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<li id="toc-First_Partition" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#First_Partition"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.1</span> <span>First Partition</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-First_Partition-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Second_Partition" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Second_Partition"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.2</span> <span>Second Partition</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Second_Partition-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Third_Partition" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Third_Partition"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.3</span> <span>Third Partition</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Third_Partition-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Aftermath" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Aftermath"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2</span> <span>Aftermath</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Aftermath-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Fourth_Partition" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Fourth_Partition"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3</span> <span>Fourth Partition</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Fourth_Partition-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Reasons,_legality_and_justifications" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Reasons,_legality_and_justifications"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> <span>Reasons, legality and justifications</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Reasons,_legality_and_justifications-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Legacy" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Legacy"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>Legacy</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Legacy-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6</span> <span>See also</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Notes" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Notes"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7</span> <span>Notes</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Notes-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8</span> <span>References</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Further_reading" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Further_reading"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9</span> <span>Further reading</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Further_reading-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">10</span> <span>External links</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-listBullet mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-listBullet"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Toggle the table of contents</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading"><span class="mw-page-title-main">Partitions of Poland</span></h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. Available in 61 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-61" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-language-progressive mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-language-progressive"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">61 languages</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-als mw-list-item"><a href="https://als.wikipedia.org/wiki/Teilungen_Polens" title="Teilungen Polens – Alemannic" lang="gsw" hreflang="gsw" data-title="Teilungen Polens" data-language-autonym="Alemannisch" data-language-local-name="Alemannic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Alemannisch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AA%D9%82%D8%A7%D8%B3%D9%85_%D8%A8%D9%88%D9%84%D9%86%D8%AF%D8%A7" title="تقاسم بولندا – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="تقاسم بولندا" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>العربية</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ast mw-list-item"><a href="https://ast.wikipedia.org/wiki/Particiones_de_Polonia" title="Particiones de Polonia – Asturian" lang="ast" hreflang="ast" data-title="Particiones de Polonia" data-language-autonym="Asturianu" data-language-local-name="Asturian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Asturianu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-az mw-list-item"><a href="https://az.wikipedia.org/wiki/Re%C3%A7_Pospolitan%C4%B1n_b%C3%B6l%C3%BC%C5%9Fd%C3%BCr%C3%BClm%C9%99si" title="Reç Pospolitanın bölüşdürülməsi – Azerbaijani" lang="az" hreflang="az" data-title="Reç Pospolitanın bölüşdürülməsi" data-language-autonym="Azərbaycanca" data-language-local-name="Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Azərbaycanca</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-min-nan mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh-min-nan.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pho-l%C3%A2n_%C3%AA_Hun-koah" title="Pho-lân ê Hun-koah – Minnan" lang="nan" hreflang="nan" data-title="Pho-lân ê Hun-koah" data-language-autonym="閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gú" data-language-local-name="Minnan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gú</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be mw-list-item"><a href="https://be.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9F%D0%B0%D0%B4%D0%B7%D0%B5%D0%BB%D1%8B_%D0%A0%D1%8D%D1%87%D1%8B_%D0%9F%D0%B0%D1%81%D0%BF%D0%B0%D0%BB%D1%96%D1%82%D0%B0%D0%B9" title="Падзелы Рэчы Паспалітай – Belarusian" lang="be" hreflang="be" data-title="Падзелы Рэчы Паспалітай" data-language-autonym="Беларуская" data-language-local-name="Belarusian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Беларуская</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be-x-old mw-list-item"><a href="https://be-tarask.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9F%D0%B0%D0%B4%D0%B7%D0%B5%D0%BB%D1%8B_%D0%A0%D1%8D%D1%87%D1%8B_%D0%9F%D0%B0%D1%81%D0%BF%D0%B0%D0%BB%D1%96%D1%82%D0%B0%D0%B9" title="Падзелы Рэчы Паспалітай – Belarusian (Taraškievica orthography)" lang="be-tarask" hreflang="be-tarask" data-title="Падзелы Рэчы Паспалітай" data-language-autonym="Беларуская (тарашкевіца)" data-language-local-name="Belarusian (Taraškievica orthography)" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Беларуская (тарашкевіца)</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bg mw-list-item"><a href="https://bg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9F%D0%BE%D0%B4%D0%B5%D0%BB%D0%B1%D0%B8_%D0%BD%D0%B0_%D0%9F%D0%BE%D0%BB%D1%88%D0%B0" title="Поделби на Полша – Bulgarian" lang="bg" hreflang="bg" data-title="Поделби на Полша" data-language-autonym="Български" data-language-local-name="Bulgarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Български</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Repartiment_de_Pol%C3%B2nia" title="Repartiment de Polònia – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Repartiment de Polònia" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Català</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs mw-list-item"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/D%C4%9Blen%C3%AD_Polska" title="Dělení Polska – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="Dělení Polska" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="Czech" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Čeština</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-da mw-list-item"><a href="https://da.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polens_tre_delinger" title="Polens tre delinger – Danish" lang="da" hreflang="da" data-title="Polens tre delinger" data-language-autonym="Dansk" data-language-local-name="Danish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Dansk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de badge-Q17437796 badge-featuredarticle mw-list-item" title="featured article badge"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Teilungen_Polens" title="Teilungen Polens – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Teilungen Polens" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Deutsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-et mw-list-item"><a href="https://et.wikipedia.org/wiki/Poola_jagamised" title="Poola jagamised – Estonian" lang="et" hreflang="et" data-title="Poola jagamised" data-language-autonym="Eesti" data-language-local-name="Estonian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Eesti</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-el mw-list-item"><a href="https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%94%CE%B9%CE%B1%CE%BC%CE%B5%CE%BB%CE%B9%CF%83%CE%BC%CE%BF%CE%AF_%CF%84%CE%B7%CF%82_%CE%A0%CE%BF%CE%BB%CF%89%CE%BD%CE%AF%CE%B1%CF%82" title="Διαμελισμοί της Πολωνίας – Greek" lang="el" hreflang="el" data-title="Διαμελισμοί της Πολωνίας" data-language-autonym="Ελληνικά" data-language-local-name="Greek" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ελληνικά</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Particiones_de_Polonia" title="Particiones de Polonia – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Particiones de Polonia" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Español</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eo mw-list-item"><a href="https://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dispartigoj_de_Pollando-Litovio" title="Dispartigoj de Pollando-Litovio – Esperanto" lang="eo" hreflang="eo" data-title="Dispartigoj de Pollando-Litovio" data-language-autonym="Esperanto" data-language-local-name="Esperanto" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Esperanto</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eu mw-list-item"><a href="https://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Poloniaren_banaketak" title="Poloniaren banaketak – Basque" lang="eu" hreflang="eu" data-title="Poloniaren banaketak" data-language-autonym="Euskara" data-language-local-name="Basque" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Euskara</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AA%D8%AC%D8%B2%DB%8C%D9%87_%D9%84%D9%87%D8%B3%D8%AA%D8%A7%D9%86" title="تجزیه لهستان – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="تجزیه لهستان" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>فارسی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Partages_de_la_Pologne" title="Partages de la Pologne – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Partages de la Pologne" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Français</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ga mw-list-item"><a href="https://ga.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cr%C3%ADochdheighilt%C3%AD_na_Polainne" title="Críochdheighiltí na Polainne – Irish" lang="ga" hreflang="ga" data-title="Críochdheighiltí na Polainne" data-language-autonym="Gaeilge" data-language-local-name="Irish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Gaeilge</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gl mw-list-item"><a href="https://gl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Partici%C3%B3ns_de_Polonia" title="Particións de Polonia – Galician" lang="gl" hreflang="gl" data-title="Particións de Polonia" data-language-autonym="Galego" data-language-local-name="Galician" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Galego</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%ED%8F%B4%EB%9E%80%EB%93%9C_%EB%B6%84%ED%95%A0" title="폴란드 분할 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="폴란드 분할" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>한국어</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hy mw-list-item"><a href="https://hy.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D4%BC%D5%A5%D5%B0%D5%A1%D5%BD%D5%BF%D5%A1%D5%B6%D5%AB_%D5%A2%D5%A1%D5%AA%D5%A1%D5%B6%D5%B8%D6%82%D5%B4%D5%B6%D5%A5%D6%80" title="Լեհաստանի բաժանումներ – Armenian" lang="hy" hreflang="hy" data-title="Լեհաստանի բաժանումներ" data-language-autonym="Հայերեն" data-language-local-name="Armenian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Հայերեն</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hr mw-list-item"><a href="https://hr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tri_podjele_Poljske" title="Tri podjele Poljske – Croatian" lang="hr" hreflang="hr" data-title="Tri podjele Poljske" data-language-autonym="Hrvatski" data-language-local-name="Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Hrvatski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-io mw-list-item"><a href="https://io.wikipedia.org/wiki/Partigi_di_Polonia-Lituania" title="Partigi di Polonia-Lituania – Ido" lang="io" hreflang="io" data-title="Partigi di Polonia-Lituania" data-language-autonym="Ido" data-language-local-name="Ido" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ido</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pemisahan_Polandia" title="Pemisahan Polandia – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Pemisahan Polandia" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Indonesia</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-is mw-list-item"><a href="https://is.wikipedia.org/wiki/Skiptingar_P%C3%B3llands" title="Skiptingar Póllands – Icelandic" lang="is" hreflang="is" data-title="Skiptingar Póllands" data-language-autonym="Íslenska" data-language-local-name="Icelandic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Íslenska</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spartizioni_della_Polonia" title="Spartizioni della Polonia – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Spartizioni della Polonia" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Italiano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he mw-list-item"><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%97%D7%9C%D7%95%D7%A7%D7%AA_%D7%A4%D7%95%D7%9C%D7%99%D7%9F" title="חלוקת פולין – Hebrew" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="חלוקת פולין" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="Hebrew" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>עברית</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ka mw-list-item"><a href="https://ka.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%9E%E1%83%9D%E1%83%9A%E1%83%9D%E1%83%9C%E1%83%94%E1%83%97%E1%83%98%E1%83%A1_%E1%83%93%E1%83%90%E1%83%9C%E1%83%90%E1%83%AC%E1%83%98%E1%83%9A%E1%83%94%E1%83%91%E1%83%90" title="პოლონეთის დანაწილება – Georgian" lang="ka" hreflang="ka" data-title="პოლონეთის დანაწილება" data-language-autonym="ქართული" data-language-local-name="Georgian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ქართული</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-la mw-list-item"><a href="https://la.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polonia_ter_divisa" title="Polonia ter divisa – Latin" lang="la" hreflang="la" data-title="Polonia ter divisa" data-language-autonym="Latina" data-language-local-name="Latin" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Latina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lv mw-list-item"><a href="https://lv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polijas%E2%80%94Lietuvas_kopvalsts_dal%C4%AB%C5%A1anas" title="Polijas—Lietuvas kopvalsts dalīšanas – Latvian" lang="lv" hreflang="lv" data-title="Polijas—Lietuvas kopvalsts dalīšanas" data-language-autonym="Latviešu" data-language-local-name="Latvian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Latviešu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lt mw-list-item"><a href="https://lt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abiej%C5%B3_Taut%C5%B3_Respublikos_padalijimai" title="Abiejų Tautų Respublikos padalijimai – Lithuanian" lang="lt" hreflang="lt" data-title="Abiejų Tautų Respublikos padalijimai" data-language-autonym="Lietuvių" data-language-local-name="Lithuanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Lietuvių</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hu mw-list-item"><a href="https://hu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lengyelorsz%C3%A1g_h%C3%A1rom_feloszt%C3%A1sa" title="Lengyelország három felosztása – Hungarian" lang="hu" hreflang="hu" data-title="Lengyelország három felosztása" data-language-autonym="Magyar" data-language-local-name="Hungarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Magyar</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ms mw-list-item"><a href="https://ms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pembahagian_Poland" title="Pembahagian Poland – Malay" lang="ms" hreflang="ms" data-title="Pembahagian Poland" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Melayu" data-language-local-name="Malay" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Melayu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Poolse_Delingen" title="Poolse Delingen – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Poolse Delingen" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Nederlands</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E3%83%9D%E3%83%BC%E3%83%A9%E3%83%B3%E3%83%89%E5%88%86%E5%89%B2" title="ポーランド分割 – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="ポーランド分割" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>日本語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-no mw-list-item"><a href="https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polen-Litauens_tre_delinger" title="Polen-Litauens tre delinger – Norwegian Bokmål" lang="nb" hreflang="nb" data-title="Polen-Litauens tre delinger" data-language-autonym="Norsk bokmål" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Bokmål" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk bokmål</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pnb mw-list-item"><a href="https://pnb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%BE%D9%88%D9%84%DB%8C%D9%86%DA%88_%D8%AF%DB%8C%D8%A7%DA%BA_%D9%88%D9%86%DA%88%D8%A7%DA%BA" title="پولینڈ دیاں ونڈاں – Western Punjabi" lang="pnb" hreflang="pnb" data-title="پولینڈ دیاں ونڈاں" data-language-autonym="پنجابی" data-language-local-name="Western Punjabi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>پنجابی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rozbiory_Polski" title="Rozbiory Polski – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="Rozbiory Polski" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Polish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Polski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Partilhas_da_Pol%C3%B4nia" title="Partilhas da Polônia – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Partilhas da Polônia" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Português</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ro mw-list-item"><a href="https://ro.