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id="cite_ref-Kanouse_&_Hanson_1972_1-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Kanouse_&_Hanson_1972-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> also known as the <b>negativity effect</b>, is a <a href="/wiki/Cognitive_bias" title="Cognitive bias">cognitive bias</a> that, even when positive or neutral things of equal intensity occur, things of a more negative nature (e.g. unpleasant thoughts, emotions, or social interactions; harmful/traumatic events) have a greater effect on one's psychological state and processes than neutral or positive things.<sup id="cite_ref-Baumeister_et_al._2001_2-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Baumeister_et_al._2001-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Lewicka_et_al._1992_3-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Lewicka_et_al._1992-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Rozin_&_Royzman_2001_4-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Rozin_&_Royzman_2001-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In other words, something very positive will generally have less of an impact on a person's behavior and cognition than something equally emotional but negative. The negativity bias has been investigated within many different domains, including the <a href="/wiki/Impression_formation" title="Impression formation">formation of impressions</a> and general evaluations; attention, learning, and memory; and <a href="/wiki/Decision-making" title="Decision-making">decision-making</a> and risk considerations. </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Explanations">Explanations</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Negativity_bias&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Explanations"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Paul_Rozin" title="Paul Rozin">Paul Rozin</a> and Edward Royzman proposed four elements of the negativity bias in order to explain its manifestation: negative potency, steeper negative gradients, negativity dominance, and negative differentiation.<sup id="cite_ref-Rozin_&_Royzman_2001_4-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Rozin_&_Royzman_2001-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><b>Negative potency</b> refers to the notion that, while possibly of equal magnitude or emotionality, negative and positive items/events/etc. are not equally salient. Rozin and Royzman note that this characteristic of the negativity bias is only empirically demonstrable in situations with inherent measurability, such as comparing how positively or negatively a change in temperature is interpreted. </p><p>With respect to positive and negative gradients, it appears to be the case that negative events are thought to be perceived as increasingly more negative than positive events are increasingly positive the closer one gets (spatially or temporally) to the <a href="/wiki/Affect_(psychology)" title="Affect (psychology)">affective</a> event itself. In other words, there is a <b>steeper negative gradient</b> than positive gradient. For example, the negative experience of an impending dental surgery is perceived as increasingly more negative the closer one gets to the date of surgery than the positive experience of an impending party is perceived as increasingly more positive the closer one gets to the date of celebration (assuming for the sake of this example that these events are equally positive and negative). Rozin and Royzman argue that this characteristic is distinct from that of negative potency because there appears to be evidence of steeper negative slopes relative to positive slopes even when potency itself is low. </p><p><b>Negativity dominance</b> describes the tendency for the combination of positive and negative items/events/etc. to skew towards an overall more negative interpretation than would be suggested by the summation of the individual positive and negative components. Phrasing in more <a href="/wiki/Gestalt_psychology" title="Gestalt psychology">Gestalt</a>-friendly terms, the whole is more negative than the sum of its parts. </p><p><b>Negative differentiation</b> is consistent with evidence suggesting that the conceptualization of negativity is more elaborate and complex than that of positivity. For instance, research indicates that negative vocabulary is more richly descriptive of the affective experience than that of positive vocabulary.<sup id="cite_ref-Peeters_1971_5-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Peeters_1971-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Furthermore, there appear to be more terms employed to indicate negative emotions than positive emotions.<sup id="cite_ref-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The notion of negative differentiation is consistent with the <a href="/w/index.php?title=Mobilization-Minimization_Hypothesis&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Mobilization-Minimization Hypothesis (page does not exist)">mobilization-minimization hypothesis</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-Taylor,_S._E._1991_8-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Taylor,_S._E._1991-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> which posits that negative events, as a consequence of this complexity, require a greater mobilization of cognitive resources to deal with the affective experience and a greater effort to minimize the consequences. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Evidence">Evidence</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Negativity_bias&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Evidence"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Social_judgments_and_impression_formation">Social judgments and impression formation</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Negativity_bias&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Social judgments and impression formation"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Most of the early evidence suggesting a negativity bias stems from research on social judgments and impression formation, in which it became clear that negative information was typically more heavily weighted when participants were tasked with forming comprehensive evaluations and impressions of other target individuals.<sup id="cite_ref-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Fiske_1980_10-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Fiske_1980-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Generally speaking, when people are presented with a range of trait information about a target individual, the traits are neither "averaged" nor "summed" to reach a final impression.<sup id="cite_ref-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> When these traits differ in terms of their positivity and negativity, negative traits disproportionately impact the final impression.<sup id="cite_ref-12" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-13" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Hamilton_&_Zanna_1972_14-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Hamilton_&_Zanna_1972-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-15" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-16" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This is specifically in line with the notion of negativity dominance<sup id="cite_ref-Rozin_&_Royzman_2001_4-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Rozin_&_Royzman_2001-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> (see "Explanations" above). </p><p>As an example, a famous study by <a href="/wiki/Leon_Festinger" title="Leon Festinger">Leon Festinger</a> and colleagues investigated critical factors in predicting friendship formation; the researchers concluded that whether or not people became friends was most strongly predicted by their proximity to one another.<sup id="cite_ref-17" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Ebbesen, Kjos, and Konecni, however, demonstrated that proximity itself does not predict friendship formation; rather, proximity serves to amplify the information that is relevant to the decision of either forming or not forming a friendship.<sup id="cite_ref-18" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Negative information is just as amplified as positive information by proximity. As negative information tends to outweigh positive information, proximity may predict a failure to form friendships even more so than successful friendship formation.<sup id="cite_ref-Baumeister_et_al._2001_2-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Baumeister_et_al._2001-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>One explanation that has been put forth as to why such a negativity bias is demonstrated in social judgments is that people may generally consider negative information to be more diagnostic of an individual's character than positive information, that it is more useful than positive information in forming an overall impression.<sup id="cite_ref-Hamilton_&_Huffman_1971_19-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Hamilton_&_Huffman_1971-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This is supported by indications of higher confidence in the accuracy of one's formed impression when it was formed more on the basis of negative traits than positive traits.