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id="toc-Stratified_charge_mode-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Injection_modes" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Injection_modes"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.2</span> <span>Injection modes</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Injection_modes-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Wall-guided_direct_injection" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Wall-guided_direct_injection"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.2.1</span> <span>Wall-guided direct injection</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Wall-guided_direct_injection-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Air-guided_direct_injection" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Air-guided_direct_injection"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.2.2</span> <span>Air-guided direct injection</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Air-guided_direct_injection-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Spray-guided_direct_injection" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Spray-guided_direct_injection"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.2.3</span> <span>Spray-guided direct injection</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Spray-guided_direct_injection-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Companion_technologies" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Companion_technologies"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.3</span> <span>Companion technologies</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Companion_technologies-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Disadvantages" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Disadvantages"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.4</span> <span>Disadvantages</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Disadvantages-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Adverse_climate_and_health_impacts" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Adverse_climate_and_health_impacts"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.5</span> <span>Adverse climate and health impacts</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Adverse_climate_and_health_impacts-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-History" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#History"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2</span> <span>History</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-History-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle History subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-History-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-1911–1912" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#1911–1912"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.1</span> <span>1911–1912</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-1911–1912-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-1916–1938" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#1916–1938"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.2</span> <span>1916–1938</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-1916–1938-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-1939–1995" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#1939–1995"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.3</span> <span>1939–1995</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-1939–1995-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-1997–present" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#1997–present"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.4</span> <span>1997–present</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-1997–present-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-In_two-stroke_engines" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#In_two-stroke_engines"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3</span> <span>In two-stroke engines</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-In_two-stroke_engines-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> <span>See also</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>References</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" 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Available in 19 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-19" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-language-progressive mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-language-progressive"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">19 languages</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%85%D8%AD%D8%B1%D9%83%D8%A7%D8%AA_%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%AD%D9%82%D9%86_%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%85%D8%A8%D8%A7%D8%B4%D8%B1_%D9%84%D9%84%D8%A8%D9%86%D8%B2%D9%8A%D9%86" title="محركات الحقن المباشر للبنزين – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="محركات الحقن المباشر للبنزين" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>العربية</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bg mw-list-item"><a href="https://bg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%94%D0%B8%D1%80%D0%B5%D0%BA%D1%82%D0%BD%D0%BE_%D0%B2%D0%BF%D1%80%D1%8A%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B2%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%B5" title="Директно впръскване – Bulgarian" lang="bg" hreflang="bg" data-title="Директно впръскване" data-language-autonym="Български" data-language-local-name="Bulgarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Български</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs mw-list-item"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Z%C3%A1%C5%BEehov%C3%BD_motor_s_p%C5%99%C3%ADm%C3%BDm_vst%C5%99ikov%C3%A1n%C3%ADm" title="Zážehový motor s přímým vstřikováním – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="Zážehový motor s přímým vstřikováním" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="Czech" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Čeština</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-da mw-list-item"><a href="https://da.wikipedia.org/wiki/Direkte_benzinindspr%C3%B8jtning" title="Direkte benzinindsprøjtning – Danish" lang="da" hreflang="da" data-title="Direkte benzinindsprøjtning" data-language-autonym="Dansk" data-language-local-name="Danish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Dansk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de badge-Q17437798 badge-goodarticle mw-list-item" title="good article badge"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Benzindirekteinspritzung" title="Benzindirekteinspritzung – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Benzindirekteinspritzung" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Deutsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-et mw-list-item"><a href="https://et.wikipedia.org/wiki/Otsesissepritse" title="Otsesissepritse – Estonian" lang="et" hreflang="et" data-title="Otsesissepritse" data-language-autonym="Eesti" data-language-local-name="Estonian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Eesti</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AA%D8%B2%D8%B1%DB%8C%D9%82_%D9%85%D8%B3%D8%AA%D9%82%DB%8C%D9%85_%D8%A8%D9%86%D8%B2%DB%8C%D9%86" title="تزریق مستقیم بنزین – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="تزریق مستقیم بنزین" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>فارسی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%ED%9C%98%EB%B0%9C%EC%9C%A0_%EC%A7%81%EC%A0%91_%EB%B6%84%EC%82%AC" title="휘발유 직접 분사 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="휘발유 직접 분사" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>한국어</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Injeksi_langsung_bensin" title="Injeksi langsung bensin – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Injeksi langsung bensin" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Indonesia</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E3%82%AC%E3%82%BD%E3%83%AA%E3%83%B3%E7%9B%B4%E5%99%B4%E3%82%A8%E3%83%B3%E3%82%B8%E3%83%B3" title="ガソリン直噴エンジン – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="ガソリン直噴エンジン" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>日本語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Silnik_benzynowy_z_bezpo%C5%9Brednim_wtryskiem" title="Silnik benzynowy z bezpośrednim wtryskiem – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="Silnik benzynowy z bezpośrednim wtryskiem" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Polish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Polski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A1%D0%B8%D1%81%D1%82%D0%B5%D0%BC%D0%B0_%D0%BD%D0%B5%D0%BF%D0%BE%D1%81%D1%80%D0%B5%D0%B4%D1%81%D1%82%D0%B2%D0%B5%D0%BD%D0%BD%D0%BE%D0%B3%D0%BE_%D0%B2%D0%BF%D1%80%D1%8B%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B0_%D1%82%D0%BE%D0%BF%D0%BB%D0%B8%D0%B2%D0%B0_%D0%B2_%D0%B1%D0%B5%D0%BD%D0%B7%D0%B8%D0%BD%D0%BE%D0%B2%D1%8B%D1%85_%D0%B4%D0%B2%D0%B8%D0%B3%D0%B0%D1%82%D0%B5%D0%BB%D1%8F%D1%85" title="Система непосредственного впрыска топлива в бензиновых двигателях – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Система непосредственного впрыска топлива в бензиновых двигателях" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Русский</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sk mw-list-item"><a href="https://sk.wikipedia.org/wiki/Z%C3%A1%C5%BEihov%C3%BD_motor_s_priamym_vstrekom" title="Zážihový