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C3%8Emp%C4%83r%C8%9Birile_Poloniei" title="Împărțirile Poloniei – Romanian" lang="ro" hreflang="ro" data-title="Împărțirile Poloniei" data-language-autonym="Română" data-language-local-name="Romanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Română</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A0%D0%B0%D0%B7%D0%B4%D0%B5%D0%BB%D1%8B_%D0%A0%D0%B5%D1%87%D0%B8_%D0%9F%D0%BE%D1%81%D0%BF%D0%BE%D0%BB%D0%B8%D1%82%D0%BE%D0%B9" title="Разделы Речи Посполитой – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Разделы Речи Посполитой" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Русский</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sq mw-list-item"><a href="https://sq.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ndarjet_e_Polonis%C3%AB" title="Ndarjet e Polonisë – Albanian" lang="sq" hreflang="sq" data-title="Ndarjet e Polonisë" data-language-autonym="Shqip" data-language-local-name="Albanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Shqip</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-simple mw-list-item"><a href="https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Partitions_of_Poland" title="Partitions of Poland – Simple English" lang="en-simple" hreflang="en-simple" data-title="Partitions of Poland" data-language-autonym="Simple English" data-language-local-name="Simple English" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Simple English</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sk mw-list-item"><a href="https://sk.wikipedia.org/wiki/Delenia_Po%C4%BEska" title="Delenia Poľska – Slovak" lang="sk" hreflang="sk" data-title="Delenia Poľska" data-language-autonym="Slovenčina" data-language-local-name="Slovak" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Slovenčina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sl mw-list-item"><a href="https://sl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Delitve_Poljske" title="Delitve Poljske – Slovenian" lang="sl" hreflang="sl" data-title="Delitve Poljske" data-language-autonym="Slovenščina" data-language-local-name="Slovenian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Slovenščina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-szl mw-list-item"><a href="https://szl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Potajlowanie_Rzeczpospolityj_%C3%94b%C5%8Dch_Nacyj%C5%8Dw" title="Potajlowanie Rzeczpospolityj Ôbōch Nacyjōw – Silesian" lang="szl" hreflang="szl" data-title="Potajlowanie Rzeczpospolityj Ôbōch Nacyjōw" data-language-autonym="Ślůnski" data-language-local-name="Silesian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ślůnski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sr mw-list-item"><a href="https://sr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9F%D0%BE%D0%B4%D1%98%D0%B5%D0%BB%D0%B5_%D0%9F%D0%BE%D1%99%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B5" title="Подјеле Пољске – Serbian" lang="sr" hreflang="sr" data-title="Подјеле Пољске" data-language-autonym="Српски / srpski" data-language-local-name="Serbian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Српски / srpski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sh mw-list-item"><a href="https://sh.wikipedia.org/wiki/Podjela_Poljske" title="Podjela Poljske – Serbo-Croatian" lang="sh" hreflang="sh" data-title="Podjela Poljske" data-language-autonym="Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски" data-language-local-name="Serbo-Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fi mw-list-item"><a href="https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Puolan_jaot" title="Puolan jaot – Finnish" lang="fi" hreflang="fi" data-title="Puolan jaot" data-language-autonym="Suomi" data-language-local-name="Finnish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Suomi</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sv mw-list-item"><a href="https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polens_delningar" title="Polens delningar – Swedish" lang="sv" hreflang="sv" data-title="Polens delningar" data-language-autonym="Svenska" data-language-local-name="Swedish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Svenska</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-th mw-list-item"><a href="https://th.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B8%81%E0%B8%B2%E0%B8%A3%E0%B9%81%E0%B8%9A%E0%B9%88%E0%B8%87%E0%B9%82%E0%B8%9B%E0%B9%81%E0%B8%A5%E0%B8%99%E0%B8%94%E0%B9%8C" title="การแบ่งโปแลนด์ – Thai" lang="th" hreflang="th" data-title="การแบ่งโปแลนด์" data-language-autonym="ไทย" data-language-local-name="Thai" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ไทย</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tr mw-list-item"><a href="https://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polonya%27n%C4%B1n_par%C3%A7alanmas%C4%B1" title="Polonya'nın parçalanması – Turkish" lang="tr" hreflang="tr" data-title="Polonya'nın parçalanması" data-language-autonym="Türkçe" data-language-local-name="Turkish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Türkçe</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uk mw-list-item"><a href="https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9F%D0%BE%D0%B4%D1%96%D0%BB%D0%B8_%D0%A0%D0%B5%D1%87%D1%96_%D0%9F%D0%BE%D1%81%D0%BF%D0%BE%D0%BB%D0%B8%D1%82%D0%BE%D1%97" title="Поділи Речі Посполитої – Ukrainian" lang="uk" hreflang="uk" data-title="Поділи Речі Посполитої" data-language-autonym="Українська" data-language-local-name="Ukrainian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Українська</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ur mw-list-item"><a href="https://ur.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%BE%D9%88%D9%84%DB%8C%D9%86%DA%88_%DA%A9%DB%8C_%D8%AA%D9%82%D8%B3%DB%8C%D9%85%D8%A7%D8%AA" title="پولینڈ کی تقسیمات – Urdu" lang="ur" hreflang="ur" data-title="پولینڈ کی تقسیمات" data-language-autonym="اردو" data-language-local-name="Urdu" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>اردو</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vi mw-list-item"><a href="https://vi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ph%C3%A2n_chia_Ba_Lan" title="Phân chia Ba Lan – Vietnamese" lang="vi" hreflang="vi" data-title="Phân chia Ba Lan" data-language-autonym="Tiếng Việt" data-language-local-name="Vietnamese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Tiếng Việt</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fiu-vro mw-list-item"><a href="https://fiu-vro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Poola_jagamis%C3%B5q" title="Poola jagamisõq – Võro" lang="vro" hreflang="vro" data-title="Poola jagamisõq" data-language-autonym="Võro" data-language-local-name="Võro" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Võro</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-war mw-list-item"><a href="https://war.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pagbahin_han_Polonya" title="Pagbahin han Polonya – Waray" lang="war" hreflang="war" data-title="Pagbahin han Polonya" data-language-autonym="Winaray" data-language-local-name="Waray" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Winaray</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-yue mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh-yue.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E7%93%9C%E5%88%86%E6%B3%A2%E8%98%AD" title="瓜分波蘭 – Cantonese" lang="yue" hreflang="yue" data-title="瓜分波蘭" data-language-autonym="粵語" data-language-local-name="Cantonese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>粵語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link 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data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">"Fourth Partition" redirects here. For the 2013 documentary film, see <a href="/wiki/Fourth_Partition_(film)" title="Fourth Partition (film)">Fourth Partition (film)</a>.</div> <p class="mw-empty-elt"> </p> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1257001546">.mw-parser-output .infobox-subbox{padding:0;border:none;margin:-3px;width:auto;min-width:100%;font-size:100%;clear:none;float:none;background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .infobox-3cols-child{margin:auto}.mw-parser-output .infobox .navbar{font-size:100%}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data:not(.notheme)>div:not(.notheme)[style]{background:#1f1f23!important;color:#f8f9fa}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data:not(.notheme) div:not(.notheme){background:#1f1f23!important;color:#f8f9fa}}@media(min-width:640px){body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table{display:table!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table>caption{display:table-caption!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table>tbody{display:table-row-group}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table tr{display:table-row!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table th,body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table td{padding-left:inherit;padding-right:inherit}}</style><table class="infobox"><tbody><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-above">Partitions of Poland</th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-image"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Polish-Lithuanian_Commonwealth_in_1772.PNG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b0/Polish-Lithuanian_Commonwealth_in_1772.PNG/280px-Polish-Lithuanian_Commonwealth_in_1772.PNG" decoding="async" width="280" height="229" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b0/Polish-Lithuanian_Commonwealth_in_1772.PNG/420px-Polish-Lithuanian_Commonwealth_in_1772.PNG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b0/Polish-Lithuanian_Commonwealth_in_1772.PNG/560px-Polish-Lithuanian_Commonwealth_in_1772.PNG 2x" data-file-width="1894" data-file-height="1552" /></a></span><div class="infobox-caption">The <a href="/wiki/Polish%E2%80%93Lithuanian_Commonwealth" title="Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth">Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth</a> in 1772</div></td></tr><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1257001546"></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-subheader" style="background:#cbd7ff;"><b>Partitions</b></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-image"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Rzeczpospolita_Rozbiory_3.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/30/Rzeczpospolita_Rozbiory_3.png/280px-Rzeczpospolita_Rozbiory_3.png" decoding="async" width="280" height="230" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/30/Rzeczpospolita_Rozbiory_3.png/420px-Rzeczpospolita_Rozbiory_3.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/30/Rzeczpospolita_Rozbiory_3.png/560px-Rzeczpospolita_Rozbiory_3.png 2x" data-file-width="1906" data-file-height="1568" /></a></span><div class="infobox-caption">The three partitions of Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth: the <a href="/wiki/Russian_Partition" title="Russian Partition">Russian Partition</a> (brown), the <a href="/wiki/Austrian_Partition" title="Austrian Partition">Austrian Partition</a> (green), and the <a href="/wiki/Prussian_Partition" title="Prussian Partition">Prussian Partition</a> (blue)</div></td></tr><tr style="display:none"><th colspan="2"> </th></tr></tbody></table> <p>The <b>Partitions of Poland</b><sup id="cite_ref-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>a<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> were three <a href="/wiki/Partition_(politics)" title="Partition (politics)">partitions</a> of the <a href="/wiki/Polish%E2%80%93Lithuanian_Commonwealth" title="Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth">Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth</a> that took place toward the end of the 18th century and ended the existence of the state, resulting in the elimination of sovereign <a href="/wiki/Poland" title="Poland">Poland</a> and <a href="/wiki/Lithuania" title="Lithuania">Lithuania</a> for 123 years. The partitions were conducted by the <a href="/wiki/Habsburg_monarchy" title="Habsburg monarchy">Habsburg monarchy</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Prussia" title="Kingdom of Prussia">Kingdom of Prussia</a>, and the <a href="/wiki/Russian_Empire" title="Russian Empire">Russian Empire</a>, which divided up the Commonwealth lands among themselves progressively in the process of territorial seizures and annexations.<sup id="cite_ref-Brit_2-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Brit-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The <a href="/wiki/First_Partition_of_Poland" title="First Partition of Poland">First Partition</a> was decided on August 5, 1772, after the <a href="/wiki/Bar_Confederation" title="Bar Confederation">Bar Confederation</a> lost the war with Russia. The <a href="/wiki/Second_Partition_of_Poland" title="Second Partition of Poland">Second Partition</a> occurred in the aftermath of the <a href="/wiki/Polish%E2%80%93Russian_War_of_1792" title="Polish–Russian War of 1792">Polish–Russian War of 1792</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Targowica_Confederation" title="Targowica Confederation">Targowica Confederation</a> when Russian and Prussian troops entered the Commonwealth and the partition treaty was signed during the <a href="/wiki/Grodno_Sejm" title="Grodno Sejm">Grodno Sejm</a> on January 23, 1793 (without Austria). The <a href="/wiki/Third_Partition_of_Poland" title="Third Partition of Poland">Third Partition</a> took place on October 24, 1795, in reaction to the unsuccessful Polish <a href="/wiki/Ko%C5%9Bciuszko_Uprising" title="Kościuszko Uprising">Kościuszko Uprising</a> the previous year. With this partition, the Commonwealth <a href="/wiki/Dissolution_(politics)" title="Dissolution (politics)">ceased to exist</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Brit_2-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Brit-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In English, the term "Partitions of Poland" is sometimes used geographically as <a href="/wiki/Toponymy" title="Toponymy">toponymy</a>, to mean the three parts that the partitioning powers divided the Commonwealth into, namely: the <a href="/wiki/Austrian_Partition" title="Austrian Partition">Austrian Partition</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Prussian_Partition" title="Prussian Partition">Prussian Partition</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Russian_Partition" title="Russian Partition">Russian Partition</a>. In Polish, there are two separate words for the two meanings. The consecutive acts of dividing and <a href="/wiki/Annexation" title="Annexation">annexation</a> of Poland are referred to as <i><span title="Polish-language text"><i lang="pl">rozbiór</i></span></i> (plural: <i><span title="Polish-language text"><i lang="pl">rozbiory</i></span></i>), while the term <i><span title="Polish-language text"><i lang="pl">zabór</i></span></i> (plural: <i><span title="Polish-language text"><i lang="pl">zabory</i></span></i>) refers to parts of the Commonwealth that were annexed in 1772–1795 and which became part of Imperial Russia, Prussia, or Austria. Following the <a href="/wiki/Congress_of_Vienna" title="Congress of Vienna">Congress of Vienna</a> in 1815, the borders of the three partitioned sectors were redrawn; the Austrians established <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Galicia_and_Lodomeria" title="Kingdom of Galicia and Lodomeria">Galicia</a> in the Austrian partition, whereas the Russians gained <a href="/wiki/Warsaw" title="Warsaw">Warsaw</a> from Prussia and formed an autonomous <a href="/wiki/Polity" title="Polity">polity</a> known as <a href="/wiki/Congress_Poland" title="Congress Poland">Congress Poland</a> in the Russian partition. </p><p>In Polish historiography, the term <a href="#Fourth_Partition">"Fourth Partition of Poland"</a> has also been used, in reference to any subsequent annexation of Polish lands by foreign invaders. Depending on source and historical period, this could mean the events of <a href="/wiki/Congress_of_Vienna" title="Congress of Vienna">1815</a>, or <a href="/wiki/Organic_Statute_of_the_Kingdom_of_Poland" title="Organic Statute of the Kingdom of Poland">1832</a> and <a href="/wiki/Krak%C3%B3w_uprising" title="Kraków uprising">1846</a>, or <a href="/wiki/Molotov%E2%80%93Ribbentrop_Pact" title="Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact">1939</a>. The term "Fourth Partition" in a temporal sense can also mean the diaspora communities that played an important political role in re-establishing the Polish sovereign state after 1918. </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="History">History</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Partitions_of_Poland&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: History"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Allegory_of_the_1st_partition_of_Poland_crop.