CINXE.COM

<!DOCTYPE html> <html class="client-nojs vector-feature-language-in-header-enabled vector-feature-language-in-main-page-header-disabled vector-feature-page-tools-pinned-disabled vector-feature-toc-pinned-clientpref-1 vector-feature-main-menu-pinned-disabled vector-feature-limited-width-clientpref-1 vector-feature-limited-width-content-enabled vector-feature-custom-font-size-clientpref-1 vector-feature-appearance-pinned-clientpref-1 vector-feature-night-mode-enabled skin-theme-clientpref-day vector-sticky-header-enabled vector-toc-available" lang="en" dir="ltr"> <head> <meta charset="UTF-8"> <title>Sparta - Wikipedia</title> <script>(function(){var className="client-js vector-feature-language-in-header-enabled vector-feature-language-in-main-page-header-disabled vector-feature-page-tools-pinned-disabled vector-feature-toc-pinned-clientpref-1 vector-feature-main-menu-pinned-disabled vector-feature-limited-width-clientpref-1 vector-feature-limited-width-content-enabled vector-feature-custom-font-size-clientpref-1 vector-feature-appearance-pinned-clientpref-1 vector-feature-night-mode-enabled skin-theme-clientpref-day vector-sticky-header-enabled vector-toc-available";var cookie=document.cookie.match(/(?:^|; )enwikimwclientpreferences=([^;]+)/);if(cookie){cookie[1].split('%2C').forEach(function(pref){className=className.replace(new RegExp('(^| )'+pref.replace(/-clientpref-\w+$|[^\w-]+/g,'')+'-clientpref-\\w+( |$)'),'$1'+pref+'$2');});}document.documentElement.className=className;}());RLCONF={"wgBreakFrames":false,"wgSeparatorTransformTable":["",""],"wgDigitTransformTable":["",""],"wgDefaultDateFormat":"dmy","wgMonthNames":["","January","February","March","April","May","June","July","August","September","October","November","December"],"wgRequestId":"0d90f516-8d01-4c24-9aa6-2fbfccb734bc","wgCanonicalNamespace":"","wgCanonicalSpecialPageName":false,"wgNamespaceNumber":0,"wgPageName":"Sparta","wgTitle":"Sparta","wgCurRevisionId":1281203435,"wgRevisionId":1281203435,"wgArticleId":36487,"wgIsArticle":true,"wgIsRedirect":false,"wgAction":"view","wgUserName":null,"wgUserGroups":["*"],"wgCategories":["Pages using gadget WikiMiniAtlas","Articles containing Mycenaean Greek-language text","Articles containing Ancient Greek (to 1453)-language text","Articles containing Doric Greek-language text","Articles containing Attic Greek-language text","CS1 Greek-language sources (el)","Wikipedia articles incorporating a citation from the 1911 Encyclopaedia Britannica with Wikisource reference","Wikipedia articles incorporating text from the 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica","CS1 Latin-language sources (la)","Webarchive template wayback links","Pages containing links to subscription-only content","Wikipedia articles needing page number citations from September 2013","Wikipedia articles needing page number citations from October 2021","Articles with short description","Short description matches Wikidata","Wikipedia indefinitely semi-protected pages","Wikipedia indefinitely move-protected pages","Use British English from February 2025","Use dmy dates from February 2025","Coordinates on Wikidata","All articles lacking reliable references","Articles lacking reliable references from November 2017","All articles with unsourced statements","Articles with unsourced statements from June 2021","Articles with unsourced statements from October 2020","Articles with unsourced statements from June 2023","CS1 maint: location missing publisher","Commons category link is on Wikidata","Sparta","Diarchies","Former populated places in Greece","Greek city-states","Hellenistic states","Locations in Greek mythology","Populated places in Laconia","States and territories disestablished in the 2nd century BC","States and territories established in the 11th century BC"],"wgPageViewLanguage":"en","wgPageContentLanguage":"en","wgPageContentModel":"wikitext","wgRelevantPageName":"Sparta","wgRelevantArticleId":36487,"wgIsProbablyEditable":false,"wgRelevantPageIsProbablyEditable":false,"wgRestrictionEdit":["autoconfirmed"],"wgRestrictionMove":["sysop"],"wgNoticeProject":"wikipedia","wgCiteReferencePreviewsActive":false,"wgFlaggedRevsParams":{"tags":{"status":{"levels":1}}},"wgMediaViewerOnClick":true,"wgMediaViewerEnabledByDefault":true,"wgPopupsFlags":0,"wgVisualEditor":{"pageLanguageCode":"en","pageLanguageDir":"ltr","pageVariantFallbacks":"en"},"wgMFDisplayWikibaseDescriptions":{"search":true,"watchlist":true,"tagline":false,"nearby":true},"wgWMESchemaEditAttemptStepOversample":false,"wgWMEPageLength":100000,"wgCoordinates":{"lat":37.081944444444446,"lon":22.42361111111111},"wgEditSubmitButtonLabelPublish":true,"wgULSPosition":"interlanguage","wgULSisCompactLinksEnabled":false,"wgVector2022LanguageInHeader":true,"wgULSisLanguageSelectorEmpty":false,"wgWikibaseItemId":"Q5690","wgCheckUserClientHintsHeadersJsApi":["brands","architecture","bitness","fullVersionList","mobile","model","platform","platformVersion"],"GEHomepageSuggestedEditsEnableTopics":true,"wgGETopicsMatchModeEnabled":false,"wgGELevelingUpEnabledForUser":false}; RLSTATE={"ext.globalCssJs.user.styles":"ready","site.styles":"ready","user.styles":"ready","ext.globalCssJs.user":"ready","user":"ready","user.options":"loading","ext.cite.styles":"ready","skins.vector.search.codex.styles":"ready","skins.vector.styles":"ready","skins.vector.icons":"ready","jquery.makeCollapsible.styles":"ready","ext.wikimediamessages.styles":"ready","ext.visualEditor.desktopArticleTarget.noscript":"ready","ext.uls.interlanguage":"ready","wikibase.client.init":"ready","ext.wikimediaBadges":"ready"};RLPAGEMODULES=["ext.cite.ux-enhancements","mediawiki.page.media","ext.scribunto.logs","site","mediawiki.page.ready","jquery.makeCollapsible","mediawiki.toc","skins.vector.js","ext.centralNotice.geoIP","ext.centralNotice.startUp","ext.gadget.ReferenceTooltips","ext.gadget.switcher","ext.gadget.WikiMiniAtlas","ext.urlShortener.toolbar","ext.centralauth.centralautologin","mmv.bootstrap","ext.popups","ext.visualEditor.desktopArticleTarget.init","ext.visualEditor.targetLoader","ext.echo.centralauth","ext.eventLogging","ext.wikimediaEvents","ext.navigationTiming","ext.uls.interface","ext.cx.eventlogging.campaigns","ext.cx.uls.quick.actions","wikibase.client.vector-2022","ext.checkUser.clientHints","ext.quicksurveys.init","ext.growthExperiments.SuggestedEditSession"];</script> <script>(RLQ=window.RLQ||[]).push(function(){mw.loader.impl(function(){return["user.options@12s5i",function($,jQuery,require,module){mw.user.tokens.set({"patrolToken":"+\\","watchToken":"+\\","csrfToken":"+\\"}); }];});});</script> <link rel="stylesheet" href="/w/load.php?lang=en&modules=ext.cite.styles%7Cext.uls.interlanguage%7Cext.visualEditor.desktopArticleTarget.noscript%7Cext.wikimediaBadges%7Cext.wikimediamessages.styles%7Cjquery.makeCollapsible.styles%7Cskins.vector.icons%2Cstyles%7Cskins.vector.search.codex.styles%7Cwikibase.client.init&only=styles&skin=vector-2022"> <script async="" src="/w/load.php?lang=en&modules=startup&only=scripts&raw=1&skin=vector-2022"></script> <meta name="ResourceLoaderDynamicStyles" content=""> <link rel="stylesheet" href="/w/load.php?lang=en&modules=site.styles&only=styles&skin=vector-2022"> <meta name="generator" content="MediaWiki 1.44.0-wmf.21"> <meta name="referrer" content="origin"> <meta name="referrer" content="origin-when-cross-origin"> <meta name="robots" content="max-image-preview:standard"> <meta name="format-detection" content="telephone=no"> <meta property="og:image" content="https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/db/Spartan_Territory_Before_371_BC.png/1200px-Spartan_Territory_Before_371_BC.png"> <meta property="og:image:width" content="1200"> <meta property="og:image:height" content="1263"> <meta property="og:image" content="https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/db/Spartan_Territory_Before_371_BC.png/960px-Spartan_Territory_Before_371_BC.png"> <meta property="og:image:width" content="800"> <meta property="og:image:height" content="842"> <meta property="og:image:width" content="640"> <meta property="og:image:height" content="674"> <meta name="viewport" content="width=1120"> <meta property="og:title" content="Sparta - Wikipedia"> <meta property="og:type" content="website"> <link rel="preconnect" href="//upload.wikimedia.org"> <link rel="alternate" media="only screen and (max-width: 640px)" href="//en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sparta"> <link rel="apple-touch-icon" href="/static/apple-touch/wikipedia.png"> <link rel="icon" href="/static/favicon/wikipedia.ico"> <link rel="search" type="application/opensearchdescription+xml" href="/w/rest.php/v1/search" title="Wikipedia (en)"> <link rel="EditURI" type="application/rsd+xml" href="//en.wikipedia.org/w/api.php?action=rsd"> <link rel="canonical" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sparta"> <link rel="license" href="https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/deed.en"> <link rel="alternate" type="application/atom+xml" title="Wikipedia Atom feed" href="/w/index.php?title=Special:RecentChanges&feed=atom"> <link rel="dns-prefetch" href="//meta.wikimedia.org" /> <link rel="dns-prefetch" href="login.wikimedia.org"> </head> <body class="skin--responsive skin-vector skin-vector-search-vue mediawiki ltr sitedir-ltr mw-hide-empty-elt ns-0 ns-subject page-Sparta rootpage-Sparta skin-vector-2022 action-view"><a class="mw-jump-link" href="#bodyContent">Jump to content</a> <div class="vector-header-container"> <header class="vector-header mw-header"> <div class="vector-header-start"> <nav class="vector-main-menu-landmark" aria-label="Site"> <div id="vector-main-menu-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown vector-main-menu-dropdown vector-button-flush-left vector-button-flush-right" title="Main menu" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-main-menu-dropdown-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-main-menu-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Main menu" > <label id="vector-main-menu-dropdown-label" for="vector-main-menu-dropdown-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-menu mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-menu"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Main menu</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-main-menu-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> <div id="vector-main-menu" class="vector-main-menu vector-pinnable-element"> <div class="vector-pinnable-header vector-main-menu-pinnable-header vector-pinnable-header-unpinned" data-feature-name="main-menu-pinned" data-pinnable-element-id="vector-main-menu" data-pinned-container-id="vector-main-menu-pinned-container" data-unpinned-container-id="vector-main-menu-unpinned-container" > <div class="vector-pinnable-header-label">Main menu</div> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-pin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-main-menu.pin">move to sidebar</button> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-unpin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-main-menu.unpin">hide</button> </div> <div id="p-navigation" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-navigation" > <div class="vector-menu-heading"> Navigation </div> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="n-mainpage-description" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Main_Page" title="Visit the main page [z]" accesskey="z"><span>Main page</span></a></li><li id="n-contents" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Contents" title="Guides to browsing Wikipedia"><span>Contents</span></a></li><li id="n-currentevents" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Portal:Current_events" title="Articles related to current events"><span>Current events</span></a></li><li id="n-randompage" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Special:Random" title="Visit a randomly selected article [x]" accesskey="x"><span>Random article</span></a></li><li id="n-aboutsite" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:About" title="Learn about Wikipedia and how it works"><span>About Wikipedia</span></a></li><li id="n-contactpage" class="mw-list-item"><a href="//en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Contact_us" title="How to contact Wikipedia"><span>Contact us</span></a></li> </ul> </div> </div> <div id="p-interaction" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-interaction" > <div class="vector-menu-heading"> Contribute </div> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="n-help" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Help:Contents" title="Guidance on how to use and edit Wikipedia"><span>Help</span></a></li><li id="n-introduction" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Help:Introduction" title="Learn how to edit Wikipedia"><span>Learn to edit</span></a></li><li id="n-portal" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Community_portal" title="The hub for editors"><span>Community portal</span></a></li><li id="n-recentchanges" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Special:RecentChanges" title="A list of recent changes to Wikipedia [r]" accesskey="r"><span>Recent changes</span></a></li><li id="n-upload" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:File_upload_wizard" title="Add images or other media for use on Wikipedia"><span>Upload file</span></a></li><li id="n-specialpages" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Special:SpecialPages"><span>Special pages</span></a></li> </ul> </div> </div> </div> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <a href="/wiki/Main_Page" class="mw-logo"> <img class="mw-logo-icon" src="/static/images/icons/wikipedia.png" alt="" aria-hidden="true" height="50" width="50"> <span class="mw-logo-container skin-invert"> <img class="mw-logo-wordmark" alt="Wikipedia" src="/static/images/mobile/copyright/wikipedia-wordmark-en.svg" style="width: 7.5em; height: 1.125em;"> <img class="mw-logo-tagline" alt="The Free Encyclopedia" src="/static/images/mobile/copyright/wikipedia-tagline-en.svg" width="117" height="13" style="width: 7.3125em; height: 0.8125em;"> </span> </a> </div> <div class="vector-header-end"> <div id="p-search" role="search" class="vector-search-box-vue vector-search-box-collapses vector-search-box-show-thumbnail vector-search-box-auto-expand-width vector-search-box"> <a href="/wiki/Special:Search" class="cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only search-toggle" title="Search Wikipedia [f]" accesskey="f"><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-search mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-search"></span> <span>Search</span> </a> <div class="vector-typeahead-search-container"> <div class="cdx-typeahead-search cdx-typeahead-search--show-thumbnail cdx-typeahead-search--auto-expand-width"> <form action="/w/index.php" id="searchform" class="cdx-search-input cdx-search-input--has-end-button"> <div id="simpleSearch" class="cdx-search-input__input-wrapper" data-search-loc="header-moved"> <div class="cdx-text-input cdx-text-input--has-start-icon"> <input class="cdx-text-input__input" type="search" name="search" placeholder="Search Wikipedia" aria-label="Search Wikipedia" autocapitalize="sentences" title="Search Wikipedia [f]" accesskey="f" id="searchInput" > <span class="cdx-text-input__icon cdx-text-input__start-icon"></span> </div> <input type="hidden" name="title" value="Special:Search"> </div> <button class="cdx-button cdx-search-input__end-button">Search</button> </form> </div> </div> </div> <nav class="vector-user-links vector-user-links-wide" aria-label="Personal tools"> <div class="vector-user-links-main"> <div id="p-vector-user-menu-preferences" class="vector-menu mw-portlet emptyPortlet" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> </ul> </div> </div> <div id="p-vector-user-menu-userpage" class="vector-menu mw-portlet emptyPortlet" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> </ul> </div> </div> <nav class="vector-appearance-landmark" aria-label="Appearance"> <div id="vector-appearance-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown " title="Change the appearance of the page's font size, width, and color" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-appearance-dropdown-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-appearance-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Appearance" > <label id="vector-appearance-dropdown-label" for="vector-appearance-dropdown-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-appearance mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-appearance"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Appearance</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-appearance-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <div id="p-vector-user-menu-notifications" class="vector-menu mw-portlet emptyPortlet" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> </ul> </div> </div> <div id="p-vector-user-menu-overflow" class="vector-menu mw-portlet" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="pt-sitesupport-2" class="user-links-collapsible-item mw-list-item user-links-collapsible-item"><a data-mw="interface" href="https://donate.wikimedia.org/?wmf_source=donate&wmf_medium=sidebar&wmf_campaign=en.wikipedia.org&uselang=en" class=""><span>Donate</span></a> </li> <li id="pt-createaccount-2" class="user-links-collapsible-item mw-list-item user-links-collapsible-item"><a data-mw="interface" href="/w/index.php?title=Special:CreateAccount&returnto=Sparta" title="You are encouraged to create an account and log in; however, it is not mandatory" class=""><span>Create account</span></a> </li> <li id="pt-login-2" class="user-links-collapsible-item mw-list-item user-links-collapsible-item"><a data-mw="interface" href="/w/index.php?title=Special:UserLogin&returnto=Sparta" title="You're encouraged to log in; however, it's not mandatory. [o]" accesskey="o" class=""><span>Log in</span></a> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </div> <div id="vector-user-links-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown vector-user-menu vector-button-flush-right vector-user-menu-logged-out" title="Log in and more options" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-user-links-dropdown-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-user-links-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Personal tools" > <label id="vector-user-links-dropdown-label" for="vector-user-links-dropdown-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-ellipsis mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-ellipsis"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Personal tools</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="p-personal" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-personal user-links-collapsible-item" title="User menu" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="pt-sitesupport" class="user-links-collapsible-item mw-list-item"><a href="https://donate.wikimedia.org/?wmf_source=donate&wmf_medium=sidebar&wmf_campaign=en.wikipedia.org&uselang=en"><span>Donate</span></a></li><li id="pt-createaccount" class="user-links-collapsible-item mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Special:CreateAccount&returnto=Sparta" title="You are encouraged to create an account and log in; however, it is not mandatory"><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-userAdd mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-userAdd"></span> <span>Create account</span></a></li><li id="pt-login" class="user-links-collapsible-item mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Special:UserLogin&returnto=Sparta" title="You're encouraged to log in; however, it's not mandatory. [o]" accesskey="o"><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-logIn mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-logIn"></span> <span>Log in</span></a></li> </ul> </div> </div> <div id="p-user-menu-anon-editor" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-user-menu-anon-editor" > <div class="vector-menu-heading"> Pages for logged out editors <a href="/wiki/Help:Introduction" aria-label="Learn more about editing"><span>learn more</span></a> </div> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="pt-anoncontribs" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Special:MyContributions" title="A list of edits made from this IP address [y]" accesskey="y"><span>Contributions</span></a></li><li id="pt-anontalk" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Special:MyTalk" title="Discussion about edits from this IP address [n]" accesskey="n"><span>Talk</span></a></li> </ul> </div> </div> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </header> </div> <div class="mw-page-container"> <div class="mw-page-container-inner"> <div class="vector-sitenotice-container"> <div id="siteNotice"></div> </div> <div class="vector-column-start"> <div class="vector-main-menu-container"> <div id="mw-navigation"> <nav id="mw-panel" class="vector-main-menu-landmark" aria-label="Site"> <div id="vector-main-menu-pinned-container" class="vector-pinned-container"> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="vector-sticky-pinned-container"> <nav id="mw-panel-toc" aria-label="Contents" data-event-name="ui.sidebar-toc" class="mw-table-of-contents-container vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-toc-pinned-container" class="vector-pinned-container"> <div id="vector-toc" class="vector-toc vector-pinnable-element"> <div class="vector-pinnable-header vector-toc-pinnable-header vector-pinnable-header-pinned" data-feature-name="toc-pinned" data-pinnable-element-id="vector-toc" > <h2 class="vector-pinnable-header-label">Contents</h2> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-pin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-toc.pin">move to sidebar</button> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-unpin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-toc.unpin">hide</button> </div> <ul class="vector-toc-contents" id="mw-panel-toc-list"> <li id="toc-mw-content-text" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a href="#" class="vector-toc-link"> <div class="vector-toc-text">(Top)</div> </a> </li> <li id="toc-Names" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Names"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1</span> <span>Names</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Names-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Geography" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Geography"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2</span> <span>Geography</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Geography-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Mythology" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Mythology"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3</span> <span>Mythology</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Mythology-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Archaeology_of_the_classical_period" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Archaeology_of_the_classical_period"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> <span>Archaeology of the classical period</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Archaeology_of_the_classical_period-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Archaeology of the classical period subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Archaeology_of_the_classical_period-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Menelaion" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Menelaion"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.1</span> <span>Menelaion</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Menelaion-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-History" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#History"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>History</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-History-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle History subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-History-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Prehistory,_"dark_age"_and_archaic_period" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Prehistory,_"dark_age"_and_archaic_period"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.1</span> <span>Prehistory, "dark age" and archaic period</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Prehistory,_"dark_age"_and_archaic_period-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Classical_Sparta" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Classical_Sparta"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.2</span> <span>Classical Sparta</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Classical_Sparta-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Hellenistic_and_Roman_Sparta" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Hellenistic_and_Roman_Sparta"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.3</span> <span>Hellenistic and Roman Sparta</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Hellenistic_and_Roman_Sparta-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Post-classical_and_modern_Sparta" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Post-classical_and_modern_Sparta"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.4</span> <span>Post-classical and modern Sparta</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Post-classical_and_modern_Sparta-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Structure_of_Classical_Spartan_society" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Structure_of_Classical_Spartan_society"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6</span> <span>Structure of Classical Spartan society</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Structure_of_Classical_Spartan_society-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Structure of Classical Spartan society subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Structure_of_Classical_Spartan_society-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Constitution" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Constitution"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.1</span> <span>Constitution</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Constitution-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Citizenship" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Citizenship"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.2</span> <span>Citizenship</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Citizenship-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Non_citizens" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Non_citizens"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.3</span> <span>Non citizens</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Non_citizens-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Helots" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Helots"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.3.1</span> <span>Helots</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Helots-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Perioikoi" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Perioikoi"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.3.2</span> <span>Perioikoi</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Perioikoi-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Economy" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Economy"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.4</span> <span>Economy</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Economy-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Life_in_Classical_Sparta" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Life_in_Classical_Sparta"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7</span> <span>Life in Classical Sparta</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Life_in_Classical_Sparta-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Life in Classical Sparta subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Life_in_Classical_Sparta-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Birth_and_death" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Birth_and_death"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7.1</span> <span>Birth and death</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Birth_and_death-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Education" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Education"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7.2</span> <span>Education</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Education-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Military_life" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Military_life"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7.3</span> <span>Military life</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Military_life-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Agriculture,_food,_and_diet" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Agriculture,_food,_and_diet"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7.4</span> <span>Agriculture, food, and diet</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Agriculture,_food,_and_diet-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Marriage" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Marriage"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7.5</span> <span>Marriage</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Marriage-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Role_of_women" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Role_of_women"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8</span> <span>Role of women</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Role_of_women-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Role of women subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Role_of_women-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Political,_social,_and_economic_equality" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Political,_social,_and_economic_equality"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8.1</span> <span>Political, social, and economic equality</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Political,_social,_and_economic_equality-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Historic_women" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Historic_women"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8.2</span> <span>Historic women</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Historic_women-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Laconophilia" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Laconophilia"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9</span> <span>Laconophilia</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Laconophilia-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Notable_ancient_Spartans" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Notable_ancient_Spartans"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">10</span> <span>Notable ancient Spartans</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Notable_ancient_Spartans-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">11</span> <span>See also</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Notes" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Notes"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">12</span> <span>Notes</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Notes-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">13</span> <span>References</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Sources" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Sources"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">14</span> <span>Sources</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Sources-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Further_reading" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Further_reading"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">15</span> <span>Further reading</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Further_reading-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">16</span> <span>External links</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" title="Table of Contents" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-listBullet mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-listBullet"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Toggle the table of contents</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading"><span class="mw-page-title-main">Sparta</span></h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. Available in 100 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-100" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-language-progressive mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-language-progressive"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">100 languages</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-af mw-list-item"><a href="https://af.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sparta" title="Sparta – Afrikaans" lang="af" hreflang="af" data-title="Sparta" data-language-autonym="Afrikaans" data-language-local-name="Afrikaans" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Afrikaans</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-als mw-list-item"><a href="https://als.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sparta" title="Sparta – Alemannic" lang="gsw" hreflang="gsw" data-title="Sparta" data-language-autonym="Alemannisch" data-language-local-name="Alemannic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Alemannisch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A5%D8%B3%D8%A8%D8%B1%D8%B7%D8%A9_(%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%8A%D9%88%D9%86%D8%A7%D9%86)" title="إسبرطة (اليونان) – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="إسبرطة (اليونان)" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>العربية</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ast mw-list-item"><a href="https://ast.wikipedia.org/wiki/Esparta" title="Esparta – Asturian" lang="ast" hreflang="ast" data-title="Esparta" data-language-autonym="Asturianu" data-language-local-name="Asturian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Asturianu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-az mw-list-item"><a href="https://az.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sparta" title="Sparta – Azerbaijani" lang="az" hreflang="az" data-title="Sparta" data-language-autonym="Azərbaycanca" data-language-local-name="Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Azərbaycanca</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bn mw-list-item"><a href="https://bn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A6%B8%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%AA%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%B0%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%9F%E0%A6%BE" title="স্পার্টা – Bangla" lang="bn" hreflang="bn" data-title="স্পার্টা" data-language-autonym="বাংলা" data-language-local-name="Bangla" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>বাংলা</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-min-nan mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh-min-nan.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sparta" title="Sparta – Minnan" lang="nan" hreflang="nan" data-title="Sparta" data-language-autonym="閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gú" data-language-local-name="Minnan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gú</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be mw-list-item"><a href="https://be.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A1%D0%BF%D0%B0%D1%80%D1%82%D0%B0" title="Спарта – Belarusian" lang="be" hreflang="be" data-title="Спарта" data-language-autonym="Беларуская" data-language-local-name="Belarusian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Беларуская</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be-x-old mw-list-item"><a href="https://be-tarask.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A1%D0%BF%D0%B0%D1%80%D1%82%D0%B0" title="Спарта – Belarusian (Taraškievica orthography)" lang="be-tarask" hreflang="be-tarask" data-title="Спарта" data-language-autonym="Беларуская (тарашкевіца)" data-language-local-name="Belarusian (Taraškievica orthography)" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Беларуская (тарашкевіца)</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bg mw-list-item"><a href="https://bg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%94%D1%80%D0%B5%D0%B2%D0%BD%D0%B0_%D0%A1%D0%BF%D0%B0%D1%80%D1%82%D0%B0" title="Древна Спарта – Bulgarian" lang="bg" hreflang="bg" data-title="Древна Спарта" data-language-autonym="Български" data-language-local-name="Bulgarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Български</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bs mw-list-item"><a href="https://bs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sparta" title="Sparta – Bosnian" lang="bs" hreflang="bs" data-title="Sparta" data-language-autonym="Bosanski" data-language-local-name="Bosnian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bosanski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-br mw-list-item"><a href="https://br.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sparta_(k%C3%AAr)" title="Sparta (kêr) – Breton" lang="br" hreflang="br" data-title="Sparta (kêr)" data-language-autonym="Brezhoneg" data-language-local-name="Breton" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Brezhoneg</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Esparta" title="Esparta – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Esparta" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Català</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cv mw-list-item"><a href="https://cv.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A1%D0%BF%D0%B0%D1%80%D1%82%D0%B0_(%D0%BF%D0%B0%D1%82%D1%88%D0%B0%D0%BB%D3%91%D1%85)" title="Спарта (патшалӑх) – Chuvash" lang="cv" hreflang="cv" data-title="Спарта (патшалӑх)" data-language-autonym="Чӑвашла" data-language-local-name="Chuvash" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Чӑвашла</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ceb mw-list-item"><a href="https://ceb.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sp%C3%A1rti" title="Spárti – Cebuano" lang="ceb" hreflang="ceb" data-title="Spárti" data-language-autonym="Cebuano" data-language-local-name="Cebuano" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Cebuano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs mw-list-item"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sparta" title="Sparta – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="Sparta" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="Czech" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Čeština</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cy mw-list-item"><a href="https://cy.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sparta" title="Sparta – Welsh" lang="cy" hreflang="cy" data-title="Sparta" data-language-autonym="Cymraeg" data-language-local-name="Welsh" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Cymraeg</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-da mw-list-item"><a href="https://da.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sparta" title="Sparta – Danish" lang="da" hreflang="da" data-title="Sparta" data-language-autonym="Dansk" data-language-local-name="Danish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Dansk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sparta" title="Sparta – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Sparta" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Deutsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-et mw-list-item"><a href="https://et.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sparta" title="Sparta – Estonian" lang="et" hreflang="et" data-title="Sparta" data-language-autonym="Eesti" data-language-local-name="Estonian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Eesti</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-el mw-list-item"><a href="https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%91%CF%81%CF%87%CE%B1%CE%AF%CE%B1_%CE%A3%CF%80%CE%AC%CF%81%CF%84%CE%B7" title="Αρχαία Σπάρτη – Greek" lang="el" hreflang="el" data-title="Αρχαία Σπάρτη" data-language-autonym="Ελληνικά" data-language-local-name="Greek" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ελληνικά</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Esparta" title="Esparta – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Esparta" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Español</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eo mw-list-item"><a href="https://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sparto" title="Sparto – Esperanto" lang="eo" hreflang="eo" data-title="Sparto" data-language-autonym="Esperanto" data-language-local-name="Esperanto" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Esperanto</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ext mw-list-item"><a href="https://ext.wikipedia.org/wiki/Esparta" title="Esparta – Extremaduran" lang="ext" hreflang="ext" data-title="Esparta" data-language-autonym="Estremeñu" data-language-local-name="Extremaduran" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Estremeñu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eu mw-list-item"><a href="https://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Esparta" title="Esparta – Basque" lang="eu" hreflang="eu" data-title="Esparta" data-language-autonym="Euskara" data-language-local-name="Basque" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Euskara</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A7%D8%B3%D9%BE%D8%A7%D8%B1%D8%AA" title="اسپارت – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="اسپارت" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>فارسی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr badge-Q17437798 badge-goodarticle mw-list-item" title="good article badge"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sparte" title="Sparte – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Sparte" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Français</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fy mw-list-item"><a href="https://fy.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sparta" title="Sparta – Western Frisian" lang="fy" hreflang="fy" data-title="Sparta" data-language-autonym="Frysk" data-language-local-name="Western Frisian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Frysk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ga mw-list-item"><a href="https://ga.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sparta" title="Sparta – Irish" lang="ga" hreflang="ga" data-title="Sparta" data-language-autonym="Gaeilge" data-language-local-name="Irish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Gaeilge</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gl mw-list-item"><a href="https://gl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Esparta" title="Esparta – Galician" lang="gl" hreflang="gl" data-title="Esparta" data-language-autonym="Galego" data-language-local-name="Galician" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Galego</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EC%8A%A4%ED%8C%8C%EB%A5%B4%ED%83%80" title="스파르타 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="스파르타" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>한국어</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hy mw-list-item"><a href="https://hy.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D5%8D%D5%BA%D5%A1%D6%80%D5%BF%D5%A1" title="Սպարտա – Armenian" lang="hy" hreflang="hy" data-title="Սպարտա" data-language-autonym="Հայերեն" data-language-local-name="Armenian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Հայերեն</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hi mw-list-item"><a href="https://hi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%B8%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AA%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%9F%E0%A4%BE" title="स्पार्टा – Hindi" lang="hi" hreflang="hi" data-title="स्पार्टा" data-language-autonym="हिन्दी" data-language-local-name="Hindi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>हिन्दी</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hr mw-list-item"><a href="https://hr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sparta" title="Sparta – Croatian" lang="hr" hreflang="hr" data-title="Sparta" data-language-autonym="Hrvatski" data-language-local-name="Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Hrvatski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-io mw-list-item"><a href="https://io.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sparta" title="Sparta – Ido" lang="io" hreflang="io" data-title="Sparta" data-language-autonym="Ido" data-language-local-name="Ido" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ido</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sparta" title="Sparta – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Sparta" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Indonesia</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ia mw-list-item"><a href="https://ia.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sparta" title="Sparta – Interlingua" lang="ia" hreflang="ia" data-title="Sparta" data-language-autonym="Interlingua" data-language-local-name="Interlingua" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Interlingua</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-is mw-list-item"><a href="https://is.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sparta" title="Sparta – Icelandic" lang="is" hreflang="is" data-title="Sparta" data-language-autonym="Íslenska" data-language-local-name="Icelandic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Íslenska</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sparta" title="Sparta – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Sparta" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Italiano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he mw-list-item"><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%A1%D7%A4%D7%A8%D7%98%D7%94" title="ספרטה – Hebrew" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="ספרטה" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="Hebrew" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>עברית</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-jv mw-list-item"><a href="https://jv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sparta" title="Sparta – Javanese" lang="jv" hreflang="jv" data-title="Sparta" data-language-autonym="Jawa" data-language-local-name="Javanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Jawa</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kn mw-list-item"><a href="https://kn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B2%B8%E0%B3%8D%E0%B2%AA%E0%B2%BE%E0%B2%B0%E0%B3%8D%E0%B2%9F%E0%B2%BE" title="ಸ್ಪಾರ್ಟಾ – Kannada" lang="kn" hreflang="kn" data-title="ಸ್ಪಾರ್ಟಾ" data-language-autonym="ಕನ್ನಡ" data-language-local-name="Kannada" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ಕನ್ನಡ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ka mw-list-item"><a href="https://ka.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%A1%E1%83%9E%E1%83%90%E1%83%A0%E1%83%A2%E1%83%90" title="სპარტა – Georgian" lang="ka" hreflang="ka" data-title="სპარტა" data-language-autonym="ქართული" data-language-local-name="Georgian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ქართული</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kk mw-list-item"><a href="https://kk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A1%D0%BF%D0%B0%D1%80%D1%82%D0%B0" title="Спарта – Kazakh" lang="kk" hreflang="kk" data-title="Спарта" data-language-autonym="Қазақша" data-language-local-name="Kazakh" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Қазақша</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ku mw-list-item"><a href="https://ku.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sparta" title="Sparta – Kurdish" lang="ku" hreflang="ku" data-title="Sparta" data-language-autonym="Kurdî" data-language-local-name="Kurdish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Kurdî</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-la mw-list-item"><a href="https://la.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lacedaemon" title="Lacedaemon – Latin" lang="la" hreflang="la" data-title="Lacedaemon" data-language-autonym="Latina" data-language-local-name="Latin" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Latina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lv mw-list-item"><a href="https://lv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sparta" title="Sparta – Latvian" lang="lv" hreflang="lv" data-title="Sparta" data-language-autonym="Latviešu" data-language-local-name="Latvian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Latviešu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lb mw-list-item"><a href="https://lb.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sparta" title="Sparta – Luxembourgish" lang="lb" hreflang="lb" data-title="Sparta" data-language-autonym="Lëtzebuergesch" data-language-local-name="Luxembourgish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Lëtzebuergesch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lt mw-list-item"><a href="https://lt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sparta" title="Sparta – Lithuanian" lang="lt" hreflang="lt" data-title="Sparta" data-language-autonym="Lietuvių" data-language-local-name="Lithuanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Lietuvių</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hu mw-list-item"><a href="https://hu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sp%C3%A1rta" title="Spárta – Hungarian" lang="hu" hreflang="hu" data-title="Spárta" data-language-autonym="Magyar" data-language-local-name="Hungarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Magyar</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mk mw-list-item"><a href="https://mk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A1%D0%BF%D0%B0%D1%80%D1%82%D0%B0" title="Спарта – Macedonian" lang="mk" hreflang="mk" data-title="Спарта" data-language-autonym="Македонски" data-language-local-name="Macedonian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Македонски</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ml mw-list-item"><a href="https://ml.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B4%B8%E0%B5%8D%E0%B4%AA%E0%B4%BE%E0%B5%BC%E0%B4%9F%E0%B5%8D%E0%B4%9F" title="സ്പാർട്ട – Malayalam" lang="ml" hreflang="ml" data-title="സ്പാർട്ട" data-language-autonym="മലയാളം" data-language-local-name="Malayalam" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>മലയാളം</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mzn mw-list-item"><a href="https://mzn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A7%D8%B3%D9%BE%D8%A7%D8%B1%D8%AA" title="اسپارت – Mazanderani" lang="mzn" hreflang="mzn" data-title="اسپارت" data-language-autonym="مازِرونی" data-language-local-name="Mazanderani" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>مازِرونی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ms mw-list-item"><a href="https://ms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sparta" title="Sparta – Malay" lang="ms" hreflang="ms" data-title="Sparta" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Melayu" data-language-local-name="Malay" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Melayu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mn mw-list-item"><a href="https://mn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A1%D0%BF%D0%B0%D1%80%D1%82%D0%B0" title="Спарта – Mongolian" lang="mn" hreflang="mn" data-title="Спарта" data-language-autonym="Монгол" data-language-local-name="Mongolian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Монгол</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-my mw-list-item"><a href="https://my.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%80%85%E1%80%95%E1%80%AB%E1%80%90%E1%80%AC" title="စပါတာ – Burmese" lang="my" hreflang="my" data-title="စပါတာ" data-language-autonym="မြန်မာဘာသာ" data-language-local-name="Burmese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>မြန်မာဘာသာ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sparta_(Griekenland)" title="Sparta (Griekenland) – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Sparta (Griekenland)" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Nederlands</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ne mw-list-item"><a href="https://ne.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%B8%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AA%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%9F%E0%A4%BE" title="स्पार्टा – Nepali" lang="ne" hreflang="ne" data-title="स्पार्टा" data-language-autonym="नेपाली" data-language-local-name="Nepali" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>नेपाली</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-new mw-list-item"><a href="https://new.