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id="toc-Personal_injuries_to_passengers-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Maritime_liens_and_mortgages" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Maritime_liens_and_mortgages"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.3</span> <span>Maritime liens and mortgages</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Maritime_liens_and_mortgages-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Salvage_and_treasure_salvage" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Salvage_and_treasure_salvage"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.4</span> <span>Salvage and treasure salvage</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Salvage_and_treasure_salvage-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Allision" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Allision"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.5</span> <span>Allision</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Allision-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-International_conventions" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#International_conventions"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3</span> <span>International conventions</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-International_conventions-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Piracy" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Piracy"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> <span>Piracy</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Piracy-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Individual_countries" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Individual_countries"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>Individual countries</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Individual_countries-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Individual countries subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Individual_countries-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Great_Britain_and_certain_Commonwealth_countries" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Great_Britain_and_certain_Commonwealth_countries"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.1</span> <span>Great Britain and certain Commonwealth countries</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Great_Britain_and_certain_Commonwealth_countries-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Canada" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Canada"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.2</span> <span>Canada</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Canada-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-United_States" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#United_States"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.3</span> <span>United States</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-United_States-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Jurisdiction" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Jurisdiction"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.3.1</span> <span>Jurisdiction</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Jurisdiction-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Applicable_law" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Applicable_law"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.3.2</span> <span>Applicable law</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Applicable_law-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Features_of_U.S._admiralty_law" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Features_of_U.S._admiralty_law"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.3.3</span> <span>Features of U.S. admiralty law</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Features_of_U.S._admiralty_law-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Cargo_claims" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-4"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Cargo_claims"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.3.3.1</span> <span>Cargo claims</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Cargo_claims-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Personal_injuries_to_seamen" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-4"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Personal_injuries_to_seamen"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.3.3.2</span> <span>Personal injuries to seamen</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Personal_injuries_to_seamen-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Pakistan" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Pakistan"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.4</span> <span>Pakistan</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Pakistan-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Academic_programs" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Academic_programs"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6</span> <span>Academic programs</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Academic_programs-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Conspiracy_theory" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Conspiracy_theory"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7</span> <span>Conspiracy theory</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Conspiracy_theory-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8</span> <span>See also</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Notes" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Notes"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9</span> <span>Notes</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Notes-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">10</span> <span>References</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">11</span> <span>External links</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" 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Available in 31 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-31" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-language-progressive mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-language-progressive"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">31 languages</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%82%D8%A7%D9%86%D9%88%D9%86_%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%A3%D9%85%D9%8A%D8%B1%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%8A%D8%A9" title="قانون الأميرالية – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="قانون الأميرالية" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>العربية</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be mw-list-item"><a href="https://be.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9C%D0%B0%D1%80%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%BE%D0%B5_%D0%BF%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%B2%D0%B0" title="Марское права – Belarusian" lang="be" hreflang="be" data-title="Марское права" data-language-autonym="Беларуская" data-language-local-name="Belarusian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Беларуская</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dret_mar%C3%ADtim" title="Dret marítim – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Dret marítim" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Català</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs mw-list-item"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mo%C5%99sk%C3%A9_pr%C3%A1vo" title="Mořské právo – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="Mořské právo" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="Czech" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Čeština</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cy mw-list-item"><a href="https://cy.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cyfraith_y_m%C3%B4r" title="Cyfraith y môr – Welsh" lang="cy" hreflang="cy" data-title="Cyfraith y môr" data-language-autonym="Cymraeg" data-language-local-name="Welsh" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Cymraeg</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-da mw-list-item"><a href="https://da.wikipedia.org/wiki/S%C3%B8ret" title="Søret – Danish" lang="da" hreflang="da" data-title="Søret" data-language-autonym="Dansk" data-language-local-name="Danish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Dansk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Seerecht" title="Seerecht – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Seerecht" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Deutsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-et mw-list-item"><a href="https://et.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mere%C3%B5igus" title="Mereõigus – Estonian" lang="et" hreflang="et" data-title="Mereõigus" data-language-autonym="Eesti" data-language-local-name="Estonian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Eesti</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-el mw-list-item"><a href="https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%9D%CE%B1%CF%85%CF%84%CE%B9%CE%BA%CF%8C_%CE%B4%CE%AF%CE%BA%CE%B1%CE%B9%CE%BF" title="Ναυτικό δίκαιο – Greek" lang="el" hreflang="el" data-title="Ναυτικό δίκαιο" data-language-autonym="Ελληνικά" data-language-local-name="Greek" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ελληνικά</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Derecho_mar%C3%ADtimo" title="Derecho marítimo – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Derecho marítimo" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Español</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%82%D9%88%D8%A7%D9%86%DB%8C%D9%86_%D8%AF%D8%B1%DB%8C%D8%A7%D9%86%D9%88%D8%B1%D8%AF%DB%8C" title="قوانین دریانوردی – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="قوانین دریانوردی" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>فارسی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Droit_maritime" title="Droit maritime – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Droit maritime" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Français</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%ED%95%B4%EC%82%AC%EB%B2%95" title="해사법 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="해사법" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>한국어</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hr mw-list-item"><a href="https://hr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pomorsko_pravo" title="Pomorsko pravo – Croatian" lang="hr" hreflang="hr" data-title="Pomorsko pravo" data-language-autonym="Hrvatski" data-language-local-name="Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Hrvatski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Diritto_della_navigazione" title="Diritto della navigazione – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Diritto della navigazione" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Italiano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he mw-list-item"><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%9E%D7%A9%D7%A4%D7%98_%D7%99%D7%9E%D7%99" title="משפט ימי – Hebrew" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="משפט ימי" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="Hebrew" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>עברית</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lv mw-list-item"><a href="https://lv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ku%C4%A3o%C5%A1anas_ties%C4%ABbas" title="Kuģošanas tiesības – Latvian" lang="lv" hreflang="lv" data-title="Kuģošanas tiesības" data-language-autonym="Latviešu" data-language-local-name="Latvian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Latviešu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lt mw-list-item"><a href="https://lt.wikipedia.org/wiki/J%C5%ABr%C5%B3_teis%C4%97" title="Jūrų teisė – Lithuanian" lang="lt" hreflang="lt" data-title="Jūrų teisė" data-language-autonym="Lietuvių" data-language-local-name="Lithuanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Lietuvių</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zeerecht" title="Zeerecht – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Zeerecht" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Nederlands</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E6%B5%B7%E4%BA%8B%E6%B3%95" title="海事法 – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="海事法" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>日本語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-no mw-list-item"><a href="https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sj%C3%B8rett" title="Sjørett – Norwegian Bokmål" lang="nb" hreflang="nb" data-title="Sjørett" data-language-autonym="Norsk bokmål" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Bokmål" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk bokmål</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prawo_morskie" title="Prawo morskie – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="Prawo morskie" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Polish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Polski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Direito_mar%C3%ADtimo" title="Direito marítimo – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Direito marítimo" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Português</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9C%D0%BE%D1%80%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%BE%D0%B5_%D0%BF%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%B2%D0%BE" title="Морское право – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Морское право" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Русский</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-si mw-list-item"><a href="https://si.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B6%85%E0%B6%AF%E0%B7%8A%E0%B6%B8%E0%B7%92%E0%B6%BB%E0%B7%8F%E0%B6%BD%E0%B7%8A%E0%B6%AD%E0%B7%92_%E0%B6%B1%E0%B7%93%E0%B6%AD%E0%B7%92%E0%B6%BA" title="අද්මිරාල්ති නීතිය – Sinhala" lang="si" hreflang="si" data-title="අද්මිරාල්ති නීතිය" data-language-autonym="සිංහල" data-language-local-name="Sinhala" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>සිංහල</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sk mw-list-item"><a href="https://sk.wikipedia.org/wiki/Morsk%C3%A9_pr%C3%A1vo" title="Morské právo – Slovak" lang="sk" hreflang="sk" data-title="Morské právo" data-language-autonym="Slovenčina" data-language-local-name="Slovak" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Slovenčina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sv mw-list-item"><a href="https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sj%C3%B6r%C3%A4tt" title="Sjörätt – Swedish" lang="sv" hreflang="sv" data-title="Sjörätt" data-language-autonym="Svenska" data-language-local-name="Swedish" 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solid;font-weight:normal;font-size:smaller}</style><table class="sidebar nomobile nowraplinks hlist law-sidebar"><tbody><tr><th class="sidebar-title"><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Admiralty law</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-image"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Nautical_icon.