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</ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Beginning_of_the_Cold_War,_1945–1950" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Beginning_of_the_Cold_War,_1945–1950"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> <span>Beginning of the Cold War, 1945–1950</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Beginning_of_the_Cold_War,_1945–1950-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Beginning of the Cold War, 1945–1950 subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Beginning_of_the_Cold_War,_1945–1950-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Escalating_tensions,_1945–1946" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Escalating_tensions,_1945–1946"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.1</span> <span>Escalating tensions, 1945–1946</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Escalating_tensions,_1945–1946-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Truman_Doctrine" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Truman_Doctrine"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.2</span> <span>Truman Doctrine</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Truman_Doctrine-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Military_reorganization_and_budgets" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Military_reorganization_and_budgets"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.3</span> <span>Military reorganization and budgets</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Military_reorganization_and_budgets-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Marshall_Plan" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Marshall_Plan"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.4</span> <span>Marshall Plan</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Marshall_Plan-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Berlin_airlift" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Berlin_airlift"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.5</span> <span>Berlin airlift</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Berlin_airlift-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-NATO" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#NATO"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.6</span> <span>NATO</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-NATO-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Spain" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Spain"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.7</span> <span>Spain</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Spain-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Point_Four:_technological_aid_to_poor_countries" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Point_Four:_technological_aid_to_poor_countries"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.8</span> <span>Point Four: technological aid to poor countries</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Point_Four:_technological_aid_to_poor_countries-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-German_rearmament" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#German_rearmament"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.9</span> <span>German rearmament</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-German_rearmament-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-NSC-68_in_1950" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#NSC-68_in_1950"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.9.1</span> <span>NSC-68 in 1950</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-NSC-68_in_1950-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Latin_America" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Latin_America"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>Latin America</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Latin_America-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Asia" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Asia"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6</span> <span>Asia</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Asia-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Asia subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Asia-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Recognition_of_Israel" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Recognition_of_Israel"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.1</span> <span>Recognition of Israel</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Recognition_of_Israel-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-China" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#China"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.2</span> <span>China</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-China-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Japan" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Japan"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.3</span> <span>Japan</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Japan-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Southeast_Asia" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Southeast_Asia"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.4</span> <span>Southeast Asia</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Southeast_Asia-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Korean_War" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Korean_War"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7</span> <span>Korean War</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Korean_War-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Korean War subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Korean_War-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Outbreak_of_the_war" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Outbreak_of_the_war"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7.1</span> <span>Outbreak of the war</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Outbreak_of_the_war-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-China_pushes_back;_stalemate" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#China_pushes_back;_stalemate"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7.2</span> <span>China pushes back; stalemate</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-China_pushes_back;_stalemate-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Dismissal_of_MacArthur" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Dismissal_of_MacArthur"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7.3</span> <span>Dismissal of MacArthur</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Dismissal_of_MacArthur-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-International_trips" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#International_trips"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8</span> <span>International trips</span> 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vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">12</span> <span>References</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-References-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle References subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Works_cited" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Works_cited"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">12.1</span> <span>Works cited</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Works_cited-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Further_reading" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Further_reading"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">13</span> 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</div> </div> <div id="bodyContent" class="vector-body" aria-labelledby="firstHeading" data-mw-ve-target-container> <div class="vector-body-before-content"> <div class="mw-indicators"> </div> <div id="siteSub" class="noprint">From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia</div> </div> <div id="contentSub"><div id="mw-content-subtitle"></div></div> <div id="mw-content-text" class="mw-body-content"><div class="mw-content-ltr mw-parser-output" lang="en" dir="ltr"><p class="mw-empty-elt"> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:TRUMAN_58-766-06_(cropped).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0b/TRUMAN_58-766-06_%28cropped%29.jpg/220px-TRUMAN_58-766-06_%28cropped%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="297" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0b/TRUMAN_58-766-06_%28cropped%29.jpg/330px-TRUMAN_58-766-06_%28cropped%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0b/TRUMAN_58-766-06_%28cropped%29.jpg/440px-TRUMAN_58-766-06_%28cropped%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="1215" /></a><figcaption>President <a href="/wiki/Harry_S._Truman" title="Harry S. Truman">Harry S. Truman</a> directed U.S. foreign policy from 1945 to 1953. His main advisor was <a href="/wiki/Dean_Acheson" title="Dean Acheson">Dean Acheson</a></figcaption></figure> <p>The main issues of the <a href="/wiki/United_States_foreign_policy" class="mw-redirect" title="United States foreign policy">United States foreign policy</a> during the 1945–1953 <a href="/wiki/Presidency_of_Harry_S._Truman" title="Presidency of Harry S. Truman">presidency of Harry S. Truman</a> include:<sup id="cite_ref-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <ul><li>Final stages of World War II included the challenge of defeating Japan with minimal American casualties. Truman asked Moscow to invade from the north, and decided to drop two atomic bombs.<sup id="cite_ref-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>Post-war Reconstruction: Following the end of World War II, Truman faced the task of rebuilding Europe and Japan. He implemented the <a href="/wiki/Marshall_Plan" title="Marshall Plan">Marshall Plan</a> to provide economic aid to Europe and Washington supervised the reconstruction of Japan.<sup id="cite_ref-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>Formation of the <a href="/wiki/United_Nations" title="United Nations">United Nations</a>: Truman played a key role in the formation of the United Nations, which was established in 1945 to promote international cooperation and prevent another world war. Because of the Soviet veto, it was ineffective in most major disputes.<sup id="cite_ref-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cold_War" title="Cold War">Cold War</a>: Truman led the nation into the Cold War in 1947, a period of heightened tensions and rivalry between the United States and the Soviet Union. Truman helped form the <a href="/wiki/NATO" title="NATO">NATO</a> military alliance. He implemented the policy of <a href="/wiki/Containment" title="Containment">containment</a>, which aimed to stop the spread of communism and limit Soviet influence around the world.<sup id="cite_ref-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Korean_War" title="Korean War">Korean War</a>: In 1950, North Korea invaded South Korea, leading to a bloody conflict that lasted until 1953. Truman authorized U.S. military intervention in the conflict, which led to a protracted and costly war. He rejected the advice of General <a href="/wiki/Douglas_MacArthur" title="Douglas MacArthur">Douglas MacArthur</a>, and fired him in 1951.<sup id="cite_ref-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_arms_race" title="Nuclear arms race">Nuclear arms race</a>: Truman made the decision to build the hydrogen bomb. He oversaw the development of the U.S. nuclear arsenal and the start of the nuclear arms race with the Soviet Union, which had far-reaching implications for U.S. foreign policy.