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a7/Allegory_of_the_1st_partition_of_Poland_crop.jpg/220px-Allegory_of_the_1st_partition_of_Poland_crop.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="146" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a7/Allegory_of_the_1st_partition_of_Poland_crop.jpg/330px-Allegory_of_the_1st_partition_of_Poland_crop.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a7/Allegory_of_the_1st_partition_of_Poland_crop.jpg/440px-Allegory_of_the_1st_partition_of_Poland_crop.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2250" data-file-height="1494" /></a><figcaption>Allegory of the <a href="/wiki/First_Partition_of_Poland" title="First Partition of Poland">first partition of Poland</a>, showing <a href="/wiki/Catherine_the_Great" title="Catherine the Great">Catherine the Great</a> of Russia (left), <a href="/wiki/Joseph_II,_Holy_Roman_Emperor" title="Joseph II, Holy Roman Emperor">Joseph II of Austria</a> (middle) and <a href="/wiki/Frederick_the_Great" title="Frederick the Great">Frederick the Great</a> of Prussia (right) quarrelling over their territorial seizures</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Alegoria_Umarlej_Polski.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/84/Alegoria_Umarlej_Polski.jpg/220px-Alegoria_Umarlej_Polski.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="109" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/84/Alegoria_Umarlej_Polski.jpg/330px-Alegoria_Umarlej_Polski.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/84/Alegoria_Umarlej_Polski.jpg/440px-Alegoria_Umarlej_Polski.jpg 2x" data-file-width="800" data-file-height="396" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/W%C5%82odzimierz_Tetmajer" title="Włodzimierz Tetmajer">Włodzimierz Tetmajer</a>, <i>Allegory of Dead Poland</i>, St. Nicholas Cathedral, <a href="/wiki/Kalisz" title="Kalisz">Kalisz</a></figcaption></figure> <p>During the reign of <a href="/wiki/W%C5%82adys%C5%82aw_IV_Vasa" title="Władysław IV Vasa">Władysław IV</a> (1632–1648), the <span title="Latin-language text"><i lang="la"><a href="/wiki/Liberum_veto" title="Liberum veto">liberum veto</a></i></span> was developed, a policy of parliamentary procedure based on the assumption of the political equality of every "<a href="/wiki/Szlachta" title="Szlachta">gentleman/Polish nobleman</a>", with the corollary that unanimous consent was needed for all measures.<sup id="cite_ref-Brit_2-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Brit-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> A single member of parliament's belief that a measure was injurious to his own constituency (usually simply his own estate), even after the act had been approved, became enough to strike the act. Thus it became increasingly difficult to undertake action. The <span title="Latin-language text"><i lang="la">liberum veto</i></span> also provided openings for foreign diplomats to get their ways, through bribing nobles to exercise it.<sup id="cite_ref-Brit_2-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Brit-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Thus, one could characterise Poland–Lithuania in its final period (mid-18th century) before the partitions as already in a state of disorder and not a completely sovereign state, and almost as a <a href="/wiki/Vassal_state" title="Vassal state">vassal state</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-Scott_6-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Scott-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> with Polish kings effectively chosen in diplomatic maneuvers between the great powers Prussia, Austria, Russia, and France.<sup id="cite_ref-Corwin_7-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Corwin-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This applies particularly to the last Commonwealth King <a href="/wiki/Stanis%C5%82aw_August_Poniatowski" title="Stanisław August Poniatowski">Stanisław August Poniatowski</a>, who for some time had been a lover of Russian Empress <a href="/wiki/Catherine_the_Great" title="Catherine the Great">Catherine the Great</a>. </p><p>In 1730, the neighbors of the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth (<span title="Polish-language text"><i lang="pl"><a href="/wiki/Rzeczpospolita" title="Rzeczpospolita">Rzeczpospolita</a></i></span>), namely Prussia, Austria and Russia, signed a secret agreement to maintain the <span title="Latin-language text"><i lang="la">status quo</i></span>: specifically, to ensure that the Commonwealth laws would not change. Their alliance later became known in Poland as the "<a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_the_Three_Black_Eagles" title="Treaty of the Three Black Eagles">Alliance of the Three Black Eagles</a>" (or <i><span title="German-language text"><i lang="de">Löwenwolde</i></span>'s Treaty</i>), because all three states used a black eagle as a state symbol (in contrast to the <a href="/wiki/Coat_of_arms_of_Poland" title="Coat of arms of Poland">white eagle</a>, a symbol of Poland). The Commonwealth had been forced to rely on Russia for protection against the rising <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Prussia" title="Kingdom of Prussia">Kingdom of Prussia</a>, which demanded a slice of the northwest in order to unite its Western and Eastern portions; this would leave the Commonwealth with a <a href="/wiki/Baltic_Sea" title="Baltic Sea">Baltic</a> coast only in <a href="/wiki/Latvia" title="Latvia">Latvia</a> and <a href="/wiki/Lithuania" title="Lithuania">Lithuania</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Brit_2-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Brit-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Catherine had to use diplomacy to win Austria to her side. </p><p>The Commonwealth had remained neutral in the <a href="/wiki/Seven_Years%27_War" title="Seven Years' War">Seven Years' War</a> (1756–1763), yet it sympathized with the alliance of France, <a href="/wiki/Habsburg_monarchy" title="Habsburg monarchy">Austria</a>, and Russia, and allowed Russian troops access to its western lands as bases against Prussia. <a href="/wiki/Frederick_the_Great" title="Frederick the Great">Frederick II</a> retaliated by ordering enough Polish currency counterfeited to severely affect the Polish economy. Through the <a href="/wiki/Szlachta" title="Szlachta">Polish nobles</a> whom Russia controlled and the Russian Minister to Warsaw, ambassador and Prince <a href="/wiki/Nicholas_Repnin" class="mw-redirect" title="Nicholas Repnin">Nicholas Repnin</a>, Empress Catherine the Great forced a constitution on the Commonwealth at the so-called <a href="/wiki/Repnin_Sejm" title="Repnin Sejm">Repnin Sejm</a> of 1767, named after ambassador Repnin, who effectively dictated the terms of that Sejm (and ordered the capture and exile to <a href="/wiki/Kaluga" title="Kaluga">Kaluga</a> of some vocal opponents of his policies,<sup id="cite_ref-Scott_6-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Scott-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Steed,_8-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Steed,-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Seton-Watson_9-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Seton-Watson-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> including bishop <a href="/wiki/J%C3%B3zef_Andrzej_Za%C5%82uski" title="Józef Andrzej Załuski">Józef Andrzej Załuski</a><sup id="cite_ref-Cas_10-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Cas-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and others). This new constitution undid the reforms made in 1764 under <a href="/wiki/Stanis%C5%82aw_August_Poniatowski" title="Stanisław August Poniatowski">Stanisław II</a>. The <span title="Latin-language text"><i lang="la">liberum veto</i></span> and all the old abuses of the last one and a half centuries were guaranteed as unalterable parts of this new constitution (in the so-called <i><a href="/wiki/Cardinal_Laws" title="Cardinal Laws">Cardinal Laws</a></i><sup id="cite_ref-Seton-Watson_9-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Seton-Watson-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-RB_11-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-RB-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>). Repnin also demanded the Russian protection of the rights of peasants in private estates of Polish and Lithuanian noblemen, religious freedom for the Protestant and <a href="/wiki/Eastern_Orthodox_Church" title="Eastern Orthodox Church">Orthodox Christians</a> and the political freedoms for Protestants, Orthodox Christians and <a href="/wiki/Eastern_Catholics" class="mw-redirect" title="Eastern Catholics">Eastern Catholics</a> (Uniates), including their right to occupy all state positions, including a royal one. The next king could be a member of the Russian ruling dynasty now. The Sejm approved this. Resulting reaction among some of Poland's Roman Catholics, as well as the deep resentment of Russian intervention in the Commonwealth's domestic affairs including the exile to Russia of the top Roman Catholic bishops, the members of the Polish Senate, led to the War of the <a href="/wiki/Bar_Confederation" title="Bar Confederation">Confederation of Bar</a> of 1768–1772, formed in <a href="/wiki/Bar,_Ukraine" title="Bar, Ukraine">Bar</a>, where the Poles tried to expel Russian forces from Commonwealth territory.<sup id="cite_ref-Scott_6-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Scott-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Seton-Watson_9-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Seton-Watson-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The irregular and poorly commanded Polish forces had little chance in the face of the regular Russian army and suffered a major defeat. Adding to the chaos was a <a href="/wiki/Ukraine" title="Ukraine">Ukrainian</a> <a href="/wiki/Cossacks" title="Cossacks">Cossack</a> and peasant rebellion in the east (<a href="/wiki/Koliyivshchyna" class="mw-redirect" title="Koliyivshchyna">Koliyivshchyna</a>), which erupted in 1768 and resulted in massacres of <a href="/wiki/Szlachta" title="Szlachta">Polish noblemen</a> (<span title="Polish-language text"><i lang="pl">szlachta</i></span>), Jews, <a href="/wiki/Eastern_Catholic_Churches" title="Eastern Catholic Churches">Uniates</a>, ethnic minorities and Catholic priests, before it was put down by Russian and governmental Polish troops. This uprising led to the intervention of the Ottoman Empire, supported by Roman Catholic France and Austria. Bar confederation and France promised <a href="/wiki/Podolia" title="Podolia">Podolia</a> and <a href="/wiki/Volhynia" title="Volhynia">Volhynia</a> and the protectorate over the Commonwealth to the <a href="/wiki/Ottoman_Empire" title="Ottoman Empire">Ottoman Empire</a> for armed support. </p><p>In 1769, the <a href="/wiki/Habsburg_monarchy" title="Habsburg monarchy">Habsburg monarchy</a> annexed a small territory of <a href="/wiki/Spi%C5%A1" title="Spiš">Spisz</a> and in 1770 it annexed <a href="/wiki/Nowy_S%C4%85cz" title="Nowy Sącz">Nowy Sącz</a> and <a href="/wiki/Nowy_Targ" title="Nowy Targ">Nowy Targ</a>. These territories had been a bone of contention between Poland and <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Hungary" title="Kingdom of Hungary">Hungary</a>, which was a part of the Monarchy. Nevertheless, the Ottoman Empire, the Bar confederation and its French and European volunteers were defeated by Russian forces and Polish governmental ones with the aid of Great Britain. As Russia moved into the Crimea and the Danubian Principalities (which the Habsburg monarchy long coveted), King Frederick II of Prussia and Maria Theresa were worried that the defeat of the Ottoman Empire would severely upset the balance of power in Eastern Europe. Frederick II began to construct the partition to rebalance the power in Eastern Europe. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="First_Partition">First Partition</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Partitions_of_Poland&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: First Partition"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/First_Partition_of_Poland" title="First Partition of Poland">First Partition of Poland</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Polish-Lithuanian_Commonwealth_1773-1789.PNG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/58/Polish-Lithuanian_Commonwealth_1773-1789.PNG/310px-Polish-Lithuanian_Commonwealth_1773-1789.PNG" decoding="async" width="310" height="253" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/58/Polish-Lithuanian_Commonwealth_1773-1789.PNG/465px-Polish-Lithuanian_Commonwealth_1773-1789.PNG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/58/Polish-Lithuanian_Commonwealth_1773-1789.PNG/620px-Polish-Lithuanian_Commonwealth_1773-1789.PNG 2x" data-file-width="1903" data-file-height="1554" /></a><figcaption>The Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth after the First Partition, as a protectorate of the Russian Empire (1773–1789)</figcaption></figure> <p>In February 1772, the agreement of partition was signed in <a href="/wiki/Vienna" title="Vienna">Vienna</a>. Early in August, Russian, Prussian and Austrian troops occupied the provinces agreed upon among themselves. However, fighting continued as Bar confederation troops and French volunteers refused to lay down their arms (most notably, in <a href="/wiki/Tyniec" title="Tyniec">Tyniec</a>, <a href="/wiki/Cz%C4%99stochowa" title="Częstochowa">Częstochowa</a> and <a href="/wiki/Krak%C3%B3w" title="Kraków">Kraków</a>). On August 5, 1772, the occupation manifesto was issued, to the dismay of the weak and exhausted Polish state;<sup id="cite_ref-Brit_2-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Brit-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> the partition treaty was ratified by its signatories on September 22, 1772. </p><p>Frederick II of Prussia was elated with his success; Prussia took most of <a href="/wiki/Royal_Prussia" title="Royal Prussia">Royal Prussia</a> (except <a href="/wiki/Gda%C5%84sk" title="Gdańsk">Gdańsk</a>) that stood between its possessions in <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Prussia" title="Kingdom of Prussia">Prussia</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Margraviate_of_Brandenburg" title="Margraviate of Brandenburg">Margraviate of Brandenburg</a>, as well as Ermland (<a href="/wiki/Warmia" title="Warmia">Warmia</a>), northern areas of <a href="/wiki/Greater_Poland" title="Greater Poland">Greater Poland</a> along the <a href="/wiki/Note%C4%87" title="Noteć">Noteć</a> River (the <a href="/wiki/Netze_District" title="Netze District">Netze District</a>), and parts of <a href="/wiki/Kujawy" class="mw-redirect" title="Kujawy">Kuyavia</a> (but not the city of <a href="/wiki/Toru%C5%84" title="Toruń">Toruń</a>).<sup id="cite_ref-Brit_2-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Brit-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Despite token criticism of the partition from Empress <a href="/wiki/Maria_Theresa" title="Maria Theresa">Maria Theresa</a>, Austrian statesman <a href="/wiki/Wenzel_Anton,_Prince_of_Kaunitz-Rietberg" title="Wenzel Anton, Prince of Kaunitz-Rietberg">Wenzel Anton, Prince of Kaunitz-Rietberg</a>, was proud of wresting as large a share as he did, with the rich salt mines of <a href="/wiki/Bochnia" title="Bochnia">Bochnia</a> and <a href="/wiki/Wieliczka" title="Wieliczka">Wieliczka</a>. To Austria fell <a href="/wiki/Zator,_Lesser_Poland_Voivodeship" title="Zator, Lesser Poland Voivodeship">Zator</a> and Auschwitz (<a href="/wiki/O%C5%9Bwi%C4%99cim" title="Oświęcim">Oświęcim</a>), part of <a href="/wiki/Lesser_Poland" title="Lesser Poland">Lesser Poland</a> embracing parts of the counties of <a href="/wiki/Krak%C3%B3w" title="Kraków">Kraków</a> and <a href="/wiki/Sandomierz" title="Sandomierz">Sandomir</a> and the whole of <a href="/wiki/Galicia_(Eastern_Europe)" title="Galicia (Eastern Europe)">Galicia</a>, less the city of <a href="/wiki/Krak%C3%B3w" title="Kraków">Kraków</a>. </p><p>Empress <a href="/wiki/Catherine_II_of_Russia" class="mw-redirect" title="Catherine II of Russia">Catherine II of Russia</a> was also satisfied despite the loss of Galicia to the Habsburg monarchy. By this "diplomatic document" Russia gained <a href="/wiki/Inflanty_Voivodeship" title="Inflanty Voivodeship">Polish Livonia</a>, and lands in eastern <a href="/wiki/Belarus" title="Belarus">Belarus</a> embracing the counties of <a href="/wiki/Vitebsk" title="Vitebsk">Vitebsk</a>, <a href="/wiki/Polotsk" title="Polotsk">Polotsk</a> and <a href="/wiki/Mstsislaw" title="Mstsislaw">Mstislavl</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Brit_2-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Brit-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Jan_Matejko_-_Upadek_Polski_(Reytan).