motor s priamym vstrekom – Slovak" lang="sk" hreflang="sk" data-title="Zážihový motor s priamym vstrekom" data-language-autonym="Slovenčina" data-language-local-name="Slovak" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Slovenčina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sl mw-list-item"><a href="https://sl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Direktni_vbrizg" title="Direktni vbrizg – Slovenian" lang="sl" hreflang="sl" data-title="Direktni vbrizg" data-language-autonym="Slovenščina" data-language-local-name="Slovenian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Slovenščina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ckb mw-list-item"><a href="https://ckb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%BE%DA%95%DA%98%DB%8E%D9%86%DB%95%D8%B1%DB%8C_%DA%95%D8%A7%D8%B3%D8%AA%DB%95%D9%88%D8%AE%DB%86%DB%8C_%DA%AF%D8%A7%D8%B2%DB%86%D9%84%DB%8C%D9%86" title="پڕژێنەری ڕاستەوخۆی گازۆلین – Central Kurdish" lang="ckb" hreflang="ckb" data-title="پڕژێنەری ڕاستەوخۆی گازۆلین" data-language-autonym="کوردی" data-language-local-name="Central Kurdish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>کوردی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sr mw-list-item"><a href="https://sr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%94%D0%B8%D1%80%D0%B5%D0%BA%D1%82%D0%BD%D0%BE_%D1%83%D0%B1%D1%80%D0%B8%D0%B7%D0%B3%D0%B0%D0%B2%D0%B0%D1%9A%D0%B5_%D0%B1%D0%B5%D0%BD%D0%B7%D0%B8%D0%BD%D0%B0" title="Директно убризгавање бензина – Serbian" lang="sr" hreflang="sr" data-title="Директно убризгавање бензина" data-language-autonym="Српски / srpski" data-language-local-name="Serbian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Српски / srpski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fi mw-list-item"><a href="https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Suoraruiskutus" title="Suoraruiskutus – Finnish" lang="fi" hreflang="fi" data-title="Suoraruiskutus" data-language-autonym="Suomi" data-language-local-name="Finnish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Suomi</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uk 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searchaux" style="display:none">Mixture formation system</div> <p class="mw-empty-elt"> </p> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1237032888/mw-parser-output/.tmulti">.mw-parser-output .tmulti .multiimageinner{display:flex;flex-direction:column}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .trow{display:flex;flex-direction:row;clear:left;flex-wrap:wrap;width:100%;box-sizing:border-box}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .tsingle{margin:1px;float:left}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .theader{clear:both;font-weight:bold;text-align:center;align-self:center;background-color:transparent;width:100%}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .thumbcaption{background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .text-align-left{text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .text-align-right{text-align:right}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .text-align-center{text-align:center}@media all and (max-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .tmulti .thumbinner{width:100%!important;box-sizing:border-box;max-width:none!important;align-items:center}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .trow{justify-content:center}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .tsingle{float:none!important;max-width:100%!important;box-sizing:border-box;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .tsingle .thumbcaption{text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .trow>.thumbcaption{text-align:center}}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .tmulti .multiimageinner img{background-color:white}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .tmulti .multiimageinner img{background-color:white}}</style><div class="thumb tmulti tright"><div class="thumbinner multiimageinner" style="width:304px;max-width:304px"><div class="trow"><div class="tsingle" style="width:302px;max-width:302px"><div class="thumbimage"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:PetrolDirectInjectionBMW.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f3/PetrolDirectInjectionBMW.JPG/300px-PetrolDirectInjectionBMW.JPG" decoding="async" width="300" height="225" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f3/PetrolDirectInjectionBMW.JPG/450px-PetrolDirectInjectionBMW.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f3/PetrolDirectInjectionBMW.JPG/600px-PetrolDirectInjectionBMW.JPG 2x" data-file-width="2048" data-file-height="1536" /></a></span></div><div class="thumbcaption">GDI engine from a BMW car (fuel injector is located above the red triangle)</div></div></div></div></div> <p><b>Gasoline direct injection</b> (<b>GDI</b>), also known as <b>petrol direct injection</b> (<b>PDI</b>),<sup id="cite_ref-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> is a mixture formation system for <a href="/wiki/Internal_combustion_engine" title="Internal combustion engine">internal combustion engines</a> that run on <a href="/wiki/Gasoline" title="Gasoline">gasoline</a> (petrol), where <a href="/wiki/Fuel_injection" title="Fuel injection">fuel is injected</a> into the <a href="/wiki/Combustion_chamber" title="Combustion chamber">combustion chamber</a>. This is distinct from <a href="/wiki/Manifold_injection" title="Manifold injection">manifold injection</a> systems, which inject fuel into the <a href="/wiki/Inlet_manifold" title="Inlet manifold">intake manifold</a> (inlet manifold). </p><p>The use of GDI can help increase engine efficiency and specific power output as well as reduce exhaust emissions.<sup id="cite_ref-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The first GDI engine to reach production was introduced in 1925 for a low-compression truck engine. Several German cars used a Bosch mechanical GDI system in the 1950s, however usage of the technology remained rare until an electronic GDI system was introduced in 1996 by Mitsubishi for mass-produced cars. GDI has seen rapid adoption by the automotive industry in recent years, increasing in the United States from 2.3% of production for model year 2008 vehicles to approximately 50% for model year 2016.<sup id="cite_ref-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Operating_principle">Operating principle</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Gasoline_direct_injection&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Operating principle"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Charge_modes">Charge modes</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Gasoline_direct_injection&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Charge modes"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The 'charge mode' of a direct-injected engine refers to how the fuel is distributed throughout the combustion chamber: </p> <ul><li>'Homogeneous charge mode' has the fuel mixed evenly with the air throughout the combustion chamber, as per manifold injection.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stratified_charge_engine" title="Stratified charge engine">Stratified charge mode</a> has a zone with a higher density of fuel around the spark plug, and a leaner mixture (lower density of fuel) further away from the spark plug.</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Homogeneous_charge_mode">Homogeneous charge mode</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Gasoline_direct_injection&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Homogeneous charge mode"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In the <i>homogeneous charge mode</i>, the engine operates on a homogeneous air/fuel mixture (<span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle \lambda =1}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mi>λ</mi> <mo>=</mo> <mn>1</mn> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle \lambda =1}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/543b4490416437b7c80ea473bbcac0e4ab7a7f11" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.338ex; width:5.616ex; height:2.176ex;" alt="{\displaystyle \lambda =1}"></span>), meaning, that there is an (almost) perfect mixture of fuel and air in the cylinder. The fuel is injected at the very beginning of the intake stroke in order to give injected fuel the most time to mix with the air, so that a homogeneous air/fuel mixture is formed.<sup id="cite_ref-Reif_123_5-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Reif_123-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This mode allows using a conventional <a href="/wiki/Three-way_catalyst" class="mw-redirect" title="Three-way catalyst">three-way catalyst</a> for exhaust gas treatment.<sup id="cite_ref-Reif_121_6-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Reif_121-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Compared with manifold injection, the <a href="/wiki/Fuel_efficiency" title="Fuel efficiency">fuel efficiency</a> is only very slightly increased, but the specific power output is better,<sup id="cite_ref-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> which is why the homogeneous mode is useful for so-called <a href="/wiki/Engine_downsizing" title="Engine downsizing">engine downsizing</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Reif_121_6-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Reif_121-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Most direct-injected passenger car petrol engines use the homogeneous charge mode.