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/76/Nautical_icon.svg/80px-Nautical_icon.svg.png" decoding="async" width="80" height="80" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/76/Nautical_icon.svg/120px-Nautical_icon.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/76/Nautical_icon.svg/160px-Nautical_icon.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="500" data-file-height="500" /></a></span></td></tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading"> History</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Code_of_Hammurabi" title="Code of Hammurabi">Code of Hammurabi</a></li> <li><br /><i><a href="/wiki/Corpus_Juris_Civilis" title="Corpus Juris Civilis">Corpus Juris Civilis</a></i> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Digest_(Roman_law)#Contents" title="Digest (Roman law)">Digesta</a></i></li></ul></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Ordinamenta_et_consuetudo_maris" title="Ordinamenta et consuetudo maris">Ordinamenta et consuetudo maris</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Amalfian_Laws" title="Amalfian Laws">Amalfian Laws</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hanseatic_League" title="Hanseatic League">Hanseatic League</a></li></ul></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading"> Features</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Fishing_industry" title="Fishing industry">Fishing</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Illegal,_unreported_and_unregulated_fishing" title="Illegal, unreported and unregulated fishing">Illegal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fisheries_law" title="Fisheries law">Fisheries law</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maritime_transport" title="Maritime transport">Maritime transport</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Freight_transport" title="Freight transport">Shipping</a>/<a href="/wiki/Ferry" title="Ferry">Ferry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cargo" title="Cargo">Cargo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Freight_rate" title="Freight rate">Freight</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shipbuilding" title="Shipbuilding">Shipbuilding</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Merchant_navy" title="Merchant navy">Merchant marine</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cargo_ship" title="Cargo ship">Cargo ship</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Passenger_ship" title="Passenger ship">Passenger ship</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ship_mortgage" title="Ship mortgage">Mortgage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ship_registration" title="Ship registration">Registration</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marine_insurance" title="Marine insurance">Marine insurance</a><br /> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Act_of_God" title="Act of God">Act of God</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shipping_insurance" title="Shipping insurance">Cargo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ship_collision" title="Ship collision">Collision</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/General_average" title="General average">General average</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Seaworthiness_(law)" title="Seaworthiness (law)">Seaworthiness</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shipwreck" title="Shipwreck">Total loss</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maritime_security" title="Maritime security">Maritime security</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Letter_of_marque" title="Letter of marque">Letter of marque</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maritime_drug_trafficking_in_Latin_America" title="Maritime drug trafficking in Latin America">Drugs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Piracy" title="Piracy">Piracy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marine_pollution" title="Marine pollution">Pollution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Smuggling" title="Smuggling">Smuggling</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prize_(law)" title="Prize (law)">Wartime prizes</a></li></ul></li></ul></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading"> <a href="/wiki/Contract_of_carriage" title="Contract of carriage">Contract of carriage</a>/<a href="/wiki/Charterparty" title="Charterparty">Charterparty</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Affreightment" title="Affreightment">Affreightment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Law_of_agency" title="Law of agency">Agency</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Barratry_(admiralty_law)" title="Barratry (admiralty law)">Barratry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bill_of_lading" title="Bill of lading">Bill of lading</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shipbroking" title="Shipbroking">Brokerage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chartering_(shipping)" title="Chartering (shipping)">Chartering</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Consignment" title="Consignment">Consignment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Demurrage" title="Demurrage">Demurrage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Force_majeure" title="Force majeure">Force majeure</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Invoice" title="Invoice">Invoice</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Commercial_invoice" title="Commercial invoice">Commercial</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Pro_forma" title="Pro forma">Pro forma</a></i></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Laytime" title="Laytime">Laytime</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lien" title="Lien">Lien</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Maritime_lien" title="Maritime lien">Maritime</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Manifest_(transportation)" title="Manifest (transportation)">Manifest</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Receipt" title="Receipt">Packing list</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Proof_of_delivery" title="Proof of delivery">Proof of delivery</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marine_salvage" title="Marine salvage">Salvage</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Law_of_salvage" title="Law of salvage">Law</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Contractual_term" title="Contractual term">Terms</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Incoterms" title="Incoterms">International</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Waybill" title="Waybill">Waybill</a></li></ul></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading"> Parties</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Shipping_agency" title="Shipping agency">Agent</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Factor_(agent)" title="Factor (agent)">Factor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Freight_forwarder" title="Freight forwarder">Freight forwarder</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sea_captain" title="Sea captain">Captain (Master)</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/The_captain_goes_down_with_the_ship" title="The captain goes down with the ship">The captain goes down with the ship</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Common_carrier" title="Common carrier">Carrier</a><br /> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Chartering_(shipping)" title="Chartering (shipping)">Charterer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Freight_company" title="Freight company">Freight company</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ship_management" title="Ship management">Manager</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Consignee" title="Consignee">Consignee</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Consignor" title="Consignor">Consignor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Principal_(commercial_law)" title="Principal (commercial law)">Principal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ship-owner" title="Ship-owner">Owner</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Seaman_status_in_United_States_admiralty_law" title="Seaman status in United States admiralty law">Seaman</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Mutiny" title="Mutiny">Mutiny</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stevedore" class="mw-redirect" title="Stevedore">Stevedore</a></li></ul></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading"> Judiciaries</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Admiralty_court" title="Admiralty court">Admiralty court</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vice_admiralty_court" title="Vice admiralty court">Vice admiralty court</a></li></ul></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading"> International conventions</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hague-Visby_Rules" class="mw-redirect" title="Hague-Visby Rules">Hague-Visby Rules</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hamburg_Rules" title="Hamburg Rules">Hamburg Rules</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rotterdam_Rules" title="Rotterdam Rules">Rotterdam Rules</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maritime_Labour_Convention" title="Maritime Labour Convention">Maritime Labour Convention</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/International_Convention_on_Salvage" title="International Convention on Salvage">International Convention on Salvage</a></li> <li><div style="display:inline-block; padding:0.2em 0.4em; line-height:1.2em;"><a href="/wiki/United_Nations_Convention_on_the_Law_of_the_Sea" title="United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea">United Nations Convention on <br /> the Law of the Sea <span style="font-size:85%;">(UNCLOS)</span></a></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/International_piracy_law" title="International piracy law">International piracy law</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/SOLAS_Convention" title="SOLAS Convention">SOLAS Convention</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/MARPOL_73/78" title="MARPOL 73/78">MARPOL Convention</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ballast_Water_Management_Convention" title="Ballast Water Management Convention">Ballast Water Management Convention</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/International_Convention_on_the_Control_of_Harmful_Anti-fouling_Systems_on_Ships" title="International Convention on the Control of Harmful Anti-fouling Systems on Ships">Anti-fouling Convention</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/International_Convention_on_Load_Lines" title="International Convention on Load Lines">International Convention on Load Lines</a></li> <li><div style="display:inline-block; padding:0.2em 0.4em; line-height:1.2em;"><a href="/wiki/International_Regulations_for_Preventing_Collisions_at_Sea" title="International Regulations for Preventing Collisions at Sea">International Regulations for<br /> Preventing Collisions at Sea</a></div></li> <li><a href="/wiki/International_Convention_on_Maritime_Search_and_Rescue" title="International Convention on Maritime Search and Rescue">SAR Convention</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Athens_Convention" title="Athens Convention">Athens Convention</a></li></ul></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading"> International organizations</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/International_Maritime_Organization" title="International Maritime Organization">International Maritime Organization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Comit%C3%A9_Maritime_International" title="Comité Maritime International">Comité Maritime International</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/London_Maritime_Arbitrators_Association" title="London Maritime Arbitrators Association">London Maritime Arbitrators Association</a></li></ul></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-navbar"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239400231">.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar ul{display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::before{margin-right:-0.125em;content:"[ "}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::after{margin-left:-0.125em;content:" ]"}.mw-parser-output .navbar li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .navbar a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini abbr{font-variant:small-caps;border-bottom:none;text-decoration:none;cursor:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-full{font-size:114%;margin:0 7em}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-mini{font-size:114%;margin:0 4em}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}}</style><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Admiralty_law" title="Template:Admiralty law"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Admiralty_law" title="Template talk:Admiralty law"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Admiralty_law" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Admiralty law"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <p><b>Admiralty law</b> or <b>maritime law</b> is a body of <a href="/wiki/Law" title="Law">law</a> that governs nautical issues and private maritime disputes. Admiralty law consists of both domestic law on maritime activities, and <a href="/wiki/Conflict_of_laws" title="Conflict of laws">private international law</a> governing the relationships between private parties operating or using ocean-going ships. While each legal jurisdiction usually has its own legislation governing maritime matters, the international nature of the topic and the need for uniformity has, since 1900, led to considerable international maritime law developments, including numerous <a href="/wiki/Multilateralism" title="Multilateralism">multilateral</a> treaties.