophy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Muqaddimah" title="Muqaddimah">Muqaddimah</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sicilian_Questions" title="Sicilian Questions">Sicilian Questions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ibn_Arabi#Commentaries_and_translations_of_Fuṣūṣ_al-Ḥikam" title="Ibn Arabi"> Fusus al-Hikam</a></li></ul> <p><br /> </p> </div></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="padding-bottom:0; margin-bottom:0;"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="white-space:nowrap; font-size:12.5px; text-align:center; border-top:solid 1px #aaa; font-variant: small-caps;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Category:Arabian_mythology" title="Category:Arabian mythology">Mythology</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content plainlist" style="border-top:solid 1px #aaa;"><div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ababil_(mythology)" title="Ababil (mythology)">Ababil</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Atlantis_of_the_Sands" title="Atlantis of the Sands">Atlantis of the Sands</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bahamut" title="Bahamut">Bahamut</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Beast_of_the_Earth" title="Beast of the Earth">Beast of the Earth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Book_of_Idols" title="Book of Idols">Book of Idols</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Book_of_Wonders" title="Book of Wonders">Book of Wonders</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buraq" title="Buraq">Buraq</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dandan" title="Dandan">Dandan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Falak_(Arabian_legend)" title="Falak (Arabian legend)">Falak</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ghoul" title="Ghoul">Ghoul</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hinn_(mythology)" title="Hinn (mythology)">Hinn</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Houri" title="Houri">Houri</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ifrit" title="Ifrit">Ifrit</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iram_of_the_Pillars" title="Iram of the Pillars">Iram of the Pillars</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jinn" title="Jinn">Jinn</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Karkadann" title="Karkadann">Karkadann</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kujata_(mythology)" class="mw-redirect" title="Kujata (mythology)">Kujata</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Luqman" title="Luqman">Luqman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Magic_carpet" title="Magic carpet">Magic carpet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marid" title="Marid">Marid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mount_Qaf" title="Mount Qaf">Mount Qaf</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nasnas" title="Nasnas">Nasnas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/One_Thousand_and_One_Nights" title="One Thousand and One Nights">One Thousand and One Nights</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Qareen" title="Qareen">Qareen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Qutrub" title="Qutrub">Qutrub</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roc_(mythology)" title="Roc (mythology)"> Roc </a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shaddad" title="Shaddad">Shaddad</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shadhavar" title="Shadhavar">Shadhavar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shams_al-Ma%27arif" title="Shams al-Ma'arif">Shams al-Ma'arif</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/She-Camel_of_God" class="mw-redirect" title="She-Camel of God">She-Camel of God</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/W%C4%81%E1%B8%B3w%C4%81%E1%B8%B3" class="mw-redirect" title="Wāḳwāḳ">Wāḳwāḳ</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zulfiqar" title="Zulfiqar">Zulfiqar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zarqa_al_Yamama" title="Zarqa al Yamama">Zarqa al Yamama</a></li></ul> <p><b>Fictional Arab people</b> </p> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Aladdin" title="Aladdin">Aladdin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abdul_Alhazred" class="mw-redirect" title="Abdul Alhazred">Abdul Alhazred</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ali_Baba" class="mw-redirect" title="Ali Baba">Ali Baba</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alta%C3%AFr_Ibn-La%27Ahad" class="mw-redirect" title="Altaïr Ibn-La'Ahad">Altaïr Ibn-La'Ahad</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battal_Gazi" title="Battal Gazi">Battal Gazi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hayy_ibn_Yaqdhan" title="Hayy ibn Yaqdhan">Hayy ibn Yaqdhan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kara_Ben_Nemsi" title="Kara Ben Nemsi">Kara Ben Nemsi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/King_Marsile" title="King Marsile">King Marsile</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Layla_and_Majnun" title="Layla and Majnun">Layla and Majnun</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Othello" title="Othello">Othello</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Palamedes_(Arthurian_legend)" title="Palamedes (Arthurian legend)">Palamedes </a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Princess_Jasmine" class="mw-redirect" title="Princess Jasmine">Princess Jasmine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ra%27s_al_Ghul" title="Ra's al Ghul">Ra's al Ghul</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sinbad_the_Sailor" title="Sinbad the Sailor">Sindbad</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Talia_al_Ghul" title="Talia al Ghul">Talia al Ghul</a></li></ul> </div></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="padding-bottom:0; margin-bottom:0;"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="white-space:nowrap; font-size:12.5px; text-align:center; border-top:solid 1px #aaa; font-variant: small-caps;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Arabian_mythology" class="mw-redirect" title="Arabian mythology">Spirituality</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content plainlist" style="border-top:solid 1px #aaa;"><div class="hlist"><b>North Arabian deities</b> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Allah#Pre-Islamic_Arabians" title="Allah">Allah</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Al-%E2%80%98Uzz%C3%A1" class="mw-redirect" title="Al-‘Uzzá">Al-‘Uzzá</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Al-Lat" title="Al-Lat">Al-Lat</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Man%C4%81t" class="mw-redirect" title="Manāt">Manāt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dushara" title="Dushara">Dushara</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chaabou" title="Chaabou">Chaabou</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Manaf_(deity)" title="Manaf (deity)">Manaf</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nuha_(deity)" title="Nuha (deity)">Nuha</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Al-Kutbay" title="Al-Kutbay">Al-Kutbay</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Asira" title="Asira">Asira</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Awal" title="Awal">Awal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Azizos" title="Azizos">Azizos</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bajir" title="Bajir">Bajir</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quzah" title="Quzah">Quzah</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Man%C4%81t" class="mw-redirect" title="Manāt">Manāt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Man%C4%81t" class="mw-redirect" title="Manāt">Manāt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/A%27ra" class="mw-redirect" title="A'ra">A'ra</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abgal_(god)" title="Abgal (god)">Abgal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aglibol" title="Aglibol">Aglibol</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Al-Qaum" title="Al-Qaum">Al-Qaum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Atarsamain" title="Atarsamain">Atarsamain</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Baalshamin" title="Baalshamin">Baalshamin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bel_(mythology)" title="Bel (mythology)">Bēl</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hubal" title="Hubal">Hubal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Suwa%27" title="Suwa'">Suwa'</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theandrios" title="Theandrios">Theandrios</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wadd" title="Wadd">Wadd</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Malakbel" title="Malakbel">Malakbel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Orotalt" title="Orotalt">Orotalt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ruda_(deity)" title="Ruda (deity)">Ruda</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sa%27d_(idol)" class="mw-redirect" title="Sa'd (idol)">Sa'd</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yarhibol" title="Yarhibol">Yarhibol</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Is%C4%81f_and_N%C4%81%27ila" class="mw-redirect" title="Isāf and Nā'ila">Isāf and Nā'ila</a></li></ul> <p><b>South Arabian deities</b> </p> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Almaqah" title="Almaqah">Almaqah</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Amm_(god)" class="mw-redirect" title="Amm (god)">Amm</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anbay" title="Anbay">Anbay</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Attar_(god)" class="mw-redirect" title="Attar (god)">Athtar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Salman_(myth)" title="Salman (myth)"> Salman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dhat-Badan" title="Dhat-Badan">Dhat-Badan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Haubas" title="Haubas">Haubas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ta%27lab" title="Ta'lab">Ta'lab</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Qaynan" title="Qaynan">Qaynan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Basamum" title="Basamum">Basamum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dhul_Khalasa" class="mw-redirect" title="Dhul Khalasa">Dhul Khalasa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Haukim" title="Haukim">Haukim</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nasr_(idol)" class="mw-redirect" title="Nasr (idol)">Nasr</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sin_(mythology)" title="Sin (mythology)">Sīn</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ya%27uq" title="Ya'uq">Ya'uq</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yaghuth" class="mw-redirect" title="Yaghuth">Yaghūth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yatha" title="Yatha">Yatha</a></li></ul> </div></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-navbar" style="padding-top:0;"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239400231">.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar ul{display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::before{margin-right:-0.125em;content:"[ "}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::after{margin-left:-0.125em;content:" ]"}.mw-parser-output .navbar li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .navbar a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini abbr{font-variant:small-caps;border-bottom:none;text-decoration:none;cursor:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-full{font-size:114%;margin:0 7em}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-mini{font-size:114%;margin:0 4em}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}}</style><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Arabic_culture" title="Template:Arabic culture"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Arabic_culture" title="Template talk:Arabic culture"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Arabic_culture" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Arabic culture"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <p><b>Islamic art</b> is a part of <a href="/wiki/Islamic_culture" title="Islamic culture">Islamic culture</a> and encompasses the <a href="/wiki/Visual_arts" title="Visual arts">visual arts</a> produced since the 7th century CE by people who lived within territories inhabited or ruled by <a href="/wiki/Muslims" title="Muslims">Muslim</a> populations.<sup id="cite_ref-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Referring to characteristic traditions across a wide range of lands, periods, and genres, Islamic art is a concept used first by <a href="/wiki/Western_culture" title="Western culture">Western</a> <a href="/wiki/Art_history" title="Art history">art historians</a> in the late 19th century.<sup id="cite_ref-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Public Islamic art is traditionally non-<a href="/wiki/Representation_(arts)" title="Representation (arts)">representational</a>, except for the widespread use of plant forms, usually in varieties of the spiralling <a href="/wiki/Arabesque_(Islamic_art)" class="mw-redirect" title="Arabesque (Islamic art)">arabesque</a>. These are often combined with <a href="/wiki/Islamic_calligraphy" title="Islamic calligraphy">Islamic calligraphy</a>, <a href="/wiki/Islamic_geometric_patterns" title="Islamic geometric patterns">geometric patterns</a> in styles that are typically found in a wide variety of media, from small objects in ceramic or metalwork to large decorative schemes in tiling on the outside and inside of large buildings, including <a href="/wiki/Mosques" class="mw-redirect" title="Mosques">mosques</a>. Other forms of Islamic art include <a href="/wiki/Islamic_miniature" title="Islamic miniature">Islamic miniature</a> painting, artefacts like <a href="/wiki/Islamic_glass" title="Islamic glass">Islamic glass</a> or <a href="/wiki/Islamic_pottery" title="Islamic pottery">pottery</a>, and textile arts, such as <a href="/wiki/Oriental_rug" title="Oriental rug">carpets</a> and <a href="/wiki/Islamic_embroidery" title="Islamic embroidery">embroidery</a>. </p><p>The early developments of Islamic art were influenced by <a href="/wiki/Roman_art" title="Roman art">Roman art</a>, <a href="/wiki/Early_Christian_art" class="mw-redirect" title="Early Christian art">Early Christian art</a> (particularly <a href="/wiki/Byzantine_art" title="Byzantine art">Byzantine art</a>), and <a href="/wiki/Sassanian_Empire" class="mw-redirect" title="Sassanian Empire">Sassanian</a> art, with later influences from Central Asian nomadic traditions. <a href="/wiki/Chinese_art" title="Chinese art">Chinese art</a> had a significant influence on Islamic painting, pottery, and textiles.<sup id="cite_ref-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> From its beginnings, Islamic art has been based on the written version of the <a href="/wiki/Quran" title="Quran">Quran</a> and other seminal religious works, which is reflected by the important role of calligraphy, representing the word as the medium of divine revelation.<sup id="cite_ref-:2_4-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:2-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Religious Islamic art has been typically characterized by the absence of figures and extensive use of <a href="/wiki/Islamic_calligraphy" title="Islamic calligraphy">calligraphic</a>, <a href="/wiki/Islamic_geometric_patterns" title="Islamic geometric patterns">geometric</a> and <a href="/wiki/Arabesque_(Islamic_art)" class="mw-redirect" title="Arabesque (Islamic art)">abstract floral</a> patterns. Nevertheless, representations of human and animal forms historically flourished in nearly all Islamic cultures, although, partly because of opposing religious sentiments, living beings in paintings were often stylized, giving rise to a variety of decorative figural designs.<sup id="cite_ref-met_6-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-met-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Both religious and <a href="/wiki/Secularity" title="Secularity">secular</a> art objects often exhibit the same references, styles and forms. These include calligraphy, architecture, textiles and furnishings, such as carpets and woodwork. Secular arts and crafts include the production of textiles, such as clothing, carpets or tents, as well as household objects, made from metal, wood or other materials. Further, figurative miniature paintings have a rich tradition, especially in <a href="/wiki/Persian_miniature" title="Persian miniature">Persian</a>, <a href="/wiki/Mughal_painting" title="Mughal painting">Mughal</a> and <a href="/wiki/Ottoman_miniature" title="Ottoman miniature">Ottoman painting</a>. These pictures were often meant to illustrate well-known historical or poetic stories.<sup id="cite_ref-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Some interpretations of Islam, however, include a ban of depiction of animate beings, also known as aniconism. <a href="/wiki/Islamic_aniconism" class="mw-redirect" title="Islamic aniconism">Islamic aniconism</a> stems in part from the prohibition of idolatry and in part from the belief that creation of living forms is God's prerogative.<sup id="cite_ref-esposito_8-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-esposito-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-met_6-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-met-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Terminology">Terminology</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Islamic_art&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Terminology"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Although the concept of "Islamic art" has been put into question by some modern art historians as a construct of Western cultural views,<sup id="cite_ref-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> the similarities between art produced at widely different times and places in the Muslim world, especially in the <a href="/wiki/Islamic_Golden_Age" title="Islamic Golden Age">Islamic Golden Age</a>, have been sufficient to keep the term in wide use as a useful classification since the late 19th century. Scholars such as Jacelyn K. Kerner have drawn attention to its wide-ranging scope referring to more than 40 nations and to the growing public interest both in Western as well as, more recently, in Muslim societies.<sup id="cite_ref-12" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Further, the <a href="/wiki/List_of_museums_of_Islamic_art" title="List of museums of Islamic art">List of Islamic museums</a> bears witness to this art historical term having found wide acceptance. </p><p>The <a href="/wiki/Encyclop%C3%A6dia_Britannica" title="Encyclopædia Britannica">Encyclopædia Britannica</a> defines "Islamic arts" as including visual arts, literature, performing arts and music that "virtually defies any comprehensive definition". In a strict sense, the term might only refer to artistic manifestations that are closely related to religious practice. Most often, however, it is meant to include "all of the arts produced by Muslim peoples, whether connected with their religion or not."<sup id="cite_ref-:2_4-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:2-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Calligraphy">Calligraphy</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Islamic_art&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Calligraphy"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Islamic_calligraphy" title="Islamic calligraphy">Islamic calligraphy</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Courtyard_of_the_S%C3%BCleymaniye_Mosque_in_Istanbul,_Turkey_004.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b8/Courtyard_of_the_S%C3%BCleymaniye_Mosque_in_Istanbul%2C_Turkey_004.jpg/220px-Courtyard_of_the_S%C3%BCleymaniye_Mosque_in_Istanbul%2C_Turkey_004.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="97" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b8/Courtyard_of_the_S%C3%BCleymaniye_Mosque_in_Istanbul%2C_Turkey_004.jpg/330px-Courtyard_of_the_S%C3%BCleymaniye_Mosque_in_Istanbul%2C_Turkey_004.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b8/Courtyard_of_the_S%C3%BCleymaniye_Mosque_in_Istanbul%2C_Turkey_004.jpg/440px-Courtyard_of_the_S%C3%BCleymaniye_Mosque_in_Istanbul%2C_Turkey_004.jpg 2x" data-file-width="4211" data-file-height="1866" /></a><figcaption>Tiles with some calligraphy in the courtyard of the <a href="/wiki/S%C3%BCleymaniye_Mosque" title="Süleymaniye Mosque">Süleymaniye Mosque</a> in <a href="/wiki/Istanbul" title="Istanbul">Istanbul</a> (<a href="/wiki/Turkey" title="Turkey">Turkey</a>)</figcaption></figure> <p>Calligraphic design is omnipresent in Islamic art, where, as in <a href="/wiki/Europe" title="Europe">Europe</a> in the <a href="/wiki/Middle_Ages" title="Middle Ages">Middle Ages</a>, religious exhortations, including <a href="/wiki/Quran" title="Quran">Qur'anic</a> verses, may be included in secular objects, especially coins, tiles and metalwork, and most painted miniatures include some script, as do many buildings. Use of Islamic calligraphy in architecture extended significantly outside of Islamic territories; one notable example is the use of <a href="/wiki/Chinese_calligraphy" title="Chinese calligraphy">Chinese calligraphy</a> of Arabic verses from the <i>Qur'an</i> in the <a href="/wiki/Great_Mosque_of_Xi%27an" title="Great Mosque of Xi'an">Great Mosque of Xi'an</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-13" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Other inscriptions include verses of poetry, and inscriptions recording ownership or donation. Two of the main scripts involved are the symbolic <i><a href="/wiki/Kufic" title="Kufic">kufic</a></i> and <i><a href="/wiki/Naskh_(script)" title="Naskh (script)">naskh</a></i> scripts, which can be found adorning and enhancing the visual appeal of the walls and domes of buildings, the sides of <a href="/wiki/Minbar" title="Minbar">minbars</a>, and metalwork.<sup id="cite_ref-JAACMadden_14-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-JAACMadden-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Islamic calligraphy in the form of painting or sculptures is sometimes referred to as <i>Quranic art</i>.<sup id="cite_ref-15" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The various forms of traditional <a href="/wiki/Arabic_calligraphy" title="Arabic calligraphy">Arabic calligraphy</a> and decoration of the manuscripts used for written versions of the <a href="/wiki/Quran" title="Quran"><i>Qur'an</i></a> represent a central tradition of Islamic visual art. The arabesque is often used to symbolize the transcendent, indivisible and infinite nature of God.<sup id="cite_ref-JAACMadden_14-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-JAACMadden-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Mistakes in repetitions may be intentionally introduced as a show of humility by artists who believe only God can produce perfection, although this theory has also been disputed.<sup id="cite_ref-16" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-17" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-18" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>East Persian pottery from the 9th to 11th centuries, decorated only with highly stylised inscriptions and called "epigraphic ware", has been described as "probably the most refined and sensitive of all Persian pottery".<sup id="cite_ref-19" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Large inscriptions made from tiles, sometimes with the letters raised in <a href="/wiki/Relief" title="Relief">relief</a>, or the background cut away, are found on the interiors and exteriors of many important buildings. Complex carved calligraphy also decorates buildings. For most of the Islamic period the majority of coins only showed lettering, which are often very elegant despite their small size and nature of production. The <a href="/wiki/Tughra" title="Tughra">tughra</a> or monogram of an <a href="/wiki/Ottoman_Sultan" class="mw-redirect" title="Ottoman Sultan">Ottoman sultan</a> was used extensively on official documents, with very elaborate decoration for important ones. Other single sheets of calligraphy, designed for albums, might contain short poems, Qur'anic verses, or other texts. </p><p>The main languages, all using <a href="/wiki/Arabic_script" title="Arabic script">Arabic script</a>, are <a href="/wiki/Arabic_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Arabic language">Arabic</a>, always used for Qur'anic verses, <a href="/wiki/Farsi" class="mw-redirect" title="Farsi">Persian</a> in the <a href="/wiki/Persianate" class="mw-redirect" title="Persianate">Persianate</a> world, especially for poetry, and <a href="/wiki/Ottoman_Turkish_alphabet" title="Ottoman Turkish alphabet">Turkish</a>, with <a href="/wiki/Urdu" title="Urdu">Urdu</a> appearing in later centuries. Calligraphers usually had a higher status than other artists. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Painting">Painting</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Islamic_art&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Painting"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Khamseh_Nizami_001.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e9/Khamseh_Nizami_001.jpg/170px-Khamseh_Nizami_001.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="215" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e9/Khamseh_Nizami_001.jpg/255px-Khamseh_Nizami_001.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e9/Khamseh_Nizami_001.jpg/340px-Khamseh_Nizami_001.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1565" data-file-height="1975" /></a><figcaption>Scene from the <i><a href="/wiki/Khamsa_of_Nizami" title="Khamsa of Nizami">Khamsa of Nizami</a></i>, Persian, 1539–43</figcaption></figure> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Islamic_miniature" title="Islamic miniature">Islamic miniature</a>, <a href="/wiki/Arabic_miniature" title="Arabic miniature">Arabic miniature</a>, <a href="/wiki/Persian_miniature" title="Persian miniature">Persian miniature</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ottoman_miniature" title="Ottoman miniature">Ottoman miniature</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Mughal_miniature" class="mw-redirect" title="Mughal miniature">Mughal miniature</a></div> <p>For a long time, Islam was considered aniconic. Existing pictures among the Muslim royalty have been described as an "aberration" by <a href="/wiki/Thomas_Walker_Arnold" title="Thomas Walker Arnold">Thomas Walker Arnold</a> and ascribed to only a later Persinate and Turkic cultural period.<sup id="cite_ref-Brend,_Barbara_1535_p._49_20-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Brend,_Barbara_1535_p._49-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> However, figurative arts existed since the formative stage of Islam.<sup id="cite_ref-Brend,_Barbara_1535_p._49_20-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Brend,_Barbara_1535_p._49-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Such arts have been boasted by Arabic speaking caliphats of Baghdad, Cairo, and Cordova, inspired by Sasanid and Byzantine models. Figurative arts enjoyed prestige among both orthodox Sunni circles as well as Shia Muslims.<sup id="cite_ref-Brend,_Barbara_1535_p._40_21-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Brend,_Barbara_1535_p._40-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The disappearance of royal-sponsored figurative arts in Arabic-speaking lands at a later period is best explained by the overthrow of their ruling dynasties and reduction of most their territories to Ottoman provincial dependencies, not by religious prohibition.<sup id="cite_ref-Brend,_Barbara_1535_p._50_22-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Brend,_Barbara_1535_p._50-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Another drawback for Arnold's argument against the religious value of figurative arts in Islamic culture is, that a sizable number of rulers ordering figurative arts in the 14th-17th century, were religious zealots proclaiming to spread and enforce the laws of the sharia.<sup id="cite_ref-Brend,_Barbara_1535_p._50_22-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Brend,_Barbara_1535_p._50-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Royal_figure_enthroned_and_surrounded_by_Jinn_of_the_Earth.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/59/Royal_figure_enthroned_and_surrounded_by_Jinn_of_the_Earth.png/220px-Royal_figure_enthroned_and_surrounded_by_Jinn_of_the_Earth.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="192" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/59/Royal_figure_enthroned_and_surrounded_by_Jinn_of_the_Earth.png/330px-Royal_figure_enthroned_and_surrounded_by_Jinn_of_the_Earth.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/59/Royal_figure_enthroned_and_surrounded_by_Jinn_of_the_Earth.png/440px-Royal_figure_enthroned_and_surrounded_by_Jinn_of_the_Earth.png 2x" data-file-width="857" data-file-height="748" /></a><figcaption>Kashan, Iran, late 12th–13th century bowl. The enthroned Seljuk ruler next to his messengers followed by jinn.</figcaption></figure> <p>Although not many early examples survived, human figurative art was a continuous tradition in Islamic lands, notably several of the <a href="/wiki/Umayyad_Desert_Castles" class="mw-redirect" title="Umayyad Desert Castles">Umayyad Desert Castles</a> (c. 660–750), and during the <a href="/wiki/Abbasid_Caliphate" title="Abbasid Caliphate">Abbasid Caliphate</a> (c. 749–1258).<sup id="cite_ref-23" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Prior to the early 14th century, a halo was a common symbol to designate rulers. Under Asian influence, the halo as a symbol of sacredness was replaced by a flame.<sup id="cite_ref-24" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Reminiscent of the Islamic prophet Solomon, rulers were often depicted as sitting on a throne endowed with religious symbols.<sup id="cite_ref-25" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> An ivory casket carved in early eleventh century Cordova shows a Spanish Muslim ruler holding a cup seated upon a lion throne, similar to that of Solomon.<sup id="cite_ref-26" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> A late 12th–13th century bowl depicts an enthroned Seljuk ruler with messengers to either side and headed winged <a href="/wiki/Jinn" title="Jinn">jinn</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-27" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Other usage of early figurative arts are illustrations of animal fables. Many of them are of Sanskrit origin and translated into Middle Persian in the sixth century for delight, ethical discussion, and political edification. In the 8th century, they were translated into Arabic.<sup id="cite_ref-28" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Although there has been a tradition of wall-paintings, especially in the <a href="/wiki/Persianate" class="mw-redirect" title="Persianate">Persianate</a> world, the best-surviving and highest developed form of painting in the Islamic world is the <a href="/wiki/Miniature_(illuminated_manuscript)" title="Miniature (illuminated manuscript)">miniature</a> in <a href="/wiki/Illuminated_manuscript" title="Illuminated manuscript">illuminated manuscripts</a>, or later as a single page for inclusion in a <i><a href="/wiki/Muraqqa" title="Muraqqa">muraqqa</a></i> or bound album of miniatures and <a href="/wiki/Calligraphy" title="Calligraphy">calligraphy</a>. The tradition of the <a href="/wiki/Persian_miniature" title="Persian miniature">Persian miniature</a> has been dominant since about the 13th century, strongly influencing the <a href="/wiki/Ottoman_miniature" title="Ottoman miniature">Ottoman miniature</a> of Turkey and the <a href="/wiki/Mughal_miniature" class="mw-redirect" title="Mughal miniature">Mughal miniature</a> in India. The term "Persian miniature" refers whereby to the language used to decorate the images, and should not obscure its ties to Arabic imagery.<sup id="cite_ref-29" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Siyah_Qalem_-_Hazine_2153,_s.31b.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ef/Siyah_Qalem_-_Hazine_2153%2C_s.31b.jpg/220px-Siyah_Qalem_-_Hazine_2153%2C_s.31b.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="159" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ef/Siyah_Qalem_-_Hazine_2153%2C_s.31b.jpg/330px-Siyah_Qalem_-_Hazine_2153%2C_s.31b.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ef/Siyah_Qalem_-_Hazine_2153%2C_s.31b.jpg/440px-Siyah_Qalem_-_Hazine_2153%2C_s.31b.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2048" data-file-height="1483" /></a><figcaption>Portrayal of demons in the style of Siyah Qalem. Siyah Qalem Hazine 2153, s.31b</figcaption></figure> <p><a href="/wiki/Siyah_Qalam" title="Siyah Qalam">Siyah Qalam</a> (Black Pen), frequently depicts anecdotes charged with Islamic imagery about the <a href="/wiki/Nafs" title="Nafs">animal souls</a> (<i>nafs</i>) and the "<a href="/wiki/Ruh" class="mw-redirect" title="Ruh">ruling soul</a>" (<i>rūḥ</i>). Most human characters are clothed like <a href="/wiki/Dervish" title="Dervish">dervishes</a> and bearded like ascetics in Islamic tradition. Animals often feature as symbol of the lower and untaimed self. The abstract forces to tame the physical body are depicted in the forms of <a href="/wiki/Demon" title="Demon">demons</a> (<i>dīv</i>) and <a href="/wiki/Angels_in_Islam" title="Angels in Islam">angels</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-30" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Chinese influences included the early adoption of the vertical format natural to a book, which led to the development of a birds-eye view where a very carefully depicted background of hilly landscape or palace buildings rises up to leave only a small area of sky. The figures are arranged in different planes on the background, with recession (distance from the viewer) indicated by placing more distant figures higher up in the space, but at essentially the same size. The colours, which are often very well preserved, are strongly contrasting, bright and clear. The tradition reached a climax in the 16th and early 17th centuries, but continued until the early 19th century, and has been revived in the 20th. </p><p>Since the mid-20th century following the departure of the Dutch colonialists, several Indonesian painters combined <a href="/wiki/Abstract_Expressionism" class="mw-redirect" title="Abstract Expressionism">Abstract Expressionism</a> with geometric forms, Indonesian symbols and <a href="/wiki/Islamic_calligraphy" title="Islamic calligraphy">Islamic calligraphy</a>, creating religiously influenced <a href="/wiki/Abstract_Art" class="mw-redirect" title="Abstract Art">Abstract Art</a>. The spiritual centre of this movement is the <a href="/wiki/Bandung_Institute_of_Technology" title="Bandung Institute of Technology">Bandung Institute of Technology</a> (ITB), with leading teachers such as <a href="/wiki/Abdul_Djalil_Pirous" title="Abdul Djalil Pirous">A.D. Pirous</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ahmad_Sadali" title="Ahmad Sadali">Ahmad Sadali</a>, <a href="/wiki/Mochtar_Apin" title="Mochtar Apin">Mochtar Apin</a> and <a href="/wiki/Umi_Dachlan" title="Umi Dachlan">Umi Dachlan</a> as their main representatives. </p><p>In the 21th century, iconophobic followers of various <a href="/wiki/Islamism" title="Islamism">Islamist groups</a>, such as the <a href="/wiki/Taliban" title="Taliban">Taliban</a>, aim to destroy forms of Islamic figurative depictions.