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%B8%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AA%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%A4%E0%A4%BE" title="स्पार्ता – Newari" lang="new" hreflang="new" data-title="स्पार्ता" data-language-autonym="नेपाल भाषा" data-language-local-name="Newari" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>नेपाल भाषा</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E3%82%B9%E3%83%91%E3%83%AB%E3%82%BF" title="スパルタ – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="スパルタ" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>日本語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-no badge-Q17437798 badge-goodarticle mw-list-item" title="good article badge"><a href="https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sparta" title="Sparta – Norwegian Bokmål" lang="nb" hreflang="nb" data-title="Sparta" data-language-autonym="Norsk bokmål" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Bokmål" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk bokmål</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nn mw-list-item"><a href="https://nn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sp%C3%A1rti" title="Spárti – Norwegian Nynorsk" lang="nn" hreflang="nn" data-title="Spárti" data-language-autonym="Norsk nynorsk" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Nynorsk" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk nynorsk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-oc badge-Q17437798 badge-goodarticle mw-list-item" title="good article badge"><a href="https://oc.wikipedia.org/wiki/Esparta" title="Esparta – Occitan" lang="oc" hreflang="oc" data-title="Esparta" data-language-autonym="Occitan" data-language-local-name="Occitan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Occitan</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uz mw-list-item"><a href="https://uz.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sparta_(davlat)" title="Sparta (davlat) – Uzbek" lang="uz" hreflang="uz" data-title="Sparta (davlat)" data-language-autonym="Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча" data-language-local-name="Uzbek" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pa mw-list-item"><a href="https://pa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A8%B8%E0%A8%AA%E0%A8%BE%E0%A8%B0%E0%A8%9F%E0%A8%BE" title="ਸਪਾਰਟਾ – Punjabi" lang="pa" hreflang="pa" data-title="ਸਪਾਰਟਾ" data-language-autonym="ਪੰਜਾਬੀ" data-language-local-name="Punjabi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ਪੰਜਾਬੀ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pnb mw-list-item"><a href="https://pnb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B3%D9%BE%D8%A7%D8%B1%D9%B9%D8%A7" title="سپارٹا – Western Punjabi" lang="pnb" hreflang="pnb" data-title="سپارٹا" data-language-autonym="پنجابی" data-language-local-name="Western Punjabi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>پنجابی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ps mw-list-item"><a href="https://ps.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B3%D9%BE%D8%A7%D8%B1%D8%AA%D8%A7" title="سپارتا – Pashto" lang="ps" hreflang="ps" data-title="سپارتا" data-language-autonym="پښتو" data-language-local-name="Pashto" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>پښتو</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nds mw-list-item"><a href="https://nds.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sparta_(Antike)" title="Sparta (Antike) – Low German" lang="nds" hreflang="nds" data-title="Sparta (Antike)" data-language-autonym="Plattdüütsch" data-language-local-name="Low German" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Plattdüütsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sparta_(polis)" title="Sparta (polis) – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="Sparta (polis)" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Polish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Polski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Esparta" title="Esparta – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Esparta" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Português</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ro mw-list-item"><a href="https://ro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sparta" title="Sparta – Romanian" lang="ro" hreflang="ro" data-title="Sparta" data-language-autonym="Română" data-language-local-name="Romanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Română</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A1%D0%BF%D0%B0%D1%80%D1%82%D0%B0" title="Спарта – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Спарта" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Русский</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sco mw-list-item"><a href="https://sco.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sparta" title="Sparta – Scots" lang="sco" hreflang="sco" data-title="Sparta" data-language-autonym="Scots" data-language-local-name="Scots" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Scots</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sq mw-list-item"><a href="https://sq.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sparta" title="Sparta – Albanian" lang="sq" hreflang="sq" data-title="Sparta" data-language-autonym="Shqip" data-language-local-name="Albanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Shqip</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-scn mw-list-item"><a href="https://scn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sparta" title="Sparta – Sicilian" lang="scn" hreflang="scn" data-title="Sparta" data-language-autonym="Sicilianu" data-language-local-name="Sicilian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Sicilianu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-si mw-list-item"><a href="https://si.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B7%83%E0%B7%8A%E0%B6%B4%E0%B7%8F%E0%B6%BB%E0%B7%8A%E0%B6%A7%E0%B7%8F%E0%B7%80" title="ස්පාර්ටාව – Sinhala" lang="si" hreflang="si" data-title="ස්පාර්ටාව" data-language-autonym="සිංහල" data-language-local-name="Sinhala" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>සිංහල</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-simple mw-list-item"><a href="https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sparta" title="Sparta – Simple English" lang="en-simple" hreflang="en-simple" data-title="Sparta" data-language-autonym="Simple English" data-language-local-name="Simple English" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Simple English</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sk mw-list-item"><a href="https://sk.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sparta_(starovek)" title="Sparta (starovek) – Slovak" lang="sk" hreflang="sk" data-title="Sparta (starovek)" data-language-autonym="Slovenčina" data-language-local-name="Slovak" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Slovenčina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sl mw-list-item"><a href="https://sl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anti%C4%8Dna_%C5%A0parta" title="Antična Šparta – Slovenian" lang="sl" hreflang="sl" data-title="Antična Šparta" data-language-autonym="Slovenščina" data-language-local-name="Slovenian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Slovenščina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sr badge-Q17437796 badge-featuredarticle mw-list-item" title="featured article badge"><a href="https://sr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A1%D0%BF%D0%B0%D1%80%D1%82%D0%B0" title="Спарта – Serbian" lang="sr" hreflang="sr" data-title="Спарта" data-language-autonym="Српски / srpski" data-language-local-name="Serbian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Српски / srpski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sh mw-list-item"><a href="https://sh.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sparta" title="Sparta – Serbo-Croatian" lang="sh" hreflang="sh" data-title="Sparta" data-language-autonym="Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски" data-language-local-name="Serbo-Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fi mw-list-item"><a href="https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sparta" title="Sparta – Finnish" lang="fi" hreflang="fi" data-title="Sparta" data-language-autonym="Suomi" data-language-local-name="Finnish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Suomi</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sv mw-list-item"><a href="https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sparta" title="Sparta – Swedish" lang="sv" hreflang="sv" data-title="Sparta" data-language-autonym="Svenska" data-language-local-name="Swedish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Svenska</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tl mw-list-item"><a href="https://tl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Isparta" title="Isparta – Tagalog" lang="tl" hreflang="tl" data-title="Isparta" data-language-autonym="Tagalog" data-language-local-name="Tagalog" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Tagalog</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ta mw-list-item"><a href="https://ta.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%AE%8E%E0%AE%9A%E0%AF%81%E0%AE%AA%E0%AE%BE%E0%AE%B0%E0%AF%8D%E0%AE%A4%E0%AF%8D%E0%AE%A4%E0%AE%BE" title="எசுபார்த்தா – Tamil" lang="ta" hreflang="ta" data-title="எசுபார்த்தா" data-language-autonym="தமிழ்" data-language-local-name="Tamil" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>தமிழ்</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-roa-tara mw-list-item"><a href="https://roa-tara.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sparta" title="Sparta – Tarantino" lang="nap-x-tara" hreflang="nap-x-tara" data-title="Sparta" data-language-autonym="Tarandíne" data-language-local-name="Tarantino" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Tarandíne</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-th mw-list-item"><a href="https://th.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B8%AA%E0%B8%9B%E0%B8%B2%E0%B8%A3%E0%B9%8C%E0%B8%95%E0%B8%B2" title="สปาร์ตา – Thai" lang="th" hreflang="th" data-title="สปาร์ตา" data-language-autonym="ไทย" data-language-local-name="Thai" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ไทย</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tr mw-list-item"><a href="https://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sparta" title="Sparta – Turkish" lang="tr" hreflang="tr" data-title="Sparta" data-language-autonym="Türkçe" data-language-local-name="Turkish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Türkçe</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tk mw-list-item"><a href="https://tk.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sparta" title="Sparta – Turkmen" lang="tk" hreflang="tk" data-title="Sparta" data-language-autonym="Türkmençe" data-language-local-name="Turkmen" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Türkmençe</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uk mw-list-item"><a href="https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A1%D0%BF%D0%B0%D1%80%D1%82%D0%B0" title="Спарта – Ukrainian" lang="uk" hreflang="uk" data-title="Спарта" data-language-autonym="Українська" data-language-local-name="Ukrainian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Українська</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ur mw-list-item"><a href="https://ur.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B3%D9%BE%D8%A7%D8%B1%D9%B9%D8%A7" title="سپارٹا – Urdu" lang="ur" hreflang="ur" data-title="سپارٹا" data-language-autonym="اردو" data-language-local-name="Urdu" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>اردو</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vec mw-list-item"><a href="https://vec.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sparta" title="Sparta – Venetian" lang="vec" hreflang="vec" data-title="Sparta" data-language-autonym="Vèneto" data-language-local-name="Venetian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Vèneto</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vi mw-list-item"><a href="https://vi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sparta" title="Sparta – Vietnamese" lang="vi" hreflang="vi" data-title="Sparta" data-language-autonym="Tiếng Việt" data-language-local-name="Vietnamese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Tiếng Việt</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-classical mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh-classical.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E5%8F%A4%E6%96%AF%E5%B7%B4%E9%81%94" title="古斯巴達 – Literary Chinese" lang="lzh" hreflang="lzh" data-title="古斯巴達" data-language-autonym="文言" data-language-local-name="Literary Chinese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>文言</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-war mw-list-item"><a href="https://war.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sparta" title="Sparta – Waray" lang="war" hreflang="war" data-title="Sparta" data-language-autonym="Winaray" data-language-local-name="Waray" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Winaray</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-wuu mw-list-item"><a href="https://wuu.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E6%96%AF%E5%B7%B4%E8%BE%BE" title="斯巴达 – Wu" lang="wuu" hreflang="wuu" data-title="斯巴达" data-language-autonym="吴语" data-language-local-name="Wu" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>吴语</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-yue mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh-yue.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E5%8F%A4%E6%96%AF%E5%B7%B4%E9%81%94" title="古斯巴達 – Cantonese" lang="yue" hreflang="yue" data-title="古斯巴達" data-language-autonym="粵語" data-language-local-name="Cantonese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>粵語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bat-smg mw-list-item"><a href="https://bat-smg.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sparta" title="Sparta – Samogitian" lang="sgs" hreflang="sgs" data-title="Sparta" data-language-autonym="Žemaitėška" data-language-local-name="Samogitian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Žemaitėška</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E6%96%AF%E5%B7%B4%E8%BE%BE" title="斯巴达 – Chinese" lang="zh" hreflang="zh" data-title="斯巴达" data-language-autonym="中文" data-language-local-name="Chinese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>中文</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-dtp mw-list-item"><a href="https://dtp.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sparta" title="Sparta – Central Dusun" lang="dtp" hreflang="dtp" data-title="Sparta" data-language-autonym="Kadazandusun" data-language-local-name="Central Dusun" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Kadazandusun</span></a></li> </ul> <div class="after-portlet after-portlet-lang"><span class="wb-langlinks-edit wb-langlinks-link"><a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Special:EntityPage/Q5690#sitelinks-wikipedia" title="Edit interlanguage links" class="wbc-editpage">Edit links</a></span></div> </div> </div> </div> </header> <div class="vector-page-toolbar"> <div class="vector-page-toolbar-container"> <div id="left-navigation"> <nav aria-label="Namespaces"> <div id="p-associated-pages" class="vector-menu vector-menu-tabs mw-portlet mw-portlet-associated-pages" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="ca-nstab-main" class="selected vector-tab-noicon mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Sparta" title="View the content page [c]" accesskey="c"><span>Article</span></a></li><li id="ca-talk" class="vector-tab-noicon mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Talk:Sparta" rel="discussion" title="Discuss improvements to the content page [t]" accesskey="t"><span>Talk</span></a></li> </ul> </div> </div> <div id="vector-variants-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown emptyPortlet" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-variants-dropdown-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-variants-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Change language variant" > <label id="vector-variants-dropdown-label" for="vector-variants-dropdown-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">English</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="p-variants" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-variants emptyPortlet" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> </ul> </div> </div> </div> </div> </nav> </div> <div id="right-navigation" class="vector-collapsible"> <nav aria-label="Views"> <div id="p-views" class="vector-menu vector-menu-tabs mw-portlet mw-portlet-views" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="ca-view" class="selected vector-tab-noicon mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Sparta"><span>Read</span></a></li><li id="ca-viewsource" class="vector-tab-noicon mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Sparta&action=edit" title="This page is protected.
You can view its source [e]" accesskey="e"><span>View source</span></a></li><li id="ca-history" class="vector-tab-noicon mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Sparta&action=history" title="Past revisions of this page [h]" accesskey="h"><span>View history</span></a></li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> <nav class="vector-page-tools-landmark" aria-label="Page tools"> <div id="vector-page-tools-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-tools-dropdown" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-tools-dropdown-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-tools-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Tools" > <label id="vector-page-tools-dropdown-label" for="vector-page-tools-dropdown-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Tools</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-tools-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> <div id="vector-page-tools" class="vector-page-tools vector-pinnable-element"> <div class="vector-pinnable-header vector-page-tools-pinnable-header vector-pinnable-header-unpinned" data-feature-name="page-tools-pinned" data-pinnable-element-id="vector-page-tools" data-pinned-container-id="vector-page-tools-pinned-container" data-unpinned-container-id="vector-page-tools-unpinned-container" > <div class="vector-pinnable-header-label">Tools</div> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-pin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-page-tools.pin">move to sidebar</button> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-unpin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-page-tools.unpin">hide</button> </div> <div id="p-cactions" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-cactions emptyPortlet vector-has-collapsible-items" title="More options" > <div class="vector-menu-heading"> Actions </div> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="ca-more-view" class="selected vector-more-collapsible-item mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Sparta"><span>Read</span></a></li><li id="ca-more-viewsource" class="vector-more-collapsible-item mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Sparta&action=edit"><span>View source</span></a></li><li id="ca-more-history" class="vector-more-collapsible-item mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Sparta&action=history"><span>View history</span></a></li> </ul> </div> </div> <div id="p-tb" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-tb" > <div class="vector-menu-heading"> General </div> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="t-whatlinkshere" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Special:WhatLinksHere/Sparta" title="List of all English Wikipedia pages containing links to this page [j]" accesskey="j"><span>What links here</span></a></li><li id="t-recentchangeslinked" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Special:RecentChangesLinked/Sparta" rel="nofollow" title="Recent changes in pages linked from this page [k]" accesskey="k"><span>Related changes</span></a></li><li id="t-upload" class="mw-list-item"><a href="//en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:File_Upload_Wizard" title="Upload files [u]" accesskey="u"><span>Upload file</span></a></li><li id="t-permalink" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Sparta&oldid=1281203435" title="Permanent link to this revision of this page"><span>Permanent link</span></a></li><li id="t-info" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Sparta&action=info" title="More information about this page"><span>Page information</span></a></li><li id="t-cite" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Special:CiteThisPage&page=Sparta&id=1281203435&wpFormIdentifier=titleform" title="Information on how to cite this page"><span>Cite this page</span></a></li><li id="t-urlshortener" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Special:UrlShortener&url=https%3A%2F%2Fen.wikipedia.org%2Fwiki%2FSparta"><span>Get shortened URL</span></a></li><li id="t-urlshortener-qrcode" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Special:QrCode&url=https%3A%2F%2Fen.wikipedia.org%2Fwiki%2FSparta"><span>Download QR code</span></a></li> </ul> </div> </div> <div id="p-coll-print_export" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-coll-print_export" > <div class="vector-menu-heading"> Print/export </div> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="coll-download-as-rl" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Special:DownloadAsPdf&page=Sparta&action=show-download-screen" title="Download this page as a PDF file"><span>Download as PDF</span></a></li><li id="t-print" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Sparta&printable=yes" title="Printable version of this page [p]" accesskey="p"><span>Printable version</span></a></li> </ul> </div> </div> <div id="p-wikibase-otherprojects" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-wikibase-otherprojects" > <div class="vector-menu-heading"> In other projects </div> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="wb-otherproject-link wb-otherproject-commons mw-list-item"><a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Sparta" hreflang="en"><span>Wikimedia Commons</span></a></li><li class="wb-otherproject-link wb-otherproject-wikiquote mw-list-item"><a href="https://en.wikiquote.org/wiki/Sparta" hreflang="en"><span>Wikiquote</span></a></li><li id="t-wikibase" class="wb-otherproject-link wb-otherproject-wikibase-dataitem mw-list-item"><a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Special:EntityPage/Q5690" title="Structured data on this page hosted by Wikidata [g]" accesskey="g"><span>Wikidata item</span></a></li> </ul> </div> </div> </div> </div> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> </div> <div class="vector-column-end"> <div class="vector-sticky-pinned-container"> <nav class="vector-page-tools-landmark" aria-label="Page tools"> <div id="vector-page-tools-pinned-container" class="vector-pinned-container"> </div> </nav> <nav class="vector-appearance-landmark" aria-label="Appearance"> <div id="vector-appearance-pinned-container" class="vector-pinned-container"> <div id="vector-appearance" class="vector-appearance vector-pinnable-element"> <div class="vector-pinnable-header vector-appearance-pinnable-header vector-pinnable-header-pinned" data-feature-name="appearance-pinned" data-pinnable-element-id="vector-appearance" data-pinned-container-id="vector-appearance-pinned-container" data-unpinned-container-id="vector-appearance-unpinned-container" > <div class="vector-pinnable-header-label">Appearance</div> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-pin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-appearance.pin">move to sidebar</button> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-unpin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-appearance.unpin">hide</button> </div> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div id="bodyContent" class="vector-body" aria-labelledby="firstHeading" data-mw-ve-target-container> <div class="vector-body-before-content"> <div class="mw-indicators"> <div id="mw-indicator-coordinates" class="mw-indicator"><div class="mw-parser-output"><span id="coordinates"><a href="/wiki/Geographic_coordinate_system" title="Geographic coordinate system">Coordinates</a>: <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1156832818">.mw-parser-output .geo-default,.mw-parser-output .geo-dms,.mw-parser-output .geo-dec{display:inline}.mw-parser-output .geo-nondefault,.mw-parser-output .geo-multi-punct,.mw-parser-output .geo-inline-hidden{display:none}.mw-parser-output .longitude,.mw-parser-output .latitude{white-space:nowrap}</style><span class="plainlinks nourlexpansion"><a class="external text" href="https://geohack.toolforge.org/geohack.php?pagename=Sparta&params=37_4_55_N_22_25_25_E_region:GR-J_type:city"><span class="geo-default"><span class="geo-dms" title="Maps, aerial photos, and other data for this location"><span class="latitude">37°4′55″N</span> <span class="longitude">22°25′25″E</span></span></span><span class="geo-multi-punct"> / </span><span class="geo-nondefault"><span class="geo-dec" title="Maps, aerial photos, and other data for this location">37.08194°N 22.42361°E</span><span style="display:none"> / <span class="geo">37.08194; 22.42361</span></span></span></a></span></span></div></div> <div id="mw-indicator-pp-default" class="mw-indicator"><div class="mw-parser-output"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Protection_policy#semi" title="This article is semi-protected."><img alt="Page semi-protected" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/1/1b/Semi-protection-shackle.svg/20px-Semi-protection-shackle.svg.png" decoding="async" width="20" height="20" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/1/1b/Semi-protection-shackle.svg/40px-Semi-protection-shackle.svg.png 1.5x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="512" /></a></span></div></div> </div> <div id="siteSub" class="noprint">From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia</div> </div> <div id="contentSub"><div id="mw-content-subtitle"></div></div> <div id="mw-content-text" class="mw-body-content"><div class="mw-content-ltr mw-parser-output" lang="en" dir="ltr"><div class="shortdescription nomobile noexcerpt noprint searchaux" style="display:none">City-state in ancient Greece</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">This article is about the ancient city-state. For modern-day Sparta, see <a href="/wiki/Sparta,_Laconia" title="Sparta, Laconia">Sparta, Laconia</a>. For other uses, see <a href="/wiki/Sparta_(disambiguation)" class="mw-disambig" title="Sparta (disambiguation)">Sparta (disambiguation)</a>.</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951" /><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">"Spartan" redirects here. For other uses, see <a href="/wiki/Spartan_(disambiguation)" class="mw-disambig" title="Spartan (disambiguation)">Spartan (disambiguation)</a>. For the mythical people associated with Ares, see <a href="/wiki/Spartoi" class="mw-redirect" title="Spartoi">Spartoi</a>.</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951" /><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">"Lacedaemon" redirects here. For the king, see <a href="/wiki/Lacedaemon_(mythology)" title="Lacedaemon (mythology)">Lacedaemon (mythology)</a>.</div> <p class="mw-empty-elt"> </p> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1257001546">.mw-parser-output .infobox-subbox{padding:0;border:none;margin:-3px;width:auto;min-width:100%;font-size:100%;clear:none;float:none;background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .infobox-3cols-child{margin:auto}.mw-parser-output .infobox .navbar{font-size:100%}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data:not(.notheme)>div:not(.notheme)[style]{background:#1f1f23!important;color:#f8f9fa}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data:not(.notheme) div:not(.notheme){background:#1f1f23!important;color:#f8f9fa}}@media(min-width:640px){body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table{display:table!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table>caption{display:table-caption!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table>tbody{display:table-row-group}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table tr{display:table-row!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table th,body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table td{padding-left:inherit;padding-right:inherit}}</style><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1043282317">.mw-parser-output .ib-country{border-collapse:collapse;line-height:1.2em}.mw-parser-output .ib-country td,.mw-parser-output .ib-country th{border-top:1px solid #a2a9b1;padding:0.4em 0.6em 0.4em 0.6em}.mw-parser-output .ib-country .mergedtoprow .infobox-header,.mw-parser-output .ib-country .mergedtoprow .infobox-label,.mw-parser-output .ib-country .mergedtoprow .infobox-data,.mw-parser-output .ib-country .mergedtoprow .infobox-full-data,.mw-parser-output .ib-country .mergedtoprow .infobox-below{border-top:1px solid #a2a9b1;padding:0.4em 0.6em 0.2em 0.6em}.mw-parser-output .ib-country .mergedrow .infobox-label,.mw-parser-output .ib-country .mergedrow .infobox-data,.mw-parser-output .ib-country .mergedrow .infobox-full-data{border:0;padding:0 0.6em 0.2em 0.6em}.mw-parser-output .ib-country .mergedbottomrow .infobox-label,.mw-parser-output .ib-country .mergedbottomrow .infobox-data,.mw-parser-output .ib-country .mergedbottomrow .infobox-full-data{border-top:0;border-bottom:1px solid #a2a9b1;padding:0 0.6em 0.4em 0.6em}.mw-parser-output .ib-country .infobox-header{text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .ib-country .infobox-above{font-size:125%;line-height:1.2}.mw-parser-output .ib-country-names{padding-top:0.25em;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .ib-country-name-style{display:inline}.mw-parser-output .ib-country .infobox-image{padding:0.5em 0}.mw-parser-output .ib-country-anthem{border-top:1px solid #a2a9b1;padding-top:0.5em;margin-top:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .ib-country-map-caption{position:relative;top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .ib-country-largest,.mw-parser-output .ib-country-lang{font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .ib-country-ethnic,.mw-parser-output .ib-country-religion,.mw-parser-output .ib-country-sovereignty{font-weight:normal;display:inline}.mw-parser-output .ib-country-fake-li{text-indent:-0.9em;margin-left:1.2em;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .ib-country-fake-li2{text-indent:0.5em;margin-left:1em;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .ib-country-website{line-height:11pt}.mw-parser-output .ib-country-map-caption3{position:relative;top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .ib-country-fn{text-align:left;margin:0 auto}.mw-parser-output .ib-country-fn-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha;margin-left:1em}.mw-parser-output .ib-country-fn-num{margin-left:1em}</style><table class="infobox ib-country vcard"><tbody><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-above adr"><div class="fn org country-name">Sparta</div><div class="ib-country-names"><span style="font-size: 85%;"><span title="Ancient Greek (to 1453)-language text"><span lang="grc">Λακεδαίμων</span></span> <span class="languageicon" style="font-size:100%; font-weight:normal">(<a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greek_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Ancient Greek language">Ancient Greek</a>)</span></span></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-subheader">900s–192 BC</td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data"><span class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Frameless"><a href="/wiki/File:Spartan_Territory_Before_371_BC.png" class="mw-file-description" title="Territory of ancient Sparta before 371 BC, with Perioecic cities in blue"><img alt="Territory of ancient Sparta before 371 BC, with Perioecic cities in blue" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/db/Spartan_Territory_Before_371_BC.png/250px-Spartan_Territory_Before_371_BC.png" decoding="async" width="250" height="263" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/db/Spartan_Territory_Before_371_BC.png/500px-Spartan_Territory_Before_371_BC.png 1.5x" data-file-width="1361" data-file-height="1433" /></a></span><div class="ib-country-map-caption">Territory of ancient Sparta before 371 BC, with <a href="/wiki/Perioeci" title="Perioeci">Perioecic</a> cities in blue</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Capital</th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Sparta,_Laconia" title="Sparta, Laconia">Sparta</a><br /><span class="geo-inline"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1156832818">.mw-parser-output .geo-default,.mw-parser-output .geo-dms,.mw-parser-output .geo-dec{display:inline}.mw-parser-output .geo-nondefault,.mw-parser-output .geo-multi-punct,.mw-parser-output .geo-inline-hidden{display:none}.mw-parser-output .longitude,.mw-parser-output .latitude{white-space:nowrap}</style><span class="plainlinks nourlexpansion"><a class="external text" href="https://geohack.toolforge.org/geohack.php?pagename=Sparta&params=37_4_55_N_22_25_25_E_region:GR-J_type:city"><span class="geo-default"><span class="geo-dms" title="Maps, aerial photos, and other data for this location"><span class="latitude">37°4′55″N</span> <span class="longitude">22°25′25″E</span></span></span><span class="geo-multi-punct"> / </span><span class="geo-nondefault"><span class="geo-dec" title="Maps, aerial photos, and other data for this location">37.08194°N 22.42361°E</span><span style="display:none"> / <span class="geo">37.08194; 22.42361</span></span></span></a></span></span></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Common languages</th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Doric_Greek" title="Doric Greek">Doric Greek</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Religion <div class="ib-country-religion"></div></th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_ancient_Greece" class="mw-redirect" title="Religion in ancient Greece">Greek polytheism</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Government</th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Diarchy" title="Diarchy">Diarchic</a> monarchy</td></tr><tr class="mergedrow"><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><a href="/wiki/List_of_kings_of_Sparta" title="List of kings of Sparta">King</a></th><td class="infobox-data"> </td></tr><tr class="mergedrow"><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1257001546" /></td></tr><tr class="mergedrow"><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><div style="text-indent:-0.9em;margin-left:1.2em;font-weight:normal;">• <abbr title="circa">c.</abbr><span style="white-space:nowrap;"> 930</span>–900 BC </div></th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Agis_I" title="Agis I">Agis I</a></td></tr><tr class="mergedrow"><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><div style="text-indent:-0.9em;margin-left:1.2em;font-weight:normal;">• 207–192 BC </div></th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Nabis_of_Sparta" title="Nabis of Sparta">Nabis</a></td></tr><tr style="display:none"><td colspan="2"> </td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Legislature</th><td class="infobox-data"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1126788409">.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul{line-height:inherit;list-style:none;margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol li,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul li{margin-bottom:0}</style><div class="plainlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ephors" class="mw-redirect" title="Ephors">Ephors</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gerousia" title="Gerousia">Gerousia</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Historical era</th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Classical_antiquity" title="Classical antiquity">Classical antiquity</a></td></tr><tr class="mergedrow"><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1257001546" /></td></tr><tr class="mergedrow"><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><div style="text-indent:-0.9em;margin-left:1.2em;font-weight:normal;">• <a href="/wiki/Founding_myth" class="mw-redirect" title="Founding myth">Foundation</a> </div></th><td class="infobox-data">900s BC</td></tr><tr class="mergedrow"><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><div style="text-indent:-0.9em;margin-left:1.2em;font-weight:normal;">• <a href="/wiki/Second_Messenian_War" title="Second Messenian War">Messenian War</a> </div></th><td class="infobox-data">685–668 BC</td></tr><tr class="mergedrow"><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><div style="text-indent:-0.9em;margin-left:1.2em;font-weight:normal;">• <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Thermopylae" title="Battle of Thermopylae">Battle of Thermopylae</a> </div></th><td class="infobox-data">480 BC</td></tr><tr class="mergedrow"><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><div style="text-indent:-0.9em;margin-left:1.2em;font-weight:normal;">• <a href="/wiki/Peloponnesian_War" title="Peloponnesian War">Peloponnesian War</a> </div></th><td class="infobox-data">431–404 BC</td></tr><tr class="mergedrow"><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><div style="text-indent:-0.9em;margin-left:1.2em;font-weight:normal;">• <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Mantinea_(362_BC)" title="Battle of Mantinea (362 BC)">Battle of Mantinea</a> </div></th><td class="infobox-data">362 BC</td></tr><tr class="mergedrow"><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><div style="text-indent:-0.9em;margin-left:1.2em;font-weight:normal;">• <a href="/wiki/Annexation" title="Annexation">Annexed</a> by <a href="/wiki/Achaean_League" title="Achaean League">Achaea</a> </div></th><td class="infobox-data">192 BC</td></tr><tr style="display:none"><td colspan="2"> </td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data"> <table style="width:95%; text-align:center; margin:0 auto; display:inline-table;"> <tbody><tr> <td style="text-align:center; border:0; padding-bottom:0"><div id="before-after"></div> <b>Preceded by</b></td> <td style="text-align:center;border:0; padding-bottom:0;"><b>Succeeded by</b> </td></tr> <tr> <td style="vertical-align:top; text-align:center; border:0;"> <table style="width:100%; text-align:center; margin:0 auto; border:0;"> <tbody><tr> <td style="border:0; padding:0; vertical-align:middle;"><span typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/d/d2/Blank.png" decoding="async" width="22" height="15" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="3" data-file-height="2" /></span></span> </td> <td style="border:0; padding:0; vertical-align:middle; text-align:left;"><a href="/wiki/Greek_Dark_Ages" title="Greek Dark Ages">Greek Dark Ages</a> </td></tr> </tbody></table> </td> <td style="vertical-align:top; text-align:center;border:0;"> <table style="width:92%; text-align:center; margin:0 auto; border:0;"> <tbody><tr> <td style="border:0; padding:0; vertical-align:middle; text-align:right;"><a href="/wiki/Achaean_League" title="Achaean League">Achaean League</a> </td> <td style="border:0; padding:0; vertical-align:middle;"><span typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/d/d2/Blank.png" decoding="async" width="22" height="15" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="3" data-file-height="2" /></span></span> </td></tr> </tbody></table> </td></tr></tbody></table></td></tr></tbody></table> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1235681985">.mw-parser-output .side-box{margin:4px 0;box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #aaa;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em;background-color:var(--background-color-interactive-subtle,#f8f9fa);display:flow-root}.mw-parser-output .side-box-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{padding:0.25em 0.9em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-image{padding:2px 0 2px 0.9em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-imageright{padding:2px 0.9em 2px 0;text-align:center}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .side-box-flex{display:flex;align-items:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{flex:1;min-width:0}}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .side-box{width:238px}.mw-parser-output .side-box-right{clear:right;float:right;margin-left:1em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-left{margin-right:1em}}</style><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1092331828">@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .contains-special-characters{width:22em}}</style><div class="side-box metadata side-box-right contains-special-characters noprint selfref"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409" /> <div class="side-box-flex"> <div class="side-box-text plainlist"><b>This article contains <a href="/wiki/Help:Special_characters" title="Help:Special characters">special characters</a>.</b> Without proper <a href="/wiki/Help:Special_characters" title="Help:Special characters">rendering support</a>, you may see <a href="/wiki/Specials_(Unicode_block)#Replacement_character" title="Specials (Unicode block)">question marks, boxes, or other symbols</a>.</div></div> </div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Menelaion.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9e/Menelaion.jpg/330px-Menelaion.jpg" decoding="async" width="280" height="186" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9e/Menelaion.jpg/500px-Menelaion.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9e/Menelaion.jpg/960px-Menelaion.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1579" data-file-height="1050" /></a><figcaption>Hollow Lacedaemon. Site of the Menelaion, the ancient shrine to Helen and Menelaus constructed in the Bronze Age city that stood on the hill of <a href="/wiki/Therapnes" title="Therapnes">Therapne</a> on the left bank of the <a href="/wiki/Eurotas_(river)" class="mw-redirect" title="Eurotas (river)">Eurotas River</a> overlooking the future site of Dorian Sparta. Across the valley the successive ridges of Mount <a href="/wiki/Taygetus" title="Taygetus">Taygetus</a> are in evidence.</figcaption></figure> <p><b>Sparta</b><sup id="cite_ref-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> was a prominent <a href="/wiki/City-state" title="City-state">city-state</a> in <a href="/wiki/Laconia" title="Laconia">Laconia</a> in <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greece" title="Ancient Greece">ancient Greece</a>. In antiquity, the city-state was known as <b>Lacedaemon</b> (<span title="Ancient Greek-language text"><span lang="grc"><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%CE%9B%CE%B1%CE%BA%CE%B5%CE%B4%CE%B1%CE%AF%CE%BC%CF%89%CE%BD" class="extiw" title="wikt:Λακεδαίμων">Λακεδαίμων</a></span></span>, <span title="Ancient Greek-language romanization"><i lang="grc-Latn">Lakedaímōn</i></span>), while the name Sparta referred to its main settlement in the <a href="/wiki/Evrotas_Valley" title="Evrotas Valley">valley</a> of <a href="/wiki/Evrotas_(river)" title="Evrotas (river)">Evrotas</a> river in Laconia, in southeastern <a href="/wiki/Peloponnese" title="Peloponnese">Peloponnese</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTECartledge200291_2-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECartledge200291-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Around 650 BC, it rose to become the dominant military land-power in ancient Greece. </p><p>Sparta was recognized as the leading force of the unified Greek military during the <a href="/wiki/Greco-Persian_Wars" title="Greco-Persian Wars">Greco-Persian Wars</a>, in rivalry with the rising naval power of <a href="/wiki/Classical_Athens" title="Classical Athens">Athens</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTECartledge2002174_3-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECartledge2002174-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Sparta was the principal enemy of <a href="/wiki/History_of_Athens" title="History of Athens">Athens</a> during the <a href="/wiki/Peloponnesian_War" title="Peloponnesian War">Peloponnesian War</a> (431–404 BC),<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTECartledge2002192_4-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECartledge2002192-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> from which it emerged victorious after the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Aegospotami" title="Battle of Aegospotami">Battle of Aegospotami</a>. The decisive <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Leuctra" title="Battle of Leuctra">Battle of Leuctra</a> against <a href="/wiki/Thebes,_Greece" title="Thebes, Greece">Thebes</a> in 371 BC ended the <a href="/wiki/Spartan_hegemony" title="Spartan hegemony">Spartan hegemony</a>, although the city-state maintained its <a href="/wiki/Independence" title="Independence">political independence</a> until its forced integration into the <a href="/wiki/Achaean_League" title="Achaean League">Achaean League</a> in 192 BC. The city nevertheless recovered much autonomy after the <a href="/wiki/Greece_in_the_Roman_era" title="Greece in the Roman era">Roman conquest of Greece</a> in <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Corinth_(146_BC)" title="Battle of Corinth (146 BC)">146 BC</a> and prospered during the <a href="/wiki/Roman_Empire" title="Roman Empire">Roman Empire</a>, as its antiquarian customs attracted many Roman tourists. However, Sparta was sacked in 396 AD by the <a href="/wiki/Visigoths" title="Visigoths">Visigothic</a> king <a href="/wiki/Alaric_I" title="Alaric I">Alaric</a>, and underwent a long period of decline, especially in the <a href="/wiki/Middle_Ages" title="Middle Ages">Middle Ages</a>, when many of its citizens moved to <a href="/wiki/Mystras" title="Mystras">Mystras</a>. <a href="/wiki/Sparta,_Laconia" title="Sparta, Laconia">Modern Sparta</a> is the capital of the southern Greek region of Laconia and a center for processing citrus and olives. </p><p>Sparta was unique in ancient Greece for its <a href="/wiki/Social_system" title="Social system">social system</a> and <a href="/wiki/Spartan_Constitution" title="Spartan Constitution">constitution</a>, which were supposedly introduced by the semi-mythical legislator <a href="/wiki/Lycurgus_of_Sparta" class="mw-redirect" title="Lycurgus of Sparta">Lycurgus</a>. His laws configured the Spartan <a href="/wiki/Society" title="Society">society</a> to maximize military proficiency at all costs, focusing all <a href="/wiki/Institution" title="Institution">social institutions</a> on <a href="/wiki/Military_education_and_training" title="Military education and training">military training</a> and physical development. The inhabitants of Sparta were stratified as <a href="/wiki/Spartiate" title="Spartiate">Spartiates</a> (citizens with full rights), <a href="/wiki/Mothax" title="Mothax">mothakes</a> (free non-Spartiate people descended from Spartans), <a href="/wiki/Perioeci" title="Perioeci">perioikoi</a> (free non-Spartiates), and <a href="/wiki/Helots" title="Helots">helots</a> (state-owned enslaved non-Spartan locals), with helots making up the majority of the population. Spartiate men underwent the rigorous <i><a href="/wiki/Agoge" title="Agoge">agoge</a></i> training regimen, and Spartan <a href="/wiki/Phalanx_formation" class="mw-redirect" title="Phalanx formation">phalanx</a> brigades were widely considered to be among the best in battle. Free <a href="/wiki/Women_in_ancient_Sparta" title="Women in ancient Sparta">Spartan women</a> enjoyed considerably more <a href="/wiki/Women%27s_rights" title="Women's rights">rights</a> than elsewhere in <a href="/wiki/Classical_antiquity" title="Classical antiquity">classical antiquity</a>, though helots suffered harsh treatment at the hands of the Spartiates, causing them to <a href="/wiki/Helot_revolt" class="mw-redirect" title="Helot revolt">repeatedly revolt</a> against their overlords. Sparta was frequently a subject of fascination in its own day, as well as in <a href="/wiki/Western_culture" title="Western culture">Western culture</a> following the revival of classical learning. The admiration of Sparta is known as <a href="/wiki/Laconophilia" title="Laconophilia">Laconophilia</a>. </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Names">Names</h2></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Eurotas.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/20/Eurotas.JPG/250px-Eurotas.JPG" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/20/Eurotas.JPG/330px-Eurotas.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/20/Eurotas.JPG/500px-Eurotas.JPG 2x" data-file-width="2304" data-file-height="1728" /></a><figcaption>Eurotas River</figcaption></figure> <p>The <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greece" title="Ancient Greece">ancient Greeks</a> used one of three words to refer to the Spartan city-state and its location. First, "Sparta" refers primarily to the main cluster of settlements in the valley of the <a href="/wiki/Eurotas_River" class="mw-redirect" title="Eurotas River">Eurotas River</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The second word, "Lacedaemon" (<span title="Ancient Greek (to 1453)-language text"><span lang="grc">Λακεδαίμων</span></span>),<sup id="cite_ref-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> was often used as an adjective and is the name referenced in the works of <a href="/wiki/Homer" title="Homer">Homer</a> and the historians <a href="/wiki/Herodotus" title="Herodotus">Herodotus</a> and <a href="/wiki/Thucydides" title="Thucydides">Thucydides</a>. The third term, "Laconice" (<span title="Ancient Greek (to 1453)-language text"><span lang="grc">Λακωνική</span></span>), referred to the immediate area around the town of Sparta, the plateau east of the Taygetos mountains,<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTECartledge20024_7-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECartledge20024-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and sometimes to all the regions under direct Spartan control, including <a href="/wiki/Messenia_(ancient_region)" title="Messenia (ancient region)">Messenia</a>. </p><p>The earliest attested term referring to Lacedaemon is the <a href="/wiki/Mycenaean_Greek" title="Mycenaean Greek">Mycenaean Greek</a> <span title="Mycenaean Greek-language text"><span lang="gmy"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1094882035">.mw-parser-output .script-Cprt{font-size:1.25em;font-family:"Segoe UI Historic","Noto Sans Cypriot",Code2001}.mw-parser-output .script-Hano{font-size:125%;font-family:"Noto Sans Hanunoo",FreeSerif,Quivira}.mw-parser-output .script-Latf,.mw-parser-output .script-de-Latf{font-size:1.25em;font-family:"Breitkopf Fraktur",UnifrakturCook,UniFrakturMaguntia,MarsFraktur,"MarsFraktur OT",KochFraktur,"KochFraktur OT",OffenbacherSchwabOT,"LOB.AlteSchwabacher","LOV.AlteSchwabacher","LOB.AtlantisFraktur","LOV.AtlantisFraktur","LOB.BreitkopfFraktur","LOV.BreitkopfFraktur","LOB.FetteFraktur","LOV.FetteFraktur","LOB.Fraktur3","LOV.Fraktur3","LOB.RochFraktur","LOV.RochFraktur","LOB.PostFraktur","LOV.PostFraktur","LOB.RuelhscheFraktur","LOV.RuelhscheFraktur","LOB.RungholtFraktur","LOV.RungholtFraktur","LOB.TheuerbankFraktur","LOV.TheuerbankFraktur","LOB.VinetaFraktur","LOV.VinetaFraktur","LOB.WalbaumFraktur","LOV.WalbaumFraktur","LOB.WeberMainzerFraktur","LOV.WeberMainzerFraktur","LOB.WieynckFraktur","LOV.WieynckFraktur","LOB.ZentenarFraktur","LOV.ZentenarFraktur"}.mw-parser-output .script-en-Latf{font-size:1.25em;font-family:Cankama,"Old English Text MT","Textura Libera","Textura Libera Tenuis",London}.mw-parser-output .script-it-Latf{font-size:1.25em;font-family:"Rotunda Pommerania",Rotunda,"Typographer Rotunda"}.mw-parser-output .script-Lina{font-size:1.25em;font-family:"Noto Sans Linear A"}.mw-parser-output .script-Linb{font-size:1.25em;font-family:"Noto Sans Linear B"}.mw-parser-output .script-Ugar{font-size:1.25em;font-family:"Segoe UI Historic","Noto Sans Ugaritic",Aegean}.mw-parser-output .script-Xpeo{font-size:1.25em;font-family:"Segoe UI Historic","Noto Sans Old Persian",Artaxerxes,Xerxes,Aegean}</style><span class="script-Linb">𐀨𐀐𐀅𐀖𐀛𐀍</span></span></span>, <i>ra-ke-da-mi-ni-jo</i>, "Lakedaimonian", written in <a href="/wiki/Linear_B" title="Linear B">Linear B</a> syllabic script,<sup id="cite_ref-Palaeolexicon-rakedaminijo_8-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Palaeolexicon-rakedaminijo-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-14" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>n 1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> the equivalent of the later <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greek" title="Ancient Greek">Greek</a> <span title="Ancient Greek (to 1453)-language text"><span lang="grc">Λακεδαιμόνιος</span></span>, <i>Lakedaimonios</i> (<a href="/wiki/Latin" title="Latin">Latin</a>: <i>Lacedaemonius</i>).