<sup id="cite_ref-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li></ul> <p>Taking office in April 1945 in the last stages of winning <a href="/wiki/Diplomatic_history_of_World_War_II" title="Diplomatic history of World War II">World War II</a>, Truman worked with <a href="/wiki/World_War_II_Allies" class="mw-redirect" title="World War II Allies">the main American Allies</a>, especially Britain, the <a href="/wiki/Soviet_Union" title="Soviet Union">Soviet Union</a> and <a href="/wiki/China" title="China">China</a>. He distrusted the Soviets. The challenges were to achieve victory over Germany and Japan; deal with the chaos in Europe and Asia in the <a href="/wiki/Aftermath_of_World_War_II" title="Aftermath of World War II">aftermath of World War II</a>; handle the beginning of the <a href="/wiki/Cold_War" title="Cold War">Cold War</a> with the USSR; and launch new international organizations such as the <a href="/wiki/United_Nations" title="United Nations">United Nations</a> and the <a href="/wiki/World_Bank" title="World Bank">World Bank</a>. Truman's presidency was a turning point in foreign affairs, as the United States engaged in a <a href="/wiki/Liberal_internationalist" class="mw-redirect" title="Liberal internationalist">liberal internationalist</a> foreign policy and renounced <a href="/wiki/United_States_non-interventionism" title="United States non-interventionism">isolationism</a> by engaging in a long global conflict with the <a href="/wiki/Soviet_Union" title="Soviet Union">Soviet Union</a> and its allies, forming <a href="/wiki/NATO" title="NATO">NATO</a>, and fighting China in the <a href="/wiki/Korean_War" title="Korean War">Korean War</a> to a deadlock. </p><p>Truman took office upon the death of <a href="/wiki/Presidency_of_Franklin_D._Roosevelt,_third_and_fourth_terms" title="Presidency of Franklin D. Roosevelt, third and fourth terms">Franklin D. Roosevelt</a> during the final months of war. Until then Truman had little interest in foreign affairs and no knowledge of Roosevelt's plans. He relied heavily on advisers like <a href="/wiki/George_C._Marshall" title="George C. Marshall">George Marshall</a> and <a href="/wiki/Dean_Acheson" title="Dean Acheson">Dean Acheson</a>, both of whom served as <a href="/wiki/United_States_Secretary_of_State" title="United States Secretary of State">Secretary of State</a>. Germany surrendered days after Truman took office, but Japan initially refused to surrender or negotiate. In order to force Japan's surrender without resorting to an <a href="/wiki/Operation_Downfall" title="Operation Downfall">invasion of the main Japanese islands</a>, Truman approved of plans to <a href="/wiki/Atomic_bombings_of_Hiroshima_and_Nagasaki" title="Atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki">drop atomic bombs</a> on two Japanese cities. Even before Germany and Japan surrendered, the Truman administration worked with Moscow, London and other <a href="/wiki/Allies_of_World_War_II" title="Allies of World War II">Allies</a> to establish post-war international institutions and agreements. Most hope was placed in the United Nations until Moscow's veto made it ineffective. In economics there was the <a href="/wiki/International_Refugee_Organization" title="International Refugee Organization">International Refugee Organization</a>, and the <a href="/wiki/General_Agreement_on_Tariffs_and_Trade" title="General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade">General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade</a>. The Truman administration embarked on a policy of rebuilding democracy and the economy in Japan and <a href="/wiki/West_Germany" title="West Germany">West Germany</a>. It acted practically alone in Japan, and with Moscow, London and Paris in Germany. </p><p>Tensions between the United States and the Soviet Union escalated after 1945, and by 1947 the two countries had entered a sustained period of geopolitical tension known as the <a href="/wiki/Cold_War" title="Cold War">Cold War</a>. Truman adopted a policy of <a href="/wiki/Containment" title="Containment">containment</a>, in which the U.S. would attempt to prevent the spread of Communism but would not actively seek to regain territory already lost to Communism. He also announced the <a href="/wiki/Truman_Doctrine" title="Truman Doctrine">Truman Doctrine</a>, a policy of aiding countries in danger of falling to Communism. Pursuant to this doctrine, Truman convinced Congress to provide an unprecedented aid package to <a href="/wiki/Greece" title="Greece">Greece</a> and <a href="/wiki/Turkey" title="Turkey">Turkey</a>, overcoming opposition from isolationists and some on the left who favored more conciliatory policies towards the Soviet Union. The following year, Truman convinced Congress to approve the <a href="/wiki/Marshall_Plan" title="Marshall Plan">Marshall Plan</a>, $13 billion aid package enacted to rebuild Western Europe. In 1949, the U.S., Canada, and several European countries signed the <a href="/wiki/North_Atlantic_Treaty" title="North Atlantic Treaty">North Atlantic Treaty</a>, establishing the <a href="/wiki/NATO" title="NATO">NATO</a> military alliance. Meanwhile, domestic fears of Soviet espionage led to a <a href="/wiki/Red_Scare" title="Red Scare">Red Scare</a> and the rise of <a href="/wiki/McCarthyism" title="McCarthyism">McCarthyism</a> in the United States. </p><p>The Truman administration attempted to mediate the <a href="/wiki/Chinese_Civil_War" title="Chinese Civil War">Chinese Civil War</a> and failed. The Communist forces under <a href="/wiki/Mao_Zedong" title="Mao Zedong">Mao Zedong</a> took control of <a href="/wiki/Mainland_China" title="Mainland China">Mainland China</a> in 1949. In June 1950 Communist <a href="/wiki/North_Korea" title="North Korea">North Korea</a> invaded <a href="/wiki/South_Korea" title="South Korea">South Korea</a> in an attempt to reunify the country. Acting under the aegis of the United Nations, the U.S. intervened, defeated the invaders, and prepared to unify Korea UN terms. However, in late 1950 millions of Chinese soldiers entered Korea and pushed the allies back. The war settled into a stalemate along a line close to its starting point. Truman left office quite unpopular, but scholars generally consider him to be an <a href="/wiki/Historical_rankings_of_presidents_of_the_United_States" title="Historical rankings of presidents of the United States">above average president</a>, and his administration has been credited for establishing Cold War policies that contained the Soviets. </p> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1129693374">.mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul{margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt,.mw-parser-output .hlist li{margin:0;display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist 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href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1214851843"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1214851843"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1214851843"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1214851843"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1214851843"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1214851843"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1214851843"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1214851843"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1214851843"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1214851843"><table class="sidebar nomobile sidebar-person vcard hlist" style="border-color: #d69d36"><tbody><tr><th class="sidebar-title"><table><tbody><tr> <td class="sidebar-person-title-image" style="background-color: #002466;color:inherit;"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Harry_Truman_face_(cropped).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/79/Harry_Truman_face_%28cropped%29.jpg/75px-Harry_Truman_face_%28cropped%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="75" height="98" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/79/Harry_Truman_face_%28cropped%29.jpg/113px-Harry_Truman_face_%28cropped%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/79/Harry_Truman_face_%28cropped%29.jpg/150px-Harry_Truman_face_%28cropped%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="632" data-file-height="826" /></a></span></td> <td class="sidebar-person-title" style="background-color: #002466;color: #FFF;"><div><span class="tmp-color" style="color: #FFF">This article is part of <br />a series about</span></div><span class="vcard"><span class="fn"><a href="/wiki/Harry_S._Truman" title="Harry S. Truman"><span class="tmpl-colored-link" style="color: #FFF; text-decoration: inherit;">Harry S. Truman</span></a></span></span></td> </tr></tbody></table></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Harry_S._Truman#Early_life,_family,_and_education" title="Harry S. Truman">Early life</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Electoral_history_of_Harry_S._Truman" title="Electoral history of Harry S. Truman">Electoral history</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Attempted_assassination_of_Harry_S._Truman" title="Attempted assassination of Harry S. Truman">Assassination attempt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Harry_S._Truman#Legacy" title="Harry S. Truman">Legacy</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Truman_Day" title="Truman Day">Truman Day</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Harry_S._Truman_Scholarship" title="Harry S. Truman Scholarship">Scholarship</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/USS_Harry_S._Truman" title="USS Harry S. Truman">USS <i>Harry S. Truman</i></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Truman_Reservoir" title="Truman Reservoir">Truman Reservoir</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Harry_S._Truman_Little_White_House" title="Harry S. Truman Little White House">Little White House</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bibliography_of_Harry_S._Truman" title="Bibliography of Harry S. Truman">Bibliography</a></li></ul> <hr /> <div class="hidden-begin mw-collapsible mw-collapsed" style=""><div class="hidden-title skin-nightmode-reset-color" style="text-align:center;">Senator from <a href="/wiki/Missouri" title="Missouri">Missouri</a></div><div class="hidden-content mw-collapsible-content" style="text-align:center;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Harry_S._Truman#U.S._Senator_from_Missouri" title="Harry S. Truman">Senate career</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Truman_Committee" title="Truman Committee">Truman Committee</a></li></ul></li> <li>Senate elections <ul><li><a href="/wiki/1934_United_States_Senate_election_in_Missouri" title="1934 United States Senate election in Missouri">1934</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1940_United_States_Senate_election_in_Missouri" title="1940 United States Senate election in Missouri">1940</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></div> <hr /> <div class="hidden-begin mw-collapsible mw-collapsed" style=""><div class="hidden-title skin-nightmode-reset-color" style="text-align:center;">33rd President of the United States</div><div class="hidden-content mw-collapsible-content" style="text-align:center;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Presidency_of_Harry_S._Truman" title="Presidency of Harry S. Truman">Presidency</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_the_Harry_S._Truman_presidency" title="Timeline of the Harry S. Truman presidency">timeline</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_executive_actions_by_Harry_S._Truman" title="List of executive actions by Harry S. Truman">Executive actions</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Foreign policy</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Truman_Doctrine" title="Truman Doctrine">Truman Doctrine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Presidency_of_Harry_S._Truman#International_trips" title="Presidency of Harry S. Truman">international trips</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Presidency_of_Harry_S._Truman#Cabinet" title="Presidency of Harry S. Truman">Cabinet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_federal_judges_appointed_by_Harry_S._Truman" title="List of federal judges appointed by Harry S. Truman">Judicial appointments</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Harry_S._Truman_Supreme_Court_candidates" title="Harry S. Truman Supreme Court candidates">Supreme Court candidates</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></div> <hr /> <div class="hidden-begin mw-collapsible mw-collapsed" style=""><div class="hidden-title skin-nightmode-reset-color" style="text-align:center;">First term</div><div class="hidden-content mw-collapsible-content" style="text-align:center;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/First_inauguration_of_Harry_S._Truman" title="First inauguration of Harry S. Truman">First inauguration</a></li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Atomic_bombings_of_Hiroshima_and_Nagasaki" title="Atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki">Atomic bombing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marshall_Plan" title="Marshall Plan">Marshall Plan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Strike_wave_of_1945%E2%80%931946" class="mw-redirect" title="Strike wave of 1945–1946">Strike wave</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Mental_Health_Act" title="National Mental Health Act">Mental Health Act</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Potsdam_Conference" title="Potsdam Conference">Potsdam Conference</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_NATO#Beginnings" title="History of NATO">NATO</a></li></ul> <ul><li>Timeline <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_the_Harry_S._Truman_presidency#1945" title="Timeline of the Harry S. Truman presidency">'45</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_the_Harry_S._Truman_presidency#1946" title="Timeline of the Harry S. Truman presidency">'46</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_the_Harry_S._Truman_presidency#1947" title="Timeline of the Harry S. Truman presidency">'47</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_the_Harry_S._Truman_presidency#1948" title="Timeline of the Harry S. Truman presidency">'48</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></div> <hr /> <div class="hidden-begin mw-collapsible mw-collapsed" style=""><div class="hidden-title skin-nightmode-reset-color" style="text-align:center;">Second term</div><div class="hidden-content mw-collapsible-content" style="text-align:center;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Second_inauguration_of_Harry_S._Truman" title="Second inauguration of Harry S. Truman">Second inauguration</a></li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Korean_War" title="Korean War">Korean War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Housing_Act_of_1949" title="Housing Act of 1949">Housing Act</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fair_Deal" title="Fair Deal">Fair Deal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sherman_Minton_Supreme_Court_nomination" title="Sherman Minton Supreme Court nomination">Sherman Minton Supreme Court nomination</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1952_steel_strike" title="1952 steel strike">Steel strike</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1952_Puerto_Rican_constitutional_referendum" title="1952 Puerto Rican constitutional referendum">Puerto Rican referendum</a></li></ul> <ul><li>Timeline <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_the_Harry_S._Truman_presidency#1949" title="Timeline of the Harry S. Truman presidency">'49</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_the_Harry_S._Truman_presidency#1950" title="Timeline of the Harry S. Truman presidency">'50</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_the_Harry_S._Truman_presidency#1951" title="Timeline of the Harry S. Truman presidency">'51</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_the_Harry_S._Truman_presidency#1952_–_January_1953" title="Timeline of the Harry S. Truman presidency">'52–'53</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></div> <hr /> <div class="hidden-begin mw-collapsible mw-collapsed" style=""><div class="hidden-title skin-nightmode-reset-color" style="text-align:center;">Presidential and Vice presidential campaigns</div><div class="hidden-content mw-collapsible-content" style="text-align:center;"> <ul><li>1944 <ul><li><a href="/wiki/1944_Democratic_Party_vice_presidential_candidate_selection" title="1944 Democratic Party vice presidential candidate selection">campaign</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1944_Democratic_National_Convention#The_vice-presidential_nomination" title="1944 Democratic National Convention">convention</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1944_United_States_presidential_election" title="1944 United States presidential election">election</a></li></ul></li></ul> <ul><li>1948 <ul><li><a href="/wiki/1948_Democratic_Party_presidential_primaries" title="1948 Democratic Party presidential primaries">primaries</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1948_Democratic_National_Convention" title="1948 Democratic National Convention">convention</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Harry_S._Truman_1948_presidential_campaign" title="Harry S. Truman 1948 presidential campaign">campaign</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1948_United_States_presidential_election" title="1948 United States presidential election">election</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Dewey_Defeats_Truman" title="Dewey Defeats Truman">Dewey Defeats Truman</a></li></ul></li></ul></li></ul> <ul><li>1952 <ul><li><a href="/wiki/1952_Democratic_Party_presidential_primaries" title="1952 Democratic Party presidential primaries">primaries</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1952_Democratic_National_Convention#Presidential_balloting" title="1952 Democratic National Convention">convention</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></div> <hr /> <div class="hidden-begin mw-collapsible mw-collapsed" style=""><div class="hidden-title skin-nightmode-reset-color" style="text-align:center;">Post-presidency</div><div class="hidden-content mw-collapsible-content" style="text-align:center;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Harry_S._Truman_Presidential_Library_and_Museum" title="Harry S. Truman Presidential Library and Museum">Presidential library</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Harry_S._Truman#Death" title="Harry S. Truman">Death</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Harry_S._Truman_National_Historic_Site" title="Harry S. Truman National Historic Site">National historic Site</a></li></ul> </div></div> <hr /> <div class="skin-invert-image"><span class="notpageimage" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/Harry_S._Truman" title="Harry S. Truman's signature"><img alt="Harry S. Truman's signature" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f1/Harry_S_Truman_Signature.svg/150px-Harry_S_Truman_Signature.svg.png" decoding="async" width="150" height="61" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f1/Harry_S_Truman_Signature.svg/225px-Harry_S_Truman_Signature.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f1/Harry_S_Truman_Signature.svg/300px-Harry_S_Truman_Signature.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="184" data-file-height="75" /></a></span></div> <span typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="Seal of the President of the United States" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/36/Seal_of_the_President_of_the_United_States.svg/70px-Seal_of_the_President_of_the_United_States.svg.png" decoding="async" width="70" height="70" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/36/Seal_of_the_President_of_the_United_States.svg/105px-Seal_of_the_President_of_the_United_States.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/36/Seal_of_the_President_of_the_United_States.svg/140px-Seal_of_the_President_of_the_United_States.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="2424" data-file-height="2425" /></span></span></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-navbar"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239400231">.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar ul{display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::before{margin-right:-0.125em;content:"[ "}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::after{margin-left:-0.125em;content:" ]"}.mw-parser-output .navbar li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .navbar a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini abbr{font-variant:small-caps;border-bottom:none;text-decoration:none;cursor:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-full{font-size:114%;margin:0 7em}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-mini{font-size:114%;margin:0 4em}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}}</style><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Harry_S._Truman_series" title="Template:Harry S. Truman series"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Harry_S._Truman_series" title="Template talk:Harry S. Truman series"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Harry_S._Truman_series" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Harry S. Truman series"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Leadership">Leadership</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Foreign_policy_of_the_Harry_S._Truman_administration&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Leadership"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1237032888/mw-parser-output/.tmulti">.mw-parser-output .tmulti .multiimageinner{display:flex;flex-direction:column}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .trow{display:flex;flex-direction:row;clear:left;flex-wrap:wrap;width:100%;box-sizing:border-box}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .tsingle{margin:1px;float:left}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .theader{clear:both;font-weight:bold;text-align:center;align-self:center;background-color:transparent;width:100%}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .thumbcaption{background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .text-align-left{text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .text-align-right{text-align:right}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .text-align-center{text-align:center}@media all and (max-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .tmulti .thumbinner{width:100%!important;box-sizing:border-box;max-width:none!important;align-items:center}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .trow{justify-content:center}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .tsingle{float:none!important;max-width:100%!important;box-sizing:border-box;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .tsingle .thumbcaption{text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .trow>.thumbcaption{text-align:center}}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .tmulti .multiimageinner img{background-color:white}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .tmulti .multiimageinner img{background-color:white}}</style><div class="thumb tmulti tright"><div class="thumbinner multiimageinner" style="width:452px;max-width:452px"><div class="trow"><div class="theader">Truman's 1951 foreign policy team</div></div><div class="trow"><div class="tsingle" style="width:115px;max-width:115px"><div class="thumbimage"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/Alben_W._Barkley" title="Alben W. Barkley"><img alt="Alben W. Barkley" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/75/Alben_Barkley%2C_Vice-President.jpg/113px-Alben_Barkley%2C_Vice-President.jpg" decoding="async" width="113" height="141" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/75/Alben_Barkley%2C_Vice-President.jpg/170px-Alben_Barkley%2C_Vice-President.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/75/Alben_Barkley%2C_Vice-President.jpg/226px-Alben_Barkley%2C_Vice-President.jpg 2x" data-file-width="400" data-file-height="500" /></a></span></div><div class="thumbcaption text-align-center"><b><a href="/wiki/Alben_W._Barkley" title="Alben W. Barkley">Alben W. Barkley</a></b></div></div><div class="tsingle" style="width:102px;max-width:102px"><div class="thumbimage"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/Walter_Bedell_Smith" title="Walter Bedell Smith"><img alt="Walter Bedell Smith" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Lieutenant_General_Walter_Bedell_Smith%2C_three-quarter_length_portrait%2C_seated%2C_facing_front%2C_in_uniform.jpg/100px-Lieutenant_General_Walter_Bedell_Smith%2C_three-quarter_length_portrait%2C_seated%2C_facing_front%2C_in_uniform.jpg" decoding="async" width="100" height="141" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Lieutenant_General_Walter_Bedell_Smith%2C_three-quarter_length_portrait%2C_seated%2C_facing_front%2C_in_uniform.jpg/150px-Lieutenant_General_Walter_Bedell_Smith%2C_three-quarter_length_portrait%2C_seated%2C_facing_front%2C_in_uniform.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Lieutenant_General_Walter_Bedell_Smith%2C_three-quarter_length_portrait%2C_seated%2C_facing_front%2C_in_uniform.jpg/200px-Lieutenant_General_Walter_Bedell_Smith%2C_three-quarter_length_portrait%2C_seated%2C_facing_front%2C_in_uniform.jpg 2x" data-file-width="437" data-file-height="614" /></a></span></div><div class="thumbcaption text-align-center"><b><a href="/wiki/Walter_Bedell_Smith" title="Walter Bedell Smith">Walter Bedell Smith</a></b></div></div><div class="tsingle" style="width:115px;max-width:115px"><div class="thumbimage"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/Dean_Acheson" title="Dean Acheson"><img alt="Dean Acheson" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/df/Dean_G._Acheson%2C_U.S._Secretary_of_State_%28cropped%29_%28e%29.jpg/113px-Dean_G._Acheson%2C_U.S._Secretary_of_State_%28cropped%29_%28e%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="113" height="141" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/df/Dean_G._Acheson%2C_U.S._Secretary_of_State_%28cropped%29_%28e%29.jpg/170px-Dean_G._Acheson%2C_U.S._Secretary_of_State_%28cropped%29_%28e%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/df/Dean_G._Acheson%2C_U.S._Secretary_of_State_%28cropped%29_%28e%29.jpg/226px-Dean_G._Acheson%2C_U.S._Secretary_of_State_%28cropped%29_%28e%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="789" data-file-height="987" /></a></span></div><div class="thumbcaption text-align-center"><b><a href="/wiki/Dean_Acheson" title="Dean Acheson">Dean Acheson</a></b></div></div><div class="tsingle" style="width:112px;max-width:112px"><div class="thumbimage"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/George_C._Marshall" title="George C. Marshall"><img alt="George C. Marshall" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/19/George_Catlett_Marshall%2C_general_of_the_US_army_%28cropped%29.jpg/110px-George_Catlett_Marshall%2C_general_of_the_US_army_%28cropped%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="110" height="141" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/19/George_Catlett_Marshall%2C_general_of_the_US_army_%28cropped%29.jpg/165px-George_Catlett_Marshall%2C_general_of_the_US_army_%28cropped%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/19/George_Catlett_Marshall%2C_general_of_the_US_army_%28cropped%29.jpg/220px-George_Catlett_Marshall%2C_general_of_the_US_army_%28cropped%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="712" data-file-height="911" /></a></span></div><div class="thumbcaption text-align-center"><b><a href="/wiki/George_C._Marshall" title="George C. Marshall">George C. Marshall</a></b></div></div></div></div></div> <p>At first Truman kept all of Roosevelt's cabinet, but by late 1946 only one remained.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMcCullough1992366_8-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMcCullough1992366-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Even as vice president, knowing of the president's poor health, he showed little curiosity about Roosevelt's postwar plans and was kept out of the loop.<sup id="cite_ref-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Furthermore, he had a small White House staff that knew little about diplomacy. As president he relied heavily on top officials from the State Department.<sup id="cite_ref-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Truman quickly replaced Secretary of State <a href="/wiki/Edward_Stettinius_Jr." title="Edward Stettinius Jr.">Edward Stettinius Jr.</a> with James F. Byrnes, a personal friend from Senate days. By 1946, Truman was taking a hard line against the Kremlin, although Byrnes was still trying to be conciliatory. The divergence in policy was intolerable.<sup id="cite_ref-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Truman replaced Byrnes with the highly prestigious five-star army general <a href="/wiki/George_C._Marshall" title="George C. Marshall">George Marshall</a> in January 1947, despite Marshall's failure in negotiating a settlement in the Chinese Civil War.