<sup id="cite_ref-31" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Motivated by <a href="/wiki/Saudi_Arabia" title="Saudi Arabia">Saudi mentors</a> (<a href="/wiki/Wahhabism" title="Wahhabism">Wahhabism</a>), the Taliban launched an attack on arts in March 2001 in <a href="/wiki/Afghanistan" title="Afghanistan">Afghanistan</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Brend,_Barbara_1535_p._40_21-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Brend,_Barbara_1535_p._40-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The religious justification derives from a <a href="/wiki/Hadith" title="Hadith">hadith</a> mentioned by <a href="/wiki/Sahih_Bukhari" class="mw-redirect" title="Sahih Bukhari">Sahih Bukhari</a>. Others see the rejection of iconography as rooting in a strict aversion to depiction of God throughout Islamic tradition.<sup id="cite_ref-32" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Rugs_and_carpets">Rugs and carpets</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Islamic_art&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Rugs and carpets"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Oriental_rugs" class="mw-redirect" title="Oriental rugs">Oriental rugs</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Turkish_carpet" class="mw-redirect" title="Turkish carpet">Turkish carpet</a>, <a href="/wiki/Persian_carpet" title="Persian carpet">Persian carpet</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Kilim" title="Kilim">Kilim</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Farsh1.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/40/Farsh1.jpg/220px-Farsh1.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="63" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/40/Farsh1.jpg/330px-Farsh1.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/40/Farsh1.jpg 2x" data-file-width="400" data-file-height="114" /></a><figcaption>From the yarn fiber to the colors, every part of the <a href="/wiki/Persian_rug" class="mw-redirect" title="Persian rug">Persian rug</a> is traditionally handmade from natural ingredients over the course of many months</figcaption></figure> <p>No Islamic artistic product has become better known outside the Islamic world than the pile carpet, more commonly referred to as the <i>Oriental carpet</i> (<a href="/wiki/Oriental_rug" title="Oriental rug">oriental rug</a>). Their versatility is utilized in everyday Islamic and Muslim life, from floor coverings to architectural enrichment, from cushions to bolsters to bags and sacks of all shapes and sizes, and to religious objects (such as a <a href="/wiki/Prayer_rug" title="Prayer rug">prayer rug</a>, which would provide a clean place to pray). They have been a major export to other areas since the late Middle Ages, used to cover not only floors but tables, for long a widespread European practice that is now common only in the <a href="/wiki/Netherlands" title="Netherlands">Netherlands</a>. Carpet weaving is a rich and deeply embedded tradition in Islamic societies, and the practice is seen in large city factories as well as in rural communities and nomadic encampments. In earlier periods, special establishments and workshops were in existence that functioned directly under court patronage.<sup id="cite_ref-33" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Antique_oushak_418424.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f3/Antique_oushak_418424.jpg/170px-Antique_oushak_418424.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="232" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f3/Antique_oushak_418424.jpg/255px-Antique_oushak_418424.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f3/Antique_oushak_418424.jpg/340px-Antique_oushak_418424.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1050" data-file-height="1431" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Turkish_carpet" class="mw-redirect" title="Turkish carpet">Turkish</a> <a href="/wiki/Ushak_carpet" title="Ushak carpet">Ushak carpet</a></figcaption></figure> <p>Very early Islamic carpets, i.e. those before the 16th century, are extremely rare. More have survived in the West and <a href="/wiki/Oriental_carpets_in_Renaissance_painting" title="Oriental carpets in Renaissance painting">oriental carpets in Renaissance painting</a> from Europe are a major source of information on them, as they were valuable imports that were painted accurately.<sup id="cite_ref-34" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The most natural and easy designs for a carpet weaver to produce consist of straight lines and edges, and the earliest Islamic carpets to survive or be shown in paintings have geometric designs, or centre on very stylized animals, made up in this way. Since the flowing loops and curves of the arabesque are central to Islamic art, the interaction and tension between these two styles was long a major feature of carpet design. </p><p>There are a few survivals of the grand Egyptian 16th century carpets, including one almost as good as new discovered in the attic of the <a href="/wiki/Pitti_Palace" class="mw-redirect" title="Pitti Palace">Pitti Palace</a> in Florence, whose complex patterns of octagon roundels and stars, in just a few colours, shimmer before the viewer.<sup id="cite_ref-35" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Production of this style of carpet began under the <a href="/wiki/Mamluks" class="mw-redirect" title="Mamluks">Mamluks</a> but continued after the Ottomans conquered Egypt.<sup id="cite_ref-36" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The other sophisticated tradition was the <a href="/wiki/Persian_carpet" title="Persian carpet">Persian carpet</a> which reached its peak in the 16th and early 17th century in works like the <a href="/wiki/Ardabil_Carpet" title="Ardabil Carpet">Ardabil Carpet</a> and <a href="/wiki/Coronation_Carpet" title="Coronation Carpet">Coronation Carpet</a>; during this century the Ottoman and Mughal courts also began to sponsor the making in their domains of large formal carpets, evidently with the involvement of designers used to the latest court style in the general Persian tradition. These use a design style shared with non-figurative Islamic illumination and other media, often with a large central <i><a href="/wiki/Gul_(design)" title="Gul (design)">gul</a></i> motif, and always with wide and strongly demarcated borders. The grand designs of the workshops patronized by the court spread out to smaller carpets for the merely wealthy and for export, and designs close to those of the 16th and 17th centuries are still produced in large numbers today. The description of older carpets has tended to use the names of carpet-making centres as labels, but often derived from the design rather than any actual evidence that they originated from around that centre. Research has clarified that designs were by no means always restricted to the centre they are traditionally associated with, and the origin of many carpets remains unclear. </p><p>As well as the major Persian, Turkish and Arab centres, carpets were also made across Central Asia, in India, and in Spain and the Balkans. Spanish carpets, which sometimes interrupted typical Islamic patterns to include <a href="/wiki/Coats_of_arms" class="mw-redirect" title="Coats of arms">coats of arms</a>, enjoyed high prestige in Europe, being commissioned by royalty and for the <a href="/wiki/Papal_Palace,_Avignon" class="mw-redirect" title="Papal Palace, Avignon">Papal Palace, Avignon</a>, and the industry continued after the <a href="/wiki/Reconquista" title="Reconquista">Reconquista</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-37" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Armenian_carpet" title="Armenian carpet">Armenian carpet</a>-weaving is mentioned by many early sources, and may account for a much larger proportion of East Turkish and Caucasian production than traditionally thought. The <a href="/wiki/Berber_carpet" title="Berber carpet">Berber carpets</a> of North Africa have a distinct design tradition. Apart from the products of city workshops, in touch with trading networks that might carry the carpets to markets far away, there was also a large and widespread village and nomadic industry producing work that stayed closer to traditional local designs. As well as pile carpets, <a href="/wiki/Kelim" class="mw-redirect" title="Kelim">kelims</a> and other types of flat-weave or <a href="/wiki/Embroidered" class="mw-redirect" title="Embroidered">embroidered</a> textiles were produced, for use on both floors and walls. Figurative designs, sometimes with large human figures, are very popular in Islamic countries but relatively rarely exported to the West, where abstract designs are generally what the market expects. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Ceramics">Ceramics</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Islamic_art&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Ceramics"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Islamic_pottery" title="Islamic pottery">Islamic pottery</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Iran_orientale_o_asia_centrale,_coppa,_x_sec_02.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e5/Iran_orientale_o_asia_centrale%2C_coppa%2C_x_sec_02.JPG/220px-Iran_orientale_o_asia_centrale%2C_coppa%2C_x_sec_02.JPG" decoding="async" width="220" height="203" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e5/Iran_orientale_o_asia_centrale%2C_coppa%2C_x_sec_02.JPG/330px-Iran_orientale_o_asia_centrale%2C_coppa%2C_x_sec_02.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e5/Iran_orientale_o_asia_centrale%2C_coppa%2C_x_sec_02.JPG/440px-Iran_orientale_o_asia_centrale%2C_coppa%2C_x_sec_02.JPG 2x" data-file-width="1722" data-file-height="1590" /></a><figcaption>10th-century dish from East Persia</figcaption></figure> <p>Islamic art has very notable achievements in ceramics, both in <a href="/wiki/Pottery" title="Pottery">pottery</a> and <a href="/wiki/Tile" title="Tile">tiles</a> for walls, which in the absence of wall-paintings were taken to heights unmatched by other cultures. Early pottery is often unglazed, but <a href="/wiki/Tin-glazing" title="Tin-glazing">tin-opacified glazing</a> was one of the earliest new technologies developed by the Islamic potters. The first Islamic opaque glazes can be found as blue-painted ware in <a href="/wiki/Basra" title="Basra">Basra</a>, dating to around the 8th century. Another significant contribution was the development of <a href="/wiki/Stoneware" title="Stoneware">stonepaste ceramics</a>, originating from 9th century Iraq.<sup id="cite_ref-38" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The first industrial complex for <a href="/wiki/Glass" title="Glass">glass</a> and <a href="/wiki/Pottery" title="Pottery">pottery</a> production was built in <a href="/wiki/Raqqa" title="Raqqa">Raqqa</a>, <a href="/wiki/Syria" title="Syria">Syria</a>, in the 8th century.<sup id="cite_ref-Henderson_39-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Henderson-39"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Other centers for innovative pottery in the Islamic world included <a href="/wiki/Fustat" title="Fustat">Fustat</a> (from 975 to 1075), Damascus (from 1100 to around 1600) and <a href="/wiki/Tabriz" title="Tabriz">Tabriz</a> (from 1470 to 1550).<sup id="cite_ref-40" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Lusterware" class="mw-redirect" title="Lusterware">Lusterwares</a> with iridescent colours may have continued pre-Islamic Roman and Byzantine techniques, but were either invented or considerably developed on pottery and glass in Persia and Syria from the 9th century onwards.<sup id="cite_ref-41" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-41"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>41<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Islamic pottery was <a href="/wiki/Chinese_influences_on_Islamic_pottery" title="Chinese influences on Islamic pottery">often influenced</a> by <a href="/wiki/Chinese_ceramics" title="Chinese ceramics">Chinese ceramics</a>, whose achievements were greatly admired and emulated.<sup id="cite_ref-42" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-42"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>42<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This was especially the case in the periods after the <a href="/wiki/Mongol_invasion" class="mw-redirect" title="Mongol invasion">Mongol invasions</a> and those of the <a href="/wiki/Timurid_dynasty" title="Timurid dynasty">Timurids</a>. Techniques, shapes and decorative motifs were all affected. Until the <a href="/wiki/Early_Modern" class="mw-redirect" title="Early Modern">Early Modern</a> period Western ceramics had very little influence, but Islamic pottery was very sought after in Europe, and often copied. An example of this is the <a href="/wiki/Albarello" title="Albarello">albarello</a>, a type of <a href="/wiki/Maiolica" title="Maiolica">maiolica</a> earthenware jar originally designed to hold <a href="/wiki/Apothecary" title="Apothecary">apothecaries'</a> ointments and dry drugs. The development of this type of <a href="/wiki/Pharmacy" title="Pharmacy">pharmacy</a> jar had its roots in the Islamic Middle East. <a href="/wiki/Hispano-Moresque" class="mw-redirect" title="Hispano-Moresque">Hispano-Moresque</a> examples were exported to Italy, stimulating the earliest Italian examples, from 15th century Florence. </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Animal_Decorated_Ottoman_Pottery_P1000585.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c4/Animal_Decorated_Ottoman_Pottery_P1000585.JPG/220px-Animal_Decorated_Ottoman_Pottery_P1000585.JPG" decoding="async" width="220" height="207" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c4/Animal_Decorated_Ottoman_Pottery_P1000585.JPG/330px-Animal_Decorated_Ottoman_Pottery_P1000585.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c4/Animal_Decorated_Ottoman_Pottery_P1000585.JPG/440px-Animal_Decorated_Ottoman_Pottery_P1000585.JPG 2x" data-file-width="2879" data-file-height="2715" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Iznik_pottery" title="Iznik pottery">Iznik glazed pottery</a> ca. 1575</figcaption></figure> <p>The <a href="/wiki/Hispano-Moresque" class="mw-redirect" title="Hispano-Moresque">Hispano-Moresque</a> style emerged in <a href="/wiki/Al-Andalus" title="Al-Andalus">Al-Andalus</a> - Muslim Spain - in the 8th century, under Egyptian influence, but most of the best production was much later, by potters presumed to have been largely Muslim but working in areas reconquered by the Christian kingdoms. It mixed Islamic and European elements in its designs, and much was exported across neighbouring European countries. It had introduced two <a href="/wiki/Ceramic" title="Ceramic">ceramic</a> techniques to <a href="/wiki/Europe" title="Europe">Europe</a>: <a href="/wiki/Ceramic_glaze" title="Ceramic glaze">glazing</a> with an <a href="/wiki/Opacity_(optics)" class="mw-redirect" title="Opacity (optics)">opaque</a> white <a href="/wiki/Tin-glazing" title="Tin-glazing">tin-glaze</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Lusterware" class="mw-redirect" title="Lusterware">painting in metallic lusters</a>. Ottoman <a href="/wiki/%C4%B0znik_pottery" class="mw-redirect" title="İznik pottery">İznik pottery</a> produced most of the best work in the 16th century, in tiles and large vessels boldly decorated with floral motifs influenced, once again, by Chinese Yuan and Ming ceramics. These were still in earthenware; there was no porcelain made in Islamic countries until modern times, though Chinese porcelain was imported and admired.<sup id="cite_ref-43" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-43"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>43<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The medieval Islamic world also had pottery with painted animal and human imagery. Examples are found throughout the medieval Islamic world, particularly in <a href="/wiki/Iran" title="Iran">Persia</a> and <a href="/wiki/Egypt" title="Egypt">Egypt</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-44" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-44"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>44<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Tiling">Tiling</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Islamic_art&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Tiling"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Islamic_geometric_patterns" title="Islamic geometric patterns">Islamic geometric patterns</a> and <a href="/wiki/Tessellation" title="Tessellation">Tessellation</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:HeratFridayMosque.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d6/HeratFridayMosque.jpg/220px-HeratFridayMosque.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d6/HeratFridayMosque.jpg/330px-HeratFridayMosque.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d6/HeratFridayMosque.jpg/440px-HeratFridayMosque.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="768" /></a><figcaption>Tiled exterior of the <a href="/wiki/Friday_Mosque_of_Herat" class="mw-redirect" title="Friday Mosque of Herat">Friday Mosque of Herat</a>, <a href="/wiki/Afghanistan" title="Afghanistan">Afghanistan</a></figcaption></figure> <p>The earliest grand Islamic buildings, like the <a href="/wiki/Dome_of_the_Rock" title="Dome of the Rock">Dome of the Rock</a> in <a href="/wiki/Jerusalem" title="Jerusalem">Jerusalem</a>, had interior walls decorated with <a href="/wiki/Mosaic" title="Mosaic">mosaics</a> in the Byzantine style, but without human figures. From the 9th century onwards the distinctive Islamic tradition of glazed and brightly coloured <a href="/wiki/Tile" title="Tile">tiling</a> for interior and exterior walls and <a href="/wiki/Dome" title="Dome">domes</a> developed. Some earlier schemes create designs using mixtures of tiles each of a single colour that are either cut to shape or are small and of a few shapes, used to create abstract geometric patterns. Later large painted schemes use tiles painted before firing with a part of the scheme – a technique requiring confidence in the consistent results of firing. </p><p>Some elements, especially the letters of inscriptions, may be moulded in three-dimensional <a href="/wiki/Relief" title="Relief">relief</a>, and in especially in Persia certain tiles in a design may have figurative painting of animals or single human figures. These were often part of designs mostly made up of tiles in plain colours, but with larger fully painted tiles at intervals. The larger tiles are often shaped as eight-pointed stars, and may show animals or a human head or bust, or plant or other motifs. The geometric patterns, such as modern North African <a href="/wiki/Zellij" title="Zellij">zellij</a> work, made of small tiles each of a single colour but different and regular shapes, are often referred to as "<a href="/wiki/Mosaic" title="Mosaic">mosaic</a>", which is not strictly correct. </p><p>The Mughals made much less use of tiling, preferring (and being able to afford) "parchin kari", a type of <a href="/wiki/Pietra_dura" title="Pietra dura">pietra dura</a> decoration from inlaid panels of semi-precious stones, with jewels in some cases. This can be seen at the <a href="/wiki/Taj_Mahal" title="Taj Mahal">Taj Mahal</a>, <a href="/wiki/Agra_Fort" title="Agra Fort">Agra Fort</a> and other imperial commissions. The motifs are usually floral, in a simpler and more realistic style than Persian or Turkish work, relating to plants in Mughal miniatures. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Glass">Glass</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Islamic_art&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Glass"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Islamic_glass" title="Islamic glass">Islamic glass</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Luck_of_Edenhall_VandA_C.1toB-1959.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/92/Luck_of_Edenhall_VandA_C.1toB-1959.jpg/170px-Luck_of_Edenhall_VandA_C.1toB-1959.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="255" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/92/Luck_of_Edenhall_VandA_C.1toB-1959.jpg/255px-Luck_of_Edenhall_VandA_C.1toB-1959.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/92/Luck_of_Edenhall_VandA_C.1toB-1959.jpg/340px-Luck_of_Edenhall_VandA_C.1toB-1959.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2555" data-file-height="3833" /></a><figcaption>"The <a href="/wiki/Luck_of_Edenhall" title="Luck of Edenhall">Luck of Edenhall</a>", a 13th-century Syrian beaker in England since the Middle Ages</figcaption></figure> <p>For most of the Middle Ages Islamic glass was the most sophisticated in <a href="/wiki/Eurasia" title="Eurasia">Eurasia</a>, exported to both Europe and China. Islam took over much of the traditional glass-producing territory of <a href="/wiki/Sassanian_glass" class="mw-redirect" title="Sassanian glass">Sassanian</a> and <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Roman_glass" class="mw-redirect" title="Ancient Roman glass">Ancient Roman glass</a>, and since figurative decoration played a small part in pre-Islamic glass, the change in style is not abrupt, except that the whole area initially formed a political whole, and, for example, Persian innovations were now almost immediately taken up in <a href="/wiki/Egypt" title="Egypt">Egypt</a>. For this reason, it is often impossible to distinguish between the various centres of production, of which Egypt, Syria and Persia were the most important, except by scientific analysis of the material, which itself has difficulties.<sup id="cite_ref-45" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-45"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>45<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> From various documentary references<sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="margin-left:0.1em; white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Vagueness" title="Wikipedia:Vagueness"><span title="This information is too vague. (May 2022)">vague</span></a></i>]</sup> glassmaking and <a href="/wiki/Ancient_glass_trade" title="Ancient glass trade">glass trading</a> seems to have been a speciality of the Jewish minority in several centres.<sup id="cite_ref-46" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-46"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>46<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Reliable_sources" title="Wikipedia:Reliable sources"><span title="The material near this tag may rely on an unreliable source. (May 2022)">unreliable source?</span></a></i>]</sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Mosque_lamp_Met_91.1.1534.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/10/Mosque_lamp_Met_91.1.1534.jpg/170px-Mosque_lamp_Met_91.1.1534.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="256" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/10/Mosque_lamp_Met_91.1.1534.jpg/255px-Mosque_lamp_Met_91.1.1534.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/10/Mosque_lamp_Met_91.1.1534.jpg/340px-Mosque_lamp_Met_91.1.1534.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2442" data-file-height="3675" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Mamluk" title="Mamluk">Mamluk</a> <a href="/wiki/Mosque_lamp" title="Mosque lamp">mosque lamp</a></figcaption></figure> <p>Between the 8th and early 11th centuries the emphasis in luxury glass was on effects achieved by "manipulating the surface" of the glass, initially by incising into the glass on a wheel and later by cutting away the background to leave a design in relief.<sup id="cite_ref-47" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-47"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>47<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The very massive <a href="/wiki/Hedwig_glass" title="Hedwig glass">Hedwig glasses</a>, only found in Europe but normally considered Islamic (or possibly from Muslim craftsmen in <a href="/wiki/Norman_Sicily" class="mw-redirect" title="Norman Sicily">Norman Sicily</a>), are an example of this, though puzzlingly late in date.<sup id="cite_ref-48" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-48"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>48<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> These and other glass pieces probably represented cheaper versions of vessels of carved <a href="/wiki/Rock_crystal" class="mw-redirect" title="Rock crystal">rock crystal</a> (clear <a href="/wiki/Quartz" title="Quartz">quartz</a>), themselves influenced by earlier glass vessels.<sup id="cite_ref-49" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-49"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>49<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and there is some evidence that at this period glass cutting and <a href="/wiki/Hardstone_carving" title="Hardstone carving">hardstone carving</a> were regarded as the same craft.<sup id="cite_ref-50" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-50"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>50<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> From the 12th century the industry in Persia and <a href="/wiki/Mesopotamia" title="Mesopotamia">Mesopotamia</a> appears to decline, and the main production of luxury glass shifts to Egypt and Syria, and decorative effects of colour on smooth surfaced glass.<sup id="cite_ref-51" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-51"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>51<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Throughout the period local centres made simpler wares such as <a href="/wiki/Hebron_glass" title="Hebron glass">Hebron glass</a> in <a href="/wiki/Palestine_(region)" title="Palestine (region)">Palestine</a>. </p><p>Lustre painting, by techniques similar to <a href="/wiki/Lustreware" title="Lustreware">lustreware</a> in pottery, dates back to the 8th century in Egypt and became widespread in the 12th century. Another technique was decoration with threads of glass of a different colour, worked into the main surface, and sometimes manipulated by combing and other effects. <a href="/wiki/Gilding" title="Gilding">Gilded</a>, painted, and enameled glass were added to the repertoire, and shapes and motifs borrowed from other media, such as pottery and metalwork. Some of the finest work was in mosaic lamps donated by a ruler or wealthy man. As decoration grew more elaborate, the quality of the basic glass decreased, and it "often has a brownish-yellow tinge and is rarely free from bubbles.".<sup id="cite_ref-52" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-52"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>52<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Aleppo" title="Aleppo">Aleppo</a> seems to have ceased to be a major centre after the <a href="/wiki/Mongol_invasion" class="mw-redirect" title="Mongol invasion">Mongol invasion</a> of 1260, and <a href="/wiki/Timur" title="Timur">Timur</a> appears to have ended the Syrian industry about 1400 by carrying off the skilled workers to <a href="/wiki/Samarkand" title="Samarkand">Samarkand</a>. By about 1500 the <a href="/wiki/Venice" title="Venice">Venetians</a> were receiving large orders for mosque lamps.<sup id="cite_ref-53" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-53"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>53<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><span class="anchor" id="Islamic_brasswork"></span> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Metalwork">Metalwork</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Islamic_art&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Metalwork"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Bassin_Syrie_1.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f3/Bassin_Syrie_1.JPG/220px-Bassin_Syrie_1.JPG" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f3/Bassin_Syrie_1.JPG/330px-Bassin_Syrie_1.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f3/Bassin_Syrie_1.JPG/440px-Bassin_Syrie_1.JPG 2x" data-file-width="2048" data-file-height="1536" /></a><figcaption>Detail of the "<a href="/wiki/Baptist%C3%A8re_de_Saint_Louis" title="Baptistère de Saint Louis">Baptistère de Saint Louis</a>," c. 1300, a <a href="/wiki/Mamluk" title="Mamluk">Mamluk</a> basin of engraved brass with gold, silver and <a href="/wiki/Niello" title="Niello">niello</a> inlay</figcaption></figure> <p>Medieval Islamic metalwork offers a complete contrast to its European equivalent, which is dominated by modelled figures and brightly coloured decoration in <a href="/wiki/Vitreous_enamel" title="Vitreous enamel">enamel</a>, some pieces entirely in precious metals. In contrast surviving Islamic metalwork consists of practical objects mostly in <a href="/wiki/Brass" title="Brass">brass</a>, bronze, and steel, with simple, but often monumental shapes, and surfaces highly decorated with dense decoration in a variety of techniques, but colour mostly restricted to inlays of gold, silver, copper or black <a href="/wiki/Niello" title="Niello">niello</a>. The most abundant survivals from medieval periods are fine brass objects, handsome enough to preserve, but not valuable enough to be melted down. The abundant local sources of <a href="/wiki/Zinc" title="Zinc">zinc</a>, compared to <a href="/wiki/Tin" title="Tin">tin</a>, explains the rarity of <a href="/wiki/Bronze" title="Bronze">bronze</a>. Household items, such as <a href="/wiki/Pitcher_(container)" title="Pitcher (container)">ewers</a> or water pitchers, were made of one or more pieces of sheet brass, soldered together and subsequently worked and inlaid.<sup id="cite_ref-Baer1983_54-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Baer1983-54"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>54<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The use of drinking and eating vessels in gold and silver, the ideal in ancient Rome and Persia as well as medieval Christian societies, is prohibited by the <a href="/wiki/Hadith" title="Hadith">Hadiths</a>, as was the wearing of gold rings.<sup id="cite_ref-55" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-55"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>55<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Islamic metalworkers shared with their European counterparts a relatively high social status, compared to other artists and craftsmen, and many larger pieces are signed. </p><p>Islamic metalwork includes some three-dimensional animal figures, such as fountainheads or <a href="/wiki/Aquamanile" title="Aquamanile">aquamaniles</a>, but only one significant enamelled object of Byzantine <a href="/wiki/Cloisonn%C3%A9" title="Cloisonné">cloisonné</a> technique is known.<sup id="cite_ref-56" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-56"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>56<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The <a href="/wiki/Pisa_Griffin" title="Pisa Griffin">Pisa Griffin</a> is the largest surviving bronze animal, probably from 11th century Al-Andalus. More common objects with elaborate decoration include massive low candlesticks and lamp-stands, lantern lights, bowls, dishes, basins, buckets (these probably for the bath),<sup id="cite_ref-57" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-57"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>57<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and <a href="/wiki/Ewer" class="mw-redirect" title="Ewer">ewers</a>, as well as caskets, pen-cases and plaques. Ewers and basins were brought for hand-washing before and after each meal, and so are often lavishly treated display pieces. A typical 13th century ewer from <a href="/wiki/Greater_Khorasan" title="Greater Khorasan">Khorasan</a> is decorated with foliage, animals and the <a href="/wiki/Signs_of_the_Zodiac" class="mw-redirect" title="Signs of the Zodiac">Signs of the Zodiac</a> in silver and copper, and carries a blessing.<sup id="cite_ref-58" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-58"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>58<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Specialized objects include knives, arms and armour (always of high interest to the elite) and scientific instruments such as <a href="/wiki/Astrolabe" title="Astrolabe">astrolabes</a>, as well as <a href="/wiki/Jewellery" title="Jewellery">jewellery</a>. Decoration is typically densely packed and very often includes arabesques and calligraphy, sometimes naming an owner and giving a date.<sup id="cite_ref-59" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-59"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>59<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Other_applied_arts">Other applied arts</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Islamic_art&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Other applied arts"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Dagger_horse_head_Louvre_OA7891.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d1/Dagger_horse_head_Louvre_OA7891.jpg/170px-Dagger_horse_head_Louvre_OA7891.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="260" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d1/Dagger_horse_head_Louvre_OA7891.jpg/255px-Dagger_horse_head_Louvre_OA7891.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d1/Dagger_horse_head_Louvre_OA7891.jpg/340px-Dagger_horse_head_Louvre_OA7891.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1720" data-file-height="2630" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Mughal_Empire" title="Mughal Empire">Mughal</a> dagger with hilt in <a href="/wiki/Jade" title="Jade">jade</a>, gold, <a href="/wiki/Rubies" class="mw-redirect" title="Rubies">rubies</a> and <a href="/wiki/Emerald" title="Emerald">emeralds</a>. Blade of <a href="/wiki/Damascening" title="Damascening">damascened</a> steel inlaid with gold.</figcaption></figure> <p>High levels of achievement were reached in other materials, including <a href="/wiki/Hardstone_carving" title="Hardstone carving">hardstone carvings</a> and jewellery, ivory carving, textiles and leatherwork. During the Middle Ages, Islamic work in these fields was highly valued in other parts of the world and often traded outside the Islamic zone. Apart from miniature painting and calligraphy, other arts of the book are decorative illumination, the only type found in Qur'an manuscripts, and Islamic book covers, which are often highly decorative in luxury manuscripts, using either the geometric motifs found in illumination, or sometimes figurative images probably drawn for the craftsmen by miniature painters. Materials include coloured, tooled and stamped leather and <a href="/wiki/Lacquer" title="Lacquer">lacquer</a> over paint.