<sup id="cite_ref-15" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-L&S-Lacedaemon_16-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-L&S-Lacedaemon-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Herodotus seems to use "Lacedaemon" for the <a href="/wiki/Mycenaean_Greece" title="Mycenaean Greece">Mycenaean Greek</a> citadel at <a href="/wiki/Therapne" title="Therapne">Therapne</a>, in contrast to the lower town of Sparta. This term could be used synonymously with Sparta, but typically it denoted the terrain in which the city was located.<sup id="cite_ref-17" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In Homer it is typically combined with epithets of the countryside: wide, lovely, shining and most often hollow and broken (full of ravines),<sup id="cite_ref-18" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> suggesting the <a href="/wiki/Eurotas_(river)" class="mw-redirect" title="Eurotas (river)">Eurotas Valley</a>. "Sparta" on the other hand is described as "the country of lovely women", an epithet for people. </p><p>The residents of Sparta were often called Lacedaemonians. This epithet utilized the plural of the adjective Lacedaemonius (Greek: <span title="Ancient Greek (to 1453)-language text"><span lang="grc">Λακεδαιμόνιοι</span></span>; Latin: <i>Lacedaemonii</i>, but also <i>Lacedaemones</i>). The ancients sometimes used a <a href="/wiki/Back-formation" title="Back-formation">back-formation</a>, referring to the land of Lacedaemon as <i>Lacedaemonian country</i>. As most words for "country" were feminine, the adjective was in the feminine: <i>Lacedaemonia</i> (<span title="Ancient Greek (to 1453)-language text"><span lang="grc">Λακεδαιμονία</span></span>, <i>Lakedaimonia</i>). Eventually, the adjective came to be used alone. </p><p>"Lacedaemonia" was not in general use during the classical period and before. It does occur in Greek as an equivalent of Laconia and Messenia during the Roman and early Byzantine periods, mostly in <a href="/wiki/Ethnography" title="Ethnography">ethnographers</a> and <a href="/wiki/Lexicon" title="Lexicon">lexica</a> of place names. For example, <a href="/wiki/Hesychius_of_Alexandria" title="Hesychius of Alexandria">Hesychius of Alexandria</a>'s <i>Lexicon</i> (5th century AD) defines Agiadae as a "place in Lacedaemonia" named after Agis.<sup id="cite_ref-19" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The actual transition may be captured by <a href="/wiki/Isidore_of_Seville" title="Isidore of Seville">Isidore of Seville</a>'s <i>Etymologiae</i> (7th century AD), an <a href="/wiki/Etymological_dictionary" title="Etymological dictionary">etymological dictionary</a>. Isidore relied heavily on <a href="/wiki/Orosius" title="Orosius">Orosius</a>' <i>Historiarum Adversum Paganos</i> (5th century AD) and <a href="/wiki/Eusebius_of_Caesarea" class="mw-redirect" title="Eusebius of Caesarea">Eusebius of Caesarea</a>'s <i><a href="/wiki/Chronicon_(Eusebius)" title="Chronicon (Eusebius)">Chronicon</a></i> (early 5th century AD), as did Orosius. The latter defines Sparta to be <i>Lacedaemonia Civitas</i>,<sup id="cite_ref-20" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> but Isidore defines Lacedaemonia as founded by Lacedaemon, son of Semele, which is consistent with Eusebius' explanation.<sup id="cite_ref-21" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> There is a rare use, perhaps the earliest of "Lacedaemonia", in <a href="/wiki/Diodorus_Siculus" title="Diodorus Siculus">Diodorus Siculus</a>' The Library of History,<sup id="cite_ref-22" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> but probably with <span title="Ancient Greek (to 1453)-language text"><span lang="grc">Χώρα</span></span> (<i>chōra</i>, "country") suppressed. </p><p>Lakedaimona was until 2006 the name of a <a href="/wiki/Provinces_of_Greece" title="Provinces of Greece">province</a> in the modern Greek <a href="/wiki/Prefectures_of_Greece" title="Prefectures of Greece">prefecture</a> of <a href="/wiki/Laconia" title="Laconia">Laconia</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Geography">Geography</h2></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Antique_Map_of_Classical_City_of_Sparta.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ea/Antique_Map_of_Classical_City_of_Sparta.jpg/220px-Antique_Map_of_Classical_City_of_Sparta.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="205" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ea/Antique_Map_of_Classical_City_of_Sparta.jpg/330px-Antique_Map_of_Classical_City_of_Sparta.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ea/Antique_Map_of_Classical_City_of_Sparta.jpg/440px-Antique_Map_of_Classical_City_of_Sparta.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2218" data-file-height="2071" /></a><figcaption>Antique map of classical city of Sparta (based on ancient sources and not archaeology).</figcaption></figure> <p>Sparta is located in the region of Laconia, in the south-eastern <a href="/wiki/Peloponnese" title="Peloponnese">Peloponnese</a>. Ancient Sparta was built on the banks of the <a href="/wiki/Evrotas_River" class="mw-redirect" title="Evrotas River">Eurotas</a>, the largest river of Laconia, which provided it with a source of fresh water. The <a href="/wiki/Evrotas_Valley" title="Evrotas Valley">Eurotas valley</a> was a natural fortress, bounded to the west by <a href="/wiki/Taygetus" title="Taygetus">Mt. Taygetus</a> (2,407 m) and to the east by <a href="/wiki/Parnon" title="Parnon">Mt. Parnon</a> (1,935 m). To the north, Laconia is separated from <a href="/wiki/Arcadia_(regional_unit)" title="Arcadia (regional unit)">Arcadia</a> by hilly uplands reaching 1000 m in altitude. These natural defenses worked to Sparta's advantage and protected it from sacking and <a href="/wiki/Invasion" title="Invasion">invasion</a>. Though landlocked, Sparta had a vassal harbor, <a href="/wiki/Gytheio" title="Gytheio">Gytheio</a>, on the <a href="/wiki/Laconian_Gulf" title="Laconian Gulf">Laconian Gulf</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Mythology">Mythology</h2></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Lacedaemon_(mythology)" title="Lacedaemon (mythology)">Lacedaemon</a> (Greek: <span title="Ancient Greek (to 1453)-language text"><span lang="grc">Λακεδαίμων</span></span>) was a <a href="/wiki/Greek_mythology" title="Greek mythology">mythical</a> king of Laconia.<sup id="cite_ref-PausaniasIII.1.2_23-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-PausaniasIII.1.2-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The son of <a href="/wiki/Zeus" title="Zeus">Zeus</a> by the nymph <a href="/wiki/Taygete" title="Taygete">Taygete</a>, he married <a href="/wiki/Sparta_(mythology)" title="Sparta (mythology)">Sparta</a>, the daughter of <a href="/wiki/Eurotas_(mythology)" class="mw-redirect" title="Eurotas (mythology)">Eurotas</a>, by whom he became the father of <a href="/wiki/King_Amyclas_of_Sparta" class="mw-redirect" title="King Amyclas of Sparta">Amyclas</a>, <a href="/wiki/Eurydice_of_Argos" class="mw-redirect" title="Eurydice of Argos">Eurydice</a>, and Asine. As king, he named his country after himself and the city after his wife.<sup id="cite_ref-PausaniasIII.1.2_23-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-PausaniasIII.1.2-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> He was believed to have built the sanctuary of the <a href="/wiki/Charites" title="Charites">Charites</a>, which stood between Sparta and <a href="/wiki/Amyclae" title="Amyclae">Amyclae</a>, and to have given to those divinities the names of <a href="/wiki/Cleta" title="Cleta">Cleta</a> and <a href="/wiki/Phaenna" title="Phaenna">Phaenna</a>. A <a href="/wiki/Heroon" class="mw-redirect" title="Heroon">shrine</a> was erected to him in the neighborhood of <a href="/wiki/Therapne" title="Therapne">Therapne</a>. </p><p><a href="/wiki/Tyrtaeus" title="Tyrtaeus">Tyrtaeus</a>, an archaic era Spartan writer, is the earliest source to connect the origin myth of the Spartans to the lineage of the hero <a href="/wiki/Heracles" title="Heracles">Heracles</a>; later authors, such as <a href="/wiki/Diodorus_Siculus" title="Diodorus Siculus">Diodorus Siculus</a>, Herodotus, and <a href="/wiki/Bibliotheca_(Pseudo-Apollodorus)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibliotheca (Pseudo-Apollodorus)">Apollodorus</a>, also made mention of Spartans understanding themselves to be descendants of Heracles.<sup id="cite_ref-24" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-25" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-26" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-27" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Archaeology_of_the_classical_period">Archaeology of the classical period</h2></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Ancient_sparta_theater.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5c/Ancient_sparta_theater.jpg/220px-Ancient_sparta_theater.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="146" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5c/Ancient_sparta_theater.jpg/330px-Ancient_sparta_theater.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5c/Ancient_sparta_theater.jpg/440px-Ancient_sparta_theater.jpg 2x" data-file-width="786" data-file-height="520" /></a><figcaption>The theater of ancient Sparta with <a href="/wiki/Taygetus" title="Taygetus">Mt. Taygetus</a> in the background.</figcaption></figure> <p><a href="/wiki/Thucydides" title="Thucydides">Thucydides</a> wrote: </p> <blockquote><p>Suppose the city of Sparta to be deserted, and nothing left but the temples and the ground-plan, distant ages would be very unwilling to believe that the power of the Lacedaemonians was at all equal to their fame. Their city is not built continuously, and has no splendid temples or other edifices; it rather resembles a group of villages, like the ancient towns of Hellas, and would therefore make a poor show.<sup id="cite_ref-EB1911_28-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-EB1911-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-29" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></p></blockquote> <p>Until the early 20th century, the chief ancient buildings at Sparta were the <a href="/wiki/Theatre_of_ancient_Greece" title="Theatre of ancient Greece">theatre</a>, of which, however, little showed above ground except portions of the <a href="/wiki/Retaining_wall" title="Retaining wall">retaining walls</a>; the so-called Tomb of <a href="/wiki/Leonidas" class="mw-redirect" title="Leonidas">Leonidas</a>, a quadrangular building, perhaps a temple, constructed of immense blocks of stone and containing two chambers; the foundation of an ancient bridge over the Eurotas; the ruins of a circular structure; some remains of late Roman <a href="/wiki/Fortification" title="Fortification">fortifications</a>; several brick buildings and <a href="/wiki/Mosaic" title="Mosaic">mosaic pavements.</a><sup id="cite_ref-EB1911_28-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-EB1911-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The remaining archaeological wealth consisted of inscriptions, sculptures, and other objects collected in the local museum, founded by Stamatakis in 1872 and enlarged in 1907. Partial <a href="/wiki/Archaeology" title="Archaeology">excavation</a> of the round building was undertaken in 1892 and 1893 by the <a href="/wiki/American_School_of_Classical_Studies_at_Athens" title="American School of Classical Studies at Athens">American School at Athens</a>. The structure has been since found to be a semicircular retaining wall of Hellenic origin that was partly restored during the Roman period.<sup id="cite_ref-EB1911_28-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-EB1911-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:The_remains_of_the_Temple_of_Artemis_Orthia_in_Sparta_on_15_May_2019.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/15/The_remains_of_the_Temple_of_Artemis_Orthia_in_Sparta_on_15_May_2019.jpg/220px-The_remains_of_the_Temple_of_Artemis_Orthia_in_Sparta_on_15_May_2019.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="147" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/15/The_remains_of_the_Temple_of_Artemis_Orthia_in_Sparta_on_15_May_2019.jpg/330px-The_remains_of_the_Temple_of_Artemis_Orthia_in_Sparta_on_15_May_2019.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/15/The_remains_of_the_Temple_of_Artemis_Orthia_in_Sparta_on_15_May_2019.jpg/440px-The_remains_of_the_Temple_of_Artemis_Orthia_in_Sparta_on_15_May_2019.jpg 2x" data-file-width="6000" data-file-height="4000" /></a><figcaption>Ruins of the Temple of Artemis Orthia</figcaption></figure> <p>In 1904, the <a href="/wiki/British_School_at_Athens" title="British School at Athens">British School at Athens</a> began a thorough exploration of <a href="/wiki/Laconia" title="Laconia">Laconia</a>, and in the following year excavations were made at <a href="/wiki/Thalamae_(Laconia)" title="Thalamae (Laconia)">Thalamae</a>, <a href="/wiki/Geronthrae" title="Geronthrae">Geronthrae</a>, and Angelona near <a href="/wiki/Monemvasia" title="Monemvasia">Monemvasia</a>. In 1906, excavations began in Sparta itself.<sup id="cite_ref-EB1911_28-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-EB1911-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>A "small circus" (as described by <a href="/wiki/William_Martin_Leake" title="William Martin Leake">Leake</a>) proved to be a theatre-like building constructed soon after 200 AD around the altar and in front of the <a href="/wiki/Sanctuary_of_Artemis_Orthia" title="Sanctuary of Artemis Orthia">Temple of Artemis Orthia</a>. It is believed that musical and gymnastic contests took place here, as well as the famous flogging ordeal administered to Spartan boys (<i><a href="/wiki/Sanctuary_of_Artemis_Orthia#Diamastigosis" title="Sanctuary of Artemis Orthia">diamastigosis</a></i>). The temple, which can be dated to the 2nd century BC, rests on the foundation of an older temple of the 6th century, and close beside it were found the remains of a yet earlier temple, dating from the 9th or even the 10th century. The <a href="/wiki/Votive_offering" title="Votive offering">votive offerings</a> in clay, amber, bronze, ivory and lead dating from the 9th to the 4th centuries BC, which were found in great profusion within the precinct range, supply invaluable information about early Spartan art.<sup id="cite_ref-EB1911_28-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-EB1911-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:The_last_remaining_section_of_wall_thats_surrounded_ancient_Sparta.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/77/The_last_remaining_section_of_wall_thats_surrounded_ancient_Sparta.jpg/220px-The_last_remaining_section_of_wall_thats_surrounded_ancient_Sparta.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="147" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/77/The_last_remaining_section_of_wall_thats_surrounded_ancient_Sparta.jpg/330px-The_last_remaining_section_of_wall_thats_surrounded_ancient_Sparta.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/77/The_last_remaining_section_of_wall_thats_surrounded_ancient_Sparta.jpg/440px-The_last_remaining_section_of_wall_thats_surrounded_ancient_Sparta.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3648" data-file-height="2432" /></a><figcaption>Remaining section of wall that surrounded ancient Sparta</figcaption></figure> <p>In 1907, the location of the sanctuary of <a href="/wiki/Athena" title="Athena">Athena</a> "of the Brazen House" (Χαλκίοικος, Chalkioikos) was determined to be on the <a href="/wiki/Acropolis" title="Acropolis">acropolis</a> immediately above the theatre. Though the actual temple is almost completely destroyed, the site has produced the longest extant archaic inscription in Laconia, numerous bronze nails and plates, and a considerable number of votive offerings. The <a href="/wiki/City-wall" class="mw-redirect" title="City-wall">city-wall</a>, built in successive stages from the 4th to the 2nd century, was traced for a great part of its circuit, which measured 48 stades or nearly 10 km (6 miles) (Polyb. 1X. 21). The late Roman wall enclosing the acropolis, part of which probably dates from the years following the Gothic raid of 262 AD, was also investigated. Besides the actual buildings discovered, a number of points were situated and mapped in a general study of Spartan topography, based upon the description of <a href="/wiki/Pausanias_(geographer)" title="Pausanias (geographer)">Pausanias</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-EB1911_28-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-EB1911-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In terms of domestic archaeology, little is known about Spartan houses and villages before the Archaic period, but the best evidence comes from excavations at <a href="/wiki/Nichoria" title="Nichoria">Nichoria</a> in <a href="/wiki/Messenia_(ancient_region)" title="Messenia (ancient region)">Messenia</a> where postholes have been found. These villages were open and consisted of small and simple houses built with stone foundations and clay walls.<sup id="cite_ref-30" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Menelaion">Menelaion</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951" /><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Menelaion" title="Menelaion">Menelaion</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:The_Menelaion_(Sanctuary_of_Menelaus_and_Helen)_in_Sparta.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/30/The_Menelaion_%28Sanctuary_of_Menelaus_and_Helen%29_in_Sparta.jpg/220px-The_Menelaion_%28Sanctuary_of_Menelaus_and_Helen%29_in_Sparta.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="147" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/30/The_Menelaion_%28Sanctuary_of_Menelaus_and_Helen%29_in_Sparta.jpg/330px-The_Menelaion_%28Sanctuary_of_Menelaus_and_Helen%29_in_Sparta.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/30/The_Menelaion_%28Sanctuary_of_Menelaus_and_Helen%29_in_Sparta.jpg/440px-The_Menelaion_%28Sanctuary_of_Menelaus_and_Helen%29_in_Sparta.jpg 2x" data-file-width="6000" data-file-height="4000" /></a><figcaption>The <a href="/wiki/Menelaion" title="Menelaion">Menelaion</a></figcaption></figure> <p>The <a href="/wiki/Menelaion" title="Menelaion">Menelaion</a> is a shrine associated with <a href="/wiki/Menelaus" title="Menelaus">Menelaus</a>, located east of Sparta, by the river <a href="/wiki/Evrotas_(river)" title="Evrotas (river)">Eurotas</a>, on the hill <a href="/wiki/Taygetus" title="Taygetus">Profitis Ilias</a> (<a href="/wiki/Geographic_coordinate_system" title="Geographic coordinate system">Coordinates</a>: <span class="geo-inline"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1156832818" /><span class="plainlinks nourlexpansion"><a class="external text" href="https://geohack.toolforge.org/geohack.php?pagename=Sparta&params=37.0659_N_22.4536_E_type:landmark_region:GR_scale:500"><span class="geo-nondefault"><span class="geo-dms" title="Maps, aerial photos, and other data for this location"><span class="latitude">37°03′57″N</span> <span class="longitude">22°27′13″E</span></span></span><span class="geo-multi-punct"> / </span><span class="geo-default"><span class="geo-dec" title="Maps, aerial photos, and other data for this location">37.0659°N 22.4536°E</span><span style="display:none"> / <span class="geo">37.0659; 22.4536</span></span></span></a></span></span>). Built around the early 8th century BC, the Spartans believed it had been the former residence of Menelaus. In 1970, the British School in Athens started excavations around the Menelaion in an attempt to locate Mycenaean remains in the area. Among other findings, they uncovered the remains of two Mycenaean mansions and found the first offerings dedicated to <a href="/wiki/Helen_of_Troy" title="Helen of Troy">Helen</a> and Menelaus. These mansions were destroyed by <a href="/wiki/Earthquake" title="Earthquake">earthquake</a> and fire, and archaeologists consider them the possible palace of Menelaus himself.<sup id="cite_ref-31" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="noprint Inline-Template noprint noexcerpt Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:NOTRS" class="mw-redirect" title="Wikipedia:NOTRS"><span title="This claim needs references to better sources. (November 2017)">better source needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p><a href="/wiki/Archaeological_excavation" title="Archaeological excavation">Excavations</a> made from the early 1990s to the present suggest that the area around the Menelaion in the southern part of the Eurotas valley seems to have been the center of <a href="/wiki/Mycenaean_Greece" title="Mycenaean Greece">Mycenaean Laconia</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-32" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Mycenaean settlement was roughly triangular in shape, with its apex pointed towards the north. Its area was approximately equal to that of the "newer" Sparta, but <a href="/wiki/Denudation" title="Denudation">denudation</a> has wreaked havoc with its buildings and nothing is left of its original structures save for ruined foundations and broken <a href="/wiki/Glossary_of_archaeology" title="Glossary of archaeology">potsherds</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-EB1911_28-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-EB1911-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="History">History</h2></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951" /><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/History_of_Sparta" title="History of Sparta">History of Sparta</a></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Prehistory,_"dark_age"_and_archaic_period"><span id="Prehistory.2C_.22dark_age.22_and_archaic_period"></span>Prehistory, "dark age" and archaic period</h3></div> <p>The prehistory of Sparta is difficult to reconstruct because the literary evidence was written far later than the events it describes and is distorted by oral tradition.<sup id="cite_ref-Herodot,_Book_I,_56.3_33-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Herodot,_Book_I,_56.3-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The earliest certain evidence of human settlement in the region of Sparta consists of <a href="/wiki/Pottery" title="Pottery">pottery</a> dating from the Middle <a href="/wiki/Neolithic" title="Neolithic">Neolithic</a> period, found in the vicinity of Kouphovouno some two kilometres (1.2 miles) south-southwest of Sparta.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTECartledge200228_34-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECartledge200228-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>This civilization seems to have fallen into decline by the late <a href="/wiki/Bronze_Age" title="Bronze Age">Bronze Age</a>, when, according to Herodotus, Macedonian tribes from the north (called <a href="/wiki/Dorians" title="Dorians">Dorians</a> by those they conquered) marched into the Peloponnese and, subjugating the local tribes, settled there.<sup id="cite_ref-Herodot,_Book_I,_56.3_33-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Herodot,_Book_I,_56.3-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Dorians seem to have set about expanding the frontiers of Spartan territory almost before they had established their own state.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEEhrenberg200231_35-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEEhrenberg200231-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> They fought against the <a href="/wiki/Argive" class="mw-redirect" title="Argive">Argive</a> Dorians to the east and southeast, and also the <a href="/wiki/Arcadia_(ancient_region)" class="mw-redirect" title="Arcadia (ancient region)">Arcadian</a> Achaeans to the northwest. The evidence suggests that Sparta, relatively inaccessible because of the topography of the Taygetan plain, was secure from early on: it was never fortified.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEEhrenberg200231_35-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEEhrenberg200231-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Lycurgus.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/5/57/Lycurgus.jpg" decoding="async" width="162" height="216" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="162" data-file-height="216" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Lycurgus_of_Sparta" class="mw-redirect" title="Lycurgus of Sparta">Lycurgus</a></figcaption></figure> <p>Nothing distinctive in the archaeology of the Eurotas River Valley identifies the Dorians or the Dorian Spartan state. The prehistory of the Neolithic, the Bronze Age and the Dark Age (the Early Iron Age) at this moment must be treated apart from the stream of Dorian Spartan history.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (June 2021)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p>The legendary period of Spartan history is believed to fall into the Dark Age. It treats the mythic heroes such as the <a href="/wiki/Heraclids" class="mw-redirect" title="Heraclids">Heraclids</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Perseides" title="Perseides">Perseids</a>, offering a view of the occupation of the Peloponnesus that contains both fantastic and possibly historical elements. The subsequent proto-historic period, combining both legend and historical fragments, offers the first credible history. </p><p>Between the 8th and 7th centuries BC the Spartans experienced a period of lawlessness and civil strife, later attested by both Herodotus and Thucydides.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEEhrenberg200236_36-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEEhrenberg200236-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> As a result, they carried out a series of political and social reforms of their own society which they later attributed to a semi-mythical lawgiver, <a href="/wiki/Lycurgus_of_Sparta" class="mw-redirect" title="Lycurgus of Sparta">Lycurgus</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEEhrenberg200233_37-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEEhrenberg200233-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Several writers throughout antiquity, including Herodotus, Xenophon, and Plutarch have attempted to explain Spartan exceptionalism as a result of the so-called Lycurgan Reforms.<sup id="cite_ref-38" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-39" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-39"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-40" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-41" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-41"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Classical_Sparta">Classical Sparta</h3></div> <p>In the <a href="/wiki/Second_Messenian_War" title="Second Messenian War">Second Messenian War</a>, Sparta established itself as a local power in the Peloponnesus and the rest of Greece. During the following centuries, Sparta's reputation as a land-fighting force was unequalled.<sup id="cite_ref-42" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-42"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>41<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> At its peak around 500 BC, Sparta had some 20,000–35,000 citizens, plus numerous helots and perioikoi. The likely total of 40,000–50,000 made Sparta one of the larger Greek city-states;<sup id="cite_ref-43" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-43"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>42<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-44" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-44"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>43<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> however, according to Thucydides, the population of Athens in 431 BC was 360,000–610,000, making it much larger.<sup id="cite_ref-46" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-46"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>n 2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In 480 BC, a small force led by King <a href="/wiki/Leonidas_I" title="Leonidas I">Leonidas</a> (about 300 full Spartiates, 700 Thespians, and 400 Thebans, although these numbers were lessened by earlier casualties<sup id="cite_ref-47" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-47"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>45<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>) made a legendary <a href="/wiki/Last_stand" title="Last stand">last stand</a> at the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Thermopylae" title="Battle of Thermopylae">Battle of Thermopylae</a> against the massive Persian army, led by <a href="/wiki/Xerxes_I" title="Xerxes I">Xerxes</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGreen199810_48-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGreen199810-48"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>46<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Spartans received advance warning of the Persian invasion from their deposed king <a href="/wiki/Demaratus" title="Demaratus">Demaratus</a>, which prompted them to consult the Delphic oracle. According to Herodotus, the <a href="/wiki/Pythia" title="Pythia">Pythia</a> proclaimed that either one of the kings of Sparta had to die or Sparta would be destroyed.<sup id="cite_ref-49" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-49"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>47<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This prophecy was fulfilled after king Leonidas died in the battle. The superior weaponry, strategy, and <a href="/wiki/Bronze" title="Bronze">bronze</a> armour of the Greek <a href="/wiki/Hoplite" title="Hoplite">hoplites</a> and their <a href="/wiki/Phalanx_formation" class="mw-redirect" title="Phalanx formation">phalanx</a> fighting formation again proved their worth one year later when Sparta assembled its full strength and led a Greek alliance against the Persians at the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Plataea" title="Battle of Plataea">Battle of Plataea</a> in 479 BC. </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Ancient_Sparta.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/59/Ancient_Sparta.jpg/220px-Ancient_Sparta.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="147" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/59/Ancient_Sparta.jpg/330px-Ancient_Sparta.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/59/Ancient_Sparta.jpg/440px-Ancient_Sparta.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1483" data-file-height="989" /></a><figcaption>Ancient Sparta.</figcaption></figure> <p>The decisive Greek victory at Plataea put an end to the <a href="/wiki/Greco-Persian_War" class="mw-redirect" title="Greco-Persian War">Greco-Persian War</a> along with Persian ambitions to expand into Europe. Even though this war was won by a pan-Greek army, credit was given to Sparta, who besides providing the leading forces at Thermopylae and Plataea, had been the de facto leader of the entire Greek expedition.<sup id="cite_ref-50" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-50"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>48<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In 464 BC, a violent <a href="/wiki/464_BC_Sparta_earthquake" title="464 BC Sparta earthquake">earthquake</a> occurred along the Sparta faultline destroying much of what was Sparta and many other city-states in ancient Greece. This earthquake is marked by scholars as one of the key events that led to the <a href="/wiki/First_Peloponnesian_War" title="First Peloponnesian War">First Peloponnesian War</a>. </p><p>In later Classical times, Sparta along with <a href="/wiki/Athens" title="Athens">Athens</a>, <a href="/wiki/Thebes,_Greece" title="Thebes, Greece">Thebes</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Persia" class="mw-redirect" title="Persia">Persia</a> were the main powers fighting for supremacy in the northeastern Mediterranean. In the course of the <a href="/wiki/Peloponnesian_War" title="Peloponnesian War">Peloponnesian War</a>, Sparta, a traditional land power, acquired a navy which managed to overpower the previously dominant flotilla of Athens, ending the <a href="/wiki/Athenian_Empire" class="mw-redirect" title="Athenian Empire">Athenian Empire</a>. At the peak of its power in the early 4th century BC, Sparta had subdued many of the main Greek states and even invaded the Persian provinces in Anatolia (modern day Turkey), a period known as the <a href="/wiki/Spartan_hegemony" title="Spartan hegemony">Spartan hegemony</a>. </p><p>During the <a href="/wiki/Corinthian_War" title="Corinthian War">Corinthian War</a>, Sparta faced a coalition of the leading Greek states: <a href="/wiki/Thebes,_Greece" title="Thebes, Greece">Thebes</a>, <a href="/wiki/Athens" title="Athens">Athens</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Corinth" title="Ancient Corinth">Corinth</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Argos,_Peloponnese" title="Argos, Peloponnese">Argos</a>. The alliance was initially backed by Persia, which feared further Spartan expansion into Asia.<sup id="cite_ref-51" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-51"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>49<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Sparta achieved a series of land victories, but many of her ships were destroyed at the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Cnidus" title="Battle of Cnidus">Battle of Cnidus</a> by a Greek-Phoenician mercenary fleet that Persia had provided to Athens. The event severely damaged Sparta's naval power but did not end its aspirations of invading further into Persia, until <a href="/wiki/Conon" title="Conon">Conon</a> the Athenian ravaged the Spartan coastline and provoked the old Spartan fear of a <a href="/wiki/Helot" class="mw-redirect" title="Helot">helot</a> revolt.<sup id="cite_ref-boardman_52-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-boardman-52"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>50<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>After a few more years of fighting, in 387 BC the <a href="/wiki/Peace_of_Antalcidas" title="Peace of Antalcidas">Peace of Antalcidas</a> was established, according to which all Greek cities of <a href="/wiki/Ionia" title="Ionia">Ionia</a> would return to Persian control, and Persia's Asian border would be free of the Spartan threat.<sup id="cite_ref-boardman_52-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-boardman-52"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>50<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The effects of the war were to reaffirm Persia's ability to interfere successfully in Greek politics and to affirm Sparta's weakened hegemonic position in the Greek political system.<sup id="cite_ref-53" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-53"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>51<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Sparta entered its long-term decline after a severe military defeat to <a href="/wiki/Epaminondas" title="Epaminondas">Epaminondas</a> of Thebes at the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Leuctra" title="Battle of Leuctra">Battle of Leuctra</a>. This was the first time that a full strength <a href="/wiki/Spartan_Army" class="mw-redirect" title="Spartan Army">Spartan army</a> lost a land battle. </p><p>As Spartan citizenship was inherited by blood, Sparta increasingly faced a helot population that vastly outnumbered its citizens. The alarming decline of Spartan citizens was commented on by <a href="/wiki/Aristotle" title="Aristotle">Aristotle</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Hellenistic_and_Roman_Sparta">Hellenistic and Roman Sparta</h3></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Nuremberg_chronicles_-_f_28v.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2d/Nuremberg_chronicles_-_f_28v.png/250px-Nuremberg_chronicles_-_f_28v.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="144" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2d/Nuremberg_chronicles_-_f_28v.png/330px-Nuremberg_chronicles_-_f_28v.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2d/Nuremberg_chronicles_-_f_28v.png/500px-Nuremberg_chronicles_-_f_28v.png 2x" data-file-width="850" data-file-height="555" /></a><figcaption>Medieval depiction of Sparta from the <i><a href="/wiki/Nuremberg_Chronicle" title="Nuremberg Chronicle">Nuremberg Chronicle</a></i> (1493)</figcaption></figure> <p>Sparta never fully recovered from its losses at Leuctra in 371 BC and the subsequent <a href="/wiki/Helots#Helot_revolts" title="Helots">helot revolts</a>. In 338, <a href="/wiki/Philip_II_of_Macedon" title="Philip II of Macedon">Philip II</a> invaded and devastated much of Laconia, turning the Spartans out, though he did not seize Sparta itself.<sup id="cite_ref-54" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-54"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>52<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Even during its decline, Sparta never forgot its claim to be the "defender of Hellenism" and its <a href="/wiki/Laconic_phrase" title="Laconic phrase">Laconic wit</a>. An anecdote has it that when Philip II sent a message to Sparta saying "If I invade Laconia, I shall turn you out.",<sup id="cite_ref-55" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-55"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>53<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> the Spartans responded with the single, terse reply: <span title="Ancient Greek (to 1453)-language text"><span lang="grc">αἴκα</span></span>, "if".<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDavies1997133_56-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDavies1997133-56"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>54<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-57" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-57"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>55<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-58" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-58"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>56<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> When Philip created the <a href="/wiki/League_of_Corinth" title="League of Corinth">League of Corinth</a> on the pretext of unifying Greece against Persia, the Spartans chose not to join, since they had no interest in joining a pan-Greek expedition unless it were under Spartan leadership. Thus, upon defeating the Persians at the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_the_Granicus" title="Battle of the Granicus">Battle of the Granicus</a>, Alexander the Great sent to Athens 300 suits of Persian armour with the following inscription: "Alexander, son of Philip, and all the Greeks except the Spartans, give these offerings taken from the foreigners who live in Asia". </p><p>Sparta continued to be one of the Peloponesian powers until its eventual loss of independence in 192 BC. During Alexander's campaigns in the east, the Spartan king <a href="/wiki/Agis_III" title="Agis III">Agis III</a> sent a force to Crete in 333 BC to secure the island for the Persian interest.<sup id="cite_ref-59" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-59"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>57<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-60" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-60"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>58<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Agis next took command of allied Greek forces against Macedon, gaining early successes, before laying siege to <a href="/wiki/Megalopolis,_Greece" title="Megalopolis, Greece">Megalopolis</a> in 331 BC. A large <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Macedonian_army" title="Ancient Macedonian army">Macedonian army</a> under general <a href="/wiki/Antipater" title="Antipater">Antipater</a> marched to its relief and defeated the Spartan-led force in a pitched battle.<sup id="cite_ref-61" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-61"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>59<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> More than 5,300 of the Spartans and their allies were killed in battle, and 3,500 of Antipater's troops.<sup id="cite_ref-62" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-62"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>60<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Agis, now wounded and unable to stand, ordered his men to leave him behind to face the advancing Macedonian army so that he could buy them time to retreat. On his knees, the Spartan king slew several enemy soldiers before being finally killed by a javelin.<sup id="cite_ref-63" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-63"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>61<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Alexander was merciful, and he only forced the Spartans to join the League of Corinth, which they had previously refused.<sup id="cite_ref-64" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-64"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>62<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>During the <a href="/wiki/Punic_Wars" title="Punic Wars">Punic Wars</a>, Sparta was an ally of the <a href="/wiki/Roman_Republic" title="Roman Republic">Roman Republic</a>. Spartan political independence was put to an end when it was eventually forced into the <a href="/wiki/Achaean_League" title="Achaean League">Achaean League</a> after its defeat in the decisive <a href="/wiki/War_against_Nabis" title="War against Nabis">Laconian War</a> by a coalition of other Greek city-states and Rome, and the resultant overthrow of its final king <a href="/wiki/Nabis_of_Sparta" title="Nabis of Sparta">Nabis</a>, in 192 BC. Sparta played no active part in the <a href="/wiki/Achaean_War" title="Achaean War">Achaean War</a> in 146 BC when the Achaean League was defeated by the Roman general <a href="/wiki/Lucius_Mummius_Achaicus" title="Lucius Mummius Achaicus">Lucius Mummius</a>. Subsequently, Sparta became a <a href="/wiki/Free_city_(classical_antiquity)" title="Free city (classical antiquity)">free city</a> under Roman rule, some of the institutions of <a href="/wiki/Lycurgus_of_Sparta" class="mw-redirect" title="Lycurgus of Sparta">Lycurgus</a> were restored,<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTECartledgeSpawforth200182_65-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECartledgeSpawforth200182-65"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>63<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and the city became a tourist attraction for the Roman elite who came to observe exotic Spartan customs.<sup id="cite_ref-70" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-70"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>n 3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In 214 AD, <a href="/wiki/Roman_emperor" title="Roman emperor">Roman emperor</a> <a href="/wiki/Caracalla" title="Caracalla">Caracalla</a>, in his preparation for <a href="/wiki/Parthian_war_of_Caracalla" title="Parthian war of Caracalla">his campaign</a> against <a href="/wiki/Parthian_Empire" title="Parthian Empire">Parthia</a>, recruited a 500-man Spartan <a href="/wiki/Cohort_(military_unit)" title="Cohort (military unit)">cohort</a> (<i><a href="/wiki/Lochos" title="Lochos">lokhos</a></i>). <a href="/wiki/Herodian" title="Herodian">Herodian</a> described this unit as a <i><a href="/wiki/Phalanx" title="Phalanx">phalanx</a></i>, implying it fought like the old Spartans as hoplites, or even as a <a href="/wiki/Macedonian_phalanx" title="Macedonian phalanx">Macedonian phalanx</a>. Despite this, a gravestone of a fallen legionary named Marcus Aurelius Alexys shows him lightly armed, with a <a href="/wiki/Pileus_(hat)" title="Pileus (hat)">pilos-like</a> cap and a wooden club. The unit was presumably discharged in 217 after Caracalla was assassinated.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTECartledgeSpawforth2001108_71-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECartledgeSpawforth2001108-71"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>68<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>An exchange of letters in the <a href="/wiki/Deutero-canonical" class="mw-redirect" title="Deutero-canonical">deutero-canonical</a> <a href="/wiki/First_Book_of_Maccabees" class="mw-redirect" title="First Book of Maccabees">First Book of Maccabees</a> expresses a <a href="/wiki/Jews" title="Jews">Jewish</a> claim to kinship with the Spartans: </p> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1244412712">.mw-parser-output .templatequote{overflow:hidden;margin:1em 0;padding:0 32px}.mw-parser-output .templatequotecite{line-height:1.5em;text-align:left;margin-top:0}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .templatequotecite{padding-left:1.6em}}</style><blockquote class="templatequote"><p>Areus king of the Lacedemonians to <a href="/wiki/Onias_I" title="Onias I">Onias</a> the high priest, greeting: It is found in writing, that the Lacedemonians and Jews are brethren, and that they are of the stock of <a href="/wiki/Abraham" title="Abraham">Abraham</a>: Now therefore, since this is come to our knowledge, ye shall do well to write unto us of your prosperity. We do write back again to you, that your cattle and goods are ours, and ours are yours.</p><div class="templatequotecite">— <cite>Authorized King James Version <a href="/wiki/1_Maccabees" title="1 Maccabees">1 Maccabees 12.20</a></cite></div></blockquote> <p>The letters are reproduced in a variant form by <a href="/wiki/Josephus" title="Josephus">Josephus</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-72" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-72"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>69<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Jewish historian Uriel Rappaport notes that the relationship between the Jews and the Spartans expressed in this correspondence has "intrigued many scholars, and various explanations have been suggested for the problems raised ... including the historicity of the Jewish leader and <a href="/wiki/High_Priest_of_Israel" title="High Priest of Israel">high priest</a> <a href="/wiki/Jonathan_Apphus" title="Jonathan Apphus">Jonathan</a>'s letter to the Spartans, the authenticity of the letter of Arius to Onias, cited in Jonathan's letter, and the supposed 'brotherhood' of the Jews and the Spartans." Rappaport is clear that "the authenticity of [the reply] letter of Arius is based on even less firm foundations than the letter of Jonathan".<sup id="cite_ref-73" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-73"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>70<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Spartans long spurned the idea of building a <a href="/wiki/Defensive_wall" title="Defensive wall">defensive wall</a> around their city, believing they made the city's men soft in terms of their warrior abilities. A wall was finally erected after 184 BCE, after the peak of the city-state's power had come and gone.<sup id="cite_ref-74" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-74"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>71<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Post-classical_and_modern_Sparta">Post-classical and modern Sparta</h3></div> <p>In 396 AD, Sparta was sacked by <a href="/wiki/Visigoths" title="Visigoths">Visigoths</a> under <a href="/wiki/Alaric_I" title="Alaric I">Alaric I</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-urlA_History_of_the_Laws_of_War:_Volume_2:_The_Customs_and_Laws_of_War_with_..._-_Alexander_Gillespie_-_Google_Książki_75-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-urlA_History_of_the_Laws_of_War:_Volume_2:_The_Customs_and_Laws_of_War_with_..._-_Alexander_Gillespie_-_Google_Książki-75"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>72<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-urlThe_Oxford_Companion_to_Classical_Literature_-_Google_Książki_76-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-urlThe_Oxford_Companion_to_Classical_Literature_-_Google_Książki-76"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>73<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> According to Byzantine sources, <a href="/wiki/Maniots" title="Maniots">some parts</a> of the Laconian region remained <a href="/wiki/Paganism" title="Paganism">pagan</a> until well into the 10th century. The <a href="/wiki/Tsakonian_language" title="Tsakonian language">Tsakonian language</a> still spoken in <a href="/wiki/Tsakonia" title="Tsakonia">Tsakonia</a> is the only surviving descendant of the ancient <a href="/wiki/Doric_Greek" title="Doric Greek">Doric language</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-77" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-77"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>74<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In the Middle Ages, the political and cultural center of Laconia shifted to the nearby settlement of <a href="/wiki/Mystras" title="Mystras">Mystras</a>, and Sparta fell further in even local importance. Modern <a href="/wiki/Sparta,_Laconia" title="Sparta, Laconia">Sparta</a> was re-founded in 1834, by a decree of King <a href="/wiki/Otto_of_Greece" title="Otto of Greece">Otto of Greece</a>. Today it is a provincial town and the capital of the <a href="/wiki/Laconia" title="Laconia">Laconia</a> administrative region. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Structure_of_Classical_Spartan_society">Structure of Classical Spartan society</h2></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Constitution">Constitution</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951" /><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Spartan_Constitution" title="Spartan Constitution">Spartan Constitution</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-center" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:SpartaGreatRhetra.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6d/SpartaGreatRhetra.png/440px-SpartaGreatRhetra.png" decoding="async" width="440" height="280" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6d/SpartaGreatRhetra.png/660px-SpartaGreatRhetra.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6d/SpartaGreatRhetra.png/880px-SpartaGreatRhetra.png 2x" data-file-width="1420" data-file-height="905" /></a><figcaption>Structure of the Spartan Constitution</figcaption></figure><div style="clear:both;" class=""></div> <p>Sparta was an <a href="/wiki/Oligarchy" title="Oligarchy">oligarchy</a>. The state was ruled by two <a href="/wiki/Diarchy" title="Diarchy">hereditary kings</a> of the <a href="/wiki/List_of_Kings_of_Sparta" class="mw-redirect" title="List of Kings of Sparta">Agiad and Eurypontid</a> families,<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTECartledge200289_78-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECartledge200289-78"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>75<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> both supposedly descendants of <a href="/wiki/Heracles" title="Heracles">Heracles</a> and equal in authority, so that one could not act against the power and political enactments of his colleague.<sup id="cite_ref-EB1911_28-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-EB1911-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The duties of the kings were primarily religious, judicial, and military. As chief priests of the state, they maintained communication with the Delphian sanctuary, whose pronouncements exercised great authority in Spartan politics. In the time of Herodotus c. 450 BC, their judicial functions had been restricted to cases dealing with heiresses (<a href="/wiki/Epikleroi" class="mw-redirect" title="Epikleroi">epikleroi</a>), adoptions and the public roads (the meaning of the last term is unclear in Herodotus' text and has been interpreted in a number of ways). <a href="/wiki/Aristotle" title="Aristotle">Aristotle</a> describes the kingship at Sparta as "a kind of unlimited and perpetual generalship" (Pol. iii. 1285a), while <a href="/wiki/Isocrates" title="Isocrates">Isocrates</a> refers to the Spartans as "subject to an oligarchy at home, to a kingship on campaign" (iii. 24).<sup id="cite_ref-EB1911_28-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-EB1911-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Civil and criminal cases were decided by a group of officials known as the <a href="/wiki/Ephors" class="mw-redirect" title="Ephors">ephors</a>, as well as a council of <a href="/wiki/Elder_(administrative_title)" title="Elder (administrative title)">elders</a> known as the <a href="/wiki/Gerousia" title="Gerousia">Gerousia</a>. The Gerousia consisted of 28 elders over the age of 60, elected for life and usually part of the royal households, and the two kings.