<sup id="cite_ref-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>a<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Admiralty law may be distinguished from the <a href="/wiki/Law_of_the_sea" title="Law of the sea">law of the sea</a>, which is a body of <a href="/wiki/International_law" title="International law">public international law</a> dealing with navigational rights, <a href="/wiki/Mineral_rights" title="Mineral rights">mineral rights</a>, jurisdiction over coastal waters, and the maritime relationships between nations. The <a href="/wiki/United_Nations_Convention_on_the_Law_of_the_Sea" title="United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea">United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea</a> has been adopted by 167 countries<sup id="cite_ref-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>b<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and the <a href="/wiki/European_Union" title="European Union">European Union</a>, and disputes are resolved at the <a href="/wiki/ITLOS" class="mw-redirect" title="ITLOS">ITLOS</a> tribunal in Hamburg. </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="History">History</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Admiralty_law&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: History"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Seaborne transport was one of the earliest channels of commerce, and rules for resolving disputes involving maritime trade were developed early in recorded history. Early historical records of these laws include the <a href="/wiki/Rhodian_law" class="mw-redirect" title="Rhodian law">Rhodian law</a> (<span title="Ancient Greek (to 1453)-language text"><i lang="grc-Latn">Nomos Rhodion Nautikos</i></span>), of which no primary written specimen has survived, but which is alluded to in other legal texts (Roman and Byzantine legal codes), and later the customs of the <a href="/wiki/Consulate_of_the_Sea" title="Consulate of the Sea">Consulate of the Sea</a> or the <a href="/wiki/Hanseatic_League" title="Hanseatic League">Hanseatic League</a>. In southern Italy the <span title="Latin-language text"><i lang="la"><a href="/wiki/Ordinamenta_et_consuetudo_maris" title="Ordinamenta et consuetudo maris">Ordinamenta et consuetudo maris</a></i></span> (1063) at <a href="/wiki/Trani,_Apulia" class="mw-redirect" title="Trani, Apulia">Trani</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Amalfian_Laws" title="Amalfian Laws">Amalfian Laws</a> were in effect from an early date. </p><p><a href="/wiki/Henry_de_Bracton" title="Henry de Bracton">Bracton</a> noted further that admiralty law was also used as an alternative to the common law in Norman England, which previously required voluntary submission to it by entering a plea seeking judgment from the court.<sup id="cite_ref-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>A leading sponsor of admiralty law in Europe was the French <a href="/wiki/Eleanor_of_Aquitaine" title="Eleanor of Aquitaine">Queen Eleanor of Aquitaine</a>. Eleanor had learned about admiralty law while on the <a href="/wiki/Second_Crusade" title="Second Crusade">Second Crusade</a> in the <a href="/wiki/Eastern_Mediterranean" title="Eastern Mediterranean">eastern Mediterranean</a> with her first husband, King <a href="/wiki/Louis_VII_of_France" title="Louis VII of France">Louis VII of France</a>. Eleanor then established admiralty law on the island of <a href="/wiki/Ol%C3%A9ron" title="Oléron">Oléron</a>, where it was published as the <a href="/wiki/Rolls_of_Ol%C3%A9ron" title="Rolls of Oléron">Rolls of Oléron</a>. Some time later, while she was in London acting as <a href="/wiki/Regent" title="Regent">regent</a> for her son, King <a href="/wiki/Richard_I_of_England" title="Richard I of England">Richard I of England</a>, Eleanor instituted admiralty law into England as well. </p><p>In <a href="/wiki/England_and_Wales" title="England and Wales">England and Wales</a>, a special <a href="/wiki/Admiralty_Court" class="mw-redirect" title="Admiralty Court">Admiralty Court</a> handles all admiralty cases. Despite early reliance upon <a href="/wiki/Civil_law_(legal_system)" title="Civil law (legal system)">civil law</a> concepts derived from the <span title="Latin-language text"><i lang="la"><a href="/wiki/Corpus_Juris_Civilis" title="Corpus Juris Civilis">Corpus Juris Civilis</a></i></span> of <a href="/wiki/Justinian_I" title="Justinian I">Justinian</a>, the English Admiralty Court is a <a href="/wiki/Common_law" title="Common law">common law</a>, albeit <i><a href="/wiki/Sui_generis" title="Sui generis">sui generis</a></i> court that was initially somewhat distanced from other English courts. After around 1750, as the <a href="/wiki/Industrial_Revolution" title="Industrial Revolution">Industrial Revolution</a> took hold and English maritime commerce burgeoned, the Admiralty Court became a proactive source of innovative legal ideas and provisions to meet the new situation. The <a href="/wiki/Judicature_Act" title="Judicature Act">Judicature Acts</a> of 1873–1875 abolished the Admiralty Court as such, and it became conflated in the new Probate, Divorce and Admiralty division of the High Court. However, when the PDA was abolished and replaced by a new Family Division, admiralty jurisdiction passed to a so-called Admiralty Court which was effectively the <a href="/wiki/King%27s_Bench_Division" title="King's Bench Division">King's Bench</a> sitting to hear nautical cases. The <a href="/wiki/Senior_Courts_Act_1981" title="Senior Courts Act 1981">Senior Courts Act 1981</a> then clarified the admiralty jurisdiction of the Queen's Bench, so England and Wales once again has a distinct Admiralty Court (albeit no longer based in the <a href="/wiki/Royal_Courts_of_Justice" title="Royal Courts of Justice">Royal Courts of Justice</a>, but in the <a href="/wiki/Rolls_Building" title="Rolls Building">Rolls Building</a>). </p><p>English Admiralty courts were a prominent feature in the prelude to the <a href="/wiki/American_Revolution" title="American Revolution">American Revolution</a>. For example, the phrase in the Declaration of Independence "For depriving us in many cases, of the benefits of Trial by Jury" refers to the practice of the UK Parliament giving the Admiralty Courts jurisdiction to enforce the <a href="/wiki/Stamp_Act_1765" title="Stamp Act 1765">Stamp Act 1765</a> in the American colonies.<sup id="cite_ref-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Stamp Act was unpopular in America, so a colonial jury would be <a href="/wiki/Jury_nullification" title="Jury nullification">unlikely to convict</a> any colonist of its violation. The Admiralty Court, which has never had trial by jury, was thus given jurisdiction so a colonist charged with breaching the Stamp Act could be more easily convicted by the Crown.<sup id="cite_ref-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Admiralty law gradually became part of <a href="/wiki/United_States_law" class="mw-redirect" title="United States law">United States law</a> through admiralty cases arising after the adoption of the <a href="/wiki/United_States_Constitution" class="mw-redirect" title="United States Constitution">U.S. Constitution</a> in 1789. Many American lawyers who were prominent in the American Revolution were admiralty and maritime lawyers. Those included are <a href="/wiki/Alexander_Hamilton" title="Alexander Hamilton">Alexander Hamilton</a> in <a href="/wiki/New_York_(state)" title="New York (state)">New York</a> and <a href="/wiki/John_Adams" title="John Adams">John Adams</a> in <a href="/wiki/Massachusetts" title="Massachusetts">Massachusetts</a>. </p><p>In 1787, <a href="/wiki/Thomas_Jefferson" title="Thomas Jefferson">Thomas Jefferson</a> wrote to <a href="/wiki/James_Madison" title="James Madison">James Madison</a> proposing that the U.S. Constitution, then under consideration by the States, be amended to include "trial by jury in all matters of fact triable by the laws of the land and not by the laws of Nations". The result was the <a href="/wiki/United_States_Bill_of_Rights" title="United States Bill of Rights">United States Bill of Rights</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Alexander Hamilton and John Adams were both admiralty lawyers and Adams represented <a href="/wiki/John_Hancock" title="John Hancock">John Hancock</a> in an admiralty case in colonial Boston involving seizure of one of Hancock's ships for violations of customs regulations. In the more modern era, Supreme Court Justice <a href="/wiki/Oliver_Wendell_Holmes_Jr." title="Oliver Wendell Holmes Jr.">Oliver Wendell Holmes</a> was an admiralty lawyer before ascending to the bench. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Features">Features</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Admiralty_law&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Features"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1251242444">.mw-parser-output .ambox{border:1px solid #a2a9b1;border-left:10px solid #36c;background-color:#fbfbfb;box-sizing:border-box}.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+style+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+style+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+link+.ambox{margin-top:-1px}html body.mediawiki .mw-parser-output .ambox.mbox-small-left{margin:4px 1em 4px 0;overflow:hidden;width:238px;border-collapse:collapse;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em}.mw-parser-output .ambox-speedy{border-left:10px solid #b32424;background-color:#fee7e6}.mw-parser-output .ambox-delete{border-left:10px solid #b32424}.mw-parser-output .ambox-content{border-left:10px solid #f28500}.mw-parser-output .ambox-style{border-left:10px solid #fc3}.mw-parser-output .ambox-move{border-left:10px solid #9932cc}.mw-parser-output .ambox-protection{border-left:10px solid #a2a9b1}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-text{border:none;padding:0.25em 0.5em;width:100%}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-image{border:none;padding:2px 0 2px 0.5em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-imageright{border:none;padding:2px 0.5em 2px 0;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-empty-cell{border:none;padding:0;width:1px}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-image-div{width:52px}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .ambox{margin:0 10%}}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .ambox{display:none!important}}</style><table class="box-Globalize plainlinks metadata ambox ambox-content ambox-globalize" role="presentation"><tbody><tr><td class="mbox-image"><div class="mbox-image-div"><span typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="Globe icon." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bd/Ambox_globe_content.svg/48px-Ambox_globe_content.svg.png" decoding="async" width="48" height="40" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bd/Ambox_globe_content.svg/73px-Ambox_globe_content.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bd/Ambox_globe_content.svg/97px-Ambox_globe_content.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="350" data-file-height="290" /></span></span></div></td><td class="mbox-text"><div class="mbox-text-span">The examples and perspective in this section <b>may not represent a <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:WikiProject_Countering_systemic_bias" title="Wikipedia:WikiProject Countering systemic bias">worldwide view</a> of the subject</b>.<span class="hide-when-compact"> You may <a class="external text" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Admiralty_law&action=edit">improve this section</a>, discuss the issue on the <a href="/wiki/Talk:Admiralty_law" title="Talk:Admiralty law">talk page</a>, or create a new section, as appropriate.</span> <span class="date-container"><i>(<span class="date">September 2010</span>)</i></span><span class="hide-when-compact"><i> (<small><a href="/wiki/Help:Maintenance_template_removal" title="Help:Maintenance template removal">Learn how and when to remove this message</a></small>)</i></span></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <p>Matters dealt by admiralty law include marine commerce, <a href="/wiki/Marine_navigation" title="Marine navigation">marine navigation</a>, <a href="/wiki/Marine_salvage" title="Marine salvage">salvage</a>, <a href="/wiki/Maritime_pollution" class="mw-redirect" title="Maritime pollution">maritime pollution</a>, <a href="/wiki/Sailor" title="Sailor">seafarers' rights</a>, and the <a href="/wiki/Contract_of_carriage" title="Contract of carriage">carriage</a> by sea of both passengers and <a href="/wiki/Freight_transport" title="Freight transport">goods</a>. Admiralty law also covers land-based commercial activities that are maritime in character, such as marine insurance. Some lawyers prefer to reserve the term "admiralty law" for "wet law" (e.g. salvage, collisions, ship arrest, towage, liens and limitation), and use "maritime law" only for "dry law" (e.g. carriage of goods and people, <a href="/wiki/Marine_insurance" title="Marine insurance">marine insurance</a>, and the <a href="/wiki/Maritime_Labour_Convention" title="Maritime Labour Convention">Maritime Labour Convention</a>).<sup id="cite_ref-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>c<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="The change in title of a book is not a source for the "wet law" / "dry law" distinction, especially as arrest a "wet law", is dealt with in the 3rd edition (January 2019)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Maintenance_and_cure">Maintenance and cure</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Admiralty_law&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Maintenance and cure"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The doctrine of maintenance and cure is rooted in Article VI of the <a href="/wiki/Rolls_of_Ol%C3%A9ron" title="Rolls of Oléron">Rolls of Oléron</a> promulgated in about 1160 A.D. The obligation to "cure" requires a shipowner to provide medical care free of charge to a <a href="/wiki/Seaman_(Admiralty_Law)" class="mw-redirect" title="Seaman (Admiralty Law)">seaman</a> injured in the service of the ship, until the seaman has reached "maximum medical cure". The concept of "maximum medical cure" is more extensive than the concept "maximum medical improvement". The obligation to "cure" a seaman includes the obligation to provide him with medications and medical devices which improve his ability to function, even if they do not "improve" his actual condition. They may include long-term treatments that permit him to continue to function well. Common examples include prostheses, wheelchairs, and pain medications. </p><p>The obligation of "maintenance" requires the shipowner to provide a seaman with his basic living expenses while he is convalescing. Once a seaman is able to work, he is expected to maintain himself. Consequently, a seaman can lose his right to maintenance, while the obligation to provide cure is ongoing. </p><p>A seaman who is required to sue a shipowner to recover maintenance and cure may also recover his attorneys fees. <i>Vaughan v. Atkinson</i>, 369 U.S. 527 (1962). If a shipowner's breach of its obligation to provide maintenance and cure is willful and wanton, the shipowner may be subject to punitive damages. See <i><a href="/wiki/Atlantic_Sounding_Co._v._Townsend" title="Atlantic Sounding Co. v. Townsend">Atlantic Sounding Co. v. Townsend</a></i>, 557 U.S. 404 (2009) (J. Thomas). </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Personal_injuries_to_passengers">Personal injuries to passengers</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Admiralty_law&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Personal injuries to passengers"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Negligence" title="Negligence">Negligence</a></div> <p>Shipowners owe a <a href="/wiki/Breach_of_duty_in_English_law" title="Breach of duty in English law">duty of reasonable care</a> to passengers. Consequently, passengers who are injured aboard ships may bring suit as if they had been injured ashore through the negligence of a third party. The passenger bears