<sup id="cite_ref-60" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-60"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>60<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Precious_stones">Precious stones</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Islamic_art&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Precious stones"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Egyptians" title="Egyptians">Egyptian</a> carving of <a href="/wiki/Rock_crystal" class="mw-redirect" title="Rock crystal">rock crystal</a> into vessels appears in the late 10th century, and virtually disappears after about 1040 C.E. There are a number of these vessels in the West, which apparently came on the market after the <a href="/wiki/Cairo" title="Cairo">Cairo</a> palace of the <a href="/wiki/Fatimid" class="mw-redirect" title="Fatimid">Fatimid</a> <a href="/wiki/Caliph" class="mw-redirect" title="Caliph">Caliph</a> was looted by his mercenaries in 1062, and were snapped up by European buyers, mostly ending up in church treasuries.<sup id="cite_ref-61" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-61"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>61<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> From later periods, especially the hugely wealthy Ottoman and Mughal courts, there are a considerable number of lavish objects carved in semi-precious stones, with little surface decoration, but inset with jewels. Such objects may have been made in earlier periods, but few have survived.<sup id="cite_ref-62" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-62"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>62<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:WLA_vanda_Ottoman_marquetry_and_tile-top_table_2.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/ce/WLA_vanda_Ottoman_marquetry_and_tile-top_table_2.jpg/220px-WLA_vanda_Ottoman_marquetry_and_tile-top_table_2.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/ce/WLA_vanda_Ottoman_marquetry_and_tile-top_table_2.jpg/330px-WLA_vanda_Ottoman_marquetry_and_tile-top_table_2.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/ce/WLA_vanda_Ottoman_marquetry_and_tile-top_table_2.jpg/440px-WLA_vanda_Ottoman_marquetry_and_tile-top_table_2.jpg 2x" data-file-width="4000" data-file-height="3000" /></a><figcaption>Ottoman <a href="/wiki/Marquetry" title="Marquetry">marquetry</a> and tile-top table, about 1560</figcaption></figure> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="House_and_furniture">House and furniture</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Islamic_art&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: House and furniture"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Older wood carving is typically relief or pierced work on flat objects for architectural use, such as screens, doors, roofs, beams and friezes. An important exception are the complex <a href="/wiki/Muqarnas" title="Muqarnas">muqarnas</a> and <a href="/wiki/Moc%C3%A1rabe" class="mw-redirect" title="Mocárabe">mocárabe</a> designs giving roofs and other architectural elements a <a href="/wiki/Stalactite" title="Stalactite">stalactite</a>-like appearance. These are often in wood, sometimes painted on the wood, but often plastered over before painting; the examples at the <a href="/wiki/Alhambra" title="Alhambra">Alhambra</a> in <a href="/wiki/Granada,_Spain" class="mw-redirect" title="Granada, Spain">Granada, Spain</a> are among the best known. Traditional Islamic furniture, except for chests, tended to be covered with cushions, with cupboards rather than cabinets for storage, but there are some pieces, including a low round (strictly twelve-sided) table of about 1560 from the Ottoman court, with <a href="/wiki/Marquetry" title="Marquetry">marquetry</a> inlays in light wood, and a single huge ceramic tile or plaque on the tabletop.<sup id="cite_ref-63" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-63"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>63<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The fine inlays typical of Ottoman court furniture may have developed from styles and techniques used in weapons and musical instruments, for which the finest craftsmanship available was used.<sup id="cite_ref-64" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-64"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>64<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> There are also intricately decorated caskets and chests from various periods. A spectacular and famous (and far from flat) roof was one of the Islamic components of the 12th century Norman <a href="/wiki/Cappella_Palatina" title="Cappella Palatina">Cappella Palatina</a> in <a href="/wiki/Palermo" title="Palermo">Palermo</a>, which picked from the finest elements of Catholic, Byzantine and Islamic art. Other famous wooden roofs are in the <a href="/wiki/Alhambra" title="Alhambra">Alhambra</a> in <a href="/wiki/Granada" title="Granada">Granada</a>. </p> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Panel_hunters_Louvre_OA_6265-1.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8b/Panel_hunters_Louvre_OA_6265-1.jpg/290px-Panel_hunters_Louvre_OA_6265-1.jpg" decoding="async" width="290" height="124" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8b/Panel_hunters_Louvre_OA_6265-1.jpg/435px-Panel_hunters_Louvre_OA_6265-1.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8b/Panel_hunters_Louvre_OA_6265-1.jpg/580px-Panel_hunters_Louvre_OA_6265-1.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1800" data-file-height="770" /></a><figcaption>Ivory with traces of paint, 11th–12th century, Egypt</figcaption></figure> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Ivory">Ivory</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Islamic_art&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Ivory"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Ivory_carving#Islamic_ivory" title="Ivory carving">Ivory carving</a> centred on the <a href="/wiki/Mediterranean" class="mw-redirect" title="Mediterranean">Mediterranean</a>, spreading from Egypt, where a thriving <a href="/wiki/Copt" class="mw-redirect" title="Copt">Coptic</a> industry had been inherited; Persian ivory is rare. The normal style was a deep relief with an even surface; some pieces were painted. Spain specialized in caskets and round boxes, which were probably used to keep jewels and perfumes. They were produced mainly in the approximate period of 930–1050, and widely exported. Many pieces are signed and dated, and on court pieces the name of the owner is often inscribed; they were typically gifts from a ruler. As well as a court workshop, <a href="/wiki/C%C3%B3rdoba,_Spain" title="Córdoba, Spain">Cordoba</a> had commercial workshops producing goods of slightly lower quality. In the 12th and 13th century workshops in <a href="/wiki/Norman_Sicily" class="mw-redirect" title="Norman Sicily">Norman Sicily</a> produced caskets, apparently then migrating to Granada and elsewhere after persecution. Egyptian work tended to be in flat panels and friezes, for insertion into woodwork and probably furniture – most are now detached from their settings. Many were calligraphic, and others continued Byzantine traditions of hunting scenes, with backgrounds of arabesques and foliage in both cases.<sup id="cite_ref-65" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-65"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>65<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:IlkhanateSilkCircular.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/37/IlkhanateSilkCircular.jpg/220px-IlkhanateSilkCircular.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="215" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/37/IlkhanateSilkCircular.jpg/330px-IlkhanateSilkCircular.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/37/IlkhanateSilkCircular.jpg/440px-IlkhanateSilkCircular.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1623" data-file-height="1587" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Ilkhanid" class="mw-redirect" title="Ilkhanid">Ilkhanid</a> piece in silk, cotton and gold, Iran or Iraq, early 14th century</figcaption></figure> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Silk">Silk</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Islamic_art&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: Silk"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Despite <i><a href="/wiki/Hadith" title="Hadith">Hadith</a></i> sayings prohibiting the wearing of silk, the Byzantine and Sassanian traditions of grand figured silk woven cloth continued under Muslim rule. Some designs are calligraphic, especially when made for palls to cover a tomb, but more are surprisingly conservative versions of the earlier traditions, with many large figures of animals, especially majestic symbols of power like the lion and eagle. These are often enclosed in roundels, as found in the pre-Islamic traditions. The majority of early silks have been recovered from tombs, and in Europe <a href="/wiki/Reliquaries" class="mw-redirect" title="Reliquaries">reliquaries</a>, where the relics were often wrapped in silk. European clergy and nobility were keen buyers of Islamic silk from an early date and, for example, the body of an early bishop of <a href="/wiki/Toul" title="Toul">Toul</a> in France was wrapped in a silk from the <a href="/wiki/Bukhara" title="Bukhara">Bukhara</a> area in modern <a href="/wiki/Uzbekistan" title="Uzbekistan">Uzbekistan</a>, probably when the body was reburied in 820.<sup id="cite_ref-66" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-66"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>66<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The <a href="/wiki/Shroud_of_St_Josse" class="mw-redirect" title="Shroud of St Josse">Shroud of St Josse</a> is a famous <a href="/wiki/Samite" title="Samite">samite</a> cloth from East Persia, which originally had a carpet-like design with two pairs of confronted elephants, surrounded by borders including rows of <a href="/wiki/Camel" title="Camel">camels</a> and an inscription in <a href="/wiki/Kufic" title="Kufic">Kufic</a> script, from which the date appears to be before 961.<sup id="cite_ref-67" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-67"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>67<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Other silks were used for clothes, hangings, altarcloths, and church vestments, which have nearly all been lost, except for some vestments. </p> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Batik_Indonesia.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e7/Batik_Indonesia.jpg/170px-Batik_Indonesia.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="255" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e7/Batik_Indonesia.jpg/255px-Batik_Indonesia.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e7/Batik_Indonesia.jpg/340px-Batik_Indonesia.jpg 2x" data-file-width="576" data-file-height="864" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Javanese_culture" title="Javanese culture">Javanese</a> court <a href="/wiki/Batik" title="Batik">batik</a></figcaption></figure> <p>Ottoman silks were less exported, and the many surviving royal <a href="/wiki/Kaftan" title="Kaftan">kaftans</a> have simpler geometric patterns, many featuring stylized "tiger-stripes" below three balls or circles. Other silks have foliage designs comparable to those on Iznik pottery or carpets, with bands forming ogival compartments a popular motif. Some designs begin to show Italian influence. By the 16th century Persian silk was using smaller patterns, many of which showed relaxed garden scenes of beautiful boys and girls from the same world as those in contemporary album miniatures, and sometimes identifiable scenes from Persian poetry. A 16th-century circular ceiling for a tent, 97 cm across, shows a continuous and crowded hunting scene; it was apparently looted by the army of <a href="/wiki/Suleiman_the_Magnificent" title="Suleiman the Magnificent">Suleiman the Magnificent</a> in his invasion of Persia in 1543–45, before being taken by a Polish general at the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Vienna" title="Battle of Vienna">Siege of Vienna</a> in 1683. Mughal silks incorporate many Indian elements, and often feature relatively realistic "portraits" of plants, as found in other media.<sup id="cite_ref-68" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-68"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>68<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Indonesian_batik">Indonesian batik</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Islamic_art&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: Indonesian batik"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Batik" title="Batik">Batik</a></div> <p>The development and refinement of <a href="/wiki/Indonesia" title="Indonesia">Indonesian</a> <i><a href="/wiki/Batik" title="Batik">batik</a></i> cloth was closely linked to Islam. The Islamic prohibition on certain images encouraged <i>batik</i> design to become more abstract and intricate. Realistic depictions of animals and humans are rare on traditional <i>batik</i>. However, mythical serpents, humans with exaggerated features and the <a href="/wiki/Garuda" title="Garuda">Garuda</a> of pre-Islamic mythology are common motifs. </p><p>Although its existence pre-dates Islam, <i>batik</i> reached its zenith in royal Muslim courts such as <a href="/wiki/Mataram_Sultanate" title="Mataram Sultanate">Mataram</a> and <a href="/wiki/Yogyakarta_Sultanate" title="Yogyakarta Sultanate">Yogyakarta</a>, whose <a href="/wiki/Sultan" title="Sultan">sultans</a> encouraged and patronised <i>batik</i> production. Today, <i>batik</i> is undergoing a revival, and cloths are used for additional purposes such as wrapping the Quran. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Architecture">Architecture</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Islamic_art&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: Architecture"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Islamic_architecture" title="Islamic architecture">Islamic architecture</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Jerusalem_DomeoftheRock_J65.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c3/Jerusalem_DomeoftheRock_J65.JPG/220px-Jerusalem_DomeoftheRock_J65.JPG" decoding="async" width="220" height="156" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c3/Jerusalem_DomeoftheRock_J65.JPG/330px-Jerusalem_DomeoftheRock_J65.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c3/Jerusalem_DomeoftheRock_J65.JPG/440px-Jerusalem_DomeoftheRock_J65.JPG 2x" data-file-width="4872" data-file-height="3450" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Dome_of_the_Rock" title="Dome of the Rock">Dome of the Rock</a> in Jerusalem, built in the late 7th century (with later renovations), one of the most important monuments of <a href="/wiki/Islamic_architecture" title="Islamic architecture">Islamic architecture</a></figcaption></figure> <p>Unlike some mediums in Islamic art, Islamic architecture was consistently prominent across the Islamic world. In general, patrons invested more resources into building monuments than they did in the production of art objects and our knowledge of Islamic architecture is more complete thanks to the many buildings that have survived across regions and periods.<sup id="cite_ref-:24_69-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:24-69"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>69<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Early Islamic architecture drew on existing regional traditions of architecture in <a href="/wiki/Late_antiquity" title="Late antiquity">late antiquity</a> and later developed into various regional traditions. Innovations from one region often spread to others.<sup id="cite_ref-:24_69-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:24-69"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>69<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-:0522_70-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0522-70"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>70<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Applied decoration played a particularly important role in Islamic architecture, and this decoration made use of the same motifs predominant in other forms of Islamic art: arabesques, epigraphy, geometric patterns, and other vegetal forms. Methods of decoration included carving, inlay, and painting in materials such as brick, stone, tile, plaster, and wood.<sup id="cite_ref-:24_69-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:24-69"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>69<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="History">History</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Islamic_art&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: History"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1251242444">.mw-parser-output .ambox{border:1px solid #a2a9b1;border-left:10px solid #36c;background-color:#fbfbfb;box-sizing:border-box}.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+style+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+style+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+link+.ambox{margin-top:-1px}html body.mediawiki .mw-parser-output .ambox.mbox-small-left{margin:4px 1em 4px 0;overflow:hidden;width:238px;border-collapse:collapse;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em}.mw-parser-output .ambox-speedy{border-left:10px solid #b32424;background-color:#fee7e6}.mw-parser-output .ambox-delete{border-left:10px solid #b32424}.mw-parser-output .ambox-content{border-left:10px solid #f28500}.mw-parser-output .ambox-style{border-left:10px solid #fc3}.mw-parser-output .ambox-move{border-left:10px solid #9932cc}.mw-parser-output .ambox-protection{border-left:10px solid #a2a9b1}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-text{border:none;padding:0.25em 0.5em;width:100%}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-image{border:none;padding:2px 0 2px 0.5em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-imageright{border:none;padding:2px 0.5em 2px 0;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-empty-cell{border:none;padding:0;width:1px}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-image-div{width:52px}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .ambox{margin:0 10%}}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .ambox{display:none!important}}</style><table class="box-More_citations_needed plainlinks metadata ambox ambox-content ambox-Refimprove" role="presentation"><tbody><tr><td class="mbox-image"><div class="mbox-image-div"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Question_book-new.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/50px-Question_book-new.svg.png" decoding="async" width="50" height="39" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/75px-Question_book-new.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/100px-Question_book-new.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="399" /></a></span></div></td><td class="mbox-text"><div class="mbox-text-span">This article <b>needs additional citations for <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Verifiability" title="Wikipedia:Verifiability">verification</a></b>.<span class="hide-when-compact"> Please help <a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Islamic_art" title="Special:EditPage/Islamic art">improve this article</a> by <a href="/wiki/Help:Referencing_for_beginners" title="Help:Referencing for beginners">adding citations to reliable sources</a>. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed.<br /><small><span class="plainlinks"><i>Find sources:</i> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.google.com/search?as_eq=wikipedia&q=%22Islamic+art%22">"Islamic art"</a> – <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.google.com/search?tbm=nws&q=%22Islamic+art%22+-wikipedia&tbs=ar:1">news</a> <b>·</b> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.google.com/search?&q=%22Islamic+art%22&tbs=bkt:s&tbm=bks">newspapers</a> <b>·</b> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.google.com/search?tbs=bks:1&q=%22Islamic+art%22+-wikipedia">books</a> <b>·</b> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://scholar.google.com/scholar?q=%22Islamic+art%22">scholar</a> <b>·</b> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/action/doBasicSearch?Query=%22Islamic+art%22&acc=on&wc=on">JSTOR</a></span></small></span> <span class="date-container"><i>(<span class="date">August 2023</span>)</i></span><span class="hide-when-compact"><i> (<small><a href="/wiki/Help:Maintenance_template_removal" title="Help:Maintenance template removal">Learn how and when to remove this message</a></small>)</i></span></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Beginnings">Beginnings</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Islamic_art&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: Beginnings"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Pre-dynastic">Pre-dynastic</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Islamic_art&action=edit&section=18" title="Edit section: Pre-dynastic"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The period of a rapid expansion of the Islamic era forms a reasonably accurate beginning for the label of Islamic art. Early geographical boundaries of the Islamic culture were in present-day <a href="/wiki/Syria" title="Syria">Syria</a>. It is quite difficult to distinguish the earliest Islamic objects from their predecessors in Persian or <a href="/wiki/Sasanian_art" title="Sasanian art">Sasanian</a> and <a href="/wiki/Byzantine_art" title="Byzantine art">Byzantine art</a>, and the conversion of the mass of the population, including artists, took a significant period, sometimes centuries, after the initial <a href="/wiki/Spread_of_Islam" title="Spread of Islam">spread of Islam</a>. There was, notably, a significant production of unglazed ceramics, witnessed by a famous small bowl preserved in the <a href="/wiki/Louvre" title="Louvre">Louvre</a>, whose inscription assures its attribution to the Islamic period. Plant motifs were the most important in these early productions. </p><p>Influences from the Sassanian artistic tradition include the image of the king as a warrior and the lion as a symbol of nobility and virility. <a href="/wiki/Bedouin" title="Bedouin">Bedouin</a> tribal traditions mixed with the more sophisticated styles of the conquered territories. For an initial period coins had human figures in the Byzantine and Sassanian style, perhaps to reassure users of their continued value, before the Islamic style with lettering only took over. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Umayyad">Umayyad</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Islamic_art&action=edit&section=19" title="Edit section: Umayyad"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Mschatta-Fassade_(Pergamonmuseum).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4a/Mschatta-Fassade_%28Pergamonmuseum%29.jpg/220px-Mschatta-Fassade_%28Pergamonmuseum%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="162" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4a/Mschatta-Fassade_%28Pergamonmuseum%29.jpg/330px-Mschatta-Fassade_%28Pergamonmuseum%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4a/Mschatta-Fassade_%28Pergamonmuseum%29.jpg/440px-Mschatta-Fassade_%28Pergamonmuseum%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2450" data-file-height="1800" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Mshatta_Facade" title="Mshatta Facade">Palace façade from Mshatta</a> in <a href="/wiki/Jordan" title="Jordan">Jordan</a>, now in the <a href="/wiki/Pergamon_Museum,_Berlin" class="mw-redirect" title="Pergamon Museum, Berlin">Pergamon Museum, Berlin</a>, c. ?740</figcaption></figure><p>Religious and civic architecture were developed under the <a href="/wiki/Umayyad_Caliphate" title="Umayyad Caliphate">Umayyad Caliphates</a> (661–750), when new concepts and new plans were put into practice. </p><p>The <a href="/wiki/Dome_of_the_Rock" title="Dome of the Rock">Dome of the Rock</a> in <a href="/wiki/Jerusalem" title="Jerusalem">Jerusalem</a> is one of the most important buildings in all of Islamic architecture, marked by a strong Byzantine influence (<a href="/wiki/Mosaic" title="Mosaic">mosaic</a> against a <a href="/wiki/Gold_ground" title="Gold ground">gold ground</a>, and a central plan that recalls that of the <a href="/wiki/Church_of_the_Holy_Sepulchre" title="Church of the Holy Sepulchre">Church of the Holy Sepulchre</a>), but already bearing purely Islamic elements, such as the great epigraphic <a href="/wiki/Frieze" title="Frieze">frieze</a>. The desert palaces in Jordan and Syria (for example, <a href="/wiki/Mshatta_Facade" title="Mshatta Facade">Mshatta</a>, <a href="/wiki/Qusayr_%27Amra" title="Qusayr 'Amra">Qusayr 'Amra</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Hisham%27s_Palace" title="Hisham's Palace">Hisham's Palace</a>) served the caliphs as living quarters, reception halls, and baths, and were decorated, including some wall-paintings, to promote an image of royal luxury. </p><p>Work in ceramics was still somewhat primitive and unglazed during this period. Some metal objects have survived from this time, but it remains rather difficult to distinguish these objects from those of the pre-Islamic period. </p><p>'Abd al-Malik introduced standard coinage that featured Arabic inscriptions, instead of images of the monarch. The quick development of a localized coinage around the time of the Dome of the Rock's construction demonstrates the reorientation of Umayyad acculturation. This period saw the genesis of a particularly Islamic art. </p> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Umayyad_Mosque-Mosaics_west.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/df/Umayyad_Mosque-Mosaics_west.jpg/220px-Umayyad_Mosque-Mosaics_west.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/df/Umayyad_Mosque-Mosaics_west.jpg/330px-Umayyad_Mosque-Mosaics_west.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/df/Umayyad_Mosque-Mosaics_west.jpg/440px-Umayyad_Mosque-Mosaics_west.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2048" data-file-height="1536" /></a><figcaption>Mosaics from the <i>riwaq</i> (portico) of the <a href="/wiki/Umayyad_Mosque" title="Umayyad Mosque">Umayyad Mosque</a></figcaption></figure> <p>In this period, Umayyad artists and artisans did not invent a new vocabulary, but began to prefer those received from Mediterranean and Iranian <a href="/wiki/Late_antiquity" title="Late antiquity">late antiquity</a>, which they adapted to their own artistic conceptions. For example, the mosaics in the <a href="/wiki/Umayyad_Mosque" title="Umayyad Mosque">Umayyad Mosque</a> of <a href="/wiki/Damascus" title="Damascus">Damascus</a> are based on Byzantine models but replace the figurative elements with images of trees and cities. The desert palaces also bear witness to these influences. By combining the various traditions that they had inherited, and by readapting motifs and architectural elements, artists created little by little a typically Muslim art, particularly discernible in the aesthetic of the arabesque, which appears both on monuments and in illuminated <a href="/wiki/Quran" title="Quran">Qurans</a>. </p><p>Some Umayyads commissioned <a href="/wiki/Erotic_art" title="Erotic art">erotic art</a> for private settings. The Umayyad caliph <a href="/wiki/Al-Walid_II" title="Al-Walid II">Al-Walid II</a> built the <a href="/wiki/Qusayr_Amra" class="mw-redirect" title="Qusayr Amra">Qusayr Amra</a>, as his country retreat, whose decoration includes naked females and love scenes.<sup id="cite_ref-71" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-71"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>71<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-72" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-72"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>72<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Abbasid">Abbasid</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Islamic_art&action=edit&section=20" title="Edit section: Abbasid"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Cup_Susa_Louvre_MAO568.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ac/Cup_Susa_Louvre_MAO568.jpg/220px-Cup_Susa_Louvre_MAO568.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="191" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ac/Cup_Susa_Louvre_MAO568.jpg/330px-Cup_Susa_Louvre_MAO568.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ac/Cup_Susa_Louvre_MAO568.jpg/440px-Cup_Susa_Louvre_MAO568.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1288" data-file-height="1120" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Lusterware" class="mw-redirect" title="Lusterware">Lusterware</a> bowl from <a href="/wiki/Susa" title="Susa">Susa</a>, 9th century, today in the Louvre</figcaption></figure> <p>The <a href="/wiki/Abbasid_Caliphate" title="Abbasid Caliphate">Abbasid Caliphate</a> (750–1258<sup id="cite_ref-73" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-73"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>73<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>) witnessed the movement of the capital from Damascus to <a href="/wiki/Baghdad" title="Baghdad">Baghdad</a>, and then from Baghdad to <a href="/wiki/Samarra" title="Samarra">Samarra</a>. The shift to Baghdad influenced politics, culture, and art. <a href="/wiki/Art_history" title="Art history">Art historian</a> Robert Hillenbrand (1999) likens the movement to the foundation of an "Islamic <a href="/wiki/Rome" title="Rome">Rome</a>", because the meeting of Eastern influences from Iranian, Eurasian steppe, Chinese, and Indian sources created a new paradigm for Islamic art. Classical forms inherited from Byzantine Europe and Greco-Roman sources were discarded in favor of those drawn from the new Islamic hub. Even the design of the city of Baghdad placed it in the "navel of the world", as 9th-century historian al-Ya'qubi wrote.<sup id="cite_ref-74" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-74"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>74<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The ancient city of Baghdad cannot be excavated well, as it lies beneath the modern city. However, <a href="/wiki/Abbasid_Samarra" title="Abbasid Samarra">Abbasid Samarra</a>, which was largely abandoned, has been well studied, and is known for its surviving examples of <a href="/wiki/Stucco" title="Stucco">stucco</a> reliefs, in which the prehistory of the <a href="/wiki/Arabesque" title="Arabesque">arabesque</a> can be traced. Motifs known from the stucco at Samarra permit the dating of structures built elsewhere, and are furthermore found on portable objects, particular in wood, from Egypt through to Iran. </p><p>Samarra witnessed the "coming of age" of Islamic art. Polychrome painted stucco allowed for experimentation in new styles of moulding and carving. The Abbasid period also coincided with two major innovations in the ceramic arts: the invention of <a href="/wiki/Faience" title="Faience">faience</a>, and of metallic <a href="/wiki/Lusterware" class="mw-redirect" title="Lusterware">lusterware</a>. <a href="/wiki/Hadith" title="Hadith">Hadithic</a> prohibition of the use of golden or silver vessels led to the development of metallic <a href="/wiki/Lusterware" class="mw-redirect" title="Lusterware">lusterware</a> in pottery, which was made by mixing sulphur and metallic oxides to ochre and vinegar, painted onto an already glazed vessel and then fired a second time. It was expensive, and difficult to manage the second round through the kiln, but the wish to exceed fine <a href="/wiki/Chinese_porcelain" class="mw-redirect" title="Chinese porcelain">Chinese porcelain</a> led to the development of this technique.<sup id="cite_ref-75" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-75"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>75<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Tiraz_Textile_Fragment_with_Inscriptions_with_Name_of_Caliph_al-Muti%27,_946-974.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a9/Tiraz_Textile_Fragment_with_Inscriptions_with_Name_of_Caliph_al-Muti%27%2C_946-974.jpg/290px-Tiraz_Textile_Fragment_with_Inscriptions_with_Name_of_Caliph_al-Muti%27%2C_946-974.jpg" decoding="async" width="290" height="70" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a9/Tiraz_Textile_Fragment_with_Inscriptions_with_Name_of_Caliph_al-Muti%27%2C_946-974.jpg/435px-Tiraz_Textile_Fragment_with_Inscriptions_with_Name_of_Caliph_al-Muti%27%2C_946-974.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a9/Tiraz_Textile_Fragment_with_Inscriptions_with_Name_of_Caliph_al-Muti%27%2C_946-974.jpg/580px-Tiraz_Textile_Fragment_with_Inscriptions_with_Name_of_Caliph_al-Muti%27%2C_946-974.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1536" data-file-height="372" /></a><figcaption>Tiraz Textile Fragment, 946–974 <a href="/wiki/Brooklyn_Museum" title="Brooklyn Museum">Brooklyn Museum</a></figcaption></figure> <p>Though the common perception of Abbasid artistic production focuses largely on pottery, the greatest development of the Abbasid period was in textiles. Government-run workshops known as <i><a href="/wiki/Tiraz" title="Tiraz">tiraz</a></i> produced silks bearing the name of the monarch, allowing for aristocrats to demonstrate their loyalty to the ruler. Other silks were pictorial. The utility of silk-ware in wall decor, entrance adornment, and room separation was not as important as its cash value along the <a href="/wiki/Silk_Road" title="Silk Road">Silk Road</a>. </p><p><a href="/wiki/Islamic_calligraphy" title="Islamic calligraphy">Islamic calligraphy</a> began to be used in surface decoration on pottery during this period. Illuminated qur'ans gained attention, letter-forms now more complex and stylized to the point of slowing down the recognition of the words themselves.<sup id="cite_ref-76" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-76"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>76<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Medieval_period_(9th–15th_centuries)"><span id="Medieval_period_.289th.E2.80.9315th_centuries.29"></span>Medieval period (9th–15th centuries)</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Islamic_art&action=edit&section=21" title="Edit section: Medieval period (9th–15th centuries)"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Beginning in the ninth century, Abbasid sovereignty was contested in the provinces furthest removed from the Iraqi center. The creation of an <a href="/wiki/Ismailism" class="mw-redirect" title="Ismailism">Ismaʻili Shiʻi</a> dynasty, that of the <a href="/wiki/North_Africa" title="North Africa">North African</a> <a href="/wiki/Fatimid_Caliphate" title="Fatimid Caliphate">Fatimid Caliphate</a>, followed by the <a href="/wiki/Caliphate_of_C%C3%B3rdoba" class="mw-redirect" title="Caliphate of Córdoba">Caliphate of Córdoba</a> in the <a href="/wiki/Iberian_Peninsula" title="Iberian Peninsula">Iberian Peninsula</a>, gave force to this opposition, as well as small dynasties and autonomous governors in <a href="/wiki/Iran" title="Iran">Iran</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Spain_and_the_Maghreb">Spain and the Maghreb</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Islamic_art&action=edit&section=22" title="Edit section: Spain and the Maghreb"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Morocco_Fez_Embroidery_Horse_Cover.