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/14/Jan_Matejko_-_Upadek_Polski_%28Reytan%29.jpg/310px-Jan_Matejko_-_Upadek_Polski_%28Reytan%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="310" height="179" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/14/Jan_Matejko_-_Upadek_Polski_%28Reytan%29.jpg/465px-Jan_Matejko_-_Upadek_Polski_%28Reytan%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/14/Jan_Matejko_-_Upadek_Polski_%28Reytan%29.jpg/620px-Jan_Matejko_-_Upadek_Polski_%28Reytan%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3543" data-file-height="2049" /></a><figcaption><i><a href="/wiki/Rejtan_(painting)" title="Rejtan (painting)">Rejtan at Sejm 1773</a></i>, oil on canvas by Jan Matejko, 1866, 282 cm × 487 cm (111 in × 192 in), <a href="/wiki/Royal_Castle,_Warsaw" title="Royal Castle, Warsaw">Royal Castle in Warsaw</a></figcaption></figure> <p>By this partition, the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth lost about 30% of its territory and half of its population<sup id="cite_ref-Brit_2-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Brit-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> (four million people), of which a large portion had not been ethnically Polish. By seizing northwestern Poland, Prussia instantly gained control over 80% of the Commonwealth's total foreign trade. Through levying enormous customs duties, Prussia accelerated the collapse of the Commonwealth.<sup id="cite_ref-12" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>After having occupied their respective territories, the three partitioning powers demanded that King <a href="/wiki/Stanis%C5%82aw_August_Poniatowski" title="Stanisław August Poniatowski">Stanisław</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Sejm" title="Sejm">Sejm</a> approve their action. When no help was forthcoming and the armies of the combined nations occupied Warsaw to compel by force of arms the calling of the assembly, the only alternative was passive submission to their will. The so-called <a href="/wiki/Partition_Sejm" title="Partition Sejm">Partition Sejm</a>, with Russian military forces threatening the opposition, on September 18, 1773, signed the treaty of cession, renouncing all claims of the Commonwealth to the occupied territories. </p><p>In 1772, <a href="/wiki/Jean-Jacques_Rousseau" title="Jean-Jacques Rousseau">Jean-Jacques Rousseau</a> was invited to present recommendations for a new constitution for the <a href="/wiki/Polish%E2%80%93Lithuanian_Commonwealth" title="Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth">Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth</a>, resulting in the <i><a href="/wiki/Considerations_on_the_Government_of_Poland" title="Considerations on the Government of Poland">Considerations on the Government of Poland</a></i> (1782), which was to be his last major political work.<sup id="cite_ref-13" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Second_Partition">Second Partition</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Partitions_of_Poland&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Second Partition"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Second_Partition_of_Poland" title="Second Partition of Poland">Second Partition of Poland</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Rzeczpospolita_Rozbiory_2.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/41/Rzeczpospolita_Rozbiory_2.png/310px-Rzeczpospolita_Rozbiory_2.png" decoding="async" width="310" height="256" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/41/Rzeczpospolita_Rozbiory_2.png/465px-Rzeczpospolita_Rozbiory_2.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/41/Rzeczpospolita_Rozbiory_2.png/620px-Rzeczpospolita_Rozbiory_2.png 2x" data-file-width="1902" data-file-height="1568" /></a><figcaption>The Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth after the Second Partition (1793)</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Medal_commemorating_the_reunification_of_Western_Rus,_reverse.jpeg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/03/Medal_commemorating_the_reunification_of_Western_Rus%2C_reverse.jpeg/220px-Medal_commemorating_the_reunification_of_Western_Rus%2C_reverse.jpeg" decoding="async" width="220" height="221" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/03/Medal_commemorating_the_reunification_of_Western_Rus%2C_reverse.jpeg/330px-Medal_commemorating_the_reunification_of_Western_Rus%2C_reverse.jpeg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/03/Medal_commemorating_the_reunification_of_Western_Rus%2C_reverse.jpeg/440px-Medal_commemorating_the_reunification_of_Western_Rus%2C_reverse.jpeg 2x" data-file-width="1212" data-file-height="1217" /></a><figcaption>1793 Russian campaign medal</figcaption></figure> <p>By 1790, the Commonwealth had been weakened to such a degree that it was forced into an unnatural and terminal alliance with its enemy, Prussia. The <a href="/wiki/Polish%E2%80%93Prussian_alliance" title="Polish–Prussian alliance">Polish–Prussian Pact</a> of 1790 was signed. The conditions of the Pact contributed to the subsequent final two partitions of Poland–Lithuania. </p><p>The <a href="/wiki/Constitution_of_May_3,_1791" class="mw-redirect" title="Constitution of May 3, 1791">May Constitution of 1791</a> enfranchised the bourgeoisie, established the separation of the three branches of government, and eliminated the abuses of the <a href="/wiki/Repnin_Sejm" title="Repnin Sejm">Repnin Sejm</a>. Those reforms prompted aggressive actions on the part of its neighbours, wary of the potential renaissance of the Commonwealth. Arguing that Poland had fallen prey to the radical <a href="/wiki/Jacobin_(politics)" title="Jacobin (politics)">Jacobinism</a> then at high tide in France, Russian forces invaded the Commonwealth in 1792. </p><p>In the <a href="/wiki/Polish%E2%80%93Russian_War_of_1792" title="Polish–Russian War of 1792">War in Defense of the Constitution</a>, pro-Russian conservative Polish <a href="/wiki/Magnate" title="Magnate">magnates</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Targowica_Confederation" title="Targowica Confederation">Confederation of Targowica</a>, fought against Polish forces supporting the constitution, believing that Russians would help them restore the <a href="/wiki/Golden_Liberty" title="Golden Liberty">Golden Liberty</a>. Abandoned by their Prussian allies, Polish pro-constitution forces, faced with Targowica units and the regular Russian army, were defeated. Prussia signed a treaty with Russia, agreeing that Polish reforms would be revoked, and both countries would receive chunks of Commonwealth territory. In 1793, deputies to the <a href="/wiki/Grodno_Sejm" title="Grodno Sejm">Grodno Sejm</a>, last Sejm of the Commonwealth, in the presence of the Russian forces, agreed to Russian territorial demands. In the Second Partition, Russia and Prussia helped themselves to enough land so that only one-third of the 1772 population remained in Poland. Prussia named its newly gained province <a href="/wiki/South_Prussia" title="South Prussia">South Prussia</a>, with <a href="/wiki/Pozna%C5%84" title="Poznań">Poznań</a> (and later Warsaw) as the capital of the new province. </p><p>Targowica confederates, who did not expect another partition, and the king, <a href="/wiki/Stanis%C5%82aw_August_Poniatowski" title="Stanisław August Poniatowski">Stanisław August Poniatowski</a>, who joined them near the end, both lost much prestige and support. The reformers, on the other hand, were attracting increasing support, and in 1794 the <a href="/wiki/Ko%C5%9Bciuszko_Uprising" title="Kościuszko Uprising">Kościuszko Uprising</a> began. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Third_Partition">Third Partition</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Partitions_of_Poland&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Third Partition"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Third_Partition_of_Poland" title="Third Partition of Poland">Third Partition of Poland</a></div> <p>Kosciuszko's ragtag insurgent armies won some initial successes, but they eventually fell before the superior forces of the Russian Empire. The partitioning powers, seeing the increasing unrest in the remaining Commonwealth, decided to solve the problem by erasing any independent Polish state from the map. On October 24, 1795, their representatives signed a treaty, dividing the remaining territories of the Commonwealth between their three countries. One of Russia's chief foreign policy authors, <a href="/wiki/Alexander_Bezborodko" title="Alexander Bezborodko">Alexander Bezborodko</a>, advised <a href="/wiki/Catherine_the_Great" title="Catherine the Great">Catherine II</a> on the Second and Third Partitions of Poland.<sup id="cite_ref-14" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The Russian part included 120,000 km<sup>2</sup> (46,332 sq mi) and 1.2 million people with <a href="/wiki/Vilnius" title="Vilnius">Vilnius</a>, the Prussian part (new provinces of <a href="/wiki/New_East_Prussia" title="New East Prussia">New East Prussia</a> and <a href="/wiki/New_Silesia" title="New Silesia">New Silesia</a>) 55,000 km<sup>2</sup> (21,236 sq mi) and 1 million people with Warsaw, and the Austrian 47,000 km<sup>2</sup> (18,147 sq mi) with 1.2 million and <a href="/wiki/Lublin" title="Lublin">Lublin</a> and Kraków. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Aftermath">Aftermath</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Partitions_of_Poland&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Aftermath"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The <a href="/wiki/King_of_Poland" class="mw-redirect" title="King of Poland">King of Poland</a>, <a href="/wiki/Stanis%C5%82aw_August_Poniatowski" title="Stanisław August Poniatowski">Stanisław August Poniatowski</a>, under Russian military escort left for <a href="/wiki/Grodno" title="Grodno">Grodno</a> where he <a href="/wiki/Abdication" title="Abdication">abdicated</a> on November 25, 1795; next he left for <a href="/wiki/Saint_Petersburg" title="Saint Petersburg">Saint Petersburg</a>, Russia, where he would spend his remaining days. This act ensured that Russia would be seen as the most important of the partitioning powers. </p><p>With regard to population, in the First Partition, Poland lost over four to five million citizens (about a third of its population of 14 million before the partitions).<sup id="cite_ref-LukowskiZawadzki2001-96_15-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-LukowskiZawadzki2001-96-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Only about 4 million people remained in Poland after the Second Partition which makes for a loss of another third of its original population, about a half of the remaining population.<sup id="cite_ref-lz_16-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-lz-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> By the Third Partition, Prussia ended up with about 23% of the Commonwealth's population, Austria with 32%, and Russia with 45%.<sup id="cite_ref-Wandycz2001_17-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Wandycz2001-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <table class="wikitable"> <caption>Cumulative division of the Commonwealth territory<sup id="cite_ref-18" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </caption> <tbody><tr> <th rowspan="2">Partition </th> <th colspan="2">To Austria </th> <th colspan="2">To Prussia </th> <th colspan="2">To Russia </th> <th colspan="2">Total annexed </th> <th colspan="2">Total remaining </th></tr> <tr> <th>Area</th> <th>%</th> <th>Area</th> <th>%</th> <th>Area</th> <th>%</th> <th>Area</th> <th>%</th> <th>Area</th> <th>% </th></tr> <tr> <td bgcolor="#ffdddd">1772</td> <td>81,900 km<sup>2</sup> (31,600 sq mi)</td> <td>11.17%</td> <td>36,300 km<sup>2</sup> (14,000 sq mi)</td> <td>4.95%</td> <td>93,000 km<sup>2</sup> (36,000 sq mi)</td> <td>12.68%</td> <td>211,200 km<sup>2</sup> (81,500 sq mi)</td> <td bgcolor="#ffdddd">28.79%</td> <td>522,300 km<sup>2</sup> (201,700 sq mi)</td> <td>71.21% </td></tr> <tr> <td bgcolor="#ddddff">1793</td> <td>—</td> <td>—</td> <td>57,100 km<sup>2</sup> (22,000 sq mi)</td> <td>7.78%</td> <td>250,200 km<sup>2</sup> (96,600 sq mi)</td> <td>34.11%</td> <td>307,300 km<sup>2</sup> (118,600 sq mi)</td> <td bgcolor="#ddddff">41.90%</td> <td>215,000 km<sup>2</sup> (83,000 sq mi)</td> <td>29.31% </td></tr> <tr> <td bgcolor="#dddddd">1795</td> <td>47,000 km<sup>2</sup> (18,000 sq mi)</td> <td>6.41%</td> <td>48,000 km<sup>2</sup> (19,000 sq mi)</td> <td>6.54%</td> <td>120,000 km<sup>2</sup> (46,000 sq mi)</td> <td>16.36%</td> <td>215,000 km<sup>2</sup> (83,000 sq mi)</td> <td bgcolor="#dddddd">29.31%</td> <td><div class="center" style="width:auto; margin-left:auto; margin-right:auto;"><b>None</b></div></td> <td><div class="center" style="width:auto; margin-left:auto; margin-right:auto;">0%</div> </td></tr> <tr> <td><b>Total</b></td> <td>128,900 km<sup>2</sup> (49,800 sq mi)</td> <td><b>17.57%</b></td> <td>141,400 km<sup>2</sup> (54,600 sq mi)</td> <td><b>19.28%</b></td> <td>463,200 km<sup>2</sup> (178,800 sq mi)</td> <td><b>63.15%</b></td> <td>733,500 km<sup>2</sup> (283,200 sq mi)</td> <td><b>100%</b></td> <td></td> <td> </td></tr></tbody></table><p> (Wandycz also offers slightly different total annexed territory estimates, with 18% for Austria, 20% for Prussia and 62% for Russia.)<sup id="cite_ref-Wandycz2001_17-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Wandycz2001-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></p><figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Map_of_the_partition_of_the_Kingdom_of_Poland_and_the_Grand_Duchy_of_Lithuania_from_1799.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d2/Map_of_the_partition_of_the_Kingdom_of_Poland_and_the_Grand_Duchy_of_Lithuania_from_1799.jpg/220px-Map_of_the_partition_of_the_Kingdom_of_Poland_and_the_Grand_Duchy_of_Lithuania_from_1799.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="197" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d2/Map_of_the_partition_of_the_Kingdom_of_Poland_and_the_Grand_Duchy_of_Lithuania_from_1799.jpg/330px-Map_of_the_partition_of_the_Kingdom_of_Poland_and_the_Grand_Duchy_of_Lithuania_from_1799.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d2/Map_of_the_partition_of_the_Kingdom_of_Poland_and_the_Grand_Duchy_of_Lithuania_from_1799.jpg/440px-Map_of_the_partition_of_the_Kingdom_of_Poland_and_the_Grand_Duchy_of_Lithuania_from_1799.jpg 2x" data-file-width="6330" data-file-height="5677" /></a><figcaption>"A map of the Kingdom of Poland and the Grand Duchy of Lithuania including Samogitia and Curland divided according to their dismemberments with the Kingdom of Prussia" from 1799</figcaption></figure><p>During the <a href="/wiki/Napoleonic_Wars" title="Napoleonic Wars">Napoleonic Wars</a> and in their immediate aftermath the borders between partitioning powers shifted several times, changing the numbers seen in the preceding table. Ultimately, Russia ended up with most of the Polish core at the expense of Prussia and Austria. Following the <a href="/wiki/Congress_of_Vienna" title="Congress of Vienna">Congress of Vienna</a>, Russia controlled 82% of the pre-1772 Commonwealth's territory (this includes its <a href="/wiki/Puppet_state" title="Puppet state">puppet state</a> of <a href="/wiki/Congress_Poland" title="Congress Poland">Congress Poland</a>), Austria 11%, and Prussia 7%.<sup id="cite_ref-19" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>As a result of the Partitions, Poles were forced to seek a change of status quo in Europe.<sup id="cite_ref-LRJohnson_20-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-LRJohnson-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Wandycz_21-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Wandycz-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Polish poets, politicians, noblemen, writers, artists, many of whom were forced to emigrate (thus the term <a href="/wiki/Great_Emigration" title="Great Emigration">Great Emigration</a>), became the revolutionaries of the 19th century, as desire for freedom became one of the defining parts of <a href="/wiki/Romanticism_in_Poland" title="Romanticism in Poland">Polish romanticism</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-WHZaw_22-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-WHZaw-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-StefanAuer_23-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-StefanAuer-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Polish revolutionaries participated in uprisings in <a href="/wiki/Prussia" title="Prussia">Prussia</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Austrian_Empire" title="Austrian Empire">Austrian Empire</a> and <a href="/wiki/Russian_Empire" title="Russian Empire">Imperial Russia</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-DieterDowe_24-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-DieterDowe-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Polish_Legions_(Napoleonic_period)" class="mw-redirect" title="Polish Legions (Napoleonic period)">Polish legions</a> fought alongside <a href="/wiki/Napoleon" title="Napoleon">Napoleon</a><sup id="cite_ref-Carrib_25-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Carrib-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-NapSoc_26-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-NapSoc-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and, under the slogan of <i><a href="/wiki/For_our_freedom_and_yours" title="For our freedom and yours">For our freedom and yours</a></i>, participated widely in the <a href="/wiki/Revolutions_of_1848" title="Revolutions of 1848">Spring of Nations</a> (particularly the <a href="/wiki/Hungarian_Revolution_of_1848" title="Hungarian Revolution of 1848">Hungarian Revolution of 1848</a>).