<sup id="cite_ref-12" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-13" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In 1947, <a href="/wiki/James_Forrestal" title="James Forrestal">James Forrestal</a> became the first <a href="/wiki/United_States_Secretary_of_Defense" title="United States Secretary of Defense">Secretary of Defense</a>, with his department overseeing all three branches of the <a href="/wiki/United_States_Armed_Forces" title="United States Armed Forces">United States Armed Forces</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHerring2008613–614_14-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHerring2008613–614-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Mental illness sent Forrestal into retirement in 1949, and he was replaced successively by <a href="/wiki/Louis_A._Johnson" title="Louis A. Johnson">Louis A. Johnson</a> who did poorly. Then came Marshall, and finally <a href="/wiki/Robert_A._Lovett" title="Robert A. Lovett">Robert A. Lovett</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMcCoy1984148–149_15-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMcCoy1984148–149-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>At the Department of State, the key person was <a href="/wiki/Dean_Acheson" title="Dean Acheson">Dean Acheson</a>, who replaced Marshall as secretary in 1949. The <a href="/wiki/Marshall_Plan" title="Marshall Plan">Marshall Plan</a> embodied Acheson's analysis of the European crisis; he designed America's role. As tensions mounted with Moscow, Acheson moved from guarded optimism to pessimism. He decided negotiations were futile, and the United States had to mobilize a network of allies to resist the Kremlin's quest for world domination, using both military and especially economic power. Downplaying the importance of communism in China, Acheson emphasized Europe, and took the lead, as soon as he became Secretary of State in January 1949, to nail down the NATO alliance. It worked closely with the major European powers, as well as cooperating closely with Republican Senator <a href="/wiki/Arthur_Vandenberg" title="Arthur Vandenberg">Arthur Vandenberg</a>, build bipartisan support at a time when the <a href="/wiki/Republican_Party_(United_States)" title="Republican Party (United States)">Republican Party</a> controlled Congress after the <a href="/wiki/1946_United_States_elections" title="1946 United States elections">1946 United States elections</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-16" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> According to <a href="/wiki/Townsend_Hoopes" title="Townsend Hoopes">Townsend Hoopes</a>, throughout his long career, Acheson displayed: </p> <dl><dd>exceptional intellectual power and purpose, and tough inner fiber. He projected the long lines and aristocratic bearing of the thoroughbred horse, a self-assured grace, an acerbic elegance of mind, and a charm whose chief attraction was perhaps its penetrating candor. ... [He] was swift-flowing and direct. ... Acheson was perceived as an 18th-century rationalist ready to apply an irreverent wit to matters public and private.<sup id="cite_ref-17" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></dd></dl> <p>The American occupation of Japan was nominally an Allied endeavor, but in practice it was run by General Douglas MacArthur, with little or no consultation with the Allies or with Washington. His responsibilities were enlarged to include the Korean War, till he broke with Truman on policy issues and was fired in highly dramatic fashion in 1951.<sup id="cite_ref-18" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Policy for the occupation of West Germany was much less controversial, and the decisions were made in Washington, with Truman himself making the key decision to rebuild West Germany as an economic power.<sup id="cite_ref-19" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Roosevelt had handled all foreign policy decisions on his own, with a few advisors such as <a href="/wiki/Harry_Hopkins" title="Harry Hopkins">Harry Hopkins</a>, who helped Truman too, even though he was dying of cancer. Roosevelt's final Secretary of State, Edward R. Stettinius was an amiable businessman who succeeded at reorganization of the department, and spent most of his attention in the creation of the United Nations. When that was accomplished, Truman replaced him with James F. Byrnes, whom Truman knew well from their Senate days together. Byrnes was more interested in domestic than foreign affairs, and felt he should have been FDR's pick for vice president in 1944. He was secretive, not telling Truman about major developments. Dean Acheson by this point was the number two person in State, and worked well with Truman. The president finally replaced Byrnes with Marshall. With the world in incredibly complex turmoil, international travel was essential. Byrnes spent 62% of his time abroad; Marshall spent 47% and Acheson 25%.<sup id="cite_ref-20" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Winning_World_War_II">Winning World War II</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Foreign_policy_of_the_Harry_S._Truman_administration&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Winning World War II"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Atomic_bombings_of_Hiroshima_and_Nagasaki" title="Atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki">Atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki</a></div> <p>By April 1945, the <a href="/wiki/Allies_of_World_War_II" title="Allies of World War II">Allied Powers</a>, led by the United States, <a href="/wiki/Great_Britain" title="Great Britain">Great Britain</a>, and the <a href="/wiki/Soviet_Union" title="Soviet Union">Soviet Union</a>, were close to defeating <a href="/wiki/Nazi_Germany" title="Nazi Germany">Germany</a>, but <a href="/wiki/Empire_of_Japan" title="Empire of Japan">Japan</a> remained a formidable adversary in the <a href="/wiki/Pacific_War" title="Pacific War">Pacific War</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMcCoy198421–22_21-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMcCoy198421–22-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> As vice president, Truman had been uninformed about major initiatives relating to the war, including the top-secret <a href="/wiki/Manhattan_Project" title="Manhattan Project">Manhattan Project</a>, which was about to test the world's first atomic bomb.<sup id="cite_ref-bernstein1_22-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-bernstein1-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-23" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Although Truman was told briefly on the afternoon of April 12 that the Allies had a new, highly destructive weapon, it was not until April 25 that Secretary of War <a href="/wiki/Henry_L._Stimson" title="Henry L. Stimson">Henry Stimson</a> told him the details of the atomic bomb, which was almost ready.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDallek200819–20_24-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDallek200819–20-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Germany surrendered on May 8, 1945, and Truman's attention turned to the Pacific, where he hoped to end the war as quickly, and with as little expense in lives or government funds, as possible.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMcCoy198421–22_21-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMcCoy198421–22-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Bundesarchiv_Bild_183-29645-0001,_Potsdamer_Konferenz,_Stalin,_Truman,_Churchill.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="Three men in suits standing with several men in the background" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7e/Bundesarchiv_Bild_183-29645-0001%2C_Potsdamer_Konferenz%2C_Stalin%2C_Truman%2C_Churchill.jpg/220px-Bundesarchiv_Bild_183-29645-0001%2C_Potsdamer_Konferenz%2C_Stalin%2C_Truman%2C_Churchill.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="176" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7e/Bundesarchiv_Bild_183-29645-0001%2C_Potsdamer_Konferenz%2C_Stalin%2C_Truman%2C_Churchill.jpg/330px-Bundesarchiv_Bild_183-29645-0001%2C_Potsdamer_Konferenz%2C_Stalin%2C_Truman%2C_Churchill.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7e/Bundesarchiv_Bild_183-29645-0001%2C_Potsdamer_Konferenz%2C_Stalin%2C_Truman%2C_Churchill.jpg/440px-Bundesarchiv_Bild_183-29645-0001%2C_Potsdamer_Konferenz%2C_Stalin%2C_Truman%2C_Churchill.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2922" data-file-height="2335" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Joseph_Stalin" title="Joseph Stalin">Joseph Stalin</a>, Harry S. Truman, and <a href="/wiki/Winston_Churchill" title="Winston Churchill">Winston Churchill</a> in Potsdam, July 1945</figcaption></figure> <p>With the end of the war drawing near, Truman flew to Berlin for the <a href="/wiki/Potsdam_Conference" title="Potsdam Conference">Potsdam Conference</a>, to meet with Soviet leader <a href="/wiki/Joseph_Stalin" title="Joseph Stalin">Joseph Stalin</a> and British leader <a href="/wiki/Winston_Churchill" title="Winston Churchill">Winston Churchill</a> regarding the <a href="/wiki/Aftermath_of_World_War_II" title="Aftermath of World War II">post-war order</a>. Several major decisions were made at the Potsdam Conference: Germany would be divided into <a href="/wiki/Allied-occupied_Germany" title="Allied-occupied Germany">four occupation zones</a> (among the three powers and <a href="/wiki/France" title="France">France</a>), the <a href="/wiki/Germany%E2%80%93Poland_border" title="Germany–Poland border">Germany–Poland border</a> was to be shifted west to the <a href="/wiki/Oder%E2%80%93Neisse_line" title="Oder–Neisse line">Oder–Neisse line</a>, the Soviet-backed <a href="/wiki/Provisional_Government_of_National_Unity" title="Provisional Government of National Unity">Provisional Government of National Unity</a> was recognized as the legitimate government of Poland, and <a href="/wiki/Vietnam" title="Vietnam">Vietnam</a> was to be partitioned at the <a href="/wiki/16th_parallel_north" title="16th parallel north">16th parallel</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-25" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Soviet Union also agreed to <a href="/wiki/Soviet_invasion_of_Manchuria" title="Soviet invasion of Manchuria">launch an invasion</a> of Japanese-held <a href="/wiki/Manchuria" title="Manchuria">Manchuria</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMcCoy198423–24_26-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMcCoy198423–24-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> While at the Potsdam Conference, Truman was informed that the <a href="/wiki/Trinity_(nuclear_test)" title="Trinity (nuclear test)">Trinity test</a> of the first atomic bomb on July 16 had been successful. He hinted to Stalin that the U.S. was about to use a new kind of weapon against the Japanese. Though this was the first time the Soviets had been officially given information about the atomic bomb, Stalin was already aware of the bomb project, having learned about it through <a href="/wiki/Atomic_spies" title="Atomic spies">espionage</a> long before Truman did.<sup id="cite_ref-27" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Photograph_of_President_Truman_in_the_Oval_Office,_reading_the_announcement_of_Japan%27s_surrender_to_assembled..._-_NARA_-_199171.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e4/Photograph_of_President_Truman_in_the_Oval_Office%2C_reading_the_announcement_of_Japan%27s_surrender_to_assembled..._-_NARA_-_199171.jpg/220px-Photograph_of_President_Truman_in_the_Oval_Office%2C_reading_the_announcement_of_Japan%27s_surrender_to_assembled..._-_NARA_-_199171.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="176" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e4/Photograph_of_President_Truman_in_the_Oval_Office%2C_reading_the_announcement_of_Japan%27s_surrender_to_assembled..._-_NARA_-_199171.jpg/330px-Photograph_of_President_Truman_in_the_Oval_Office%2C_reading_the_announcement_of_Japan%27s_surrender_to_assembled..._-_NARA_-_199171.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e4/Photograph_of_President_Truman_in_the_Oval_Office%2C_reading_the_announcement_of_Japan%27s_surrender_to_assembled..._-_NARA_-_199171.jpg/440px-Photograph_of_President_Truman_in_the_Oval_Office%2C_reading_the_announcement_of_Japan%27s_surrender_to_assembled..._-_NARA_-_199171.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3000" data-file-height="2395" /></a><figcaption>Truman announces Japan's surrender. Washington, DC, August 14, 1945</figcaption></figure> <p>In August 1945, the Japanese government ignored surrender demands as specified in the <a href="/wiki/Potsdam_Declaration" title="Potsdam Declaration">Potsdam Declaration</a>. With the support of most of his aides, Truman approved the schedule of the military's plans to <a href="/wiki/Atomic_bombings_of_Hiroshima_and_Nagasaki" title="Atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki">drop atomic bombs</a> on the Japanese cities of <a href="/wiki/Hiroshima" title="Hiroshima">Hiroshima</a> and <a href="/wiki/Nagasaki" title="Nagasaki">Nagasaki</a>. Hiroshima was bombed on August 6, and Nagasaki three days later, leaving approximately 135,000 dead; another 130,000 would die from <a href="/wiki/Acute_radiation_syndrome" title="Acute radiation syndrome">radiation sickness</a> and other <a href="/wiki/Hibakusha" title="Hibakusha">bomb-related illnesses</a> in the following five years.