<sup id="cite_ref-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Stratified_charge_mode">Stratified charge mode</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Gasoline_direct_injection&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Stratified charge mode"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The <i>stratified charge mode</i> creates a small zone of fuel/air mixture around the spark plug, which is surrounded by air in the rest of the cylinder. This results in less fuel being injected into the cylinder, leading to very high overall air-fuel ratios of <span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle \lambda >8}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mi>λ</mi> <mo>></mo> <mn>8</mn> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle \lambda >8}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/22607f6b49ed4307b9316e793b568729cf6e78c5" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.338ex; width:5.616ex; height:2.176ex;" alt="{\displaystyle \lambda >8}"></span>,<sup id="cite_ref-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> with mean air-fuel ratios of <span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle \lambda =3...5}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mi>λ</mi> <mo>=</mo> <mn>3...5</mn> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle \lambda =3...5}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/393df5143b0d95edca3c9b977650fec964ec302e" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.338ex; width:8.719ex; height:2.176ex;" alt="{\displaystyle \lambda =3...5}"></span> at medium load, and <span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle \lambda =1}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mi>λ</mi> <mo>=</mo> <mn>1</mn> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle \lambda =1}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/543b4490416437b7c80ea473bbcac0e4ab7a7f11" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.338ex; width:5.616ex; height:2.176ex;" alt="{\displaystyle \lambda =1}"></span> at full load.<sup id="cite_ref-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Ideally, the throttle valve remains open as much as possible to avoid throttling losses. The torque is then set solely by means of quality torque controlling, meaning that only the amount of injected fuel, but not the amount of intake air is manipulated in order to set the engine's torque. Stratified charge mode also keeps the flame away from the cylinder walls, reducing the thermal losses.<sup id="cite_ref-12" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Since mixtures too lean cannot be ignited with a spark-plug (due to a lack of fuel), the charge needs to be stratified (e. g. a small zone of fuel/air mixture around the spark plug needs to be created).<sup id="cite_ref-13" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> To achieve such a charge, a stratified charge engine injects the fuel during the latter stages of the compression stroke. A "swirl cavity" in the top of the piston is often used to direct the fuel into the zone surrounding the <a href="/wiki/Spark_plug" title="Spark plug">spark plug</a>. This technique enables the use of ultra-lean mixtures that would be impossible with carburetors or conventional manifold fuel injection.<sup id="cite_ref-skyactiv-g_14-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-skyactiv-g-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The stratified charge mode (also called "ultra lean-burn" mode) is used at low loads, in order to reduce fuel consumption and exhaust emissions. However, the stratified charge mode is disabled for higher loads, with the engine switching to the homogeneous mode with a <a href="/wiki/Stoichiometry#Stoichiometric_air-to-fuel_ratios_of_common_fuels" title="Stoichiometry">stoichiometric air-fuel ratio</a> of <span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle \lambda =1}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mi>λ</mi> <mo>=</mo> <mn>1</mn> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle \lambda =1}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/543b4490416437b7c80ea473bbcac0e4ab7a7f11" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.338ex; width:5.616ex; height:2.176ex;" alt="{\displaystyle \lambda =1}"></span> for moderate loads and a richer air-fuel ratio at higher loads.<sup id="cite_ref-15" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In theory, a stratified charge mode can further improve fuel efficiency and reduce exhaust emissions,<sup id="cite_ref-16" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> however, in practice, the stratified charge concept has not proved to have significant efficiency advantages over a conventional homogeneous charge concept, but due to its inherent lean burn, more <a href="/wiki/Nitrogen_oxides" class="mw-redirect" title="Nitrogen oxides">nitrogen oxides</a> are formed,<sup id="cite_ref-17" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> which sometimes require a <a href="/wiki/NOx_adsorber" title="NOx adsorber">NOx adsorber</a> in the exhaust system to meet emissions regulations.<sup id="cite_ref-18" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The use of NOx adsorbers can require low sulphur fuels, since sulphur prevents NOx adsorbers from functioning properly.<sup id="cite_ref-19" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> GDI engines with stratified fuel injection can also produce higher quantities of <a href="/wiki/Exhaust_gas#Particulate_matter_(PM10_and_PM2.5)" title="Exhaust gas">particulate matter</a> than manifold injected engines,<sup id="cite_ref-20" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> sometimes requiring particulate filters in the exhaust (similar to a <a href="/wiki/Diesel_particulate_filter" title="Diesel particulate filter">diesel particulate filter</a>) in order to meet vehicle emissions regulations.<sup id="cite_ref-21" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Therefore several European car manufacturers have abandoned the stratified charge concept or never used it in the first place, such as the 2000 Renault 2.0 IDE petrol engine (<a href="/wiki/Renault_F-Type_engine#F5x" title="Renault F-Type engine">F5R</a>), which never came with a stratified charge mode,<sup id="cite_ref-22" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> or the 2009 <a href="/wiki/BMW_N55" title="BMW N55">BMW N55</a> and 2017 <a href="/wiki/Mercedes-Benz_M256_engine" title="Mercedes-Benz M256 engine">Mercedes-Benz M256</a> engines dropping the stratified charge mode used by their predecessors. The Volkswagen Group had used fuel stratified injection in naturally aspirated engines labelled <i>FSI</i>, however, these engines have received an engine control unit update to disable the stratified charge mode.<sup id="cite_ref-23" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Turbocharged Volkswagen engines labelled <i>TFSI</i> and <i>TSI</i> have always used the homogeneous mode.<sup id="cite_ref-24" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Like the latter VW engines, newer direct injected petrol engines (from 2017 onwards) usually also use the more conventional homogeneous charge mode, in conjunction with variable valve timing, to obtain good efficiency. Stratified charge concepts have mostly been abandoned.<sup id="cite_ref-25" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Injection_modes">Injection modes</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Gasoline_direct_injection&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Injection modes"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Common techniques for creating the desired distribution of fuel throughout the combustion chamber are either <i>spray-guided</i>, <i>air-guided</i>, or <i>wall-guided</i> injection. The trend in recent years is towards spray-guided injection, since it currently results in a higher fuel efficiency. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Wall-guided_direct_injection">Wall-guided direct injection</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Gasoline_direct_injection&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Wall-guided direct injection"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1237032888/mw-parser-output/.tmulti"><div class="thumb tmulti tright"><div class="thumbinner multiimageinner" style="width:224px;max-width:224px"><div class="trow"><div class="tsingle" style="width:222px;max-width:222px"><div class="thumbimage"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:3.5EcoboostPiston.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c1/3.5EcoboostPiston.jpg/220px-3.5EcoboostPiston.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c1/3.5EcoboostPiston.jpg/330px-3.5EcoboostPiston.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c1/3.5EcoboostPiston.jpg/440px-3.5EcoboostPiston.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2816" data-file-height="2112" /></a></span></div><div class="thumbcaption">Swirl cavity on the top of a piston in the 2010–2017 <a href="/wiki/Ford_EcoBoost_engine#3.5_L" title="Ford EcoBoost engine">Ford EcoBoost 3.5 L</a> engine</div></div></div></div></div> <p>In engines with wall-guided injection, the distance between spark plug and injection nozzle is relatively high. In order to get the fuel close to the spark plug, it is sprayed against a swirl cavity on top of the piston (as seen in the picture of the Ford EcoBoost engine on the right), which guides the fuel towards the spark plug. Special swirl or tumble air intake ports aid this process. The injection timing depends upon the piston speed, therefore, at higher piston speeds, the injection timing, and ignition timing need to be advanced very precisely. At low engine temperatures, some parts of the fuel on the relatively cold piston cool down so much, that they cannot combust properly. When switching from low engine load to medium engine load (and thus advancing the injection timing), some parts of the fuel can end up getting injected behind the swirl cavity, also resulting in incomplete combustion.