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Available in 25 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-25" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-language-progressive mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-language-progressive"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">25 languages</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be mw-list-item"><a href="https://be.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9F%D1%80%D1%8B%D0%B2%D0%B0%D1%82-%D0%B4%D0%B0%D1%86%D1%8D%D0%BD%D1%82" title="Прыват-дацэнт – Belarusian" lang="be" hreflang="be" data-title="Прыват-дацэнт" data-language-autonym="Беларуская" data-language-local-name="Belarusian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Беларуская</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-da mw-list-item"><a href="https://da.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jus_docendi" title="Jus docendi – Danish" lang="da" hreflang="da" data-title="Jus docendi" data-language-autonym="Dansk" data-language-local-name="Danish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Dansk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Privatdozent" title="Privatdozent – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Privatdozent" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Deutsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-et mw-list-item"><a href="https://et.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eradotsent" title="Eradotsent – Estonian" lang="et" hreflang="et" data-title="Eradotsent" data-language-autonym="Eesti" data-language-local-name="Estonian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Eesti</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-el mw-list-item"><a href="https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%A5%CF%86%CE%B7%CE%B3%CE%B7%CF%84%CE%AE%CF%82" title="Υφηγητής – Greek" lang="el" hreflang="el" data-title="Υφηγητής" data-language-autonym="Ελληνικά" data-language-local-name="Greek" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ελληνικά</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Profesor_asociado" title="Profesor asociado – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Profesor asociado" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Español</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eo mw-list-item"><a href="https://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Privatdocento" title="Privatdocento – Esperanto" lang="eo" hreflang="eo" data-title="Privatdocento" data-language-autonym="Esperanto" data-language-local-name="Esperanto" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Esperanto</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Privat-docent" title="Privat-docent – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Privat-docent" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Français</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gl mw-list-item"><a href="https://gl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Privatdozent" title="Privatdozent – Galician" lang="gl" hreflang="gl" data-title="Privatdozent" data-language-autonym="Galego" data-language-local-name="Galician" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Galego</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hy mw-list-item"><a href="https://hy.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D5%8A%D6%80%D5%AB%D5%BE%D5%A1%D5%BF-%D5%A4%D5%B8%D6%81%D5%A5%D5%B6%D5%BF" title="Պրիվատ-դոցենտ – Armenian" lang="hy" hreflang="hy" data-title="Պրիվատ-դոցենտ" data-language-autonym="Հայերեն" data-language-local-name="Armenian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Հայերեն</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Privatdozent" title="Privatdozent – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Privatdozent" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Indonesia</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he mw-list-item"><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%A4%D7%A8%D7%99%D7%91%D7%98-%D7%93%D7%95%D7%A6%D7%A0%D7%98" title="פריבט-דוצנט – Hebrew" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="פריבט-דוצנט" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="Hebrew" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>עברית</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lt mw-list-item"><a href="https://lt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Privatdocentas" title="Privatdocentas – Lithuanian" lang="lt" hreflang="lt" data-title="Privatdocentas" data-language-autonym="Lietuvių" data-language-local-name="Lithuanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Lietuvių</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Privaatdocent" title="Privaatdocent – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Privaatdocent" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Nederlands</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E7%A7%81%E8%AC%9B%E5%B8%AB" title="私講師 – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="私講師" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>日本語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-no mw-list-item"><a href="https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jus_docendi" title="Jus docendi – Norwegian Bokmål" lang="nb" hreflang="nb" data-title="Jus docendi" data-language-autonym="Norsk bokmål" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Bokmål" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk bokmål</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Privatdozent" title="Privatdozent – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="Privatdozent" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Polish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Polski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Privatdozent" title="Privatdozent – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Privatdozent" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Português</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9F%D1%80%D0%B8%D0%B2%D0%B0%D1%82-%D0%B4%D0%BE%D1%86%D0%B5%D0%BD%D1%82" title="Приват-доцент – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Приват-доцент" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Русский</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-scn mw-list-item"><a href="https://scn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Privatdozent" title="Privatdozent – Sicilian" lang="scn" hreflang="scn" data-title="Privatdozent" data-language-autonym="Sicilianu" data-language-local-name="Sicilian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Sicilianu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-simple mw-list-item"><a href="https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Privatdozent" title="Privatdozent – Simple English" lang="en-simple" hreflang="en-simple" data-title="Privatdozent" data-language-autonym="Simple English" data-language-local-name="Simple English" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Simple English</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fi mw-list-item"><a href="https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yksityisdosentti" title="Yksityisdosentti – Finnish" lang="fi" hreflang="fi" data-title="Yksityisdosentti" data-language-autonym="Suomi" data-language-local-name="Finnish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Suomi</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sv mw-list-item"><a href="https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Privatdocent" title="Privatdocent – Swedish" lang="sv" hreflang="sv" data-title="Privatdocent" data-language-autonym="Svenska" data-language-local-name="Swedish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Svenska</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tr mw-list-item"><a href="https://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Privatdozent" title="Privatdozent – Turkish" lang="tr" hreflang="tr" data-title="Privatdozent" data-language-autonym="Türkçe" data-language-local-name="Turkish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Türkçe</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uk mw-list-item"><a href="https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9F%D1%80%D0%B8%D0%B2%D0%B0%D1%82-%D0%B4%D0%BE%D1%86%D0%B5%D0%BD%D1%82" title="Приват-доцент – Ukrainian" lang="uk" hreflang="uk" data-title="Приват-доцент" data-language-autonym="Українська" data-language-local-name="Ukrainian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Українська</span></a></li> </ul> <div class="after-portlet after-portlet-lang"><span class="wb-langlinks-edit wb-langlinks-link"><a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Special:EntityPage/Q1402736#sitelinks-wikipedia" title="Edit interlanguage links" class="wbc-editpage">Edit links</a></span></div> </div> </div> </div> </header> <div class="vector-page-toolbar"> <div class="vector-page-toolbar-container"> <div id="left-navigation"> <nav aria-label="Namespaces"> <div id="p-associated-pages" class="vector-menu vector-menu-tabs mw-portlet mw-portlet-associated-pages" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="ca-nstab-main" class="selected vector-tab-noicon mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Privatdozent" title="View the content page [c]" 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id="siteSub" class="noprint">From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia</div> </div> <div id="contentSub"><div id="mw-content-subtitle"></div></div> <div id="mw-content-text" class="mw-body-content"><div class="mw-content-ltr mw-parser-output" lang="en" dir="ltr"><div class="shortdescription nomobile noexcerpt noprint searchaux" style="display:none">Academic title at European universities</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Karikatur_Privatdozent_Fliegende_Bl%C3%A4tter.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b7/Karikatur_Privatdozent_Fliegende_Bl%C3%A4tter.jpg/220px-Karikatur_Privatdozent_Fliegende_Bl%C3%A4tter.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="482" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b7/Karikatur_Privatdozent_Fliegende_Bl%C3%A4tter.jpg/330px-Karikatur_Privatdozent_Fliegende_Bl%C3%A4tter.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b7/Karikatur_Privatdozent_Fliegende_Bl%C3%A4tter.jpg/440px-Karikatur_Privatdozent_Fliegende_Bl%C3%A4tter.jpg 2x" data-file-width="618" data-file-height="1353" /></a><figcaption>Caricature of a Privatdozent from German satirical periodical <i><a href="/wiki/Fliegende_Bl%C3%A4tter" title="Fliegende Blätter">Fliegende Blätter</a></i> (1848): "A German Privatdozent who, wrapped up in his hopes", turns into a mummy."</figcaption></figure> <p> <i><b>Privatdozent</b></i> (for men) or <i><b>Privatdozentin</b></i> (for women), abbreviated <b>PD</b>, <b>P.D.</b> or <b>Priv.-Doz.</b>, is an academic title conferred at some European universities, especially in German-speaking countries, to someone who holds certain formal qualifications that denote an ability (<i>facultas docendi</i>) and permission to teach (<i><a href="/wiki/Venia_legendi" class="mw-redirect" title="Venia legendi">venia legendi</a></i>) a designated subject at the highest level. To be granted the title Priv.