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPatterson1996108–111_28-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPatterson1996108–111-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Japan <a href="/wiki/Surrender_of_Japan" title="Surrender of Japan">agreed to surrender</a> on August 10, on the sole condition that Emperor <a href="/wiki/Hirohito" title="Hirohito">Hirohito</a> would not be forced to abdicate; after some internal debate, the Truman administration accepted these terms of surrender.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMcCoy198439–40_29-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMcCoy198439–40-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The decision to drop atomic bombs on Hiroshima and Nagasaki <a href="/wiki/Debate_over_the_atomic_bombings_of_Hiroshima_and_Nagasaki" title="Debate over the atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki">provoked long-running debates</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPatterson1996109_30-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPatterson1996109-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Supporters of the bombings argue that, given the tenacious Japanese defense of the outlying islands, the bombings saved hundreds of thousands of lives that would have been lost <a href="/wiki/Operation_Downfall" title="Operation Downfall">invading mainland Japan</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-31" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> After leaving office, Truman told a journalist that the atomic bombing "was done to save 125,000 youngsters on the American side and 125,000 on the Japanese side from getting killed and that is what it did. It probably also saved a half million youngsters on both sides from being maimed for life."<sup id="cite_ref-32" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Truman was also motivated by a desire to end the war before the Soviet Union could invade Japanese-held territories and set up Communist governments.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHerring2008591–593_33-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHerring2008591–593-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Critics have argued that the use of nuclear weapons was unnecessary, given that conventional tactics such as firebombing and blockade might induce Japan's surrender without the need for such weapons.<sup id="cite_ref-34" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div style="clear:both;" class=""></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Postwar_international_order">Postwar international order</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Foreign_policy_of_the_Harry_S._Truman_administration&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Postwar international order"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Aftermath_of_World_War_II" title="Aftermath of World War II">Aftermath of World War II</a></div> <p>Truman at first was committed to following Roosevelt's policies and priorities. However he soon replaced Roosevelt's top appointments and put in his own people. In 1945 public opinion was demanding immediate demobilization of the troops. The Administration's policies were designed to benefit individuals, regardless of the damage it did when experienced military units lost their longest-serving and most experience soldiers. Truman refused to consider keeping an army in Europe for the purpose of neutralizing Stalin's expansion.<sup id="cite_ref-35" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> While his State Department was taking an increasingly hard line, the War Department took a more conciliatory position. It refused to allocate additional forces to Europe. In practice, the American forces were removed from Europe as fast as possible.<sup id="cite_ref-36" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>By 1946, however, Truman had changed. He was now distrustful of Stalin and alarmed about Soviet pressures on Iran and Poland. He was disappointed with the UN. Truman now accepted more and more advice from the State Department and was moving rapidly toward a hard-line, Cold War position. The Soviet Union had become the enemy.<sup id="cite_ref-37" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="United_Nations">United Nations</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Foreign_policy_of_the_Harry_S._Truman_administration&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: United Nations"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/United_States_and_the_United_Nations" title="United States and the United Nations">United States and the United Nations</a></div> <p>When Truman took office, several international organizations that were designed to help prevent future wars and international economic crises were in the process of being established.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMcCoy198421–22_21-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMcCoy198421–22-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Chief among those organizations was the <a href="/wiki/United_Nations" title="United Nations">United Nations</a>, one of Roosevelt's highest priorities. The UN was designed as an intergovernmental organization similar to the defunct <a href="/wiki/League_of_Nations" title="League of Nations">League of Nations</a> without its faults. It was designed to help ensure international cooperation under the control of the U.S., USSR, Britain, France and China, each of which could veto a decision.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHerring2008579–581_38-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHerring2008579–581-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> When Truman took office, delegates were about to meet at the <a href="/wiki/United_Nations_Conference_on_International_Organization" title="United Nations Conference on International Organization">United Nations Conference on International Organization</a> in San Francisco.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHerring2008589–590_39-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHerring2008589–590-39"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> As a <a href="/wiki/Wilsonianism" title="Wilsonianism">Wilsonian</a> internationalist, Truman strongly supported the creation of the United Nations, and he signed <a href="/wiki/Charter_of_the_United_Nations" title="Charter of the United Nations">United Nations Charter</a> at the San Francisco Conference. Truman did not repeat <a href="/wiki/Woodrow_Wilson" title="Woodrow Wilson">Woodrow Wilson</a>'s partisan attempt to ratify the <a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_Versailles" title="Treaty of Versailles">Treaty of Versailles</a> in 1919. Instead he cooperating closely with Senator <a href="/wiki/Arthur_Vandenberg" title="Arthur Vandenberg">Arthur H. Vandenberg</a> and other Republican leaders to ensure ratification. Cooperation with Vandenberg, a leading figure on the <a href="/wiki/United_States_Senate_Committee_on_Foreign_Relations" title="United States Senate Committee on Foreign Relations">Senate Foreign Relations Committee</a>, proved to be crucial for Truman's foreign policy, especially after Republicans gained control of Congress in <a href="/wiki/1946_United_States_elections" title="1946 United States elections">1946</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-40" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-41" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-41"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>41<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Construction of the <a href="/wiki/Headquarters_of_the_United_Nations" title="Headquarters of the United Nations">United Nations headquarters</a> in New York City was funded by the <a href="/wiki/Rockefeller_Foundation" title="Rockefeller Foundation">Rockefeller Foundation</a> and completed in 1952.<sup id="cite_ref-42" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-42"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>42<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-43" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-43"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>43<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Trade_and_tariffs">Trade and tariffs</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Foreign_policy_of_the_Harry_S._Truman_administration&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Trade and tariffs"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Tariff_in_United_States_history" class="mw-redirect" title="Tariff in United States history">Tariff in United States history</a></div> <p>In 1934, a Democratic Congress passed the <a href="/wiki/Reciprocal_Tariff_Act" title="Reciprocal Tariff Act">Reciprocal Tariff Act</a>, giving the Administration an unprecedented amount of authority in setting tariff rates. The Republicans had raised the tariffs to a high levels that dramatically reduced imports and exports. The act allowed for the creation of reciprocal agreements in which the U.S. and other countries mutually agreed to lower tariff rates.<sup id="cite_ref-dirwin1_44-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-dirwin1-44"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>44<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Despite significant opposition from those who favored higher tariffs, Truman was able to win legislative extension of the reciprocity program, and his administration reached numerous bilateral agreements that lowered trade barriers.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMcCoy1984270_45-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMcCoy1984270-45"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>45<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Truman administration also sought to further lower global tariff rates by engaging in multilateral trade negotiations, and the State Department proposed the establishment of the <a href="/wiki/International_Trade_Organization" title="International Trade Organization">International Trade Organization</a> (ITO). The ITO was designed to have broad powers to regulate trade among member countries, and its charter was approved by the United Nations in 1948. However, the ITO's broad powers engendered opposition in Congress, and Truman declined to send the charter to the Senate for ratification. In the course of creating the ITO, the U.S. and 22 other countries signed the <a href="/wiki/General_Agreement_on_Tariffs_and_Trade" title="General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade">General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade</a> (GATT), a set of principles governing trade policy. Under the terms of the agreement, each country agreed to reduce overall tariff rates and to treat each co-signatory as a "<a href="/wiki/Most_favoured_nation" title="Most favoured nation">most favoured nation</a>", meaning that no non-signatory country could benefit from more advantageous tariff rates. Due to a combination of the Reciprocal Tariff Act, the GATT, and inflation, American tariff rates fell dramatically between the passage of the <a href="/wiki/Smoot%E2%80%93Hawley_Tariff_Act" title="Smoot–Hawley Tariff Act">Smoot–Hawley Tariff Act</a> in 1930 and the end of the Truman administration in 1953.<sup id="cite_ref-dirwin1_44-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-dirwin1-44"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>44<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Refugees">Refugees</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Foreign_policy_of_the_Harry_S._Truman_administration&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Refugees"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Truman_Directive_of_1945" title="Truman Directive of 1945">Truman Directive of 1945</a> and <a href="/wiki/Displaced_Persons_Act" title="Displaced Persons Act">Displaced Persons Act</a></div> <p>World War II left millions of <a href="/wiki/World_War_II_evacuation_and_expulsion" title="World War II evacuation and expulsion">refugees</a> displaced in Europe. To help address this problem, Truman backed the founding of the <a href="/wiki/International_Refugee_Organization" title="International Refugee Organization">International Refugee Organization</a> (IRO), a temporary international organization that helped <a href="/wiki/Refugee_resettlement" class="mw-redirect" title="Refugee resettlement">resettle refugees</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMcCoy198474–75_46-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMcCoy198474–75-46"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>46<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The United States also funded temporary camps and admitted large numbers of refugees as <a href="/wiki/Green_card" title="Green card">permanent residents</a>. Truman obtained ample funding from Congress for the <a href="/wiki/Displaced_Persons_Act" title="Displaced Persons Act">Displaced Persons Act</a> of 1948, which allowed many of the <a href="/wiki/Refugee_camp" title="Refugee camp">displaced people of World War II</a> to <a href="/wiki/Immigration_to_the_United_States" title="Immigration to the United States">immigrate into the United States</a>. Of the approximately one million people resettled by the IRO, more than 400,000 settled in the United States.