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cc/Morocco_Fez_Embroidery_Horse_Cover.JPG/220px-Morocco_Fez_Embroidery_Horse_Cover.JPG" decoding="async" width="220" height="168" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cc/Morocco_Fez_Embroidery_Horse_Cover.JPG/330px-Morocco_Fez_Embroidery_Horse_Cover.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cc/Morocco_Fez_Embroidery_Horse_Cover.JPG/440px-Morocco_Fez_Embroidery_Horse_Cover.JPG 2x" data-file-width="3497" data-file-height="2674" /></a><figcaption>Moroccan <a href="/wiki/Islamic_embroidery" title="Islamic embroidery">Embroidery</a> <a href="/wiki/Fly_mask" title="Fly mask">fly mask</a></figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Pyxid_Al_Mughira_OA_4068.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7f/Pyxid_Al_Mughira_OA_4068.jpg/170px-Pyxid_Al_Mughira_OA_4068.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="258" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7f/Pyxid_Al_Mughira_OA_4068.jpg/255px-Pyxid_Al_Mughira_OA_4068.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7f/Pyxid_Al_Mughira_OA_4068.jpg/340px-Pyxid_Al_Mughira_OA_4068.jpg 2x" data-file-width="950" data-file-height="1440" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Pyxis_of_al-Mughira" title="Pyxis of al-Mughira">Pyxis of al-Mughira</a>, <a href="/wiki/Medina_Azahara" class="mw-redirect" title="Medina Azahara">Medina Azahara</a>, Spain, 968</figcaption></figure> <p>The first Islamic dynasty to establish itself in Iberia, known in Arabic as <a href="/wiki/Al-Andalus" title="Al-Andalus">al-Andalus</a>, was the Umayyads, descended from the great Umayyad Caliphate of Syria. After their fall, they were replaced by various autonomous kingdoms, the <a href="/wiki/Taifa" title="Taifa">taifas</a> (1031–91), but the artistic production from this period does not differ significantly from that of the Umayyads. At the end of the 11th century, two Berber tribes, the <a href="/wiki/Almoravid_dynasty" title="Almoravid dynasty">Almoravids</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Almohad_dynasty" class="mw-redirect" title="Almohad dynasty">Almohads</a>, captured the head of the Maghreb and Spain, successively, bringing Maghrebi influences into art. A series of military victories by Christian monarchs had reduced Islamic Spain by the end of the 14th century to the city of <a href="/wiki/Granada" title="Granada">Granada</a>, ruled by the <a href="/wiki/Nasrid_dynasty" title="Nasrid dynasty">Nasrid dynasty</a>, who managed to maintain their hold until 1492. </p><p>Al-Andalus was a great cultural center of the Middle Ages. Besides the great universities, which taught philosophies and sciences yet unknown in Christendom (such as those of <a href="/wiki/Averroes" title="Averroes">Averroes</a>), the territory was an equally vital center for art. </p><p>Many techniques were employed in the manufacture of objects. Ivory was used extensively for the manufacture of boxes and caskets. The <a href="/wiki/Pyxis_of_al-Mughira" title="Pyxis of al-Mughira">pyxis of al-Mughira</a> is a masterwork of the genre. In metalwork, large sculptures in the round, normally rather scarce in the Islamic world, served as elaborate receptacles for water or as fountain spouts. A great number of textiles, most notably silks, were exported: many are found in the church treasuries of Christendom, where they served as covering for saints' <a href="/wiki/Reliquaries" class="mw-redirect" title="Reliquaries">reliquaries</a>. From the periods of <a href="/wiki/Maghreb" title="Maghreb">Maghrebi</a> rule one may also note a taste for painted and sculpted woodwork. </p><p>The art of north Africa is not as well studied. The Almoravid and Almohad dynasties are characterized by a tendency toward austerity, for example in mosques with bare walls. Nevertheless, luxury arts continued to be produced in great quantity. The Marinid and Hafsid dynasties developed an important, but poorly understood, architecture, and a significant amount of painted and sculpted woodwork. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Arab_Mashriq">Arab Mashriq</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Islamic_art&action=edit&section=23" title="Edit section: Arab Mashriq"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The Fatimid Caliphate, which reigned in Egypt from 909 and 1171, introduced crafts and knowledge from politically troubled Baghdad to their capital of <a href="/wiki/Cairo" title="Cairo">Cairo</a>. </p><p>By 1070, the <a href="/wiki/Seljuq_Empire" class="mw-redirect" title="Seljuq Empire">Seljuq Empire</a> emerged as the dominant political force in the Muslim world after they liberated Baghdad and defeated the Byzantines at <a href="/wiki/Manzikert" class="mw-redirect" title="Manzikert">Manzikert</a>. During the rule of <a href="/wiki/Malik-Shah_I" title="Malik-Shah I">Malik-Shah I</a>, the Seljuks excelled in architecture at the same time in Syria, the <a href="/wiki/Atabeg" title="Atabeg">atabegs</a> (governors of Seljuk princes) assumed power. Quite independent, they capitalized on conflicts with the Frankish <a href="/wiki/Crusades" title="Crusades">crusaders</a>. In 1171, <a href="/wiki/Saladin" title="Saladin">Saladin</a> seized Fatimid Egypt, and installed the transitory <a href="/wiki/Ayyubid_dynasty" title="Ayyubid dynasty">Ayyubid dynasty</a> on the throne. This period is notable for innovations in metallurgy and the widespread manufacture of the Damascus steel swords and daggers and the production ceramics, glass and metalwork of a high quality were produced without interruption, and enamelled glass became another important craft. </p><p>In 1250, <a href="/wiki/Mamluk" title="Mamluk">Mamluks</a> seized control of Egypt from the Ayyubids as the <a href="/wiki/Mamluk_Sultanate_(Cairo)" class="mw-redirect" title="Mamluk Sultanate (Cairo)">Mamluk Sultanate</a>, and by 1261 had managed to assert themselves in Syria as well their most famous ruler was <a href="/wiki/Baibars" class="mw-redirect" title="Baibars">Baibars</a>. The Mamluks were not, strictly speaking, a dynasty, as they did not maintain a patrilineal mode of succession; in fact, Mamluks were freed Turkish and Caucasian slaves, who (in theory) passed the power to others of like station. This mode of government persevered for three centuries, until 1517, and gave rise to abundant architectural projects; many thousands of buildings were constructed during this period. Patronage of luxury arts favored primarily enamelled glass and metalwork and is remembered as the golden age of medieval Egypt. The <a href="/wiki/Baptist%C3%A8re_de_Saint_Louis" title="Baptistère de Saint Louis">Baptistère de Saint Louis</a> in the <a href="/wiki/Louvre" title="Louvre">Louvre</a> is an example of the very high quality of metalwork at this period. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Iran_and_Central_Asia">Iran and Central Asia</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Islamic_art&action=edit&section=24" title="Edit section: Iran and Central Asia"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:SamarkandBibiKhanym.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ab/SamarkandBibiKhanym.jpg/170px-SamarkandBibiKhanym.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="260" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ab/SamarkandBibiKhanym.jpg/255px-SamarkandBibiKhanym.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ab/SamarkandBibiKhanym.jpg/340px-SamarkandBibiKhanym.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1171" data-file-height="1792" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Bibi-Khanym_Mosque" title="Bibi-Khanym Mosque">Bibi-Khanym Mosque</a>, <a href="/wiki/Samarkand" title="Samarkand">Samarkand</a>, <a href="/wiki/Uzbekistan" title="Uzbekistan">Uzbekistan</a>, built by <a href="/wiki/Timur" title="Timur">Timur</a> in 1399</figcaption></figure> <p>Iran and the north of India, the <a href="/wiki/Tahirid_dynasty" title="Tahirid dynasty">Tahirids</a>, <a href="/wiki/Samanid" class="mw-redirect" title="Samanid">Samanids</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ghaznavids" title="Ghaznavids">Ghaznavids</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Ghurids" class="mw-redirect" title="Ghurids">Ghurids</a> struggled for power in the 10th century, and art was a vital element of this competition. Great cities were built, such as <a href="/wiki/Neyshabur" class="mw-redirect" title="Neyshabur">Nishapur</a> and <a href="/wiki/Ghazni" title="Ghazni">Ghazni</a>, and the construction of the Great Mosque of <a href="/wiki/Isfahan" title="Isfahan">Isfahan</a> (which would continue, in fits and starts, over several centuries) was initiated. Funerary architecture was also cultivated, while potters developed quite individual styles: kaleidoscopic ornament on a yellow ground; or marbled decorations created by allowing colored glazes to run; or painting with multiple layers of slip under the glaze. </p><p>The <a href="/wiki/Seljuq_dynasty" class="mw-redirect" title="Seljuq dynasty">Seljuqs</a>, nomads of Turkic origin from present-day Mongolia, appeared on the stage of Islamic history toward the end of the 10th century. They seized Baghdad in 1048, before dying out in 1194 in Iran, although the production of "Seljuq" works continued through the end of the 12th and beginning of the 13th century under the auspices of smaller, independent sovereigns and patrons. During their time, the center of culture, politics and art production shifted from <a href="/wiki/Damascus" title="Damascus">Damascus</a> and <a href="/wiki/Baghdad" title="Baghdad">Baghdad</a> to <a href="/wiki/Merv" title="Merv">Merv</a>, <a href="/wiki/Nishapur" title="Nishapur">Nishapur</a>, <a href="/wiki/Rey,_Iran" class="mw-redirect" title="Rey, Iran">Rayy</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Isfahan" title="Isfahan">Isfahan</a>, all in Iran.<sup id="cite_ref-77" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-77"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>77<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Ceramic_bowl_decorated_with_slip_beneath_a_transparent_glaze_and_designed_by_anthropic_figure_with_bull_head_Golestan,_Gorgan_9th_century_CE,_Early_Islamic_period.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/60/Ceramic_bowl_decorated_with_slip_beneath_a_transparent_glaze_and_designed_by_anthropic_figure_with_bull_head_Golestan%2C_Gorgan_9th_century_CE%2C_Early_Islamic_period.jpg/220px-thumbnail.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="223" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/60/Ceramic_bowl_decorated_with_slip_beneath_a_transparent_glaze_and_designed_by_anthropic_figure_with_bull_head_Golestan%2C_Gorgan_9th_century_CE%2C_Early_Islamic_period.jpg/330px-thumbnail.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/60/Ceramic_bowl_decorated_with_slip_beneath_a_transparent_glaze_and_designed_by_anthropic_figure_with_bull_head_Golestan%2C_Gorgan_9th_century_CE%2C_Early_Islamic_period.jpg/440px-thumbnail.jpg 2x" data-file-width="563" data-file-height="570" /></a><figcaption>Ceramic bowl decorated with slip beneath a transparent glaze, Gorgan, 9th century CE, Early Islamic period, National Museum of Iran</figcaption></figure> <p>Popular patronage expanded because of a growing economy and new urban wealth. Inscriptions in architecture tended to focus more on the patrons of the piece. For example, sultans, viziers or lower ranking officials would receive often mention in inscriptions on mosques. Meanwhile, growth in mass market production and sale of art made it more commonplace and accessible to merchants and professionals.<sup id="cite_ref-78" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-78"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>78<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Because of increased production, many relics have survived from the Seljuk era and can be easily dated. In contrast, the dating of earlier works is more ambiguous. It is, therefore, easy to mistake Seljuk art as new developments rather than inheritance from classical Iranian and Turkic sources.<sup id="cite_ref-79" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-79"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>79<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Innovations in ceramics from this period include the production of minai ware and the manufacture of vessels, not out of clay, but out of a <a href="/wiki/Silicon" title="Silicon">silicon</a> paste ("<a href="/wiki/Fritware" title="Fritware">fritware</a>"), while metalworkers began to encrust bronze with precious metals. Across the Seljuk era, from Iran to Iraq, a unification of book painting can be seen. These paintings have animalistic figures that convey strong symbolic meaning of fidelity, treachery, and courage.<sup id="cite_ref-80" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-80"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>80<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>During the 13th century, the <a href="/wiki/Mongols" title="Mongols">Mongols</a> under the leadership of <a href="/wiki/Genghis_Khan" title="Genghis Khan">Genghis Khan</a> swept through the Islamic world. After his death, his empire was divided among his sons, forming many dynasties: the <a href="/wiki/Yuan_dynasty" title="Yuan dynasty">Yuan</a> in China, the <a href="/wiki/Ilkhanate" title="Ilkhanate">Ilkhanids</a> in Iran and the <a href="/wiki/Golden_Horde" title="Golden Horde">Golden Horde</a> in northern Iran and southern Russia. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading5"><h5 id="Ilkhanids">Ilkhanids</h5><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Islamic_art&action=edit&section=25" title="Edit section: Ilkhanids"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>A rich civilization developed under these "little khans", who were originally subservient to the Yuan emperor, but rapidly became independent. Architectural activity intensified as the Mongols became sedentary, and retained traces of their nomadic origins, such as the north–south orientation of the buildings. At the same time a process of "iranisation" took place, and construction according to previously established types, such as the "Iranian plan" mosques, was resumed. The <a href="/wiki/Persian_miniature" title="Persian miniature">art of the Persian book</a> was also born under this dynasty, and was encouraged by aristocratic patronage of large manuscripts such as the <i><a href="/wiki/Jami%27_al-tawarikh" title="Jami' al-tawarikh">Jami' al-tawarikh</a></i> by <a href="/wiki/Rashid-al-Din_Hamadani" class="mw-redirect" title="Rashid-al-Din Hamadani">Rashid-al-Din Hamadani</a>. New techniques in ceramics appeared, such as the lajvardina (a variation on luster-ware), and Chinese influence is perceptible in all arts. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading5"><h5 id="The_Golden_Horde_and_the_Timurids">The Golden Horde and the Timurids</h5><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Islamic_art&action=edit&section=26" title="Edit section: The Golden Horde and the Timurids"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The early arts of the nomads of the Golden Horde are poorly understood. Research is only beginning, and evidence for town planning and architecture has been discovered. There was also a significant production of works in gold, which often show a strong Chinese influence. Much of this work is preserved today in the <a href="/wiki/Hermitage_Museum" title="Hermitage Museum">Hermitage</a>. </p><p>The beginning of the third great period of medieval Iranian art, that of the <a href="/wiki/Timurid_dynasty" title="Timurid dynasty">Timurids</a>, was marked by the invasion of a third group of nomads, under the direction of <a href="/wiki/Timur" title="Timur">Timur</a>. During the 15th century this dynasty gave rise to a golden age in Persian manuscript painting, including renowned painters such as <a href="/wiki/Kam%C4%81l_ud-D%C4%ABn_Behz%C4%81d" title="Kamāl ud-Dīn Behzād">Kamāl ud-Dīn Behzād</a>, but also a multitude of workshops and patrons. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Syria,_Iraq,_Anatolia"><span id="Syria.2C_Iraq.2C_Anatolia"></span>Syria, Iraq, Anatolia</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Islamic_art&action=edit&section=27" title="Edit section: Syria, Iraq, Anatolia"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Erzurum_Cifte_Minareli_Sunrise.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/47/Erzurum_Cifte_Minareli_Sunrise.JPG/220px-Erzurum_Cifte_Minareli_Sunrise.JPG" decoding="async" width="220" height="182" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/47/Erzurum_Cifte_Minareli_Sunrise.JPG/330px-Erzurum_Cifte_Minareli_Sunrise.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/47/Erzurum_Cifte_Minareli_Sunrise.JPG/440px-Erzurum_Cifte_Minareli_Sunrise.JPG 2x" data-file-width="3024" data-file-height="2496" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/%C3%87ifte_Minareli_Medrese_(Erzurum)" class="mw-redirect" title="Çifte Minareli Medrese (Erzurum)">Çifte Minareli Medrese</a> in Erzurum. Before 1265</figcaption></figure> <p>The Seljuq Turks pushed beyond Iran into Anatolia, winning a victory over the <a href="/wiki/Byzantine_Empire" title="Byzantine Empire">Byzantine Empire</a> in the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Manzikert" title="Battle of Manzikert">Battle of Manzikert</a> (1071), and setting up a sultanate independent of the Iranian branch of the dynasty. Their power seems largely to have waned following the Mongol invasions in 1243, but coins were struck under their name until 1304. Architecture and objects synthesized various styles, both Iranian and Syrian, sometimes rendering precise attributions difficult. The art of woodworking was cultivated, and at least one illustrated manuscript dates to this period. </p><p><a href="/wiki/Caravanserai" title="Caravanserai">Caravanserais</a> dotted the major trade routes across the region, placed at intervals of a day's travel. The construction of these caravanserai <a href="/wiki/Inns" class="mw-redirect" title="Inns">inns</a> improved in scale, fortification, and replicability. Also, they began to contain central mosques. </p><p>The <a href="/wiki/Turkmen_people" class="mw-redirect" title="Turkmen people">Turkmen</a> were nomads who settled in the area of <a href="/wiki/Lake_Van" title="Lake Van">Lake Van</a>. They were responsible for a number of mosques, such as the <a href="/wiki/The_Blue_Mosque_of_Tabriz" class="mw-redirect" title="The Blue Mosque of Tabriz">Blue Mosque</a> in <a href="/wiki/Tabriz" title="Tabriz">Tabriz</a>, and they had a decisive influence after the fall of the Anatolian Seljuqs. Starting in the 13th century, Anatolia was dominated by small Turkmen dynasties, which progressively chipped away at Byzantine territory. Little by little a major dynasty emerged, that of the <a href="/wiki/Ottoman_dynasty" title="Ottoman dynasty">Ottomans</a>, who, after 1450, are referred to as the "first Ottomans". Turkmen artworks can be seen as the forerunners of Ottoman art, in particular the "Milet" ceramics and the first blue-and-white Anatolian works. </p><p>Islamic book painting witnessed its first golden age in the thirteenth century, mostly from Syria and Iraq. Influence from Byzantine visual vocabulary (blue and gold coloring, angelic and victorious motifs, symbology of drapery) combined with Mongoloid facial types in 12th-century <a href="/wiki/Book_frontispiece" title="Book frontispiece">book frontispieces</a>. </p><p>Earlier coinage necessarily featured Arabic <a href="/wiki/Epigraphy" title="Epigraphy">epigraphs</a>, but as Ayyubid society became more cosmopolitan and multi-ethnic, coinage began to feature <a href="/wiki/Astrology" title="Astrology">astrological</a>, figural (featuring a variety of Greek, Seleucid, Byzantine, Sasanian, and contemporary Turkish rulers' busts), and animal images. </p><p>Hillenbrand suggests that the medieval Islamic texts called <i><a href="/wiki/Maqama" title="Maqama">Maqamat</a></i>, copied and illustrated by <a href="/wiki/Yahya_ibn_Mahmud_al-Wasiti" title="Yahya ibn Mahmud al-Wasiti">Yahya ibn Mahmud al-Wasiti</a> were some of the earliest "<a href="/wiki/Coffee_table_book" title="Coffee table book">coffee table books</a>". They were among the first texts to hold up a mirror to daily life in Islamic art, portraying humorous stories and showing little to no inheritance of pictorial tradition.<sup id="cite_ref-81" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-81"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>81<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Indian_subcontinent">Indian subcontinent</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Islamic_art&action=edit&section=28" title="Edit section: Indian subcontinent"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:RedFortAgra-Musamman-Burj-20080211-2.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/15/RedFortAgra-Musamman-Burj-20080211-2.jpg/220px-RedFortAgra-Musamman-Burj-20080211-2.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="147" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/15/RedFortAgra-Musamman-Burj-20080211-2.jpg/330px-RedFortAgra-Musamman-Burj-20080211-2.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/15/RedFortAgra-Musamman-Burj-20080211-2.jpg/440px-RedFortAgra-Musamman-Burj-20080211-2.jpg 2x" data-file-width="4368" data-file-height="2912" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Mughal_Empire" title="Mughal Empire">Mughal</a> <a href="/wiki/Arabesque_(Islamic_art)" class="mw-redirect" title="Arabesque (Islamic art)">Arabesque</a> inlays at the <a href="/wiki/Agra_Fort" title="Agra Fort">Agra Fort</a>, India.</figcaption></figure> <p>The Indian subcontinent, some northern parts of which conquered by the Ghaznavids and Ghurids in the 9th century, did not become autonomous until 1206, when the Muizzi, or slave-kings, seized power, marking the birth of the <a href="/wiki/Delhi_Sultanate" title="Delhi Sultanate">Delhi Sultanate</a>. Later other competing sultanates were founded in <a href="/wiki/Bengal_Sultanate" title="Bengal Sultanate">Bengal</a>, <a href="/wiki/Kashmir_region" class="mw-redirect" title="Kashmir region">Kashmir</a>, <a href="/wiki/Gujarat" title="Gujarat">Gujarat</a>, <a href="/wiki/Jaunpur_Sultanate" title="Jaunpur Sultanate">Jaunpur</a>, <a href="/wiki/Malwa_(Madhya_Pradesh)" class="mw-redirect" title="Malwa (Madhya Pradesh)">Malwa</a>, and in the north <a href="/wiki/Deccan_Plateau" title="Deccan Plateau">Deccan</a> (the <a href="/wiki/Bahmani_Sultanate" class="mw-redirect" title="Bahmani Sultanate">Bahmanids</a>). They separated themselves little by little from Persian traditions, giving birth to an original approach to architecture and urbanism, marked in particular by interaction with <a href="/wiki/Hindu" class="mw-redirect" title="Hindu">Hindu</a> art. Study of the production of objects has hardly begun, but a lively art of manuscript illumination is known. The period of the sultanates ended with the arrival of the <a href="/wiki/Mughal_Empire" title="Mughal Empire">Mughals</a>, who progressively seized their territories. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="The_Three_Empires">The Three Empires</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Islamic_art&action=edit&section=29" title="Edit section: The Three Empires"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1251242444"><table class="box-Unreferenced_section plainlinks metadata ambox ambox-content ambox-Unreferenced" role="presentation"><tbody><tr><td class="mbox-image"><div class="mbox-image-div"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Question_book-new.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/50px-Question_book-new.svg.png" decoding="async" width="50" height="39" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/75px-Question_book-new.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/100px-Question_book-new.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="399" /></a></span></div></td><td class="mbox-text"><div class="mbox-text-span">This section <b>does not <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources">cite</a> any <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Verifiability" title="Wikipedia:Verifiability">sources</a></b>.<span class="hide-when-compact"> Please help <a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Islamic_art" title="Special:EditPage/Islamic art">improve this section</a> by <a href="/wiki/Help:Referencing_for_beginners" title="Help:Referencing for beginners">adding citations to reliable sources</a>. Unsourced material may be challenged and <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Verifiability#Burden_of_evidence" title="Wikipedia:Verifiability">removed</a>.</span> <span class="date-container"><i>(<span class="date">May 2013</span>)</i></span><span class="hide-when-compact"><i> (<small><a href="/wiki/Help:Maintenance_template_removal" title="Help:Maintenance template removal">Learn how and when to remove this message</a></small>)</i></span></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Iznik_ware_1500_1510.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d2/Iznik_ware_1500_1510.jpg/220px-Iznik_ware_1500_1510.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="226" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d2/Iznik_ware_1500_1510.jpg/330px-Iznik_ware_1500_1510.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d2/Iznik_ware_1500_1510.jpg/440px-Iznik_ware_1500_1510.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2213" data-file-height="2271" /></a><figcaption>16th century <a href="/wiki/%C4%B0znik_pottery" class="mw-redirect" title="İznik pottery">İznik pottery</a></figcaption></figure> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Ottomans">Ottomans</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Islamic_art&action=edit&section=30" title="Edit section: Ottomans"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The <a href="/wiki/Ottoman_Empire" title="Ottoman Empire">Ottoman Empire</a>, whose origins lie in the 14th century, continued in existence until shortly after <a href="/wiki/World_War_I" title="World War I">World War I</a>. This impressive longevity, combined with an immense territory (stretching from Anatolia to Tunisia), led naturally to a vital and distinctive art, including plentiful architecture, mass production of ceramics for both tiles and vessels, most notably <a href="/wiki/%C4%B0znik_pottery" class="mw-redirect" title="İznik pottery">Iznik ware</a>, important metalwork and jewellery, Turkish paper marbling <a href="/wiki/Ebru" title="Ebru">Ebru</a>, <a href="/wiki/Turkish_carpet" class="mw-redirect" title="Turkish carpet">Turkish carpets</a> as well as tapestries and exceptional <a href="/wiki/Ottoman_miniature" title="Ottoman miniature">Ottoman miniatures</a> and decorative <a href="/wiki/Ottoman_illumination" title="Ottoman illumination">Ottoman illumination</a>. </p><p>Masterpieces of Ottoman manuscript illustration include the two "<a href="/wiki/Surname-I_H%C3%BCmayun" class="mw-redirect" title="Surname-I Hümayun">books of festivals</a>" (Surname-I Hümayun), one dating from the end of the 16th century, and the other from the era of Sultan <a href="/wiki/Murad_III" title="Murad III">Murad III</a>. These books contain numerous illustrations and exhibit a strong <a href="/wiki/Safavid_dynasty" title="Safavid dynasty">Safavid</a> influence; thus they may have been inspired by books captured in the course of the Ottoman-Safavid wars of the 16th century. </p><p>The Ottomans are also known for their development of a bright red pigment, "Iznik red", in ceramics, which reached their height in the 16th century, both in tile-work and pottery, using floral motifs that were considerably transformed from their Chinese and Persian models. From the 18th century, Ottoman art came under considerable European influence, the Turks adopting versions of <a href="/wiki/Rococo" title="Rococo">Rococo</a> which had a lasting and not very beneficial effect, leading to over-fussy decoration.<sup id="cite_ref-82" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-82"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>82<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> European-style painting was slow to be adopted, with <a href="/wiki/Osman_Hamdi_Bey" title="Osman Hamdi Bey">Osman Hamdi Bey</a> (1842-1910) for long a somewhat solitary figure. He was a member of the Ottoman administrative elite who trained in Paris, and painted throughout his long career as a senior administrator and curator in Turkey. Many of his works represent <a href="/wiki/Orientalism" title="Orientalism">Orientalism</a> from the inside, as it were. </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:The_marriage_procession_of_Dara_Shikoh_-_Google_Art_Project.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4d/The_marriage_procession_of_Dara_Shikoh_-_Google_Art_Project.jpg/220px-The_marriage_procession_of_Dara_Shikoh_-_Google_Art_Project.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="331" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4d/The_marriage_procession_of_Dara_Shikoh_-_Google_Art_Project.jpg/330px-The_marriage_procession_of_Dara_Shikoh_-_Google_Art_Project.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4d/The_marriage_procession_of_Dara_Shikoh_-_Google_Art_Project.jpg/440px-The_marriage_procession_of_Dara_Shikoh_-_Google_Art_Project.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3328" data-file-height="5001" /></a><figcaption>An illustrated manuscript of the <a href="/wiki/Mughal_Emperor" class="mw-redirect" title="Mughal Emperor">Mughal Emperor</a> <a href="/wiki/Shah_Jahan" title="Shah Jahan">Shah Jahan</a> attending the marriage procession of his eldest son <a href="/wiki/Dara_Shikoh" title="Dara Shikoh">Dara Shikoh</a>. Mughal-Era <a href="/wiki/Fireworks" title="Fireworks">fireworks</a> brightened the night throughout the wedding ceremony.</figcaption></figure> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Mughals">Mughals</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Islamic_art&action=edit&section=31" title="Edit section: Mughals"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The <a href="/wiki/Mughal_Empire" title="Mughal Empire">Mughal Empire</a> in the <a href="/wiki/Indian_subcontinent" title="Indian subcontinent">Indian subcontinent</a> lasted from 1526 until (technically) 1858, although from the late 17th century power flowed away from the emperors to local rulers, and later European powers, above all the <a href="/wiki/British_Raj" title="British Raj">British Raj</a>, who were the main power in India by the late 18th century. The period is most notable for luxury arts of the court, and Mughal styles heavily influenced local Hindu and later <a href="/wiki/Sikh" class="mw-redirect" title="Sikh">Sikh</a> rulers as well. The <a href="/wiki/Mughal_miniature" class="mw-redirect" title="Mughal miniature">Mughal miniature</a> began by importing Persian artists, especially a group brought back by <a href="/wiki/Humayun" title="Humayun">Humayun</a> when in exile in <a href="/wiki/Safavid" class="mw-redirect" title="Safavid">Safavid</a> Persia, but soon local artists, many Hindu, were trained in the style. Realistic portraiture, and images of animals and plants, was developed in Mughal art beyond what the Persians had so far achieved, and the size of miniatures increased, sometimes onto canvas. The Mughal court had access to European prints and other art, and these had increasing influence, shown in the gradual introduction of aspects of Western <a href="/wiki/Graphical_perspective" class="mw-redirect" title="Graphical perspective">graphical perspective</a>, and a wider range of poses in the human figure. Some Western images were directly copied or borrowed from. As the courts of local <a href="/wiki/Nawab" title="Nawab">Nawabs</a> developed, distinct provincial styles with stronger influence from traditional <a href="/wiki/Indian_painting" title="Indian painting">Indian painting</a> developed in both Muslim and Hindu princely courts. </p><p>The arts of jewelry and <a href="/wiki/Hardstone_carving" title="Hardstone carving">hardstone carving</a> of gemstones, such as <a href="/wiki/Jasper" title="Jasper">jasper</a>, <a href="/wiki/Jade" title="Jade">jade</a>, adorned with rubies, diamonds and emeralds are mentioned by the Mughal chronicler <a href="/wiki/Abu%27l-Fazl_ibn_Mubarak" class="mw-redirect" title="Abu'l-Fazl ibn Mubarak">Abu'l Fazl</a>, and a range of examples survive; the series of hard stone daggers in the form of horses' heads is particularly impressive. </p><p>The Mughals were also fine metallurgists they introduced <a href="/wiki/Damascus_steel" title="Damascus steel">Damascus steel</a> and refined the locally produced <a href="/wiki/Wootz_steel" title="Wootz steel">Wootz steel</a>, the Mughals also introduced the "bidri" technique of metalwork in which silver motifs are pressed against a black background. Famous Mughal metallurgists like <a href="/w/index.php?title=Ali_Kashmiri&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Ali Kashmiri (page does not exist)">Ali Kashmiri</a> and <a href="/w/index.php?title=Muhammed_Salih_Thatawi&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Muhammed Salih Thatawi (page does not exist)">Muhammed Salih Thatawi</a> created the <a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/seamless" class="extiw" title="wikt:seamless">seamless</a> <a href="/wiki/Celestial_globes" class="mw-redirect" title="Celestial globes">celestial globes</a>. </p> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Sheykh_lotfollah_mosque.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/65/Sheykh_lotfollah_mosque.jpg/220px-Sheykh_lotfollah_mosque.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/65/Sheykh_lotfollah_mosque.jpg/330px-Sheykh_lotfollah_mosque.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/65/Sheykh_lotfollah_mosque.jpg/440px-Sheykh_lotfollah_mosque.