<sup id="cite_ref-DieterDowe_24-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-DieterDowe-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Fofay_27-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Fofay-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Poland would be briefly resurrected—if in a smaller frame—in 1807, when Napoleon set up the <a href="/wiki/Duchy_of_Warsaw" title="Duchy of Warsaw">Duchy of Warsaw</a>. After his defeat and the implementation of the <a href="/wiki/Congress_of_Vienna" title="Congress of Vienna">Congress of Vienna</a> treaty in 1815, the Russian-dominated <a href="/wiki/Congress_Poland" title="Congress Poland">Congress Kingdom of Poland</a> was created in its place. After the Congress, Russia gained a larger share of Poland (with <a href="/wiki/Warsaw" title="Warsaw">Warsaw</a>) and, after crushing <a href="/wiki/November_Uprising" title="November Uprising">an insurrection in 1831</a>, the Congress Kingdom's autonomy was abolished and Poles faced confiscation of property, deportation, forced military service, and the closure of their own universities. After the <a href="/wiki/January_Uprising" title="January Uprising">uprising of 1863</a>, <a href="/wiki/Russification" title="Russification">Russification</a> of Polish secondary schools was imposed and the literacy rate dropped dramatically. In the Austrian sector which now was called <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Galicia_and_Lodomeria" title="Kingdom of Galicia and Lodomeria">Galicia</a>, Poles fared better and were allowed to have representation in Parliament and to form their own universities, and Kraków with <a href="/wiki/Lw%C3%B3w" class="mw-redirect" title="Lwów">Lemberg</a> (Lwów/Lviv) became centers of Polish culture and education. Meanwhile, Prussia <a href="/wiki/Germanisation_of_Poles_during_the_Partitions" title="Germanisation of Poles during the Partitions">Germanized</a> the entire school system of its Polish subjects, and had no more respect for Polish culture and institutions than the Russian Empire. In 1915 a <a href="/wiki/Client_state" title="Client state">client state</a> of the <a href="/wiki/German_Empire" title="German Empire">German Empire</a> and <a href="/wiki/Austria-Hungary" title="Austria-Hungary">Austria-Hungary</a> was proposed and accepted by the <a href="/wiki/Central_Powers" title="Central Powers">Central Powers</a> of World War I: the <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Poland_(1916%E2%80%9318)" class="mw-redirect" title="Kingdom of Poland (1916–18)">Regency Kingdom of Poland</a>. After the end of World War I, the Central Powers' surrender to the <a href="/wiki/Allies_of_World_War_I" title="Allies of World War I">Western Allies</a>, the chaos of the <a href="/wiki/Russian_Revolution" title="Russian Revolution">Russian Revolution</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_Versailles" title="Treaty of Versailles">Treaty of Versailles</a> finally allowed and helped the restoration of Poland's full independence after 123 years. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Fourth_Partition">Fourth Partition</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Partitions_of_Poland&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Fourth Partition"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Territorial_changes_of_Poland_1815.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fb/Territorial_changes_of_Poland_1815.jpg/220px-Territorial_changes_of_Poland_1815.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="181" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fb/Territorial_changes_of_Poland_1815.jpg/330px-Territorial_changes_of_Poland_1815.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fb/Territorial_changes_of_Poland_1815.jpg/440px-Territorial_changes_of_Poland_1815.jpg 2x" data-file-width="850" data-file-height="700" /></a><figcaption>The partition of the Duchy of Warsaw according to the <a href="/wiki/Congress_of_Vienna" title="Congress of Vienna">Congress of Vienna</a>; division of Polish territories in the year 1815.</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Occupation_of_Poland_1939.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9c/Occupation_of_Poland_1939.png/220px-Occupation_of_Poland_1939.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="298" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9c/Occupation_of_Poland_1939.png/330px-Occupation_of_Poland_1939.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9c/Occupation_of_Poland_1939.png/440px-Occupation_of_Poland_1939.png 2x" data-file-width="2479" data-file-height="3354" /></a><figcaption>The partition of Poland according to <a href="/wiki/Molotov%E2%80%93Ribbentrop_Pact" title="Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact">the German–Soviet Pact</a>; division of Polish territories in the years 1939–1941.</figcaption></figure> <p>The term "Fourth Partition of Poland" may refer to any subsequent division of Polish lands, including: </p> <ul><li>after the <a href="/wiki/Napoleonic_era" title="Napoleonic era">Napoleonic era</a>, the 1815 division of the <a href="/wiki/Duchy_of_Warsaw" title="Duchy of Warsaw">Duchy of Warsaw</a> at the <a href="/wiki/Congress_of_Vienna" title="Congress of Vienna">Congress of Vienna</a>;</li> <li>the 1832 incorporation of the "<a href="/wiki/Congress_Poland" title="Congress Poland">Congress Kingdom</a>" into Russia, the 1846 incorporation of the <a href="/wiki/Free_City_of_Cracow" title="Free City of Cracow">Republic of Kraków</a> into Austria, and the 1848 incorporation of the <a href="/wiki/Grand_Duchy_of_Posen" title="Grand Duchy of Posen">Grand Duchy of Posen</a> into Prussia; and</li> <li>the <a href="/wiki/Occupation_of_Poland_(1939%E2%80%931945)" title="Occupation of Poland (1939–1945)">1939 division of Poland</a> between <a href="/wiki/Nazi_Germany" title="Nazi Germany">Germany</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Soviet_Union" title="Soviet Union">Soviet Union</a> pursuant to the <a href="/wiki/Molotov%E2%80%93Ribbentrop_Pact" title="Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact">Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Brecher_28-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Brecher-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li></ul> <p>If one accepts more than one of those events as partitions, fifth, sixth, and even seventh partitions can be counted, but these terms are very rare. (For example, <a href="/wiki/Norman_Davies" title="Norman Davies">Norman Davies</a> in <i><a href="/wiki/God%27s_Playground" title="God's Playground">God's Playground</a></i> refers to the 1807 creation of the <a href="/wiki/Duchy_of_Warsaw" title="Duchy of Warsaw">Duchy of Warsaw</a> as the fourth partition, the 1815 <a href="/wiki/Congress_of_Vienna" title="Congress of Vienna">Treaty of Vienna</a> as the fifth, the 1918 <a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_Brest-Litovsk" title="Treaty of Brest-Litovsk">Treaty of Brest-Litovsk</a> as the sixth, and the 1939 <a href="/wiki/Molotov%E2%80%93Ribbentrop_Pact" title="Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact">division of Poland between Nazi Germany and the USSR</a> as the seventh.)<sup id="cite_ref-29" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> However, in recent times, the 1815 division of the Duchy of Warsaw at the Congress of Vienna and the 1939 division of Poland have been sometimes called the fourth and fifth partitions, respectively. </p><p>The term "Fourth Partition" was also used in the 19th and 20th centuries to refer to diaspora communities who maintained a close interest in the project of regaining Polish independence.<sup id="cite_ref-30" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Sometimes termed <a href="/wiki/Polish_diaspora" title="Polish diaspora">Polonia</a>, these expatriate communities often contributed funding and military support to the project of regaining the Polish nation-state. Diaspora politics were deeply affected by developments in and around the homeland, and vice versa, for many decades.<sup id="cite_ref-31" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Reasons,_legality_and_justifications"><span id="Reasons.2C_legality_and_justifications"></span>Reasons, legality and justifications</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Partitions_of_Poland&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Reasons, legality and justifications"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>More recent studies claim that partitions happened when the Commonwealth had been showing the beginning signs of a slow recovery and see the last two partitions as an answer to strengthening reforms in the Commonwealth and the potential threat they represented to its power-hungry neighbours.<sup id="cite_ref-Wandycz_21-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Wandycz-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Davies:Europe_32-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Davies:Europe-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-NowakSarmatia_33-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-NowakSarmatia-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Army_Duchy_34-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Army_Duchy-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Buffalohist3May_35-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Buffalohist3May-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Schroeder_36-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Schroeder-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-GRussell_37-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-GRussell-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>As historian <a href="/wiki/Norman_Davies" title="Norman Davies">Norman Davies</a> stated, because the <a href="/wiki/Balance_of_power_(international_relations)" title="Balance of power (international relations)">balance of power equilibrium</a> was observed, many contemporary observers accepted explanations of the "enlightened apologists" of the partitioning state.<sup id="cite_ref-Dav283_38-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Dav283-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Davies:Europe_32-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Davies:Europe-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> 19th-century historians from countries that carried out the partitions, such as 19th-century Russian scholar <a href="/wiki/Sergey_Solovyov_(historian)" title="Sergey Solovyov (historian)">Sergey Solovyov</a>, and their 20th century followers, argued that partitions were justified, as the <a href="/wiki/Polish%E2%80%93Lithuanian_Commonwealth" title="Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth">Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth</a> had degenerated to the point of being partitioned because the counterproductive principle of <span title="Latin-language text"><i lang="la"><a href="/wiki/Liberum_veto" title="Liberum veto">liberum veto</a></i></span> made decision-making on divisive issues, such as a wide-scale social reform, virtually impossible. Solovyov specified the cultural, language and religious break between the supreme and lowest layers of the society in the east regions of the Commonwealth, where the <a href="/wiki/Belarusians" title="Belarusians">Belarusian</a> and <a href="/wiki/Ukrainians" title="Ukrainians">Ukrainian</a> <a href="/wiki/Serfdom" title="Serfdom">serf</a> peasantry was Orthodox. Russian authors emphasized the historical connections between Belarus, Ukraine and Russia, as former parts of the medieval old Russian state where dynasty of <a href="/wiki/Rurik_dynasty" class="mw-redirect" title="Rurik dynasty">Rurikids</a> reigned (<a href="/wiki/Kievan_Rus%27" title="Kievan Rus'">Kievan Rus'</a>).<sup id="cite_ref-39" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-39"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Thus, <a href="/wiki/Nikolay_Karamzin" title="Nikolay Karamzin">Nikolay Karamzin</a> wrote: "Let the foreigners denounce the partition of Poland: we took what was ours."<sup id="cite_ref-40" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Russian historians often stressed that Russia annexed primarily Ukrainian and Belarusian provinces with Eastern Slavic inhabitants,<sup id="cite_ref-41" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-41"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> although many <a href="/wiki/Ruthenians" title="Ruthenians">Ruthenians</a> were no more enthusiastic about Russia than about Poland, and ignoring ethnically Polish and Lithuanian territories also being annexed later. A new justification for partitions arose with the <a href="/wiki/Russian_Enlightenment" title="Russian Enlightenment">Russian Enlightenment</a>, as Russian writers such as <a href="/wiki/Gavrila_Derzhavin" title="Gavrila Derzhavin">Gavrila Derzhavin</a>, <a href="/wiki/Denis_Fonvizin" title="Denis Fonvizin">Denis Fonvizin</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Alexander_Pushkin" title="Alexander Pushkin">Alexander Pushkin</a> stressed degeneration of Catholic Poland and the need to "civilize" it by its neighbors.<sup id="cite_ref-NowakSarmatia_33-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-NowakSarmatia-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Nonetheless, other 19th century contemporaries were much more skeptical; for example, British jurist Sir <a href="/wiki/Robert_Phillimore" title="Robert Phillimore">Robert Phillimore</a> discussed the partition as a violation of <a href="/wiki/International_law" title="International law">international law</a>;<sup id="cite_ref-42" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-42"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>41<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> German jurist <a href="/wiki/Heinrich_Bernhard_Oppenheim" title="Heinrich Bernhard Oppenheim">Heinrich Bernhard Oppenheim</a> presented similar views.<sup id="cite_ref-Oppen_43-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Oppen-43"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>42<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Other older historians who challenged such justifications for the Partitions included French historian <a href="/wiki/Jules_Michelet" title="Jules Michelet">Jules Michelet</a>, British historian and politician <a href="/wiki/Thomas_Babington_Macaulay" title="Thomas Babington Macaulay">Thomas Babington Macaulay</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Edmund_Burke" title="Edmund Burke">Edmund Burke</a>, who criticized the immorality of the partitions.<sup id="cite_ref-Davies:Europe_32-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Davies:Europe-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-44" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-44"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>43<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Nonetheless, most governments accepted the event as a <a href="/wiki/Fait_acompli" class="mw-redirect" title="Fait acompli">fait acompli</a>. The <a href="/wiki/Ottoman_Empire" title="Ottoman Empire">Ottoman Empire</a> was either the only,<sup id="cite_ref-45" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-45"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>44<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-46" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-46"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>45<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> or one of only two countries in the world that refused to accept the partitions,<sup id="cite_ref-47" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-47"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>46<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> (the other being the <a href="/wiki/Afsharid_dynasty" title="Afsharid dynasty">Persian Empire</a>),<sup id="cite_ref-48" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-48"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>47<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and reserved a place in its diplomatic corps for an Ambassador of <a href="/wiki/Lehistan" class="mw-redirect" title="Lehistan">Lehistan</a> (Poland). </p><p>Several scholars focused on the economic motivations of the partitioning powers. <a href="/wiki/Hajo_Holborn" title="Hajo Holborn">Hajo Holborn</a> noted that Prussia aimed to take control of the lucrative Baltic <a href="/wiki/Grain_trade" title="Grain trade">grain trade</a> through <a href="/wiki/Gda%C5%84sk" title="Gdańsk">Gdańsk</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Holborn1982_49-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Holborn1982-49"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>48<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In the 18th century the Russian peasants were escaping from Russia to the <a href="/wiki/Polish%E2%80%93Lithuanian_Commonwealth" title="Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth">Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth</a> (where the <a href="/wiki/Serfdom_in_Poland" title="Serfdom in Poland">once dire conditions</a> had improved, <a href="/wiki/Serfdom_in_Russia" title="Serfdom in Russia">unlike in Russia</a><sup id="cite_ref-Wagner_50-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Wagner-50"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>49<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>) in significant enough numbers to become a major concern for the Russian Government sufficient to play a role in its decision to partition the Commonwealth (one of the reasons <a href="/wiki/Catherine_the_Great" title="Catherine the Great">Catherine II</a> gave for the <a href="/wiki/Partition_of_Poland" class="mw-redirect" title="Partition of Poland">partition of Poland</a> was that thousands of peasants escaped from Russia to Poland to seek a better fate").