<sup id="cite_ref-26" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Engines with wall-guided direct injection can therefore suffer from high <a href="/wiki/Hydrocarbon" title="Hydrocarbon">hydrocarbon</a> emissions.<sup id="cite_ref-27" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Air-guided_direct_injection">Air-guided direct injection</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Gasoline_direct_injection&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Air-guided direct injection"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Like in engines with wall-guided injection, in engines with air-guided injection, the distance between spark plug and injection nozzle is relatively high. However, unlike in wall-guided injection engines, the fuel does not get in contact with (relatively) cold engine parts such as cylinder wall and piston. Instead of spraying the fuel against a swirl cavity, in air-guided injection engines the fuel is guided towards the spark plug solely by the intake air. The intake air must therefore have a special swirl or tumble movement in order to direct the fuel towards the spark plug. This swirl or tumble movement must be retained for a relatively long period of time, so that all of the fuel is getting pushed towards the spark plug. This however reduces the engine's charging efficiency and thus power output. In practice, a combination of air-guided and wall-guided injection is used.<sup id="cite_ref-28" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> There exists only one engine that only relies on air-guided injection.<sup id="cite_ref-29" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Spray-guided_direct_injection">Spray-guided direct injection</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Gasoline_direct_injection&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Spray-guided direct injection"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In engines with spray-guided direct injection, the distance between spark plug and injection nozzle is relatively low. Both the injection nozzle and spark plug are located in between the cylinder's valves. The fuel is injected during the latter stages of the compression stroke, causing very quick (and inhomogeneous) mixture formation. This results in large fuel stratification gradients, meaning that there is a cloud of fuel with a very low air ratio in its centre, and a very high air ratio at its edges. The fuel can only be ignited in between these two "zones". Ignition takes place almost immediately after injection to increase engine efficiency. The spark plug must be placed in such a way, that it is exactly in the zone where the mixture is ignitable. This means that the production tolerances need to be very low, because only very little misalignment can result in drastic combustion decline. Also, the fuel cools down the spark plug, immediately before it is exposed to combustion heat. Thus, the spark plug needs to be able to withstand thermal shocks very well.<sup id="cite_ref-30" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> At low piston (and engine) speeds, the relative air/fuel velocity is low, which can cause fuel to not vaporise properly, resulting in a very rich mixture. Rich mixtures do not combust properly, and cause carbon build-up.<sup id="cite_ref-31" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> At high piston speeds, fuel gets spread further within the cylinder, which can force the ignitable parts of the mixture so far away from the spark plug, that it cannot ignite the air/fuel mixture anymore.<sup id="cite_ref-32" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Companion_technologies">Companion technologies</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Gasoline_direct_injection&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Companion technologies"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Other devices which are used to complement GDI in creating a stratified charge include <a href="/wiki/Variable_valve_timing" title="Variable valve timing">variable valve timing</a>, <a href="/wiki/Variable_valve_lift" title="Variable valve lift">variable valve lift</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Variable_length_intake_manifold" class="mw-redirect" title="Variable length intake manifold">variable length intake manifold</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-33" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Also, <a href="/wiki/Exhaust_gas_recirculation" title="Exhaust gas recirculation">exhaust gas recirculation</a> can be used to reduce the high nitrogen oxide (NOx) emissions that can result from the ultra lean combustion.<sup id="cite_ref-34" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Disadvantages">Disadvantages</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Gasoline_direct_injection&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Disadvantages"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Gasoline direct injection does not have the valve cleaning action that is provided when fuel is introduced to the engine upstream of the cylinder.<sup id="cite_ref-35" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In non-GDI engines, the gasoline traveling through the intake port acts as a cleaning agent for contamination, such as atomized oil. The lack of a cleaning action can cause increased carbon deposits in GDI engines. Third party manufacturers sell <a href="/wiki/Oil_catch_tank" title="Oil catch tank">oil catch tanks</a> which are supposed to prevent or reduce those carbon deposits. </p><p>The ability to produce peak power at high engine speeds (RPM) is more limited for GDI, since there is a shorter period of time available to inject the required quantity of fuel. In manifold injection (as well as carburetors and throttle-body fuel injection), fuel can be added to the intake air mixture at any time. However a GDI engine is limited to injecting fuel during the intake and compression phases. This becomes a restriction at high engine speeds (RPM), when the duration of each combustion cycle is shorter. To overcome this limitation, some GDI engines (such as the <a href="/wiki/Toyota_GR_engine#2GR-FSE" title="Toyota GR engine">Toyota <i>2GR-FSE</i> V6</a> and <a href="/wiki/List_of_Volkswagen_Group_petrol_engines#EA888" title="List of Volkswagen Group petrol engines">Volkswagen <i>EA888</i> I4</a> engines) also have a set of manifold fuel injectors to provide additional fuel at high RPM. These manifold fuel injectors also assist in cleaning carbon deposits from the intake system. </p><p>Gasoline does not provide the same level of lubrication for the injector components as diesel, which sometimes becomes a limiting factor in the injection pressures used by GDI engines. The injection pressure of a GDI engine is typically limited to approximately 20 MPa (2.9 ksi), to prevent excessive wear on the injectors.<sup id="cite_ref-36" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Adverse_climate_and_health_impacts">Adverse climate and health impacts</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Gasoline_direct_injection&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Adverse climate and health impacts"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>While this technology is credited with boosting fuel efficiency and reducing CO<sub>2</sub> emissions, GDI engines produce more <a href="/wiki/Black_carbon" title="Black carbon">black carbon</a> aerosols than traditional port fuel injection engines. A strong absorber of solar radiation, black carbon possesses significant climate-warming properties.<sup id="cite_ref-37" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In a study published in January 2020 in the journal <i>Environmental Science and Technology</i>, a team of researchers at the University of Georgia (USA) predicted that the increase in black carbon emissions from GDI-powered vehicles will increase climate warming in urban areas of the U.S. by an amount that significantly exceeds the cooling associated with a reduction in CO<sub>2</sub>. The researchers also believe the shift from traditional port fuel injection (PFI) engines to the use of GDI technology will nearly double the premature mortality rate associated with vehicle emissions, from 855 deaths annually in the United States to 1,599. They estimate the annual social cost of these premature deaths at $5.95 billion.