<sup id="cite_ref-47" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-47"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>47<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The most contentious issue was the resettlement of <a href="/wiki/Jewish_refugees_from_German-occupied_Europe" class="mw-redirect" title="Jewish refugees from German-occupied Europe">European Jewish refugees</a>. Truman at first followed the State Department policy of friendship with the Arabs and agreement with the British opposition to <a href="/wiki/Aliyah" title="Aliyah">Jewish entry into Palestine</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-48" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-48"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>48<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> However Truman's close links to the pro-<a href="/wiki/Zionism" title="Zionism">Zionist</a> elements in the <a href="/wiki/American_Jews" title="American Jews">Jewish community</a> led him to reverse positions and overrule the State Department. He urged London to admit 100,000 displaced Jews in British-controlled <a href="/wiki/Mandatory_Palestine" title="Mandatory Palestine">Mandatory Palestine</a> and strongly supported the new state of Israel.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMcCoy198474–75_46-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMcCoy198474–75-46"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>46<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-49" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-49"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>49<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The Administration helped created a new category of refugee, the "escapee", at the 1951 Geneva Convention Relating to the Status of Refugees. The American Escapee Program began in 1952 to help the flight and relocation of <a href="/wiki/Political_refugees" class="mw-redirect" title="Political refugees">political refugees</a> from <a href="/wiki/Eastern_Bloc" title="Eastern Bloc">communism in Eastern Europe</a>. The motivation for the refugee and escapee programs was twofold: humanitarianism, and use as a political weapon against inhumane communism. The State Department's <a href="/wiki/Policy_Planning_Staff_(United_States)" title="Policy Planning Staff (United States)">Policy Planning Staff</a> worked with Hollywood to publicize death-defying refugee escapes as an anti-Communist theme in movies. However many escapees had been active in the Communist parties, and they were not allowed into the U.S. under the <a href="/wiki/McCarran_Internal_Security_Act" title="McCarran Internal Security Act">McCarran Internal Security Act</a> of 1950 and the <a href="/wiki/Immigration_and_Nationality_Act_of_1952" title="Immigration and Nationality Act of 1952">Immigration and Nationality Act of 1952</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-50" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-50"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>50<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Atomic_energy_and_weaponry">Atomic energy and weaponry</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Foreign_policy_of_the_Harry_S._Truman_administration&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Atomic energy and weaponry"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/History_of_nuclear_weapons#American_developments_after_World_War_II" title="History of nuclear weapons">History of nuclear weapons § American developments after World War II</a></div> <p>In March 1946, at an optimistic moment for postwar cooperation, the administration released the <a href="/wiki/Acheson%E2%80%93Lilienthal_Report" title="Acheson–Lilienthal Report">Acheson-Lilienthal Report</a>, which proposed that all nations voluntarily abstain from constructing nuclear weapons. As part of the proposal, the U.S. would dismantle its nuclear program once all other countries agreed not to develop or otherwise acquire nuclear weapons. Fearing that Congress would reject the proposal, Truman turned to the well-connected <a href="/wiki/Bernard_Baruch" title="Bernard Baruch">Bernard Baruch</a> to represent the American position to the United Nations. The <a href="/wiki/Baruch_Plan" title="Baruch Plan">Baruch Plan</a>, largely based on the Acheson-Lilienthal Report, was not adopted due to opposition from Congress and the Soviet Union. The Soviet Union would <a href="/wiki/Soviet_atomic_bomb_project" title="Soviet atomic bomb project">develop its own nuclear arsenal</a>, testing a nuclear weapon for the first time in August 1949.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDallek200849–50,_90_51-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDallek200849–50,_90-51"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>51<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The <a href="/wiki/United_States_Atomic_Energy_Commission" title="United States Atomic Energy Commission">United States Atomic Energy Commission</a>, directed by <a href="/wiki/David_E._Lilienthal" title="David E. Lilienthal">David E. Lilienthal</a> until 1950, was in charge of designing and building nuclear weapons under a policy of full civilian control. The U.S. had only 9 atomic bombs in 1946, but the stockpile grew to 650 by 1951.<sup id="cite_ref-52" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-52"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>52<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Lilienthal wanted to give high priority to peaceful uses for <a href="/wiki/Nuclear_technology" title="Nuclear technology">nuclear technology</a>, especially <a href="/wiki/Nuclear_power_plant" title="Nuclear power plant">nuclear power plants</a>, but coal was cheap and the power industry was largely uninterested in building <a href="/wiki/Nuclear_power_plant" title="Nuclear power plant">nuclear power plants</a> during the Truman administration. Construction of the first nuclear plant would not begin until 1954.<sup id="cite_ref-53" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-53"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>53<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In early 1950, Truman authorized the development of <a href="/wiki/Thermonuclear_weapon" title="Thermonuclear weapon">thermonuclear weapons</a>, a more powerful version of atomic bombs. Truman's decision to develop thermonuclear weapons faced opposition from many liberals and some government officials, but he believed that the Soviet Union would likely develop the weapons and was unwilling to allow the Soviets to have such an advantage.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPatterson1996173–175_54-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPatterson1996173–175-54"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>54<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The <a href="/wiki/Ivy_Mike" title="Ivy Mike">first test</a> of thermonuclear weaponry was conducted by the United States in 1952; the Soviet Union would perform <a href="/wiki/Joe_4" class="mw-redirect" title="Joe 4">its own thermonuclear test</a> in August 1953.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPatterson1996175–176_55-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPatterson1996175–176-55"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>55<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Beginning_of_the_Cold_War,_1945–1950"><span id="Beginning_of_the_Cold_War.2C_1945.E2.80.931950"></span>Beginning of the Cold War, 1945–1950</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Foreign_policy_of_the_Harry_S._Truman_administration&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Beginning of the Cold War, 1945–1950"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>World War II upset the international system, leaving only the United States and the Soviet Union as the major powers. Initially, Truman hoped to work with the Soviets, but their consolidation of control in Eastern Europe and the Soviet five-year plan strained relations. Truman was reluctant to break with the Soviet Union at first, but tensions rose in places like Iran, Turkey, and Germany, and Truman became convinced that the Soviet Union sought world domination. He adopted a policy of containment, which aimed to prevent the further expansion of Soviet influence. Liberals led by Henry Wallace hoped for cooperative relations with the Soviet Union, but Truman increasingly took a hard line towards them throughout 1946, forcing Wallace's resignation from the cabinet. </p><p>In 1947, Truman announced the "Truman Doctrine" that implemented the containment policy to prevent the spread of communism. It started with providing aid to Greece and Turkey to prevent Soviet-aligned governments. Truman called for bipartisan support and won approval for an unprecedented $400 million aid package. The United States became involved in the Greek Civil War. It provided aid to the Christian Democrats during the 1948 Italian general election. The Truman Doctrine solidified the division between the US and the Soviet Union and led to the formation of the Eastern and Western Blocs. Some liberal Democrats opposed the Truman Doctrine, but Truman argued that American action was necessary for a "sound" peace. Additionally, a new policy was implemented in 1947 to forbid the sale of high technology to the Soviets. </p><p>To address new Cold War, Washington reorganized the military and intelligence establishment through the National Security Act of 1947. It created the National Military Establishment (later renamed the Department of Defense), separated the U.S. Air Force from the Army, and established the Central Intelligence Agency (CIA) and the National Security Council (NSC). The Act also institutionalized the Joint Chiefs of Staff and made the Secretary of Defense the chief presidential adviser on military matters. Truman also secretly created the National Security Agency (NSA) in 1952. However, despite hopes to reduce rivalries, the Army, Navy, and Air Force continued to battle over budgets and strategy. Truman's proposal to require one year of military service for young men did not gain significant support in Congress. </p><p>The Marshall Plan began in 1947-48 to help restore the European economy, modernize it, remove internal tariffs and barriers, and encourage European collaboration. It was funded by a multi-year, $25 billion appropriation from the Republican-controlled Congress, despite opposition from a conservative isolationist wing of the party. The plan helped European economies recover in the late 1940s and early 1950s, and provided critical psychological reassurance to war-torn countries. The European integration process led to the creation of the European Economic Community, which eventually formed the basis of the European Union. </p><p>In 1948, Stalin cut off all land traffic to Western-held sectors of Berlin in response to Western moves towards reindustrializing their German occupation zones. Stalin hoped to prevent the creation of a western German state aligned with the U.S. or to consolidate control over eastern Germany. General Lucius D. Clay proposed sending an armored column across the Soviet zone to West Berlin, but Truman believed this would risk war and approved the plan of Britain's Ernest Bevin to supply the blockaded city by air instead. The Allies initiated the Berlin Airlift on June 25, delivering food and other supplies using military aircraft. The airlift worked, and ground access was again granted on May 11, 1949. The Berlin Airlift was one of Truman's great foreign policy successes and aided his election campaign in 1948. </p><p>Rising tensions with the Soviets and the Soviet veto of UN Security Council resolutions led the US in 1949 to create an anti-Soviet military alliance called NATO. It aimed to contain Soviet expansion in Europe and assure France that the US would defend it, allowing for the re-establishment of an independent German state. The US passed the Mutual Defense Assistance Act to aid European allies, and Cold War tensions escalated after the Soviet acquisition of nuclear weapons and the Korean War. The US increased its commitment to NATO, invited Greece and Turkey to join, and stationed troops in Europe. NATO established a unified command structure, and West Germany joined in 1955. </p><p>In 1949, the US launched Point Four, a program to provide technological aid to developing countries with a $25 million budget. It later became the United States Agency for International Development. West Germany's rearmament in the early 1950s was strongly supported by the US military and weakly opposed by President Truman, with the outbreak of the Korean War in 1950 leading to full US support. The establishment of the Bundeswehr, the West German military, followed in 1955. In April 1950, the National Security Council approved NSC 68, calling for rapid rearmament and a more aggressive posture in the Cold War. The sudden outbreak of the Korean War confirmed the warning in NSC-68, leading to higher defense spending and a quadrupled budget between 1949 and 1953. Truman strongly disapproved of Spain, but its location and its anti-communism forced a reappraisal. Truman relented and sent an ambassador and made loans available. Military talks began and President Eisenhower established the <a href="/wiki/Pact_of_Madrid" title="Pact of Madrid">Pact of Madrid</a>, a security agreement, in 1953. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Escalating_tensions,_1945–1946"><span id="Escalating_tensions.2C_1945.E2.80.931946"></span>Escalating tensions, 1945–1946</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Foreign_policy_of_the_Harry_S._Truman_administration&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Escalating tensions, 1945–1946"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Origins_of_the_Cold_War" title="Origins of the Cold War">Origins of the Cold War</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Map-Germany-1947.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/80/Map-Germany-1947.svg/310px-Map-Germany-1947.svg.png" decoding="async" width="310" height="263" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/80/Map-Germany-1947.svg/465px-Map-Germany-1947.