<sup id="cite_ref-:03_51-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:03-51"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>50<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-:0_52-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-52"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>51<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Jerzy Czajewski and Piotr Kimla assert that in the 18th century until the partitions solved this problem, Russian armies increasingly raided territories of the Commonwealth, officially to recover the escapees, but in fact kidnapping many locals;<sup id="cite_ref-:03_51-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:03-51"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>50<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Piotr Kimla noted that the Russian government spread international propaganda, mainly in France, which falsely exaggerated serfdom conditions in Poland, while ignoring worse conditions in Russia, as one of the justification for the partitions.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_52-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-52"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>51<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Legacy">Legacy</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Partitions_of_Poland&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Legacy"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><span title="Italian-language text"><i lang="it"><a href="/wiki/Il_Canto_degli_Italiani" title="Il Canto degli Italiani">Il Canto degli Italiani</a></i></span>, the Italian national anthem, contains a reference to the partition.<sup id="cite_ref-53" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-53"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>52<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The ongoing partitions of Poland were a major topic of discourse in <i><a href="/wiki/The_Federalist_Papers" title="The Federalist Papers">The Federalist Papers</a></i>, where the structure of the government of Poland, and of foreign influence over it, is used in several papers (<a href="/wiki/Federalist_No._14" title="Federalist No. 14">Federalist No. 14</a>, <a href="/wiki/Federalist_No._19" title="Federalist No. 19">Federalist No. 19</a>, <a href="/wiki/Federalist_No._22" title="Federalist No. 22">Federalist No. 22</a>, <a href="/wiki/Federalist_No._39" title="Federalist No. 39">Federalist No. 39</a> for examples) as a cautionary tale for the writers of the <a href="/wiki/U.S._Constitution" class="mw-redirect" title="U.S. Constitution">U.S. Constitution</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Partitions_of_Poland&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Administrative_division_of_Polish%E2%80%93Lithuanian_territories_after_partitions" class="mw-redirect" title="Administrative division of Polish–Lithuanian territories after partitions">Administrative division of Polish–Lithuanian territories after partitions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Administrative_division_of_the_Polish%E2%80%93Lithuanian_Commonwealth" class="mw-redirect" title="Administrative division of the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth">Administrative division of the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth</a> in the course of partitions</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ambassadors_and_envoys_from_Russia_to_Poland_(1763%E2%80%931794)" title="Ambassadors and envoys from Russia to Poland (1763–1794)">Ambassadors and envoys from Russia to Poland (1763–1794)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Three_Emperors%27_Corner" title="Three Emperors' Corner">Three Emperors' Corner</a> at the border of the Russian, Austrian and the German Empires</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Notes">Notes</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Partitions_of_Poland&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Notes"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist reflist-lower-alpha"> <div class="mw-references-wrap"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-1">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Although the full name of the partitioned state was the <a href="/wiki/Polish%E2%80%93Lithuanian_Commonwealth" title="Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth">Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth</a>, while referring to the partitions, virtually all sources use the term Partitions of Poland, not Partitions of the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth, as Poland is the common short name for the state in question. The term Partitions of the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth is effectively not used in literature on this subject.</span> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Partitions_of_Poland&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239543626"><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-Brit-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Brit_2-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Brit_2-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Brit_2-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Brit_2-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Brit_2-4"><sup><i><b>e</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Brit_2-5"><sup><i><b>f</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Brit_2-6"><sup><i><b>g</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Brit_2-7"><sup><i><b>h</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Brit_2-8"><sup><i><b>i</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite class="citation encyclopaedia cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/466910/Partitions-of-Poland">"Partitions of Poland"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/Encyclop%C3%A6dia_Britannica" title="Encyclopædia Britannica">Encyclopædia Britannica</a> Online</i>. 2008<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">June 8,</span> 2011</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Partitions+of+Poland&rft.btitle=Encyclop%C3%A6dia+Britannica+Online&rft.date=2008&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.britannica.com%2FEBchecked%2Ftopic%2F466910%2FPartitions-of-Poland&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APartitions+of+Poland" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-3">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBideleuxJeffries1998" class="citation book cs1">Bideleux, Robert; Jeffries, Ian (1998). <i>A History of Eastern Europe: Crisis and Change</i>. Routledge. p. 156.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+History+of+Eastern+Europe%3A+Crisis+and+Change&rft.pages=156&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=1998&rft.aulast=Bideleux&rft.aufirst=Robert&rft.au=Jeffries%2C+Ian&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APartitions+of+Poland" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-4">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBattWolczuk2002" class="citation book cs1">Batt, Judy; Wolczuk, Kataryna (2002). <i>Region, State and Identity in Central and Eastern Europe</i>. Routledge. p. 153.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Region%2C+State+and+Identity+in+Central+and+Eastern+Europe&rft.pages=153&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=2002&rft.aulast=Batt&rft.aufirst=Judy&rft.au=Wolczuk%2C+Kataryna&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APartitions+of+Poland" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-5">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSinkoff2004" class="citation book cs1">Sinkoff, Nancy (2004). <i>Out of the Shtetl: Making Jews Modern in the Polish Borderlands</i>. Society of Biblical Literature. p. 271.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Out+of+the+Shtetl%3A+Making+Jews+Modern+in+the+Polish+Borderlands&rft.pages=271&rft.pub=Society+of+Biblical+Literature&rft.date=2004&rft.aulast=Sinkoff&rft.aufirst=Nancy&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APartitions+of+Poland" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Scott-6"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Scott_6-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Scott_6-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Scott_6-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFScott2001" class="citation book cs1">Scott, Hamish M. (2001). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=lc8EMD0JYUAC&dq=Repnin+Poland&pg=PA182"><i>The Emergence of the Eastern Powers, 1756–1775</i></a>. <a href="/wiki/Cambridge_University_Press" title="Cambridge University Press">Cambridge University Press</a>. pp. 181–182. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-521-79269-X" title="Special:BookSources/0-521-79269-X"><bdi>0-521-79269-X</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Emergence+of+the+Eastern+Powers%2C+1756%E2%80%931775&rft.pages=181-182&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2001&rft.isbn=0-521-79269-X&rft.aulast=Scott&rft.aufirst=Hamish+M.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Dlc8EMD0JYUAC%26dq%3DRepnin%2BPoland%26pg%3DPA182&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APartitions+of+Poland" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Corwin-7"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Corwin_7-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCorwin1917" class="citation book cs1">Corwin, Edward Henry Lewinski (1917). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/politicalhistor00corwgoog/page/n306"><i>The political History of Poland</i></a>. New York: Polish Book Importing Company. pp. 286–288. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/626738">626738</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+political+History+of+Poland&rft.place=New+York&rft.pages=286-288&rft.pub=Polish+Book+Importing+Company&rft.date=1917&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F626738&rft.aulast=Corwin&rft.aufirst=Edward+Henry+Lewinski&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fpoliticalhistor00corwgoog%2Fpage%2Fn306&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APartitions+of+Poland" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Steed,-8"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Steed,_8-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSteed1914" class="citation book cs1">Steed, H. Wickham (1914). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20070924183148/http://www.historicaltextarchive.com/books.php?op=viewbook&bookid=2&cid=26"><i>A Short History of Austria-Hungary and Poland</i></a>. Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://historicaltextarchive.com/books.php?op=viewbook&bookid=2&cid=26">the original</a> on September 24, 2007<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">August 3,</span> 2007</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+Short+History+of+Austria-Hungary+and+Poland&rft.pub=Encyclop%C3%A6dia+Britannica%2C+Inc.&rft.date=1914&rft.aulast=Steed&rft.aufirst=H.+Wickham&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fhistoricaltextarchive.com%2Fbooks.php%3Fop%3Dviewbook%26bookid%3D2%26cid%3D26&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APartitions+of+Poland" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Seton-Watson-9"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Seton-Watson_9-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Seton-Watson_9-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Seton-Watson_9-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSeton-Watson1967" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Hugh_Seton-Watson" title="Hugh Seton-Watson">Seton-Watson, Hugh</a> (1967). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=40KbWNve4XkC&q=repnin+polish+1768&pg=PA44"><i>The Russian Empire, 1801–1917</i></a>. Oxford University Press. p. 44. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-19-822152-5" title="Special:BookSources/0-19-822152-5"><bdi>0-19-822152-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Russian+Empire%2C+1801%E2%80%931917&rft.pages=44&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=1967&rft.isbn=0-19-822152-5&rft.aulast=Seton-Watson&rft.aufirst=Hugh&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D40KbWNve4XkC%26q%3Drepnin%2Bpolish%2B1768%26pg%3DPA44&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APartitions+of+Poland" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Cas-10"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Cas_10-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation book cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=-0F8CRLDPv4C&dq=1773+Siberia+Sejm&pg=PA528"><i>The Story of My Life</i></a>. Penguin Classics. 2001. p. 528. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-14-043915-3" title="Special:BookSources/0-14-043915-3"><bdi>0-14-043915-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Story+of+My+Life&rft.pages=528&rft.pub=Penguin+Classics&rft.date=2001&rft.isbn=0-14-043915-3&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D-0F8CRLDPv4C%26dq%3D1773%2BSiberia%2BSejm%26pg%3DPA528&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APartitions+of+Poland" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-RB-11"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-RB_11-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFButterwick1998" class="citation book cs1">Butterwick, Richard (1998). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=ySzrq3JwjBEC&q=Repnin+Poland&pg=PA169"><i>Poland-Lithuania's Last King and English Culture: Stanisław August Poniatowski, 1732–1798</i></a>. Oxford University Press. p. 169. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-19-820701-8" title="Special:BookSources/0-19-820701-8"><bdi>0-19-820701-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Poland-Lithuania%27s+Last+King+and+English+Culture%3A+Stanis%C5%82aw+August+Poniatowski%2C+1732%E2%80%931798&rft.pages=169&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=1998&rft.isbn=0-19-820701-8&rft.aulast=Butterwick&rft.aufirst=Richard&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DySzrq3JwjBEC%26q%3DRepnin%2BPoland%26pg%3DPA169&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APartitions+of+Poland" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-12"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-12">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFvon_Guttner2015" class="citation book cs1">von Guttner, Darius (2015). <i>The French Revolution</i>. Nelson Cengage. p. 139.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+French+Revolution&rft.pages=139&rft.pub=Nelson+Cengage&rft.date=2015&rft.aulast=von+Guttner&rft.aufirst=Darius&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APartitions+of+Poland" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-13"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-13">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGourevitch1997" class="citation book cs1">Gourevitch, Victor, ed. (1997). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=kcvseZCgQKMC"><i>Rousseau: 'The Social Contract' and Other Later Political Writings</i></a>. Cambridge University Press. p. ix. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-521-42446-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-521-42446-2"><bdi>978-0-521-42446-2</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20170216213853/https://books.google.com/books?id=kcvseZCgQKMC">Archived</a> from the original on February 16, 2017<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">February 8,</span> 2017</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Rousseau%3A+%27The+Social+Contract%27+and+Other+Later+Political+Writings&rft.pages=ix&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=1997&rft.isbn=978-0-521-42446-2&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DkcvseZCgQKMC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APartitions+of+Poland" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-14"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-14">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation encyclopaedia cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.britannica.com/biography/Alexander-Bezborodko">"Alexander Bezborodko"</a>. <i>Encyclopaedia Britannica</i>. April 17, 2024.