<sup id="cite_ref-38" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="History">History</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Gasoline_direct_injection&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: History"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="1911–1912"><span id="1911.E2.80.931912"></span>1911–1912</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Gasoline_direct_injection&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: 1911–1912"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>One of the early inventors trying gasoline direct injection was Dr <a href="/wiki/Archibald_Low" title="Archibald Low">Archibald Low</a> who gave his engine the misleading title of <i>Forced Induction Engine</i> whereas it was only the admission of the fuel that was forced. He revealed details of his prototype engine early in 1912,<sup id="cite_ref-39" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-39"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and the design was further developed by the large scale engine builder <a href="/wiki/F._E._Baker_Ltd" title="F. E. Baker Ltd">F. E. Baker Ltd</a> during 1912<sup id="cite_ref-40" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and the results displayed on their stand at the Olympia Motor Cycle show in November 1912. The engine was a high compression four-stroke motorcycle engine, with the gasoline fuel separately pressurised to 1000psi and admitted into the cylinder 'at the moment of highest compression' by a small rotary valve, with simultaneous ignition by a spark plug and trembler coil allowing sparking to continue throughout the combustion phase. The fuel being injected was described as being in vapour phase having been heated by the engine cylinder. The pressure of the fuel was regulated at the fuel pump, and the amount of fuel admitted was controlled by mechanical means at the rotary admission valve. It seems this radical design wasn't taken further by F. E. Baker. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="1916–1938"><span id="1916.E2.80.931938"></span>1916–1938</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Gasoline_direct_injection&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: 1916–1938"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Although direct injection has only become commonly used in gasoline engines since 2000, <a href="/wiki/Diesel_engine" title="Diesel engine">diesel engines</a> have used fuel directly injected into the combustion chamber (or a pre-combustion chamber) since the first successful prototype in 1894. </p><p>An early prototype of a GDI engine was built in Germany in 1916 for the <a href="/wiki/Junkers" title="Junkers">Junkers</a> airplane. The engine was initially designed as a diesel engine, however it switched to being designed for gasoline when the German ministry of war decreed that aircraft engines must run on either gasoline or benzene. Being a <a href="/wiki/Crankcase#Crankcase-compression" title="Crankcase">crankcase-compression</a> two-stroke design, a misfire could destroy the engine, therefore Junkers developed a GDI system to prevent this issue. A demonstration of this prototype engine to aviation officials was performed shortly before development ceased due to the end of World War I.<sup id="cite_ref-41" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-41"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>41<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The <a href="/wiki/Hesselman_engine" title="Hesselman engine">Hesselman engine</a> is a hybrid engine design which was in production by various manufacturers from 1925 to 1951.<sup id="cite_ref-:SY1_42-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:SY1-42"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>42<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In a Hesselman engine fuel is not injected during the suction stroke along with the air, as would be the case in a conventional Otto cycle engine, but is instead injected during the compression stroke a little in advance of the spark.<sup id="cite_ref-:Riccardo_43-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:Riccardo-43"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>43<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Hesselman engines could use a wide variety of fuels, including gasoline, but generally ran on conventional diesel fuels.<sup id="cite_ref-:SY1_42-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:SY1-42"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>42<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="1939–1995"><span id="1939.E2.80.931995"></span>1939–1995</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Gasoline_direct_injection&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: 1939–1995"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>During World War II, most of the German aircraft engines used GDI, such as the <a href="/wiki/BMW_801" title="BMW 801">BMW 801</a> radial engine, the German inverted V12 <a href="/wiki/Daimler-Benz_DB_601" title="Daimler-Benz DB 601">Daimler-Benz DB 601</a>, <a href="/wiki/DB_603" class="mw-redirect" title="DB 603">DB 603</a> and <a href="/wiki/DB_605" class="mw-redirect" title="DB 605">DB 605</a> engines, and the similar-layout <a href="/wiki/Junkers_Jumo_210" title="Junkers Jumo 210">Junkers Jumo 210</a>G, <a href="/wiki/Jumo_211" class="mw-redirect" title="Jumo 211">Jumo 211</a> and <a href="/wiki/Jumo_213" class="mw-redirect" title="Jumo 213">Jumo 213</a> inverted V12 engines. <a href="/wiki/Allies_of_World_War_II" title="Allies of World War II">Allied</a> aircraft engines that used GDI fuel injection systems were the Soviet Union <a href="/wiki/Shvetsov_ASh-82" title="Shvetsov ASh-82">Shvetsov ASh-82</a>FNV radial engine and the American 54.9 litre displacement <a href="/wiki/Wright_R-3350" class="mw-redirect" title="Wright R-3350">Wright R-3350</a> <i>Duplex Cyclone</i> 18-cylinder radial engine. </p><p>The German company <a href="/wiki/Robert_Bosch_GmbH" class="mw-redirect" title="Robert Bosch GmbH">Bosch</a> had been developing a mechanical GDI system for cars since the 1930s<sup id="cite_ref-amazon.de_44-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-amazon.de-44"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>44<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and in 1952 it was introduced on the two-stroke engines in the <a href="/wiki/Goliath_GP700" title="Goliath GP700">Goliath GP700</a> and <a href="/wiki/Gutbrod" title="Gutbrod">Gutbrod</a> Superior. This system was basically a high-pressure diesel direct-injection pump with an intake throttle valve set up. These engines gave good performance and had up to 30% less fuel consumption over the carburetor version, primarily under low engine loads.<sup id="cite_ref-amazon.de_44-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-amazon.de-44"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>44<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> An added benefit of the system was having a separate tank for the engine oil which was automatically added to the fuel mixture, obviating the need for owners to mix their own two-stroke fuel blend.<sup id="cite_ref-45" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-45"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>45<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The 1955 <a href="/wiki/Mercedes-Benz_300SL" class="mw-redirect" title="Mercedes-Benz 300SL">Mercedes-Benz 300SL</a> also used an early Bosch mechanical GDI system, therefore becoming the first four-stroke engine to use GDI. Up until the mid-2010s, most fuel-injected cars used manifold injection, making it quite unusual that these early cars used an arguably more advanced GDI system.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:No_original_research" title="Wikipedia:No original research"><span title="The material near this tag possibly contains original research. (September 2022)">original research?</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p>During the 1970s, the United States manufacturers <a href="/wiki/American_Motors_Corporation" title="American Motors Corporation">American Motors Corporation</a> and <a href="/wiki/Ford_Motor_Company" title="Ford Motor Company">Ford</a> developed prototype mechanical GDI systems called <i>Straticharge</i> and <i>Programmed Combustion</i> (PROCO) respectively.<sup id="cite_ref-46" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-46"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>46<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-47" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-47"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>47<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-48" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-48"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>48<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-49" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-49"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>49<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Neither of these systems reached production.<sup id="cite_ref-50" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-50"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>50<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-51" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-51"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>51<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="1997–present"><span id="1997.E2.80.93present"></span>1997–present</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Gasoline_direct_injection&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: 1997–present"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The 1996 Japanese-market <a href="/wiki/Mitsubishi_Galant" title="Mitsubishi Galant">Mitsubishi Galant</a> was the first mass-produced car to use a GDI engine, when a GDI version of the <a href="/wiki/Mitsubishi_4G9_engine#4G93" title="Mitsubishi 4G9 engine">Mitsubishi 4G93</a> inline-four engine was introduced.