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/80/Map-Germany-1947.svg/620px-Map-Germany-1947.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="3482" data-file-height="2956" /></a><figcaption>Following World War II, the United States, France, Britain, and the Soviet Union each took control of occupation zones in Germany and the German capital of <a href="/wiki/Berlin" title="Berlin">Berlin</a></figcaption></figure> <p>The Second World War dramatically upended the international system, as formerly-powerful nations like Germany, France, Japan, and even Britain had been devastated. At the end of the war, only the United States and the Soviet Union had the ability to exercise influence, and a bipolar international power structure replaced the multipolar structure of the <a href="/wiki/Interwar_period" title="Interwar period">Interwar period</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHerring2008595–596_56-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHerring2008595–596-56"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>56<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> On taking office, Truman privately viewed the Soviet Union as a "police government pure and simple", but he was initially reluctant to take a hard-line towards the Soviet Union, as he hoped to work with the Soviets in the <a href="/wiki/Aftermath_of_World_War_II" title="Aftermath of World War II">aftermath of Second World War</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDallek200821–23_57-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDallek200821–23-57"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>57<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Truman's suspicions deepened as the Soviets consolidated their <a href="/wiki/Eastern_Bloc" title="Eastern Bloc">control in Eastern Europe</a> throughout 1945, and the February 1946 announcement of the Soviet <a href="/wiki/Five-year_plans_of_the_Soviet_Union" title="Five-year plans of the Soviet Union">five-year plan</a> further strained relations as it called for the continuing build-up of the Soviet military.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDallek200828–29,_42_58-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDallek200828–29,_42-58"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>58<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> At the December 1945 <a href="/wiki/Moscow_Conference_(1945)" title="Moscow Conference (1945)">Moscow Conference</a>, Secretary of State Byrnes agreed to recognize the pro-Soviet governments in the <a href="/wiki/Balkans" title="Balkans">Balkans</a>, while the Soviet leadership accepted U.S. leadership in the <a href="/wiki/Occupation_of_Japan" title="Occupation of Japan">occupation of Japan</a>. U.S. concessions at the conference angered other members of the Truman administration, including Truman himself.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHerring2008602–603_59-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHerring2008602–603-59"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>59<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> By the beginning of 1946, it had become clear to Truman that Britain and the United States would have little influence in Soviet-dominated Eastern Europe.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMcCoy198478–79_60-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMcCoy198478–79-60"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>60<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Former Vice President <a href="/wiki/Henry_A._Wallace" title="Henry A. Wallace">Henry Wallace</a>, former First Lady <a href="/wiki/Eleanor_Roosevelt" title="Eleanor Roosevelt">Eleanor Roosevelt</a>, and many other prominent Americans continued to hope for cooperative relations with the Soviet Union.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDallek200843–44_61-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDallek200843–44-61"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>61<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Some liberals, like <a href="/wiki/Reinhold_Niebuhr" title="Reinhold Niebuhr">Reinhold Niebuhr</a>, distrusted the Soviet Union but believed that the United States should not try to counter Soviet influence in Eastern Europe, which the Soviets saw as their "strategic security belt".<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPatterson1996120–121_62-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPatterson1996120–121-62"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>62<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Partly because of this sentiment, Truman was reluctant to fully break with the Soviet Union in early 1946,<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDallek200843–44_61-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDallek200843–44-61"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>61<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> but he took an increasingly hard line towards the Soviet Union throughout the year.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHerring2008605–606_63-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHerring2008605–606-63"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>63<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> He personally approved of Winston Churchill's March 1946 "<a href="/wiki/Iron_Curtain" title="Iron Curtain">Iron Curtain</a>" speech, which urged the United States to take the lead of an anti-Soviet alliance, though he did not publicly endorse it.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDallek200843–44_61-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDallek200843–44-61"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>61<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Throughout 1946, tensions arose between the United States and the Soviet Union in places like <a href="/wiki/Iran" title="Iran">Iran</a>, which the Soviets had occupied during World War II. Pressure from the U.S. and the United Nations finally forced the withdrawal of Soviet soldiers.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDallek200844–45_64-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDallek200844–45-64"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>64<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Turkey" title="Turkey">Turkey</a> also emerged as a point of contention, as the Soviet Union demanded joint control over the <a href="/wiki/Dardanelles" title="Dardanelles">Dardanelles</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Bosporus" title="Bosporus">Bosphorus</a>, key <a href="/wiki/Strait" title="Strait">straits</a> that controlled movement between the <a href="/wiki/Black_Sea" title="Black Sea">Black Sea</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Mediterranean_Sea" title="Mediterranean Sea">Mediterranean Sea</a>. The U.S. forcefully opposed this proposed alteration to the 1936 <a href="/wiki/Montreux_Convention_Regarding_the_Regime_of_the_Straits" title="Montreux Convention Regarding the Regime of the Straits">Montreux Convention</a>, which had granted Turkey sole control over the straits, and Truman dispatched a fleet to the <a href="/wiki/Eastern_Mediterranean" title="Eastern Mediterranean">Eastern Mediterranean</a> to show his administration's commitment to the region.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHerring2008609–610_65-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHerring2008609–610-65"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>65<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Soviet Union and the United States also clashed in Germany, which had been divided into <a href="/wiki/Allied-occupied_Germany" title="Allied-occupied Germany">four occupation zones</a>. In the September 1946 <a href="/wiki/Restatement_of_Policy_on_Germany" title="Restatement of Policy on Germany">Stuttgart speech</a>, Secretary of State Byrnes announced that the United States would no longer seek <a href="/wiki/World_War_II_reparations" title="World War II reparations">reparations from Germany</a> and would support the establishment of a democratic state. The United States, France, and Britain agreed to combine their occupation zones, eventually forming <a href="/wiki/West_Germany" title="West Germany">West Germany</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHerring2008608–609_66-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHerring2008608–609-66"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>66<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In <a href="/wiki/East_Asia" title="East Asia">East Asia</a>, Truman denied the Soviet request to <a href="/wiki/Korean_reunification" title="Korean reunification">reunify Korea</a>, and refused to allow the Soviets a role in the post-war <a href="/wiki/Occupation_of_Japan" title="Occupation of Japan">occupation of Japan</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPatterson1996116_67-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPatterson1996116-67"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>67<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>By September 1946, Truman was convinced that the Soviet Union sought world domination and that cooperation was futile.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHerring2008610–611_68-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHerring2008610–611-68"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>68<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> He adopted a policy of <a href="/wiki/Containment" title="Containment">containment</a>, based on a <a href="/wiki/X_Article" title="X Article">1946 cable</a> by diplomat <a href="/wiki/George_F._Kennan" title="George F. Kennan">George F. Kennan</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDallek200843_69-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDallek200843-69"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>69<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Containment, a policy of preventing the further expansion of Soviet influence, represented a middle-ground position between friendly <a href="/wiki/D%C3%A9tente" title="Détente">détente</a> (as represented by Wallace), and aggressive <a href="/wiki/Rollback" title="Rollback">rollback</a> to regain territory already lost to Communism, as would be adopted in 1981 by <a href="/wiki/Ronald_Reagan" title="Ronald Reagan">Ronald Reagan</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-70" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-70"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>70<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Kennan's doctrine was based on the notion that the Soviet Union was led by an uncompromising totalitarian regime, and that the Soviets were primarily responsible for escalating tensions.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPatterson1996114_71-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPatterson1996114-71"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>71<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Wallace, who had been appointed Secretary of Commerce after the <a href="/wiki/1944_United_States_presidential_election" title="1944 United States presidential election">1944 presidential election</a>, resigned from the cabinet in September 1946 due to Truman's hardening stance towards the Soviet Union.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDallek200846–48_72-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDallek200846–48-72"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>72<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Truman_Doctrine">Truman Doctrine</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Foreign_policy_of_the_Harry_S._Truman_administration&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Truman Doctrine"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Truman_Doctrine" title="Truman Doctrine">Truman Doctrine</a></div> <p>In the first major step in implementing containment, Truman gave money to Greece and Turkey to prevent the spread of Soviet-aligned governments. Prior to 1947, the U.S. had largely ignored Greece, which had an anti-communist government, because it was under British influence.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDallek200856–57_73-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDallek200856–57-73"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>73<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Since 1944, the British had assisted the Greek government against a left-wing insurgency, but in early 1947 London informed Washington that it could no longer afford to intervene in Greece. At the urging of Acheson, who warned that the fall of Greece could lead to the expansion of Soviet influence throughout Europe, Truman requested that Congress grant an unprecedented $400 million aid package to Greece and Turkey. In a March 1947 speech before a joint session of Congress, written by Acheson, Truman articulated the <a href="/wiki/Truman_Doctrine" title="Truman Doctrine">Truman Doctrine</a>. It called for the United States to support "free people who are resisting attempted subjugation by armed minorities or by outside pressures." Overcoming isolationists who opposed involvement, as well as those on the left who wanted cooperation with Moscow, Truman won bipartisan approval of the aid package.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHerring2008614–616_74-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHerring2008614–616-74"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>74<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The congressional vote represented a permanent break with the <a href="/wiki/United_States_non-interventionism" title="United States non-interventionism">non-interventionism</a> that had characterized U.S. foreign policy prior to World War II.