the burden of proving that the shipowner was negligent. While personal injury cases must generally be pursued within three years, suits against cruise lines may need to be brought within one year because of limitations contained in the passenger ticket. Notice requirements in the ticket may require a formal notice to be brought within six months of the injury. Most U.S. cruise line passenger tickets also have provisions requiring that suit to be brought in either <a href="/wiki/Miami" title="Miami">Miami</a> or <a href="/wiki/Seattle" title="Seattle">Seattle</a>. </p><p>In <a href="/wiki/English_law" title="English law">England</a>, the 1954 case of <i>Adler v Dickson (The Himalaya)</i> [1954]<sup id="cite_ref-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> allowed a shipping line to escape liability when a bosun's negligence resulted in a passenger being injured. Since then, the <a href="/wiki/Unfair_Contract_Terms_Act_1977" title="Unfair Contract Terms Act 1977">Unfair Contract Terms Act 1977</a> has made it unlawful to exclude liability for death or personal injury caused by one's negligence. (Since then, however, the so-called "<a href="/wiki/Himalaya_clause" title="Himalaya clause">Himalaya clause</a>" has become a useful way for a contractor to pass on the protection of a limitation clause to his employees, agents and third-party contractors.) </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Maritime_liens_and_mortgages">Maritime liens and mortgages</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Admiralty_law&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Maritime liens and mortgages"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Maritime_lien" title="Maritime lien">Maritime lien</a></div> <p>Banks which loan money to purchase ships, vendors who supply ships with necessaries like fuel and stores, seamen who are due wages, and many others have a <a href="/wiki/Lien" title="Lien">lien</a> against the ship to guarantee payment. To enforce the lien, the ship must be arrested or seized. In the United States, an action to enforce a lien against a U.S. ship must be brought in federal court and cannot be done in state court, except for under the reverse <a href="/wiki/Erie_Doctrine" class="mw-redirect" title="Erie Doctrine">Erie Doctrine</a> whereby state courts can apply federal law. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Salvage_and_treasure_salvage">Salvage and treasure salvage</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Admiralty_law&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Salvage and treasure salvage"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Marine_salvage" title="Marine salvage">Marine salvage</a></div> <p>When property is lost at sea and rescued by another, the rescuer is entitled to claim a <a href="/wiki/Salvage_diving" title="Salvage diving">salvage</a> award on the salvaged property. There is no "life salvage": all mariners have a duty to save the lives of others in peril without expectation of reward. Consequently, salvage law applies only to the saving of property. </p><p>There are two types of salvage: contract salvage and pure salvage, which is sometimes referred to as "merit salvage". In contract salvage the owner of the property and salvor enter into a salvage contract prior to the commencement of salvage operations and the amount that the salvor is paid is determined by the contract. The most common salvage contract is called a "<a href="/wiki/Lloyd%27s_Open_Form" title="Lloyd's Open Form">Lloyd's Open Form Salvage Contract</a>". </p><p>In pure salvage, there is no contract between the owner of the goods and the salvor. The relationship is one which is implied by law. The salvor of property under pure salvage must bring his claim for salvage in court, which will award salvage based upon the "merit" of the service and the value of the salvaged property. </p><p>Pure salvage claims are divided into "high-order" and "low-order" salvage. In high-order salvage, the salvor exposes himself and his crew to the risk of injury and loss or damage to his equipment to salvage the damaged ship. Examples of high-order salvage are boarding a sinking ship in heavy weather, boarding a ship which is on fire, raising a ship or boat which has already sunk, or towing a ship which is in the surf away from the shore. Low-order salvage occurs where the salvor is exposed to little or no personal risk. Examples of low-order salvage include towing another vessel in calm seas, supplying a vessel with fuel, or pulling a vessel off a sand bar. Salvors performing high-order salvage receive substantially greater salvage award than those performing low-order salvage. </p><p>In both high-order and low-order salvage the amount of the salvage award is based first upon the value of the property saved. If nothing is saved, or if additional damage is done, there will be no award. The other factors to be considered are the skills of the salvor, the peril to which the salvaged property was exposed, the value of the property which was risked in effecting the salvage, the amount of time and money expended in the salvage operation, etc. </p><p>A pure or merit salvage award will seldom exceed 50 percent of the value of the property salved. The exception to that rule is in the case of treasure salvage. Because sunken treasure has generally been lost for hundreds of years, while the original owner (or insurer, if the vessel was insured) continues to have an interest in it, the salvor or finder will generally get the majority of the value of the property. While sunken ships from the <a href="/wiki/Spanish_Main" title="Spanish Main">Spanish Main</a> (such as <i><a href="/wiki/Nuestra_Se%C3%B1ora_de_Atocha" title="Nuestra Señora de Atocha">Nuestra Señora de Atocha</a></i> in the <a href="/wiki/Florida_Keys" title="Florida Keys">Florida Keys</a>) are the most commonly thought of type of treasure salvage, other types of ships – including German submarines from World War II which can hold valuable historical artifacts, <a href="/wiki/American_Civil_War" title="American Civil War">American Civil War</a> ships (the USS <i>Maple Leaf</i> in the <a href="/wiki/St._Johns_River" title="St. Johns River">St. Johns River</a>, and the <a href="/wiki/CSS_Virginia" title="CSS Virginia">CSS <i>Virginia</i></a> in <a href="/wiki/Chesapeake_Bay" title="Chesapeake Bay">Chesapeake Bay</a>), and sunken merchant ships (the <a href="/wiki/SS_Central_America" title="SS Central America">SS <i>Central America</i></a> off <a href="/wiki/Cape_Hatteras" title="Cape Hatteras">Cape Hatteras</a>) – have all been the subject of treasure salvage awards.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (January 2009)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> Due to refinements in side-scanning sonars, many ships which were previously missing are now being located and treasure salvage is now a less risky endeavor than it was in the past, although it is still highly speculative and expensive. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Allision"><span class="anchor" id="Allision"></span>Allision</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Admiralty_law&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Allision"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In maritime law, it is occasionally desirable to distinguish between the situation of a vessel striking a moving object and that of it striking a stationary object. The word "<a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/allision" class="extiw" title="wikt:allision">allision</a>" is then used to mean the striking of a stationary object, while "<a href="/wiki/Ship_collision" title="Ship collision">collision</a>" is used to mean the striking of a moving object.<sup id="cite_ref-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-12" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-13" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Thus, when two vessels run against each other, courts typically use the term <i>collision</i> whereas when one vessel runs against a stationary object, they typically use the term <i>allision</i>.<sup id="cite_ref-14" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The fixed object could be a <a href="/wiki/Bridge" title="Bridge">bridge</a> or <a href="/wiki/Dock_(maritime)" class="mw-redirect" title="Dock (maritime)">dock</a>. </p><p>While there is no great difference between the two terms and often they are even used interchangeably, determining the difference helps clarify the circumstances of emergencies and adapt accordingly.<sup id="cite_ref-15" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="International_conventions">International conventions</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Admiralty_law&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: International conventions"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Before the mid-1970s, most international conventions concerning maritime trade and commerce originated in a private organization of maritime lawyers known as the <a href="/wiki/Comit%C3%A9_Maritime_International" title="Comité Maritime International">Comité Maritime International</a> (International Maritime Committee or CMI). Founded in 1897, the CMI drafted numerous international conventions, including the Hague Rules (International Convention on Bills of Lading), the Visby Amendments (amending the Hague Rules), the Salvage Convention, and many others. While the CMI continues to function in an advisory capacity, many of its functions have been taken over by the <a href="/wiki/International_Maritime_Organization" title="International Maritime Organization">International Maritime Organization</a> (IMO). In 1948 an international conference in Geneva adopted a convention formally establishing IMO (the original name was the Inter-Governmental Maritime Consultative Organization, or IMCO, but the name was changed in 1982 to IMO with UN Convention on the Law of the Sea). The IMO Convention entered into force in 1958 and the new Organization met for the first time the following year (<a rel="nofollow" class="external free" href="https://www.imo.org/en/About/HistoryOfIMO/Pages/Default.aspx">https://www.imo.org/en/About/HistoryOfIMO/Pages/Default.aspx</a>). The IMO has prepared numerous international conventions concerning maritime safety, including the <a href="/wiki/International_Convention_for_the_Safety_of_Life_at_Sea" class="mw-redirect" title="International Convention for the Safety of Life at Sea">International Convention for the Safety of Life at Sea</a> (SOLAS), the Standards for Training, Certification, and Watchkeeping (<a href="/wiki/STCW" class="mw-redirect" title="STCW">STCW</a>), the <a href="/wiki/International_Regulations_for_Preventing_Collisions_at_Sea" title="International Regulations for Preventing Collisions at Sea">International Regulations for Preventing Collisions at Sea</a> (Collision Regulations or COLREGS), Maritime Pollution Regulations (<a href="/wiki/MARPOL" class="mw-redirect" title="MARPOL">MARPOL</a>), <a href="/wiki/International_Convention_on_Maritime_Search_and_Rescue" title="International Convention on Maritime Search and Rescue">International Convention on Maritime Search and Rescue</a> (SAR Convention) and others. The <a href="/wiki/United_Nations_Convention_on_the_Law_of_the_Sea" title="United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea">United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea</a> (UNCLOS) defined a treaty regarding protection of the marine environment and various <a href="/wiki/Maritime_boundary" title="Maritime boundary">maritime boundaries</a>. Restrictions on international fishing such as <a href="/wiki/International_Convention_for_the_Regulation_of_Whaling" title="International Convention for the Regulation of Whaling">International Convention for the Regulation of Whaling</a> also form part of the body of conventions in international waters. Other commercial conventions include the "International Convention relating to the Limitation of the Liability of Owners of Sea-Going Ships", <a href="/wiki/Brussels" title="Brussels">Brussels</a>, 10 October 1957.<sup id="cite_ref-16" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and <a href="/wiki/International_Convention_for_Safe_Containers" class="mw-redirect" title="International Convention for Safe Containers">International Convention for Safe Containers</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-17" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Once adopted, most international conventions are enforced by the individual signatory nations, either through their <a href="/wiki/Port_State_Control" class="mw-redirect" title="Port State Control">Port State Control</a>, or through their national courts. Cases within the ambit of the <a href="/wiki/European_Union" title="European Union">European Union</a>'s <a href="/wiki/European_Maritime_Safety_Agency" title="European Maritime Safety Agency">EMSA</a> may be heard by the <a href="/wiki/Court_of_Justice_of_the_European_Union" title="Court of Justice of the European Union">CJEU</a> in <a href="/wiki/Luxembourg" title="Luxembourg">Luxembourg</a>. By contrast, disputes involving the Law of the Sea may be resolved at <a href="/wiki/ITLOS" class="mw-redirect" title="ITLOS">ITLOS</a> in <a href="/wiki/Hamburg" title="Hamburg">Hamburg</a>, provided that the parties are signatories to <a href="/wiki/United_Nations_Convention_on_the_Law_of_the_Sea" title="United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea">UNCLOS</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Piracy">Piracy</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Admiralty_law&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Piracy"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Piracy" title="Piracy">Piracy</a> and <a href="/wiki/International_piracy_law" title="International piracy law">International piracy law</a></div> <p>Throughout history, piracy has been defined as <i><a href="/wiki/Hostis_humani_generis" title="Hostis humani generis">hostis humani generis</a></i>, or the enemy of all mankind. While the <a href="/wiki/Flag_state" title="Flag state">flag state</a> normally has jurisdiction over a ship on the high seas, there is <a href="/wiki/Universal_jurisdiction" title="Universal jurisdiction">universal jurisdiction</a> in the case of piracy, which means that any nation may pursue pirates on the high seas, including pursuing them into a country's territorial waters. Most nations have signed onto the 1982 <a href="/wiki/United_Nations_Convention_on_the_Law_of_the_Sea" title="United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea">United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea</a> which dictates the legal requirements for pursuing pirates. </p><p>Merchant vessels transiting areas of increased pirate activity (i.e. the <a href="/wiki/Gulf_of_Aden" title="Gulf of Aden">Gulf of Aden</a>, <a href="/w/index.php?title=Somali_Basin&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Somali Basin (page does not exist)">Somali Basin</a>, Southern <a href="/wiki/Red_Sea" title="Red Sea">Red Sea</a> and <a href="/wiki/Bab-el-Mandeb_straits" class="mw-redirect" title="Bab-el-Mandeb straits">Bab-el-Mandeb straits</a>) are advised to implement self-protective measures, in accordance with most recent best management practices agreed upon by the members of the merchant industry and endorsed by the NATO Shipping Centre, and the Maritime Security Centre Horn-of-Africa (MSCHOA).