<sup id="cite_ref-52" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-52"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>52<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-53" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-53"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>53<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It was subsequently brought to Europe in 1997 in the <a href="/wiki/Mitsubishi_Carisma" title="Mitsubishi Carisma">Carisma</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-54" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-54"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>54<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It also developed the first six-cylinder GDI engine, the <a href="/wiki/Mitsubishi_6G7_engine" title="Mitsubishi 6G7 engine">Mitsubishi 6G74</a> V6 engine, in 1997.<sup id="cite_ref-55" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-55"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>55<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Mitsubishi applied this technology widely, producing over one million GDI engines in four families by 2001.<sup id="cite_ref-56" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-56"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>56<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Although in use for many years, on 11 September 2001 MMC claimed a trademark for the acronym 'GDI'.<sup id="cite_ref-57" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-57"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>57<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Several other Japanese and European manufacturers introduced GDI engines in the following years. The Mitsubishi GDI technology was also licensed by Peugeot, Citroën, Hyundai, Volvo and Volkswagen.<sup id="cite_ref-58" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-58"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>58<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-59" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-59"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>59<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-media.mitsubishi-motors.com_60-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-media.mitsubishi-motors.com-60"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>60<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-61" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-61"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>61<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-62" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-62"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>62<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-notsonuts_63-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-notsonuts-63"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>63<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-64" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-64"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>64<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The 2005 <a href="/wiki/Toyota_GR_engine#2GR-FSE" title="Toyota GR engine">Toyota 2GR-FSE</a> V6 engine was the first to combine both direct and indirect injection. The system (called "D-4S") uses two fuel injectors per cylinder: a traditional manifold fuel injector (low pressure) and a direct fuel injector (high-pressure) and is used in most Toyota engines.<sup id="cite_ref-65" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-65"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>65<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In Formula One racing, direct injection was made compulsory for the <a href="/wiki/2014_Formula_One_World_Championship" title="2014 Formula One World Championship">2014 season</a>, with regulation 5.10.2 stating: "There may only be one direct injector per cylinder and no injectors are permitted upstream of the intake valves or downstream of the exhaust valves."<sup id="cite_ref-66" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-66"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>66<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="In_two-stroke_engines">In two-stroke engines</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Gasoline_direct_injection&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: In two-stroke engines"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>There are additional benefits of GDI for <a href="/wiki/Two-stroke_engine" title="Two-stroke engine">two-stroke engines</a>, relating to scavenging of the exhaust gases and lubrication of the crankcase. </p><p>The <a href="/wiki/Scavenging_(engine)" title="Scavenging (engine)">scavenging</a> aspect is that most two-stroke engines have both the intake and exhaust ports open during the exhaust stroke, in order to improve the flushing of exhaust gases from the cylinder. This results in some of the fuel/air mixture entering the cylinder and then exiting the cylinder, unburned, through the exhaust port. With direct injection, only air (and usually some oil) comes from the crankcase, and fuel is not injected until the piston rises and all ports are closed. </p><p><a href="/wiki/Crankcase#Crankcase-compression" title="Crankcase">Crankcase lubrication</a> is achieved in two-stroke GDI engines by injecting oil into the crankcase, resulting in a lower oil consumption than the older method of injecting oil mixed with fuel into the crankcase.<sup id="cite_ref-67" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-67"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>67<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Two types of GDI are used in two-strokes: low-pressure air-assisted, and high-pressure. The low-pressure systems—as used on the 1992 <a href="/wiki/Aprilia_SR50" title="Aprilia SR50">Aprilia SR50</a> motor scooter—uses a crankshaft-driven air compressor to inject air into the cylinder head. A low-pressure injector then sprays fuel into the combustion chamber, where it vaporizes as it mixes with the compressed air. A high-pressure GDI system was developed by German company Ficht GmbH in the 1990s and introduced for marine engines by <a href="/wiki/Outboard_Marine_Corporation" title="Outboard Marine Corporation">Outboard Marine Corporation</a> (OMC) in 1997, in order to meet stricter emissions regulations. However, the engines had reliability problems and OMC declared bankruptcy in December 2000.<sup id="cite_ref-68" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-68"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>68<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-69" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-69"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>69<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The <i>Evinrude E-Tec</i> is an improved version of the Ficht system, which was released in 2003<sup id="cite_ref-70" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-70"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>70<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and won an EPA <i>Clean Air Excellence</i> Award in 2004.<sup id="cite_ref-71" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-71"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>71<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><a href="/wiki/Envirofit_International" title="Envirofit International">Envirofit International</a>, an American non-profit organisation, has developed direct injection retrofit kits for two-stroke motorcycles (using technology developed by <a href="/wiki/Orbital_Corporation_Limited" class="mw-redirect" title="Orbital Corporation Limited">Orbital Corporation Limited</a>) in a project to reduce air pollution in Southeast Asia.<sup id="cite_ref-72" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-72"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>72<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The 100-million two-stroke taxis and motorcycles in Southeast Asia are a major cause of pollution for the region.<sup id="cite_ref-73" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-73"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>73<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-74" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-74"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>74<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Gasoline_direct_injection&action=edit&section=18" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1184024115">.mw-parser-output .div-col{margin-top:0.3em;column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .div-col-small{font-size:90%}.mw-parser-output .div-col-rules{column-rule:1px solid #aaa}.mw-parser-output .div-col dl,.mw-parser-output .div-col ol,.mw-parser-output .div-col ul{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .div-col li,.mw-parser-output .div-col dd{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}</style><div class="div-col" style="column-width: 30em;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Common_rail" title="Common rail">Common rail</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Diesel_engine" title="Diesel engine">Diesel engine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fuel_injection" title="Fuel injection">Fuel injection</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gasoline" title="Gasoline">Gasoline</a></li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Gasoline_direct_injection&action=edit&section=19" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-1">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://publications.parliament.uk/pa/ld200607/ldselect/ldmerit/133/13306.htm">"House of Lords - Merits of Statutory Instruments - Twenty-Fifth Report"</a>.