-Doz. by a university, a recipient has to fulfill the criteria set by the university which usually require excellence in research, teaching, and further education. In its current usage, the title indicates that the holder has completed their <a href="/wiki/Habilitation" title="Habilitation">habilitation</a> and is therefore granted permission to teach and examine students independently without having a full professorship (chair). With respect to the level of academic achievement, the title of <i>Privatdozent</i> is comparable to that of Associate Professor (North America), Senior Lecturer (United Kingdom), or <i>maître de conférences détenteur de l'habilitation à diriger des recherches (HDR)</i> (France).<sup id="cite_ref-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Academics-1_3-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Academics-1-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> However, unlike the Associate Professors in North America, PD titles are not always linked to tenured academic positions and do not always imply the role of a Principal Investigator.<sup id="cite_ref-Academics-1_3-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Academics-1-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Conferment_and_roles">Conferment and roles</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Privatdozent&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Conferment and roles"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>A <a href="/wiki/Faculty_(division)" title="Faculty (division)">university faculty</a> can confer the title to an academic who has a <a href="/wiki/Doctorate#Higher_doctorate_and_post-doctoral_degrees" title="Doctorate">higher doctoral degree</a>—usually in the form of a habilitation.<sup id="cite_ref-FAZ-201202_6-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FAZ-201202-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The title, <i>Privatdozent</i>, as such does not imply a salaried appointment; it merely denotes permission to teach and examine independently at the conferring faculty without a professorial appointment. At German universities, some title holders are appointed as Senior Researchers or <i><a href="/wiki/Dozent" class="mw-redirect" title="Dozent">Dozent</a></i> (either on a <a href="/wiki/Honorarium" title="Honorarium">fee basis</a> or as tenured academic employees), while others are solely supported by externally funded research projects. </p><p>Even though many title holders are not employed by the university and do not have remuneration agreements with their conferring institution, depending on local regulations, they may be required to teach in order to maintain their status as <i>Privatdozent</i>.<sup id="cite_ref-Zeit-201003_7-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Zeit-201003-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In 2012 more than 5,000 honorarium <i>Privatdozenten</i> worked at German universities without a salary.<sup id="cite_ref-FAZ-201202_6-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FAZ-201202-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> A <i>Privatdozent</i> ceases to hold the title if appointed at professorial level or if discontinuing lecturing at the faculty. In Germany, the title can be revoked if the holder does not lecture for more than two consecutive semesters.<sup id="cite_ref-FAZ-201202_6-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FAZ-201202-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="History_and_future">History and future</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Privatdozent&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: History and future"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The title has its origins in German-speaking countries in Europe before 1800. It referred to a lecturer who received fees from his students rather than a university salary. </p><p>In <a href="/wiki/Prussia" title="Prussia">Prussia</a> it started around 1810, and became established around 1860. From 1900 until 1968, most university professors who were appointed were title holders, as they obtained a habilitation and already held a teaching position.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (June 2016)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p>Since the end of the 1960s, the requirement of a post-doctoral degree for a professorship in Germany has been questioned and in some cases is not necessary. In 2002, junior professorships were introduced, providing a route to a professorship without habilitation; the habilitation is no longer the gold standard against which other qualifications are measured during the appointment process. This has led to a decline in universities conferring the title <i>Privatdozent</i> in certain academic disciplines.<sup id="cite_ref-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Privatdozent&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-1">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite id="CITEREFVargasRomanos2022" class="citation journal cs1">Vargas, Nikoletta; Romanos, Georgios E. (June 2022). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC9221956">"Dental Academic Degrees in Germany Compared to the USA"</a>. <i>Dentistry Journal</i>. <b>10</b> (6): 98. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.3390%2Fdj10060098">10.3390/dj10060098</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/2304-6767">2304-6767</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC9221956">9221956</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/35735640">35735640</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Dentistry+Journal&rft.atitle=Dental+Academic+Degrees+in+Germany+Compared+to+the+USA&rft.volume=10&rft.issue=6&rft.pages=98&rft.date=2022-06&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC9221956%23id-name%3DPMC&rft.issn=2304-6767&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F35735640&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.3390%2Fdj10060098&rft.aulast=Vargas&rft.aufirst=Nikoletta&rft.au=Romanos%2C+Georgios+E.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC9221956&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APrivatdozent" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-2">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFrench_Ministry_of_Higher_Education_and_Research2011" class="citation web cs1">French Ministry of Higher Education and Research (10 February 2011). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.galaxie.enseignementsup-recherche.gouv.fr/ensup/pdf/EC_pays_etrangers/Tableau_comparaison_au_26_septembre_2012.pdf">"Comparaison des carrières des enseignants-chercheurs de pays étrangers"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Comparaison+des+carri%C3%A8res+des+enseignants-chercheurs+de+pays+%C3%A9trangers&rft.date=2011-02-10&rft.au=French+Ministry+of+Higher+Education+and+Research&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.galaxie.enseignementsup-recherche.gouv.fr%2Fensup%2Fpdf%2FEC_pays_etrangers%2FTableau_comparaison_au_26_septembre_2012.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APrivatdozent" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Academics-1-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Academics-1_3-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Academics-1_3-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.academics.com/guide/professor-austria">"Professorship in Austria"</a>. <i>academics.com</i>. 17 August 2023<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">21 August</span> 2023</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=academics.com&rft.atitle=Professorship+in+Austria&rft.date=2023-08-17&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.academics.com%2Fguide%2Fprofessor-austria&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APrivatdozent" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-4">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.dict.cc/german-english/Privatdozent.html">"dict.cc dictionary :: Privatdozent :: German-English translation"</a>. <i>www.dict.cc</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">21 August</span> 2023</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=www.dict.cc&rft.atitle=dict.cc+dictionary+%3A%3A+Privatdozent+%3A%3A+German-English+translation&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.dict.cc%2Fgerman-english%2FPrivatdozent.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APrivatdozent" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-5">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAlawiLuketinaKrezdornBusch2019" class="citation journal cs1">Alawi, Seyed Arash; Luketina, Rosalia; Krezdorn, Nicco; Busch, Lukas Fabian; Limbourg, Anne; Branski, Ludwik; Vogt, Peter M.; Jokuszies, Andreas (1 September 2019). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC6817728">"How to become a medical professor – a comparative analysis of academic requirements in Germany and the United States"</a>. <i>Innovative Surgical Sciences</i>. <b>4</b> (3): 108–115. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1515%2Fiss-2019-0011">10.1515/iss-2019-0011</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/2364-7485">2364-7485</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC6817728">6817728</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/31709302">31709302</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Innovative+Surgical+Sciences&rft.atitle=How+to+become+a+medical+professor+%E2%80%93+a+comparative+analysis+of+academic+requirements+in+Germany+and+the+United+States&rft.volume=4&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=108-115&rft.date=2019-09-01&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC6817728%23id-name%3DPMC&rft.issn=2364-7485&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F31709302&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1515%2Fiss-2019-0011&rft.aulast=Alawi&rft.aufirst=Seyed+Arash&rft.au=Luketina%2C+Rosalia&rft.au=Krezdorn%2C+Nicco&rft.au=Busch%2C+Lukas+Fabian&rft.au=Limbourg%2C+Anne&rft.au=Branski%2C+Ludwik&rft.au=Vogt%2C+Peter+M.&rft.au=Jokuszies%2C+Andreas&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC6817728&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APrivatdozent" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FAZ-201202-6"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FAZ-201202_6-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FAZ-201202_6-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FAZ-201202_6-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLaube2012" class="citation news cs1">Laube, Stefan (29 February 2012). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.faz.net/aktuell/feuilleton/forschung-und-lehre/akademischer-alltag-privatdozenten-sind-das-uni-prekariat-11657573.html">"<i>Privatdozenten sind das Uni-Prekariat </i>"</a> [Precarity of Privatdozenten]. <i>FAZ</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. 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