<sup id="cite_ref-18" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Individual_countries">Individual countries</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Admiralty_law&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Individual countries"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Great_Britain_and_certain_Commonwealth_countries">Great Britain and certain Commonwealth countries</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Admiralty_law&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Great Britain and certain Commonwealth countries"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The <a href="/wiki/Common_law" title="Common law">common law</a> of <a href="/wiki/England_and_Wales" title="England and Wales">England and Wales</a>, of <a href="/wiki/Northern_Ireland_law" class="mw-redirect" title="Northern Ireland law">Northern Ireland law</a>, and of <a href="/wiki/US_law" class="mw-redirect" title="US law">US law</a>, contrast to the <a href="/wiki/Continental_law" class="mw-redirect" title="Continental law">continental law</a> (civil law) that prevails in <a href="/wiki/Scottish_law" class="mw-redirect" title="Scottish law">Scottish law</a> and in <a href="/wiki/Continental_Europe" title="Continental Europe">continental Europe</a>, which trace back to <a href="/wiki/Roman_law" title="Roman law">Roman law</a>. Although the <a href="/wiki/Admiralty_court#England_and_Wales" title="Admiralty court">English Admiralty court</a> was a development of continental civil law, the Admiralty Court of England and Wales was a common law court, albeit somewhat distanced from the mainstream <a href="/wiki/King%27s_Bench_Division" title="King's Bench Division">King's Bench</a>. </p><p>Most of the common law countries (including <a href="/wiki/Pakistan" title="Pakistan">Pakistan</a>, <a href="/wiki/Singapore" title="Singapore">Singapore</a>, <a href="/wiki/India" title="India">India</a>, and many other <a href="/wiki/Commonwealth_of_Nations" title="Commonwealth of Nations">Commonwealth of Nations</a> countries) follow English statute and case law. India still follows many Victorian-era British statutes such as the <a href="/wiki/Admiralty_Court_Act_1861" title="Admiralty Court Act 1861">Admiralty Court Act 1861</a> [24 Vict c 10]. While Pakistan now has its own statute, the Admiralty Jurisdiction of High Courts Ordinance, 1980 (Ordinance XLII of 1980), it also follows English case law. One reason for this is that the 1980 Ordinance is partly modelled on old English admiralty law, namely the Administration of Justice Act 1956. The current statute dealing with the Admiralty jurisdiction of the England and Wales High Court is the <a href="/wiki/Senior_Courts_Act_1981" title="Senior Courts Act 1981">Senior Courts Act 1981</a>, ss. 20–24, 37. The provisions in those sections are, in turn, based on the International Arrest Convention 1952. Other countries which do not follow the English statute and case laws, such as <a href="/wiki/Panama" title="Panama">Panama</a>, also have established well-known maritime courts which decide international cases on a regular basis. </p><p>Admiralty courts assume jurisdiction by virtue of the presence of the vessel in its territorial jurisdiction irrespective of whether the vessel is national or not and whether registered or not, and wherever the residence or domicile or their owners may be. A vessel is usually arrested by the court to retain jurisdiction. State-owned vessels are usually immune from arrest. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Canada">Canada</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Admiralty_law&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Canada"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Canadian_maritime_law" title="Canadian maritime law">Canadian maritime law</a></div> <p>Canadian jurisdiction in the area of navigation and shipping is vested in the <a href="/wiki/Parliament_of_Canada" title="Parliament of Canada">Parliament of Canada</a> by virtue of s. 91(10) of the <a href="/wiki/Constitution_Act,_1867" title="Constitution Act, 1867">Constitution Act, 1867</a>. </p><p>Canada has adopted an expansive definition of its maritime law, which goes beyond traditional admiralty law. The original English admiralty jurisdiction was called "wet", as it concerned itself with things done at sea, including collisions, salvage and the work of mariners, and contracts and torts performed at sea. Canadian law has added "dry" jurisdiction to this field, which includes such matters as: </p> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Stevedoring" class="mw-redirect" title="Stevedoring">stevedoring</a>,</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marine_insurance" title="Marine insurance">marine insurance</a>,</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Warehousing" class="mw-redirect" title="Warehousing">warehousing</a> and security services,</li> <li>contracts of <a href="/wiki/Agency_(law)" class="mw-redirect" title="Agency (law)">agency</a>, and</li> <li>contracts of <a href="/wiki/Affreightment" title="Affreightment">carriage</a>.</li></ul> <p>This list is not exhaustive of the subject matter.<sup id="cite_ref-19" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Canadian jurisdiction was originally consolidated in 1891, with subsequent expansions in 1934 following the passage of the <a href="/wiki/Statute_of_Westminster_1931" title="Statute of Westminster 1931">Statute of Westminster 1931</a>, and in 1971 with the extension to "dry" matters.<sup id="cite_ref-20" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Recent jurisprudence at the <a href="/wiki/Supreme_Court_of_Canada" title="Supreme Court of Canada">Supreme Court of Canada</a> has tended to expand the maritime law power, thus overriding prior provincial laws based on the provinces' power over <a href="/wiki/Property_and_civil_rights" class="mw-redirect" title="Property and civil rights">property and civil rights</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-21" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="United_States">United States</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Admiralty_law&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: United States"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/United_States_admiralty_law" title="United States admiralty law">United States admiralty law</a></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Jurisdiction">Jurisdiction</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Admiralty_law&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: Jurisdiction"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Article_Three_of_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Article Three of the United States Constitution">Article III, Section 2</a> of the <a href="/wiki/United_States_Constitution" class="mw-redirect" title="United States Constitution">United States Constitution</a> grants original jurisdiction to <a href="/wiki/U.S._federal_court" class="mw-redirect" title="U.S. federal court">U.S. federal courts</a> over admiralty and maritime matters; however, that jurisdiction is not exclusive, and most maritime cases can be heard in either state or federal courts under the "saving to suitors" clause.<sup id="cite_ref-22" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>There are five types of cases which can only be brought in federal court: </p> <ul><li>limitation of shipowner's liability,</li> <li>vessel arrests <i>in rem</i>,</li> <li>property arrests <i>quasi in rem</i>,</li> <li>salvage cases, and</li> <li>petitory and possession actions.</li></ul> <p>The common element of those cases are that they require the court to exercise jurisdiction over maritime property. For example, in a petitory and possession action, a vessel whose title is in dispute, usually between co-owners, will be put in the possession of the court until the title dispute can be resolved. In a limitation action, the shipowner will post a bond reflecting the value of the vessel and her pending freight. A sixth category, that of <a href="/wiki/Prize_(law)" title="Prize (law)">prize</a>, relating to claims over vessels captured during wartime, has been rendered obsolete due to changes in the laws and practices of warfare. </p><p>Aside from those five types of cases, all other maritime cases, such as claims for personal injuries, cargo damage, collisions, maritime products liability, and recreational boating accidents may be brought in either federal or state court. </p><p>From a tactical standpoint it is important to consider that in federal courts in the United States, there is generally no right to trial by jury in admiralty cases, although the 1920 <a href="/wiki/Merchant_Marine_Act_of_1920" title="Merchant Marine Act of 1920">Jones Act</a> grants a jury trial to seamen suing their employers. </p><p>Maritime law is governed by a uniform three-year statute of limitations for personal injury and wrongful death cases. Cargo cases must be brought within two years (extended from the one-year allowance under the <a href="/wiki/Hague-Visby_Rules" class="mw-redirect" title="Hague-Visby Rules">Hague-Visby Rules</a>), pursuant to the adoption of the <a href="/wiki/Rotterdam_Rules" title="Rotterdam Rules">Rotterdam Rules</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-23" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Most major cruise ship passenger tickets have a one-year statute of limitations. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Applicable_law">Applicable law</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Admiralty_law&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: Applicable law"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>A state court hearing an admiralty or maritime case is required to apply the admiralty and maritime law, even if it conflicts with the law of the state, under a doctrine known as the "reverse-<i>Erie</i> doctrine". While the "<a href="/wiki/Erie_doctrine" title="Erie doctrine"><i>Erie</i> doctrine</a>" requires that federal courts hearing state actions must apply substantive state law, the "reverse-<i>Erie</i> doctrine" requires state courts hearing admiralty cases to apply substantive federal admiralty law. However, state courts are allowed to apply state procedural law.<sup id="cite_ref-24" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Reliable_sources" title="Wikipedia:Reliable sources"><span title="The material near this tag may rely on an unreliable source. Appears to be a student essay of no particular importance (May 2020)">unreliable source?</span></a></i>]</sup> This change can be significant. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Features_of_U.S._admiralty_law">Features of U.S. admiralty law</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Admiralty_law&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: Features of U.S. admiralty law"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading5"><h5 id="Cargo_claims">Cargo claims</h5><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Admiralty_law&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: Cargo claims"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Freight_claim" title="Freight claim">Freight claim</a></div> <p>Claims for damage to cargo shipped in international commerce are governed by the <a href="/wiki/Carriage_of_Goods_by_Sea_Act" title="Carriage of Goods by Sea Act">Carriage of Goods by Sea Act</a> (COGSA), which is the U.S. enactment of the Hague Rules. One of its key features is that a shipowner is liable for cargo damaged from "hook to hook", meaning from loading to discharge, unless it is exonerated under one of 17 exceptions to liability, such as an "<a href="/wiki/Act_of_God" title="Act of God">act of God</a>", the inherent nature of the goods, errors in <a href="/wiki/Navigation" title="Navigation">navigation</a>, and management of the ship. The basis of liability for the shipowner is a <a href="/wiki/Bailment" title="Bailment">bailment</a> and if the carrier is to be liable as a <a href="/wiki/Common_carrier" title="Common carrier">common carrier</a>, it must be established that the goods were placed in the carrier's possession and control for immediate carriage.<sup id="cite_ref-25" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading5"><h5 id="Personal_injuries_to_seamen">Personal injuries to seamen</h5><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Admiralty_law&action=edit&section=18" title="Edit section: Personal injuries to seamen"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1251242444"><table class="box-Unreferenced_section plainlinks metadata ambox ambox-content ambox-Unreferenced" role="presentation"><tbody><tr><td class="mbox-image"><div class="mbox-image-div"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Question_book-new.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/50px-Question_book-new.svg.png" decoding="async" width="50" height="39" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/75px-Question_book-new.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/100px-Question_book-new.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="399" /></a></span></div></td><td class="mbox-text"><div class="mbox-text-span">This section <b>does not <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources">cite</a> any <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Verifiability" title="Wikipedia:Verifiability">sources</a></b>.<span class="hide-when-compact"> Please help <a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Admiralty_law" title="Special:EditPage/Admiralty law">improve this section</a> by <a href="/wiki/Help:Referencing_for_beginners" title="Help:Referencing for beginners">adding citations to reliable sources</a>. Unsourced material may be challenged and <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Verifiability#Burden_of_evidence" title="Wikipedia:Verifiability">removed</a>.</span> <span class="date-container"><i>(<span class="date">May 2020</span>)</i></span><span class="hide-when-compact"><i> (<small><a href="/wiki/Help:Maintenance_template_removal" title="Help:Maintenance template removal">Learn how and when to remove this message</a></small>)</i></span></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <p><a href="/wiki/Seaman_status_in_United_States_admiralty_law" title="Seaman status in United States admiralty law">Seamen</a> injured aboard ship have three possible sources of compensation: the principle of maintenance and cure, the doctrine of unseaworthiness, and the <a href="/wiki/Merchant_Marine_Act_of_1920" title="Merchant Marine Act of 1920">Jones Act</a>. The principle of maintenance and cure requires a shipowner to both pay for an injured seaman's medical treatment until maximum medical recovery (MMR) is obtained and provide basic living expenses until completion of the voyage, even if the seaman is no longer aboard ship.