</cite><span 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L 91</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-3">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www3.epa.gov/otaq/climate/documents/mte/420d16900.pdf">"Draft Technical Assessment Report:Midterm Evaluation of Light-Duty Vehicle Greenhouse Gas Emission Standards and Corporate Average Fuel Economy Standards for Model Years 2022-2025"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. 19 August 2015. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20160812072648/https://www3.epa.gov/otaq/climate/documents/mte/420d16900.pdf">Archived</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span> from the original on 12 August 2016.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Draft+Technical+Assessment+Report%3AMidterm+Evaluation+of+Light-Duty+Vehicle+Greenhouse+Gas+Emission+Standards+and+Corporate+Average+Fuel+Economy+Standards+for+Model+Years+2022-2025&rft.date=2015-08-19&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww3.epa.gov%2Fotaq%2Fclimate%2Fdocuments%2Fmte%2F420d16900.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGasoline+direct+injection" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-4">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20171117074643/https://www.epa.gov/sites/production/files/2016-11/documents/420s16001.pdf">"Light-Duty Automotive Technology, Carbon Dioxide Emissions, and Fuel Economy Trends:1975 Through 2016"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. <i>www.epa.gov</i>. 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Retrieved <span class="nowrap">21 June</span> 2012</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Latest+MMC+technologies+and+near-future+goals%3A+GDI&rft.pub=Mitsubishi+Motors&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.mitsubishi-motors.com%2Fcorporate%2Fabout_us%2Ftechnology%2Fenvironment%2Fe%2Fgdi.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGasoline+direct+injection" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-54"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-54">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://media.mitsubishi-motors.com/pressrelease/e/corporate/detail329.html">"European Launch for GDI CARISMA"</a>, Mitsubishi Motors press release, 29 August 1997 <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20061210051930/http://media.mitsubishi-motors.com/pressrelease/e/corporate/detail329.html">Archived</a> 10 December 2006 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-55"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-55">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://media.mitsubishi-motors.com/pressrelease/e/corporate/detail215.html">"Mitsubishi Motors Adds World First V6 3.5-liter GDI Engine to Ultra-efficiency GDI Series"</a>, Mitsubishi Motors press release, 16 April 1997 <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20091001184522/http://media.mitsubishi-motors.com/pressrelease/e/corporate/detail215.html">Archived</a> 1 October 2009 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-56"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-56">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://media.mitsubishi-motors.com/pressrelease/e/corporate/detail443.html">"GDI1 engine production tops 1,000,000 unit mark"</a>, Mitsubishi Motors press release, 11 September 2001 <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20090113011928/http://media.mitsubishi-motors.com/pressrelease/e/corporate/detail443.html">Archived</a> 13 January 2009 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-57"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-57">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation pressrelease cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20090328233939/http://media.mitsubishi-motors.com/pressrelease/e/products/detail545.html">"GDI-ASG Pistachio"</a> (Press release). 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Retrieved <span class="nowrap">9 September</span> 2013</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Automotive+Engineering+International&rft.atitle=Mitsubishi%27s+new+GDI+applications&rft.date=2000-02-01&rft.aulast=Yamaguchi&rft.aufirst=Jack&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fbusiness.highbeam.com%2F137248%2Farticle-1G1-59971410%2Fmitsubishi-new-gdi-applications&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGasoline+direct+injection" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-59"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-59">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBeecham2007" class="citation web cs1">Beecham, Matthew (7 December 2007). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.just-auto.com/analysis/a-review-of-gasoline-direct-injection-systems_id93295.aspx">"Research Analysis: a review of gasoline direct injection systems"</a>. 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Retrieved <span class="nowrap">8 September</span> 2013</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Mitsubishi+Motors+Supplies+Hyundai+Motor+Co.+with+GDI+Technology+for+New+V8+GDI+Engine&rft.pub=Mitsubishi+Motors&rft.date=1999-04-28&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fmedia.mitsubishi-motors.com%2Fpressrelease%2Fe%2Fcorporate%2Fdetail771.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGasoline+direct+injection" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-62"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-62">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation book cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=rgMWAQAAMAAJ&q=Hyundai+is+second+only+to+Volvo+among+companies+borrowing+the+technology+from+Mitsubishi"><i>Motor Business Japan</i></a>. 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Retrieved <span class="nowrap">9 September</span> 2013</span>. <q>Hyundai is second only to Volvo among companies borrowing the technology from Mitsubishi.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Motor+Business+Japan&rft.pages=128&rft.pub=Economist+Intelligence+Unit&rft.date=1997&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DrgMWAQAAMAAJ%26q%3DHyundai%2Bis%2Bsecond%2Bonly%2Bto%2BVolvo%2Bamong%2Bcompanies%2Bborrowing%2Bthe%2Btechnology%2Bfrom%2BMitsubishi&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGasoline+direct+injection" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-notsonuts-63"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-notsonuts_63-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.autospeed.com.au/A_0655/cms/article.html">"Not so nuts"</a>. 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Retrieved <span class="nowrap">17 September</span> 2011</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=United+States+Patent+6398511&rft.pub=USPTO+Patent+Full-Text+and+Image+Database&rft.date=2000-08-18&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fpatft.uspto.gov%2Fnetacgi%2Fnph-Parser%3Fu%3D%252Fnetahtml%252Fsrchnum.htm%26Sect1%3DPTO1%26Sect2%3DHITOFF%26p%3D1%26r%3D1%26l%3D50%26f%3DG%26d%3DPALL%26s1%3D6398511.PN.%26OS%3DPN%2F6398511%26RS%3DPN%2F6398511&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGasoline+direct+injection" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-71"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-71">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20101013043448/http://www.epa.gov/air/caaac/2004awar.html">"2004 Clean Air Excellence Awards Recipients"</a>. U.S. EPA. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.epa.gov/air/caaac/2004awar.html">the original</a> on 13 October 2010<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">14 November</span> 2010</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=2004+Clean+Air+Excellence+Awards+Recipients&rft.pub=U.S.+EPA&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.epa.gov%2Fair%2Fcaaac%2F2004awar.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGasoline+direct+injection" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-72"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-72">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20070428231752/http://www.envirofit.org/media/display.php?id=1">"Envirofit works to retrofit the Philippines"</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.envirofit.org/media/display.php?id=1">the original</a> on 28 April 2007.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Envirofit+works+to+retrofit+the+Philippines&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.envirofit.org%2Fmedia%2Fdisplay.php%3Fid%3D1&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGasoline+direct+injection" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-73"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-73">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.ernasia.org/index.php?option=com_content&task=view&id=313&Itemid=75">"Ernasia project - Asian City Air Pollution Data Are Released"</a>. 