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2592" data-file-height="1944" /></a><figcaption>Entrance to <a href="/wiki/Sheykh_Lotfollah_mosque" class="mw-redirect" title="Sheykh Lotfollah mosque">Sheykh Lotfollah mosque</a>, <a href="/wiki/Naqsh-e_Jahan_Square" title="Naqsh-e Jahan Square">Naqsh-e Jahan Square</a>, <a href="/wiki/Isfahan" title="Isfahan">Isfahan</a></figcaption></figure> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Safavids_and_Qajars">Safavids and Qajars</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Islamic_art&action=edit&section=32" title="Edit section: Safavids and Qajars"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The Iranian <a href="/wiki/Safavid_dynasty" title="Safavid dynasty">Safavids</a>, a dynasty stretching from 1501 to 1786, is distinguished from the Mughal and Ottoman Empires, and earlier Persian rulers, in part through the Shi'a faith of its shahs, which they succeeded in making the majority denomination in Persia. Ceramic arts are marked by the strong influence of Chinese porcelain, often executed in <a href="/wiki/Blue_and_white_porcelain" class="mw-redirect" title="Blue and white porcelain">blue and white</a>. Architecture flourished, attaining a high point with the building program of <a href="/wiki/Abbas_I_of_Persia" class="mw-redirect" title="Abbas I of Persia">Shah Abbas</a> in <a href="/wiki/Isfahan" title="Isfahan">Isfahan</a>, which included numerous gardens, palaces (such as <a href="/wiki/%C4%80l%C4%AB_Q%C4%81p%C5%AB" class="mw-redirect" title="Ālī Qāpū">Ali Qapu</a>), an immense bazaar, and a <a href="/wiki/Shah_Mosque_(Isfahan)" title="Shah Mosque (Isfahan)">large imperial mosque</a>. </p><p>The art of manuscript illumination also achieved new heights, in particular in the <a href="/wiki/Tahmasp_I" title="Tahmasp I">Shah Tahmasp</a> <a href="/wiki/Shahnameh" title="Shahnameh">Shahnameh</a>, an immense copy of <a href="/wiki/Ferdowsi" title="Ferdowsi">Ferdowsi</a>'s poem containing more than 250 paintings. In the 17th century a new type of painting develops, based around the album (<a href="/wiki/Muraqqa" title="Muraqqa">muraqqa</a>). The albums were the creations of connoisseurs who bound together single sheets containing paintings, drawings, or calligraphy by various artists, sometimes excised from earlier books, and other times created as independent works. The paintings of <a href="/wiki/Reza_Abbasi" title="Reza Abbasi">Reza Abbasi</a> figure largely in this new art of the book, depicting one or two larger figures, typically idealized beauties in a garden setting, often using the <a href="/wiki/Grisaille" title="Grisaille">grisaille</a> techniques previously used for border paintings for the background. </p><p>After the fall of the Safavids, the <a href="/wiki/Qajar_dynasty" title="Qajar dynasty">Qajars</a>, a <a href="/wiki/Turkmen_people" class="mw-redirect" title="Turkmen people">Turkmen</a> tribe established from centuries on the banks of the <a href="/wiki/Caspian_Sea" title="Caspian Sea">Caspian Sea</a>, assumed power. Qajar art displays an increasing European influence, as in the large oil paintings portraying the Qajar shahs. Steelwork also assumed a new importance. Like the Ottomans, the Qajar dynasty survived until 1925, a few years after the First World War. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Modern_period">Modern period</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Islamic_art&action=edit&section=33" title="Edit section: Modern period"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Fes_Medersa_Bou_Inania_Mosaique2.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b5/Fes_Medersa_Bou_Inania_Mosaique2.jpg/220px-Fes_Medersa_Bou_Inania_Mosaique2.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="293" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b5/Fes_Medersa_Bou_Inania_Mosaique2.jpg/330px-Fes_Medersa_Bou_Inania_Mosaique2.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b5/Fes_Medersa_Bou_Inania_Mosaique2.jpg/440px-Fes_Medersa_Bou_Inania_Mosaique2.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1536" data-file-height="2048" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Bou_Inania_Madrasa" title="Bou Inania Madrasa">Bou Inania Madrasa</a>, <a href="/wiki/Fes" class="mw-redirect" title="Fes">Fes</a>, <a href="/wiki/Morocco" title="Morocco">Morocco</a>, <a href="/wiki/Zellij" title="Zellij">zellij</a> mosaic tiles forming elaborate <a href="/wiki/Islamic_geometric_patterns" title="Islamic geometric patterns">geometric</a> <a href="/wiki/Tessellations" class="mw-redirect" title="Tessellations">tessellations</a></figcaption></figure> <p>From the 15th century, the number of smaller Islamic courts began to fall, as the Ottoman Empire, and later the Safavids and European powers, swallowed them up; this had an effect on Islamic art, which was usually strongly led by the patronage of the court. From at least the 18th century onwards, elite Islamic art was increasingly influenced by European styles, and in the applied arts either largely adopted Western styles, or ceased to develop, retaining whatever style was prevalent at some point in the late 18th or early 19th centuries. Many industries with very long histories, such as <a href="/wiki/Persian_pottery" title="Persian pottery">pottery in Iran</a>, largely closed, while others, like metalwork in <a href="/wiki/Brass" title="Brass">brass</a>, became generally frozen in style, with much of their production going to tourists or exported as oriental exotica.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (January 2023)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p>The carpet industry has remained large, but mostly uses designs that originated before 1700, and competes with machine-made imitations both locally and around the world. Arts and crafts with a broader social base, like the <a href="/wiki/Zellij" title="Zellij">zelligj</a> mosaic tiles of the <a href="/wiki/Maghreb" title="Maghreb">Maghreb</a>, have often survived better. Islamic countries have developed modern and <a href="/wiki/Contemporary_art" title="Contemporary art">contemporary art</a>, with very vigorous art scenes, but the degree to which these should be grouped in a special category as "Islamic art" is questionable, although many artists deal with Islam-related themes, and use traditional elements such as calligraphy. Further, much modern <a href="/wiki/Islamic_architecture" title="Islamic architecture">architecture</a> and interior decoration in the Islamic world makes use of motifs and elements drawn from the heritage of Islamic art. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Islamic_art&action=edit&section=34" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Islamic_culture" title="Islamic culture">Islamic culture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arabic_miniature" title="Arabic miniature">Arabic miniature</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islamic_graffiti" title="Islamic graffiti">Islamic graffiti</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_museums_of_Islamic_art" title="List of museums of Islamic art">List of museums of Islamic art</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Siyah_Qalam" title="Siyah Qalam">Siyah Qalam</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Notes">Notes</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Islamic_art&action=edit&section=35" title="Edit section: Notes"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist reflist-columns references-column-width" style="column-width: 28em;"> <ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-1">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Marilyn Jenkins-Madina, Richard Ettinghausen and <a href="/wiki/Oleg_Grabar" title="Oleg Grabar">Oleg Grabar</a>, 2001, <i>Islamic Art and Architecture: 650–1250</i>, Yale University Press, <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-300-08869-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-300-08869-4">978-0-300-08869-4</a>, p.3; Brend, 10</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-2">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJ._M._BloomS._S._Blair2009" class="citation book cs1">J. M. Bloom; S. S. Blair (2009). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=un4WcfEASZwC&pg=PR7"><i>Grove Encyclopedia of Islamic Art and Architecture, Vol. II</i></a>. New York: Oxford University Press. pp. vii. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-530991-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-530991-1"><bdi>978-0-19-530991-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Grove+Encyclopedia+of+Islamic+Art+and+Architecture%2C+Vol.+II&rft.place=New+York&rft.pages=vii&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2009&rft.isbn=978-0-19-530991-1&rft.au=J.+M.+Bloom&rft.au=S.+S.+Blair&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Dun4WcfEASZwC%26pg%3DPR7&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIslamic+art" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-3">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation encyclopaedia cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20091028223201/http://encarta.msn.com/encyclopedia_761577725/Islamic_Art_and_Architecture.html"><i>MSN Encarta: </i>Islamic Art and architecture<i><span></span></i></a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://encarta.msn.com/encyclopedia_761577725/Islamic_Art_and_Architecture.html">the original</a> on 2009-10-28.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=MSN+Encarta%3A+Islamic+Art+and+architecture&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fencarta.msn.com%2Fencyclopedia_761577725%2FIslamic_Art_and_Architecture.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIslamic+art" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-:2-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:2_4-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:2_4-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.britannica.com/topic/Islamic-arts">"Islamic arts | Characteristics, Calligraphy, Paintings, & Architecture"</a>. <i>Encyclopædia Britannica</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2021-10-13</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Encyclop%C3%A6dia+Britannica&rft.atitle=Islamic+arts+%7C+Characteristics%2C+Calligraphy%2C+Paintings%2C+%26+Architecture&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.britannica.com%2Ftopic%2FIslamic-arts&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIslamic+art" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-5">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSuarez2010" class="citation book cs1">Suarez, Michael F. (2010). "38 The History of the Book in the Muslim World". <i>The Oxford companion to the book</i>. Oxford and New York: Oxford University Press. pp. 331ff. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780198606536" title="Special:BookSources/9780198606536"><bdi>9780198606536</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/50238944">50238944</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=38+The+History+of+the+Book+in+the+Muslim+World&rft.btitle=The+Oxford+companion+to+the+book&rft.place=Oxford+and+New+York&rft.pages=331ff&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2010&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F50238944&rft.isbn=9780198606536&rft.aulast=Suarez&rft.aufirst=Michael+F.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIslamic+art" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-met-6"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-met_6-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-met_6-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.metmuseum.org/toah/hd/figs/hd_figs.htm">"Figural Representation in Islamic Art"</a>. <i>The Metropolitan Museum of Art</i>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=The+Metropolitan+Museum+of+Art&rft.atitle=Figural+Representation+in+Islamic+Art&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.metmuseum.org%2Ftoah%2Fhd%2Ffigs%2Fhd_figs.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIslamic+art" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-7"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-7">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">"One group of painters followed a hedonistic orientation toward a festive representation of events and personages, luxurious ornamentation, and wealth of figures and colors; this is illustrated by the miniatures of the Golestān of 1556-57 and the love scenes by the artist ʿAbdallāh in the Būstān of 1575-76 (...). The other group of miniaturists preferred naive genre scenes illustrating folk characteristics, as in the Toḥfat al-aḥrār of the 1670s." <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation encyclopaedia cs1">"History of art in Iran. viii. Islamic Central Asia". <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://iranicaonline.org/"><i>Encyclopaedia Iranica</i></a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2021-10-17</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=History+of+art+in+Iran.+viii.+Islamic+Central+Asia&rft.btitle=Encyclopaedia+Iranica&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Firanicaonline.org%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIslamic+art" class="Z3988"></span><sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Verifiability" title="Wikipedia:Verifiability"><span title="|url= value does not point to the appropriate article; (October 2022)">failed verification</span></a></i>]</sup></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-esposito-8"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-esposito_8-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFEsposito,_John_L.2011" class="citation book cs1">Esposito, John L. (2011). <i>What Everyone Needs to Know about Islam</i> (2nd ed.). Oxford University Press. pp. 14–15.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=What+Everyone+Needs+to+Know+about+Islam&rft.pages=14-15&rft.edition=2nd&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2011&rft.au=Esposito%2C+John+L.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIslamic+art" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-9"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-9">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMelikian2008" class="citation news cs1"><a href="/wiki/Souren_Melikian" title="Souren Melikian">Melikian, Souren</a> (December 5, 2008). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.nytimes.com/2008/12/06/arts/06iht-melik6.1.18429368.html?pagewanted=2&sq=islamic%20art&st=nyt&scp=5">"Qatar's Museum of Islamic Art: Despite flaws, a house of masterpieces"</a>. <i>International Herald Tribune</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">September 6,</span> 2011</span>. <q>This is a European construct of the 19th century that gained wide acceptance following a display of Les Arts Musulmans at the old Trocadero palace in Paris during the 1889 Exposition Universelle. The idea of "Islamic art" has even less substance than the notion of "Christian art" from the British Isles to Germany to Russia during the 1000 years separating the reigns of Charlemagne and Queen Victoria might have.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=International+Herald+Tribune&rft.atitle=Qatar%27s+Museum+of+Islamic+Art%3A+Despite+flaws%2C+a+house+of+masterpieces&rft.date=2008-12-05&rft.aulast=Melikian&rft.aufirst=Souren&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.nytimes.com%2F2008%2F12%2F06%2Farts%2F06iht-melik6.1.18429368.html%3Fpagewanted%3D2%26sq%3Dislamic%2520art%26st%3Dnyt%26scp%3D5&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIslamic+art" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-10"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-10">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMelikian2004" class="citation news cs1">Melikian, Souren (April 24, 2004). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.nytimes.com/2004/04/24/style/24iht-souren_ed3_.html?scp=9&sq=islamic%20art&st=nyt&pagewanted=1">"Toward a clearer vision of 'Islamic' art"</a>. <i>International Herald Tribune</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">September 6,</span> 2011</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=International+Herald+Tribune&rft.atitle=Toward+a+clearer+vision+of+%27Islamic%27+art&rft.date=2004-04-24&rft.aulast=Melikian&rft.aufirst=Souren&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.nytimes.com%2F2004%2F04%2F24%2Fstyle%2F24iht-souren_ed3_.html%3Fscp%3D9%26sq%3Dislamic%2520art%26st%3Dnyt%26pagewanted%3D1&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIslamic+art" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-11"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-11">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBlairBloom2003" class="citation journal cs1">Blair, Shirley S.; Bloom, Jonathan M. (2003). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://arthistoriography.files.wordpress.com/2012/05/blairbloomdoc.pdf">"The Mirage of Islamic Art: Reflections on the Study of an Unwieldy Field"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. <i>The Art Bulletin</i>. <b>85</b> (1): 152–184. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2307%2F3177331">10.2307/3177331</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/3177331">3177331</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Art+Bulletin&rft.atitle=The+Mirage+of+Islamic+Art%3A+Reflections+on+the+Study+of+an+Unwieldy+Field&rft.volume=85&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=152-184&rft.date=2003&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2307%2F3177331&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F3177331%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.aulast=Blair&rft.aufirst=Shirley+S.&rft.au=Bloom%2C+Jonathan+M.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Farthistoriography.files.wordpress.com%2F2012%2F05%2Fblairbloomdoc.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIslamic+art" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-12"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-12">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKerner2014" class="citation book cs1">Kerner, Jacelyn K. (2014). "From margin to mainstream: the history of Islamic art and architecture in the twenty-first century". In Bennett, Clinton (ed.). <i>The Bloomsbury Companion to Islamic Studies</i>. Bloomsbury Publishing. pp. 227–229. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781472586902" title="Special:BookSources/9781472586902"><bdi>9781472586902</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=From+margin+to+mainstream%3A+the+history+of+Islamic+art+and+architecture+in+the+twenty-first+century&rft.btitle=The+Bloomsbury+Companion+to+Islamic+Studies&rft.pages=227-229&rft.pub=Bloomsbury+Publishing&rft.date=2014&rft.isbn=9781472586902&rft.aulast=Kerner&rft.aufirst=Jacelyn+K.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIslamic+art" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-13"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-13">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBondak2017" class="citation web cs1">Bondak, Marwa (2017-04-25). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://blog.mozaico.com/islamic-art-history-an-influential-period/">"Islamic Art History: An Influential Period"</a>. <i>Mozaico</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">26 May</span> 2017</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Mozaico&rft.atitle=Islamic+Art+History%3A+An+Influential+Period&rft.date=2017-04-25&rft.aulast=Bondak&rft.aufirst=Marwa&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fblog.mozaico.com%2Fislamic-art-history-an-influential-period%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIslamic+art" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-JAACMadden-14"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-JAACMadden_14-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-JAACMadden_14-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Madden (1975), pp.423–430</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-15"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-15">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Islamic Archaeology in the Sudan - Page 22, Intisar Soghayroun Elzein - 2004</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-16"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-16">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFThompson,_MuhammadBegum,_Nasima" class="citation web cs1">Thompson, Muhammad; Begum, Nasima. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.turkotek.com/salon_00101/salon.html">"Islamic Textile Art: Anomalies in Kilims"</a>. <i>Salon du Tapis d'Orient</i>. TurkoTek<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">25 August</span> 2009</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Salon+du+Tapis+d%27Orient&rft.atitle=Islamic+Textile+Art%3A+Anomalies+in+Kilims&rft.au=Thompson%2C+Muhammad&rft.au=Begum%2C+Nasima&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.turkotek.com%2Fsalon_00101%2Fsalon.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIslamic+art" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-17"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-17">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAlexenberg2006" class="citation book cs1">Alexenberg, Melvin L. (2006). <i>The future of art in a digital age: from Hellenistic to Hebraic consciousness</i>. Intellect Ltd. p. 55. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/1-84150-136-0" title="Special:BookSources/1-84150-136-0"><bdi>1-84150-136-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+future+of+art+in+a+digital+age%3A+from+Hellenistic+to+Hebraic+consciousness&rft.pages=55&rft.pub=Intellect+Ltd&rft.date=2006&rft.isbn=1-84150-136-0&rft.aulast=Alexenberg&rft.aufirst=Melvin+L.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIslamic+art" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-18"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-18">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBackhouse,_Tim" class="citation web cs1">Backhouse, Tim. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.geometricdesign.co.uk/perfect.htm">"Only God is Perfect"</a>. <i>Islamic and Geometric Art</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">25 August</span> 2009</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Islamic+and+Geometric+Art&rft.atitle=Only+God+is+Perfect&rft.au=Backhouse%2C+Tim&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.geometricdesign.co.uk%2Fperfect.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIslamic+art" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-19"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-19">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Arts, p. 223. see nos. 278–290</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Brend,_Barbara_1535_p._49-20"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Brend,_Barbara_1535_p._49_20-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Brend,_Barbara_1535_p._49_20-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Brend, Barbara. "Figurative Art in Medieval Islam and the Riddle of Bihzād of Herāt (1465–1535). By Michael Barry. p. 49. Paris, Flammarion, 2004." Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society 17.1 (2007): 49</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Brend,_Barbara_1535_p._40-21"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Brend,_Barbara_1535_p._40_21-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Brend,_Barbara_1535_p._40_21-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Brend, Barbara. "Figurative Art in Medieval Islam and the Riddle of Bihzād of Herāt (1465–1535). By Michael Barry. p. 40. Paris, Flammarion, 2004." Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society 17.1 (2007): 40</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Brend,_Barbara_1535_p._50-22"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Brend,_Barbara_1535_p._50_22-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Brend,_Barbara_1535_p._50_22-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Brend, Barbara. "Figurative Art in Medieval Islam and the Riddle of Bihzād of Herāt (1465–1535). By Michael Barry. p. 50. Paris, Flammarion, 2004." Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society 17.1 (2007): 50</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-23"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-23">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJ._BloomS._Blair2009" class="citation book cs1">J. Bloom; S. Blair (2009). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=un4WcfEASZwC&q=cairo+egypt+miniature+paintings+mamluk&pg=RA1-PA192"><i>Grove Encyclopedia of Islamic Art</i></a>. New York: Oxford University Press, Inc. pp. 192 and 207. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-530991-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-530991-1"><bdi>978-0-19-530991-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Grove+Encyclopedia+of+Islamic+Art&rft.place=New+York&rft.pages=192+and+207&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press%2C+Inc.&rft.date=2009&rft.isbn=978-0-19-530991-1&rft.au=J.+Bloom&rft.au=S.+Blair&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Dun4WcfEASZwC%26q%3Dcairo%2Begypt%2Bminiature%2Bpaintings%2Bmamluk%26pg%3DRA1-PA192&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIslamic+art" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-24"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-24">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Brend, Barbara. "Figurative Art in Medieval Islam and the Riddle of Bihzād of Herāt (1465–1535). By Michael Barry. p. 59. Paris, Flammarion, 2004." Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society 17.1 (2007): 59</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-25"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-25">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Brend, Barbara. "Figurative Art in Medieval Islam and the Riddle of Bihzād of Herāt (1465–1535). By Michael Barry. pp. 63-65. Paris, Flammarion, 2004." Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society 17.1 (2007): 63-65</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-26"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-26">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Brend, Barbara. "Figurative Art in Medieval Islam and the Riddle of Bihzād of Herāt (1465–1535). By Michael Barry. p. 65. Paris, Flammarion, 2004." Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society 17.1 (2007): 65</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-27"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-27">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">On the Exercise of Coastal Control through Observation and Long Distance Communication Systems in Seljuk Territory in the XIIIth Century</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-28"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-28">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Brend, Barbara. "Figurative Art in Medieval Islam and the Riddle of Bihzād of Herāt (1465–1535). By Michael Barry. p. 66. Paris, Flammarion, 2004." Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society 17.1 (2007): 66</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-29"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-29">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Brend, Barbara. "Figurative Art in Medieval Islam and the Riddle of Bihzād of Herāt (1465–1535). By Michael Barry. p. 27. Paris, Flammarion, 2004." Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society 17.1 (2007): 27</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-30"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-30">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Brend, Barbara. "Figurative Art in Medieval Islam and the Riddle of Bihzād of Herāt (1465–1535). By Michael Barry. p. 278-283. Paris, Flammarion, 2004." Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society 17.1 (2007): 278-283</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-31"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-31">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Brend, Barbara. "Figurative Art in Medieval Islam and the Riddle of Bihzād of Herāt (1465–1535). By Michael Barry. p. 312. Paris, Flammarion, 2004." Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society 17.1 (2007): 312</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-32"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-32">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSalim_AyduzIbrahim_KalinCaner_Dagli2014" class="citation book cs1">Salim Ayduz; Ibrahim Kalin; Caner Dagli (2014). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=or-6BwAAQBAJ&q=islamic+art+idolatry+geometry&pg=PA263"><i>The Oxford Encyclopedia of Philosophy, Science, and Technology in Islam</i></a>. <a href="/wiki/Oxford_University_Press" title="Oxford University Press">Oxford University Press</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-981257-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-981257-8"><bdi>978-0-19-981257-8</bdi></a>. <q>Figural representation is virtually unused in Islamic art because of Islam's strong antagonism of idolatry. It was important for Muslim scholars and artists to find a style of art that represented the Islamic ideals of unity (<i>tawhid</i>) and order without figural representation. Geometric patterns perfectly suited this goal.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Oxford+Encyclopedia+of+Philosophy%2C+Science%2C+and+Technology+in+Islam&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2014&rft.isbn=978-0-19-981257-8&rft.au=Salim+Ayduz&rft.au=Ibrahim+Kalin&rft.au=Caner+Dagli&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Dor-6BwAAQBAJ%26q%3Dislamic%2Bart%2Bidolatry%2Bgeometry%26pg%3DPA263&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIslamic+art" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-33"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-33">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Davies, Penelope J.E. Denny, Walter B. Hofrichter, Frima Fox. Jacobs, Joseph. Roberts, Ann M. Simon, <i>David L. Janson's History of Art</i>, Prentice Hall; 2007, Upper Saddle, New Jersey. Seventh Edition, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-13-193455-4" title="Special:BookSources/0-13-193455-4">0-13-193455-4</a> pg. 298</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-34"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-34">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">King and Sylvester, throughout, but 9–28, 49–50, & 59 in particular</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-35"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-35">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">King and Sylvester, 27, 61–62, as "The Medici Mamluk Carpet"</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-36"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-36">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">King and Sylvester, 59–66, 79–83</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-37"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-37">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">King and Sylvester: Spanish carpets: 11–12, 50–52; Balkans: 77 and <i>passim</i></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-38"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-38">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Mason (1995), p. 5</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Henderson-39"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Henderson_39-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHendersonMcLoughlinMcPhail2004" class="citation journal cs1">Henderson, J.; McLoughlin, S. D.; McPhail, D. S. (2004). "Radical changes in Islamic glass technology: evidence for conservatism and experimentation with new glass recipes from early and middle Islamic Raqqa, Syria". <i>Archaeometry</i>. <b>46</b> (3): 439–68. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1111%2Fj.1475-4754.2004.00167.x">10.1111/j.1475-4754.2004.00167.x</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Archaeometry&rft.atitle=Radical+changes+in+Islamic+glass+technology%3A+evidence+for+conservatism+and+experimentation+with+new+glass+recipes+from+early+and+middle+Islamic+Raqqa%2C+Syria&rft.volume=46&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=439-68&rft.date=2004&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1111%2Fj.1475-4754.2004.00167.x&rft.aulast=Henderson&rft.aufirst=J.&rft.au=McLoughlin%2C+S.+D.&rft.au=McPhail%2C+D.+S.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIslamic+art" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-40"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-40">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Mason (1995), p. 7</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-41"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-41">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Arts, 206–207</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-42"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-42">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">See Rawson throughout; Canby, 120–123, and see index; Jones & Mitchell, 206–211</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-43"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-43">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Savage, 175, suggests that the Persians had made some experiments towards producing it, and the earliest European porcelain, <a href="/wiki/Medici_porcelain" title="Medici porcelain">Medici porcelain</a>, was made in the late 16th century, perhaps with a Persian or <a href="/wiki/Levantines_(Latin_Christians)" class="mw-redirect" title="Levantines (Latin Christians)">Levantine</a> assistant on the team.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-44"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-44">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBaer1983" class="citation book cs1">Baer, Eva (1983). <i>Metalwork in Medieval Islamic Art</i>. <a href="/wiki/State_University_of_New_York_Press" class="mw-redirect" title="State University of New York Press">State University of New York Press</a>. pp. 58, 86, 143, 151, 176, 201, 226, 243, 292, 304. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-87395-602-8" title="Special:BookSources/0-87395-602-8"><bdi>0-87395-602-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Metalwork+in+Medieval+Islamic+Art&rft.pages=58%2C+86%2C+143%2C+151%2C+176%2C+201%2C+226%2C+243%2C+292%2C+304&rft.pub=State+University+of+New+York+Press&rft.date=1983&rft.isbn=0-87395-602-8&rft.aulast=Baer&rft.aufirst=Eva&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIslamic+art" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-45"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-45">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Arts, 131, 135. The Introduction (pp. 131–135) is by <a href="/wiki/Ralph_Pinder-Wilson" title="Ralph Pinder-Wilson">Ralph Pinder-Wilson</a>, who shared the catalogue entries with <a href="/w/index.php?title=Waffiya_Essy&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Waffiya Essy (page does not exist)">Waffiya Essy</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-46"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-46">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Encyclopaedia Judaica, "Glass", <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jewishvirtuallibrary.org/jsource/judaica/ejud_0002_0007_0_07392.html">Online version</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-47"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-47">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Arts, 131–133</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-48"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-48">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Arts, 131, 141</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-49"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-49">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Arts, 141</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-50"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-50">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Endnote 111 in <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=ONUFZfcEkBgC&dq=Islamic+glass+Jewish&pg=RA1-PA88"><i>Roman glass: reflections on cultural change</i></a>, Fleming, Stuart. see also endnote 110 for Jewish glassworkers</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-51"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-51">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Arts, 131, 133–135</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-52"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-52">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Arts, 131–135, 141–146; quote, 134</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-53"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-53">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Arts, 134–135</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Baer1983-54"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Baer1983_54-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBaer1983" class="citation book cs1">Baer, Eva (1983). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=s__yi4pD-VEC"><i>Metalwork in Medieval Islamic Art</i></a>. SUNY Press. pp. whole book. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-87395-602-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-87395-602-4"><bdi>978-0-87395-602-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Metalwork+in+Medieval+Islamic+Art&rft.pages=whole+book&rft.pub=SUNY+Press&rft.date=1983&rft.isbn=978-0-87395-602-4&rft.aulast=Baer&rft.aufirst=Eva&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Ds__yi4pD-VEC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIslamic+art" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-55"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-55">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.searchtruth.com/book_display.php?book=24&translator=2">Hadithic texts against gold and silver vessels</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-56"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-56">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Arts, 201, and earlier pages for animal shapes.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-57"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-57">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">But see Arts, 170, where the standard view is disputed</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-58"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-58">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.metmuseum.org/toah/works-of-art/91.1.530">"Base of a ewer with Zodiac medallions [Iran] (91.1.530)"</a>. Heilbrunn Timeline of Art History. New York: The Metropolitan Museum of Art, July 2011; see also on <a href="/wiki/Astrology" title="Astrology">astrology</a>, Carboni, Stefano. Following the Stars: Images of the Zodiac in Islamic Art. (New York: The Metropolitan Museum of Art, 1997), 16. The inscription reads: <i>"Bi-l-yumn wa al-baraka…"</i> meaning "With bliss and divine grace…"</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-59"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-59">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Arts, 157–160, and exhibits 161–204</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-60"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-60">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">See the relevant sections in "Arts"</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-61"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-61">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://simerg.com/literary-readings/literary-reading-fatimid-rock-crystal-ewers-most-valuable-objects-in-islamic-art/">Fatimid Rock Crystal Ewers, Most Valuable Objects in Islamic Art</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-62"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-62">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Arts, 120–121</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-63"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-63">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="/wiki/File:WLA_vanda_Ottoman_marquetry_and_tile-top_table_2.jpg" title="File:WLA vanda Ottoman marquetry and tile-top table 2.jpg">Table</a> in the <a href="/wiki/Victoria_%26_Albert_Museum" class="mw-redirect" title="Victoria & Albert Museum">Victoria & Albert Museum</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-64"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-64">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Rogers and Ward, 156</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-65"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-65">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Arts, 147–150, and exhibits following</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-66"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-66">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Arts, 65–68; 74, no. 3</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-67"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-67">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.louvre.fr/llv/oeuvres/detail_notice_popup.jsp?CONTENT%3C%3Ecnt_id=10134198673226262&CURRENT_LLV_NOTICE%3C%3Ecnt_id=10134198673226262&FOLDER%3C%3Efolder_id=9852723696500781">Louvre, Suaire de St-Josse</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20110623185919/http://www.louvre.fr/llv/oeuvres/detail_notice_popup.jsp?CONTENT%3C%3Ecnt_id=10134198673226262&CURRENT_LLV_NOTICE%3C%3Ecnt_id=10134198673226262&FOLDER%3C%3Efolder_id=9852723696500781">Archived</a> 2011-06-23 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>. Exhibited as no. 4 in Arts, 74.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-68"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-68">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Arts, 68, 71, 82–86, 106–108, 110–111, 114–115</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-:24-69"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:24_69-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:24_69-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:24_69-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBloomBlair2009" class="citation book cs1">Bloom, Jonathan M.; Blair, Sheila S., eds. (2009). "Architecture". <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=un4WcfEASZwC"><i>The Grove Encyclopedia of Islamic Art and Architecture</i></a>. Vol. 1. Oxford University Press. pp. 68–71. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780195309911" title="Special:BookSources/9780195309911"><bdi>9780195309911</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Architecture&rft.btitle=The+Grove+Encyclopedia+of+Islamic+Art+and+Architecture&rft.pages=68-71&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2009&rft.isbn=9780195309911&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Dun4WcfEASZwC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIslamic+art" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-:0522-70"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-:0522_70-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFTabbaa2007" class="citation book cs1">Tabbaa, Yasser (2007). Fleet, Kate; Krämer, Gudrun; Matringe, Denis; Nawas, John; Rowson, Everett (eds.). <i>Encyclopaedia of Islam, Three</i>. Brill. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9789004161658" title="Special:BookSources/9789004161658"><bdi>9789004161658</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Encyclopaedia+of+Islam%2C+Three&rft.pub=Brill&rft.date=2007&rft.isbn=9789004161658&rft.aulast=Tabbaa&rft.aufirst=Yasser&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIslamic+art" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-71"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-71">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFowden2004" class="citation book cs1">Fowden, Garth (2004). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=3_okDQAAQBAJ"><i>Qusayr 'Amra: Art and the Umayyad Elite in Late Antique Syria</i></a>. University of California Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-520-23665-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-520-23665-3"><bdi>978-0-520-23665-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Qusayr+%27Amra%3A+Art+and+the+Umayyad+Elite+in+Late+Antique+Syria&rft.pub=University+of+California+Press&rft.date=2004&rft.isbn=978-0-520-23665-3&rft.aulast=Fowden&rft.aufirst=Garth&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D3_okDQAAQBAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIslamic+art" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-72"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-72">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Ettinghausen, Grabar, & Jenkins-Madina, p. 47</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-73"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-73">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Gruber, World of Art</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-74"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-74">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Hillenbrand (1999), p.40</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-75"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-75">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Hillenbrand (1999), p.54</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-76"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-76">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Hillenbrand (1999), p.58</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-77"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-77">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Hillenbrand (1999), p.89</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-78"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-78">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Hillenbrand (1999), p.91</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-79"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-79">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Hillenbrand (1999), Chapter 4</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-80"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-80">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Hillenbrand, p.100</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-81"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-81">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Hillenbrand, p.128-131</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-82"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-82">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Levey, chapters 5 and 6</span> </li> </ol></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Islamic_art&action=edit&section=36" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1246091330"><table class="sidebar sidebar-collapse nomobile vcard hlist"><tbody><tr><th class="sidebar-title"><a href="/wiki/History_of_art" title="History of art">History of art</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:transparent;border-top:1px solid #aaa; text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)">Periods and movements</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Prehistoric_art" title="Prehistoric art">Prehistoric</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_art" title="Ancient art">Ancient</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Medieval_art" title="Medieval art">Medieval</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Pre-Romanesque_art" class="mw-redirect" title="Pre-Romanesque art">Pre-Romanesque</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Romanesque_art" title="Romanesque art">Romanesque</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gothic_art" title="Gothic art">Gothic</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Renaissance_art" title="Renaissance art">Renaissance</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Mannerism" title="Mannerism">Mannerism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Baroque" title="Baroque">Baroque</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rococo" title="Rococo">Rococo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neoclassicism" title="Neoclassicism">Neoclassicism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Revivalism_(architecture)" title="Revivalism (architecture)">Revivalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Romanticism" title="Romanticism">Romanticism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Realism_(art_movement)" title="Realism (art movement)">Realism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pre-Raphaelites" class="mw-redirect" title="Pre-Raphaelites">Pre-Raphaelites</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Modern_art" title="Modern art">Modern</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Impressionism" title="Impressionism">Impressionism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Symbolism_(art)" class="mw-redirect" title="Symbolism (art)">Symbolism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arts_and_Crafts_movement" title="Arts and Crafts movement">Decorative</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Post-Impressionism" title="Post-Impressionism">Post-Impressionism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Art_Nouveau" title="Art Nouveau">Art Nouveau</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fauvism" title="Fauvism">Fauvism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Expressionism" title="Expressionism">Expressionism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cubism" title="Cubism">Cubism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Contemporary_art" title="Contemporary art">Contemporary</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Postmodern_art" title="Postmodern art">Postmodern</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conceptual_art" title="Conceptual art">Conceptualism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pop_art" title="Pop art">Pop</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Minimalism_(visual_arts)" title="Minimalism (visual arts)">Minimalism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Periods_in_Western_art_history" title="Periods in Western art history">Periods in Western art history</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:transparent;border-top:1px solid #aaa; text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)">Regions</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"><b>Art of the Middle East</b><br /> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Art_of_Mesopotamia" title="Art of Mesopotamia">Mesopotamian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Art_of_ancient_Egypt" title="Art of ancient Egypt">Egyptian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hittite_art" title="Hittite art">Hittite</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Persian_art" title="Persian art">Persian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pre-Islamic_Arabia#Art" title="Pre-Islamic Arabia">Arabian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_South_Arabian_art" title="Ancient South Arabian art">South Arabian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phoenicia#Art" title="Phoenicia">Phoenician</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Turkish_art" title="Turkish art">Ottoman</a></li></ul> <p><b><a href="/wiki/Central_Asian_art" title="Central Asian art">Art of Central Asia</a></b><br /> </p><p><b><a href="/wiki/History_of_Asian_art" title="History of Asian art">Art of East Asia</a></b><br /> </p> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_art" title="Chinese art">Chinese</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Visual_art_of_Hong_Kong" title="Visual art of Hong Kong">Hong Kong</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Taiwanese_art" title="Taiwanese art">Taiwan</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Japanese_art" title="Japanese art">Japanese</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Korean_art" title="Korean art">Korean</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tibetan_art" title="Tibetan art">Tibetan</a></li></ul> <p><b><a href="/wiki/History_of_Asian_art" title="History of Asian art">Art of South Asia</a></b><br /> </p> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Indian_art" title="Indian art">Indian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bhutanese_art" title="Bhutanese art">Bhutanese</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Newar_art" title="Newar art">Newar</a></li></ul> <p><b><a href="/wiki/Southeast_Asian_arts" title="Southeast Asian arts">Art of Southeast Asia</a></b><br /> </p> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Indonesian_art" title="Indonesian art">Indonesian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arts_in_the_Philippines" title="Arts in the Philippines">Filipino</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vietnamese_art" title="Vietnamese art">Vietnamese</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thai_art" title="Thai art">Thai</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Art_of_Myanmar" title="Art of Myanmar">Myanmar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Malaysian_art" title="Malaysian art">Malaysian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cambodian_art" title="Cambodian art">Cambodian</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Khmer_sculpture" title="Khmer sculpture">Khmer</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lao_art" title="Lao art">Lao</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Visual_art_of_Singapore" title="Visual art of Singapore">Singaporean</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bruneian_art" title="Bruneian art">Bruneian</a></li></ul> <p><b><a href="/wiki/Art_of_Europe" title="Art of Europe">Art of Europe</a></b><br /> </p> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Minoan_art" title="Minoan art">Minoan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cycladic_art" title="Cycladic art">Cycladic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Etruscan_art" title="Etruscan art">Etruscan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dacian_art" title="Dacian art">Dacian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Celtic_art" title="Celtic art">Celtic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scythian_art" class="mw-redirect" title="Scythian art">Scythian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greek_art" title="Ancient Greek art">Greek</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hellenistic_art" title="Hellenistic art">Hellenistic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iberian_sculpture" title="Iberian sculpture">Iberian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_art" title="Roman art">Roman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Byzantine_art" title="Byzantine art">Byzantine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anglo-Saxon_art" title="Anglo-Saxon art">Anglo-Saxon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ottonian_art" title="Ottonian art">Ottonian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Viking_art" title="Viking art">Viking</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Culture_of_ancient_Rus" class="mw-redirect" title="Culture of ancient Rus">Rus</a></li></ul> <p><b><a href="/wiki/African_art" title="African art">Art of Africa</a></b> </p> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Igbo_art" title="Igbo art">Igbo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yoruba_art" title="Yoruba art">Yoruba</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Benin_art" class="mw-redirect" title="Benin art">Benin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kuba_art" title="Kuba art">Kuba</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Luba_art" title="Luba art">Luba</a></li></ul> <p><b><a href="/wiki/Visual_arts_of_the_Indigenous_peoples_of_the_Americas" title="Visual arts of the Indigenous peoples of the Americas">Art of the Americas</a></b> </p> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Pre-Columbian_art" title="Pre-Columbian art">Pre-Columbian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Maya_art" title="Ancient Maya art">Maya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Muisca_art" title="Muisca art">Muisca</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Inuit_art" title="Inuit art">Inuit</a></li></ul> <p><b><a href="/wiki/Art_of_Oceania" class="mw-redirect" title="Art of Oceania">Art of Oceania</a></b> </p> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Indigenous_Australian_art" title="Indigenous Australian art">Australian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cook_Islands_art" title="Cook Islands art">Cook Islands</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hawaiian_art" title="Hawaiian art">Hawaiian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Papua_New_Guinean_art" title="Papua New Guinean art">Papuan</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:transparent;border-top:1px solid #aaa; text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Religious_art" title="Religious art">Religions</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Buddhist_art" title="Buddhist art">Buddhist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christian_art" title="Christian art">Christian</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Catholic_art" title="Catholic art">Catholic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Art_in_the_Protestant_Reformation_and_Counter-Reformation" title="Art in the Protestant Reformation and Counter-Reformation">Protestant</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hindu_art" title="Hindu art">Hindu</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Islamic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jain_art" title="Jain art">Jain</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Manichaean_art" title="Manichaean art">Manichaean</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sikh_art" title="Sikh art">Sikh</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Taoist_art" title="Taoist art">Taoist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Haitian_Vodou_art" title="Haitian Vodou art">Vodou</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vodun_art" title="Vodun art">Vodun</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:transparent;border-top:1px solid #aaa; text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)">Techniques</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Sculpture" title="Sculpture">Sculpture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_painting" title="History of painting">Painting</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pottery" title="Pottery">Pottery</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Calligraphy" title="Calligraphy">Calligraphy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_architecture" title="History of architecture">Architecture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Photography" title="Photography">Photography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Graphic_arts" title="Graphic arts">Graphic arts</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Digital_art" title="Digital art">Digital art</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:transparent;border-top:1px solid #aaa; text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)">Types</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Abstract_art" title="Abstract art">Abstract</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Art_history" title="Art history">Art history</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Art_movement" title="Art movement">Art movement</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_art_movements" title="List of art movements">List</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Figurative_art" title="Figurative art">Figurative</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Funerary_art" title="Funerary art">Funerary</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Na%C3%AFve_art" title="Naïve art">Naïve</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Narrative_art" title="Narrative art">Narrative</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Realism_(arts)" title="Realism (arts)">Naturalist</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-navbar"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:History_of_art_sidebar" title="Template:History of art sidebar"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:History_of_art_sidebar" title="Template talk:History of art sidebar"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:History_of_art_sidebar" title="Special:EditPage/Template:History of art sidebar"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <p><b>Books and journals</b> </p> <ul><li>"Arts": Jones, Dalu & Michell, George, (eds); <i>The Arts of Islam</i>, <a href="/wiki/Arts_Council_of_Great_Britain" title="Arts Council of Great Britain">Arts Council of Great Britain</a>, 1976, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-7287-0081-6" title="Special:BookSources/0-7287-0081-6">0-7287-0081-6</a></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAli2001" class="citation journal cs1"><a href="/wiki/Wijdan_Ali" title="Wijdan Ali">Ali, Wijdan</a> (2001). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20041203232347/http://www2.let.uu.nl/Solis/anpt/ejos/pdf4/07Ali.pdf">"From the Literal to the Spiritual: The Development of the Prophet Muhammad's Portrayal from 13th Century Ilkhanid Miniatures to 17th Century Ottoman Art"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. <i>EJOS</i>. <b>4</b> (7). Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www2.let.uu.nl/solis/anpt/EJOS/pdf4/07Ali.pdf">the original</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span> on 2004-12-03.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=EJOS&rft.atitle=From+the+Literal+to+the+Spiritual%3A+The+Development+of+the+Prophet+Muhammad%27s+Portrayal+from+13th+Century+Ilkhanid+Miniatures+to+17th+Century+Ottoman+Art&rft.volume=4&rft.issue=7&rft.date=2001&rft.aulast=Ali&rft.aufirst=Wijdan&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww2.let.uu.nl%2Fsolis%2Fanpt%2FEJOS%2Fpdf4%2F07Ali.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIslamic+art" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li>Blair, S. Bloom, J. 'The Mirage of Islamic Art: Reflections on the Study of an Unwieldy Field'. The Art Bulletin, 2003, 85, 1, 152–184, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.collegeart.org/pdf/artbulletin/Art%20Bulletin%20Vol%2085%20No%201%20Blair%20and%20Bloom.pdf">PDF</a></li> <li>Bloom, Sheila and Jonathan, eds., <i>Rivers of Paradise: Water in Islamic Art and Culture</i>, Yale University Press, 2009.</li> <li>Canby, Sheila R. (ed). <i>Shah Abbas; The Remaking of Iran</i>, 2009, British Museum Press, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7141-2452-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-7141-2452-0">978-0-7141-2452-0</a></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFEttinghausenGrabarJenkins-Madina2003" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Richard_Ettinghausen" title="Richard Ettinghausen">Ettinghausen, Richard</a>; <a href="/wiki/Oleg_Grabar" title="Oleg Grabar">Grabar, Oleg</a>; Jenkins-Madina, Marilyn (2003). <span class="id-lock-registration" title="Free registration required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/isbn_9780300088670"><i>Islamic Art and Architecture 650–1250</i></a></span> (2nd ed.). Yale University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-300-08869-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-300-08869-4"><bdi>978-0-300-08869-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Islamic+Art+and+Architecture+650%E2%80%931250&rft.edition=2nd&rft.pub=Yale+University+Press&rft.date=2003&rft.isbn=978-0-300-08869-4&rft.aulast=Ettinghausen&rft.aufirst=Richard&rft.au=Grabar%2C+Oleg&rft.au=Jenkins-Madina%2C+Marilyn&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fisbn_9780300088670&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIslamic+art" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li>King, Donald and <a href="/wiki/David_Sylvester" title="David Sylvester">Sylvester, David</a> eds. <i>The Eastern Carpet in the Western World, From the 15th to the 17th century</i>, <a href="/wiki/Arts_Council_of_Great_Britain" title="Arts Council of Great Britain">Arts Council of Great Britain</a>, London, 1983, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-7287-0362-9" title="Special:BookSources/0-7287-0362-9">0-7287-0362-9</a></li> <li>Hillenbrand, Robert. <i>Islamic Art and Architecture</i>, Thames & Hudson World of Art series; 1999, London. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-500-20305-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-500-20305-7">978-0-500-20305-7</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Michael_Levey" title="Michael Levey">Levey, Michael</a>; <i>The World of Ottoman Art</i>, 1975, Thames & Hudson, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-500-27065-1" title="Special:BookSources/0-500-27065-1">0-500-27065-1</a></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMadden1975" class="citation journal cs1">Madden, Edward H. (1975). "Some Characteristics of Islamic Art". <i>Journal of Aesthetics and Art Criticism</i>. <b>33</b> (4): 423–430. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2307%2F429655">10.2307/429655</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/429655">429655</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+Aesthetics+and+Art+Criticism&rft.atitle=Some+Characteristics+of+Islamic+Art&rft.volume=33&rft.issue=4&rft.pages=423-430&rft.date=1975&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2307%2F429655&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F429655%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.aulast=Madden&rft.aufirst=Edward+H.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIslamic+art" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMason1995" class="citation journal cs1">Mason, Robert B. (1995). "New Looks at Old Pots: Results of Recent Multidisciplinary Studies of Glazed Ceramics from the Islamic World". <i>Muqarnas: Annual on Islamic Art and Architecture</i>. <b>XII</b>. Brill Academic Publishers. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/90-04-10314-7" title="Special:BookSources/90-04-10314-7"><bdi>90-04-10314-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Muqarnas%3A+Annual+on+Islamic+Art+and+Architecture&rft.atitle=New+Looks+at+Old+Pots%3A+Results+of+Recent+Multidisciplinary+Studies+of+Glazed+Ceramics+from+the+Islamic+World&rft.volume=XII&rft.date=1995&rft.isbn=90-04-10314-7&rft.aulast=Mason&rft.aufirst=Robert+B.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIslamic+art" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jessica_Rawson" title="Jessica Rawson">Rawson, Jessica</a>, <i>Chinese Ornament: The lotus and the dragon</i>, 1984, British Museum Publications, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-7141-1431-6" title="Special:BookSources/0-7141-1431-6">0-7141-1431-6</a></li> <li>Rogers J.M. and Ward R.M.; <i>Süleyman the Magnificent</i>, 1988, British Museum Publications <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-7141-1440-5" title="Special:BookSources/0-7141-1440-5">0-7141-1440-5</a></li> <li>Savage, George. <i>Porcelain Through the Ages</i>, Penguin, (2nd edn.) 1963</li> <li>Shaw, Wendy. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://oxfordre-com.wikipedialibrary.idm.oclc.org/religion/view/10.1093/acrefore/9780199340378.001.0001/acrefore-9780199340378-e-783?rskey=4iBzsp">"Islam and Art: An Overview."</a> <i>Oxford Research Encyclopedia of Religion.</i></li> <li>Sinclair, Susan. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=0SgzAQAAQBAJ&dq=%E2%80%98The%20Study%20of%20Islamic%20Art%3A%20Sources%20and%20Promises&pg=PR1"><i>Bibliography of Art and Architecture in the Islamic World. Volume 1: Art</i></a>. 2012, BRILL</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Further_reading">Further reading</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Islamic_art&action=edit&section=37" title="Edit section: Further reading"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAbdullahi_Y.Embi_M._R._B2015" class="citation journal cs1">Abdullahi Y.; Embi M. R. B (2015). "Evolution Of Abstract Vegetal Ornaments On Islamic Architecture". <i>International Journal of Architectural Research: ArchNet-IJAR</i>. <b>9</b>: 31. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.26687%2Farchnet-ijar.v9i1.558">10.26687/archnet-ijar.v9i1.558</a> (inactive 1 November 2024).</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=International+Journal+of+Architectural+Research%3A+ArchNet-IJAR&rft.atitle=Evolution+Of+Abstract+Vegetal+Ornaments+On+Islamic+Architecture&rft.volume=9&rft.pages=31&rft.date=2015&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.26687%2Farchnet-ijar.v9i1.558&rft.au=Abdullahi+Y.&rft.au=Embi+M.+R.+B&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIslamic+art" class="Z3988"></span><span class="cs1-maint citation-comment"><code class="cs1-code">{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Cite_journal" title="Template:Cite journal">cite journal</a>}}</code>: CS1 maint: DOI inactive as of November 2024 (<a href="/wiki/Category:CS1_maint:_DOI_inactive_as_of_November_2024" title="Category:CS1 maint: DOI inactive as of November 2024">link</a>)</span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCarboni,_StefanoWhitehouse,_David2001" class="citation book cs1">Carboni, Stefano; Whitehouse, David (2001). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://libmma.contentdm.oclc.org/cdm/ref/collection/p15324coll10/id/74621"><i>Glass of the sultans</i></a>. New York: The Metropolitan Museum of Art. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-87099-986-9" title="Special:BookSources/0-87099-986-9"><bdi>0-87099-986-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Glass+of+the+sultans&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=The+Metropolitan+Museum+of+Art&rft.date=2001&rft.isbn=0-87099-986-9&rft.au=Carboni%2C+Stefano&rft.au=Whitehouse%2C+David&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Flibmma.contentdm.oclc.org%2Fcdm%2Fref%2Fcollection%2Fp15324coll10%2Fid%2F74621&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIslamic+art" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li>Darwish, Ali (1984). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://unesdoc.unesco.org/in/documentViewer.xhtml?v=2.1.196&id=p::usmarcdef_0000059309&file=/in/rest/annotationSVC/DownloadWatermarkedAttachment/attach_import_82b42d48-ff21-41f5-bf0f-068dd5516d4f%3F_%3D059309engo.pdf&locale=en&multi=true&ark=/ark:/48223/pf0000059309/PDF/059309engo.pdf#%5B%7B%22num%22%3A571%2C%22gen%22%3A0%7D%2C%7B%22name%22%3A%22XYZ%22%7D%2C0%2C677%2Cnull%5D">The arts in Afro-Arab relations: the legacy of Islam in architecture and sculpture.