<sup id="cite_ref-Baumeister_et_al._2001_2-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Baumeister_et_al._2001-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Hamilton_&_Zanna_1972_14-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Hamilton_&_Zanna_1972-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> People consider negative information to be more important to impression formation and, when it is available to them, they are subsequently more confident. </p><p>An oft-cited paradox,<sup id="cite_ref-20" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-21" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> a dishonest person can sometimes act honestly while still being considered to be predominantly dishonest; on the other hand, an honest person who sometimes does dishonest things will likely be reclassified as a dishonest person. It is expected that a dishonest person will occasionally be honest, but this honesty will not counteract the prior demonstrations of dishonesty. Honesty is considered more easily tarnished by acts of dishonesty. Honesty itself would then be not diagnostic of an honest nature, only the absence of dishonesty. </p><p>The presumption that negative information has greater diagnostic accuracy is also evident in voting patterns. Voting behaviors have been shown to be more affected or motivated by negative information than positive: people tend to be more motivated to vote against a candidate because of negative information than they are to vote for a candidate because of positive information.<sup id="cite_ref-22" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Klein_1998_23-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Klein_1998-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> As noted by researcher Jill Klein, "character weaknesses were more important than strengths in determining...the ultimate vote".<sup id="cite_ref-Klein_1998_23-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Klein_1998-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>This diagnostic preference for negative traits over positive traits is thought to be a consequence of behavioral expectations: there is a general expectation that, owing to social requirements and regulations, people will generally behave positively and exhibit positive traits. Contrastingly, negative behaviors/traits are more unexpected and, thus, more salient when they are exhibited.<sup id="cite_ref-Kanouse_&_Hanson_1972_1-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Kanouse_&_Hanson_1972-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Baumeister_et_al._2001_2-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Baumeister_et_al._2001-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Fiske_1980_10-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Fiske_1980-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Hamilton_&_Huffman_1971_19-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Hamilton_&_Huffman_1971-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Boucher_&_Osgood_24-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Boucher_&_Osgood-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The relatively greater salience of negative events or information means they ultimately play a greater role in the judgment process. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Attribution_of_Intentions">Attribution of Intentions</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Negativity_bias&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Attribution of Intentions"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Studies reported in a paper in the <i>Journal of Experimental Psychology: General</i> by Carey Morewedge (2009) found that people exhibit a <i><b>negativity bias</b></i> <i><b>in attribution of external agency</b></i>, such that they are more likely to attribute negative outcomes to the intentions of another person than similar neutral and positive outcomes.<sup id="cite_ref-25" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In laboratory experiments, Morewedge found that participants were more likely to believe that a partner had influenced the outcome of a gamble in when the participants lost money than won money, even when the probability of winning and losing money was held even. This bias is not limited to adults. Children also appear to be more likely to attribute negative events to intentional causes than similarly positive events.<sup id="cite_ref-26" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Cognition">Cognition</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Negativity_bias&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Cognition"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>As addressed by negative differentiation,<sup id="cite_ref-Rozin_&_Royzman_2001_4-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Rozin_&_Royzman_2001-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> negative information seems to require greater information processing resources and activity than does positive information; people tend to think and reason more about negative events than positive events.<sup id="cite_ref-Taylor,_S._E._1991_8-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Taylor,_S._E._1991-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-27" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Neurological differences also point to greater processing of negative information: participants exhibit greater event-related potentials when reading about, or viewing photographs of, people performing negative acts that were incongruent with their traits than when reading about incongruent positive acts.<sup id="cite_ref-28" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-29" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-30" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This additional processing leads to differences between positive and negative information in attention, learning, and memory. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Attention">Attention</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Negativity_bias&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Attention"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>A number of studies have suggested that negativity is essentially an attention magnet. For example, when tasked with forming an impression of presented target individuals, participants spent longer looking at negative photographs than they did looking at positive photographs.<sup id="cite_ref-Fiske_1980_10-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Fiske_1980-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Similarly, participants registered more eye blinks when studying negative words than positive words<sup id="cite_ref-Ohira_et_al.,_1998_31-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Ohira_et_al.,_1998-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> (blinking rate has been positively linked to cognitive activity<sup id="cite_ref-32" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-33" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>). Also, people were found to show greater orienting responses following negative than positive outcomes, including larger increases in pupil diameter, heart rate, and peripheral arterial tone <sup id="cite_ref-34" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-35" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Importantly, this preferential attendance to negative information is evident even when the affective nature of the stimuli is irrelevant to the task itself. The automatic vigilance hypothesis has been investigated using a modified <a href="/wiki/Stroop_effect" title="Stroop effect">Stroop task</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Pratto_&_John_1991_36-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Pratto_&_John_1991-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Participants were presented with a series of positive and negative personality traits in several different colors; as each trait appeared on the screen, participants were to name the color as quickly as possible. Even though the positive and negative elements of the words were immaterial to the color-naming task, participants were slower to name the color of negative traits than they were positive traits. This difference in response latencies indicates that greater attention was devoted to processing the trait itself when it was negative. </p><p>Aside from studies of eye blinks and color naming, Baumeister and colleagues noted in their review of bad events versus good events <sup id="cite_ref-Baumeister_et_al._2001_2-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Baumeister_et_al._2001-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> that there is also easily accessible, real-world evidence for this attentional bias: bad news sells more papers and the bulk of successful novels are full of negative events and turmoil. When taken in conjunction with the laboratory-based experiments, there is strong support for the notion that negative information generally has a stronger pull on attention than does positive information. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Learning_and_memory">Learning and memory</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Negativity_bias&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Learning and memory"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Learning and memory are direct consequences of attentional processing: the more attention is directed or devoted toward something, the more likely it is that it will be later learned and remembered. Research concerning the effects of punishment and reward on learning suggests that punishment for incorrect responses is more effective in enhancing learning than are rewards for correct responses—learning occurs more quickly following bad events than good events.<sup id="cite_ref-Costantini_&_Hoving_1973_37-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Costantini_&_Hoving_1973-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-38" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Drs. Pratto and John addressed the effects of <a href="/wiki/Affect_(psychology)" title="Affect (psychology)">affective</a> information on incidental memory as well as attention using their modified Stroop paradigm (see section concerning "Attention"). Not only were participants slower to name the colors of negative traits, they also exhibited better incidental memory for the presented negative traits than they did for the positive traits, regardless of the proportion of negative to positive traits in the stimuli set.<sup id="cite_ref-Pratto_&_John_1991_36-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Pratto_&_John_1991-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Intentional memory is also impacted by the stimuli's negative or positive quality. When studying both positive and negative behaviors, participants tend to recall more negative behaviors during a later memory test than they do positive behaviors, even after controlling for serial position effects.<sup id="cite_ref-39" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-39"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-40" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> There is also evidence that people exhibit better <a href="/wiki/Recognition_memory" title="Recognition memory">recognition memory</a> and source memory for negative information.<sup id="cite_ref-Ohira_et_al.,_1998_31-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Ohira_et_al.,_1998-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-41" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-41"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>41<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>When asked to recall a recent emotional event, people tend to report negative events more often than they report positive events,<sup id="cite_ref-42" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-42"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>42<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and this is thought to be because these negative memories are more salient than are the positive memories. People also tend to underestimate how frequently they experience positive affect, in that they more often forget the positively emotional experiences than they forget negatively emotional experiences.<sup id="cite_ref-43" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-43"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>43<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Decision-making">Decision-making</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Negativity_bias&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Decision-making"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Studies of the negativity bias have also been related to research within the domain of <a href="/wiki/Decision-making" title="Decision-making">decision-making</a>, specifically as it relates to <a href="/wiki/Risk_aversion_(psychology)" title="Risk aversion (psychology)">risk aversion</a> or <a href="/wiki/Loss_aversion" title="Loss aversion">loss aversion</a>. When presented with a situation in which a person stands to either gain something or lose something depending on the outcome, potential costs were argued to be more heavily considered than potential gains.<sup id="cite_ref-KT1979_44-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-KT1979-44"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>44<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Kanouse_&_Hanson_1972_1-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Kanouse_&_Hanson_1972-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Costantini_&_Hoving_1973_37-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Costantini_&_Hoving_1973-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-45" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-45"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>45<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The greater consideration of losses (i.e. negative outcomes) is in line with the principle of negative potency as proposed by Rozin and Royzman.<sup id="cite_ref-Rozin_&_Royzman_2001_4-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Rozin_&_Royzman_2001-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This issue of negativity and loss aversion as it relates to decision-making is most notably addressed by Drs. <a href="/wiki/Daniel_Kahneman" title="Daniel Kahneman">Daniel Kahneman's</a> and <a href="/wiki/Amos_Tversky" title="Amos Tversky">Amos Tversky's</a> <a href="/wiki/Prospect_theory" title="Prospect theory">prospect theory</a>. </p><p>However, it is worth noting that Rozin and Royzman were never able to find loss aversion in decision making.<sup id="cite_ref-Rozin_&_Royzman_2001_4-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Rozin_&_Royzman_2001-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> They wrote, "in particular, strict gain and loss of money does not reliably demonstrate loss aversion". This is consistent with the findings of a recent review of more than 40 studies of loss aversion focusing on decision problems with equal sized gains and losses.<sup id="cite_ref-YechiamHochman_46-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-YechiamHochman-46"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>46<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In their review, Yechiam and Hochman (2013) did find a positive effect of losses on performance, autonomic arousal, and response time in decision tasks, which they suggested is due to the effect of losses on attention. This was labeled by them as loss attention.<sup id="cite_ref-YechiamHochman_46-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-YechiamHochman-46"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>46<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Politics">Politics</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Negativity_bias&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Politics"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Research points to a correlation between political affiliation and negativity bias,<sup id="cite_ref-47" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-47"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>47<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-48" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-48"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>48<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> where conservatives are more sensitive to negative stimuli and therefore tend to lean towards right-leaning ideology which considers threat reduction and social-order to be its main focus.<sup id="cite_ref-49" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-49"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>49<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Individuals with lower negativity bias tend to lean towards liberal political policies such as pluralism and are accepting of diverse social groups which by proxy could threaten social structure and cause greater risk of unrest.<sup id="cite_ref-50" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-50"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>50<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Lifespan_development">Lifespan development</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Negativity_bias&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Lifespan development"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Infancy">Infancy</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Negativity_bias&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Infancy"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>While the majority of investigations into the negativity bias have primarily focused on adults, particularly undergraduate students, a limited number of studies involving infants have also indicated the presence of negativity biases. </p><p>Infants are thought to interpret ambiguous situations on the basis of how others around them react. When an adult (e.g. experimenter, mother) displays reactions of happiness, fear, or neutrality towards target toys, infants tend to approach the toy associated with the negative reaction significantly less than the neutral and positive toys.