<sup id="cite_ref-79" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-79"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>76<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> High state decisions were discussed by this council, who could then propose policies to the <i>damos</i>, the collective body of Spartan citizenry, who would <a href="/wiki/Great_Rhetra" title="Great Rhetra">select one of the alternatives by vote</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-80" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-80"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>77<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-81" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-81"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>78<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Royal prerogatives were curtailed over time. From the period of the Persian wars, the king lost the right to <a href="/wiki/Declaration_of_war" title="Declaration of war">declare war</a> and was accompanied in the field by two ephors. He was supplanted by the ephors also in the control of foreign policy. Over time, the kings became mere figureheads except in their capacity as generals. Political power was transferred to the ephors and Gerousia.<sup id="cite_ref-EB1911_28-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-EB1911-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>An assembly of citizens called the <a href="/wiki/Ecclesia_(Sparta)" title="Ecclesia (Sparta)">Ekklesia</a> was responsible for electing men to the Gerousia for life. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Citizenship">Citizenship</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951" /><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Spartiate" title="Spartiate">Spartiate</a></div> <p>The Spartan education process known as the <i><a href="/wiki/Agoge" title="Agoge">agoge</a></i> was essential for full citizenship. However, usually the only boys eligible for the <i>agoge</i> were <a href="/wiki/Spartiates" class="mw-redirect" title="Spartiates">Spartiates</a>, those who could trace their ancestry to the original inhabitants of the city. </p><p>There were two exceptions. <i><a href="/wiki/Trophimoi" title="Trophimoi">Trophimoi</a></i> or "foster sons" were foreign students invited to study. The Athenian general <a href="/wiki/Xenophon" title="Xenophon">Xenophon</a>, for example, sent his two sons to Sparta as trophimoi. Also, the son of a helot could be enrolled as a <i>syntrophos</i><sup id="cite_ref-82" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-82"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>79<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> if a Spartiate formally adopted him and paid his way; if he did exceptionally well in training, he might be sponsored to become a Spartiate.<sup id="cite_ref-83" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-83"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>80<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Spartans who could not afford to pay the expenses of the <i>agoge</i> could lose their citizenship. </p><p>These laws meant that Sparta could not readily replace citizens lost in battle or otherwise, which eventually proved near fatal as citizens became greatly outnumbered by non-citizens, and even more dangerously by helots. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Non_citizens">Non citizens</h3></div> <p>The other classes were the <a href="/wiki/Perioeci" title="Perioeci">perioikoi</a>, free inhabitants who were non-citizens, and the <a href="/wiki/Helots" title="Helots">helots</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-ReferenceA_84-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ReferenceA-84"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>81<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> state-owned <a href="/wiki/Serfs" class="mw-redirect" title="Serfs">serfs</a>. Descendants of non-Spartan citizens were forbidden the <i>agoge</i>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Helots">Helots</h4></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951" /><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Helots" title="Helots">Helots</a></div> <p>The Spartans were a minority of the Lakonian population. The largest class of inhabitants were the helots (in <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greek_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Ancient Greek language">Classical Greek</a> <span title="Ancient Greek (to 1453)-language text"><span lang="grc">Εἵλωτες</span></span> / <i>Heílôtes</i>).<sup id="cite_ref-85" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-85"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>82<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-86" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-86"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>83<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The helots were originally free Greeks from the areas of <a href="/wiki/Messenia_(ancient_region)" title="Messenia (ancient region)">Messenia</a> and <a href="/wiki/Lakonia" class="mw-redirect" title="Lakonia">Lakonia</a> whom the Spartans had defeated in battle and subsequently enslaved.<sup id="cite_ref-87" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-87"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>84<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In contrast to populations conquered by other Greek cities (e.g. the Athenian treatment of Melos), the male population was not exterminated and the women and children turned into chattel slaves. Instead, the helots were given a subordinate position in society more comparable to serfs in medieval Europe than chattel slaves in the rest of Greece.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (October 2020)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> The Spartan helots were not only agricultural workers, but were also household servants, both male and female would be assigned domestic duties, such as wool-working.<sup id="cite_ref-88" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-88"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>85<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> However, the helots were not the private property of individual Spartan citizens, regardless of their household duties, and were instead owned by the state through the <i>kleros</i> system.<sup id="cite_ref-89" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-89"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>86<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Helots did not have voting or political rights. The Spartan poet <a href="/wiki/Tyrtaeus" title="Tyrtaeus">Tyrtaios</a> refers to Helots being allowed to marry and retaining 50% of the fruits of their labor.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWest199924_90-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWest199924-90"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>87<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> They also seem to have been allowed to practice religious rites and, according to Thucydides, own a limited amount of personal property.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTECartledge2002141_91-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECartledge2002141-91"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>88<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Initially, helots couldn't be freed but during the middle <a href="/wiki/Hellenistic_period" title="Hellenistic period">Hellenistic period</a>, some 6,000 helots accumulated enough wealth to buy their freedom, for example, in 227 BC. </p><p>In other Greek city-states, free citizens were part-time soldiers who, when not at war, carried on other trades. Since Spartan men were full-time soldiers, they were not available to carry out manual labour.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTECartledge2002140_92-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECartledge2002140-92"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>89<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The helots were used as unskilled <a href="/wiki/Serf" class="mw-redirect" title="Serf">serfs</a>, tilling Spartan land. Helot women were often used as <a href="/wiki/Wet_nurse" title="Wet nurse">wet nurses</a>. Helots also travelled with the Spartan army as non-combatant serfs. At the last stand of the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Thermopylae" title="Battle of Thermopylae">Battle of Thermopylae</a>, the Greek dead included not just the legendary three hundred Spartan soldiers but also several hundred <a href="/wiki/Thespiae" title="Thespiae">Thespian</a> and <a href="/wiki/Thebes,_Greece" title="Thebes, Greece">Theban</a> troops and a number of helots.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEEhrenberg2002159_93-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEEhrenberg2002159-93"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>90<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>There was at least one helot revolt (c. 465–460 BC) that led to prolonged conflict. By the tenth year of this war the Spartans and Messenians had reached an agreement in which Messenian rebels were allowed to leave the Peloponnese.<sup id="cite_ref-94" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-94"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>91<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> They were given safe passage under the terms that they would be re-enslaved if they tried to return. This agreement ended the most serious incursion into Spartan territory since their expansion in the seventh and eighth centuries BC.<sup id="cite_ref-95" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-95"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>92<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Thucydides remarked that "Spartan policy is always mainly governed by the necessity of taking precautions against the helots."<sup id="cite_ref-96" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-96"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>93<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTECartledge2002211_97-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECartledge2002211-97"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>94<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> On the other hand, the Spartans trusted their helots enough in 479 BC to take a force of 35,000 with them to Plataea, something they could not have risked if they feared the helots would attack them or run away. Slave revolts occurred elsewhere in the Greek world, and in 413 BC 20,000 Athenian slaves ran away to join the Spartan forces occupying Attica.<sup id="cite_ref-98" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-98"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>95<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> What made Sparta's relations with her slave population unique was that the helots, precisely because they enjoyed privileges such as family and property, retained their identity as a conquered people (the Messenians) and also had effective kinship groups that could be used to organize rebellion.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (October 2020)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p>As the Spartiate population declined and the helot population continued to grow, the imbalance of power caused increasing tension. According to <a href="/wiki/Myron_of_Priene" title="Myron of Priene">Myron of Priene</a><sup id="cite_ref-99" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-99"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>96<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> of the middle 3rd century BC: </p> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712" /><blockquote class="templatequote"><p>They assign to the Helots every shameful task leading to disgrace. For they ordained that each one of them must wear a dogskin cap (<span title="Ancient Greek (to 1453)-language text"><span lang="grc">κυνῆ</span></span> / <i>kunễ</i>) and wrap himself in skins (<span title="Ancient Greek (to 1453)-language text"><span lang="grc">διφθέρα</span></span> / <i>diphthéra</i>) and receive a stipulated number of beatings every year regardless of any wrongdoing, so that they would never forget they were slaves. Moreover, if any exceeded the vigour proper to a slave's condition, they made death the penalty; and they allotted a punishment to those controlling them if they failed to rebuke those who were growing fat.<sup id="cite_ref-100" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-100"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>97<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></p></blockquote> <p>Plutarch also states that Spartans treated the helots "harshly and cruelly": they compelled them to drink pure wine (which was considered dangerous – <a href="/wiki/Diet_of_Ancient_Greece#Wine" class="mw-redirect" title="Diet of Ancient Greece">wine</a> usually being cut with water) "...and to lead them in that condition into their public halls, that the children might see what a sight a drunken man is; they made them to dance low dances, and sing ridiculous songs..." during <i><a href="/wiki/Syssitia" title="Syssitia">syssitia</a></i> (obligatory banquets).<sup id="cite_ref-101" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-101"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>98<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Each year when the Ephors took office, they ritually declared war on the helots, allowing Spartans to kill them without risk of ritual pollution.<sup id="cite_ref-102" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-102"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>99<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This fight seems to have been carried out by <i>kryptai</i> (sing. κρύπτης <i>kryptēs</i>), graduates of the <i>agoge</i> who took part in the mysterious institution known as the <i><a href="/wiki/Crypteia" title="Crypteia">Krypteia</a></i>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPowell2001254_103-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPowell2001254-103"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>100<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Thucydides states: </p> <blockquote><p>The helots were invited by a proclamation to pick out those of their number who claimed to have most distinguished themselves against the enemy, in order that they might receive their freedom; the object being to test them, as it was thought that the first to claim their freedom would be the most high spirited and the most apt to rebel. As many as two thousand were selected accordingly, who crowned themselves and went round the temples, rejoicing in their new freedom. The Spartans, however, soon afterwards did away with them, and no one ever knew how each of them perished.<sup id="cite_ref-104" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-104"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>101<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-105" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-105"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>102<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></p></blockquote> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Perioikoi">Perioikoi</h4></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951" /><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Perioeci" title="Perioeci">Perioeci</a></div> <p>The Perioikoi came from similar origins as the helots but occupied a significantly different position in Spartan society. Although they did not enjoy full citizen-rights, they were free and not subjected to the same restrictions as the helots. The exact nature of their subjection to the Spartans is not clear, but they seem to have served partly as a kind of military reserve, partly as skilled craftsmen and partly as agents of foreign trade.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTECartledge2002153–155_106-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECartledge2002153–155-106"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>103<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Perioikoic hoplites served increasingly with the Spartan army, explicitly at the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Plataea" title="Battle of Plataea">Battle of Plataea</a>, and although they may also have fulfilled functions such as the manufacture and repair of armour and weapons,<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTECartledge2002158,_178_107-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECartledge2002158,_178-107"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>104<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> they were increasingly integrated into the combat units of the Spartan army as the Spartiate population declined.<sup id="cite_ref-108" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-108"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>105<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Economy">Economy</h3></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Rider_BM_B1.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a9/Rider_BM_B1.jpg/220px-Rider_BM_B1.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="220" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a9/Rider_BM_B1.jpg/330px-Rider_BM_B1.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a9/Rider_BM_B1.jpg/440px-Rider_BM_B1.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1680" data-file-height="1680" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Name_vase" title="Name vase">Name vase</a> of the Spartan artist known as the <a href="/wiki/Rider_Painter" title="Rider Painter">Rider Painter</a> (Laconian <a href="/wiki/Black-figure" class="mw-redirect" title="Black-figure">black-figured</a> <a href="/wiki/Kylix_(cup)" class="mw-redirect" title="Kylix (cup)">kylix</a>, c. 550–530 BC)</figcaption></figure> <p>Full citizen Spartiates were barred by law from trade or manufacture, which consequently rested in the hands of the Perioikoi.<sup id="cite_ref-EB1911_28-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-EB1911-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This lucrative monopoly, in a fertile territory with a good harbors, ensured the loyalty of the perioikoi.<sup id="cite_ref-109" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-109"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>106<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Despite the prohibition on menial labor or trade, there is evidence of Spartan sculptors,<sup id="cite_ref-110" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-110"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>107<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and Spartans were certainly poets, magistrates, ambassadors, and governors as well as soldiers. </p><p>Allegedly, Spartans were prohibited from possessing gold and silver coins, and according to legend Spartan currency consisted of iron bars to discourage hoarding.<sup id="cite_ref-111" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-111"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>108<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Though the conspicuous display of wealth appears to have been discouraged, this did not preclude the production of very fine decorated bronze, ivory and wooden works of art as well as exquisite jewellery, attested in archaeology.<sup id="cite_ref-112" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-112"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>109<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Allegedly as part of the Lycurgan Reforms in the mid-8th century BC, a massive <a href="/wiki/Land_reform_in_Sparta" title="Land reform in Sparta">land reform</a> had divided property into 9,000 equal portions. Each citizen received one estate, a <i>kleros</i>, which was expected to provide his living.<sup id="cite_ref-113" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-113"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>110<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The land was worked by helots who retained half the yield. From the other half, the Spartiate was expected to pay his mess (<i>syssitia</i>) fees, and the <i>agoge</i> fees for his children. However, nothing is known of matters of wealth such as how land was bought, sold, and inherited, or whether daughters received dowries.<sup id="cite_ref-114" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-114"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>111<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> However, from early on there were marked differences of wealth within the state, and these became more serious after the law of <a href="/wiki/Epitadeus" title="Epitadeus">Epitadeus</a> some time after the <a href="/wiki/Peloponnesian_War" title="Peloponnesian War">Peloponnesian War</a>, which removed the legal prohibition on the gift or bequest of land.<sup id="cite_ref-EB1911_28-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-EB1911-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-115" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-115"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>112<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> By the mid-5th century, land had become concentrated in the hands of a tiny elite, and the notion that all Spartan citizens were equals had become an empty pretence. By Aristotle's day (384–322 BC) citizenship had been reduced from 9,000 to less than 1,000, then further decreased to 700 at the accession of <a href="/wiki/Agis_IV" title="Agis IV">Agis IV</a> in 244 BC. Attempts were made to remedy this by imposing legal penalties upon bachelors,<sup id="cite_ref-EB1911_28-12" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-EB1911-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> but this could not reverse the trend. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Life_in_Classical_Sparta">Life in Classical Sparta</h2></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Jean-Pierre_Saint-Ours_-_Gericht_%C3%BCber_die_Neugeborenen_Spartas_-_2358_-_Bavarian_State_Painting_Collections.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/23/Jean-Pierre_Saint-Ours_-_Gericht_%C3%BCber_die_Neugeborenen_Spartas_-_2358_-_Bavarian_State_Painting_Collections.jpg/250px-Jean-Pierre_Saint-Ours_-_Gericht_%C3%BCber_die_Neugeborenen_Spartas_-_2358_-_Bavarian_State_Painting_Collections.jpg" decoding="async" width="250" height="139" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/23/Jean-Pierre_Saint-Ours_-_Gericht_%C3%BCber_die_Neugeborenen_Spartas_-_2358_-_Bavarian_State_Painting_Collections.jpg/375px-Jean-Pierre_Saint-Ours_-_Gericht_%C3%BCber_die_Neugeborenen_Spartas_-_2358_-_Bavarian_State_Painting_Collections.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/23/Jean-Pierre_Saint-Ours_-_Gericht_%C3%BCber_die_Neugeborenen_Spartas_-_2358_-_Bavarian_State_Painting_Collections.jpg/500px-Jean-Pierre_Saint-Ours_-_Gericht_%C3%BCber_die_Neugeborenen_Spartas_-_2358_-_Bavarian_State_Painting_Collections.jpg 2x" data-file-width="972" data-file-height="540" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Jean-Pierre_Saint-Ours" title="Jean-Pierre Saint-Ours">Jean-Pierre Saint-Ours</a>, <i>The Selection of Children in Sparta</i>, 1785. A <a href="/wiki/Neoclassicism" title="Neoclassicism">Neoclassical</a> imaging of what <a href="/wiki/Plutarch" title="Plutarch">Plutarch</a> describes.</figcaption></figure> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Birth_and_death">Birth and death</h3></div> <p>Sparta was above all a militarist state, and emphasis on military fitness began virtually at birth. According to Plutarch after birth, a mother would bathe her child in wine to see whether the child was strong. If the child survived it was brought before the Gerousia by the child's father. The Gerousia then decided whether it was to be reared or not.<sup id="cite_ref-EB1911_28-13" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-EB1911-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It is commonly stated that if they considered it "puny and deformed", the baby was thrown into a chasm on <a href="/wiki/Taygetus" title="Taygetus">Mount Taygetos</a> known euphemistically as the <i>Apothetae</i> (Gr., <i>ἀποθέται</i>, "Deposits").<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTECartledge200184_116-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECartledge200184-116"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>113<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPlutarch200520_117-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPlutarch200520-117"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>114<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This was, in effect, a primitive form of <a href="/wiki/Eugenics" title="Eugenics">eugenics</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTECartledge200184_116-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECartledge200184-116"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>113<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Plutarch is the sole historical source for the Spartan practice of systemic infanticide motivated by eugenics.<sup id="cite_ref-118" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-118"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>115<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Sparta is often viewed as being unique in this regard, however, anthropologist Laila Williamson notes: "Infanticide has been practiced on every continent and by people on every level of cultural complexity, from hunter gatherers to high civilizations. Rather than being an exception, then, it has been the rule."<sup id="cite_ref-119" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-119"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>116<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> There is controversy about the matter in Sparta, since excavations in the chasm only uncovered adult remains, likely belonging to criminals<sup id="cite_ref-120" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-120"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>117<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and Greek sources contemporary to Sparta does not mention systemic infanticide motivated solely by eugenics.<sup id="cite_ref-121" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-121"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>118<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Spartan burial customs changed over time. The Archaic Spartan poet <a href="/wiki/Tyrtaeus" title="Tyrtaeus">Tyrtaeus</a> spoke of the Spartan war-dead as follows: </p> <blockquote><p>Never do his [the war-dead's] name and good fame perish,<br />But even though he is beneath the earth he is immortal,<br />Young and old alike mourn him,<br />All the city is distressed by the painful loss,<br />and his tomb and children are pointed out among the people,<br />and his children's children and his line after them.<sup id="cite_ref-122" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-122"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>119<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></p></blockquote> <p>When Spartans died, marked headstones would only be granted to soldiers who died in combat during a victorious campaign or women who died either in service of a divine office or in childbirth.<sup id="cite_ref-123" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-123"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>120<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> These headstones likely acted as memorials, rather than as grave markers. Evidence of Spartan burials is provided by the Tomb of the Lacedaimonians in Athens.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (June 2023)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> Excavations at the cemetery of classical Sparta, uncovered ritually pierced <a href="/wiki/Kantharos" title="Kantharos">kantharoid</a>-like ceramic vessels, the ritual slaughter of horses, and specific burial enclosures alongside individual 'plots'. Some of the graves were reused over time.<sup id="cite_ref-124" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-124"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>121<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-:0_125-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-125"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>122<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In the Hellenistic Period, grander, two-storey monumental tombs are found at Sparta. Ten of these have been found for this period.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_125-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-125"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>122<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Education">Education</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951" /><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Agoge" title="Agoge">Agoge</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Spartan_swordman.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/35/Spartan_swordman.jpg/180px-Spartan_swordman.jpg" decoding="async" width="180" height="307" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/35/Spartan_swordman.jpg/270px-Spartan_swordman.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/35/Spartan_swordman.jpg/360px-Spartan_swordman.jpg 2x" data-file-width="479" data-file-height="817" /></a><figcaption>Bronze appliqué of Spartan manufacture, possibly depicting <a href="/wiki/Orestes" title="Orestes">Orestes</a>, 550–525 BC (<a href="/wiki/Getty_Villa" title="Getty Villa">Getty Villa</a>)</figcaption></figure> <p>When male Spartans began military training at age seven, they would enter the <i><a href="/wiki/Agoge" title="Agoge">agoge</a></i> system. The <i>agoge</i> was designed to encourage discipline and physical toughness and to emphasize the importance of the Spartan state. Boys lived in communal <a href="/wiki/Mess" title="Mess">messes</a> and, according to Xenophon, whose sons attended the <i>agoge</i>, the boys were fed "just the right amount for them never to become sluggish through being too full, while also giving them a taste of what it is not to have enough."<sup id="cite_ref-Xenophon,_Spartan_Society,_2_126-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Xenophon,_Spartan_Society,_2-126"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>123<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In addition, they were trained to survive in times of privation, even if it meant stealing.<sup id="cite_ref-127" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-127"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>124<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Besides physical and weapons training, boys studied reading, writing, music and dancing. Special punishments were imposed if boys failed to answer questions sufficiently "<a href="/wiki/Laconic_phrase" title="Laconic phrase">laconically</a>" (i.e. briefly and wittily).<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTECartledge200185_128-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECartledge200185-128"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>125<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Spartan boys were expected to take an older male mentor, usually an unmarried young man. According to some sources, the older man was expected to function as a kind of substitute father and role model to his junior partner; however, others believe it was reasonably certain that they had sexual relations (the exact nature of <a href="/wiki/Pederasty_in_ancient_Greece#Sparta" title="Pederasty in ancient Greece">Spartan pederasty</a> is not entirely clear). Xenophon, an admirer of the Spartan educational system whose sons attended the <i>agoge</i>, explicitly denies the sexual nature of the relationship.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTECartledge200191–105_129-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECartledge200191–105-129"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>126<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Xenophon,_Spartan_Society,_2_126-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Xenophon,_Spartan_Society,_2-126"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>123<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Some Spartan youth apparently became members of an irregular unit known as the <i><a href="/wiki/Krypteia" class="mw-redirect" title="Krypteia">Krypteia</a></i>. The immediate objective of this unit was to seek out and kill vulnerable helot Laconians as part of the larger program of terrorising and intimidating the helot population.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTECartledge200188_130-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECartledge200188-130"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>127<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Less information is available about the education of Spartan girls, but they seem to have gone through a fairly extensive formal educational cycle, broadly similar to that of the boys but with less emphasis on military training. Spartan girls received an education known as <i>mousikē</i>. This included music, dancing, singing and poetry. Choral dancing was taught so Spartan girls could participate in ritual activities, including the cults of Helen and Artemis.<sup id="cite_ref-131" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-131"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>128<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In this respect, classical Sparta was unique in ancient Greece. In no other city-state did women receive any kind of formal education.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTECartledge200183–84_132-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECartledge200183–84-132"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>129<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Military_life">Military life</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951" /><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Spartan_army" title="Spartan army">Spartan army</a> and <a href="/wiki/Spartiate" title="Spartiate">Spartiate</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Helmed_Hoplite_Sparta.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fb/Helmed_Hoplite_Sparta.JPG/170px-Helmed_Hoplite_Sparta.JPG" decoding="async" width="170" height="247" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fb/Helmed_Hoplite_Sparta.JPG/255px-Helmed_Hoplite_Sparta.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fb/Helmed_Hoplite_Sparta.JPG/340px-Helmed_Hoplite_Sparta.JPG 2x" data-file-width="590" data-file-height="856" /></a><figcaption>The so-called <a href="/wiki/Leonidas_(sculpture)" title="Leonidas (sculpture)">Leonidas</a> sculpture (5th century BC), <a href="/wiki/Archaeological_Museum_of_Sparta" title="Archaeological Museum of Sparta">Archaeological Museum of Sparta</a>, Greece</figcaption></figure> <p>At age 20, the Spartan citizen began his membership in one of the <i><a href="/wiki/Syssitia" title="Syssitia">syssitia</a></i> (dining messes or clubs), composed of about fifteen members each, of which every citizen was required to be a member.<sup id="cite_ref-EB1911_28-14" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-EB1911-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Here each group learned how to bond and rely on one another. The Spartans were not eligible for election for public office until the age of 30. Only native Spartans were considered full citizens and were obliged to undergo the training as prescribed by law, as well as participate in and contribute financially to one of the <i>syssitia</i>.<sup id="cite_ref-133" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-133"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>130<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Sparta is thought to be the first city to practice athletic nudity, and some scholars claim that it was also the first to formalize pederasty.<sup id="cite_ref-134" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-134"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>131<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> According to these sources, the Spartans believed that the love of an older, accomplished aristocrat for an adolescent was essential to his formation as a free citizen. The <i><a href="/wiki/Agoge" title="Agoge">agoge</a></i>, the education of the ruling class, was, they claim, founded on pederastic relationships required of each citizen,<sup id="cite_ref-135" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-135"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>132<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> with the lover responsible for the boy's training. </p><p>However, other scholars question this interpretation. Xenophon explicitly denies it,<sup id="cite_ref-Xenophon,_Spartan_Society,_2_126-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Xenophon,_Spartan_Society,_2-126"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>123<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> but not Plutarch.<sup id="cite_ref-136" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-136"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>133<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Spartan men remained in the active reserve until age 60. Men were encouraged to marry at age 20 but could not live with their families until they left their active military service at age 30. They called themselves "<i>homoioi</i>" (equals), pointing to their common lifestyle and the discipline of the <a href="/wiki/Phalanx_formation" class="mw-redirect" title="Phalanx formation">phalanx</a>, which demanded that no soldier be superior to his comrades.<sup id="cite_ref-cowley_137-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-cowley-137"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>134<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Insofar as <a href="/wiki/Hoplite" title="Hoplite">hoplite</a> warfare could be perfected, the Spartans did so.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAdcock19578–9_138-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAdcock19578–9-138"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>135<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Thucydides reports that when a Spartan man went to war, his wife (or another woman of some significance) would customarily present him with his <a href="/wiki/Aspis" title="Aspis">aspis</a> (shield) and say: "With this, or upon this" (Ἢ τὰν ἢ ἐπὶ τᾶς, <i>Èi tàn èi èpì tàs</i>), meaning that true Spartans could only return to Sparta either victorious (with their shield in hand) or dead (carried upon it).<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPlutarch2004465_139-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPlutarch2004465-139"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>136<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This is almost certainly propaganda. Spartans buried their battle dead on or near the battle field; corpses were not brought back on their shield.<sup id="cite_ref-Sons_and_Mothers_140-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Sons_and_Mothers-140"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>137<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Nevertheless, it is fair to say that it was less of a disgrace for a soldier to lose his helmet, breastplate or <a href="/wiki/Greave" title="Greave">greaves</a> than his shield, since the former were designed to protect one man, whereas the shield also protected the man on his left. Thus, the shield was symbolic of the individual soldier's subordination to his unit, his integral part in its success, and his solemn responsibility to his comrades in arms – messmates and friends, often close blood relations. </p><p>According to Aristotle, the Spartan military culture was actually short-sighted and ineffective. He observed: </p> <blockquote><p>It is the standards of civilized men not of beasts that must be kept in mind, for it is good men not beasts who are capable of real courage. Those like the Spartans who concentrate on the one and ignore the other in their education turn men into machines and in devoting themselves to one single aspect of city's life, end up making them inferior even in that.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEForrest196853_141-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEForrest196853-141"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>138<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></p></blockquote> <p>One of the most persistent myths about Sparta that has no basis in fact is the notion that Spartan mothers were without feelings toward their off-spring and helped enforce a militaristic lifestyle on their sons and husbands.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPomeroy2002[[Category:Wikipedia_articles_needing_page_number_citations_from_September_2013]]<sup_class="noprint_Inline-Template_"_style="white-space:nowrap;">&#91;<i>[[Wikipedia:Citing_sources|<span_title="This_citation_requires_a_reference_to_the_specific_page_or_range_of_pages_in_which_the_material_appears.&#32;(September_2013)">page&nbsp;needed</span>]]</i>&#93;</sup>_142-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPomeroy2002[[Category:Wikipedia_articles_needing_page_number_citations_from_September_2013]]<sup_class="noprint_Inline-Template_"_style="white-space:nowrap;">&#91;<i>[[Wikipedia:Citing_sources|<span_title="This_citation_requires_a_reference_to_the_specific_page_or_range_of_pages_in_which_the_material_appears.&#32;(September_2013)">page&nbsp;needed</span>]]</i>&#93;</sup>-142"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>139<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-143" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-143"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>140<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The myth can be traced back to Plutarch, who includes no less than 17 "sayings" of "Spartan women", all of which paraphrase or elaborate on the theme that Spartan mothers rejected their own offspring if they showed any kind of cowardice. In some of these sayings, mothers revile their sons in insulting language merely for surviving a battle. These sayings purporting to be from Spartan women were far more likely to be of Athenian origin and designed to portray Spartan women as unnatural and so undeserving of pity.<sup id="cite_ref-Sons_and_Mothers_140-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Sons_and_Mothers-140"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>137<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Agriculture,_food,_and_diet"><span id="Agriculture.2C_food.2C_and_diet"></span>Agriculture, food, and diet</h3></div> <p>Sparta's agriculture consisted mainly of barley, wine, cheese, grain, and figs. These items were grown locally on each Spartan citizen's kleros and were tended to by helots. Spartan citizens were required to donate a certain amount of what they yielded from their kleros to their syssitia, or mess. These donations to the syssitia were a requirement for every Spartan citizen. All the donated food was then redistributed to feed the Spartan population of that syssitia.<sup id="cite_ref-144" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-144"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>141<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The helots who tended to the lands were fed using a portion of what they harvested.<sup id="cite_ref-145" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-145"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>142<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Marriage">Marriage</h3></div> <p>Plutarch reports the peculiar customs associated with the Spartan wedding night: </p> <blockquote><p>The custom was to capture women for marriage... The so-called 'bridesmaid' took charge of the captured girl. She first shaved her head to the scalp, then dressed her in a man's cloak and sandals, and laid her down alone on a mattress in the dark. The bridegroom – who was not drunk and thus not impotent, but was sober as always – first had dinner in the messes, then would slip in, undo her belt, lift her and carry her to the bed.<sup id="cite_ref-146" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-146"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>143<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></p></blockquote> <p>The husband continued to visit his wife in secret for some time after the marriage. These customs, unique to the Spartans, have been interpreted in various ways. One of them decidedly supports the need to disguise the bride as a man in order to help the bridegroom consummate the marriage, so unaccustomed were men to women's looks at the time of their first intercourse. The "abduction" may have served to ward off the <a href="/wiki/Evil_eye" title="Evil eye">evil eye</a>, and the cutting of the wife's hair was perhaps part of a rite of passage that signaled her entrance into a new life.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPomeroy200242_147-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPomeroy200242-147"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>144<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Role_of_women">Role of women</h2></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951" /><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Women_in_ancient_Sparta" title="Women in ancient Sparta">Women in ancient Sparta</a></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Political,_social,_and_economic_equality"><span id="Political.2C_social.2C_and_economic_equality"></span>Political, social, and economic equality</h3></div> <p>Spartan women, of the citizenry class, enjoyed a status, power, and respect that was unknown in the rest of the classical world. The higher status of females in Spartan society started at birth; unlike Athens, Spartan girls were fed the same food as their brothers.<sup id="cite_ref-Xenophon,_Spartan_Society,_1_148-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Xenophon,_Spartan_Society,_1-148"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>145<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Nor were they confined to their father's house and prevented from exercising or getting fresh air as in Athens, but exercised and even competed in sports.<sup id="cite_ref-Xenophon,_Spartan_Society,_1_148-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Xenophon,_Spartan_Society,_1-148"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>145<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Most important, rather than being married off at the age of 12 or 13, Spartan law forbade the marriage of a girl until she was in her late teens or early 20s. The reasons for delaying marriage were to ensure the birth of healthy children, but the effect was to spare Spartan women the hazards and lasting health damage associated with <a href="/wiki/Teenage_pregnancy" title="Teenage pregnancy">pregnancy among adolescents</a>. Spartan women, better fed from childhood and fit from exercise, stood a far better chance of reaching old age than their sisters in other Greek cities, where the median age for death was 34.6 years or roughly 10 years below that of men.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBlundell1999[[Category:Wikipedia_articles_needing_page_number_citations_from_October_2021]]<sup_class="noprint_Inline-Template_"_style="white-space:nowrap;">&#91;<i>[[Wikipedia:Citing_sources|<span_title="This_citation_requires_a_reference_to_the_specific_page_or_range_of_pages_in_which_the_material_appears.&#32;(October_2021)">page&nbsp;needed</span>]]</i>&#93;</sup>_149-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBlundell1999[[Category:Wikipedia_articles_needing_page_number_citations_from_October_2021]]<sup_class="noprint_Inline-Template_"_style="white-space:nowrap;">&#91;<i>[[Wikipedia:Citing_sources|<span_title="This_citation_requires_a_reference_to_the_specific_page_or_range_of_pages_in_which_the_material_appears.&#32;(October_2021)">page&nbsp;needed</span>]]</i>&#93;</sup>-149"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>146<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Unlike <a href="/wiki/Women_in_Classical_Athens" class="mw-redirect" title="Women in Classical Athens">Athenian women</a> who wore heavy, concealing clothes and were rarely seen outside the house, Spartan women wore dresses (<a href="/wiki/Peplos" title="Peplos">peplos</a>) slit up the side to allow freer movement and moved freely about the city, either walking or driving chariots. Girls as well as boys exercised, possibly in the nude, and young women as well as young men may have participated in the <a href="/wiki/Gymnopaedia" title="Gymnopaedia">Gymnopaedia</a> ("Festival of Nude Youths").<sup id="cite_ref-150" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-150"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>147<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPomeroy200234_151-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPomeroy200234-151"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>148<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Another practice that was mentioned by many visitors to Sparta was the practice of "wife-sharing". In accordance with the Spartan belief that breeding should be between the most physically fit parents, many older men allowed younger, more fit men, to impregnate their wives. Other unmarried or childless men might even request another man's wife to bear his children if she had previously been a strong child bearer.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPowell2001248_152-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPowell2001248-152"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>149<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> For this reason many considered Spartan women <a href="/wiki/Polygamy" title="Polygamy">polygamous</a> or <a href="/wiki/Polyandry" title="Polyandry">polyandrous</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBlundell1999154_153-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBlundell1999154-153"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>150<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This practice was encouraged in order that women bear as many strong-bodied children as they could. The Spartan population was hard to maintain due to the constant absence and loss of the men in battle and the intense physical inspection of newborns.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPowell2001246_154-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPowell2001246-154"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>151<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Spartan women were also literate and numerate, a rarity in the ancient world. Furthermore, as a result of their education and the fact that they moved freely in society engaging with their fellow (male) citizens, they were notorious for speaking their minds even in public.<sup id="cite_ref-155" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-155"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>152<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Plato, in the middle of the fourth century, described women's curriculum in Sparta as consisting of gymnastics and mousike (music and arts). Plato praised Spartan women's ability when it came to philosophical discussion.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPomeroy20029_156-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPomeroy20029-156"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>153<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Most importantly, Spartan women had economic power because they controlled their own properties, and those of their husbands. It is estimated that in later Classical Sparta, when the male population was in serious decline, women were the sole owners of at least 35% of all land and property in Sparta.<sup id="cite_ref-Pomeroy1995_157-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Pomeroy1995-157"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>154<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The laws regarding a divorce were the same for both men and women. Unlike women in Athens, if a Spartan woman became the heiress of her father because she had no living brothers to inherit (an <i><a href="/wiki/Epikleros" title="Epikleros">epikleros</a></i>), the woman was not required to divorce her current spouse in order to marry her nearest paternal relative.