<sup id="cite_ref-26" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Pakistan">Pakistan</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Admiralty_law&action=edit&section=19" title="Edit section: Pakistan"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Admiralty law in <a href="/wiki/Pakistan" title="Pakistan">Pakistan</a> is also classified as <a href="/wiki/Shipping_law" class="mw-redirect" title="Shipping law">shipping law</a>. The Pakistan <a href="/w/index.php?title=Merchant_Shipping_Ordinance_2001&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Merchant Shipping Ordinance 2001 (page does not exist)">Merchant Shipping Ordinance 2001</a><sup id="cite_ref-27" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> has replaced the <a href="/w/index.php?title=Merchant_Shipping_Act_1923&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Merchant Shipping Act 1923 (page does not exist)">Merchant Shipping Act 1923</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-28" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This replacement was done in 2001 to handle the constantly upgrading modern shipping industry. The purpose of the Pakistan Merchant Shipping Ordinance 2001 is to provide a strategy and rules under which the government authorities will function in dealing with stuff related to the shipping industry. This law also handles duties internationally required under the ILO (<a href="/wiki/International_Labour_Organization" title="International Labour Organization">International Labour Organization</a>) conventions as Pakistan is an active member of the ILO.<sup id="cite_ref-29" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Academic_programs">Academic programs</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Admiralty_law&action=edit&section=20" title="Edit section: Academic programs"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>There are several universities that offer maritime law programs. What follows is a partial list of universities offering postgraduate maritime courses: </p> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Canada" title="Canada">Canada</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Dalhousie_Law_School" class="mw-redirect" title="Dalhousie Law School">Dalhousie Law School</a> – LL.M in marine and <a href="/wiki/Environmental_law" title="Environmental law">environmental law</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/France" title="France">France</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Panth%C3%A9on-Assas_University" class="mw-redirect" title="Panthéon-Assas University">Panthéon-Assas University</a> – LL.M in international, business or private law with marine law courses<sup id="cite_ref-30" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li><a href="/wiki/University_of_Nice_Sophia_Antipolis" class="mw-redirect" title="University of Nice Sophia Antipolis">University of Nice Sophia Antipolis</a> – LL.M in marine and environmental law</li> <li><a href="/wiki/University_of_Western_Brittany" title="University of Western Brittany">University of Western Brittany</a> in <a href="/wiki/Brest,_France" title="Brest, France">Brest</a> – LL.M in marine law<sup id="cite_ref-31" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li><a href="/wiki/University_of_Nantes" title="University of Nantes">University of Nantes</a> in Nantes – Master of Laws and Safety of maritime and oceanic activities</li> <li><a href="/wiki/University_of_Le_Havre" class="mw-redirect" title="University of Le Havre">University of Le Havre</a> in Le Havre – Master of Laws in Maritime & Ports Activities Law</li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Belgium" title="Belgium">Belgium</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ghent_University" title="Ghent University">Ghent University</a>- Master of Science in Maritime Science</li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Germany" title="Germany">Germany</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/University_of_Hamburg" title="University of Hamburg">University of Hamburg</a> with <a href="/wiki/Max_Planck_Institute_for_Comparative_and_International_Private_Law" title="Max Planck Institute for Comparative and International Private Law">Max Planck Institute for Comparative and International Private Law</a> – PhD in maritime law</li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Malaysia" title="Malaysia">Malaysia</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Universiti_Teknologi_Mara" class="mw-redirect" title="Universiti Teknologi Mara">Universiti Teknologi Mara</a> – <a href="/wiki/Master_of_Laws" title="Master of Laws">LL.M</a> in Legal Aspects of Marine Affairs</li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Netherlands_Maritime_University_College&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Netherlands Maritime University College (page does not exist)">Netherlands Maritime University College</a> - <a href="/w/index.php?title=Diploma_in_Maritime_law&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Diploma in Maritime law (page does not exist)">Diploma in Maritime law</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Malta" title="Malta">Malta</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/International_Maritime_Law_Institute" title="International Maritime Law Institute">International Maritime Law Institute</a> – <a href="/wiki/Master_of_Laws" title="Master of Laws">LL.M</a> in International Maritime Law</li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Netherlands" title="Netherlands">Netherlands</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Erasmus_University_Rotterdam" title="Erasmus University Rotterdam">Erasmus University Rotterdam</a> – LL.M. in Business, Corporate, and Maritime Law; Master of Science (M.Sc.) In Maritime Economics and Logistics (MEL)</li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Norway" title="Norway">Norway</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/University_of_Oslo" title="University of Oslo">University of Oslo</a> (<a href="/wiki/Scandinavian_Institute_of_Maritime_Law" class="mw-redirect" title="Scandinavian Institute of Maritime Law">Scandinavian Institute of Maritime Law</a>) – LL.M in maritime law</li> <li><a href="/wiki/University_of_Oslo" title="University of Oslo">University of Oslo</a> – Master of Laws in Maritime Law<sup id="cite_ref-32" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Romania" title="Romania">Romania</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ovidius_University_of_Constan%C8%9Ba" title="Ovidius University of Constanța">Ovidius University of Constanța</a> – Master of Laws in Maritime Law</li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Singapore" title="Singapore">Singapore</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/National_University_of_Singapore" title="National University of Singapore">National University of Singapore</a> – LL.M in maritime law (Graduate Diploma in Maritime Law and Arbitration International Maritime Organization)</li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/South_Africa" title="South Africa">South Africa</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/University_of_Cape_Town" title="University of Cape Town">University of Cape Town</a> – Masters in Maritime Law</li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spain" title="Spain">Spain</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Comillas_Pontifical_University" title="Comillas Pontifical University">Comillas Pontifical University</a> – Master in Maritime Business and Maritime Law (ICADE – Spanish Maritime Institute)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/University_of_Deusto" title="University of Deusto">University of Deusto</a> – Master in Maritime Enterprise Management and Maritime Law</li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sweden" title="Sweden">Sweden</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Lund_University" title="Lund University">Lund University</a> – <a href="/wiki/Master_of_Laws" title="Master of Laws">LL.M</a> in maritime law</li> <li><a href="/wiki/World_Maritime_University" title="World Maritime University">World Maritime University</a> Master of Science in Maritime Affairs (Maritime Law and Policy)</li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thailand" title="Thailand">Thailand</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Thammasat_University" title="Thammasat University">Thammasat University</a> – LL.M. in international trade law</li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_Kingdom" title="United Kingdom">United Kingdom</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bangor_University" title="Bangor University">Bangor University</a> – LLM in Maritime Law and LLM in Law of the Sea</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cardiff_University" title="Cardiff University">Cardiff University</a> – LLM in Shipping Law</li> <li><a href="/wiki/City_University_London" class="mw-redirect" title="City University London">City University London</a> – LLM in Maritime Law</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liverpool_John_Moores_University" title="Liverpool John Moores University">Liverpool John Moores University</a> – BSc & MSc in Maritime, Transport & Logistics (MTL) (with embedded maritime law elements)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Queen_Mary,_University_of_London" class="mw-redirect" title="Queen Mary, University of London">Queen Mary, University of London</a> – LLM in International Shipping Law</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Swansea_University" title="Swansea University">Swansea University</a> (Institute of International Shipping and Trade Law) – LLM in International Maritime Law</li> <li><a href="/wiki/University_College_London" title="University College London">University College London</a> – LLM in Maritime Law</li> <li><a href="/wiki/University_of_Hertfordshire" title="University of Hertfordshire">University of Hertfordshire</a> – LLM in Maritime Law</li> <li><a href="/wiki/University_of_Nottingham" title="University of Nottingham">University of Nottingham</a> – LLM in Maritime Law</li> <li><a href="/wiki/University_of_Southampton" title="University of Southampton">University of Southampton</a> School of Law (Institute of Maritime Law) – LLB (Maritime Law) and LLM in Maritime Law</li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States" title="United States">United States</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Charleston_School_of_Law" title="Charleston School of Law">Charleston School of Law</a> – LL.M. in Admirality and Maritime Law <sup id="cite_ref-33" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Florida_Coastal_School_of_Law" title="Florida Coastal School of Law">Florida Coastal School of Law</a> – LL.M. in Logistics and Transportation Law</li> <li><a href="/wiki/St._Thomas_University_School_of_Law" class="mw-redirect" title="St. Thomas University School of Law">St. Thomas University School of Law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tulane_University_Law_School" title="Tulane University Law School">Tulane University Law School</a> – LL.M in admiralty and JD with a Certificate of Specialization in Admiralty & Maritime Law<sup id="cite_ref-34" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li><a href="/wiki/University_of_Miami_School_of_Law" title="University of Miami School of Law">University of Miami School of Law</a> – LL.M in Ocean and Coastal Law</li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_S._Richardson_School_of_Law" title="William S. Richardson School of Law">William S. Richardson School of Law</a> University of Hawaii – LL.M. in Ocean Law and Policy<sup id="cite_ref-35" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li></ul></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Conspiracy_theory">Conspiracy theory</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Admiralty_law&action=edit&section=21" title="Edit section: Conspiracy theory"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Pseudolaw" title="Pseudolaw">Pseudolaw</a></div> <p>A pseudolegal <a href="/wiki/Conspiracy_theory" title="Conspiracy theory">conspiracy theory</a> of American origin, notably present among the anti-government <a href="/wiki/Sovereign_citizen_movement" title="Sovereign citizen movement">sovereign citizen</a> and <a href="/wiki/Freeman_on_the_land_movement" title="Freeman on the land movement">freeman on the land</a> movements, asserts that at some point maritime law, which they consider to be the law of <a href="/wiki/International_trade" title="International trade">international commerce</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-GWedu_36-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-GWedu-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Benchmark_37-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Benchmark-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> substituted for the original, legitimate "<a href="/wiki/Common_law" title="Common law">common law</a>" system as part of a broader conspiracy which secretly replaced <a href="/wiki/Government" title="Government">governments</a> with <a href="/wiki/Corporation" title="Corporation">corporations</a>. The <a href="/wiki/Judiciary" title="Judiciary">judiciary</a> hence became <a href="/wiki/Admiralty_courts" class="mw-redirect" title="Admiralty courts">admiralty courts</a> with no actual <a href="/wiki/Jurisdiction" title="Jurisdiction">jurisdiction</a> over people.<sup id="cite_ref-Benchmark_37-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Benchmark-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-SPLC2022_38-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-SPLC2022-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-spl4_39-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-spl4-39"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Sovereign citizens notably claim that the presence of <a href="/wiki/Flag_of_the_United_States#Decoration" title="Flag of the United States">gold fringes</a> on the American flags displayed in courtrooms is evidence of maritime law being in effect.<sup id="cite_ref-spl4_39-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-spl4-39"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>One variation of this theory is based on a misinterpretation of the English <a href="/wiki/Cestui_Que_Vie_Act_1666" class="mw-redirect" title="Cestui Que Vie Act 1666">Cestui Que Vie Act 1666</a> which stated that a person missing at sea shall be assumed to be dead after seven years; conspiracy theorists claim that the government uses this Act to secretly enslave people, by assuming any person to be <a href="/wiki/Legal_death" title="Legal death">legally dead</a> from the age of seven and thereafter considering their person and/or property as its possessions.<sup id="cite_ref-40" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The origin of the maritime law conspiracy theory is unknown, though it may stem from a misunderstanding of some nautical-sounding words in common usage in the English-language judiciary such as <i>ownership</i>, <i>citizenship</i>, <i>dock</i> or <i>birth (berth) certificate</i>.