</a> <i>Historical and socio-cultural relations between black Africa and the Arab world from 1935 to the present.</i> UNESCO (ed.) The general history of Africa: studies and documents, no 7. 207 p. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/92-3-102161-3" title="Special:BookSources/92-3-102161-3">92-3-102161-3</a></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDodds,_J.D.1992" class="citation book cs1">Dodds, J.D. (1992). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://libmma.contentdm.oclc.org/cdm/compoundobject/collection/p15324coll10/id/45966/rec/1"><i>Al-Andalus: the art of Islamic Spain</i></a>. New York: The Metropolitan Museum of Art. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-87099-636-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-87099-636-8"><bdi>978-0-87099-636-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Al-Andalus%3A+the+art+of+Islamic+Spain&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=The+Metropolitan+Museum+of+Art&rft.date=1992&rft.isbn=978-0-87099-636-8&rft.au=Dodds%2C+J.D.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Flibmma.contentdm.oclc.org%2Fcdm%2Fcompoundobject%2Fcollection%2Fp15324coll10%2Fid%2F45966%2Frec%2F1&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIslamic+art" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFEkhtiar2012" class="citation book cs1">Ekhtiar, Maryam (2012). <i>Art of the Islamic world: a resource for educators</i>. New York: The Metropolitan Museum of Art. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-58839-482-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-58839-482-8"><bdi>978-1-58839-482-8</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/823578239">823578239</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Art+of+the+Islamic+world%3A+a+resource+for+educators&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=The+Metropolitan+Museum+of+Art&rft.date=2012&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F823578239&rft.isbn=978-1-58839-482-8&rft.aulast=Ekhtiar&rft.aufirst=Maryam&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIslamic+art" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFShaw,_Wendy2019" class="citation book cs1">Shaw, Wendy (2019). <i>What is 'Islamic' Art? Between Religion and Perception</i>. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1017%2F9781108622967">10.1017/9781108622967</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781108622967" title="Special:BookSources/9781108622967"><bdi>9781108622967</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:204371416">204371416</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=What+is+%27Islamic%27+Art%3F+Between+Religion+and+Perception.&rft.place=Cambridge&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2019&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A204371416%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1017%2F9781108622967&rft.isbn=9781108622967&rft.au=Shaw%2C+Wendy&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIslamic+art" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWilkinson,_Charles_K.1973" class="citation book cs1">Wilkinson, Charles K. (1973). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://libmma.contentdm.oclc.org/cdm/compoundobject/collection/p15324coll10/id/93805"><i>Nishapur: pottery of the early Islamic period</i></a>. New York: The Metropolitan Museum of Art. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-87099-076-4" title="Special:BookSources/0-87099-076-4"><bdi>0-87099-076-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Nishapur%3A+pottery+of+the+early+Islamic+period&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=The+Metropolitan+Museum+of+Art&rft.date=1973&rft.isbn=0-87099-076-4&rft.au=Wilkinson%2C+Charles+K.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Flibmma.contentdm.oclc.org%2Fcdm%2Fcompoundobject%2Fcollection%2Fp15324coll10%2Fid%2F93805&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIslamic+art" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAbdullahiMohamed_Rashid_Bin_Embi2013" class="citation journal cs1">Abdullahi, Yahya; Mohamed Rashid Bin Embi (2013). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.foar.2013.03.002">"Evolution of Islamic geometric patterns"</a>. <i>Frontiers of Architectural Research</i>. <b>2</b> (2): 243–251. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.foar.2013.03.002">10.1016/j.foar.2013.03.002</a></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Frontiers+of+Architectural+Research&rft.atitle=Evolution+of+Islamic+geometric+patterns&rft.volume=2&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=243-251&rft.date=2013&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1016%2Fj.foar.2013.03.002&rft.aulast=Abdullahi&rft.aufirst=Yahya&rft.au=Mohamed+Rashid+Bin+Embi&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.1016%252Fj.foar.2013.03.002&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIslamic+art" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Islamic_art&action=edit&section=38" title="Edit section: External links"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Commons-logo.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/12px-Commons-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="12" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/18px-Commons-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/24px-Commons-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="1376" /></a></span> Media related to <a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Islamic_art" class="extiw" title="commons:Category:Islamic art">Islamic art</a> at Wikimedia Commons </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><span><video id="mwe_player_0" poster="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/46/Islamic-Art-at-the-Freer.webm/220px--Islamic-Art-at-the-Freer.webm.jpg" controls="" preload="none" data-mw-tmh="" class="mw-file-element" width="220" height="124" data-durationhint="58" data-mwtitle="Islamic-Art-at-the-Freer.webm" data-mwprovider="wikimediacommons" resource="/wiki/File:Islamic-Art-at-the-Freer.webm"><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/4/46/Islamic-Art-at-the-Freer.webm/Islamic-Art-at-the-Freer.webm.480p.vp9.webm" type="video/webm; codecs="vp9, opus"" data-transcodekey="480p.vp9.webm" data-width="854" data-height="480" /><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/4/46/Islamic-Art-at-the-Freer.webm/Islamic-Art-at-the-Freer.webm.720p.vp9.webm" type="video/webm; codecs="vp9, opus"" data-transcodekey="720p.vp9.webm" data-width="1280" data-height="720" /><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/4/46/Islamic-Art-at-the-Freer.webm/Islamic-Art-at-the-Freer.webm.1080p.vp9.webm" type="video/webm; codecs="vp9, opus"" data-transcodekey="1080p.vp9.webm" data-width="1920" data-height="1080" /><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/46/Islamic-Art-at-the-Freer.webm" type="video/webm; codecs="vp8, vorbis"" data-width="1920" data-height="1080" /><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/4/46/Islamic-Art-at-the-Freer.webm/Islamic-Art-at-the-Freer.webm.144p.mjpeg.mov" type="video/quicktime" data-transcodekey="144p.mjpeg.mov" data-width="256" data-height="144" /><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/4/46/Islamic-Art-at-the-Freer.webm/Islamic-Art-at-the-Freer.webm.240p.vp9.webm" type="video/webm; codecs="vp9, opus"" data-transcodekey="240p.vp9.webm" data-width="426" data-height="240" /><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/4/46/Islamic-Art-at-the-Freer.webm/Islamic-Art-at-the-Freer.webm.360p.vp9.webm" type="video/webm; codecs="vp9, opus"" data-transcodekey="360p.vp9.webm" data-width="640" data-height="360" /><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/4/46/Islamic-Art-at-the-Freer.webm/Islamic-Art-at-the-Freer.webm.360p.webm" type="video/webm; codecs="vp8, vorbis"" data-transcodekey="360p.webm" data-width="640" data-height="360" /></video></span><figcaption>Video:Islamic art at the <a href="/wiki/Freer_Gallery_of_Art" title="Freer Gallery of Art">Freer Gallery of Art</a>; 0:57</figcaption></figure> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1235681985">.mw-parser-output .side-box{margin:4px 0;box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #aaa;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em;background-color:var(--background-color-interactive-subtle,#f8f9fa);display:flow-root}.mw-parser-output .side-box-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{padding:0.25em 0.9em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-image{padding:2px 0 2px 0.9em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-imageright{padding:2px 0.9em 2px 0;text-align:center}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .side-box-flex{display:flex;align-items:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{flex:1;min-width:0}}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .side-box{width:238px}.mw-parser-output .side-box-right{clear:right;float:right;margin-left:1em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-left{margin-right:1em}}</style><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1237033735">@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox{display:none!important}}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox img[src*="Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg"]{background-color:white}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox img[src*="Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg"]{background-color:white}}</style><div class="side-box side-box-right plainlinks sistersitebox"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"> <div class="side-box-flex"> <div class="side-box-image"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg/38px-Wikisource-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="38" height="40" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg/57px-Wikisource-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg/76px-Wikisource-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="410" data-file-height="430" /></span></span></div> <div class="side-box-text plainlist"><a href="/wiki/Wikisource" title="Wikisource">Wikisource</a> has the text of a 1905 <i><a href="/wiki/New_International_Encyclopedia" class="mw-redirect" title="New International Encyclopedia">New International Encyclopedia</a></i> article about "<b><a href="https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/The_New_International_Encyclop%C3%A6dia/Mohammedan_Art" class="extiw" title="s:The New International Encyclopædia/Mohammedan Art">Islamic art</a></b>".</div></div> </div> <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20140219154604/http://archnet.org/library">ARCHNET</a>: Islamic Architecture Community: Extensive archive of scholarly articles, full publications and pictures</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.discoverislamicart.org/index.php">Museum With No Frontiers</a>: extensive site on Islamic art</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.vam.ac.uk/page/i/islamic-middle-east/">Victoria & Albert Museum</a>: Islamic Middle East Collections including contemporary pieces</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.mia.org.qa/en/">Museum of Islamic Art, Doha, Qatar</a>:</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.mathaf.org.qa/">MATHAF</a>: Arab Museum of Modern Art Qatar</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20120608004825/http://www.calligraphyislamic.com/">CalligraphyIslamic: Extensive site on Islamic calligraphy</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20061213234519/http://www.nga.gov/exhibitions/2004/islamic/index.shtm">Palace and Mosque: Islamic Art from the Victoria and Albert Museum at the National Gallery of Art, Washington</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20061016044353/http://www.nga.gov/exhibitions/2004/artexchange/artexchange_ss.shtm">Artistic Exchange: Europe and the Islamic World Selections from the Permanent Collection at the National Gallery of Art</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.islamic-art.org">Islamic Art Network – Thesaurus Islamicus Foundation</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20170708023138/http://islamic-arts.org/">Islamic Arts & Architecture</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.nomadinception.com/op-islamic-geometric-design-in-Arabic-architecture.aspx">Islamic Art in Modern Architecture</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.loc.gov/rr/rarebook/coll/160.html">The Kirkor Minassian Collection</a> at the <a href="/wiki/Library_of_Congress" title="Library of Congress">Library of Congress</a> has decorative Islamic book bindings.</li></ul> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236075235">.mw-parser-output .navbox{box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #a2a9b1;width:100%;clear:both;font-size:88%;text-align:center;padding:1px;margin:1em auto 0}.mw-parser-output .navbox .navbox{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .navbox+.navbox,.mw-parser-output .navbox+.navbox-styles+.navbox{margin-top:-1px}.mw-parser-output .navbox-inner,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup{width:100%}.mw-parser-output .navbox-group,.mw-parser-output .navbox-title,.mw-parser-output .navbox-abovebelow{padding:0.25em 1em;line-height:1.5em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .navbox-group{white-space:nowrap;text-align:right}.mw-parser-output .navbox,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup{background-color:#fdfdfd}.mw-parser-output .navbox-list{line-height:1.5em;border-color:#fdfdfd}.mw-parser-output .navbox-list-with-group{text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid}.mw-parser-output tr+tr>.navbox-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output tr+tr>.navbox-group,.mw-parser-output tr+tr>.navbox-image,.mw-parser-output tr+tr>.navbox-list{border-top:2px solid #fdfdfd}.mw-parser-output .navbox-title{background-color:#ccf}.mw-parser-output .navbox-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output .navbox-group,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup .navbox-title{background-color:#ddf}.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup .navbox-group,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup .navbox-abovebelow{background-color:#e6e6ff}.mw-parser-output .navbox-even{background-color:#f7f7f7}.mw-parser-output .navbox-odd{background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td dl,.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td ol,.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td ul,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist ul{padding:0.125em 0}.mw-parser-output .navbox .navbar{display:block;font-size:100%}.mw-parser-output .navbox-title .navbar{float:left;text-align:left;margin-right:0.5em}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .navbox-image img{max-width:none!important}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .navbox{display:none!important}}</style></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Islamic_art" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="3"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Islamic_art" title="Template:Islamic art"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Islamic_art" title="Template talk:Islamic art"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Islamic_art" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Islamic art"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Islamic_art" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Islamic art</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Islamic_architecture" title="Islamic architecture">Architecture</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Regional styles</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Abbasid_architecture" title="Abbasid architecture">Abbasid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ayyubid_dynasty#Architecture" title="Ayyubid dynasty">Ayyubid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anatolian_Seljuk_architecture" title="Anatolian Seljuk architecture">Anatolian Seljuk</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_Islamic_architecture" title="Chinese Islamic architecture">Chinese</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fatimid_architecture" title="Fatimid architecture">Fatimid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Great_Seljuk_architecture" title="Great Seljuk architecture">Great Seljuk</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hausa_architecture" title="Hausa architecture">Hausa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indo-Islamic_architecture" title="Indo-Islamic architecture">Indo-Islamic</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bengali_Muslim_architecture" class="mw-redirect" title="Bengali Muslim architecture">Bengali</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Architecture_of_the_Bahmani_and_Deccan_Sultanates" class="mw-redirect" title="Architecture of the Bahmani and Deccan Sultanates">Bahmani and Deccan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mughal_architecture" title="Mughal architecture">Mughal</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mosque_architecture_in_Indonesia" title="Mosque architecture in Indonesia">Indonesian</a> / <a href="/wiki/Islamic_architecture#Malaysia" title="Islamic architecture">Malaysian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iranian_architecture" title="Iranian architecture">Iranian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mamluk_architecture" title="Mamluk architecture">Mamluk</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Moorish_architecture" title="Moorish architecture">Moorish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ottoman_architecture" title="Ottoman architecture">Ottoman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sudano-Sahelian_architecture" title="Sudano-Sahelian architecture">Sudano-Sahelian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Swahili_architecture" title="Swahili architecture">Swahili</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tatar_mosque" title="Tatar mosque">Tatar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Timurid_architecture" title="Timurid architecture">Timurid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Umayyad_architecture" title="Umayyad architecture">Umayyad</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Architecture_of_Yemen#Islamic_period" title="Architecture of Yemen">Yemeni</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Category:Islamic_architectural_elements" title="Category:Islamic architectural elements">Elements</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ablaq" title="Ablaq">Ablaq</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Banna%27i" title="Banna'i">Banna'i</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iwan" title="Iwan">Iwan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jali" title="Jali">Jali</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mashrabiya" title="Mashrabiya">Mashrabiya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mihrab" title="Mihrab">Mihrab</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Minaret" title="Minaret">Minaret</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Moc%C3%A1rabe" class="mw-redirect" title="Mocárabe">Mocárabe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Muqarnas" title="Muqarnas">Muqarnas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sitara_(textile)" title="Sitara (textile)">Sitara</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stucco_decoration_in_Islamic_architecture" title="Stucco decoration in Islamic architecture">Stucco decoration</a></li> <li><i>See also</i> Decoration</li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td><td class="noviewer navbox-image" rowspan="8" style="width:1px;padding:0 0 0 2px"><div><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Islamic_Tiling_(186943375).jpeg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7d/Islamic_Tiling_%28186943375%29.jpeg/110px-Islamic_Tiling_%28186943375%29.jpeg" decoding="async" width="110" height="267" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7d/Islamic_Tiling_%28186943375%29.jpeg/165px-Islamic_Tiling_%28186943375%29.jpeg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7d/Islamic_Tiling_%28186943375%29.jpeg/220px-Islamic_Tiling_%28186943375%29.jpeg 2x" data-file-width="450" data-file-height="1091" /></a></span></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Arts</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Regional styles</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bangladeshi_art" title="Bangladeshi art">Bangladeshi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Persian_art" title="Persian art">Persian</a> (<a href="/wiki/Persian_art#Early_Islamic_period" title="Persian art">Early</a>, <a href="/wiki/Qajar_art" title="Qajar art">Qajar</a>, <a href="/wiki/Safavid_art" title="Safavid art">Safavid</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Turkish_art" title="Turkish art">Turkish</a> (<a href="/wiki/Culture_of_the_Ottoman_Empire#Decorative_arts" title="Culture of the Ottoman Empire">Ottoman</a>)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Oriental_rug" title="Oriental rug">Carpets</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Gul_(design)" title="Gul (design)">Gul</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kilim" title="Kilim">Kilim</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Kilim_motifs" title="Kilim motifs">Motifs</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Persian_carpet" title="Persian carpet">Persian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Turkish_carpet" class="mw-redirect" title="Turkish carpet">Turkish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prayer_rug" title="Prayer rug">Prayer</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Islamic_pottery" title="Islamic pottery">Pottery</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Fritware" title="Fritware">Fritware</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hispano-Moresque_ware" title="Hispano-Moresque ware">Hispano-Moresque</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iznik_pottery" title="Iznik pottery">Iznik</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islamic_lustreware" class="mw-redirect" title="Islamic lustreware">Lustreware</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mina%27i_ware" title="Mina'i ware">Mina'i ware</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Persian_pottery" title="Persian pottery">Persian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_influences_on_Islamic_pottery" title="Chinese influences on Islamic pottery">Chinese influence</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Textiles</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Batik" title="Batik">Batik</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Damask" title="Damask">Damask</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ikat" title="Ikat">Ikat</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islamic_embroidery" title="Islamic embroidery">Embroidery</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Soumak" title="Soumak">Soumak</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Suzani_(textile)" title="Suzani (textile)">Suzani</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Woodwork</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Khatam" title="Khatam">Khatam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Minbar" title="Minbar">Minbar</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Other media</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Islamic_music" title="Islamic music">Music</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink-fragment" href="#Islamic_brasswork">Brass</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Damascus_steel" title="Damascus steel">Damascus steel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Enamelled_glass#Islamic" title="Enamelled glass">Enamelled glass</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islamic_glass" title="Islamic glass">Glass</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hardstone_carving#Islamic_hardstone_carving" title="Hardstone carving">Hardstone carving</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ivory_carving#Islamic_ivory" title="Ivory carving">Ivory carving</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mosque_lamp" title="Mosque lamp">Mosque lamp</a></li> <li>Stained glass <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Shabaka_(window)" title="Shabaka (window)">Shabaka</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Arts of<br />the book</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Islamic_miniature" title="Islamic miniature">Miniatures</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Arabic_miniature" title="Arabic miniature">Arabic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mughal_painting" title="Mughal painting">Mughal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ottoman_miniature" title="Ottoman miniature">Ottoman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Persian_miniature" title="Persian miniature">Persian</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Islamic_calligraphy" title="Islamic calligraphy">Calligraphy</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Arabic_calligraphy" title="Arabic calligraphy">Arabic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Diwani" title="Diwani">Diwani</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indian_calligraphy" title="Indian calligraphy">Indo-Muslim</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kufic" title="Kufic">Kufic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Muhaqqaq" title="Muhaqqaq">Muhaqqaq</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Naskh_(script)" title="Naskh (script)">Naskh</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nastaliq" title="Nastaliq">Nastaliq</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Persian_calligraphy" title="Persian calligraphy">Persian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sini_(script)" title="Sini (script)">Sini</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Taliq_script" title="Taliq script">Taliq</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thuluth" title="Thuluth">Thuluth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tughra" title="Tughra">Tughra</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Other arts</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Muraqqa" title="Muraqqa">Muraqqa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hilya" title="Hilya">Hilya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ottoman_illumination" title="Ottoman illumination">Ottoman illumination</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Islamic_ornament" title="Islamic ornament">Decoration</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Arabesque" title="Arabesque">Arabesque</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islamic_geometric_patterns" title="Islamic geometric patterns">Geometric patterns</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Girih" title="Girih">Girih</a> (<a href="/wiki/Girih_tiles" title="Girih tiles">tiles</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zellij" title="Zellij">Zellij</a></li> <li><i>See also</i> Calligraphy</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Islamic_garden" title="Islamic garden">The garden</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Charbagh" title="Charbagh">Charbagh</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mughal_garden" title="Mughal garden">Mughal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ottoman_gardens" class="mw-redirect" title="Ottoman gardens">Ottoman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paradise_garden" title="Paradise garden">Paradise</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Persian_gardens" title="Persian gardens">Persian</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/List_of_museums_of_Islamic_art" title="List of museums of Islamic art">Museums,<br />collections</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Museum_of_Islamic_Art,_Berlin" title="Museum of Islamic Art, Berlin">Berlin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Museum_of_Islamic_Art,_Cairo" title="Museum of Islamic Art, Cairo">Cairo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Museum_of_Islamic_Art,_Doha" title="Museum of Islamic Art, Doha">Doha</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Museum_of_Islamic_Art,_Ghazni" title="Museum of Islamic Art, Ghazni">Ghazni</a></li> <li>Istanbul (<a href="/wiki/Turkish_and_Islamic_Arts_Museum" title="Turkish and Islamic Arts Museum">Arts</a>, <a href="/wiki/Museum_of_Turkish_Calligraphy_Art" title="Museum of Turkish Calligraphy Art">Calligraphy Art</a>)</li> <li>Jerusalem (<a href="/wiki/Islamic_Museum,_Jerusalem" title="Islamic Museum, Jerusalem">Islamic Museum</a>, <a href="/wiki/Museum_for_Islamic_Art,_Jerusalem" title="Museum for Islamic Art, Jerusalem">Museum for Islamic Art, Jerusalem</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islamic_Arts_Museum_Malaysia" title="Islamic Arts Museum Malaysia">Kuala Lumpur</a></li> <li>London (<a href="/wiki/British_Museum#Islamic_art" title="British Museum">British Museum</a>, <a href="/wiki/Victoria_and_Albert_Museum#Islamic_art" title="Victoria and Albert Museum">V&A</a>, <a href="/wiki/Khalili_Collection_of_Islamic_Art" title="Khalili Collection of Islamic Art">Khalili Collection</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Los_Angeles_County_Museum_of_Art#Islamic_art" title="Los Angeles County Museum of Art">Los Angeles</a></li> <li>Marrakech (<a href="/wiki/Marrakech_Museum" title="Marrakech Museum">Museum</a>, <a href="/wiki/Majorelle_Garden" title="Majorelle Garden">Majorelle Garden</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islamic_Museum_of_Australia" title="Islamic Museum of Australia">Melbourne</a></li> <li>Paris (<a href="/wiki/Arab_World_Institute" class="mw-redirect" title="Arab World Institute">Arab World Institute</a>, <a href="/wiki/Louvre#Islamic_art" title="Louvre">Louvre</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Asian_Civilisations_Museum" title="Asian Civilisations Museum">Singapore</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aga_Khan_Museum" title="Aga Khan Museum">Toronto (Aga Khan)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islamic_Museum_of_Tripoli" title="Islamic Museum of Tripoli">Tripoli</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Exhibitions</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Empire_of_the_Sultans" title="Empire of the Sultans">Empire of the Sultans</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Heaven_on_Earth:_Art_from_Islamic_Lands" title="Heaven on Earth: Art from Islamic Lands">Heaven on Earth: Art from Islamic Lands</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Hajj:_Journey_to_the_Heart_of_Islam" title="Hajj: Journey to the Heart of Islam">Hajj: Journey to the Heart of Islam</a></i></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Principles,<br />influences</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Islamic_Art:_Mirror_of_the_Invisible_World" title="Islamic Art: Mirror of the Invisible World">Islamic Art: Mirror of the Invisible World</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aniconism_in_Islam" title="Aniconism in Islam">Aniconism in Islam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indo-Saracenic_architecture" title="Indo-Saracenic architecture">Indo-Saracenic Revival</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islamic_world_contributions_to_Medieval_Europe" title="Islamic world contributions to Medieval Europe">Islamic world contributions to Medieval Europe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islamic_influences_on_Western_art" title="Islamic influences on Western art">Influences on Western art</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Grotesque" title="Grotesque">Grotesque</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Moresque" title="Moresque">Moresque</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mathematics_and_architecture" title="Mathematics and architecture">Mathematics and architecture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Moorish_Revival_architecture" title="Moorish Revival architecture">Moorish Revival</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mud%C3%A9jar" title="Mudéjar">Mudéjar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oriental_carpets_in_Renaissance_painting" title="Oriental carpets in Renaissance painting">Oriental carpets in Renaissance painting</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pseudo-Kufic" title="Pseudo-Kufic">Pseudo-Kufic</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Stilfragen" title="Stilfragen">Stilfragen</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Topkap%C4%B1_Scroll" title="Topkapı Scroll">Topkapı Scroll</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Islamic_studies" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Islamic_studies" title="Template:Islamic studies"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Islamic_studies" title="Template talk:Islamic studies"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Islamic_studies" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Islamic studies"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Islamic_studies" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Islamic_studies" title="Islamic studies">Islamic studies</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Arts</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Arabesque" title="Arabesque">Arabesque</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islamic_architecture" title="Islamic architecture">Architecture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islamic_calligraphy" title="Islamic calligraphy">Calligraphy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islamic_garden" title="Islamic garden">Gardens</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islamic_geometric_patterns" title="Islamic geometric patterns">Geometric pattern</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islamic_literature" title="Islamic literature">Literature</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islamic_music" title="Islamic music">Music</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islamic_poetry" title="Islamic poetry">Poetry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islamic_pottery" title="Islamic pottery">Pottery</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islamic_influences_on_Western_art" title="Islamic influences on Western art">Influences on Western art</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Islamic_economics" title="Islamic economics">Economics</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Islamic_economics" title="History of Islamic economics">History</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hawala" title="Hawala">Agency</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islamic_banking_and_finance" title="Islamic