<sup id="cite_ref-Pomeroy1995_157-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Pomeroy1995-157"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>154<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Historic_women">Historic women</h3></div> <p>Many women played a significant role in the <a href="/wiki/History_of_Sparta" title="History of Sparta">history of Sparta</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-158" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-158"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>155<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Gorgo,_Queen_of_Sparta" title="Gorgo, Queen of Sparta">Queen Gorgo</a>, heiress to the throne and the wife of <a href="/wiki/Leonidas_I" title="Leonidas I">Leonidas I</a>, was an influential and well-documented figure. Herodotus records that as a small girl she advised her father <a href="/wiki/Cleomenes_I" title="Cleomenes I">Cleomenes</a> to resist a bribe. She was later said to be responsible for decoding a warning that the Persian forces were about to invade Greece; after Spartan generals could not decode a wooden tablet covered in wax, she ordered them to clear the wax, revealing the warning.<sup id="cite_ref-159" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-159"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>156<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Plutarch's <i><a href="/wiki/Moralia" title="Moralia">Moralia</a></i> contains a collection of "Sayings of Spartan Women", including a laconic quip attributed to Gorgo: when asked by a woman from <a href="/wiki/Attica" title="Attica">Attica</a> why Spartan women were the only women in the world who could rule men, she replied "Because we are the only women who are mothers of men".<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPlutarch2004457_160-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPlutarch2004457-160"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>157<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In 396, <a href="/wiki/Cynisca" title="Cynisca">Cynisca</a>, sister of the Eurypontid king Agesilaos II, became the first woman in Greece to win an Olympic chariot race. She won again in 392, and dedicated two monuments to commemorate her victory, these being an inscription in Sparta and a set of bronze equestrian statues at the Olympic temple of Zeus.<sup id="cite_ref-161" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-161"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>158<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-162" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-162"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>159<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Laconophilia">Laconophilia</h2></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Le%C3%B3nidas_en_las_Term%C3%B3pilas,_por_Jacques-Louis_David.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="See caption" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2b/Le%C3%B3nidas_en_las_Term%C3%B3pilas%2C_por_Jacques-Louis_David.jpg/220px-Le%C3%B3nidas_en_las_Term%C3%B3pilas%2C_por_Jacques-Louis_David.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="163" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2b/Le%C3%B3nidas_en_las_Term%C3%B3pilas%2C_por_Jacques-Louis_David.jpg/330px-Le%C3%B3nidas_en_las_Term%C3%B3pilas%2C_por_Jacques-Louis_David.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2b/Le%C3%B3nidas_en_las_Term%C3%B3pilas%2C_por_Jacques-Louis_David.jpg/440px-Le%C3%B3nidas_en_las_Term%C3%B3pilas%2C_por_Jacques-Louis_David.jpg 2x" data-file-width="4892" data-file-height="3626" /></a><figcaption><i><a href="/wiki/Leonidas_at_Thermopylae" title="Leonidas at Thermopylae">Leonidas at Thermopylae</a></i>, 1814 painting by <a href="/wiki/Jacques-Louis_David" title="Jacques-Louis David">Jacques-Louis David</a></figcaption></figure> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951" /><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Laconophilia" title="Laconophilia">Laconophilia</a></div> <p>Laconophilia is love or admiration of Sparta and its culture or constitution. Sparta was subject of considerable admiration in its day, even in rival <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Athens" class="mw-redirect" title="Ancient Athens">Athens</a>. In ancient times "Many of the noblest and best of the Athenians always considered the Spartan state nearly as an ideal theory realised in practice."<sup id="cite_ref-163" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-163"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>160<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Many Greek philosophers, especially Platonists, would often describe Sparta as an ideal state, strong, brave, and free from the corruptions of commerce and money. The French classicist <a href="/w/index.php?title=Fran%C3%A7ois_Ollier&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="François Ollier (page does not exist)">François Ollier</a> in his 1933 book <i>Le mirage spartiate</i> (The Spartan Mirage) warned that a major scholarly problem is that all surviving accounts of Sparta were by non-Spartans who often excessively idealized their subject.<sup id="cite_ref-Hodkinson_pages_222-281_164-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Hodkinson_pages_222-281-164"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>161<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The term "Spartan Mirage" has come to refer to "idealized distortions and inventions regarding the character of Spartan society in the works of non-Spartan writers," beginning in Greek and Roman antiquity and continuing through the medieval and modern eras.<sup id="cite_ref-Hodkinson2002_165-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Hodkinson2002-165"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>162<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> These accounts of Sparta are typically associated with the social or political concerns of the writer.<sup id="cite_ref-Hodkinson2002_165-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Hodkinson2002-165"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>162<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> No accounts survive by the Spartans themselves, if such were ever written. </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Young_Spartans_Exercising_National_Gallery_NG3860.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a3/Young_Spartans_Exercising_National_Gallery_NG3860.jpg/220px-Young_Spartans_Exercising_National_Gallery_NG3860.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="156" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a3/Young_Spartans_Exercising_National_Gallery_NG3860.jpg/330px-Young_Spartans_Exercising_National_Gallery_NG3860.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a3/Young_Spartans_Exercising_National_Gallery_NG3860.jpg/440px-Young_Spartans_Exercising_National_Gallery_NG3860.jpg 2x" data-file-width="6000" data-file-height="4250" /></a><figcaption><i><a href="/wiki/Young_Spartans_Exercising" title="Young Spartans Exercising">Young Spartans Exercising</a></i> by <a href="/wiki/Edgar_Degas" title="Edgar Degas">Edgar Degas</a> (1834–1917)</figcaption></figure> <p>With the revival of classical learning in <a href="/wiki/Renaissance" title="Renaissance">Renaissance Europe</a>, Laconophilia re-appeared, for example in the writings of <a href="/wiki/Machiavelli" class="mw-redirect" title="Machiavelli">Machiavelli</a>. The Elizabethan English constitutionalist <a href="/wiki/John_Aylmer_(English_constitutionalist)" class="mw-redirect" title="John Aylmer (English constitutionalist)">John Aylmer</a> compared the mixed government of <a href="/wiki/Tudor_period" title="Tudor period">Tudor England</a> to the Spartan republic, stating that "Lacedemonia [was] the noblest and best city governed that ever was". He commended it as a model for England. The philosopher <a href="/wiki/Jean-Jacques_Rousseau" title="Jean-Jacques Rousseau">Jean-Jacques Rousseau</a> contrasted Sparta favourably with Athens in his <i><a href="/wiki/Discourse_on_the_Arts_and_Sciences" title="Discourse on the Arts and Sciences">Discourse on the Arts and Sciences</a></i>, arguing that its austere constitution was preferable to the more sophisticated Athenian life. Sparta was also used as a model of austere purity by Revolutionary and Napoleonic France.<sup id="cite_ref-The_166-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-The-166"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>163<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>A German <a href="/wiki/Racialism" class="mw-redirect" title="Racialism">racist</a> strain of Laconophilia was initiated by <a href="/wiki/Karl_Otfried_M%C3%BCller" title="Karl Otfried Müller">Karl Otfried Müller</a>, who linked Spartan ideals to the supposed racial superiority of the Dorians, the ethnic sub-group of the Greeks to which the Spartans belonged. In the 20th century, this developed into <a href="/wiki/Fascism" title="Fascism">Fascist</a> admiration of Spartan ideals. <a href="/wiki/Adolf_Hitler" title="Adolf Hitler">Adolf Hitler</a> praised the Spartans, recommending in 1928 that Germany should imitate them by limiting "the number allowed to live". He added that "The Spartans were once capable of such a wise measure... The subjugation of 350,000 Helots by 6,000 Spartans was only possible because of the racial superiority of the Spartans." The Spartans had created "the first racialist state".<sup id="cite_ref-un.org_167-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-un.org-167"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>164<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Following <a href="/wiki/Operation_Barbarossa" title="Operation Barbarossa">the invasion of the USSR</a>, Hitler viewed citizens of the USSR as like the helots under the Spartans: "They [the Spartans] came as conquerors, and they took everything", and so should the Germans. A Nazi officer specified that "the Germans would have to assume the position of the Spartiates, while... the Russians were the Helots."<sup id="cite_ref-un.org_167-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-un.org-167"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>164<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Certain early Zionists, and particularly the founders of <a href="/wiki/Kibbutz" title="Kibbutz">Kibbutz</a> movement in Israel, were influenced by Spartan ideals, particularly in education. <a href="/wiki/Yitzhak_Tabenkin" title="Yitzhak Tabenkin">Tabenkin</a>, a founding father of the Kibbutz movement and the <a href="/wiki/Palmach" title="Palmach">Palmach</a> strikeforce, prescribed that education for warfare "should begin from the nursery", that children should from kindergarten be taken to "spend nights in the mountains and valleys".<sup id="cite_ref-168" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-168"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>165<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-169" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-169"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>166<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In modern times, the adjective "Spartan" means simple, frugal, avoiding luxury and comfort.<sup id="cite_ref-170" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-170"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>167<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The term "<a href="/wiki/Laconic_phrase" title="Laconic phrase">laconic phrase</a>" describes the very terse and direct speech characteristic of the Spartans. </p><p>Sparta also features prominently in modern <a href="/wiki/Sparta_in_popular_culture" class="mw-redirect" title="Sparta in popular culture">popular culture</a>, most famously the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Thermopylae" title="Battle of Thermopylae">Battle of Thermopylae</a> (see <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Thermopylae_in_popular_culture" title="Battle of Thermopylae in popular culture">Battle of Thermopylae in popular culture</a>). </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Notable_ancient_Spartans">Notable ancient Spartans</h2></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951" /><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main page: <a href="/wiki/Category:Ancient_Spartans" title="Category:Ancient Spartans">Category:Ancient Spartans</a></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Agesilaus_II" title="Agesilaus II">Agesilaus II</a> – king</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Agis_I" title="Agis I">Agis I</a> – king</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Agis_II" title="Agis II">Agis II</a> – king</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chilon_of_Sparta" title="Chilon of Sparta">Chilon</a> – philosopher</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chionis_of_Sparta" title="Chionis of Sparta">Chionis</a> (7th century BC) – athlete</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Clearchus_of_Sparta" title="Clearchus of Sparta">Clearchus of Sparta</a> – mercenary in the army of the <a href="/wiki/Ten_Thousand_(Greek_mercenaries)" class="mw-redirect" title="Ten Thousand (Greek mercenaries)">Ten Thousand</a>.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cleomenes_I" title="Cleomenes I">Cleomenes I</a> – king</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cleomenes_III" title="Cleomenes III">Cleomenes III</a> – king and reformer</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cynisca" title="Cynisca">Cynisca</a> (4th century BC) – princess and athlete</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gorgo,_Queen_of_Sparta" title="Gorgo, Queen of Sparta">Gorgo</a> – queen and politician</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Helen_of_Troy" title="Helen of Troy">Helen</a> – princess in the Trojan War</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Leonidas_I" title="Leonidas I">Leonidas I</a> (c. 520–480 BC) – king, commander at the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Thermopylae" title="Battle of Thermopylae">Battle of Thermopylae</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lycurgus" title="Lycurgus">Lycurgus</a> (quasi-mythical, century unclear) — lawgiver</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lycurgus_(king_of_Sparta)" title="Lycurgus (king of Sparta)">Lycurgus (king of Sparta)</a> (3rd century BC) — abolished the diarchy</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lysander" title="Lysander">Lysander</a> (5th–4th century BC) – general</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Menelaus" title="Menelaus">Menelaus</a> – king during the Trojan War</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nabis_of_Sparta" title="Nabis of Sparta">Nabis</a> – king</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Xanthippus_of_Carthage" class="mw-redirect" title="Xanthippus of Carthage">Xanthippus of Carthage</a> – Spartan mercenary in the First Punic War</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_ancient_Greek_cities" title="List of ancient Greek cities">List of ancient Greek cities</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Notes">Notes</h2></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-14"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-14">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Found on the following <a href="/wiki/Clay_tablet" title="Clay tablet">tablets</a>: <a href="/wiki/Thebes,_Greece" title="Thebes, Greece">TH</a> Fq 229, TH Fq 258, TH Fq 275, TH Fq 253, TH Fq 284, TH Fq 325, TH Fq 339, TH Fq 382.<sup id="cite_ref-DamosDb_9-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-DamosDb-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> There are also words like <span title="Mycenaean Greek-language text"><span lang="gmy"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1094882035" /><span class="script-Linb">𐀨𐀐𐀅𐀖𐀛𐀍𐀄𐀍</span></span></span>, <i>ra-ke-da-mo-ni-jo-u-jo</i> – found on the TH Gp 227 tablet<sup id="cite_ref-DamosDb_9-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-DamosDb-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> – that could perhaps mean "son of the Spartan".<sup id="cite_ref-ACttAGrL_10-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ACttAGrL-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Beekes_11-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Beekes-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Moreover, the attested words <span title="Mycenaean Greek-language text"><span lang="gmy"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1094882035" /><span class="script-Linb">𐀨𐀐𐀅𐀜</span></span></span> , <i>ra-ke-da-no</i> and <span title="Mycenaean Greek-language text"><span lang="gmy"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1094882035" /><span class="script-Linb">𐀐𐀅𐀜𐀩</span></span></span>, <i>ra-ke-da-no-re</i> could possibly be Linear B forms of <i>Lacedaemon</i> itself; the latter, found on the <a href="/wiki/Mycenae" title="Mycenae">MY</a> Ge 604 tablet, is considered to be the <a href="/wiki/Dative_case" title="Dative case">dative case</a> form of the former which is found on the MY Ge 603 tablet. It is considered much more probable though that <i>ra-ke-da-no</i> and <i>ra-ke-da-no-re</i> correspond to the <a href="/wiki/Anthroponym" class="mw-redirect" title="Anthroponym">anthroponym</a> <span title="Ancient Greek (to 1453)-language text"><span lang="grc">Λακεδάνωρ</span></span>, <i>Lakedanor</i>, though the latter is thought to be related etymologically to <i>Lacedaemon</i>.<sup id="cite_ref-DamosDb_9-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-DamosDb-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-12" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-BARev-lakedanor_13-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-BARev-lakedanor-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-46"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-46">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">According to Thucydides, the Athenian citizens at the beginning of the Peloponnesian War (5th century BC) numbered 40,000, making a total of 140,000 people when including their families. The metics, i.e. those who did not have citizen rights and paid for the right to reside in Athens, numbered a further 70,000, while slaves were estimated at between 150,000 to 400,000.<sup id="cite_ref-45" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-45"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>44<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-70"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-70">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Especially the Diamastigosis at the Sanctuary of Artemis Orthia, Limnai outside Sparta. There an amphitheatre was built in the 3rd century AD to observe the ritual whipping of Spartan youths.<sup id="cite_ref-66" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-66"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>64<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-67" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-67"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>65<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Visiting Romans came to see Sparta as having degraded to a disgusting cult of fetish brutality.<sup id="cite_ref-68" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-68"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>66<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-69" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-69"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>67<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></span> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239543626" /><div class="reflist reflist-columns references-column-width" style="column-width: 22em;"> <ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-1">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">(<a href="/wiki/Doric_Greek_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Doric Greek language">Doric Greek</a>: <span lang="grc"><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%CE%A3%CF%80%CE%AC%CF%81%CF%84%CE%B1" class="extiw" title="wikt:Σπάρτα">Σπάρτα</a></span>, <small>romanized: </small><span title="Doric Greek-language romanization"><i lang="grc-Latn">Spártā</i></span>; <a href="/wiki/Attic_Greek_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Attic Greek language">Attic Greek</a>: <span lang="grc"><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%CE%A3%CF%80%CE%AC%CF%81%CF%84%CE%B7" class="extiw" title="wikt:Σπάρτη">Σπάρτη</a></span>, <small>romanized: </small><span title="Attic Greek-language romanization"><i lang="grc-Latn">Spártē</i></span>)</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTECartledge200291-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTECartledge200291_2-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFCartledge2002">Cartledge 2002</a>, p. 91.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTECartledge2002174-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTECartledge2002174_3-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFCartledge2002">Cartledge 2002</a>, p. 174.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTECartledge2002192-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTECartledge2002192_4-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFCartledge2002">Cartledge 2002</a>, p. 192.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-5">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFLiddellScott1940">Liddell & Scott 1940</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus:text:1999.04.0057:entry=*spa/rth"><span title="Ancient Greek (to 1453)-language text"><span lang="grc">Σπάρτη</span></span></a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-6"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-6">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFLiddellScott1940">Liddell & Scott 1940</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus:text:1999.04.0057:entry=*lakedai/mwn"><span title="Ancient Greek (to 1453)-language text"><span lang="grc">Λακεδαίμων</span></span></a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTECartledge20024-7"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTECartledge20024_7-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFCartledge2002">Cartledge 2002</a>, p. 4.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Palaeolexicon-rakedaminijo-8"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Palaeolexicon-rakedaminijo_8-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.palaeolexicon.com/ShowWord.aspx?Id=16881">"The Linear B word ra-ke-da-mi-ni-jo"</a>. <i>Palaeolexicon. Word study tool of Ancient languages</i>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Palaeolexicon.+Word+study+tool+of+Ancient+languages&rft.atitle=The+Linear+B+word+ra-ke-da-mi-ni-jo&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.palaeolexicon.com%2FShowWord.aspx%3FId%3D16881&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASparta" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-DamosDb-9"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-DamosDb_9-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-DamosDb_9-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-DamosDb_9-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www2.hf.uio.no/damos/Index/item/chosen_item_id/5239">"TH 229 Fq (305)"</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=TH+229+Fq+%28305%29&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww2.hf.uio.no%2Fdamos%2FIndex%2Fitem%2Fchosen_item_id%2F5239&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASparta" class="Z3988"></span> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www2.hf.uio.no/damos/Index/item/chosen_item_id/5254">"TH Fq 258 (305)"</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=TH+Fq+258+%28305%29&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww2.hf.uio.no%2Fdamos%2FIndex%2Fitem%2Fchosen_item_id%2F5254&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASparta" class="Z3988"></span> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www2.hf.uio.no/damos/Index/item/chosen_item_id/5260">"TH 275 Fq (305)"</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=TH+275+Fq+%28305%29&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww2.hf.uio.no%2Fdamos%2FIndex%2Fitem%2Fchosen_item_id%2F5260&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASparta" class="Z3988"></span> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www2.hf.uio.no/damos/Index/item/chosen_item_id/5251">"TH 253 Fq (305)"</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=TH+253+Fq+%28305%29&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww2.hf.uio.no%2Fdamos%2FIndex%2Fitem%2Fchosen_item_id%2F5251&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASparta" class="Z3988"></span> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www2.hf.uio.no/damos/Index/item/chosen_item_id/5265">"TH 284 Fq (305)"</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=TH+284+Fq+%28305%29&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww2.hf.uio.no%2Fdamos%2FIndex%2Fitem%2Fchosen_item_id%2F5265&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASparta" class="Z3988"></span> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www2.hf.uio.no/damos/Index/item/chosen_item_id/5282">"TH 325 Fq (305)"</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=TH+325+Fq+%28305%29&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww2.hf.uio.no%2Fdamos%2FIndex%2Fitem%2Fchosen_item_id%2F5282&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASparta" class="Z3988"></span> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www2.hf.uio.no/damos/Index/item/chosen_item_id/5285">"TH 339 Fq (305)"</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=TH+339+Fq+%28305%29&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww2.hf.uio.no%2Fdamos%2FIndex%2Fitem%2Fchosen_item_id%2F5285&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASparta" class="Z3988"></span> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www2.hf.uio.no/damos/Index/item/chosen_item_id/5314">"TH 382 Fq (305)"</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=TH+382+Fq+%28305%29&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww2.hf.uio.no%2Fdamos%2FIndex%2Fitem%2Fchosen_item_id%2F5314&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASparta" class="Z3988"></span> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www2.hf.uio.no/damos/Index/item/chosen_item_id/5410">"TH 227 Gp (306)"</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=TH+227+Gp+%28306%29&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww2.hf.uio.no%2Fdamos%2FIndex%2Fitem%2Fchosen_item_id%2F5410&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASparta" class="Z3988"></span> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www2.hf.uio.no/damos/Index/item/chosen_item_id/5573">"MY 603 Ge + frr. (58a)"</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=MY+603+Ge+%2B+frr.+%2858a%29&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww2.hf.uio.no%2Fdamos%2FIndex%2Fitem%2Fchosen_item_id%2F5573&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASparta" class="Z3988"></span> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www2.hf.uio.no/damos/Index/item/chosen_item_id/5574">"MY 604 Ge (58a)"</a>. <i>DĀMOS Database of Mycenaean at Oslo</i>. <a href="/wiki/University_of_Oslo" title="University of Oslo">University of Oslo</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=D%C4%80MOS+Database+of+Mycenaean+at+Oslo&rft.atitle=MY+604+Ge+%2858a%29&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww2.hf.uio.no%2Fdamos%2FIndex%2Fitem%2Fchosen_item_id%2F5574&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASparta" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-ACttAGrL-10"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-ACttAGrL_10-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFThompson2010" class="citation book cs1">Thompson, Rupert (2010). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=oa42E3DP3icC&pg=PA195">"Mycenaean Greek"</a>. In Bakker, Egbert J. (ed.). <i>A Companion to the Ancient Greek Language</i>. Blackwell Companions to the Ancient World. Wiley-Blackwell. p. 223. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4051-5326-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-4051-5326-3"><bdi>978-1-4051-5326-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Mycenaean+Greek&rft.btitle=A+Companion+to+the+Ancient+Greek+Language&rft.series=Blackwell+Companions+to+the+Ancient+World&rft.pages=223&rft.pub=Wiley-Blackwell&rft.date=2010&rft.isbn=978-1-4051-5326-3&rft.aulast=Thompson&rft.aufirst=Rupert&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Doa42E3DP3icC%26pg%3DPA195&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASparta" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Beekes-11"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Beekes_11-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFBeekes2010" class="citation book cs1">Beekes, R.S.P. (2010). "s.v. υἱός". <i>Etymological Dictionary of Greek</i>. Vol. 2. With the assistance of Lucien van Beek. Leiden, Boston: Brill. p. 1528. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9789004174184" title="Special:BookSources/9789004174184"><bdi>9789004174184</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=s.v.+%CF%85%E1%BC%B1%CF%8C%CF%82&rft.btitle=Etymological+Dictionary+of+Greek&rft.place=Leiden%2C+Boston&rft.pages=1528&rft.pub=Brill&rft.date=2010&rft.isbn=9789004174184&rft.aulast=Beekes&rft.aufirst=R.S.P.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASparta" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-12"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-12">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFRaymoure" class="citation web cs1">Raymoure, K.A. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20131012022558/http://minoan.deaditerranean.com/resources/linear-b-sign-groups/ra/ra-ke-da-no/">"ra-ke-da-no"</a>. <i>Minoan Linear A & Mycenaean Linear B</i>. Deaditerranean. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://minoan.deaditerranean.com/resources/linear-b-sign-groups/ra/ra-ke-da-no/">the original</a> on 12 October 2013<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">23 March</span> 2014</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Minoan+Linear+A+%26+Mycenaean+Linear+B&rft.atitle=ra-ke-da-no&rft.aulast=Raymoure&rft.aufirst=K.A.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fminoan.deaditerranean.com%2Fresources%2Flinear-b-sign-groups%2Fra%2Fra-ke-da-no%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASparta" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-BARev-lakedanor-13"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-BARev-lakedanor_13-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFJasanoffNussbaum1996" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Mary_Lefkowitz" title="Mary Lefkowitz">Jasanoff, Jay H.</a>; Nussbaum, Alan (1996). Lefkowitz, Mary R.; Rogers Maclean, Guy (eds.). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=AClFWV6PE8wC&pg=PA193"><i>Black Athena Revisited</i></a>. The University of North Carolina Press. p. 193. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0807845558" title="Special:BookSources/0807845558"><bdi>0807845558</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Black+Athena+Revisited&rft.pages=193&rft.pub=The+University+of+North+Carolina+Press&rft.date=1996&rft.isbn=0807845558&rft.aulast=Jasanoff&rft.aufirst=Jay+H.&rft.au=Nussbaum%2C+Alan&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DAClFWV6PE8wC%26pg%3DPA193&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASparta" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-15"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-15">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFLiddellScott1940">Liddell & Scott 1940</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus:text:1999.04.0057:entry=*lakedai/mwn"><span title="Ancient Greek (to 1453)-language text"><span lang="grc">Λακεδαιμόνιος, s.v. Λακεδαίμων</span></span></a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-L&S-Lacedaemon-16"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-L&S-Lacedaemon_16-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus:text:1999.04.0059:entry=Lacedaemon">Lacedaemonius, s.v. Lacedaemon</a>. Charlton T. Lewis and Charles Short. <i><a href="/wiki/A_Latin_Dictionary" title="A Latin Dictionary">A Latin Dictionary</a></i> on <a href="/wiki/Perseus_Project" class="mw-redirect" title="Perseus Project">Perseus Project</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-17"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-17">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFMacBeanJohnson1773" class="citation encyclopaedia cs1"><a href="/wiki/Alexander_Macbean" title="Alexander Macbean">MacBean, Alexander</a>; Johnson, Samuel (1773). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=EqwBAAAAYAAJ">"Lacedaemon"</a>. <i>A Dictionary of Ancient Geography [etc.]</i> London: G. Robinson [etc.]</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Lacedaemon&rft.btitle=A+Dictionary+of+Ancient+Geography+%5Betc.%5D&rft.place=London&rft.pub=G.+Robinson+%5Betc.%5D&rft.date=1773&rft.aulast=MacBean&rft.aufirst=Alexander&rft.au=Johnson%2C+Samuel&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DEqwBAAAAYAAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASparta" class="Z3988"></span>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-18"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-18">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFAutenrieth1891">Autenrieth 1891</a>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.04.0073%3Aalphabetic+letter%3Dl%3Aentry+group%3D1%3Aentry%3D*lakedai%2Fmwn">Λακεδαίμων</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-19"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-19">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFSchmidt1863" class="citation encyclopaedia cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">Schmidt, Maurice, ed. (1863). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/stream/hesychiialexand00schmgoog#page/n24/mode/1up">"s.v. Ἀγιάδαι"</a>. <i>Hesychii Alexandrini Lexicon</i> (in Greek). Jena: Frederick Mauk.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=s.v.+%E1%BC%88%CE%B3%CE%B9%CE%AC%CE%B4%CE%B1%CE%B9&rft.btitle=Hesychii+Alexandrini+Lexicon&rft.place=Jena&rft.pub=Frederick+Mauk&rft.date=1863&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fstream%2Fhesychiialexand00schmgoog%23page%2Fn24%2Fmode%2F1up&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASparta" class="Z3988"></span>. At the <a href="/wiki/Internet_Archive" title="Internet Archive">Internet Archive</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-20"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-20">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://attalus.org/translate/orosius1B.html#21">Orosius, 1.21.12</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-21"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-21">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFWiener1920" class="citation book cs1">Wiener, Leo (1920). <i>Contributions toward a History of Arabico-Gothic Culture</i>. Volume III: Tacitus' Germania & Other Forgeries. Philadelphia: Innes & Sones. p. 20.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Contributions+toward+a+History+of+Arabico-Gothic+Culture&rft.place=Philadelphia&rft.series=Volume+III%3A+Tacitus%27+Germania+%26+Other+Forgeries&rft.pages=20&rft.pub=Innes+%26+Sones&rft.date=1920&rft.aulast=Wiener&rft.aufirst=Leo&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASparta" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-22"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-22">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Diodorus Siculus, <i>Library</i>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Diodorus_Siculus/19D*.html#note24">19.70.2</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-PausaniasIII.1.2-23"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-PausaniasIII.1.2_23-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-PausaniasIII.1.2_23-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFPausanias1918">Pausanias 1918</a>, Description of Greece, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.01.0160%3Abook%3D3%3Achapter%3D1%3Asection%3D2">ΙΙΙ.1.2</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-24"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-24">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Diodorus Siculus, 4.57-8</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-25"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-25">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Apollodorus, 2.8.2–4</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-26"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-26">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFKennel" class="citation web cs1">Kennel, Nigel. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.wiley.com/en-us/Spartans%3A+A+New+History-p-9781444360530">"Spartans: A New History | Wiley"</a>. <i>Wiley.com</i>. pp. <span class="nowrap">37–</span>39<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">3 February</span> 2021</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Wiley.com&rft.atitle=Spartans%3A+A+New+History+%7C+Wiley&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E37-%3C%2Fspan%3E39&rft.aulast=Kennel&rft.aufirst=Nigel&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.wiley.com%2Fen-us%2FSpartans%253A%2BA%2BNew%2BHistory-p-9781444360530&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASparta" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-27"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-27">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Hdt., 9.26.2</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-EB1911-28"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-EB1911_28-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-EB1911_28-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-EB1911_28-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-EB1911_28-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-EB1911_28-4"><sup><i><b>e</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-EB1911_28-5"><sup><i><b>f</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-EB1911_28-6"><sup><i><b>g</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-EB1911_28-7"><sup><i><b>h</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-EB1911_28-8"><sup><i><b>i</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-EB1911_28-9"><sup><i><b>j</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-EB1911_28-10"><sup><i><b>k</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-EB1911_28-11"><sup><i><b>l</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-EB1911_28-12"><sup><i><b>m</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-EB1911_28-13"><sup><i><b>n</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-EB1911_28-14"><sup><i><b>o</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><span class="noprint"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg/20px-Wikisource-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="12" height="13" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg/40px-Wikisource-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="410" data-file-height="430" /></span></span> </span>One or more of the preceding sentences incorporates text from a publication now in the <a href="/wiki/Public_domain" title="Public domain">public domain</a>: <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFTod1911" class="citation encyclopaedia cs1"><a href="/wiki/Marcus_Niebuhr_Tod" title="Marcus Niebuhr Tod">Tod, Marcus Niebuhr</a> (1911). "<a href="https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/1911_Encyclop%C3%A6dia_Britannica/Sparta" class="extiw" title="s:1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Sparta">Sparta</a>". In <a href="/wiki/Hugh_Chisholm" title="Hugh Chisholm">Chisholm, Hugh</a> (ed.). <i><a href="/wiki/Encyclop%C3%A6dia_Britannica_Eleventh_Edition" title="Encyclopædia Britannica Eleventh Edition">Encyclopædia Britannica</a></i>. Vol. 25 (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. pp. <span class="nowrap">609–</span>14.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Sparta&rft.btitle=Encyclop%C3%A6dia+Britannica&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E609-%3C%2Fspan%3E14&rft.edition=11th&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=1911&rft.aulast=Tod&rft.aufirst=Marcus+Niebuhr&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASparta" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-29"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-29">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Thucydides, i. 10</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-30"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-30">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFCavanagh2018" class="citation book cs1">Cavanagh, William (2018). "An Archaeology of Ancient Sparta with Reference to Laconia and Messenia". <i>A COMPANION TO SPARTA</i>. Vol. 1. Hoboken USA: Wiley Blackwell. p. 62.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=An+Archaeology+of+Ancient+Sparta+with+Reference+to+Laconia+and+Messenia&rft.btitle=A+COMPANION+TO+SPARTA&rft.place=Hoboken+USA&rft.pages=62&rft.pub=Wiley+Blackwell&rft.date=2018&rft.aulast=Cavanagh&rft.aufirst=William&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASparta" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-31"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-31">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">The British School at Athens, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.bsa.ac.uk/index.php?option=com_content&view=category&layout=blog&id=14&Itemid=101">Home</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-32"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-32">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><i>The Mycenaean presence in the southeastern Eurotas valley: Vouno Panagias and Ayios Georgios</i>, by Emilia Banou.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Herodot,_Book_I,_56.3-33"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Herodot,_Book_I,_56.3_33-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Herodot,_Book_I,_56.3_33-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Herodot, Book I, 56.3</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTECartledge200228-34"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTECartledge200228_34-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFCartledge2002">Cartledge 2002</a>, p. 28.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEEhrenberg200231-35"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEEhrenberg200231_35-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEEhrenberg200231_35-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFEhrenberg2002">Ehrenberg 2002</a>, p. 31.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEEhrenberg200236-36"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEEhrenberg200236_36-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFEhrenberg2002">Ehrenberg 2002</a>, p. 36.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEEhrenberg200233-37"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEEhrenberg200233_37-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFEhrenberg2002">Ehrenberg 2002</a>, p. 33.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-38"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-38">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.01.0210%3Atext%3DConst.%20Lac.%3Achapter%3D1">Xenophon, Constitution of the Lacedaimonians, chapter 1</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-39"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-39">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Xenophon, <i>Constitution of the Lacedaemonians</i>, 1</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-40"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-40">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Herodotus, 1.65–66</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-41"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-41">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Plutarch, <i>Life of Lycurgus</i>, 6.1–2</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-42"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-42">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">"A Historical Commentary on Thucydides". David Cartwright, p. 176</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-43"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-43">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFMorris2005" class="citation cs2">Morris, Ian (December 2005), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.princeton.edu/~pswpc/pdfs/morris/120509.pdf"><i>The growth of Greek cities in the first millennium BC. v.1</i></a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>, Princeton/Stanford Working Papers in Classics, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221009/http://www.princeton.edu/~pswpc/pdfs/morris/120509.pdf">archived</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span> from the original on 9 October 2022</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+growth+of+Greek+cities+in+the+first+millennium+BC.+v.1&rft.series=Princeton%2FStanford+Working+Papers+in+Classics&rft.date=2005-12&rft.aulast=Morris&rft.aufirst=Ian&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.princeton.edu%2F~pswpc%2Fpdfs%2Fmorris%2F120509.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASparta" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-44"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-44">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFNielsen2017" class="citation book cs1">Nielsen, Thomas Heine (29 December 2017). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=oafCBYBbMRgC&pg=PA22"><i>Once Again: Studies in the Ancient Greek Polis</i></a>. Franz Steiner Verlag. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9783515084383" title="Special:BookSources/9783515084383"><bdi>9783515084383</bdi></a> – via Google Books.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Once+Again%3A+Studies+in+the+Ancient+Greek+Polis&rft.pub=Franz+Steiner+Verlag&rft.date=2017-12-29&rft.isbn=9783515084383&rft.aulast=Nielsen&rft.aufirst=Thomas+Heine&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DoafCBYBbMRgC%26pg%3DPA22&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASparta" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-45"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-45">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFWilson2006" class="citation book cs1">Wilson, Nigel Guy, ed. (2006). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/encyclopediaofan0000unse_a6l6/page/214"><i>Encyclopedia Of Ancient Greece</i></a>. Routledge (UK). pp. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/encyclopediaofan0000unse_a6l6/page/214">214–15</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-415-97334-1" title="Special:BookSources/0-415-97334-1"><bdi>0-415-97334-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Encyclopedia+Of+Ancient+Greece&rft.pages=214-15&rft.pub=Routledge+%28UK%29&rft.date=2006&rft.isbn=0-415-97334-1&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fencyclopediaofan0000unse_a6l6%2Fpage%2F214&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASparta" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-47"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-47">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Herodotus, 7.202, 7.228</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEGreen199810-48"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGreen199810_48-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFGreen1998">Green 1998</a>, p. 10.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-49"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-49">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Herodotus, 7.220–7.225</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-50"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-50">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Britannica ed. 2006, "Sparta"</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-51"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-51">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">"Dictionary of Ancient & Medieval Warfare". Matthew Bennett, p. 86</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-boardman-52"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-boardman_52-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-boardman_52-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">"The Oxford Illustrated History of Greece and the Hellenistic World" p. 141, John Boardman, Jasper Griffin, Oswyn Murray</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-53"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-53">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Fine, <i>The Ancient Greeks</i>, 556–59</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-54"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-54">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFCartledge2002">Cartledge 2002</a>, p. 273 "Philip laid Lakonia waste as far south as Gytheion and formally deprived Sparta of Dentheliatis (and apparently the territory on the Messenian Gulf as far as the Little Pamisos river), Belminatis, the territory of Karyai and the east Parnon foreland."</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-55"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-55">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFPlutarchW.C.Helmbold" class="citation web cs1"><a href="/wiki/Plutarch" title="Plutarch">Plutarch</a>; W.C.Helmbold. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A2008.01.0287%3Asection%3D17">"De Garrulitate"</a>. <i>Perseus Digital Library</i>. Tufts University<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">5 May</span> 2021</span>. <q>ἂν ἐμβάλω εἰς τὴν Λακωνικήν, ἀναστάτους ὑμᾶς ποιήσω</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Perseus+Digital+Library&rft.atitle=De+Garrulitate&rft.au=Plutarch&rft.au=W.C.Helmbold&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.perseus.tufts.edu%2Fhopper%2Ftext%3Fdoc%3DPerseus%253Atext%253A2008.01.0287%253Asection%253D17&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASparta" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEDavies1997133-56"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDavies1997133_56-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFDavies1997">Davies 1997</a>, p. 133.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-57"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-57">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFPlutarch1874">Plutarch 1874</a>, De garrulitate, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A2008.01.0288%3Asection%3D17">17</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-58"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-58">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFPlutarch1891">Plutarch 1891</a>, De garrulitate, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A2008.01.0286%3Asection%3D17">17</a>; in Greek.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-59"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-59">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20130508045716/http://www.livius.org/ag-ai/agis/agis_iii.html">"Agis III – Livius"</a>. <i>www.livius.org</i>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.livius.org/ag-ai/agis/agis_iii.html">the original</a> on 8 May 2013<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">26 March</span> 2020</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=www.livius.org&rft.atitle=Agis+III+%E2%80%93+Livius&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.livius.org%2Fag-ai%2Fagis%2Fagis_iii.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASparta" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-60"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-60">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFCartledgeSpawforth2002" class="citation book cs1">Cartledge, Paul; Spawforth, Antony (2002). <i>Hellenistic and Roman Sparta : a tale of two cities</i> (2nd ed.). London: Routledge. p. 21. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0415262771" title="Special:BookSources/0415262771"><bdi>0415262771</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Hellenistic+and+Roman+Sparta+%3A+a+tale+of+two+cities&rft.place=London&rft.pages=21&rft.edition=2nd&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=2002&rft.isbn=0415262771&rft.aulast=Cartledge&rft.aufirst=Paul&rft.au=Spawforth%2C+Antony&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASparta" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-61"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-61">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFBadian1967" class="citation journal cs1">Badian, E. (29 December 1967). "Agis III". <i>Hermes</i>. <b>95</b> (2): <span class="nowrap">170–</span>92. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/4475455">4475455</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Hermes&rft.atitle=Agis+III&rft.volume=95&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E170-%3C%2Fspan%3E92&rft.date=1967-12-29&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F4475455%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.aulast=Badian&rft.aufirst=E.