<sup id="cite_ref-Benchmark_37-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Benchmark-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This theory is entirely devoid of merit: when invoked by litigants, it has been consistently dismissed as <a href="/wiki/Frivolous_or_vexatious" title="Frivolous or vexatious">frivolous</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Benchmark_37-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Benchmark-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-41" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-41"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-42" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-42"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Admiralty_law&action=edit&section=22" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239009302">.mw-parser-output .portalbox{padding:0;margin:0.5em 0;display:table;box-sizing:border-box;max-width:175px;list-style:none}.mw-parser-output .portalborder{border:1px solid var(--border-color-base,#a2a9b1);padding:0.1em;background:var(--background-color-neutral-subtle,#f8f9fa)}.mw-parser-output .portalbox-entry{display:table-row;font-size:85%;line-height:110%;height:1.9em;font-style:italic;font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output .portalbox-image{display:table-cell;padding:0.2em;vertical-align:middle;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .portalbox-link{display:table-cell;padding:0.2em 0.2em 0.2em 0.3em;vertical-align:middle}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .portalleft{clear:left;float:left;margin:0.5em 1em 0.5em 0}.mw-parser-output .portalright{clear:right;float:right;margin:0.5em 0 0.5em 1em}}</style><ul role="navigation" aria-label="Portals" class="noprint portalbox portalborder portalright"> <li class="portalbox-entry"><span class="portalbox-image"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Balance,_by_David.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="icon" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/17/Balance%2C_by_David.svg/30px-Balance%2C_by_David.svg.png" decoding="async" width="30" height="28" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/17/Balance%2C_by_David.svg/46px-Balance%2C_by_David.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/17/Balance%2C_by_David.svg/61px-Balance%2C_by_David.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="606" data-file-height="558" /></a></span></span><span class="portalbox-link"><a href="/wiki/Portal:Law" title="Portal:Law">Law portal</a></span></li><li class="portalbox-entry"><span class="portalbox-image"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Waves_in_pacifica_1.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="icon" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/45/Waves_in_pacifica_1.jpg/32px-Waves_in_pacifica_1.jpg" decoding="async" width="32" height="22" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/45/Waves_in_pacifica_1.jpg/48px-Waves_in_pacifica_1.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/45/Waves_in_pacifica_1.jpg/64px-Waves_in_pacifica_1.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2000" data-file-height="1358" /></a></span></span><span class="portalbox-link"><a href="/wiki/Portal:Oceans" title="Portal:Oceans">Oceans portal</a></span></li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Admiralty_(disambiguation)" class="mw-redirect mw-disambig" title="Admiralty (disambiguation)">Admiralty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Admiralty_court" title="Admiralty court">Admiralty court</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Amalfian_Laws" title="Amalfian Laws">Amalfian Laws</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Barratry_(admiralty_law)" title="Barratry (admiralty law)">Barratry (admiralty law)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Consulate_of_the_Sea" title="Consulate of the Sea">Consulate of the Sea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Declaration_of_London" class="mw-redirect" title="Declaration of London">Declaration of London</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/General_average" title="General average">General average</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maritime_environmental_crime" title="Maritime environmental crime">Maritime environmental crime</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prize_(law)" title="Prize (law)">Prize</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_Nations_Convention_on_the_Law_of_the_Sea" title="United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea">United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Notes">Notes</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Admiralty_law&action=edit&section=23" title="Edit section: Notes"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist reflist-lower-alpha"> <div class="mw-references-wrap"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-1">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Such as the <a href="/wiki/COLREGS" class="mw-redirect" title="COLREGS">COLREGS</a>, <a href="/wiki/SOLAS_Convention" title="SOLAS Convention">SOLAS</a>, <a href="/wiki/Hague-Visby_Rules" class="mw-redirect" title="Hague-Visby Rules">Hague-Visby Rules</a>, <a href="/wiki/International_Ship_and_Port_Facility_Security_Code" title="International Ship and Port Facility Security Code">ISPS</a>, etc.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-3">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">The Convention on the Law of the Sea has not been ratified by 29 United Nations member and observer states, most notably the United States.<sup id="cite_ref-rat2_2-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-rat2-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> See <a href="/wiki/United_States_non-ratification_of_the_UNCLOS" class="mw-redirect" title="United States non-ratification of the UNCLOS">United States non-ratification of the UNCLOS</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-9"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-9">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">The title of Aleka Mandaraka-Sheppard's book changed from <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite id="CITEREFMandaraka-Sheppard2007" class="citation book cs1">Mandaraka-Sheppard, Aleka (2007). <i>Modern Admiralty Law</i> (2nd ed.). Cavendish. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781843141969" title="Special:BookSources/9781843141969"><bdi>9781843141969</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Modern+Admiralty+Law&rft.edition=2nd&rft.pub=Cavendish&rft.date=2007&rft.isbn=9781843141969&rft.aulast=Mandaraka-Sheppard&rft.aufirst=Aleka&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAdmiralty+law" class="Z3988"></span> to <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMandaraka-Sheppard2014" class="citation book cs1">Mandaraka-Sheppard, Aleka (2014). <i>Modern Maritime Law</i> (3rd ed.). Routledge. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780415843201" title="Special:BookSources/9780415843201"><bdi>9780415843201</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Modern+Maritime+Law&rft.edition=3rd&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=2014&rft.isbn=9780415843201&rft.aulast=Mandaraka-Sheppard&rft.aufirst=Aleka&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAdmiralty+law" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Admiralty_law&action=edit&section=24" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239543626"><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-rat2-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-rat2_2-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://treaties.un.org/pages/ViewDetails.aspx?src=TREATY&mtdsg_no=XXI-6-a&chapter=21&clang=_en">"Agreement relating to the implementation of Part XI of the United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea"</a>. <a href="/wiki/United_Nations_Treaty_Series" class="mw-redirect" title="United Nations Treaty Series">United Nations Treaty Series</a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2015-04-02</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Agreement+relating+to+the+implementation+of+Part+XI+of+the+United+Nations+Convention+on+the+Law+of+the+Sea&rft.pub=United+Nations+Treaty+Series&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Ftreaties.un.org%2Fpages%2FViewDetails.aspx%3Fsrc%3DTREATY%26mtdsg_no%3DXXI-6-a%26chapter%3D21%26clang%3D_en&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAdmiralty+law" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-4">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHenry_of_Bratton_and_probably_others1220–1250" class="citation web cs1">Henry of Bratton and probably others (1220–1250). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://amesfoundation.law.harvard.edu/Bracton/">"De Legibus et Consuetudinibus Angliae"</a>. Bracton Online home, Harvard Law School Library.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=De+Legibus+et+Consuetudinibus+Angliae&rft.pub=Bracton+Online+home%2C+Harvard+Law+School+Library&rft.date=1220&rft.au=Henry+of+Bratton+and+probably+others&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Famesfoundation.law.harvard.edu%2FBracton%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAdmiralty+law" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-5">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Duties in American Colonies Act 1765 (5 Geo. 3 c. 12), 22 March 1765. D. Pickering, <i>Statutes at Large</i>, Vol. XXVI, p. 179ff. (Section LVII relates to jurisdiction in admiralty.)</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-6"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-6">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.history.com/topics/american-revolution/stamp-act">"Stamp Act"</a>. <i>HISTORY</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2019-10-31</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=HISTORY&rft.atitle=Stamp+Act&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.history.com%2Ftopics%2Famerican-revolution%2Fstamp-act&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAdmiralty+law" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-7"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-7">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.history.org/Foundation/journal/Spring08/trials.cfm">"Trial By Jury"</a>. <i>history.org</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2019-10-31</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=history.org&rft.atitle=Trial+By+Jury&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.history.org%2FFoundation%2Fjournal%2FSpring08%2Ftrials.cfm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAdmiralty+law" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-8"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-8">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Hofstadter, Richard (1958). <i>Great Issues in American History: 1765–1865</i>. vol. 2: 1864–1957. United States: Vintage Books.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-10"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-10">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><i><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.bailii.org/ew/cases/EWCA/Civ/1954/3.html">Adler v Dickson</a></i> [1954] 2 LLR 267, [1955] 1 QB 158</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-11"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-11">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">merriam-webster.com, "<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/allision">Allision</a>". Accessed November 7, 2014.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-12"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-12">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation journal cs1">"Admiralty Court Rejects Equal Division Rule and Apportions Damages Unequally in Multiple Fault Collision Case". <i>Columbia Law Review</i>. <b>63</b> (3): 554 footnote 1. March 1963. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2307%2F1120603">10.2307/1120603</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/1120603">1120603</a>. <q>The striking by a vessel of a fixed object such as a bridge, technically termed 'allision' rather than 'collision'<span class="cs1-kern-right"></span></q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Columbia+Law+Review&rft.atitle=Admiralty+Court+Rejects+Equal+Division+Rule+and+Apportions+Damages+Unequally+in+Multiple+Fault+Collision+Case&rft.volume=63&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=554+footnote+1&rft.date=1963-03&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2307%2F1120603&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F1120603%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAdmiralty+law" class="Z3988"></span>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-13"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-13">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFTalley1995" class="citation journal cs1">Talley, Wayne K. (January 1995). 