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Alexander+Bezborodko&rft.btitle=Encyclopaedia+Britannica&rft.date=2024-04-17&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.britannica.com%2Fbiography%2FAlexander-Bezborodko&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APartitions+of+Poland" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-LukowskiZawadzki2001-96-15"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-LukowskiZawadzki2001-96_15-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJerzy_LukowskiW._H._Zawadzki2001" class="citation book cs1">Jerzy Lukowski; W. H. Zawadzki (2001). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=NpMxTvBuWHYC&pg=PA96"><i>A Concise History of Poland: Jerzy Lukowski and Hubert Zawadzki</i></a>. Cambridge University Press. pp. 96–98. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-521-55917-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-521-55917-1"><bdi>978-0-521-55917-1</bdi></a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">January 8,</span> 2013</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+Concise+History+of+Poland%3A+Jerzy+Lukowski+and+Hubert+Zawadzki&rft.pages=96-98&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2001&rft.isbn=978-0-521-55917-1&rft.au=Jerzy+Lukowski&rft.au=W.+H.+Zawadzki&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DNpMxTvBuWHYC%26pg%3DPA96&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APartitions+of+Poland" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-lz-16"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-lz_16-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJerzy_LukowskiW._H._Zawadzki2001" class="citation book cs1">Jerzy Lukowski; W. H. Zawadzki (2001). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=NpMxTvBuWHYC&pg=PA103"><i>A Concise History of Poland: Jerzy Lukowski and Hubert Zawadzki</i></a>. Cambridge University Press. pp. 101–103. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-521-55917-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-521-55917-1"><bdi>978-0-521-55917-1</bdi></a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">January 8,</span> 2013</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+Concise+History+of+Poland%3A+Jerzy+Lukowski+and+Hubert+Zawadzki&rft.pages=101-103&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2001&rft.isbn=978-0-521-55917-1&rft.au=Jerzy+Lukowski&rft.au=W.+H.+Zawadzki&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DNpMxTvBuWHYC%26pg%3DPA103&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APartitions+of+Poland" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Wandycz2001-17"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Wandycz2001_17-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Wandycz2001_17-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPiotr_Stefan_Wandycz2001" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Piotr_S._Wandycz" title="Piotr S. Wandycz">Piotr Stefan Wandycz</a> (2001). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=E8H08OiOouoC&pg=PA133"><i>The Price of Freedom: A History of East Central Europe from the Middle Ages to the Present</i></a>. Taylor & Francis Group. pp. 133–. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-415-25490-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-415-25490-8"><bdi>978-0-415-25490-8</bdi></a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">January 8,</span> 2013</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Price+of+Freedom%3A+A+History+of+East+Central+Europe+from+the+Middle+Ages+to+the+Present&rft.pages=133-&rft.pub=Taylor+%26+Francis+Group&rft.date=2001&rft.isbn=978-0-415-25490-8&rft.au=Piotr+Stefan+Wandycz&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DE8H08OiOouoC%26pg%3DPA133&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APartitions+of+Poland" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-18"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-18">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDavies2005" class="citation book cs1">Davies, Norman (2005). <i>God's Playground. A History of Poland. The Origins to 1795</i>. Vol. I (revised ed.). Oxford University Press. p. 394. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-925339-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-925339-5"><bdi>978-0-19-925339-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=God%27s+Playground.+A+History+of+Poland.+The+Origins+to+1795&rft.pages=394&rft.edition=revised&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2005&rft.isbn=978-0-19-925339-5&rft.aulast=Davies&rft.aufirst=Norman&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APartitions+of+Poland" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-19"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-19">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">"Po przyłączeniu do obwodu białostockiego w 1807 roku do cesartwa i utworzeniu osiem lat później Królestwa Polskiego wnuk Katarzyny zjednoczył pod swoim berłem około 82% przedrozbiorowego terytorium Rzeczypospolitej (dla porównania – Austria 11%, Prusy 7%). "[in:] Basil Kerski, Andrzej Stanisław Kowalczyk. Realiści z wyobraźnią. <a href="/wiki/Maria_Curie-Sk%C5%82odowska_University" title="Maria Curie-Skłodowska University">Uniwersytet Marii Curie-Skłodowskiej</a>. 2007 page. 318 <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-83-227-2620-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-83-227-2620-4">978-83-227-2620-4</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-LRJohnson-20"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-LRJohnson_20-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJohnson1996" class="citation book cs1">Johnson, Lonnie R. (1996). <span class="id-lock-registration" title="Free registration required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/isbn_9780195100716"><i>Central Europe: Enemies, Neighbors, Friends</i></a></span>. Oxford University Press. pp. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/isbn_9780195100716/page/127">127</a>–128. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-19-510071-9" title="Special:BookSources/0-19-510071-9"><bdi>0-19-510071-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Central+Europe%3A+Enemies%2C+Neighbors%2C+Friends&rft.pages=127-128&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=1996&rft.isbn=0-19-510071-9&rft.aulast=Johnson&rft.aufirst=Lonnie+R.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fisbn_9780195100716&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APartitions+of+Poland" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Wandycz-21"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Wandycz_21-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Wandycz_21-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPiotr_Stefan_Wandycz2001" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Piotr_S._Wandycz" title="Piotr S. Wandycz">Piotr Stefan Wandycz</a> (2001). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=E8H08OiOouoC&q=%22percent+of+the+population%22&pg=PA133"><i>The Price of Freedom: A History of East Central Europe from the Middle Ages to the Present</i></a>. Routledge. p. 133. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-415-25491-4" title="Special:BookSources/0-415-25491-4"><bdi>0-415-25491-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Price+of+Freedom%3A+A+History+of+East+Central+Europe+from+the+Middle+Ages+to+the+Present&rft.pages=133&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=2001&rft.isbn=0-415-25491-4&rft.au=Piotr+Stefan+Wandycz&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DE8H08OiOouoC%26q%3D%2522percent%2Bof%2Bthe%2Bpopulation%2522%26pg%3DPA133&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APartitions+of+Poland" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-WHZaw-22"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-WHZaw_22-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFZawadzki1993" class="citation book cs1">Zawadzki, W. H. (1993). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=hwZASJRHjLIC&q=Polish+romantic+revolutionaries&pg=PA330"><i>A Man of Honour: Adam Czartoryski as a Statesman of Russia and Poland, 1795–1831</i></a>. Oxford University Press. p. 330. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-19-820303-9" title="Special:BookSources/0-19-820303-9"><bdi>0-19-820303-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+Man+of+Honour%3A+Adam+Czartoryski+as+a+Statesman+of+Russia+and+Poland%2C+1795%E2%80%931831&rft.pages=330&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=1993&rft.isbn=0-19-820303-9&rft.aulast=Zawadzki&rft.aufirst=W.+H.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DhwZASJRHjLIC%26q%3DPolish%2Bromantic%2Brevolutionaries%26pg%3DPA330&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APartitions+of+Poland" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-StefanAuer-23"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-StefanAuer_23-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAuer2004" class="citation book cs1">Auer, Stefan (2004). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=b2IRot3UaQ0C&q=Polish+romantic+revolutionaries&pg=RA2-PA60"><i>Liberal Nationalism in Central Europe</i></a>. Routledge. p. 60. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-415-31479-8" title="Special:BookSources/0-415-31479-8"><bdi>0-415-31479-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Liberal+Nationalism+in+Central+Europe&rft.pages=60&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=2004&rft.isbn=0-415-31479-8&rft.aulast=Auer&rft.aufirst=Stefan&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Db2IRot3UaQ0C%26q%3DPolish%2Bromantic%2Brevolutionaries%26pg%3DRA2-PA60&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APartitions+of+Poland" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-DieterDowe-24"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-DieterDowe_24-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-DieterDowe_24-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDowe2001" class="citation book cs1">Dowe, Dieter (2001). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=B3qRFCn5CHoC&q=Polish+romantic+revolutionaries&pg=PA180"><i>Europe in 1848: Revolution and Reform</i></a>. Berghahn. p. 180. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/1-57181-164-8" title="Special:BookSources/1-57181-164-8"><bdi>1-57181-164-8</bdi></a>. <q>While it is often and quite justifiably remarked that there was hardly a barricade or battlefield in Europe between 1830 and 1870 where no Poles were fighting, this is especially true for the revolution of 1848/1849.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Europe+in+1848%3A+Revolution+and+Reform&rft.pages=180&rft.pub=Berghahn&rft.date=2001&rft.isbn=1-57181-164-8&rft.aulast=Dowe&rft.aufirst=Dieter&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DB3qRFCn5CHoC%26q%3DPolish%2Bromantic%2Brevolutionaries%26pg%3DPA180&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APartitions+of+Poland" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Carrib-25"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Carrib_25-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPachonskiWilson1986" class="citation book cs1">Pachonski, Jan; Wilson, Reuel K. (1986). <i>Poland's Caribbean Tragedy: A Study of Polish Legions in the Haitian War of Independence 1802–1803</i>. East European Monographs/Columbia University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-88033-093-7" title="Special:BookSources/0-88033-093-7"><bdi>0-88033-093-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Poland%27s+Caribbean+Tragedy%3A+A+Study+of+Polish+Legions+in+the+Haitian+War+of+Independence+1802%E2%80%931803&rft.pub=East+European+Monographs%2FColumbia+University+Press&rft.date=1986&rft.isbn=0-88033-093-7&rft.aulast=Pachonski&rft.aufirst=Jan&rft.au=Wilson%2C+Reuel+K.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APartitions+of+Poland" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-NapSoc-26"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-NapSoc_26-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFedosova1998" class="citation journal cs1">Fedosova, Elena I. (1998). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.napoleon-series.org/ins/scholarship98/c_polish.html">"Polish Projects of Napoleon Bonaparte"</a>. <i>Journal of the International Napoleonic Society</i>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+the+International+Napoleonic+Society&rft.atitle=Polish+Projects+of+Napoleon+Bonaparte&rft.date=1998&rft.aulast=Fedosova&rft.aufirst=Elena+I.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.napoleon-series.org%2Fins%2Fscholarship98%2Fc_polish.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APartitions+of+Poland" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Fofay-27"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Fofay_27-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.globalprovince.com/ghl.htm">Gods, Heroes, & Legends</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Brecher-28"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Brecher_28-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBrecherWilkenfeld1997" class="citation book cs1">Brecher, Michael; Wilkenfeld, Jonathan (1997). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=GjY7aV_6FPwC&q=Zeligowski+state&pg=PA255"><i>A Study of Crisis</i></a>. University of Michigan Press. p. 255. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-472-10806-9" title="Special:BookSources/0-472-10806-9"><bdi>0-472-10806-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+Study+of+Crisis&rft.pages=255&rft.pub=University+of+Michigan+Press&rft.date=1997&rft.isbn=0-472-10806-9&rft.aulast=Brecher&rft.aufirst=Michael&rft.au=Wilkenfeld%2C+Jonathan&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DGjY7aV_6FPwC%26q%3DZeligowski%2Bstate%26pg%3DPA255&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APartitions+of+Poland" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-29"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-29">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Norman Davies. <i>God's Playground: A History of Poland: 1795 to the Present</i>. <a href="/wiki/Oxford_University_Press" title="Oxford University Press">Oxford University Press</a>. 2005. pp. 218, 225, 284, 321.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-30"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-30">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCygan1998" class="citation journal cs1">Cygan, Mary (1998). "Inventing Polonia: Notions of Polish American Identity, 1870–1990". <i>Prospects</i>. <b>23</b>: 209–246. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1017%2FS0361233300006335">10.1017/S0361233300006335</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Prospects&rft.atitle=Inventing+Polonia%3A+Notions+of+Polish+American+Identity%2C+1870%E2%80%931990&rft.volume=23&rft.pages=209-246&rft.date=1998&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1017%2FS0361233300006335&rft.aulast=Cygan&rft.aufirst=Mary&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APartitions+of+Poland" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-31"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-31">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLopata1994" class="citation book cs1">Lopata, Helena Znaniecka (1994). <i>Polish Americans</i>. Transaction.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Polish+Americans&rft.pub=Transaction&rft.date=1994&rft.aulast=Lopata&rft.aufirst=Helena+Znaniecka&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APartitions+of+Poland" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Davies:Europe-32"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Davies:Europe_32-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Davies:Europe_32-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Davies:Europe_32-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDavies1996" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Norman_Davies" title="Norman Davies">Davies, Norman</a> (1996). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/europehistory00davi_0/page/842"><i>Europe: A History</i></a>. Oxford University Press. p. 661. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-19-820171-0" title="Special:BookSources/0-19-820171-0"><bdi>0-19-820171-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Europe%3A+A+History&rft.pages=661&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=1996&rft.isbn=0-19-820171-0&rft.aulast=Davies&rft.aufirst=Norman&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Feuropehistory00davi_0%2Fpage%2F842&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APartitions+of+Poland" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-NowakSarmatia-33"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-NowakSarmatia_33-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-NowakSarmatia_33-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFNowak1997" class="citation journal cs1"><a href="/wiki/Andrzej_Nowak_(historian)" title="Andrzej Nowak (historian)">Nowak, Andrzej</a> (1997). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.ruf.rice.edu/~sarmatia/197/Nowak.html">"The Russo-Polish Historical Confrontation"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/Sarmatian_Review" title="Sarmatian Review">Sarmatian Review</a></i>. <b>XVII</b> (1).</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Sarmatian+Review&rft.atitle=The+Russo-Polish+Historical+Confrontation&rft.volume=XVII&rft.issue=1&rft.date=1997&rft.aulast=Nowak&rft.aufirst=Andrzej&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.ruf.rice.edu%2F~sarmatia%2F197%2FNowak.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APartitions+of+Poland" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Army_Duchy-34"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Army_Duchy_34-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://web2.airmail.net/napoleon/polish_army.html">The Army of Grand Duchy of Warsaw</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20051214183008/http://web2.airmail.net/napoleon/polish_army.html">Archived</a> 2005-12-14 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Buffalohist3May-35"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Buffalohist3May_35-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBucki" class="citation web cs1">Bucki, Carl L. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20081205130036/http://info-poland.buffalo.edu/classroom/constitution.html">"The Constitution of May 3, 1791"</a>. History of Poland. University of Buffalo. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://info-poland.buffalo.edu/classroom/constitution.html">the original</a> on December 5, 2008.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=The+Constitution+of+May+3%2C+1791&rft.series=History+of+Poland&rft.pub=University+of+Buffalo&rft.aulast=Bucki&rft.aufirst=Carl+L.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Finfo-poland.buffalo.edu%2Fclassroom%2Fconstitution.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APartitions+of+Poland" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Schroeder-36"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Schroeder_36-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSchroeder1996" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Paul_W._Schroeder" title="Paul W. Schroeder">Schroeder, Paul W.</a> (1996). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=BS2z3iGPCigC&dq=Poland+%22constitutional+monarchy%22&pg=PA84"><i>The Transformation of European Politics 1763–1848</i></a>. Oxford University Press. p. 84. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-19-820654-2" title="Special:BookSources/0-19-820654-2"><bdi>0-19-820654-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Transformation+of+European+Politics+1763%E2%80%931848&rft.pages=84&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=1996&rft.isbn=0-19-820654-2&rft.aulast=Schroeder&rft.aufirst=Paul+W.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DBS2z3iGPCigC%26dq%3DPoland%2B%2522constitutional%2Bmonarchy%2522%26pg%3DPA84&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APartitions+of+Poland" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-GRussell-37"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-GRussell_37-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRussell2003" class="citation book cs1">Russell, Geoffrey (2003). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=uxi8h67Siy4C&dq=justifications+for+the+partitions+of+Poland&pg=RA1-PA548"><i>The Making of Modern Europe, 1648–1780</i></a>. Routledge. p. 548. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-415-30155-6" title="Special:BookSources/0-415-30155-6"><bdi>0-415-30155-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Making+of+Modern+Europe%2C+1648%E2%80%931780&rft.pages=548&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=2003&rft.isbn=0-415-30155-6&rft.aulast=Russell&rft.aufirst=Geoffrey&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Duxi8h67Siy4C%26dq%3Djustifications%2Bfor%2Bthe%2Bpartitions%2Bof%2BPoland%26pg%3DRA1-PA548&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APartitions+of+Poland" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Dav283-38"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Dav283_38-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDavies2005" class="citation book cs1">Davies, Norman (2005). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=b912JnKpYTkC&q=the+coincidence+of+view&pg=RA1-PA283"><i>God's Playground: A History of Poland in Two Volumes</i></a>. Oxford University Press. p. 283. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-19-925339-0" title="Special:BookSources/0-19-925339-0"><bdi>0-19-925339-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=God%27s+Playground%3A+A+History+of+Poland+in+Two+Volumes&rft.pages=283&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2005&rft.isbn=0-19-925339-0&rft.aulast=Davies&rft.aufirst=Norman&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Db912JnKpYTkC%26q%3Dthe%2Bcoincidence%2Bof%2Bview%26pg%3DRA1-PA283&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APartitions+of+Poland" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-39"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-39">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">E.g., <a href="/wiki/Sergey_Solovyov_(historian)" title="Sergey Solovyov (historian)">Sergey Solovyov</a>'s <i>History of the Downfall of Poland</i> (Moscow, 1863).</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-40"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-40">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">N. M. Karamzin. <span title="Russian-language text"><span lang="ru" style="font-style: normal;"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://rys-arhipelag.ucoz.ru/publ/6-1-0-133">"Записка о древней и новой России в ее политическом и гражданском отношениях"</a></span></span> [Notes on old and new Russia in its political and civil relations].<sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources#What_information_to_include" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources"><span title="A complete citation is needed. (November 2023)">full citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-41"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-41">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRiasanovsky1952" class="citation journal cs1">Riasanovsky, Nicholas V. (1952). "Old Russia, the Soviet Union and Eastern Europe". <i>American Slavic and East European Review</i>. <b>11</b> (3): 171–188. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2307%2F2491975">10.2307/2491975</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/2491975">2491975</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=American+Slavic+and+East+European+Review&rft.atitle=Old+Russia%2C+the+Soviet+Union+and+Eastern+Europe&rft.volume=11&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=171-188&rft.date=1952&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2307%2F2491975&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F2491975%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.aulast=Riasanovsky&rft.aufirst=Nicholas+V.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APartitions+of+Poland" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-42"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-42">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPhillimore1854" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Robert_Phillimore" title="Robert Phillimore">Phillimore, Robert</a> (1854). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/commentariesupo05philgoog/page/n324"><i>Commentaries Upon International Law</i></a>. T. & J. W. Johnson. p. 819.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Commentaries+Upon+International+Law&rft.pages=819&rft.pub=T.+%26+J.+W.+Johnson&rft.date=1854&rft.aulast=Phillimore&rft.aufirst=Robert&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fcommentariesupo05philgoog%2Fpage%2Fn324&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APartitions+of+Poland" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Oppen-43"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Oppen_43-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKorman1996" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Sharon_Korman&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Sharon Korman (page does not exist)">Korman, Sharon</a> (1996). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=ueDO1dJyjrUC&dq=justification+%22partitions+of+Poland%22&pg=PA101"><i>The Right of Conquest: The Acquisition of Territory by Force in International Law and Practice</i></a>. Oxford University Press. p. 101. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-19-828007-6" title="Special:BookSources/0-19-828007-6"><bdi>0-19-828007-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Right+of+Conquest%3A+The+Acquisition+of+Territory+by+Force+in+International+Law+and+Practice&rft.pages=101&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=1996&rft.isbn=0-19-828007-6&rft.aulast=Korman&rft.aufirst=Sharon&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DueDO1dJyjrUC%26dq%3Djustification%2B%2522partitions%2Bof%2BPoland%2522%26pg%3DPA101&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APartitions+of+Poland" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-44"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-44">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://original.britannica.com/eb/article-28200/Poland">Poland The First Partition</a><sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources#What_information_to_include" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources"><span title="A complete citation is needed. (November 2023)">full citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-45"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-45">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGrajewski2015" class="citation book cs1">Grajewski, Radosław Żurawski vel (2015). "Poland in the Period of Partitions 1795–1914". In Eleonora Bielawska-Batorowicz (ed.). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.worldcat.org/title/944107388"><i>Poland. History, Culture and Society. 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Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.promemoria.pl/arch/2004_15/2004_15.html">the original</a> on January 3, 2005.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Promemoria&rft.atitle=Zbiegostwo+ludno%C5%9Bci+Rosji+w+granice+Rzeczypospolitej&rft.issue=6%2F15&rft.date=2004-10&rft.issn=1509-9091&rft.aulast=Czajewski&rft.aufirst=Jerzy&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.promemoria.pl%2Farch%2F2004_15%2F2004_15.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APartitions+of+Poland" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-:0-52"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:0_52-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:0_52-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKimla2011" class="citation journal cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">Kimla, Piotr (2011). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://bazekon.icm.edu.pl/bazekon/element/bwmeta1.element.ekon-element-000171365797">"Przywary niewolników pańszczyźnianych w XVIII-wiecznej Rzeczypospolitej w relacji Huberta Vautrina"</a>. <i>Annales Universitatis Mariae Curie-Skłodowska. Sectio G. Ius</i> (in Polish). <b>58</b> (1): 87–97. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0458-4317">0458-4317</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Annales+Universitatis+Mariae+Curie-Sk%C5%82odowska.+Sectio+G.+Ius&rft.atitle=Przywary+niewolnik%C3%B3w+pa%C5%84szczy%C5%BAnianych+w+XVIII-wiecznej+Rzeczypospolitej+w+relacji+Huberta+Vautrina&rft.volume=58&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=87-97&rft.date=2011&rft.issn=0458-4317&rft.aulast=Kimla&rft.aufirst=Piotr&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fbazekon.icm.edu.pl%2Fbazekon%2Felement%2Fbwmeta1.element.ekon-element-000171365797&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APartitions+of+Poland" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-53"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-53">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.quirinale.it/qrnw/statico/simboli/inno/inno.htm">"L'Inno nazionale"</a>. Quirinale.it<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">November 17,</span> 2013</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=L%27Inno+nazionale&rft.pub=Quirinale.it&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.quirinale.it%2Fqrnw%2Fstatico%2Fsimboli%2Finno%2Finno.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APartitions+of+Poland" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Further_reading">Further reading</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Partitions_of_Poland&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Further reading"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Bibliography_of_the_history_of_Poland" title="Bibliography of the history of Poland">Bibliography of the history of Poland</a></div> <ul><li>Lewitter, L. R. "The Partitions of Poland" <i>History Today</i> (Dec 1958) 8#12 pp 813–820.</li> <li>Lewitter, Lucjan R. "The Partitions of Poland" in A. Goodwyn, ed. <i><a href="/wiki/The_New_Cambridge_Modern_History" title="The New Cambridge Modern History">The New Cambridge Modern History</a>: vol 8 1763–93</i> (1965) pp. 333–59.</li> <li>Lord, Robert. <i>The second partition of Poland; a study in diplomatic history</i> (1915) <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/secondpartitiono00lord">online</a></li> <li>Lukowski, Jerzy. <i>The Partitions of Poland 1772, 1793, 1795</i> (1998); <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.h-net.org/reviews/showrev.php?id=3315">online review</a></li> <li>McLean, Thomas. <i>The Other East and Nineteenth-Century British Literature: Imagining Poland and the Russian Empire</i> (Palgrave Macmillan, 2012) pp. 14–40.</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Partitions_of_Poland&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: External links"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1235681985">.mw-parser-output .side-box{margin:4px 0;box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #aaa;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em;background-color:var(--background-color-interactive-subtle,#f8f9fa);display:flow-root}.mw-parser-output .side-box-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{padding:0.25em 0.9em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-image{padding:2px 0 2px 0.9em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-imageright{padding:2px 0.9em 2px 0;text-align:center}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .side-box-flex{display:flex;align-items:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{flex:1;min-width:0}}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .side-box{width:238px}.mw-parser-output .side-box-right{clear:right;float:right;margin-left:1em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-left{margin-right:1em}}</style><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1237033735">@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox{display:none!important}}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox img[src*="Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg"]{background-color:white}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox img[src*="Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg"]{background-color:white}}</style><div class="side-box side-box-right plainlinks sistersitebox"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1126788409">.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul{line-height:inherit;list-style:none;margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol li,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul li{margin-bottom:0}</style> <div class="side-box-flex"> <div class="side-box-image"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/30px-Commons-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="30" height="40" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/45px-Commons-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/59px-Commons-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="1376" /></span></span></div> <div class="side-box-text plainlist">Wikimedia Commons has media related to <span style="font-weight: bold; font-style: italic;"><a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Partitions_of_Poland" class="extiw" title="commons:Category:Partitions of Poland">Partitions of Poland</a></span>.</div></div> </div> <ul><li>Krzysztof Wroński, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20070524032930/http://www.historycy.pl/Strony/Artykuly/2006%2001/Rozbiory.html">Rozbiory Polski w XVIII w. " ich uwarunkowania i skutki</a> <span class="languageicon">(in Polish)</span></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://whereispoland.com">Where Is Poland?</a>, a multimedia guide created by Culture.pl to the 123-year period during which Poland was partitioned</li></ul> <div class="navbox-styles"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1129693374">.mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul{margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt,.mw-parser-output .hlist li{margin:0;display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul 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