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASparta" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-62"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-62">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Diodorus, <i>World History</i></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-63"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-63">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Diodorus, <i>World History</i>, 17.62.1–63.4; tr. C.B. Welles</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-64"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-64">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><i>Alexander the Great and his time</i>. By Agnes Savill. p. 44 <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-88029-591-0" title="Special:BookSources/0-88029-591-0">0-88029-591-0</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTECartledgeSpawforth200182-65"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTECartledgeSpawforth200182_65-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFCartledgeSpawforth2001">Cartledge & Spawforth 2001</a>, p. 82.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-66"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-66">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFCicero1918" class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source"><a href="/wiki/Cicero" title="Cicero">Cicero</a> (1918). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A2007.01.0044%3Abook%3D2%3Asection%3D34">"II.34"</a>. In Pohlenz, M. (ed.). <a href="/wiki/Tusculanae_Disputationes" title="Tusculanae Disputationes"><i>Tusculanae Disputationes</i></a> (in Latin). Leipzig: Teubner.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=II.34&rft.btitle=Tusculanae+Disputationes&rft.place=Leipzig&rft.pub=Teubner&rft.date=1918&rft.au=Cicero&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.perseus.tufts.edu%2Fhopper%2Ftext%3Fdoc%3DPerseus%253Atext%253A2007.01.0044%253Abook%253D2%253Asection%253D34&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASparta" class="Z3988"></span> At the Perseus Project.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-67"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-67">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFMichell1964" class="citation book cs1">Michell, Humfrey (1964). <i>Sparta</i>. Cambridge University Press. p. 175.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Sparta&rft.pages=175&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=1964&rft.aulast=Michell&rft.aufirst=Humfrey&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASparta" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-68"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-68">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Thomas J. Figueira, "Population Patterns in Late Archaic and Classical Sparta", <i>Transactions of the American Philological Association (1974–2014)</i>, Volume 116 (1986), The Johns Hopkins University Press, pp. 165–213</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-69"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-69">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Myke Cole, <i>Legion versus Phalanx: The Epic Struggle for Infantry Supremacy in the Ancient World</i>, Osprey Publishing, 2018</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTECartledgeSpawforth2001108-71"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTECartledgeSpawforth2001108_71-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFCartledgeSpawforth2001">Cartledge & Spawforth 2001</a>, p. 108.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-72"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-72">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Erich S. Gruen, <i>Heritage and Hellenism: The Reinvention of Jewish Tradition</i>, 1998, p. 254, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-520-23506-1" title="Special:BookSources/0-520-23506-1">0-520-23506-1</a> (2002)</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-73"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-73">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Rappaport, U., <i>47. 1 Maccabees</i> in Barton, J. and Muddiman, J. (2001), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://b-ok.org/dl/946961/8f5f43">The Oxford Bible Commentary</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20171122193211/http://b-ok.org/dl/946961/8f5f43">Archived</a> 22 November 2017 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>, p. 729</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-74"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-74">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFKeenan-Jones2021" class="citation web cs1">Keenan-Jones, Duncan (29 April 2021). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://theconversation.com/what-were-the-spartans-like-note-to-lego-masters-they-didnt-build-city-walls-159910">"What were the Spartans like? Note to Lego Masters: they didn't build city walls"</a>. <i>The Conversation</i>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=The+Conversation&rft.atitle=What+were+the+Spartans+like%3F+Note+to+Lego+Masters%3A+they+didn%27t+build+city+walls&rft.date=2021-04-29&rft.aulast=Keenan-Jones&rft.aufirst=Duncan&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Ftheconversation.com%2Fwhat-were-the-spartans-like-note-to-lego-masters-they-didnt-build-city-walls-159910&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASparta" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-urlA_History_of_the_Laws_of_War:_Volume_2:_The_Customs_and_Laws_of_War_with_..._-_Alexander_Gillespie_-_Google_Książki-75"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-urlA_History_of_the_Laws_of_War:_Volume_2:_The_Customs_and_Laws_of_War_with_..._-_Alexander_Gillespie_-_Google_Książki_75-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFAlexander_Gillespie2011" class="citation book cs1">Alexander Gillespie (7 October 2011). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=qIt6BAAAQBAJ&q=alaric+sacked+sparta&pg=PT204"><i>A History of the Laws of War: Volume 2: The Customs and Laws of War with ...</i></a> Bloomsbury. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781847318626" title="Special:BookSources/9781847318626"><bdi>9781847318626</bdi></a> – via Google Książki.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+History+of+the+Laws+of+War%3A+Volume+2%3A+The+Customs+and+Laws+of+War+with+...&rft.pub=Bloomsbury&rft.date=2011-10-07&rft.isbn=9781847318626&rft.au=Alexander+Gillespie&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DqIt6BAAAQBAJ%26q%3Dalaric%2Bsacked%2Bsparta%26pg%3DPT204&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASparta" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-urlThe_Oxford_Companion_to_Classical_Literature_-_Google_Książki-76"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-urlThe_Oxford_Companion_to_Classical_Literature_-_Google_Książki_76-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFHowatson2013" class="citation book cs1">Howatson, M. C. (22 August 2013). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=IVGcAQAAQBAJ&q=alaric+sacked+sparta+slavery&pg=PA535"><i>The Oxford Companion to Classical Literature</i></a>. OUP Oxford. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780199548552" title="Special:BookSources/9780199548552"><bdi>9780199548552</bdi></a> – via Google Książki.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Oxford+Companion+to+Classical+Literature&rft.pub=OUP+Oxford&rft.date=2013-08-22&rft.isbn=9780199548552&rft.aulast=Howatson&rft.aufirst=M.+C.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DIVGcAQAAQBAJ%26q%3Dalaric%2Bsacked%2Bsparta%2Bslavery%26pg%3DPA535&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASparta" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-77"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-77">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFLiosis" class="citation web cs1">Liosis, Nikos. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.researchgate.net/publication/337949879">"Tsakonian Studies: The State-of-the-Art"</a>. <i>researchgate</i>. Institute of Modern Greek Studies<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">4 July</span> 2022</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=researchgate&rft.atitle=Tsakonian+Studies%3A+The+State-of-the-Art&rft.aulast=Liosis&rft.aufirst=Nikos&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.researchgate.net%2Fpublication%2F337949879&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASparta" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTECartledge200289-78"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTECartledge200289_78-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFCartledge2002">Cartledge 2002</a>, p. 89.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-79"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-79">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><i>The Greeks at War</i> By Philip De Souza, Waldemar Heckel, Lloyd Llewellyn-Jones, Victor Davis Hanson</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-80"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-80">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><i>The Politics By Aristotle</i>, Thomas Alan Sinclair, Trevor J. Saunders</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-81"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-81">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><i>A companion to Greek studies</i> By Leonard Whibley</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-82"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-82">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFLiddellScott1940">Liddell & Scott 1940</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus:text:1999.04.0057:entry=su/ntrofos"><span title="Ancient Greek (to 1453)-language text"><span lang="grc">σύντροφος</span></span></a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-83"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-83">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFPowell1987" class="citation book cs1">Powell, Anton (1987). <i>The Greek World</i>. <a href="/wiki/Routledge" title="Routledge">Routledge</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Greek+World&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=1987&rft.aulast=Powell&rft.aufirst=Anton&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASparta" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-ReferenceA-84"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-ReferenceA_84-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><i>Ancient Greece</i> By <a href="/wiki/Sarah_B._Pomeroy" title="Sarah B. Pomeroy">Sarah B. Pomeroy</a>, Stanley M. Burstein, Walter Donlan, Jennifer Tolbert Roberts</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-85"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-85">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Herodotus (IX, 28–29)</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-86"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-86">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Xenophon, <i>Hellenica</i>, III, 3, 5</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-87"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-87">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.history.com/topics/ancient-history/sparta">"Sparta"</a>. <i>HISTORY</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">3 August</span> 2021</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=HISTORY&rft.atitle=Sparta&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.history.com%2Ftopics%2Fancient-history%2Fsparta&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASparta" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-88"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-88">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Kennell, Nigel M. "Helots and Perioeci" <i>Sparta: A New History.</i> Wiley-Blackwell pp. 136. 2010</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-89"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-89">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Figueira, Thomas, "Helotage and the Spartan Economy," p. 566-574. In <i>A Companion to Sparta,</i> edited by Anton Powell, 565–589. Volume 1 of <i>A Companion to Sparta.</i> Hoboken, NJ: Wiley Balckwell, 2018.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEWest199924-90"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWest199924_90-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFWest1999">West 1999</a>, p. 24.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTECartledge2002141-91"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTECartledge2002141_91-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFCartledge2002">Cartledge 2002</a>, p. 141.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTECartledge2002140-92"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTECartledge2002140_92-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFCartledge2002">Cartledge 2002</a>, p. 140.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEEhrenberg2002159-93"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEEhrenberg2002159_93-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFEhrenberg2002">Ehrenberg 2002</a>, p. 159.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-94"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-94">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFThucydidesMynott2013" class="citation cs2">Thucydides; Mynott, Jeremy (2013), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://dx.doi.org/10.1017/cbo9781139050371.014">"Third year of the war, 429–28 [II 71–103]"</a>, <i>Thucydides</i>, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, pp. <span class="nowrap">135–</span>161, <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1017%2Fcbo9781139050371.014">10.1017/cbo9781139050371.014</a>, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-139-05037-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-139-05037-1"><bdi>978-1-139-05037-1</bdi></a><span class="reference-accessdate">, retrieved <span class="nowrap">24 February</span> 2021</span></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Thucydides&rft.atitle=Third+year+of+the+war%2C+429%E2%80%9328+%5BII+71%E2%80%93103%5D&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E135-%3C%2Fspan%3E161&rft.date=2013&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1017%2Fcbo9781139050371.014&rft.isbn=978-1-139-05037-1&rft.au=Thucydides&rft.au=Mynott%2C+Jeremy&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fdx.doi.org%2F10.1017%2Fcbo9781139050371.014&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASparta" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-95"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-95">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFKennell2010" class="citation book cs1">Kennell, Nigel M. (2010). <i>Spartans: A New History</i>. Wiley-Blackwell. p. 122.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Spartans%3A+A+New+History&rft.pages=122&rft.pub=Wiley-Blackwell&rft.date=2010&rft.aulast=Kennell&rft.aufirst=Nigel+M.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASparta" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-96"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-96">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Thucydides (IV, 80); the Greek is ambiguous</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTECartledge2002211-97"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTECartledge2002211_97-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFCartledge2002">Cartledge 2002</a>, p. 211.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-98"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-98">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Thucydides (VII, 27)</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-99"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-99">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Talbert, p. 26.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-100"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-100">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Apud Athenaeus, 14, 647d = <i>FGH</i> 106 F 2. Trans. by Cartledge, p. 305.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-101"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-101">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Plutarch, <i>Life of Lycurgus</i> 28, 8–10. See also, <i>Life of Demetrios</i>, 1, 5; <i>Constitution of the Lacedemonians</i> 30; <i>De Cohibenda Ira</i> 6; <i>De Commmunibus Notitiis</i> 19.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-102"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-102">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Plutarch, <i>Life of Lycurgus</i> 28, 7.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEPowell2001254-103"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPowell2001254_103-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFPowell2001">Powell 2001</a>, p. 254.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-104"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-104">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Thucydides (Book IV 80.4).</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-105"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-105">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Classical historian Anton Powell has recorded a similar story from 1980s <a href="/wiki/El_Salvador" title="El Salvador">El Salvador</a>. Cf. Powell, 2001, p. 256</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTECartledge2002153–155-106"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTECartledge2002153–155_106-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFCartledge2002">Cartledge 2002</a>, pp. 153–155.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTECartledge2002158,_178-107"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTECartledge2002158,_178_107-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFCartledge2002">Cartledge 2002</a>, pp. 158, 178.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-108"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-108">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">"Population Patterns in Late Archaic and Classical Sparta" by Thomas Figueira, <i>Transactions of the American Philological Association</i> 116 (1986), pp. 165–213</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-109"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-109">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Paul Cartledge, <i>Sparta and Lakonia</i>, Routledge, London, 1979, pp. 154–59</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-110"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-110">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Conrad Stibbe, <i>Das Andere Sparta</i>, Verlag Philipp von Zabern, Mainz, 1996, pp. 111–27</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-111"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-111">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Excel HSC <i>Ancient History</i> By Peter Roberts, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/1-74125-178-8" title="Special:BookSources/1-74125-178-8">1-74125-178-8</a>, <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-74125-178-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-74125-178-4">978-1-74125-178-4</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-112"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-112">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Conrad Stibbe, <i>Das Andere Sparta</i>, Verlag Philipp von Zabern, Mainz, 1996</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-113"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-113">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">A.H.M. Jones, <i>Sparta</i>, Basel Blackwell and Mott Ltd.,1967, pp. 40–43</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-114"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-114">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Stephen Hodkinson, <i>Property and Wealth in Classical Sparta</i>, The Classical Press of Wales, Swansea, 2000. See also Paul Cartledge's discussion of property in Sparta in <i>Sparta and Lakonia</i>, pp. 142–44.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-115"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-115">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><i>Social Conflict in Ancient Greece</i> By Alexander Fuks, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/965-223-466-4" title="Special:BookSources/965-223-466-4">965-223-466-4</a>, <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-965-223-466-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-965-223-466-7">978-965-223-466-7</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTECartledge200184-116"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTECartledge200184_116-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTECartledge200184_116-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFCartledge2001">Cartledge 2001</a>, p. 84.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEPlutarch200520-117"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPlutarch200520_117-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFPlutarch2005">Plutarch 2005</a>, p. 20.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-118"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-118">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFBayliss2022" class="citation journal cs1">Bayliss, Andrew J. (26 May 2022). "4. Raising a Spartan". <i>The Spartans: A Very Short Introduction</i>: <span class="nowrap">59–</span>76. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1093%2Factrade%2F9780198787600.003.0004">10.1093/actrade/9780198787600.003.0004</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-878760-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-878760-0"><bdi>978-0-19-878760-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Spartans%3A+A+Very+Short+Introduction&rft.atitle=4.+Raising+a+Spartan&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E59-%3C%2Fspan%3E76&rft.date=2022-05-26&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1093%2Factrade%2F9780198787600.003.0004&rft.isbn=978-0-19-878760-0&rft.aulast=Bayliss&rft.aufirst=Andrew+J.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASparta" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-119"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-119">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFWilliamson1978" class="citation book cs1">Williamson, Laila (1978). "Infanticide: an anthropological analysis". In Kohl, Marvin (ed.). <i>Infanticide and the Value of Life</i>. NY: <a href="/wiki/Prometheus_Books" title="Prometheus Books">Prometheus Books</a>. pp. 61–75 [61].</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Infanticide%3A+an+anthropological+analysis&rft.btitle=Infanticide+and+the+Value+of+Life&rft.place=NY&rft.pages=61-75+61&rft.pub=Prometheus+Books&rft.date=1978&rft.aulast=Williamson&rft.aufirst=Laila&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASparta" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-120"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-120">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFTheodoros_K._Pitsios2010" class="citation journal cs1">Theodoros K. Pitsios (2010). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20131002192630/http://www.anthropologie.ch/d/publikationen/archiv/2010/documents/03PITSIOSreprint.pdf">"Ancient Sparta – Research Program of Keadas Cavern"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. <i>Bulletin der Schweizerischen Gesellschaft für Anthropologie</i>. <b>16</b> (<span class="nowrap">1–</span>2): <span class="nowrap">13–</span>22. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.anthropologie.ch/d/publikationen/archiv/2010/documents/03PITSIOSreprint.pdf">the original</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span> on 2 October 2013.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Bulletin+der+Schweizerischen+Gesellschaft+f%C3%BCr+Anthropologie&rft.atitle=Ancient+Sparta+%E2%80%93+Research+Program+of+Keadas+Cavern&rft.volume=16&rft.issue=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E1%E2%80%93%3C%2Fspan%3E2&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E13-%3C%2Fspan%3E22&rft.date=2010&rft.au=Theodoros+K.+Pitsios&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.anthropologie.ch%2Fd%2Fpublikationen%2Farchiv%2F2010%2Fdocuments%2F03PITSIOSreprint.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASparta" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-121"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-121">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFSneed2021" class="citation journal cs1">Sneed (2021). "Disability and Infanticide in Ancient Greece". <i>Hesperia: The Journal of the American School of Classical Studies at Athens</i>. <b>90</b> (4): 747. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2972%2Fhesperia.90.4.0747">10.2972/hesperia.90.4.0747</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:245045967">245045967</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Hesperia%3A+The+Journal+of+the+American+School+of+Classical+Studies+at+Athens&rft.atitle=Disability+and+Infanticide+in+Ancient+Greece&rft.volume=90&rft.issue=4&rft.pages=747&rft.date=2021&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2972%2Fhesperia.90.4.0747&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A245045967%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.au=Sneed&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASparta" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-122"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-122">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Tyrtaeus, fr.12 lines 27–32</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-123"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-123">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Plutarch, <i>Life of Lycurgus</i> 27.2–3. However this may be conflating later practice with that of the classical period. See Not the Classical Ideal: Athens and the Construction of the Other in Greek Art ed. Beth Cohen, p. 263, note 33, 2000, Brill.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-124"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-124">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Tsouli, M. (2016). Testimonia on Funerary Banquets in Ancient Sparta. In: Draycott, C. M., Stamatopoulou, M., & Peeters, U. (eds.), Dining and Death: Interdisciplinary Perspectives on the 'Funerary Banquet' in Ancient Art, Burial and Belief, Peeters, 353–383.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-:0-125"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:0_125-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:0_125-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Christesen, P. (2018). The typology and topography of Spartan burials from the Protogeometric to the Hellenistic period: rethinking Spartan exceptionalism and the ostensible cessation of adult intramural burials in the Greek world. <i>Annual of the British School at Athens</i>, <i>113</i>, 307–363.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Xenophon,_Spartan_Society,_2-126"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Xenophon,_Spartan_Society,_2_126-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Xenophon,_Spartan_Society,_2_126-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Xenophon,_Spartan_Society,_2_126-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Xenophon, Spartan Society, 2</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-127"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-127">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFKaganOzmentFrankFrank2013" class="citation book cs1">Kagan, Donald; Ozment, Steven; Frank, Turner; Frank, Alison (2013). "The Rise of Greek Civilization". <i>Western Heritage</i>. Pearson. pp. 44, Spartan Society.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=The+Rise+of+Greek+Civilization&rft.btitle=Western+Heritage&rft.pages=44%2C+Spartan+Society&rft.pub=Pearson&rft.date=2013&rft.aulast=Kagan&rft.aufirst=Donald&rft.au=Ozment%2C+Steven&rft.au=Frank%2C+Turner&rft.au=Frank%2C+Alison&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASparta" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTECartledge200185-128"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTECartledge200185_128-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFCartledge2001">Cartledge 2001</a>, p. 85.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTECartledge200191–105-129"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTECartledge200191–105_129-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFCartledge2001">Cartledge 2001</a>, pp. 91–105.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTECartledge200188-130"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTECartledge200188_130-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFCartledge2001">Cartledge 2001</a>, p. 88.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-131"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-131">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFMillender2018" class="citation book cs1">Millender, Ellen G. (2018). Powell, Anton (ed.). <i>A Companion to Sparta</i>. Wiley-Blackwell. p. 504.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+Companion+to+Sparta&rft.pages=504&rft.pub=Wiley-Blackwell&rft.date=2018&rft.aulast=Millender&rft.aufirst=Ellen+G.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASparta" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTECartledge200183–84-132"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTECartledge200183–84_132-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFCartledge2001">Cartledge 2001</a>, pp. 83–84.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-133"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-133">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFDavid1984" class="citation book cs1">David, E. (1984). <i>Aristophanes and Athenian Society of the Early Fourth Century B.C</i>. Brill Archive. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9004070621" title="Special:BookSources/9004070621"><bdi>9004070621</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Aristophanes+and+Athenian+Society+of+the+Early+Fourth+Century+B.C&rft.pub=Brill+Archive&rft.date=1984&rft.isbn=9004070621&rft.aulast=David&rft.aufirst=E.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASparta" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-134"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-134">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFScanlon2005" class="citation journal cs1">Scanlon, Thomas F. (2005). "The Dispersion of Pederasty and the Athletic Revolution in Sixth-Century BC Greece". <i>J Homosex</i>. <b>49</b> (<span class="nowrap">3–</span>4): <span class="nowrap">63–</span>85. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1300%2Fj082v49n03_03">10.1300/j082v49n03_03</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/16338890">16338890</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:19140503">19140503</a>. <q><i>Same-Sex Desire and Love in Greco-Roman Antiquity and in the Classical Tradition of the West</i>, pp. 64–70.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=J+Homosex&rft.atitle=The+Dispersion+of+Pederasty+and+the+Athletic+Revolution+in+Sixth-Century+BC+Greece&rft.volume=49&rft.issue=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E3%E2%80%93%3C%2Fspan%3E4&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E63-%3C%2Fspan%3E85&rft.date=2005&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A19140503%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F16338890&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1300%2Fj082v49n03_03&rft.aulast=Scanlon&rft.aufirst=Thomas+F.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASparta" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-135"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-135">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="/wiki/Erich_Bethe" title="Erich Bethe">Erich Bethe</a>, <i>Die Dorische Knabenliebe: ihre Ethik und ihre Ideen</i> (The Doric pederasty: their ethics and their ideas), Sauerländer, 1907, 441, 444. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3921495773" title="Special:BookSources/978-3921495773">978-3921495773</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-136"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-136">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Plutarch, <i>Life of Lycurgus</i> 18.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-cowley-137"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-cowley_137-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Readers Companion Military Hist p. 438. Cowley</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEAdcock19578–9-138"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAdcock19578–9_138-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFAdcock1957">Adcock 1957</a>, pp. 8–9.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEPlutarch2004465-139"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPlutarch2004465_139-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFPlutarch2004">Plutarch 2004</a>, p. 465.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Sons_and_Mothers-140"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Sons_and_Mothers_140-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Sons_and_Mothers_140-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFHelena_P._Schrader2011" class="citation journal cs1">Helena P. Schrader (2011). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.sparta.markoulakispublications.org.uk/index.php?id=316">"Sons and Mothers"</a>. <i>ΣPARTA: Journal of Ancient Spartan and Greek History</i>. <b>7</b> (4). Markoulakis Publications. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/1751-0007">1751-0007</a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">14 September</span> 2013</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=%CE%A3PARTA%3A+Journal+of+Ancient+Spartan+and+Greek+History&rft.atitle=Sons+and+Mothers&rft.volume=7&rft.issue=4&rft.date=2011&rft.issn=1751-0007&rft.au=Helena+P.+Schrader&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.sparta.markoulakispublications.org.uk%2Findex.php%3Fid%3D316&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASparta" class="Z3988"></span> <span style="font-size:0.95em; font-size:95%; color: var( --color-subtle, #555 )">(subscription required)</span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEForrest196853-141"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEForrest196853_141-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFForrest1968">Forrest 1968</a>, p. 53.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEPomeroy2002[[Category:Wikipedia_articles_needing_page_number_citations_from_September_2013]]<sup_class="noprint_Inline-Template_"_style="white-space:nowrap;">&#91;<i>[[Wikipedia:Citing_sources|<span_title="This_citation_requires_a_reference_to_the_specific_page_or_range_of_pages_in_which_the_material_appears.&#32;(September_2013)">page&nbsp;needed</span>]]</i>&#93;</sup>-142"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPomeroy2002[[Category:Wikipedia_articles_needing_page_number_citations_from_September_2013]]<sup_class="noprint_Inline-Template_"_style="white-space:nowrap;">&#91;<i>[[Wikipedia:Citing_sources|<span_title="This_citation_requires_a_reference_to_the_specific_page_or_range_of_pages_in_which_the_material_appears.&#32;(September_2013)">page&nbsp;needed</span>]]</i>&#93;</sup>_142-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFPomeroy2002">Pomeroy 2002</a>, p. <sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources"><span title="This citation requires a reference to the specific page or range of pages in which the material appears. (September 2013)">page needed</span></a></i>]</sup>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-143"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-143">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><i>The Greeks</i>, H. D. F. Kitto, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-202-30910-X" title="Special:BookSources/0-202-30910-X">0-202-30910-X</a>, <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0202309101" title="Special:BookSources/978-0202309101">978-0202309101</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-144"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-144">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFLangridge-Noti2015" class="citation book cs1">Langridge-Noti, Elizabeth (2015). "Unchanging Tastes: First Steps Towards Correlation of the Evidence for Food Preparation and Consumption in Ancient Laconia". In Spataro, Michela; Villing, Alexandra (eds.). <i>Ceramics, Cuisine and Culture</i>. United Kingdom: Oxbow Books. pp. <span class="nowrap">148–</span>55. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-78297-947-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-78297-947-0"><bdi>978-1-78297-947-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Unchanging+Tastes%3A+First+Steps+Towards+Correlation+of+the+Evidence+for+Food+Preparation+and+Consumption+in+Ancient+Laconia&rft.btitle=Ceramics%2C+Cuisine+and+Culture&rft.place=United+Kingdom&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E148-%3C%2Fspan%3E55&rft.pub=Oxbow+Books&rft.date=2015&rft.isbn=978-1-78297-947-0&rft.aulast=Langridge-Noti&rft.aufirst=Elizabeth&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASparta" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-145"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-145">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFFigueira1984" class="citation journal cs1">Figueira, Thomas (1984). "Mess Contributions and Subsistence at Sparta". <i>Transactions of the American Philological Association</i>. <b>114</b>: <span class="nowrap">87–</span>109. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2307%2F284141">10.2307/284141</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/284141">284141</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Transactions+of+the+American+Philological+Association&rft.atitle=Mess+Contributions+and+Subsistence+at+Sparta&rft.volume=114&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E87-%3C%2Fspan%3E109&rft.date=1984&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2307%2F284141&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F284141%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.aulast=Figueira&rft.aufirst=Thomas&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASparta" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-146"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-146">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Plutarch, <i>The Life of Lycurgus</i></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEPomeroy200242-147"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPomeroy200242_147-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFPomeroy2002">Pomeroy 2002</a>, p. 42.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Xenophon,_Spartan_Society,_1-148"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Xenophon,_Spartan_Society,_1_148-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Xenophon,_Spartan_Society,_1_148-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Xenophon, Spartan Society, 1</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBlundell1999[[Category:Wikipedia_articles_needing_page_number_citations_from_October_2021]]<sup_class="noprint_Inline-Template_"_style="white-space:nowrap;">&#91;<i>[[Wikipedia:Citing_sources|<span_title="This_citation_requires_a_reference_to_the_specific_page_or_range_of_pages_in_which_the_material_appears.&#32;(October_2021)">page&nbsp;needed</span>]]</i>&#93;</sup>-149"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBlundell1999[[Category:Wikipedia_articles_needing_page_number_citations_from_October_2021]]<sup_class="noprint_Inline-Template_"_style="white-space:nowrap;">&#91;<i>[[Wikipedia:Citing_sources|<span_title="This_citation_requires_a_reference_to_the_specific_page_or_range_of_pages_in_which_the_material_appears.&#32;(October_2021)">page&nbsp;needed</span>]]</i>&#93;</sup>_149-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBlundell1999">Blundell 1999</a>, p. <sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources"><span title="This citation requires a reference to the specific page or range of pages in which the material appears. (October 2021)">page needed</span></a></i>]</sup>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-150"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-150">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Guttentag and Secord, 1983; Finley, 1982; Pomeroy, 1975</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEPomeroy200234-151"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPomeroy200234_151-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFPomeroy2002">Pomeroy 2002</a>, p. 34.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEPowell2001248-152"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPowell2001248_152-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFPowell2001">Powell 2001</a>, p. 248.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBlundell1999154-153"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBlundell1999154_153-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBlundell1999">Blundell 1999</a>, p. 154.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEPowell2001246-154"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPowell2001246_154-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFPowell2001">Powell 2001</a>, p. 246.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-155"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-155">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Maria Dettenhofer, "Die Frauen von Sparta", Reine Männer Sache, Munich, Deutscher Taschenbuch Verlag, 1994, p. 25.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEPomeroy20029-156"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPomeroy20029_156-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFPomeroy2002">Pomeroy 2002</a>, p. 9.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Pomeroy1995-157"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Pomeroy1995_157-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Pomeroy1995_157-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Pomeroy, Sarah B. <i>Goddess, Whores, Wives, and Slaves: Women in Classical Antiquity</i>. New York: Schocken Books, 1995 pp. 60–62</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-158"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-158">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20091027062542/http://www.geocities.com/Athens/Aegean/7849/spwomen.html">"Gorgo and Spartan Women"</a>. 27 October 2009. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.geocities.com/Athens/Aegean/7849/spwomen.html">the original</a> on 27 October 2009<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">10 August</span> 2011</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Gorgo+and+Spartan+Women&rft.date=2009-10-27&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.geocities.com%2FAthens%2FAegean%2F7849%2Fspwomen.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASparta" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-159"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-159">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFHelena_Schrader2010" class="citation web cs1">Helena Schrader (11 July 2010). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.elysiumgates.com/~helena/Women.html">"Sparta Reconsidered—Spartan Women"</a>. Elysiumgates.com<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">10 August</span> 2011</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Sparta+Reconsidered%E2%80%94Spartan+Women&rft.pub=Elysiumgates.com&rft.date=2010-07-11&rft.au=Helena+Schrader&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.elysiumgates.com%2F~helena%2FWomen.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASparta" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEPlutarch2004457-160"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPlutarch2004457_160-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFPlutarch2004">Plutarch 2004</a>, p. 457.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-161"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-161">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Pausanias, 6.1.6</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-162"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-162">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Millender, Ellen G., "Spartan Women" p. 500-525. In <i>A Companion to Sparta,</i> edited by Anton Powell, Volume 1 of <i>A Companion to Sparta.</i> Hoboken, NJ: Wiley Blackwell, 2018.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-163"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-163">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Mueller: <i>Dorians</i> II, 192</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Hodkinson_pages_222-281-164"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Hodkinson_pages_222-281_164-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Hodkinson, Stephen "The Imaginary Spartan <i>Politeria</i>" pp. 22–81 from <i>The Imaginary Polis: Symposium, 7–10 January 2004</i> edited by Mogens Herman Hansen, Copenhagen: Danske Videnskabernes Selskab, 2005 p. 222.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Hodkinson2002-165"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Hodkinson2002_165-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Hodkinson2002_165-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFHodkinson_S2002" class="citation book cs1">Hodkinson S (31 December 2002). "Introduction". <i>Sparta: Beyond the Mirage</i>. The Classical Press of Wales. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2307%2Fj.ctv1n357hd">10.2307/j.ctv1n357hd</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-914535-20-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-914535-20-8"><bdi>978-1-914535-20-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Introduction&rft.btitle=Sparta%3A+Beyond+the+Mirage&rft.pub=The+Classical+Press+of+Wales&rft.date=2002-12-31&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2307%2Fj.ctv1n357hd&rft.isbn=978-1-914535-20-8&rft.au=Hodkinson+S&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASparta" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-The-166"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-The_166-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFŽižek" class="citation web cs1"><a href="/wiki/Slavoj_%C5%BDi%C5%BEek" title="Slavoj Žižek">Žižek, Slavoj</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.lacan.com/zizhollywood.htm">"The True Hollywood Left"</a>. www.lacan.com.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=The+True+Hollywood+Left&rft.pub=www.lacan.com&rft.aulast=%C5%BDi%C5%BEek&rft.aufirst=Slavoj&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.lacan.com%2Fzizhollywood.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASparta" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-un.org-167"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-un.org_167-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-un.org_167-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFKiernan" class="citation web cs1">Kiernan, Ben. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.un.org/sites/un2.un.org/files/dpj_i.pdf">"Hitler, Pol Pot, and Hutu Power: Distinguishing Themes of Genocidal Ideology"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. p. 19. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221009/https://www.un.org/sites/un2.un.org/files/dpj_i.pdf">Archived</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span> from the original on 9 October 2022<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">28 April</span> 2021</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Hitler%2C+Pol+Pot%2C+and+Hutu+Power%3A+Distinguishing+Themes+of+Genocidal+Ideology&rft.pages=19&rft.aulast=Kiernan&rft.aufirst=Ben&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.un.org%2Fsites%2Fun2.un.org%2Ffiles%2Fdpj_i.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASparta" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-168"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-168">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><i>The Making of Israeli Militarism</i>, By Uri Ben-Eliezer, Indiana University Press, 1998, p. 63</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-169"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-169">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><i>Land and Power: The Zionist Resort to Force, 1881–1948</i>, By Anita Shapira, Stanford University Press 1999, 300</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-170"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-170">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/Spartan">"Spartan"</a>. <i>Merriam-Webster.com Dictionary</i>. Merriam-Webster<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">5 October</span> 2021</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Merriam-Webster.com+Dictionary&rft.atitle=Spartan&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.merriam-webster.com%2Fdictionary%2FSpartan&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASparta" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> </ol></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Sources">Sources</h2></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239549316">.mw-parser-output .refbegin{margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul{margin-left:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{margin-left:0;padding-left:3.2em;text-indent:-3.2em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul,.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul li{list-style:none}@media(max-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{padding-left:1.6em;text-indent:-1.6em}}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns ul{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .refbegin{font-size:90%}}</style><div class="refbegin refbegin-columns references-column-width" style="column-width: 30em"> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFDavies1997" class="citation book cs1">Davies, Norman (1997) [1996]. <i>Europe: A History</i>. Random House. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0712666338" title="Special:BookSources/0712666338"><bdi>0712666338</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Europe%3A+A+History&rft.pub=Random+House&rft.date=1997&rft.isbn=0712666338&rft.aulast=Davies&rft.aufirst=Norman&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASparta" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFAdcock1957" class="citation cs2">Adcock, F. E. (1957), <span class="id-lock-registration" title="Free registration required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/greekmacedoniana0000adco"><i>The Greek and Macedonian Art of War</i></a></span>, Berkeley: University of California Press, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-520-00005-6" title="Special:BookSources/0-520-00005-6"><bdi>0-520-00005-6</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Greek+and+Macedonian+Art+of+War&rft.place=Berkeley&rft.pub=University+of+California+Press&rft.date=1957&rft.isbn=0-520-00005-6&rft.aulast=Adcock&rft.aufirst=F.+E.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fgreekmacedoniana0000adco&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASparta" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFAutenrieth1891" class="citation book cs1">Autenrieth, Georg (1891). <i>A Homeric Dictionary for Schools and Colleges</i>. New York: Harper and Brothers.