<sup id="cite_ref-51" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-51"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>51<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-52" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-52"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>52<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-53" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-53"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>53<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Vaish_et_al_54-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Vaish_et_al-54"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>54<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Furthermore, there was greater evidence of neural activity when the infants were shown pictures of the "negative" toy than when shown the "positive" and "neutral" toys.<sup id="cite_ref-55" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-55"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>55<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Although recent work with 3-month-olds suggests a negativity bias in social evaluations, as well,<sup id="cite_ref-56" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-56"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>56<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> there is also work suggesting a potential positivity bias in attention to emotional expressions in infants younger than 7 months.<sup id="cite_ref-57" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-57"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>57<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-58" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-58"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>58<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-59" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-59"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>59<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> A review of the literature conducted by Drs. Amrisha Vaish, Tobias Grossman, and Amanda Woodward suggests the negativity bias may emerge during the second half of an infant's first year, although the authors also note that research on the negativity bias and affective information has been woefully neglected within the developmental literature.<sup id="cite_ref-Vaish_et_al_54-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Vaish_et_al-54"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>54<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Aging_and_older_adults">Aging and older adults</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Negativity_bias&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Aging and older adults"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Some research indicates that older adults may display, at least in certain situations, a <a href="/wiki/Pollyanna_principle" title="Pollyanna principle">positivity bias</a> or <a href="/wiki/Positivity_effect" title="Positivity effect">positivity effect</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-60" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-60"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>60<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-61" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-61"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>61<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-62" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-62"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>62<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Proposed by Dr. Laura Carstensen and colleagues, the <a href="/wiki/Socioemotional_selectivity_theory" title="Socioemotional selectivity theory">socioemotional selectivity theory</a> outlines a shift in goals and emotion regulation tendencies with advancing age, resulting in a preference for positive information over negative information. Aside from the evidence in favor of a positivity bias, though, there have still been many documented cases of older adults displaying a negativity bias.<sup id="cite_ref-63" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-63"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>63<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-64" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-64"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>64<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Negativity_bias&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Fading_affect_bias" title="Fading affect bias">Fading affect bias</a>, a counter effect</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pollyanna_principle" title="Pollyanna principle">Pollyanna hypothesis</a><sup id="cite_ref-Boucher_&_Osgood_24-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Boucher_&_Osgood-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Positivity_effect" title="Positivity effect">Positivity effect</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Positivity_offset" title="Positivity offset">Positivity offset</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prospect_theory" title="Prospect theory">Prospect theory</a></li> <li>Automatic vigilance hypothesis<sup id="cite_ref-Pratto_&_John_1991_36-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Pratto_&_John_1991-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-65" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-65"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>65<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>Leniency effect<sup id="cite_ref-66" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-66"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>66<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>Positive–negative asymmetry<sup id="cite_ref-Lewicka_et_al._1992_3-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Lewicka_et_al._1992-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Peeters_1971_5-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Peeters_1971-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_biases_in_judgment_and_decision_making" class="mw-redirect" title="List of biases in judgment and decision making">List of biases in judgment and decision making</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Negativity_bias&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist reflist-columns references-column-width" style="column-width: 30em;"> <ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-Kanouse_&_Hanson_1972-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Kanouse_&_Hanson_1972_1-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Kanouse_&_Hanson_1972_1-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Kanouse_&_Hanson_1972_1-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Kanouse, D. E., & Hanson, L. (1972). Negativity in evaluations. In E. E. Jones, D. E. Kanouse, S. Valins, H. H. Kelley, R. E. Nisbett, & B. Weiner (Eds.), <i>Attribution: Perceiving the causes of behavior.</i> Morristown, NJ: General Learning Press.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Baumeister_et_al._2001-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Baumeister_et_al._2001_2-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Baumeister_et_al._2001_2-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Baumeister_et_al._2001_2-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Baumeister_et_al._2001_2-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Baumeister_et_al._2001_2-4"><sup><i><b>e</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite id="CITEREFBaumeisterFinkenauerVohs2001" class="citation journal cs1"><a href="/wiki/Roy_Baumeister" title="Roy Baumeister">Baumeister, Roy F.</a>; Finkenauer, Catrin; Vohs, Kathleen D. (2001). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://assets.csom.umn.edu/assets/71516.pdf">"Bad is stronger than good"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. <i>Review of General Psychology</i>. <b>5</b> (4): 323–370. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1037%2F1089-2680.5.4.323">10.1037/1089-2680.5.4.323</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:13154992">13154992</a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2014-11-19</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Review+of+General+Psychology&rft.atitle=Bad+is+stronger+than+good&rft.volume=5&rft.issue=4&rft.pages=323-370&rft.date=2001&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1037%2F1089-2680.5.4.323&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A13154992%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.aulast=Baumeister&rft.aufirst=Roy+F.&rft.au=Finkenauer%2C+Catrin&rft.au=Vohs%2C+Kathleen+D.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fassets.csom.umn.edu%2Fassets%2F71516.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANegativity+bias" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Lewicka_et_al._1992-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Lewicka_et_al._1992_3-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Lewicka_et_al._1992_3-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLewickaCzapinskiPeeters1992" class="citation journal cs1">Lewicka, Maria; <a href="/w/index.php?title=Janusz_Czapi%C5%84ski&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Janusz Czapiński (page does not exist)">Czapinski, Janusz</a>; Peeters, Guido (1992). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://lirias.kuleuven.be/handle/123456789/126429">"Positive-negative asymmetry or "When the heart needs a reason"<span class="cs1-kern-right"></span>"</a>. <i>European Journal of Social Psychology</i>. <b>22</b> (5): 425–434. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1002%2Fejsp.2420220502">10.1002/ejsp.2420220502</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=European+Journal+of+Social+Psychology&rft.atitle=Positive-negative+asymmetry+or+%22When+the+heart+needs+a+reason%22&rft.volume=22&rft.issue=5&rft.pages=425-434&rft.date=1992&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1002%2Fejsp.2420220502&rft.aulast=Lewicka&rft.aufirst=Maria&rft.au=Czapinski%2C+Janusz&rft.au=Peeters%2C+Guido&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Flirias.kuleuven.be%2Fhandle%2F123456789%2F126429&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANegativity+bias" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Rozin_&_Royzman_2001-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Rozin_&_Royzman_2001_4-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Rozin_&_Royzman_2001_4-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Rozin_&_Royzman_2001_4-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Rozin_&_Royzman_2001_4-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Rozin_&_Royzman_2001_4-4"><sup><i><b>e</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Rozin_&_Royzman_2001_4-5"><sup><i><b>f</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRozinRoyzman2001" class="citation journal cs1"><a href="/wiki/Paul_Rozin" title="Paul Rozin">Rozin, Paul</a>; Royzman, Edward B. (2001). 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Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2014-11-20</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Psychology+and+Aging&rft.atitle=The+negativity+bias+is+eliminated+in+older+adults%3A+Age-related+reduction+in+event-related+brain+potentials+associated+with+evaluative+categorization&rft.volume=21&rft.issue=4&rft.pages=815-820&rft.date=2006&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1037%2F0882-7974.21.4.815&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F17201501&rft.aulast=Wood&rft.aufirst=Stacey&rft.au=Kisley%2C+Michael+A.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.uccs.edu%2FDocuments%2Fhumanneurophysiologylab%2F05%2520Wood%2520and%2520Kisley%25202006.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANegativity+bias" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-63"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-63">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHollandKensinger2012" class="citation journal cs1">Holland, Alisha C.; Kensinger, Elizabeth A. (2012). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3524976">"Younger, middle-aged, and older adults' memories for the 2008 U.S. Presidential Election"</a>. <i>Journal of Applied Research in Memory and Cognition</i>. <b>1</b> (3): 163–170. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.jarmac.2012.06.001">10.1016/j.jarmac.2012.06.001</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3524976">3524976</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/23264932">23264932</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+Applied+Research+in+Memory+and+Cognition&rft.atitle=Younger%2C+middle-aged%2C+and+older+adults%27+memories+for+the+2008+U.S.+Presidential+Election&rft.volume=1&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=163-170&rft.date=2012&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC3524976%23id-name%3DPMC&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F23264932&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1016%2Fj.jarmac.2012.06.001&rft.aulast=Holland&rft.aufirst=Alisha+C.&rft.au=Kensinger%2C+Elizabeth+A.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC3524976&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANegativity+bias" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-64"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-64">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Naveh-Benjamin, M., & Ohta, N. (Eds.) (2012). <i>Memory and aging: Current issues and future directions</i>. Philadelphia, PA: Psychology Press.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources"><span title="Please supply an ISBN for this book.">ISBN missing</span></a></i>]</sup><sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources"><span title="This citation requires a reference to the specific page or range of pages in which the material appears. (July 2022)">page needed</span></a></i>]</sup></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-65"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-65">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFIrwinTripodiBieri1967" class="citation journal cs1">Irwin, Marc; Tripodi, Tony; <a href="/wiki/James_Bieri" title="James Bieri">Bieri, James</a> (1967). "Affective stimulus value and cognitive complexity". <i>Journal of Personality and Social Psychology</i>. <b>5</b> (4): 444–448. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1037%2Fh0024406">10.1037/h0024406</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/6051770">6051770</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+Personality+and+Social+Psychology&rft.atitle=Affective+stimulus+value+and+cognitive+complexity&rft.volume=5&rft.issue=4&rft.pages=444-448&rft.date=1967&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1037%2Fh0024406&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F6051770&rft.aulast=Irwin&rft.aufirst=Marc&rft.au=Tripodi%2C+Tony&rft.au=Bieri%2C+James&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANegativity+bias" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-66"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-66">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Bruner, J. S., & Tagiuri, R. (1954). Person perception. In G. Lindsey (Ed.), <i>Handbook of social psychology</i> (Vol. 2, pp. 634–654). Reading, MA: Addison-Wesley.</span> </li> </ol></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Further_reading">Further reading</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Negativity_bias&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: Further reading"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDongZhouZhaoLu2011" class="citation journal cs1">Dong, Guangheng; Zhou, Hui; Zhao, Xuan; Lu, Qilin (2011). "Early Negativity Bias Occurring Prior to Experiencing of Emotion". <i>Journal of Psychophysiology</i>. <b>25</b>: 9–17. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1027%2F0269-8803%2Fa000027">10.1027/0269-8803/a000027</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+Psychophysiology&rft.atitle=Early+Negativity+Bias+Occurring+Prior+to+Experiencing+of+Emotion&rft.volume=25&rft.pages=9-17&rft.date=2011&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1027%2F0269-8803%2Fa000027&rft.aulast=Dong&rft.aufirst=Guangheng&rft.au=Zhou%2C+Hui&rft.au=Zhao%2C+Xuan&rft.au=Lu%2C+Qilin&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANegativity+bias" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSonsino2011" class="citation journal cs1">Sonsino, Doron (2011). "A note on negativity bias and framing response asymmetry". <i>Theory and Decision</i>. <b>71</b> (2): 235–250. <a href="/wiki/CiteSeerX_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="CiteSeerX (identifier)">CiteSeerX</a> <span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://citeseerx.ist.psu.edu/viewdoc/summary?doi=10.1.1.523.5455">10.1.1.523.5455</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1007%2Fs11238-009-9168-9">10.1007/s11238-009-9168-9</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:42689544">42689544</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Theory+and+Decision&rft.atitle=A+note+on+negativity+bias+and+framing+response+asymmetry&rft.volume=71&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=235-250&rft.date=2011&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fciteseerx.ist.psu.edu%2Fviewdoc%2Fsummary%3Fdoi%3D10.1.1.523.5455%23id-name%3DCiteSeerX&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A42689544%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1007%2Fs11238-009-9168-9&rft.aulast=Sonsino&rft.aufirst=Doron&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANegativity+bias" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Negativity_bias&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: External links"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.acrwebsite.org/search/view-conference-proceedings.aspx?Id=6335"><i>Theory and Research</i></a> Information on theoretical aspect of negativity bias.</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=E09077HRurg"><i>Negativity Bias – description</i></a> Video.