banking and finance">Banking</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Capitalism_and_Islam" title="Capitalism and Islam">Capitalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islam_and_poverty" title="Islam and poverty">Poverty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islamic_socialism" title="Islamic socialism">Socialism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Waqf" title="Waqf">Trust</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Riba" title="Riba">Usury</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bayt_al-mal" title="Bayt al-mal">Welfare</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/History_of_Islam" title="History of Islam">History</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_Islamic_history" class="mw-redirect" title="Timeline of Islamic history">Timeline</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historiography_of_early_Islam" title="Historiography of early Islam">Historiography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Early_social_changes_under_Islam" title="Early social changes under Islam">Early social change</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Early_Muslim_conquests" title="Early Muslim conquests">Early conquests</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islamic_Golden_Age" title="Islamic Golden Age">Golden Age</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islamic_world_contributions_to_Medieval_Europe" title="Islamic world contributions to Medieval Europe">Contributions to Medieval Europe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reception_of_Islam_in_early_modern_Europe" title="Reception of Islam in early modern Europe">Reception in early modern Europe</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Sharia" title="Sharia">Law</a> and <a href="/wiki/Political_aspects_of_Islam" title="Political aspects of Islam">politics</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Islam_and_democracy" title="Islam and democracy">Democracy</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ijma" title="Ijma">consensus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shura" title="Shura">consultation</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islamic_feminism" title="Islamic feminism">Feminism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fiqh" title="Fiqh">Jurisprudence</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Qiyas" title="Qiyas">use of analogy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ijtihad" title="Ijtihad">decision-making</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Madhhab" title="Madhhab">schools</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peace_in_Islamic_philosophy" title="Peace in Islamic philosophy">Peace</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Political_quietism_in_Islam" title="Political quietism in Islam">Quietism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islam_and_secularism" title="Islam and secularism">Secularism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Early_social_changes_under_Islam" title="Early social changes under Islam">Early social change</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islamic_state" title="Islamic state">State</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Islamic_philosophy" title="Islamic philosophy">Philosophy</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Early_Islamic_philosophy" title="Early Islamic philosophy">Early</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Contemporary_Islamic_philosophy" title="Contemporary Islamic philosophy">Contemporary</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Schools_of_Islamic_theology" title="Schools of Islamic theology">Theology</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Kalam" title="Kalam">dialectic</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islamic_ethics" title="Islamic ethics">Ethics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Logic_in_Islamic_philosophy" title="Logic in Islamic philosophy">Logic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Astrology_in_the_medieval_Islamic_world" title="Astrology in the medieval Islamic world">Astrology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Early_social_changes_under_Islam" title="Early social changes under Islam">Early sociology</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Asabiyyah" title="Asabiyyah">solidarity</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Science_in_the_medieval_Islamic_world" title="Science in the medieval Islamic world">Medieval science</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_science_and_engineering_in_the_Muslim_world" title="Timeline of science and engineering in the Muslim world">Timeline</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alchemy_and_chemistry_in_the_medieval_Islamic_world" class="mw-redirect" title="Alchemy and chemistry in the medieval Islamic world">Alchemy and chemistry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Astronomy_in_the_medieval_Islamic_world" title="Astronomy in the medieval Islamic world">Astronomy</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cosmology_in_medieval_Islam" class="mw-redirect" title="Cosmology in medieval Islam">cosmology</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geography_and_cartography_in_the_medieval_Islamic_world" title="Geography and cartography in the medieval Islamic world">Geography and cartography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_inventions_in_the_medieval_Islamic_world" title="List of inventions in the medieval Islamic world">Inventions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mathematics_in_the_medieval_Islamic_world" title="Mathematics in the medieval Islamic world">Mathematics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Medicine_in_the_medieval_Islamic_world" title="Medicine in the medieval Islamic world">Medicine</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ophthalmology_in_the_medieval_Islamic_world" title="Ophthalmology in the medieval Islamic world">ophthalmology</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Physics_in_the_medieval_Islamic_world" title="Physics in the medieval Islamic world">Physics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Psychology_in_the_medieval_Islamic_world" title="Psychology in the medieval Islamic world">Psychology</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Other fields</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Arab_Agricultural_Revolution" title="Arab Agricultural Revolution">Arab Agricultural Revolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Madrasa" title="Madrasa">Education</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ijazah" title="Ijazah">Ijazah</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kuttab" title="Kuttab">elementary school</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sufi_studies" title="Sufi studies">Sufi studies</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Sufism" title="Sufism">mysticism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sufi_cosmology" title="Sufi cosmology">cosmology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sufi_philosophy" title="Sufi philosophy">philosophy</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Islam_topics" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2" style="background-color:#dcf5dc;"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Islam_topics" title="Template:Islam topics"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Islam_topics" title="Template talk:Islam topics"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Islam_topics" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Islam topics"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Islam_topics" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Islam" title="Islam">Islam</a> topics</div></th></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2" style="background-color:#dcf5dc;"><div><b><a href="/wiki/Outline_of_Islam" title="Outline of Islam">Outline of Islam</a></b></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:8em;background:#dcf5dc;"><a href="/wiki/Schools_of_Islamic_theology" title="Schools of Islamic theology">Beliefs</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/God_in_Islam" title="God in Islam">God in Islam</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Allah" title="Allah">Allah</a></li></ul></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Tawhid" title="Tawhid">Tawhid</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Muhammad" title="Muhammad">Muhammad</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Muhammad_in_Islam" title="Muhammad in Islam">In Islam</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prophets_and_messengers_in_Islam" title="Prophets and messengers in Islam">Prophets of Islam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Angels_in_Islam" title="Angels in Islam">Angels</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islamic_holy_books" title="Islamic holy books">Revelation</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Predestination_in_Islam" title="Predestination in Islam">Qadar</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Day_of_Resurrection" class="mw-redirect" title="Day of Resurrection">Judgement Day</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Holiest_sites_in_Islam" title="Holiest sites in Islam">Holiest sites</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:8em;background:#dcf5dc;"><a href="/wiki/Five_Pillars_of_Islam" title="Five Pillars of Islam">Five Pillars</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0;background-color:#f7fdf7;"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Shahada" title="Shahada">Shahada</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Salah" title="Salah">Salah</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Fasting_in_Islam" title="Fasting in Islam">Sawm</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Zakat" title="Zakat">Zakat</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Hajj" title="Hajj">Hajj</a></i></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:8em;background:#dcf5dc;"><div class="hlist"><ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Islam" title="History of Islam">History</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Islamic_religious_leaders" title="Islamic religious leaders">Leaders</a></li></ul></div></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_the_history_of_Islam" title="Timeline of the history of Islam">Timeline of the history of Islam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Succession_to_Muhammad" title="Succession to Muhammad">Succession to Muhammad</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Early_Muslim_conquests" title="Early Muslim conquests">Early conquests</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islamic_Golden_Age" title="Islamic Golden Age">Golden Age</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historiography_of_early_Islam" title="Historiography of early Islam">Historiography</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Companions_of_the_Prophet" title="Companions of the Prophet">Sahaba</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Ahl_al-Bayt" title="Ahl al-Bayt">Ahl al-Bayt</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Imamate_in_Shia_doctrine" title="Imamate in Shia doctrine">Shi'a Imams</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Caliphate" title="Caliphate">Caliphates</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Rashidun_Caliphate" title="Rashidun Caliphate"><i>Rashidun</i></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Umayyad_Caliphate" title="Umayyad Caliphate">Umayyad</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abbasid_Caliphate" title="Abbasid Caliphate">Abbasid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Caliphate_of_C%C3%B3rdoba" class="mw-redirect" title="Caliphate of Córdoba">Córdoba</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fatimid_Caliphate" title="Fatimid Caliphate">Fatimid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Almohad_Caliphate" title="Almohad Caliphate">Almohad</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sokoto_Caliphate" title="Sokoto Caliphate">Sokoto</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ottoman_Caliphate" title="Ottoman Caliphate">Ottoman</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:8em;background:#dcf5dc;"><a href="/wiki/Islamic_holy_books" title="Islamic holy books">Religious texts</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0;background-color:#f7fdf7;"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Quran" title="Quran">Quran</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hadith" title="Hadith">Hadith</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tafsir" title="Tafsir">Tafsir</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prophetic_biography" class="mw-redirect" title="Prophetic biography">Seerah</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Qisas_Al-Anbiya" class="mw-redirect" title="Qisas Al-Anbiya">Story of Prophets</a></i></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:8em;background:#dcf5dc;"><a href="/wiki/Islamic_schools_and_branches" title="Islamic schools and branches">Denominations</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Sunni_Islam" title="Sunni Islam">Sunni</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ash%27arism" title="Ash'arism">Ash'arism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Atharism" title="Atharism">Atharism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maturidism" title="Maturidism">Maturidism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mu%27tazili" class="mw-redirect" title="Mu'tazili">Mu'tazili</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Salafi_movement" title="Salafi movement">Salafi</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Wahhabism" title="Wahhabism">Wahhabism</a></li></ul></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sufism" title="Sufism">Sufi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shia_Islam" title="Shia Islam">Shia</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Twelver_Shi%27ism" title="Twelver Shi'ism">Twelver Shi'ism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Isma%27ilism" title="Isma'ilism">Isma'ilism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alawites" title="Alawites">Alawites</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alevism" title="Alevism">Alevism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Alevism" title="Alevism">Bektashi Alevism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zaydism" title="Zaydism">Zaydism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Muhakkima" title="Muhakkima">Muhakkima</a>/<a href="/wiki/Kharijites" title="Kharijites">Khawarij</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Azariqa" title="Azariqa">Azariqa</a></li> <li>Moderate Kharijites <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ibadi_Islam" title="Ibadi Islam">Ibadi</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Azzabas" title="Azzabas">Azzabas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nukkari" title="Nukkari">Nukkari</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ibadi_Islam#Wahbi_school" title="Ibadi Islam">Wahbi</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sufri" title="Sufri">Sufri</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Najdat" title="Najdat">Najdat</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nation_of_Islam" title="Nation of Islam">Nation of Islam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ahmadiyya" title="Ahmadiyya">Ahmadiyya</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Lahore_Ahmadiyya_Movement_for_the_Propagation_of_Islam" class="mw-redirect" title="Lahore Ahmadiyya Movement for the Propagation of Islam">Lahori</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quranism" title="Quranism">Quranism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Non-denominational_Muslim" title="Non-denominational Muslim">Non-denominational</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:8em;background:#dcf5dc;"><div class="hlist"><ul><li><a href="/wiki/Muslim_world" title="Muslim world">Life</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Islamic_culture" title="Islamic culture">Culture</a></li></ul></div></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0;background-color:#f7fdf7;"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Animals_in_Islam" title="Animals in Islam">Animals</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Art</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islam_in_association_football" class="mw-redirect" title="Islam in association football">Association football</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islamic_calendar" title="Islamic calendar">Calendar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islam_and_children" title="Islam and children">Children</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islamic_clothing" title="Islamic clothing">Clothing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islamic_flags" class="mw-redirect" title="Islamic flags">Flags</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islamic_holidays" title="Islamic holidays">Holidays</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mosque" title="Mosque">Mosques</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Madrasa" title="Madrasa">Madrasas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Morality_in_Islam" title="Morality in Islam">Moral teachings</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islamic_music" title="Islamic music">Music</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islamic_philosophy" title="Islamic philosophy">Philosophy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Political_aspects_of_Islam" title="Political aspects of Islam">Political aspects</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Qurban_(Islamic_ritual_sacrifice)" title="Qurban (Islamic ritual sacrifice)">Qurbani</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islamic_attitudes_towards_science" title="Islamic attitudes towards science">Science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islam_and_humanity" title="Islam and humanity">Social welfare</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women_in_Islam" title="Women in Islam">Women</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/LGBT_in_Islam" class="mw-redirect" title="LGBT in Islam">LGBT</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islam_by_country" title="Islam by country">Islam by country</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2" style="background-color:#dcf5dc;"><div id="LawJurisprudence" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><div class="hlist"><ul><li><a href="/wiki/Sharia" title="Sharia">Law</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Fiqh" title="Fiqh">Jurisprudence</a></li></ul></div></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:8em;background:#dcf5dc;"><a href="/wiki/Islamic_economics" title="Islamic economics">Economics</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Islamic_banking_and_finance" title="Islamic banking and finance">Banking</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Islamic_economics" title="History of Islamic economics">Economic history</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Sukuk" title="Sukuk">Sukuk</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Takaful" title="Takaful">Takaful</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Murabaha" title="Murabaha">Murabaha</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Riba" title="Riba">Riba</a></i></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:8em;background:#dcf5dc;"><a href="/wiki/Islamic_hygienical_jurisprudence" class="mw-redirect" title="Islamic hygienical jurisprudence">Hygiene</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0;background-color:#f7fdf7;"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Ghusl" title="Ghusl">Ghusl</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Miswak" title="Miswak">Miswak</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Najis" title="Najis">Najis</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Tayammum" title="Tayammum">Tayammum</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islamic_toilet_etiquette" title="Islamic toilet etiquette">Toilet</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Wudu" title="Wudu">Wudu</a></i></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:8em;background:#dcf5dc;"><div class="hlist"><ul><li><a href="/wiki/Islamic_family_jurisprudence" title="Islamic family jurisprudence">Family</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Islamic_marital_jurisprudence" title="Islamic marital jurisprudence">Marriage</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Islamic_sexual_jurisprudence" class="mw-redirect" title="Islamic sexual jurisprudence">Sex</a></li></ul></div></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Haya_(Islam)" title="Haya (Islam)">Haya</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Islamic_marriage_contract" title="Islamic marriage contract">Marriage contract</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Mahr" title="Mahr">Mahr</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Mahram" title="Mahram">Mahram</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Marriage_in_Islam" title="Marriage in Islam">Nikah</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Nikah_mut%27ah" title="Nikah mut'ah">Nikah mut'ah</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Zina" title="Zina">Zina</a></i></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:8em;background:#dcf5dc;">Other aspects</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0;background-color:#f7fdf7;"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Baligh" title="Baligh">Baligh</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islamic_hygienical_jurisprudence" class="mw-redirect" title="Islamic hygienical jurisprudence">Cleanliness</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islamic_criminal_jurisprudence" title="Islamic criminal jurisprudence">Criminal</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Apostasy_in_Islam" title="Apostasy in Islam">Apostasy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islam_and_blasphemy" title="Islam and blasphemy">Blasphemy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Capital_punishment_in_Islam" title="Capital punishment in Islam">Death penalty</a></li></ul></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Dhabihah" title="Dhabihah">Dhabiĥa</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Dhimmi" title="Dhimmi">Dhimmi</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Divorce_in_Islam" title="Divorce in Islam">Divorce</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islamic_dietary_laws" title="Islamic dietary laws">Diet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islamic_ethics" title="Islamic ethics">Ethics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Adab_(Islam)" title="Adab (Islam)">Etiquette</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maisir" title="Maisir">Gambling</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islam_and_gender_segregation" title="Islam and gender segregation">Gender segregation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islamic_honorifics" title="Islamic honorifics">Honorifics</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Hudud" title="Hudud">Hudud</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islamic_inheritance_jurisprudence" title="Islamic inheritance jurisprudence">Inheritance</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Jizya" title="Jizya">Jizya</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islamic_leadership" class="mw-redirect" title="Islamic leadership">Leadership</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Ma_malakat_aymanukum" class="mw-redirect" title="Ma malakat aymanukum">Ma malakat aymanukum</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islamic_military_jurisprudence" title="Islamic military jurisprudence">Military</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Prisoners_of_war_in_Islam" class="mw-redirect" title="Prisoners of war in Islam">POWs</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islamic_views_on_slavery" title="Islamic views on slavery">Slavery</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sources_of_sharia" class="mw-redirect" title="Sources of sharia">Sources of law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islamic_theological_jurisprudence" class="mw-redirect" title="Islamic theological jurisprudence">Theological</a> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Kalam" title="Kalam">Kalam</a></i></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Madhhab" title="Madhhab">Schools of islamic jurisprudence</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible uncollapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2" style="background-color:#dcf5dc;"><div id="_Islamic_studies" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><span style="padding-left:2.5em;"> </span><a href="/wiki/Islamic_studies" title="Islamic studies">Islamic studies</a></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:8em;background:#dcf5dc;"><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Arts</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Arabesque" title="Arabesque">Arabesque</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islamic_architecture" title="Islamic architecture">Architecture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islamic_calligraphy" title="Islamic calligraphy">Calligraphy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oriental_rug" title="Oriental rug">Carpets</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islamic_garden" title="Islamic garden">Gardens</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islamic_geometric_patterns" title="Islamic geometric patterns">Geometric patterns</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islamic_music" title="Islamic music">Music</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islamic_pottery" title="Islamic pottery">Pottery</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:8em;background:#dcf5dc;"><a href="/wiki/Science_in_the_medieval_Islamic_world" title="Science in the medieval Islamic world">Medieval science</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0;background-color:#f7fdf7;"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Alchemy_and_chemistry_in_the_medieval_Islamic_world" class="mw-redirect" title="Alchemy and chemistry in the medieval Islamic world">Alchemy and chemistry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Astronomy_in_the_medieval_Islamic_world" title="Astronomy in the medieval Islamic world">Astronomy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cosmology_in_medieval_Islam" class="mw-redirect" title="Cosmology in medieval Islam">Cosmology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geography_and_cartography_in_the_medieval_Islamic_world" title="Geography and cartography in the medieval Islamic world">Geography and cartography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mathematics_in_the_medieval_Islamic_world" title="Mathematics in the medieval Islamic world">Mathematics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Medicine_in_the_medieval_Islamic_world" title="Medicine in the medieval Islamic world">Medicine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ophthalmology_in_the_medieval_Islamic_world" title="Ophthalmology in the medieval Islamic world">Ophthalmology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Physics_in_the_medieval_Islamic_world" title="Physics in the medieval Islamic world">Physics</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:8em;background:#dcf5dc;"><a href="/wiki/Islamic_philosophy" title="Islamic philosophy">Philosophy</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Early_Islamic_philosophy" title="Early Islamic philosophy">Early</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Contemporary_Islamic_philosophy" title="Contemporary Islamic philosophy">Contemporary</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islamic_eschatology" title="Islamic eschatology">Eschatology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kalam" title="Kalam">Theological</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:8em;background:#dcf5dc;">Other areas</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0;background-color:#f7fdf7;"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Astrology_in_the_medieval_Islamic_world" title="Astrology in the medieval Islamic world">Astrology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islamic_views_on_evolution" title="Islamic views on evolution">Creationism (evolution)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islamic_feminism" title="Islamic feminism">Feminism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_inventions_in_the_medieval_Islamic_world" title="List of inventions in the medieval Islamic world">Inventions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liberalism_and_progressivism_within_Islam" title="Liberalism and progressivism within Islam">Liberalism and progressivism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islamic_literature" title="Islamic literature">Literature</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Islamic_poetry" title="Islamic poetry">poetry</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Psychology_in_the_medieval_Islamic_world" title="Psychology in the medieval Islamic world">Psychology</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Shu%27ubiyya" title="Shu'ubiyya">Shu'ubiyya</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conversion_of_non-Islamic_places_of_worship_into_mosques" title="Conversion of non-Islamic places of worship into mosques">Conversion to mosques</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2" style="background-color:#dcf5dc;"><div id="_Other" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><span style="padding-left:2.5em;"> </span>Other</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:8em;background:#dcf5dc;"><a href="/wiki/Islam_and_other_religions" title="Islam and other religions">Other religions</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Christianity_and_Islam" title="Christianity and Islam">Christianity</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Catholic_Church_and_Islam" title="Catholic Church and Islam">Catholicism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islam_and_Mormonism" title="Islam and Mormonism">Mormonism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Protestantism_and_Islam" title="Protestantism and Islam">Protestantism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Druze#Relationship_with_Muslims" title="Druze">Druzism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hindu%E2%80%93Islamic_relations" title="Hindu–Islamic relations">Hinduism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islam_and_Jainism" title="Islam and Jainism">Jainism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islamic%E2%80%93Jewish_relations" title="Islamic–Jewish relations">Judaism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islam_and_Sikhism" title="Islam and Sikhism">Sikhism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:8em;background:#dcf5dc;"><a href="/wiki/Apostasy_in_Islam" title="Apostasy in Islam">Apostasy</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0;background-color:#f7fdf7;"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Apostasy_in_Islam_by_country" title="Apostasy in Islam by country">Apostasy in Islam by country</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ex-Muslims" title="Ex-Muslims">Ex-Muslims</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_former_Muslims" title="List of former Muslims">List of former Muslims</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_ex-Muslim_organisations" title="List of ex-Muslim organisations">List of ex-Muslim organisations</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:8em;background:#dcf5dc;">Related topics</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Criticism_of_Islam" title="Criticism of Islam">Criticism of Islam</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Criticism_of_Muhammad" title="Criticism of Muhammad">Muhammad</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Criticism_of_the_Quran" title="Criticism of the Quran">Quran</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cultural_Muslim" class="mw-redirect" title="Cultural Muslim">Cultural Muslim</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islamism" title="Islamism">Islamism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Criticism_of_Islamism" title="Criticism of Islamism">Criticism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Post-Islamism" title="Post-Islamism">Post-Islamism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Qutbism" title="Qutbism">Qutbism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islamophobia" title="Islamophobia">Islamophobia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islamic_extremism" title="Islamic extremism">Islamic extremism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islamic_terrorism" title="Islamic terrorism">Islamic terrorism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islamic_view_of_miracles" title="Islamic view of miracles">Islamic view of miracles</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islam_and_domestic_violence" title="Islam and domestic violence">Domestic violence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nursing_in_Islam" title="Nursing in Islam">Nursing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Persecution_of_Muslims" title="Persecution of Muslims">Persecution of Muslims</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quran_and_miracles" class="mw-redirect" title="Quran and miracles">Quran and miracles</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Symbols_of_Islam" title="Symbols of Islam">Symbolism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2" style="background-color:#dcf5dc;"><div> <ul><li><span class="nowrap"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4e/Allah-green.svg/15px-Allah-green.svg.png" decoding="async" width="15" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4e/Allah-green.svg/23px-Allah-green.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4e/Allah-green.svg/31px-Allah-green.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="206" data-file-height="215" /></span></span> </span><a href="/wiki/Portal:Islam" title="Portal:Islam">Islam portal</a></li> <li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Category"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/23px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/31px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Category:Islam" title="Category:Islam">Category</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"><style 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