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+Homeric+Dictionary+for+Schools+and+Colleges&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=Harper+and+Brothers&rft.date=1891&rft.aulast=Autenrieth&rft.aufirst=Georg&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASparta" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFBlundell1999" class="citation book cs1">Blundell, Sue (1999). <i>Women in Ancient Greece</i>. London: British Museum Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7141-2219-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-7141-2219-9"><bdi>978-0-7141-2219-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Women+in+Ancient+Greece&rft.place=London&rft.pub=British+Museum+Press&rft.date=1999&rft.isbn=978-0-7141-2219-9&rft.aulast=Blundell&rft.aufirst=Sue&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASparta" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFCartledge2002" class="citation cs2"><a href="/wiki/Paul_Cartledge" title="Paul Cartledge">Cartledge, Paul</a> (2002), <i>Sparta and Lakonia: A Regional History 1300 to 362 BC</i> (2nd ed.), Oxford: Routledge, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-415-26276-3" title="Special:BookSources/0-415-26276-3"><bdi>0-415-26276-3</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Sparta+and+Lakonia%3A+A+Regional+History+1300+to+362+BC&rft.place=Oxford&rft.edition=2nd&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=2002&rft.isbn=0-415-26276-3&rft.aulast=Cartledge&rft.aufirst=Paul&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASparta" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFCartledge2001" class="citation cs2"><a href="/wiki/Paul_Cartledge" title="Paul Cartledge">Cartledge, Paul</a> (2001), <i>Spartan Reflections</i>, London: Duckworth, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-7156-2966-2" title="Special:BookSources/0-7156-2966-2"><bdi>0-7156-2966-2</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Spartan+Reflections&rft.place=London&rft.pub=Duckworth&rft.date=2001&rft.isbn=0-7156-2966-2&rft.aulast=Cartledge&rft.aufirst=Paul&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASparta" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFCartledgeSpawforth2001" class="citation cs2"><a href="/wiki/Paul_Cartledge" title="Paul Cartledge">Cartledge, Paul</a>; Spawforth, Antony (2001), <i>Hellenistic and Roman Sparta</i> (2nd ed.), Oxford: Routledge, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-415-26277-1" title="Special:BookSources/0-415-26277-1"><bdi>0-415-26277-1</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Hellenistic+and+Roman+Sparta&rft.place=Oxford&rft.edition=2nd&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=2001&rft.isbn=0-415-26277-1&rft.aulast=Cartledge&rft.aufirst=Paul&rft.au=Spawforth%2C+Antony&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASparta" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFEhrenberg2002" class="citation cs2"><a href="/wiki/Victor_Ehrenberg_(historian)" title="Victor Ehrenberg (historian)">Ehrenberg, Victor</a> (2002) [1973], <i>From Solon to Socrates: Greek History and Civilisation between the 6th and 5th centuries BC</i> (2nd ed.), London: Routledge, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-415-04024-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-415-04024-2"><bdi>978-0-415-04024-2</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=From+Solon+to+Socrates%3A+Greek+History+and+Civilisation+between+the+6th+and+5th+centuries+BC&rft.place=London&rft.edition=2nd&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=2002&rft.isbn=978-0-415-04024-2&rft.aulast=Ehrenberg&rft.aufirst=Victor&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASparta" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFForrest1968" class="citation cs2">Forrest, W. G. (1968), <i>A History of Sparta, 950–192 B.C.</i>, New York: W. W. Norton & Co.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+History+of+Sparta%2C+950%E2%80%93192+B.C.&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=W.+W.+Norton+%26+Co.&rft.date=1968&rft.aulast=Forrest&rft.aufirst=W.+G.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASparta" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFGreen1998" class="citation cs2"><a href="/wiki/Peter_Green_(historian)" title="Peter Green (historian)">Green, Peter</a> (1998), <i>The Greco-Persian Wars</i> (2nd ed.), Berkeley: University of California Press, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-520-20313-5" title="Special:BookSources/0-520-20313-5"><bdi>0-520-20313-5</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Greco-Persian+Wars&rft.place=Berkeley&rft.edition=2nd&rft.pub=University+of+California+Press&rft.date=1998&rft.isbn=0-520-20313-5&rft.aulast=Green&rft.aufirst=Peter&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASparta" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFLiddellScott1940" class="citation book cs1">Liddell, Henry George; Scott, Robert (1940). Jones, Henry Stuart (ed.). <i>A Greek-English Lexicon</i>. Oxford: Clarendon Press.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+Greek-English+Lexicon&rft.place=Oxford&rft.pub=Clarendon+Press&rft.date=1940&rft.aulast=Liddell&rft.aufirst=Henry+George&rft.au=Scott%2C+Robert&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASparta" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFPomeroy2002" class="citation cs2"><a href="/wiki/Sarah_B._Pomeroy" title="Sarah B. Pomeroy">Pomeroy, Sarah B.</a> (2002), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=c3k2AN1GulYC"><i>Spartan Women</i></a>, Oxford: Oxford University Press, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-513067-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-513067-6"><bdi>978-0-19-513067-6</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Spartan+Women&rft.place=Oxford&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2002&rft.isbn=978-0-19-513067-6&rft.aulast=Pomeroy&rft.aufirst=Sarah+B.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Dc3k2AN1GulYC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASparta" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFPowell2001" class="citation cs2">Powell, Anton (2001), <i>Athens and Sparta: Constructing Greek Political and Social History from 478 BC</i> (2nd ed.), London: Routledge, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-415-26280-1" title="Special:BookSources/0-415-26280-1"><bdi>0-415-26280-1</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Athens+and+Sparta%3A+Constructing+Greek+Political+and+Social+History+from+478+BC&rft.place=London&rft.edition=2nd&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=2001&rft.isbn=0-415-26280-1&rft.aulast=Powell&rft.aufirst=Anton&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASparta" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFPausanias1918" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Pausanias_(geographer)" title="Pausanias (geographer)">Pausanias</a> (1918). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/pausaniasgreece02pausuoft"><i>Description of Greece</i></a>. with an English Translation by W.H.S. Jones, Litt.D., and H.A. Ormerod, M.A., in 4 Volumes. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780674992078" title="Special:BookSources/9780674992078"><bdi>9780674992078</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Description+of+Greece&rft.date=1918&rft.isbn=9780674992078&rft.au=Pausanias&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fpausaniasgreece02pausuoft&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASparta" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFPlutarch1874" class="citation cs2"><a href="/wiki/Plutarch" title="Plutarch">Plutarch</a> (1874), <i>Plutarch's Morals</i>, Translated from the Greek by several hands. Corrected and revised by. William W. Goodwin, PH. D., Boston, Cambridge</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Plutarch%27s+Morals&rft.place=Boston%2C+Cambridge&rft.date=1874&rft.au=Plutarch&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASparta" class="Z3988"></span><span class="cs1-maint citation-comment"><code class="cs1-code">{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Citation" title="Template:Citation">citation</a>}}</code>: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (<a href="/wiki/Category:CS1_maint:_location_missing_publisher" title="Category:CS1 maint: location missing publisher">link</a>)</span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFPlutarch1891" class="citation cs2 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">Plutarch (1891), Bernardakis, Gregorius N. (ed.), <i>Moralia</i>, Plutarch (in Greek), Leipzig: Teubner</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Moralia&rft.place=Leipzig&rft.series=Plutarch&rft.pub=Teubner&rft.date=1891&rft.au=Plutarch&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASparta" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFPlutarch2005" class="citation cs2">Plutarch (2005), Richard J.A. Talbert (ed.), <i>On Sparta</i> (2nd ed.), London: Penguin Books, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-14-044943-4" title="Special:BookSources/0-14-044943-4"><bdi>0-14-044943-4</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=On+Sparta&rft.place=London&rft.edition=2nd&rft.pub=Penguin+Books&rft.date=2005&rft.isbn=0-14-044943-4&rft.au=Plutarch&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASparta" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFPlutarch2004" class="citation cs2">Plutarch (2004), Frank Cole Babbitt (ed.), <i>Moralia Volume III</i>, Loeb Classical Library, Cambridge: Harvard University Press, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-674-99270-9" title="Special:BookSources/0-674-99270-9"><bdi>0-674-99270-9</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Moralia+Volume+III&rft.place=Cambridge&rft.series=Loeb+Classical+Library&rft.pub=Harvard+University+Press&rft.date=2004&rft.isbn=0-674-99270-9&rft.au=Plutarch&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASparta" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFWest1999" class="citation cs2"><a href="/wiki/Martin_Litchfield_West" title="Martin Litchfield West">West, M. L.</a> (1999), <i>Greek Lyric Poetry</i>, Oxford: Oxford University Press, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-954039-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-954039-6"><bdi>978-0-19-954039-6</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Greek+Lyric+Poetry&rft.place=Oxford&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=1999&rft.isbn=978-0-19-954039-6&rft.aulast=West&rft.aufirst=M.+L.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASparta" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Further_reading">Further reading</h2></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239549316" /><div class="refbegin refbegin-columns references-column-width" style="column-width: 30em"> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFBradford2004" class="citation cs2"><a href="/wiki/Ernle_Bradford" title="Ernle Bradford">Bradford, Ernle</a> (2004), <i>Thermopylae: The Battle for the West</i>, New York: Da Capo Press, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-306-81360-2" title="Special:BookSources/0-306-81360-2"><bdi>0-306-81360-2</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Thermopylae%3A+The+Battle+for+the+West&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=Da+Capo+Press&rft.date=2004&rft.isbn=0-306-81360-2&rft.aulast=Bradford&rft.aufirst=Ernle&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASparta" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFBuxton1999" class="citation cs2">Buxton, Richard (1999), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/whatwillidowitho00grin_0"><i>From Myth to Reason?: Studies in the Development of Greek Thought</i></a>, Oxford: Clarendon Press, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-7534-5110-7" title="Special:BookSources/0-7534-5110-7"><bdi>0-7534-5110-7</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=From+Myth+to+Reason%3F%3A+Studies+in+the+Development+of+Greek+Thought&rft.place=Oxford&rft.pub=Clarendon+Press&rft.date=1999&rft.isbn=0-7534-5110-7&rft.aulast=Buxton&rft.aufirst=Richard&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fwhatwillidowitho00grin_0&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASparta" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFCartledge2004" class="citation cs2"><a href="/wiki/Paul_Cartledge" title="Paul Cartledge">Cartledge, Paul</a> (2004), "What have the Spartans Done for us?: Sparta's Contribution to Western Civilization", <i>Greece & Rome</i>, vol. 51, no. 2, pp. <span class="nowrap">164–</span>179</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Greece+%26+Rome&rft.atitle=What+have+the+Spartans+Done+for+us%3F%3A+Sparta%27s+Contribution+to+Western+Civilization&rft.volume=51&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E164-%3C%2Fspan%3E179&rft.date=2004&rft.aulast=Cartledge&rft.aufirst=Paul&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASparta" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li>David, Ephraim. 1989. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.academia.edu/40071959/Dress_in_Spartan_Society">"Dress in Spartan Society"</a>. <i>Ancient World</i> 19:3–13.</li> <li>Flower, Michael A. 2009. "Spartan 'Religion' and Greek 'Religion<span style="padding-right:.15em;">'</span>". In <i>Sparta: Comparative Approaches</i>. Edited by Stephen Hodkinson, 193–229. Swansea, UK: Classical Press of Wales.</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFHodkinsonGallou2021" class="citation book cs1">Hodkinson, Stephen; Gallou, Chrysanthi, eds. (2021). <i>Luxury and wealth in Sparta and the Peloponnese</i>. Swansea: Classical Press of Wales. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781910589830" title="Special:BookSources/9781910589830"><bdi>9781910589830</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Luxury+and+wealth+in+Sparta+and+the+Peloponnese&rft.place=Swansea&rft.pub=Classical+Press+of+Wales&rft.date=2021&rft.isbn=9781910589830&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASparta" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li>Hodkinson, Stephen, and Ian MacGregor Morris, eds. 2010. <i>Sparta in Modern Thought</i>. Swansea, UK: Classical Press of Wales.</li> <li>Low, Polly. 2006. "Commemorating the Spartan War-Dead". In <i>Sparta and War</i>. Edited by Stephen Hodkinson and Anton Powell, 85–109. Swansea, UK: Classical Press of Wales.</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFMorris1992" class="citation cs2">Morris, Ian (1992), <i>Death-Ritual and Social Structure in Classical Antiquity</i>, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-521-37611-4" title="Special:BookSources/0-521-37611-4"><bdi>0-521-37611-4</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Death-Ritual+and+Social+Structure+in+Classical+Antiquity&rft.place=Cambridge&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=1992&rft.isbn=0-521-37611-4&rft.aulast=Morris&rft.aufirst=Ian&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASparta" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFPavlides2023" class="citation book cs1">Pavlides, Nicolette A. (2023). <i>The hero cults of Sparta: local religion in a Greek city</i>. London: Bloomsbury Academic. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781788313001" title="Special:BookSources/9781788313001"><bdi>9781788313001</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+hero+cults+of+Sparta%3A+local+religion+in+a+Greek+city&rft.place=London&rft.pub=Bloomsbury+Academic&rft.date=2023&rft.isbn=9781788313001&rft.aulast=Pavlides&rft.aufirst=Nicolette+A.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASparta" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li>Rabinowitz, Adam. 2009. "Drinking from the Same Cup: Sparta and Late Archaic Commensality". In <i>Sparta: Comparative Approaches</i>. Edited by Stephen Hodkinson, 113–191. Swansea, UK: Classical Press of Wales.</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFThompson2002" class="citation cs2">Thompson, F. Hugh (2002), <i>The Archaeology of Greek and Roman Slavery</i>, London: Duckworth, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-7156-3195-0" title="Special:BookSources/0-7156-3195-0"><bdi>0-7156-3195-0</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Archaeology+of+Greek+and+Roman+Slavery&rft.place=London&rft.pub=Duckworth&rft.date=2002&rft.isbn=0-7156-3195-0&rft.aulast=Thompson&rft.aufirst=F.+Hugh&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASparta" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFThucydides1974" class="citation cs2"><a href="/wiki/Thucydides" title="Thucydides">Thucydides</a> (1974), M.I. Finley, Rex Warner (ed.), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/historyofpelopo000thuc"><i>History of the Peloponnesian War</i></a>, London: Penguin Books, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-14-044039-9" title="Special:BookSources/0-14-044039-9"><bdi>0-14-044039-9</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=History+of+the+Peloponnesian+War&rft.place=London&rft.pub=Penguin+Books&rft.date=1974&rft.isbn=0-14-044039-9&rft.au=Thucydides&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fhistoryofpelopo000thuc&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASparta" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1235681985" /><div class="side-box metadata side-box-right"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409" /> <div class="side-box-abovebelow"> <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:The_Wikipedia_Library" title="Wikipedia:The Wikipedia Library">Library resources</a> about <br /> <b>Sparta</b> <hr /></div> <div class="side-box-flex"> <div class="side-box-text plainlist"><ul><li><a class="external text" href="https://ftl.toolforge.org/cgi-bin/ftl?st=wp&su=Sparta&library=OLBP">Online books</a></li> <li><a class="external text" href="https://ftl.toolforge.org/cgi-bin/ftl?st=wp&su=Sparta">Resources in your library</a></li> <li><a class="external text" href="https://ftl.toolforge.org/cgi-bin/ftl?st=wp&su=Sparta&library=0CHOOSE0">Resources in other libraries</a></li> </ul></div></div> </div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1235681985" /><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1237033735">@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox{display:none!important}}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox img[src*="Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg"]{background-color:white}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox img[src*="Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg"]{background-color:white}}</style><div class="side-box side-box-right plainlinks sistersitebox"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409" /> <div class="side-box-flex"> <div class="side-box-image"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Wikisource-logo.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg/40px-Wikisource-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="38" height="40" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg/60px-Wikisource-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg/120px-Wikisource-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="410" data-file-height="430" /></a></span></div> <div class="side-box-text plainlist"><a href="/wiki/Wikisource" title="Wikisource">Wikisource</a> has the text of the <a href="/wiki/Encyclop%C3%A6dia_Britannica_Eleventh_Edition" title="Encyclopædia Britannica Eleventh Edition">1911 <i>Encyclopædia Britannica</i></a> article "<span style="font-weight:bold;"><a href="https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/1911_Encyclop%C3%A6dia_Britannica/Sparta" class="extiw" title="wikisource:1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Sparta">Sparta</a></span>".</div></div> </div> <ul><li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Commons-logo.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/20px-Commons-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="12" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/40px-Commons-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="1376" /></a></span> Media related to <a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Sparta" class="extiw" title="commons:Category:Sparta">Sparta</a> at Wikimedia Commons</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.bbc.co.uk/programmes/b00nvz72">Sparta</a> on <a href="/wiki/In_Our_Time_(radio_series)" title="In Our Time (radio series)"><i>In Our Time</i></a> at the <a href="/wiki/BBC" title="BBC">BBC</a></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFPapakyriakou-Anagnostou2000–2011" class="citation web cs1">Papakyriakou-Anagnostou, Ellen (2000–2011). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20010305205126/http://www.sikyon.com/Sparta/history_eg.html">"History of Sparta"</a>. <i>Ancient Greek Cities</i>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.sikyon.com/sparta/history_eg.html">the original</a> on 5 March 2001<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">4 December</span> 2007</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Ancient+Greek+Cities&rft.atitle=History+of+Sparta&rft.date=2000%2F2011&rft.aulast=Papakyriakou-Anagnostou&rft.aufirst=Ellen&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.sikyon.com%2Fsparta%2Fhistory_eg.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASparta" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul> <div class="navbox-styles"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1129693374">.mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul{margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt,.mw-parser-output .hlist li{margin:0;display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul ul{display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist .mw-empty-li{display:none}.mw-parser-output .hlist dt::after{content:": "}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li::after{content:" · ";font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li:last-child::after{content:none}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd dd:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dd dt:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dd li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt dd:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt dt:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dd:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dt:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li li:first-child::before{content:" (";font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dd dt:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dd li:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt dt:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt li:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dt:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li li:last-child::after{content:")";font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .hlist ol{counter-reset:listitem}.mw-parser-output .hlist ol>li{counter-increment:listitem}.mw-parser-output .hlist ol>li::before{content:" "counter(listitem)"\a0 "}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd ol>li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt ol>li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li ol>li:first-child::before{content:" ("counter(listitem)"\a0 "}</style><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236075235">.mw-parser-output .navbox{box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #a2a9b1;width:100%;clear:both;font-size:88%;text-align:center;padding:1px;margin:1em auto 0}.mw-parser-output .navbox .navbox{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .navbox+.navbox,.mw-parser-output .navbox+.navbox-styles+.navbox{margin-top:-1px}.mw-parser-output .navbox-inner,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup{width:100%}.mw-parser-output .navbox-group,.mw-parser-output .navbox-title,.mw-parser-output .navbox-abovebelow{padding:0.25em 1em;line-height:1.5em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .navbox-group{white-space:nowrap;text-align:right}.mw-parser-output .navbox,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup{background-color:#fdfdfd}.mw-parser-output .navbox-list{line-height:1.5em;border-color:#fdfdfd}.mw-parser-output .navbox-list-with-group{text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid}.mw-parser-output tr+tr>.navbox-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output tr+tr>.navbox-group,.mw-parser-output tr+tr>.navbox-image,.mw-parser-output tr+tr>.navbox-list{border-top:2px solid #fdfdfd}.mw-parser-output .navbox-title{background-color:#ccf}.mw-parser-output .navbox-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output .navbox-group,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup .navbox-title{background-color:#ddf}.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup .navbox-group,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup .navbox-abovebelow{background-color:#e6e6ff}.mw-parser-output .navbox-even{background-color:#f7f7f7}.mw-parser-output .navbox-odd{background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td dl,.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td ol,.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td ul,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist ul{padding:0.125em 0}.mw-parser-output .navbox .navbar{display:block;font-size:100%}.mw-parser-output .navbox-title .navbar{float:left;text-align:left;margin-right:0.5em}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .navbox-image img{max-width:none!important}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .navbox{display:none!important}}</style><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374" /><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374" /><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374" /><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374" /></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Ancient_Greece390" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374" /><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239400231">.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar ul{display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::before{margin-right:-0.125em;content:"[ "}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::after{margin-left:-0.125em;content:" ]"}.mw-parser-output .navbar li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .navbar a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini abbr{font-variant:small-caps;border-bottom:none;text-decoration:none;cursor:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-full{font-size:114%;margin:0 7em}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-mini{font-size:114%;margin:0 4em}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}}</style><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Ancient_Greece_topics" title="Template:Ancient Greece topics"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Ancient_Greece_topics" title="Template talk:Ancient Greece topics"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Ancient_Greece_topics" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Ancient Greece topics"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Ancient_Greece390" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greece" title="Ancient Greece">Ancient Greece</a></div></th></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_ancient_Greece" title="Timeline of ancient Greece">Timeline</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="HistoryGeography390" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><div class="hlist"><ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Greece" title="History of Greece">History</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Regions_of_ancient_Greece" title="Regions of ancient Greece">Geography</a></li></ul></div></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Periods</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cycladic_culture" title="Cycladic culture">Cycladic civilization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Minoan_civilization" title="Minoan civilization">Minoan civilization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mycenaean_Greece" title="Mycenaean Greece">Mycenaean Greece</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Greek_Dark_Ages" title="Greek Dark Ages">Greek Dark Ages</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Archaic_Greece" title="Archaic Greece">Archaic Greece</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Classical_Greece" title="Classical Greece">Classical Greece</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hellenistic_Greece" title="Hellenistic Greece">Hellenistic Greece</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Greece_in_the_Roman_era" title="Greece in the Roman era">Roman Greece</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Regions_of_ancient_Greece" title="Regions of ancient Greece">Geography</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Aegean_Sea" title="Aegean Sea">Aegean Sea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aeolis" title="Aeolis">Aeolis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crete" title="Crete">Crete</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cyrenaica" title="Cyrenaica">Cyrenaica</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cyprus" title="Cyprus">Cyprus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Doric_Hexapolis" title="Doric Hexapolis">Doris</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Epirus" title="Epirus">Epirus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dardanelles" title="Dardanelles">Hellespont</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ionia" title="Ionia">Ionia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ionian_Sea" title="Ionian Sea">Ionian Sea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Macedonia_(region)" title="Macedonia (region)">Macedonia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Magna_Graecia" title="Magna Graecia">Magna Graecia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peloponnese" title="Peloponnese">Peloponnesus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pontus_(region)" title="Pontus (region)">Pontus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crimea" title="Crimea">Taurica</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Colonies_in_antiquity" title="Colonies in antiquity">Ancient Greek colonies</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="City_statesPoliticsMilitary390" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><div class="hlist"><ul><li><a href="/wiki/Polis" title="Polis">City states</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greece#Politics_and_society" title="Ancient Greece">Politics</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greek_warfare" title="Ancient Greek warfare">Military</a></li></ul></div></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Polis" title="Polis">City states</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Argos" class="mw-redirect" title="Ancient Argos">Argos</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Classical_Athens" title="Classical Athens">Athens</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Byzantium" title="Byzantium">Byzantion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chalcis" title="Chalcis">Chalcis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Corinth" title="Ancient Corinth">Corinth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ephesus" title="Ephesus">Ephesus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Miletus" title="Miletus">Miletus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pergamon" title="Pergamon">Pergamon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eretria" title="Eretria">Eretria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Corfu" title="Corfu">Kerkyra</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Larissa" title="Larissa">Larissa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Megalopolis,_Greece" title="Megalopolis, Greece">Megalopolis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thebes,_Greece" title="Thebes, Greece">Thebes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Megara" title="Megara">Megara</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rhodes" title="Rhodes">Rhodes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Samos" title="Samos">Samos</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Sparta</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lissus_(Crete)" title="Lissus (Crete)">Lissus (Crete)</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Kingdoms</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Bithynia" title="Kingdom of Bithynia">Bithynia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Cappadocia" title="Kingdom of Cappadocia">Cappadocia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Epirus_(ancient_state)" title="Epirus (ancient state)">Epirus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Greco-Bactrian_Kingdom" title="Greco-Bactrian Kingdom">Greco-Bactrian Kingdom</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indo-Greek_Kingdom" title="Indo-Greek Kingdom">Indo-Greek Kingdom</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Macedonia_(ancient_kingdom)" title="Macedonia (ancient kingdom)">Macedonia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Pergamon" title="Kingdom of Pergamon">Pergamon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Pontus" title="Kingdom of Pontus">Pontus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ptolemaic_Kingdom" title="Ptolemaic Kingdom">Ptolemaic Kingdom</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Seleucid_Empire" title="Seleucid Empire">Seleucid Empire</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Federation" title="Federation">Federations</a>/<br /><a href="/wiki/Confederation" title="Confederation">Confederations</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Doric_Hexapolis" title="Doric Hexapolis">Doric Hexapolis</a> (<abbr title="circa">c.</abbr><span style="white-space:nowrap;"> 1100</span> – c.<span style="white-space:nowrap;"> 560 BC</span>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Italiotes#Italiote_League" title="Italiotes">Italiote League</a> (<abbr title="circa">c.</abbr><span style="white-space:nowrap;"> 800</span>–389 BC)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ionian_League" title="Ionian League">Ionian League</a> (c. 650–404 BC)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peloponnesian_League" title="Peloponnesian League">Peloponnesian League</a> (<abbr title="circa">c.</abbr><span style="white-space:nowrap;"> 550</span>–366 BC)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Amphictyonic_League" class="mw-redirect" title="Amphictyonic League">Amphictyonic League</a> (<abbr title="circa">c.</abbr><span style="white-space:nowrap;"> 595</span>–279 BC)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Acarnanian_League" title="Acarnanian League">Acarnanian League</a> (c. 500–31 BC)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Greco-Persian_Wars" title="Greco-Persian Wars">Hellenic League</a> (499–449 BC)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Delian_League" title="Delian League">Delian League</a> (478–404 BC)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chalcidian_League" title="Chalcidian League">Chalcidian League</a> (430–348 BC)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Boeotia#Boeotian_League" title="Boeotia">Boeotian League</a> (c. 424–c. 395 BC)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aetolian_League" title="Aetolian League">Aetolian League</a> (c. 400–188 BC)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Second_Athenian_League" title="Second Athenian League">Second Athenian League</a> (378–355 BC)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thessalian_League" title="Thessalian League">Thessalian League</a> (374–196 BC)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arcadian_League" title="Arcadian League">Arcadian League</a> (370–c. 230 BC)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Epirote_League" title="Epirote League">Epirote League</a> (370–168 BC)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/League_of_Corinth" title="League of Corinth">League of Corinth</a> (338–322 BC)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Euboean_League" title="Euboean League">Euboean League</a> (c. 300 BC–c. 300 AD)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Achaean_League" title="Achaean League">Achaean League</a> (280–146 BC)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greece#Politics_and_society" title="Ancient Greece">Politics</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Boule_(ancient_Greece)" title="Boule (ancient Greece)">Boule</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Free_city_(classical_antiquity)" title="Free city (classical antiquity)">Free city</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Koinon" title="Koinon">Koinon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Proxeny" title="Proxeny">Proxeny</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stasis_(ancient_Greece)" title="Stasis (ancient Greece)">Stasis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tagus_(title)" title="Tagus (title)">Tagus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tyrant" title="Tyrant">Tyrant</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Athenian_democracy" title="Athenian democracy">Athenian</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Agora" title="Agora">Agora</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Areopagus" title="Areopagus">Areopagus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecclesia_(ancient_Athens)" class="mw-redirect" title="Ecclesia (ancient Athens)">Ecclesia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Graphe_paranomon" title="Graphe paranomon">Graphe paranomon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Heliaia" title="Heliaia">Heliaia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ostracism" title="Ostracism">Ostracism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Spartan_Constitution" title="Spartan Constitution">Spartan</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ecclesia_(Sparta)" title="Ecclesia (Sparta)">Ekklesia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ephor" title="Ephor">Ephor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gerousia" title="Gerousia">Gerousia</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Macedonia_(ancient_kingdom)" title="Macedonia (ancient kingdom)">Macedon</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Synedrion" title="Synedrion">Synedrion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Koinon_of_Macedonians" class="mw-redirect" title="Koinon of Macedonians">Koinon</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greek_warfare" title="Ancient Greek warfare">Military</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_wars_involving_Greece" title="List of wars involving Greece">Wars</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Athenian_military" title="Athenian military">Athenian military</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Scythian_archers" title="Scythian archers">Scythian archers</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Antigonid_Macedonian_army" title="Antigonid Macedonian army">Antigonid Macedonian army</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Macedonian_army" title="Ancient Macedonian army">Army of Macedon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ballista" title="Ballista">Ballista</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cretan_archers" title="Cretan archers">Cretan archers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hellenistic_armies" title="Hellenistic armies">Hellenistic armies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hippeis" title="Hippeis">Hippeis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hoplite" title="Hoplite">Hoplite</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Companion_cavalry" title="Companion cavalry">Hetairoi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Macedonian_phalanx" title="Macedonian phalanx">Macedonian phalanx</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Military_of_Mycenaean_Greece" title="Military of Mycenaean Greece">Military of Mycenaean Greece</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phalanx" title="Phalanx">Phalanx</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peltast" title="Peltast">Peltast</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pezhetairos" title="Pezhetairos">Pezhetairos</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sarissa" title="Sarissa">Sarissa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sacred_Band_of_Thebes" title="Sacred Band of Thebes">Sacred Band of Thebes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sciritae" title="Sciritae">Sciritae</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Seleucid_army" title="Seleucid army">Seleucid army</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spartan_army" title="Spartan army">Spartan army</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Strategos" title="Strategos">Strategos</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Toxotai" title="Toxotai">Toxotai</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Xiphos" title="Xiphos">Xiphos</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Xyston" title="Xyston">Xyston</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="People390" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Category:Ancient_Greeks" title="Category:Ancient Greeks">People</a></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div id="List_of_ancient_Greeks183"><a href="/wiki/List_of_ancient_Greeks" title="List of ancient Greeks">List of ancient Greeks</a></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Lists_of_rulers_of_Greece#Antiquity" class="mw-redirect" title="Lists of rulers of Greece">Rulers</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_kings_of_Argos" title="List of kings of Argos">Kings of Argos</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eponymous_archon" title="Eponymous archon">Archons of Athens</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_kings_of_Athens" title="List of kings of Athens">Kings of Athens</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_rulers_of_Commagene" class="mw-redirect" title="List of rulers of Commagene">Kings of Commagene</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Diadochi" title="Diadochi">Diadochi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_kings_of_Macedonia" title="List of kings of Macedonia">Kings of Macedonia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_rulers_of_Thrace_and_Dacia" class="mw-redirect" title="List of rulers of Thrace and Dacia">Kings of Paionia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Attalid_dynasty" class="mw-redirect" title="Attalid dynasty">Attalid kings of Pergamon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_kings_of_Pontus" class="mw-redirect" title="List of kings of Pontus">Kings of Pontus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ptolemaic_dynasty" title="Ptolemaic dynasty">Ptolemaic dynasty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Seleucid_dynasty" title="Seleucid dynasty">Seleucid dynasty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_kings_of_Sparta" title="List of kings of Sparta">Kings of Sparta</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_tyrants_of_Syracuse" title="List of tyrants of Syracuse">Tyrants of Syracuse</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Artists & scholars</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_ancient_Greek_astronomers" title="List of ancient Greek astronomers">Astronomers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Graeco-Roman_geographers" title="List of Graeco-Roman geographers">Geographers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_ancient_Greek_historians" title="List of ancient Greek historians">Historians</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_ancient_Greek_mathematicians" title="List of ancient Greek mathematicians">Mathematicians</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_ancient_Greek_philosophers" title="List of ancient Greek philosophers">Philosophers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_ancient_Greek_playwrights" title="List of ancient Greek playwrights">Playwrights</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_ancient_Greek_poets" title="List of ancient Greek poets">Poets</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Seven_Sages_of_Greece" title="Seven Sages of Greece">Seven Sages</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_ancient_Greek_writers" title="List of ancient Greek writers">Writers</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greek_philosophy" title="Ancient Greek philosophy">Philosophers</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anaxagoras" title="Anaxagoras">Anaxagoras</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anaximander" title="Anaximander">Anaximander</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anaximenes_of_Miletus" title="Anaximenes of Miletus">Anaximenes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Antisthenes" title="Antisthenes">Antisthenes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aristotle" title="Aristotle">Aristotle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Democritus" title="Democritus">Democritus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Diogenes" title="Diogenes">Diogenes of Sinope</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Empedocles" title="Empedocles">Empedocles</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Epicurus" title="Epicurus">Epicurus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gorgias" title="Gorgias">Gorgias</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Heraclitus" title="Heraclitus">Heraclitus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hypatia" title="Hypatia">Hypatia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Leucippus" title="Leucippus">Leucippus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Parmenides" title="Parmenides">Parmenides</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plato" title="Plato">Plato</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Protagoras" title="Protagoras">Protagoras</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pythagoras" title="Pythagoras">Pythagoras</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Socrates" title="Socrates">Socrates</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thales_of_Miletus" title="Thales of Miletus">Thales</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zeno_of_Elea" title="Zeno of Elea">Zeno</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greek_literature" title="Ancient Greek literature">Authors</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Aeschylus" title="Aeschylus">Aeschylus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aesop" title="Aesop">Aesop</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alcaeus_of_Mytilene" class="mw-redirect" title="Alcaeus of Mytilene">Alcaeus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Archilochus" title="Archilochus">Archilochus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aristophanes" title="Aristophanes">Aristophanes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bacchylides" title="Bacchylides">Bacchylides</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Euripides" title="Euripides">Euripides</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Herodotus" title="Herodotus">Herodotus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hesiod" title="Hesiod">Hesiod</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hipponax" title="Hipponax">Hipponax</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Homer" title="Homer">Homer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ibycus" title="Ibycus">Ibycus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lucian" title="Lucian">Lucian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Menander" title="Menander">Menander</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mimnermus" title="Mimnermus">Mimnermus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Panyassis" title="Panyassis">Panyassis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philocles" title="Philocles">Philocles</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pindar" title="Pindar">Pindar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plutarch" title="Plutarch">Plutarch</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Polybius" title="Polybius">Polybius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sappho" title="Sappho">Sappho</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Simonides_of_Ceos" title="Simonides of Ceos">Simonides</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sophocles" title="Sophocles">Sophocles</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stesichorus" title="Stesichorus">Stesichorus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theognis_of_Megara" title="Theognis of Megara">Theognis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thucydides" title="Thucydides">Thucydides</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Timocreon" title="Timocreon">Timocreon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tyrtaeus" title="Tyrtaeus">Tyrtaeus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Xenophon" title="Xenophon">Xenophon</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Others</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_ancient_Athenian_statesmen" class="mw-redirect" title="List of ancient Athenian statesmen">Athenian statesmen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_ancient_Greek_lawgivers" title="List of ancient Greek lawgivers">Lawgivers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_ancient_Olympic_victors" title="List of ancient Olympic victors">Olympic victors</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_ancient_Greek_tyrants" title="List of ancient Greek tyrants">Tyrants</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">By culture</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_ancient_Greek_tribes" title="List of ancient Greek tribes">Ancient Greek tribes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Thracian_Greeks" title="List of Thracian Greeks">Thracian Greeks</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_ancient_Macedonians" title="List of ancient Macedonians">Ancient Macedonians</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="SocietyCulture390" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><div class="hlist"><ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greece#Politics_and_society" title="Ancient Greece">Society</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Culture_of_Greece" title="Culture of Greece">Culture</a></li></ul></div></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greece#Politics_and_society" title="Ancient Greece">Society</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Agriculture_in_ancient_Greece" title="Agriculture in ancient Greece">Agriculture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greek_calendars" title="Ancient Greek calendars">Calendar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Clothing_in_ancient_Greece" title="Clothing in ancient Greece">Clothing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greek_coinage" title="Ancient Greek coinage">Coinage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greek_cuisine" title="Ancient Greek cuisine">Cuisine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Economy_of_ancient_Greece" title="Economy of ancient Greece">Economy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paideia" title="Paideia">Education</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Emporium_(antiquity)" title="Emporium (antiquity)">Emporium</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Euergetism" title="Euergetism">Euergetism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Athenian_festivals" title="Athenian festivals">Festivals</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greek_folklore" title="Ancient Greek folklore">Folklore</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Homosexuality_in_ancient_Greece" title="Homosexuality in ancient Greece">Homosexuality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greek_law" title="Ancient Greek law">Law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Olympic_Games" title="Ancient Olympic Games">Olympic Games</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pederasty_in_ancient_Greece" title="Pederasty in ancient Greece">Pederasty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greek_philosophy" title="Ancient Greek philosophy">Philosophy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prostitution_in_ancient_Greece" title="Prostitution in ancient Greece">Prostitution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greek_religion" title="Ancient Greek religion">Religion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_ancient_Greece" title="Slavery in ancient Greece">Slavery</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greek_warfare" title="Ancient Greek warfare">Warfare</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marriage_in_ancient_Greece" title="Marriage in ancient Greece">Wedding customs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greece_and_wine" title="Ancient Greece and wine">Wine</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greek_art" title="Ancient Greek art">Arts</a> and science</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greek_architecture" title="Ancient Greek architecture">Architecture</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Greek_Revival_architecture" title="Greek Revival architecture">Greek Revival architecture</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greek_astronomy" title="Ancient Greek astronomy">Astronomy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greek_literature" title="Ancient Greek literature">Literature</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Greek_mathematics" title="Greek mathematics">Mathematics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greek_medicine" title="Ancient