</li></ul> <div class="navbox-styles"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1129693374">.mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul{margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt,.mw-parser-output .hlist li{margin:0;display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul dl,.mw-parser-output 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bias">Attribution</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Actor%E2%80%93observer_asymmetry" title="Actor–observer asymmetry">Actor–observer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fundamental_attribution_error" title="Fundamental attribution error">Correspondence</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Authority_bias" title="Authority bias">Authority</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Automation_bias" title="Automation bias">Automation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Availability_heuristic" title="Availability heuristic">Availability</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Mean_world_syndrome" title="Mean world syndrome">Mean world</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Belief_bias" title="Belief bias">Belief</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bias_blind_spot" title="Bias blind spot">Blind spot</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Choice-supportive_bias" title="Choice-supportive bias">Choice-supportive</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Escalation_of_commitment" title="Escalation of commitment">Commitment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Confirmation_bias" title="Confirmation bias">Confirmation</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Selective_perception" title="Selective perception">Selective perception</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Compassion_fade" title="Compassion fade">Compassion fade</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Congruence_bias" title="Congruence bias">Congruence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cultural_bias" title="Cultural bias">Cultural</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Declinism" title="Declinism">Declinism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Distinction_bias" title="Distinction bias">Distinction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dunning%E2%80%93Kruger_effect" title="Dunning–Kruger effect">Dunning–Kruger</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Egocentric_bias" title="Egocentric bias">Egocentric</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Curse_of_knowledge" title="Curse of knowledge">Curse of knowledge</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Emotional_bias" title="Emotional bias">Emotional</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Extrinsic_incentives_bias" title="Extrinsic incentives bias">Extrinsic incentives</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fading_affect_bias" title="Fading affect bias">Fading affect</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Framing_effect_(psychology)" title="Framing effect (psychology)">Framing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Frequency_illusion" title="Frequency illusion">Frequency</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Frog_pond_effect" title="Frog pond effect">Frog pond effect</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Halo_effect" title="Halo effect">Halo effect</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hindsight_bias" title="Hindsight bias">Hindsight</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Horn_effect" title="Horn effect">Horn effect</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hostile_attribution_bias" title="Hostile attribution bias">Hostile attribution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Impact_bias" title="Impact bias">Impact</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Implicit_stereotype" title="Implicit stereotype">Implicit</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/In-group_favoritism" title="In-group favoritism">In-group</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Intentionality_bias" title="Intentionality bias">Intentionality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Illusion_of_transparency" title="Illusion of transparency">Illusion of transparency</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mean_world_syndrome" title="Mean world syndrome">Mean world syndrome</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mere-exposure_effect" title="Mere-exposure effect">Mere-exposure effect</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Narrative_bias" title="Narrative bias">Narrative</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Negativity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Normalcy_bias" title="Normalcy bias">Normalcy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Omission_bias" title="Omission bias">Omission</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Optimism_bias" title="Optimism bias">Optimism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Out-group_homogeneity" title="Out-group homogeneity">Out-group homogeneity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Outcome_bias" title="Outcome bias">Outcome</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Overton_window" title="Overton window">Overton window</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Precision_bias" title="Precision bias">Precision</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Present_bias" title="Present bias">Present</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pro-innovation_bias" title="Pro-innovation bias">Pro-innovation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Proximity_bias" title="Proximity bias">Proximity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Response_bias" title="Response bias">Response</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Restraint_bias" title="Restraint bias">Restraint</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Self-serving_bias" title="Self-serving bias">Self-serving</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_comparison_bias" title="Social comparison bias">Social comparison</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_influence_bias" title="Social influence bias">Social influence bias</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spotlight_effect" title="Spotlight effect">Spotlight</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Status_quo_bias" title="Status quo bias">Status quo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Attribute_substitution" title="Attribute substitution">Substitution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Time-saving_bias" title="Time-saving bias">Time-saving</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trait_ascription_bias" title="Trait ascription bias">Trait ascription</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Turkey_illusion" title="Turkey illusion">Turkey illusion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Von_Restorff_effect" title="Von Restorff effect">von Restorff effect</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zero-risk_bias" title="Zero-risk bias">Zero-risk</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cognitive_bias_in_animals" title="Cognitive bias in animals">In animals</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Bias_(statistics)" title="Bias (statistics)">Statistical biases</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bias_of_an_estimator" title="Bias of an estimator">Estimator</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Forecast_bias" title="Forecast bias">Forecast</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Healthy_user_bias" title="Healthy user bias">Healthy user</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Information_bias_(epidemiology)" title="Information bias (epidemiology)">Information</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Information_bias_(psychology)" title="Information bias (psychology)">Psychological</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lead_time_bias" title="Lead time bias">Lead time</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Length_time_bias" title="Length time bias">Length time</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Participation_bias" title="Participation bias">Non-response</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Observer_bias" title="Observer bias">Observer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Omitted-variable_bias" title="Omitted-variable bias">Omitted-variable</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Participation_bias" title="Participation bias">Participation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Recall_bias" title="Recall bias">Recall</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sampling_bias" title="Sampling bias">Sampling</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Selection_bias" title="Selection bias">Selection</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Self-selection_bias" title="Self-selection bias">Self-selection</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social-desirability_bias" title="Social-desirability bias">Social desirability</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spectrum_bias" title="Spectrum