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href="/wiki/Financial_regulation" title="Financial regulation">Financial regulation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Health_law" title="Health law">Health law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Immigration_law" title="Immigration law">Immigration law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Intellectual_property" title="Intellectual property">Intellectual property</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/International_criminal_law" title="International criminal law">International criminal law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/International_human_rights_law" title="International human rights law">International human rights</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_international_law" title="Slavery in international law">International slavery laws</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/International_trade_law" title="International trade law">International trade law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jurimetrics" title="Jurimetrics">Jurimetrics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Labour_law" title="Labour law">Labour</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Landlord%E2%80%93tenant_law" title="Landlord–tenant law">Landlord–tenant law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Law_of_war" title="Law of war">Law of war</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Legal_archaeology" title="Legal archaeology">Legal archaeology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Legal_fiction" title="Legal fiction">Legal fiction</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Maritime law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marriage_law" title="Marriage law">Marriage law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Military_justice" title="Military justice">Military law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nationality_law" title="Nationality law">Nationality law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Probate" title="Probate">Probate</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Estate_(law)" title="Estate (law)">Estate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Will_and_testament" title="Will and testament">Will and testament</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Product_liability" title="Product liability">Product liability</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/International_law" title="International law">Public international law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Refugee_law" title="Refugee law">Refugee law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reparation_(legal)" title="Reparation (legal)">Reparations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Space_law" title="Space law">Space law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sports_law_in_the_United_States" title="Sports law in the United States">Sports law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/State_of_emergency" title="State of emergency">State of emergency</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tax_law" title="Tax law">Tax law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transport_law" title="Transport law">Transport law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trust_(law)" title="Trust (law)">Trust law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Unenforced_law" title="Unenforced law">Unenforced law</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="text-align:center;;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Sources_of_law" title="Sources of law">Sources of law</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Charter" title="Charter">Charter</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Code_of_law" title="Code of law">Legal code</a> / <a href="/wiki/Statutory_law" class="mw-redirect" title="Statutory law">Statutory law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Constitution" title="Constitution">Constitution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Customary_law" title="Customary law">Custom</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Divine_right_of_kings" title="Divine right of kings">Divine right</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Divine_law" title="Divine law">Divine law</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_rights" title="Human rights">Human rights</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Letters_patent" title="Letters patent">Letters patent</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Natural_law" title="Natural law">Natural law</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Natural_rights_and_legal_rights" title="Natural rights and legal rights">Natural and legal rights</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Case_law" title="Case law">Case law</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Precedent" title="Precedent">Precedent</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Law_report" title="Law report">Law reports</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Legal_treatise" title="Legal treatise">Legal treatise</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Regulation" title="Regulation">Regulations</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="text-align:center;;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Lawmaking" title="Lawmaking">Law making</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Referendum" title="Referendum">Ballot measure</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Codification_(law)" title="Codification (law)">Codification</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Decree" title="Decree">Decree</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Edict" title="Edict">Edict</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Executive_order_(disambiguation)" class="mw-disambig" title="Executive order (disambiguation)">Executive order</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Proclamation" title="Proclamation">Proclamation</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Legislation" title="Legislation">Legislation</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Primary_and_secondary_legislation" title="Primary and secondary legislation">Delegated legislation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Regulation" title="Regulation">Regulation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rulemaking" title="Rulemaking">Rulemaking</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Promulgation" title="Promulgation">Promulgation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ratification" title="Ratification">Ratification</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Repeal" title="Repeal">Repeal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Treaty" title="Treaty">Treaty</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Concordat" title="Concordat">Concordat</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Statutory_law" class="mw-redirect" title="Statutory law">Statutory law</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Statute" title="Statute">Statute</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Act_of_parliament" title="Act of parliament">Act of parliament</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Act_of_Congress" title="Act of Congress">Act of Congress</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Basic_structure_doctrine" title="Basic structure doctrine">Basic structure doctrine</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="text-align:center;;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/List_of_national_legal_systems" title="List of national legal systems">Legal systems</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Civil_law_(legal_system)" title="Civil law (legal system)">Civil law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Common_law" title="Common law">Common law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_law" title="Chinese law">Chinese law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Legal_pluralism" title="Legal pluralism">Legal pluralism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religious_law" title="Religious law">Religious law</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Canon_law" title="Canon law">Canon law</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Canon_law_of_the_Catholic_Church" title="Canon law of the Catholic Church">Catholic canon law</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hindu_law" title="Hindu law">Hindu law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jain_law" title="Jain law">Jain law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Halakha" title="Halakha">Jewish law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Parsi_law" title="Parsi law">Parsi law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sharia" title="Sharia">Sharia</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_law" title="Roman law">Roman law</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Byzantine_law" title="Byzantine law">Byzantine law</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Socialist_law" title="Socialist law">Socialist law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Statutory_law" class="mw-redirect" title="Statutory law">Statutory law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Xeer" title="Xeer">Xeer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yassa" title="Yassa">Yassa</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="text-align:center;;width:1%">Legal theory</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anarchist_law" title="Anarchist law">Anarchist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Contract_theory" title="Contract theory">Contract theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Comparative_law" title="Comparative law">Comparative law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Expressive_function_of_law" title="Expressive function of law">Expressive function</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feminist_legal_theory" title="Feminist legal theory">Feminist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Law_and_economics" title="Law and economics">Law and economics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Legal_formalism" title="Legal formalism">Legal formalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Legal_history" title="Legal history">History</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Libertarian_theories_of_law" title="Libertarian theories of law">Libertarian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/International_legal_theories" title="International legal theories">International legal theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Legality" title="Legality">Principle of legality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Principle_of_typicality" title="Principle of typicality">Principle of typicality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pseudolaw" title="Pseudolaw">Pseudolaw</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rule_of_law" title="Rule of law">Rule of law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rule_of_man" title="Rule of man">Rule of man</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sociology_of_law" title="Sociology of law">Sociology</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="text-align:center;;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Jurisprudence" title="Jurisprudence">Jurisprudence</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Adjudication" title="Adjudication">Adjudication</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Administration_of_justice" title="Administration of justice">Administration of justice</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Constitutionalism" title="Constitutionalism">Constitutionalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Criminal_justice" title="Criminal justice">Criminal justice</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Court-martial" title="Court-martial">Court-martial</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dispute_resolution" title="Dispute resolution">Dispute resolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fiqh" title="Fiqh">Fiqh</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lawsuit" title="Lawsuit">Lawsuit/Litigation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Legal_opinion" title="Legal opinion">Legal opinion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Legal_remedy" title="Legal remedy">Legal remedy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judge" title="Judge">Judge</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Justice_of_the_peace" title="Justice of the peace">Justice of the peace</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Magistrate" title="Magistrate">Magistrate</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judgment_(law)" title="Judgment (law)">Judgment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judicial_review" title="Judicial review">Judicial review</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jurisdiction" title="Jurisdiction">Jurisdiction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jury" title="Jury">Jury</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Justice" title="Justice">Justice</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Practice_of_law" title="Practice of law">Practice of law</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Attorney_at_law" title="Attorney at law">Attorney</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Barrister" title="Barrister">Barrister</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Counsel" title="Counsel">Counsel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lawyer" title="Lawyer">Lawyer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Defense_(legal)" title="Defense (legal)">Legal representation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prosecutor" title="Prosecutor">Prosecutor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Solicitor" title="Solicitor">Solicitor</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Question_of_law#Question_of_fact" title="Question of law">Question of fact</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Question_of_law" title="Question of law">Question of law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trial" title="Trial">Trial</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trial_advocacy" title="Trial advocacy">Trial advocacy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trier_of_fact" title="Trier of fact">Trier of fact</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Verdict" title="Verdict">Verdict</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="text-align:center;;width:1%">Legal institutions</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Barristers%27_chambers" title="Barristers' chambers">Barristers' chambers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bureaucracy" title="Bureaucracy">Bureaucracy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bar_(law)" title="Bar (law)">The bar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bench_(law)" title="Bench (law)">The bench</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Civil_society" title="Civil society">Civil society</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Court" title="Court">Court</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Court_of_equity" title="Court of equity">Court of equity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Election_commission" title="Election commission">Election commission</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Executive_(government)" title="Executive (government)">Executive</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judiciary" title="Judiciary">Judiciary</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Law_enforcement" title="Law enforcement">Law enforcement</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Law_enforcement_agency" title="Law enforcement agency">Agency</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Legal_education" title="Legal education">Legal education</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Law_school" title="Law school">Law school</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Legislature" title="Legislature">Legislature</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Military" title="Military">Military</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Police" title="Police">Police</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Political_party" title="Political party">Political party</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tribunal" title="Tribunal">Tribunal</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="text-align:center;;width:1%">History</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_legal_profession" title="History of the legal profession">History of the legal profession</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_American_legal_profession" title="History of the American legal profession">History of the American legal profession</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women_in_law" title="Women in law">Women in law</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow hlist" colspan="2" style="text-align:center;"><div> 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