Greek medicine">Medicine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Music_of_ancient_Greece" title="Music of ancient Greece">Music</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Musical_system_of_ancient_Greece" title="Musical system of ancient Greece">Musical system</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pottery_of_ancient_Greece" title="Pottery of ancient Greece">Pottery</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greek_sculpture" title="Ancient Greek sculpture">Sculpture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greek_technology" title="Ancient Greek technology">Technology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theatre_of_ancient_Greece" title="Theatre of ancient Greece">Theatre</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greek_religion" title="Ancient Greek religion">Religion</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greek_funeral_and_burial_practices" title="Ancient Greek funeral and burial practices">Funeral and burial practices</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Greek_mythology" title="Greek mythology">Mythology</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Greek_deities" title="List of Greek deities">Deities</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greek_temple" title="Ancient Greek temple">Temple</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Twelve_Olympians" title="Twelve Olympians">Twelve Olympians</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Greek_underworld" title="Greek underworld">Underworld</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;text-align:left;">Sacred places</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Eleusis" class="mw-redirect" title="Eleusis">Eleusis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Delphi" title="Delphi">Delphi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Delos" title="Delos">Delos</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dion,_Pieria" title="Dion, Pieria">Dion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dodona" title="Dodona">Dodona</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mount_Olympus" title="Mount Olympus">Mount Olympus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Olympia,_Greece" title="Olympia, Greece">Olympia</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Structures</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Athenian_Treasury" title="Athenian Treasury">Athenian Treasury</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lion_Gate" title="Lion Gate">Lion Gate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Long_Walls" title="Long Walls">Long Walls</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philippeion" title="Philippeion">Philippeion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theatre_of_Dionysus" title="Theatre of Dionysus">Theatre of Dionysus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tunnel_of_Eupalinos" title="Tunnel of Eupalinos">Tunnel of Eupalinos</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greek_temple" title="Ancient Greek temple">Temples</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Temple_of_Aphaea" class="mw-redirect" title="Temple of Aphaea">Aphaea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Temple_of_Artemis" title="Temple of Artemis">Artemis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Temple_of_Athena_Nike" title="Temple of Athena Nike">Athena Nike</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Erechtheion" title="Erechtheion">Erechtheion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Temple_of_Hephaestus" title="Temple of Hephaestus">Hephaestus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Temple_of_Hera,_Olympia" title="Temple of Hera, Olympia">Hera, Olympia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Parthenon" title="Parthenon">Parthenon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Samothrace_temple_complex" title="Samothrace temple complex">Samothrace</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Temple_of_Zeus,_Olympia" title="Temple of Zeus, Olympia">Zeus, Olympia</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greek" title="Ancient Greek">Language</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Proto-Greek_language" title="Proto-Greek language">Proto-Greek</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mycenaean_Greek" title="Mycenaean Greek">Mycenaean</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Homeric_Greek" title="Homeric Greek">Homeric</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greek_dialects" title="Ancient Greek dialects">Dialects</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Aeolic_Greek" title="Aeolic Greek">Aeolic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arcadocypriot_Greek" title="Arcadocypriot Greek">Arcadocypriot</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Attic_Greek" title="Attic Greek">Attic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Doric_Greek" title="Doric Greek">Doric</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Epirote_Greek" title="Epirote Greek">Epirote</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ionic_Greek" title="Ionic Greek">Ionic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Locrian_Greek" title="Locrian Greek">Locrian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Macedonian_language" title="Ancient Macedonian language">Macedonian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pamphylian_Greek" title="Pamphylian Greek">Pamphylian</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Koine_Greek" title="Koine Greek">Koine</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Greek_alphabet" title="History of the Greek alphabet">Writing</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Linear_A" title="Linear A">Linear A</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Linear_B" title="Linear B">Linear B</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cypriot_syllabary" title="Cypriot syllabary">Cypriot syllabary</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Greek_alphabet" title="Greek alphabet">Greek alphabet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Greek_numerals" title="Greek numerals">Greek numerals</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Attic_numerals" title="Attic numerals">Attic numerals</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Greek_colonisation390" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><div class="hlist"><ul><li><a href="/wiki/Greek_colonisation" title="Greek colonisation">Greek colonisation</a></li></ul></div></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Magna_Graecia" title="Magna Graecia">Magna Graecia</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Mainland<br />Italy</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Lecce" title="Lecce">Alision</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Brindisi" title="Brindisi">Brentesion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Caulonia_(ancient_city)" title="Caulonia (ancient city)">Caulonia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Casabona" title="Casabona">Chone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crotone" title="Crotone">Croton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cumae" title="Cumae">Cumae</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Velia" title="Velia">Elea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Heraclea_Lucania" title="Heraclea Lucania">Heraclea Lucania</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vibo_Valentia" title="Vibo Valentia">Hipponion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Otranto" title="Otranto">Hydrus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Krimisa" title="Krimisa">Krimisa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/La%C3%BCs" title="Laüs">Laüs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Locri" title="Locri">Locri</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Medma" title="Medma">Medma</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Metauros" title="Metauros">Metauros</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Metapontum" title="Metapontum">Metapontion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Naples" title="Naples">Neápolis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pandosia_(Lucania)" title="Pandosia (Lucania)">Pandosia (Lucania)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paestum" title="Paestum">Poseidonia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Policastro_Bussentino" title="Policastro Bussentino">Pixous</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reggio_Calabria" title="Reggio Calabria">Rhegion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scylletium" title="Scylletium">Scylletium</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Siris_(Magna_Graecia)" class="mw-redirect" title="Siris (Magna Graecia)">Siris</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sybaris" title="Sybaris">Sybaris</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sybaris_on_the_Traeis" title="Sybaris on the Traeis">Sybaris on the Traeis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Taranto" title="Taranto">Taras</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Terina_(ancient_city)" title="Terina (ancient city)">Terina</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thurii" title="Thurii">Thurii</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Sicily" title="Sicily">Sicily</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Agrigento" title="Agrigento">Akragas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Akrai" title="Akrai">Akrai</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Akrillai" title="Akrillai">Akrillai</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Apollonia_(Sicily)" title="Apollonia (Sicily)">Apollonia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Caronia" title="Caronia">Calacte</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Casmenae" title="Casmenae">Casmenae</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Catania" title="Catania">Catana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gela" title="Gela">Gela</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Helorus" title="Helorus">Helorus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Enna" title="Enna">Henna</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Heraclea_Minoa" title="Heraclea Minoa">Heraclea Minoa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Himera" title="Himera">Himera</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hybla_Gereatis" title="Hybla Gereatis">Hybla Gereatis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hybla_Heraea" title="Hybla Heraea">Hybla Heraea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kamarina,_Sicily" title="Kamarina, Sicily">Kamarina</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lentini" title="Lentini">Leontinoi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Megara_Hyblaea" title="Megara Hyblaea">Megara Hyblaea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Messina" title="Messina">Messana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Naxos_(Sicily)" title="Naxos (Sicily)">Naxos</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Segesta" title="Segesta">Segesta</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Selinunte" title="Selinunte">Selinous</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Syracuse,_Sicily" title="Syracuse, Sicily">Syracuse</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Taormina" title="Taormina">Tauromenion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sciacca" title="Sciacca">Thermae</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tindari" title="Tindari">Tyndaris</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Aeolian_Islands" title="Aeolian Islands">Aeolian Islands</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Salina,_Sicily" title="Salina, Sicily">Didyme</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Panarea" title="Panarea">Euonymos</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alicudi" title="Alicudi">Ereikousa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Basiluzzo" title="Basiluzzo">Hycesia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lipari" title="Lipari">Lipara/Meligounis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Filicudi" title="Filicudi">Phoenicusa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stromboli" title="Stromboli">Strongyle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vulcano" title="Vulcano">Therassía</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Cyrenaica" title="Cyrenaica">Cyrenaica</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bayda,_Libya" title="Bayda, Libya">Balagrae</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Barca_(ancient_city)" title="Barca (ancient city)">Barca</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Benghazi" title="Benghazi">Berenice</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cyrene,_Libya" title="Cyrene, Libya">Cyrene</a> (<a href="/wiki/Apollonia,_Cyrenaica" class="mw-redirect" title="Apollonia, Cyrenaica">Apollonia</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ptolemais,_Cyrenaica" title="Ptolemais, Cyrenaica">Ptolemais</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Iberian_Peninsula" title="Iberian Peninsula">Iberian Peninsula</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Lucentum" title="Lucentum">Akra Leuke</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Villajoyosa" title="Villajoyosa">Alonis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Emp%C3%BAries" title="Empúries">Emporion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Elche" title="Elche">Helike</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/D%C3%A9nia" title="Dénia">Hemeroscopion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aljaraque" title="Aljaraque">Kalathousa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sant_Mart%C3%AD_d%27Emp%C3%BAries" title="Sant Martí d'Empúries">Kypsela</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mainake_(Greek_settlement)" title="Mainake (Greek settlement)">Mainake</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/El_Puerto_de_Santa_Mar%C3%ADa" title="El Puerto de Santa María">Menestheus's Limin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Santa_Pola" title="Santa Pola">Illicitanus Limin/Portus Illicitanus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roses,_Girona" class="mw-redirect" title="Roses, Girona">Rhode</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Salou" title="Salou">Salauris</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sagunto" title="Sagunto">Zacynthos</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Illyria" title="Illyria">Illyria</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Aspalathos" class="mw-redirect" title="Aspalathos">Aspalathos</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Apollonia_(Illyria)" title="Apollonia (Illyria)">Apollonia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vlor%C3%AB#Early_history" title="Vlorë">Aulon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Epidamnos" title="Epidamnos">Epidamnos</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Epidaurum" title="Epidaurum">Epidauros</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Issa_(polis)" class="mw-redirect" title="Issa (polis)">Issa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Melaina_Korkyra" class="mw-redirect" title="Melaina Korkyra">Melaina Korkyra</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nymphaeum_(Illyria)" title="Nymphaeum (Illyria)">Nymphaion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oricum" title="Oricum">Orikon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pharos_(polis)" class="mw-redirect" title="Pharos (polis)">Pharos</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tragurion" class="mw-redirect" title="Tragurion">Tragurion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thronion_(Illyria)" title="Thronion (Illyria)">Thronion</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Black_Sea" title="Black Sea">Black Sea</a><br />basin</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">North<br />coast</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Akra_(Crimmerian_Bosporus)" class="mw-redirect" title="Akra (Crimmerian Bosporus)">Akra</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Berezan_Island" title="Berezan Island">Borysthenes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charax,_Crimea" title="Charax, Crimea">Charax</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chersonesus" title="Chersonesus">Chersonesus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sukhumi" title="Sukhumi">Dioscurias</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anapa" title="Anapa">Gorgippia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tmutarakan" title="Tmutarakan">Hermonassa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kalos_Limen" title="Kalos Limen">Kalos Limen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kepoi" title="Kepoi">Kepoi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yevpatoria" title="Yevpatoria">Kerkinitis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kimmerikon" title="Kimmerikon">Kimmerikon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Myrmekion" class="mw-redirect" title="Myrmekion">Myrmekion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nikonion" class="mw-redirect" title="Nikonion">Nikonion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nymphaion_(Crimea)" title="Nymphaion (Crimea)">Nymphaion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Olbia_(Pontic)" class="mw-redirect" title="Olbia (Pontic)">Olbia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pantikapaion" title="Pantikapaion">Pantikapaion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phanagoria" title="Phanagoria">Phanagoria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pitsunda" title="Pitsunda">Pityus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tanais" title="Tanais">Tanais</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feodosia" title="Feodosia">Theodosia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tyras" title="Tyras">Tyras</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tyritake" class="mw-redirect" title="Tyritake">Tyritake</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">South<br />coast</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Abonoteichos" title="Abonoteichos">Abonoteichos</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Samsun" title="Samsun">Amisos</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pomorie" title="Pomorie">Anchialos</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sozopol" title="Sozopol">Apollonia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pazar,_Rize" title="Pazar, Rize">Athina</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Batumi" title="Batumi">Bathus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Balchik" title="Balchik">Dionysopolis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ordu" title="Ordu">Cotyora</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cytorus" title="Cytorus">Cytorus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eupatoria_(Pontus)" title="Eupatoria (Pontus)">Eupatoria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Heraclea_Pontica" title="Heraclea Pontica">Heraclea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Giresun" title="Giresun">Kerasous</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nesebar" title="Nesebar">Mesambria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Varna,_Bulgaria" title="Varna, Bulgaria">Odessos</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%C3%9Cnye" title="Ünye">Oinòe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phasis_(town)" title="Phasis (town)">Phasis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fatsa" title="Fatsa">Polemonion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rize" title="Rize">Rhizos</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/K%C4%B1y%C4%B1k%C3%B6y" title="Kıyıköy">Salmydessus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Amasra" title="Amasra">Sesamus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sinop,_Turkey" title="Sinop, Turkey">Sinope</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Terme" title="Terme">Thèrmae</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tium" title="Tium">Tium</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trabzon" title="Trabzon">Trapezous</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tripolis_(Pontus)" title="Tripolis (Pontus)">Tripolis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zaliche" title="Zaliche">Zaliche</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Lists390" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Lists</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_ancient_Greek_cities" title="List of ancient Greek cities">Cities</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_cities_in_ancient_Epirus" title="List of cities in ancient Epirus">in Epirus</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_ancient_Greeks" title="List of ancient Greeks">People</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Greek_place_names" title="List of Greek place names">Place names</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_stoae" title="List of stoae">Stoae</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Ancient_Greek_temples" title="List of Ancient Greek temples">Temples</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_ancient_Greek_theatres" title="List of ancient Greek theatres">Theatres</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Category"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/23px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/31px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Category:Ancient_Greece" title="Category:Ancient Greece">Category</a></li> <li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Symbol_portal_class.svg" class="mw-file-description" title="Portal"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/e/e2/Symbol_portal_class.svg/20px-Symbol_portal_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/e/e2/Symbol_portal_class.svg/40px-Symbol_portal_class.svg.png 1.5x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /></a></span> <a href="/wiki/Portal:Ancient_Greece" title="Portal:Ancient Greece">Portal</a></li> <li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Outline"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/41/Global_thinking.svg/20px-Global_thinking.svg.png" decoding="async" width="10" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/41/Global_thinking.svg/40px-Global_thinking.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="130" data-file-height="200" /></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Outline_of_ancient_Greece" title="Outline of ancient Greece">Outline</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374" /><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235" /><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1038841319">.mw-parser-output .tooltip-dotted{border-bottom:1px dotted;cursor:help}</style><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1038841319" /></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox authority-control" aria-labelledby="Authority_control_databases_frameless&#124;text-top&#124;10px&#124;alt=Edit_this_at_Wikidata&#124;link=https&#58;//www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q5690#identifiers&#124;class=noprint&#124;Edit_this_at_Wikidata1941" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Authority_control_databases_frameless&#124;text-top&#124;10px&#124;alt=Edit_this_at_Wikidata&#124;link=https&#58;//www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q5690#identifiers&#124;class=noprint&#124;Edit_this_at_Wikidata1941" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Help:Authority_control" title="Help:Authority control">Authority control databases</a> <span class="mw-valign-text-top noprint" typeof="mw:File/Frameless"><a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q5690#identifiers" title="Edit this at Wikidata"><img alt="Edit this at Wikidata" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg/10px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg.png" decoding="async" width="10" height="10" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg/15px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg/20px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="20" data-file-height="20" /></a></span></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">International</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><ul><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://viaf.org/viaf/252090229">VIAF</a></span><ul><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://viaf.org/viaf/316429266">2</a></span></li></ul></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://id.worldcat.org/fast/1896940/">FAST</a></span></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">National</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><ul><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://d-nb.info/gnd/4056054-5">Germany</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><span class="rt-commentedText tooltip tooltip-dotted" title="Sparta (Extinct city)"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://id.loc.gov/authorities/sh85126330">United States</a></span></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://catalogue.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/cb11933951k">France</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://data.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/cb11933951k">BnF data</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://id.ndl.go.jp/auth/ndlna/00628643">Japan</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><span class="rt-commentedText tooltip tooltip-dotted" title="Sparta (starověký řecký stát)"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://aleph.nkp.cz/F/?func=find-c&local_base=aut&ccl_term=ica=ge130899&CON_LNG=ENG">Czech Republic</a></span></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://datos.bne.es/resource/XX451220">Spain</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a class="external text" href="https://wikidata-externalid-url.toolforge.org/?p=8034&url_prefix=https://opac.vatlib.it/auth/detail/&id=497/832">Vatican</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.nli.org.il/en/authorities/987007565731705171">Israel</a></span></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Geographic</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><ul><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pleiades.stoa.org/places/570685">Pleiades</a></span></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Other</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><ul><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.idref.fr/02725805X">IdRef</a></span></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div>    </div><noscript><img src="https://login.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:CentralAutoLogin/start?useformat=desktop&type=1x1&usesul3=0" alt="" width="1" height="1" style="border: none; position: absolute;"></noscript> <div class="printfooter" data-nosnippet="">Retrieved from "<a dir="ltr" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Sparta&oldid=1281203435">https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Sparta&oldid=1281203435</a>"</div></div> <div id="catlinks" class="catlinks" data-mw="interface"><div id="mw-normal-catlinks" class="mw-normal-catlinks"><a href="/wiki/Help:Category" title="Help:Category">Categories</a>: <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Sparta" title="Category:Sparta">Sparta</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Diarchies" title="Category:Diarchies">Diarchies</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Former_populated_places_in_Greece" title="Category:Former populated places in Greece">Former populated places in Greece</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Greek_city-states" title="Category:Greek city-states">Greek city-states</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Hellenistic_states" title="Category:Hellenistic states">Hellenistic states</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Locations_in_Greek_mythology" title="Category:Locations in Greek mythology">Locations in Greek mythology</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Populated_places_in_Laconia" title="Category:Populated places in Laconia">Populated places in Laconia</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:States_and_territories_disestablished_in_the_2nd_century_BC" title="Category:States and territories disestablished in the 2nd century BC">States and territories disestablished in the 2nd century BC</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:States_and_territories_established_in_the_11th_century_BC" title="Category:States and territories established in the 11th century BC">States and territories established in the 11th century BC</a></li></ul></div><div id="mw-hidden-catlinks" class="mw-hidden-catlinks mw-hidden-cats-hidden">Hidden categories: <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Pages_using_gadget_WikiMiniAtlas" title="Category:Pages using gadget WikiMiniAtlas">Pages using gadget WikiMiniAtlas</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Articles_containing_Mycenaean_Greek-language_text" title="Category:Articles containing Mycenaean Greek-language text">Articles containing Mycenaean Greek-language text</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Articles_containing_Ancient_Greek_(to_1453)-language_text" title="Category:Articles containing Ancient Greek (to 1453)-language text">Articles containing Ancient Greek (to 1453)-language text</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Articles_containing_Doric_Greek-language_text" title="Category:Articles containing Doric Greek-language text">Articles containing Doric Greek-language text</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Articles_containing_Attic_Greek-language_text" title="Category:Articles containing Attic Greek-language text">Articles containing Attic Greek-language text</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:CS1_Greek-language_sources_(el)" title="Category:CS1 Greek-language sources (el)">CS1 Greek-language sources (el)</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Wikipedia_articles_incorporating_a_citation_from_the_1911_Encyclopaedia_Britannica_with_Wikisource_reference" title="Category:Wikipedia articles incorporating a citation from the 1911 Encyclopaedia Britannica with Wikisource reference">Wikipedia articles incorporating a citation from the 1911 Encyclopaedia Britannica with Wikisource reference</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Wikipedia_articles_incorporating_text_from_the_1911_Encyclop%C3%A6dia_Britannica" title="Category:Wikipedia articles incorporating text from the 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica">Wikipedia articles incorporating text from the 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:CS1_Latin-language_sources_(la)" title="Category:CS1 Latin-language sources (la)">CS1 Latin-language sources (la)</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Webarchive_template_wayback_links" title="Category:Webarchive template wayback links">Webarchive template wayback links</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Pages_containing_links_to_subscription-only_content" title="Category:Pages containing links to subscription-only content">Pages containing links to subscription-only content</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Wikipedia_articles_needing_page_number_citations_from_September_2013" title="Category:Wikipedia articles needing page number citations from September 2013">Wikipedia articles needing page number citations from September 2013</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Wikipedia_articles_needing_page_number_citations_from_October_2021" title="Category:Wikipedia articles needing page number citations from October 2021">Wikipedia articles needing page number citations from October 2021</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Articles_with_short_description" title="Category:Articles with short description">Articles with short description</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Short_description_matches_Wikidata" title="Category:Short description matches Wikidata">Short description matches Wikidata</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Wikipedia_indefinitely_semi-protected_pages" title="Category:Wikipedia indefinitely semi-protected pages">Wikipedia indefinitely semi-protected pages</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Wikipedia_indefinitely_move-protected_pages" title="Category:Wikipedia indefinitely move-protected pages">Wikipedia indefinitely move-protected pages</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Use_British_English_from_February_2025" title="Category:Use British English from February 2025">Use British English from February 2025</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Use_dmy_dates_from_February_2025" title="Category:Use dmy dates from February 2025">Use dmy dates from February 2025</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Coordinates_on_Wikidata" title="Category:Coordinates on Wikidata">Coordinates on Wikidata</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:All_articles_lacking_reliable_references" title="Category:All articles lacking reliable references">All articles lacking reliable references</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Articles_lacking_reliable_references_from_November_2017" title="Category:Articles lacking reliable references from November 2017">Articles lacking reliable references from November 2017</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:All_articles_with_unsourced_statements" title="Category:All articles with unsourced statements">All articles with unsourced statements</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Articles_with_unsourced_statements_from_June_2021" title="Category:Articles with unsourced statements from June 2021">Articles with unsourced statements from June 2021</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Articles_with_unsourced_statements_from_October_2020" title="Category:Articles with unsourced statements from October 2020">Articles with unsourced statements from October 2020</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Articles_with_unsourced_statements_from_June_2023" title="Category:Articles with unsourced statements from June 2023">Articles with unsourced statements from June 2023</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:CS1_maint:_location_missing_publisher" title="Category:CS1 maint: location missing publisher">CS1 maint: location missing publisher</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Commons_category_link_is_on_Wikidata" title="Category:Commons category link is on Wikidata">Commons category link is on Wikidata</a></li></ul></div></div> </div> </main> </div> <div class="mw-footer-container"> <footer id="footer" class="mw-footer" > <ul id="footer-info"> <li id="footer-info-lastmod"> This page was last edited on 18 March 2025, at 23:16<span class="anonymous-show"> (UTC)</span>.</li> <li id="footer-info-copyright">Text is available under the <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Text_of_the_Creative_Commons_Attribution-ShareAlike_4.0_International_License" title="Wikipedia:Text of the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 International License">Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 License</a>; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the <a href="https://foundation.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:MyLanguage/Policy:Terms_of_Use" class="extiw" title="foundation:Special:MyLanguage/Policy:Terms of Use">Terms of Use</a> and <a href="https://foundation.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:MyLanguage/Policy:Privacy_policy" class="extiw" title="foundation:Special:MyLanguage/Policy:Privacy policy">Privacy Policy</a>. Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://wikimediafoundation.org/">Wikimedia Foundation, Inc.</a>, a non-profit organization.</li> </ul> <ul id="footer-places"> <li id="footer-places-privacy"><a href="https://foundation.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:MyLanguage/Policy:Privacy_policy">Privacy policy</a></li> <li id="footer-places-about"><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:About">About Wikipedia</a></li> <li id="footer-places-disclaimers"><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:General_disclaimer">Disclaimers</a></li> <li id="footer-places-contact"><a href="//en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Contact_us">Contact Wikipedia</a></li> <li id="footer-places-wm-codeofconduct"><a href="https://foundation.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:MyLanguage/Policy:Universal_Code_of_Conduct">Code of Conduct</a></li> <li id="footer-places-developers"><a href="https://developer.wikimedia.org">Developers</a></li> <li id="footer-places-statslink"><a href="https://stats.wikimedia.org/#/en.wikipedia.org">Statistics</a></li> <li id="footer-places-cookiestatement"><a href="https://foundation.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:MyLanguage/Policy:Cookie_statement">Cookie statement</a></li> <li id="footer-places-mobileview"><a href="//en.m.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Sparta&mobileaction=toggle_view_mobile" class="noprint stopMobileRedirectToggle">Mobile view</a></li> </ul> <ul id="footer-icons" class="noprint"> <li id="footer-copyrightico"><a href="https://www.wikimedia.org/" class="cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button--enabled"><picture><source media="(min-width: 500px)" srcset="/static/images/footer/wikimedia-button.svg" width="84" height="29"><img src="/static/images/footer/wikimedia.svg" width="25" height="25" alt="Wikimedia Foundation" lang="en" loading="lazy"></picture></a></li> <li id="footer-poweredbyico"><a href="https://www.mediawiki.org/" class="cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button--enabled"><picture><source media="(min-width: 500px)" srcset="/w/resources/assets/poweredby_mediawiki.svg" width="88" height="31"><img src="/w/resources/assets/mediawiki_compact.svg" alt="Powered by MediaWiki" lang="en" width="25" height="25" loading="lazy"></picture></a></li> </ul> </footer> </div> </div> </div> <div class="vector-header-container vector-sticky-header-container"> <div id="vector-sticky-header" class="vector-sticky-header"> <div class="vector-sticky-header-start"> <div class="vector-sticky-header-icon-start vector-button-flush-left vector-button-flush-right" aria-hidden="true"> <button class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-sticky-header-search-toggle" tabindex="-1" data-event-name="ui.vector-sticky-search-form.icon"><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-search mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-search"></span> <span>Search</span> </button> </div> <div role="search" class="vector-search-box-vue vector-search-box-show-thumbnail vector-search-box"> <div class="vector-typeahead-search-container"> <div class="cdx-typeahead-search cdx-typeahead-search--show-thumbnail"> <form action="/w/index.php" id="vector-sticky-search-form" class="cdx-search-input cdx-search-input--has-end-button"> <div class="cdx-search-input__input-wrapper" data-search-loc="header-moved"> <div class="cdx-text-input cdx-text-input--has-start-icon"> <input class="cdx-text-input__input" type="search" name="search" placeholder="Search Wikipedia"> <span class="cdx-text-input__icon cdx-text-input__start-icon"></span> </div> <input type="hidden" name="title" value="Special:Search"> </div> <button class="cdx-button cdx-search-input__end-button">Search</button> </form> </div> </div> </div> <div class="vector-sticky-header-context-bar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-sticky-header-toc" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-sticky-header-toc vector-sticky-header-toc vector-button-flush-left" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-sticky-header-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-sticky-header-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-sticky-header-toc-label" for="vector-sticky-header-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-listBullet mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-listBullet"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Toggle the table of contents</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-sticky-header-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <div class="vector-sticky-header-context-bar-primary" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="mw-page-title-main">Sparta</span></div> </div> </div> <div class="vector-sticky-header-end" aria-hidden="true"> <div class="vector-sticky-header-icons"> <a href="#" class="cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only" id="ca-talk-sticky-header" tabindex="-1" data-event-name="talk-sticky-header"><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-speechBubbles mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-speechBubbles"></span> <span></span> </a> <a href="#" class="cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only" id="ca-subject-sticky-header" tabindex="-1" data-event-name="subject-sticky-header"><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-article mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-article"></span> <span></span> </a> <a href="#" class="cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only" id="ca-history-sticky-header" tabindex="-1" data-event-name="history-sticky-header"><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-history mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-wikimedia-history"></span> <span></span> </a> <a href="#" class="cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only mw-watchlink" id="ca-watchstar-sticky-header" tabindex="-1" data-event-name="watch-sticky-header"><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-star mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-wikimedia-star"></span> <span></span> </a> <a href="#" class="cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only" id="ca-edit-sticky-header" tabindex="-1" data-event-name="wikitext-edit-sticky-header"><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-wikiText mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-wikimedia-wikiText"></span> <span></span> </a> <a href="#" class="cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only" id="ca-ve-edit-sticky-header" tabindex="-1" data-event-name="ve-edit-sticky-header"><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-edit mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-wikimedia-edit"></span> <span></span> </a> <a href="#" class="cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only" id="ca-viewsource-sticky-header" tabindex="-1" data-event-name="ve-edit-protected-sticky-header"><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-editLock mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-wikimedia-editLock"></span> <span></span> </a> </div> <div class="vector-sticky-header-buttons"> <button class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet mw-interlanguage-selector" id="p-lang-btn-sticky-header" tabindex="-1" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn-sticky-header"><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-language mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-wikimedia-language"></span> <span>100 languages</span> </button> <a href="#" class="cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive" id="ca-addsection-sticky-header" tabindex="-1" data-event-name="addsection-sticky-header"><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-speechBubbleAdd-progressive mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-speechBubbleAdd-progressive"></span> <span>Add topic</span> </a> </div> <div class="vector-sticky-header-icon-end"> <div class="vector-user-links"> </div> </div> </div> </div> </div> <div class="mw-portlet mw-portlet-dock-bottom emptyPortlet" id="p-dock-bottom"> <ul> </ul> </div> <script>(RLQ=window.RLQ||[]).push(function(){mw.config.set({"wgHostname":"mw-web.codfw.main-6fd9bbc867-ssmwg","wgBackendResponseTime":247,"wgPageParseReport":{"limitreport":{"cputime":"1.926","walltime":"2.313","ppvisitednodes":{"value":17499,"limit":1000000},"postexpandincludesize":{"value":370858,"limit":2097152},"templateargumentsize":{"value":21849,"limit":2097152},"expansiondepth":{"value":19,"limit":100},"expensivefunctioncount":{"value":33,"limit":500},"unstrip-depth":{"value":1,"limit":20},"unstrip-size":{"value":381026,"limit":5000000},"entityaccesscount":{"value":1,"limit":400},"timingprofile":["100.00% 1933.406 1 -total"," 25.93% 501.415 2 Template:Reflist"," 17.39% 336.303 1 Template:Infobox_former_country"," 10.73% 207.500 41 Template:Sfn"," 9.03% 174.633 25 Template:Cite_web"," 7.34% 141.868 1 Template:Ancient_Greece_topics"," 7.17% 138.597 1 Template:Navbox_with_collapsible_groups"," 6.25% 120.777 27 Template:Cite_book"," 6.14% 118.737 1 Template:Small"," 6.02% 116.459 1 Template:Native_name"]},"scribunto":{"limitreport-timeusage":{"value":"1.134","limit":"10.000"},"limitreport-memusage":{"value":21395608,"limit":52428800},"limitreport-logs":"anchor_id_list = table#1 {\n [\"CITEREFAdcock1957\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFAlexander_Gillespie2011\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFAutenrieth1891\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBadian1967\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBayliss2022\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBeekes2010\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBlundell1999\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBradford2004\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBuxton1999\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFCartledge2001\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFCartledge2002\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFCartledge2004\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFCartledgeSpawforth2001\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFCartledgeSpawforth2002\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFCavanagh2018\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFCicero1918\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFDavid1984\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFDavies1997\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFEhrenberg2002\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFFigueira1984\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFForrest1968\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGreen1998\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHelena_P._Schrader2011\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHelena_Schrader2010\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHodkinsonGallou2021\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHodkinson_S2002\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHowatson2013\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFJasanoffNussbaum1996\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKaganOzmentFrankFrank2013\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKeenan-Jones2021\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKennel\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKennell2010\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKiernan\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLangridge-Noti2015\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLiddellScott1940\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLiosis\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMacBeanJohnson1773\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMichell1964\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMillender2018\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMorris1992\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMorris2005\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFNielsen2017\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFPapakyriakou-Anagnostou2000–2011\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFPausanias1918\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFPavlides2023\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFPlutarch1874\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFPlutarch1891\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFPlutarch2004\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFPlutarch2005\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFPlutarchW.C.Helmbold\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFPomeroy2002\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFPowell1987\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFPowell2001\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRaymoure\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFScanlon2005\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSchmidt1863\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSneed2021\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFTheodoros_K._Pitsios2010\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFThompson2002\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFThompson2010\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFThucydides1974\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFThucydidesMynott2013\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFTod1911\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWest1999\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWiener1920\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWilliamson1978\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWilson2006\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFŽižek\"] = 1,\n}\ntemplate_list = table#1 {\n [\"!\"] = 1,\n [\"'\\\"\"] = 1,\n [\"About\"] = 1,\n [\"Ancient Greece topics\"] = 1,\n [\"Authority control\"] = 1,\n [\"Better source needed\"] = 1,\n [\"Blockquote\"] = 1,\n [\"Circa\"] = 1,\n [\"Citation\"] = 22,\n [\"Citation needed\"] = 4,\n [\"Cite book\"] = 27,\n [\"Cite encyclopedia\"] = 2,\n [\"Cite journal\"] = 7,\n [\"Cite web\"] = 25,\n [\"Clear\"] = 1,\n [\"Commons category-inline\"] = 1,\n [\"Convert\"] = 2,\n [\"Coord\"] = 2,\n [\"Cquote\"] = 1,\n [\"EB1911\"] = 1,\n [\"EB1911 poster\"] = 1,\n [\"Harvnb\"] = 9,\n [\"ISBN\"] = 6,\n [\"In Our Time\"] = 1,\n [\"Infobox former country\"] = 1,\n [\"L\u0026S\"] = 1,\n [\"LSJ\"] = 4,\n [\"Lang\"] = 16,\n [\"Langx\"] = 3,\n [\"Library resources box\"] = 1,\n [\"Linktext\"] = 3,\n [\"Main\"] = 11,\n [\"Native name\"] = 1,\n [\"Page needed\"] = 2,\n [\"Plainlist\"] = 1,\n [\"Pp-move\"] = 1,\n [\"Protection padlock\"] = 1,\n [\"Redirect\"] = 2,\n [\"Refbegin\"] = 2,\n [\"Refend\"] = 2,\n [\"Reflist\"] = 2,\n [\"Refn\"] = 3,\n [\"Script\"] = 4,\n [\"Sfn\"] = 41,\n [\"Short description\"] = 1,\n [\"Small\"] = 1,\n [\"Special characters\"] = 1,\n [\"Subscription required\"] = 1,\n [\"Use British English\"] = 1,\n [\"Use dmy dates\"] = 1,\n [\"Webarchive\"] = 1,\n}\narticle_whitelist = table#1 {\n}\nciteref_patterns = table#1 {\n}\n","limitreport-profile":[["?","380","29.7"],["recursiveClone \u003CmwInit.lua:45\u003E","180","14.1"],["MediaWiki\\Extension\\Scribunto\\Engines\\LuaSandbox\\LuaSandboxCallback::callParserFunction","160","12.5"],["dataWrapper \u003Cmw.lua:672\u003E","100","7.8"],["MediaWiki\\Extension\\Scribunto\\Engines\\LuaSandbox\\LuaSandboxCallback::getAllExpandedArguments","80","6.2"],["MediaWiki\\Extension\\Scribunto\\Engines\\LuaSandbox\\LuaSandboxCallback::gsub","60","4.7"],["\u003Cmw.lua:694\u003E","40","3.1"],["MediaWiki\\Extension\\Scribunto\\Engines\\LuaSandbox\\LuaSandboxCallback::anchorEncode","40","3.1"],["MediaWiki\\Extension\\Scribunto\\Engines\\LuaSandbox\\LuaSandboxCallback::getDescription","40","3.1"],["MediaWiki\\Extension\\Scribunto\\Engines\\LuaSandbox\\LuaSandboxCallback::find","40","3.1"],["[others]","160","12.5"]]},"cachereport":{"origin":"mw-web.codfw.main-6fd9bbc867-p4lvl","timestamp":"20250326220803","ttl":2592000,"transientcontent":false}}});});</script> <script type="application/ld+json">{"@context":"https:\/\/schema.org","@type":"Article","name":"Sparta","url":"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Sparta","sameAs":"http:\/\/www.wikidata.org\/entity\/Q5690","mainEntity":"http:\/\/www.wikidata.org\/entity\/Q5690","author":{"@type":"Organization","name":"Contributors to Wikimedia projects"},"publisher":{"@type":"Organization","name":"Wikimedia Foundation, Inc.","logo":{"@type":"ImageObject","url":"https:\/\/www.wikimedia.org\/static\/images\/wmf-hor-googpub.png"}},"datePublished":"2002-02-25T15:43:11Z","dateModified":"2025-03-18T23:16:51Z","image":"https:\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/d\/db\/Spartan_Territory_Before_371_BC.png","headline":"city-state in ancient Greece"}</script> </body> </html>