bias">Spectrum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Survivorship_bias" title="Survivorship bias">Survivorship</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Systematic_error" class="mw-redirect" title="Systematic error">Systematic error</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Systemic_bias" title="Systemic bias">Systemic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Verification_bias" title="Verification bias">Verification</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wet_bias" title="Wet bias">Wet</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Other biases</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Academic_bias" title="Academic bias">Academic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Basking_in_reflected_glory" title="Basking in reflected glory">Basking in reflected glory</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/D%C3%A9formation_professionnelle" title="Déformation professionnelle">Déformation professionnelle</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Funding_bias" title="Funding bias">Funding</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/FUTON_bias" class="mw-redirect" title="FUTON bias">FUTON</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Inductive_bias" title="Inductive bias">Inductive</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Infrastructure_bias" title="Infrastructure bias">Infrastructure</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Inherent_bias" title="Inherent bias">Inherent</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bias_in_education" class="mw-redirect" title="Bias in education">In education</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liking_gap" title="Liking gap">Liking gap</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Media_bias" title="Media bias">Media</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/False_balance" title="False balance">False balance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_news_media_and_the_Vietnam_War" title="United States news media and the Vietnam War">Vietnam War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Media_of_Norway" class="mw-redirect" title="Media of Norway">Norway</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Media_bias_in_South_Asia" title="Media bias in South Asia">South Asia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Media_of_Sweden" class="mw-redirect" title="Media of Sweden">Sweden</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Media_bias_in_the_United_States" title="Media bias in the United States">United States</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Media_coverage_of_the_Arab%E2%80%93Israeli_conflict" class="mw-redirect" title="Media coverage of the Arab–Israeli conflict">Arab–Israeli conflict</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Media_portrayal_of_the_Ukrainian_crisis" class="mw-redirect" title="Media portrayal of the Ukrainian crisis">Ukraine</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Net_bias" title="Net bias">Net</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Political_bias" title="Political bias">Political bias</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Publication_bias" title="Publication bias">Publication</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reporting_bias" title="Reporting bias">Reporting</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/White_hat_bias" title="White hat bias">White hat</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Bias reduction</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cognitive_bias_mitigation" title="Cognitive bias mitigation">Cognitive bias mitigation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Debiasing" title="Debiasing">Debiasing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Heuristic_(psychology)" title="Heuristic (psychology)">Heuristics in judgment and decision-making</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow hlist" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li>Lists: <a href="/wiki/List_of_cognitive_biases" title="List of cognitive biases">General</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_cognitive_biases#Memory_biases" title="List of cognitive biases">Memory</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Media_and_human_factors" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Media_and_human_factors" title="Template:Media and human factors"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Media_and_human_factors" title="Template talk:Media and human factors"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Media_and_human_factors" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Media and human factors"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Media_and_human_factors" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Media_(communication)" title="Media (communication)">Media</a> and <a href="/wiki/Ergonomics" title="Ergonomics">human factors</a></div></th></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cognitive_psychology" title="Cognitive psychology">Cognitive psychology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Externality" title="Externality">Externality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolutionary_psychology" title="Evolutionary psychology">Evolutionary psychology</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Behavioral_modernity" title="Behavioral modernity">Behavioral modernity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolution_of_cognition" title="Evolution of cognition">Cognition</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolutionary_mismatch" title="Evolutionary mismatch">Mismatch</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Media_psychology" title="Media psychology">Media psychology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Media_studies" title="Media studies">Media studies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_psychology" title="Social psychology">Social psychology</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Media practices</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Betteridge%27s_law_of_headlines" title="Betteridge's law of headlines">Betteridge's law of headlines</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gatekeeping_(communication)" title="Gatekeeping (communication)">Gatekeeping</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Infotainment" title="Infotainment">Infotainment</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Human-interest_story" title="Human-interest story">Human-interest story</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Junk_food_news" title="Junk food news">Junk food news</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Least_objectionable_program" title="Least objectionable program">Least objectionable program</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Soft_media" title="Soft media">Soft media</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Media_bias" title="Media bias">Media bias</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Media_manipulation" title="Media manipulation">Media manipulation</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Pink-slime_journalism" title="Pink-slime journalism">Pink-slime journalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Propaganda" title="Propaganda">Propaganda</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Public_relations" title="Public relations">Public relations</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Missing_white_woman_syndrome" title="Missing white woman syndrome">Missing white woman syndrome</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/News_values" title="News values">News values</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sensationalism" title="Sensationalism">Sensationalism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hot_take" title="Hot take">Hot take</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spike_(journalism)" title="Spike (journalism)">Spiking</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tabloid_television" title="Tabloid television">Tabloid television</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yellow_journalism" title="Yellow journalism">Yellow journalism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Attention" title="Attention">Attention</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Attention_economy" title="Attention economy">Attention economy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Attention_inequality" title="Attention inequality">Attention inequality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Attention_management" title="Attention management">Attention management</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Attention_span" title="Attention span">Attention span</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chumbox" title="Chumbox">Chumbox</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Clickbait" title="Clickbait">Clickbait</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cognitive_miser" title="Cognitive miser">Cognitive miser</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Low_information_voter" title="Low information voter">Low