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Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.worldwatch.org/node/5267">the original</a> on 10 November 2010<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">14 November</span> 2010</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Retrofitting+Engines+Reduces+Pollution%2C+Increases+Incomes&rft.pub=Worldwatch+Institute&rft.date=2007-08-01&rft.aulast=Herro&rft.aufirst=Alana&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.worldwatch.org%2Fnode%2F5267&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGasoline+direct+injection" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1129693374">.mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul{margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt,.mw-parser-output .hlist li{margin:0;display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl 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shaft</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Block_heater" title="Block heater">Block heater</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bore_(engine)" title="Bore (engine)">Bore</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Connecting_rod" title="Connecting rod">Connecting rod</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crankcase" title="Crankcase">Crankcase</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crankcase_ventilation_system" title="Crankcase ventilation system">Crankcase ventilation system (PCV valve)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crankpin" title="Crankpin">Crankpin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crankshaft" title="Crankshaft">Crankshaft</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Core_plug" title="Core plug">Core plug (freeze plug)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cylinder_(engine)" title="Cylinder (engine)">Cylinder</a> (<a href="/wiki/Cylinder_bank" class="mw-redirect" title="Cylinder bank">bank</a>, <a href="/wiki/Engine_configuration" title="Engine configuration">layout</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Engine_displacement" title="Engine displacement">Displacement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Flywheel" title="Flywheel">Flywheel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Firing_order" title="Firing order">Firing order</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stroke_(engine)" title="Stroke (engine)">Stroke</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Main_bearing" title="Main bearing">Main bearing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Piston" title="Piston">Piston</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Piston_ring" title="Piston ring">Piston ring</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Starter_ring_gear" title="Starter ring gear">Starter ring gear</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Valvetrain" title="Valvetrain">Valvetrain</a> and<br /> <a href="/wiki/Cylinder_head" title="Cylinder head">Cylinder head</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Flathead_engine" title="Flathead engine">Flathead layout</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Overhead_camshaft_engine" title="Overhead camshaft engine">Overhead camshaft layout</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Overhead_valve_engine" title="Overhead valve engine">Overhead valve (pushrod) layout</a></li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Tappet" title="Tappet">Tappet / lifter</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Camshaft" title="Camshaft">Camshaft</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chest_(mechanical_engineering)" title="Chest (mechanical engineering)">Chest</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Combustion_chamber" title="Combustion chamber">Combustion chamber</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Compression_ratio" title="Compression ratio">Compression ratio</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Head_gasket" title="Head gasket">Head gasket</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rocker_arm" title="Rocker arm">Rocker arm</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Timing_belt_(camshaft)" title="Timing belt (camshaft)">Timing belt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Poppet_valve" title="Poppet valve">Valve</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Forced_induction" title="Forced induction">Forced induction</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Blowoff_valve" title="Blowoff valve">Blowoff valve</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Boost_controller" title="Boost controller">Boost controller</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Intercooler" title="Intercooler">Intercooler</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Supercharger" title="Supercharger">Supercharger</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Turbocharger" title="Turbocharger">Turbocharger</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Fuel system</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Diesel_engine" title="Diesel engine">Diesel engine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Petrol_engine" title="Petrol engine">Petrol engine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carburetor" title="Carburetor">Carburetor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fuel_filter" title="Fuel filter">Fuel filter</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fuel_injection" title="Fuel injection">Fuel injection</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fuel_pump" title="Fuel pump">Fuel pump</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fuel_tank" title="Fuel tank">Fuel tank</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Ignition_system" title="Ignition system">Ignition</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ignition_magneto" title="Ignition magneto">Magneto</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Compression_ignition" class="mw-redirect" title="Compression ignition">Compression ignition</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Coil-on-plug_ignition" class="mw-redirect" title="Coil-on-plug ignition">Coil-on-plug</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Distributor" title="Distributor">Distributor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Glow_plug_(diesel_engine)" class="mw-redirect" title="Glow plug (diesel engine)">Glow plug</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ignition_coil" title="Ignition coil">Ignition coil</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spark_plug" title="Spark plug">Spark plug</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spark_plug_wires" title="Spark plug wires">Spark plug wires</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><div style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0;">Engine management</div></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Engine_control_unit" title="Engine control unit">Engine control unit (ECU)</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><div style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0;">Electrical system</div></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Alternator_(automotive)" title="Alternator (automotive)">Alternator</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Automotive_battery" title="Automotive battery">Battery</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dynamo" title="Dynamo">Dynamo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Starter_(engine)" title="Starter (engine)">Starter motor</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Intake system</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Airbox" title="Airbox">Airbox</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Air_filter#Internal_combustion_engine_air_filters" title="Air filter">Air filter</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Idle_air_control_actuator" title="Idle air control actuator">Idle air control actuator</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Inlet_manifold" title="Inlet manifold">Inlet manifold</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/MAP_sensor" title="MAP sensor">MAP sensor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mass_flow_sensor" title="Mass flow sensor">MAF sensor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Throttle" title="Throttle">Throttle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Throttle_position_sensor" title="Throttle position sensor">Throttle position sensor</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Exhaust_system" title="Exhaust system">Exhaust system</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Catalytic_converter" title="Catalytic converter">Catalytic converter</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Diesel_particulate_filter" title="Diesel particulate filter">Diesel particulate filter</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Exhaust_gas_temperature_gauge" title="Exhaust gas temperature gauge">EGT sensor</a></li> <li><a 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href="/wiki/Fan_clutch" title="Fan clutch">Viscous fan (fan clutch)</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Lubrication</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Motor_oil" title="Motor oil">Oil</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oil_filter" title="Oil filter">Oil filter</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oil_pump_(internal_combustion_engine)" title="Oil pump (internal combustion engine)">Oil pump</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sump" title="Sump">Sump</a> (<a href="/wiki/Wet_sump" title="Wet sump">Wet sump</a>, <a href="/wiki/Dry_sump" title="Dry sump">Dry sump</a>)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Other</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Engine_knocking" title="Engine 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