information voter</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Digital_zombie" title="Digital zombie">Digital zombie</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Phubbing" title="Phubbing">Phubbing</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Doomscrolling" title="Doomscrolling">Doomscrolling</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_multitasking" title="Human multitasking">Human multitasking</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Media_multitasking" title="Media multitasking">Media multitasking</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mobile_phones_and_driving_safety" title="Mobile phones and driving safety">Mobile phones and driving safety</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Smartphones_and_pedestrian_safety" title="Smartphones and pedestrian safety">Smartphones and pedestrian safety</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Texting_while_driving" title="Texting while driving">Texting while driving</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Influence-for-hire" title="Influence-for-hire">Influence-for-hire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Infodemic" title="Infodemic">Infodemic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Information_explosion" title="Information explosion">Information explosion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Information_overload" title="Information overload">Information overload</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Information_pollution" title="Information pollution">Information pollution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Information%E2%80%93action_ratio" title="Information–action ratio">Information–action ratio</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rage_farming" class="mw-redirect" title="Rage farming">Rage farming</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Screen_time" title="Screen time">Screen time</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Binge-watching" title="Binge-watching">Binge-watching</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Television_consumption" title="Television consumption">Television consumption</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sticky_content" title="Sticky content">Sticky content</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Cognitive_bias" title="Cognitive bias">Cognitive bias</a>/<br /><a href="/wiki/Conformity" title="Conformity">Conformity</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Availability_cascade" title="Availability cascade">Availability cascade</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Availability_heuristic" title="Availability heuristic">Availability heuristic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bandwagon_effect" title="Bandwagon effect">Bandwagon effect</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Confirmation_bias" title="Confirmation bias">Confirmation bias</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crowd_psychology" title="Crowd psychology">Crowd psychology</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Mobbing" title="Mobbing">Mobbing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Moral_panic" title="Moral panic">Moral panic</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mean_world_syndrome" title="Mean world syndrome">Mean world syndrome</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Negativity bias</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peer_pressure" title="Peer pressure">Peer pressure</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social-desirability_bias" title="Social-desirability bias">Social-desirability bias</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_influence_bias" title="Social influence bias">Social influence bias</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spiral_of_silence" title="Spiral of silence">Spiral of silence</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Digital_divide" title="Digital divide">Digital divide</a>/<br /><a href="/wiki/Political_polarization" title="Political polarization">Political polarization</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Algorithmic_radicalization" title="Algorithmic radicalization">Algorithmic radicalization</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Online_youth_radicalization" title="Online youth radicalization">Youth</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Echo_chamber_(media)" title="Echo chamber (media)">Echo chamber</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fake_news_website" title="Fake news website">Fake news website</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Post-truth_politics" title="Post-truth politics">Post-truth politics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fake_news_websites_in_the_United_States" title="Fake news websites in the United States">United States</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Filter_bubble" title="Filter bubble">Filter bubble</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Knowledge_divide" title="Knowledge divide">Knowledge divide</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Knowledge_gap_hypothesis" title="Knowledge gap hypothesis">Knowledge gap hypothesis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Political_polarization_in_the_United_States" title="Political polarization in the United States">Political polarization in the United States</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_media_use_in_politics" title="Social media use in politics">Social media use in politics</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Social_media_and_political_communication_in_the_United_States" title="Social media and political communication in the United States">United States</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_media_in_the_2016_United_States_presidential_election" title="Social media in the 2016 United States presidential election">2016 U.S. presidential election</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_media_in_the_2020_United_States_presidential_election" title="Social media in the 2020 United States presidential election">2020 U.S. presidential election</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Related topics</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Computer_rage" title="Computer rage">Computer rage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Criticism_of_Facebook" title="Criticism of Facebook">Criticism of Facebook</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/2021_Facebook_leak" title="2021 Facebook leak">2021 Facebook company files leak</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Facebook%E2%80%93Cambridge_Analytica_data_scandal" title="Facebook–Cambridge Analytica data scandal">Facebook–Cambridge Analytica data scandal</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Criticism_of_Netflix" title="Criticism of Netflix">Criticism of Netflix</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cultural_impact_of_TikTok" title="Cultural impact of TikTok">Cultural impact of TikTok</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Digital_media_use_and_mental_health" title="Digital media use and mental health">Digital media use and mental health</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Effects_of_violence_in_mass_media" title="Effects of violence in mass media">Effects of violence in mass media</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fascination_with_death" title="Fascination with death">Fascination with death</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Griefer" title="Griefer">Griefer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mass_shooting_contagion" title="Mass shooting contagion">Mass shooting contagion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Psychological_effects_of_Internet_use" title="Psychological effects of Internet use">Psychological effects of Internet use</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sealioning" title="Sealioning">Sealioning</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_aspects_of_television" title="Social aspects of television">Social aspects of television</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_bot" title="Social bot">Social bot</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_impact_of_YouTube" title="Social impact of YouTube">Social impact of YouTube</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Technophilia" title="Technophilia">Technophilia</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Neophile" title="Neophile">Neophile</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Technophobia" title="Technophobia">Technophobia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Violence_and_video_games" title="Violence and video games">Violence and video games</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div>    </div><noscript><img src="https://login.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:CentralAutoLogin/start?type=1x1" alt="" width="1" height="1" style="border: none; position: absolute;"></noscript> <div class="printfooter" data-nosnippet="">Retrieved from "<a dir="ltr" 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