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDallek200858–59_75-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDallek200858–59-75"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>75<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The United States became closely involved in the <a href="/wiki/Greek_Civil_War" title="Greek Civil War">Greek Civil War</a>, which ended with the defeat of the insurgency in 1949. Stalin and <a href="/wiki/Yugoslavia" title="Yugoslavia">Yugoslavian</a> leader <a href="/wiki/Josip_Broz_Tito" title="Josip Broz Tito">Josip Broz Tito</a> both provided aid to the insurgents, but they fought for control causing <a href="/wiki/Tito%E2%80%93Stalin_split" title="Tito–Stalin split">a split</a> in the Communist bloc.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHerring2008616–617_76-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHerring2008616–617-76"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>76<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> American military and economic aid to Turkey also proved effective, and Turkey avoided a civil war.<sup id="cite_ref-77" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-77"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>77<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-78" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-78"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>78<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The Truman administration provided aid to the <a href="/wiki/Christian_Democracy_(Italy)" title="Christian Democracy (Italy)">Christian Democrat</a> government during the <a href="/wiki/1948_Italian_general_election" title="1948 Italian general election">1948 Italian general election</a> where the <a href="/wiki/Italian_Communist_Party" title="Italian Communist Party">Communist Party</a> had strength. The aid package, combined with a covert CIA operation, anti-Communist mobilization by the <a href="/wiki/Catholic_Church" title="Catholic Church">Catholic Church</a> and <a href="/wiki/Italian_Americans" title="Italian Americans">Italian Americans</a>, helped to produce a Communist defeat.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHerring2008621_79-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHerring2008621-79"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>79<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-80" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-80"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>80<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The initiatives of the Truman Doctrine solidified the post-war division between the United States and the Soviet Union, and the Soviet Union responded by tightening its control over Eastern Europe.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHerring2008622_81-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHerring2008622-81"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>81<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Countries aligned with the Soviet Union became known as the <a href="/wiki/Eastern_Bloc" title="Eastern Bloc">Eastern Bloc</a>, while the U.S. and its allies became known as the <a href="/wiki/Western_Bloc" title="Western Bloc">Western Bloc</a>. </p><p>Although the <a href="/wiki/American_Left" title="American Left">far left element</a> in the <a href="/wiki/Democratic_Party_(United_States)" title="Democratic Party (United States)">Democratic Party</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Congress_of_Industrial_Organizations" title="Congress of Industrial Organizations">Congress of Industrial Organizations</a> was being expelled, some liberal Democrats opposed the Truman Doctrine. <a href="/wiki/Eleanor_Roosevelt" title="Eleanor Roosevelt">Eleanor Roosevelt</a> wrote Truman in April 1947 calling him to rely on the UN instead of his Truman Doctrine. She denounced Greece and Turkey because they were undemocratic. Truman needing support from the Roosevelt's liberal wing, wrote her that while he held onto his long-term hopes for the United Nations, he insisted that and an "economically, ideologically and politically sound" peace would more likely come from American action, than from the UN. He emphasized the strategic geographical importance of the Greek-Turkish land bridge as a critical point in which democratic forces could stop the advance of communism that had so ravaged Eastern Europe.<sup id="cite_ref-Spalding2006_82-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Spalding2006-82"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>82<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>A new policy in 1947 was to forbid the sale to the Soviet bloc (and China after 1949) of <a href="/wiki/High_tech" title="High tech">high technology</a> that had military uses. Washington convinced its allies to follow suit. Richard Nixon finally relaxed the policy in 1970.<sup id="cite_ref-83" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-83"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>83<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Military_reorganization_and_budgets">Military reorganization and budgets</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Foreign_policy_of_the_Harry_S._Truman_administration&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Military reorganization and budgets"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <table class="wikitable floatright"> <caption>U.S. military spending<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKirkendall1990237_84-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKirkendall1990237-84"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>84<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </caption> <tbody><tr> <th>Fiscal Year</th> <th>% GNP </th></tr> <tr> <td>1945</td> <td>38% </td></tr> <tr> <td>1946</td> <td>21% </td></tr> <tr> <td>1948</td> <td>5.0% </td></tr> <tr> <td>1950</td> <td>4.6% </td></tr> <tr> <td>1952</td> <td>13% </td></tr></tbody></table> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/National_Security_Agency" title="National Security Agency">National Security Agency</a> and <a href="/wiki/NSC_68" title="NSC 68">NSC 68</a></div> <p>Facing new, global challenges, Washington reorganized the military and intelligence establishment to provide for more centralized control and reduce rivalries.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHerring2008613–614_14-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHerring2008613–614-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The <a href="/wiki/National_Security_Act_of_1947" title="National Security Act of 1947">National Security Act of 1947</a> merged the <a href="/wiki/United_States_Department_of_War" title="United States Department of War">Department of War</a> and the <a href="/wiki/United_States_Department_of_the_Navy" title="United States Department of the Navy">Department of the Navy</a> into the <a href="/wiki/United_States_Department_of_Defense" title="United States Department of Defense">National Military Establishment</a> (which was later renamed as the <a href="/wiki/United_States_Department_of_Defense" title="United States Department of Defense">Department of Defense</a>). The law also separated the <a href="/wiki/United_States_Air_Force" title="United States Air Force">U.S. Air Force</a> from the <a href="/wiki/United_States_Army" title="United States Army">Army</a>. It created the <a href="/wiki/Central_Intelligence_Agency" title="Central Intelligence Agency">Central Intelligence Agency</a> (CIA), and the <a href="/wiki/United_States_National_Security_Council" title="United States National Security Council">National Security Council</a> (NSC). The CIA and the NSC were designed to be civilian bodies that would increase U.S. preparation against foreign threats without assuming the domestic functions of the <a href="/wiki/Federal_Bureau_of_Investigation" title="Federal Bureau of Investigation">Federal Bureau of Investigation</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDallek200862–63_85-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDallek200862–63-85"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>85<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The National Security Act institutionalized the <a href="/wiki/Joint_Chiefs_of_Staff" title="Joint Chiefs of Staff">Joint Chiefs of Staff</a>, which had been established on a temporary basis during World War II. The Joint Chiefs of Staff took charge of all military action, and the Secretary of Defense became the chief presidential adviser on military matter. In 1952, Truman secretly consolidated and empowered the cryptologic elements of the United States by creating the <a href="/wiki/National_Security_Agency" title="National Security Agency">National Security Agency</a> (NSA).<sup id="cite_ref-86" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-86"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>86<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Truman also sought to require one year of military service for all young men physically capable of such service, but this proposal never won more than modest support among members of Congress.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMcCoy1984117–118_87-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMcCoy1984117–118-87"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>87<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Truman had hoped that the National Security Act would minimize <a href="/wiki/Interservice_rivalry" title="Interservice rivalry">interservice rivalries</a>, but the Army, Navy and Air Force each retained considerable autonomy and battled over budgets and strategy.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPatterson1996133_88-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPatterson1996133-88"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>88<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In 1949, Secretary of Defense <a href="/wiki/Louis_A._Johnson" title="Louis A. Johnson">Louis Johnson</a> announced that he would cancel a "<a href="/wiki/Aircraft_carrier" title="Aircraft carrier">supercarrier</a>", which the <a href="/wiki/United_States_Navy" title="United States Navy">United States Navy</a> wanted as a key weapon for the future.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPatterson1996168_89-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPatterson1996168-89"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>89<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The cancellation sparked the "<a href="/wiki/Revolt_of_the_Admirals" title="Revolt of the Admirals">Revolt of the Admirals</a>", when a number of retired and active-duty admirals publicly disagreed with the administration's emphasis on less expensive <a href="/wiki/Strategic_nuclear_weapon" title="Strategic nuclear weapon">strategic atomic bombs</a> delivered by the Air Force. During congressional hearings, public opinion shifted strongly against the Navy, which ultimately kept control of <a href="/wiki/United_States_Naval_Aviator" class="mw-redirect" title="United States Naval Aviator">Marine aviation</a> but lost control over <a href="/wiki/Strategic_bombing" title="Strategic bombing">strategic bombing</a>. Military budgets following the hearings prioritized the development of Air Force <a href="/wiki/Heavy_bomber" title="Heavy bomber">heavy bomber</a> designs, and the United States accumulated a combat ready force of over 1,000 long-range <a href="/wiki/Strategic_bomber" title="Strategic bomber">strategic bombers</a> capable of supporting nuclear mission scenarios.<sup id="cite_ref-90" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-90"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>90<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Truman gave a low priority to the <a href="/wiki/Military_budget_of_the_United_States" title="Military budget of the United States">defense budget</a>—it got whatever money was left over after <a href="/wiki/Tax_cut" title="Tax cut">tax cuts</a> and domestic spending. From the beginning, he assumed that the American monopoly on the atomic bomb was adequate protection against any and all external threats. Military spending plunged from 39% of GNP in 1945 to only 5% in 1948.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKirkendall1990237–239_91-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKirkendall1990237–239-91"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>91<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The number of military personnel fell from just over 3 million in 1946 to approximately 1.6 million in 1947, although the number was still nearly five times larger than that of U.S. military in 1939.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMcCoy1984116_92-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMcCoy1984116-92"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>92<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In 1949, Truman ordered a review of U.S. military policies in light of the Soviet Union's acquisition of nuclear weapons. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Marshall_Plan">Marshall Plan</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Foreign_policy_of_the_Harry_S._Truman_administration&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Marshall Plan"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Marshall_Plan" title="Marshall Plan">Marshall Plan</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Marshall_Plan.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/dc/Marshall_Plan.svg/220px-Marshall_Plan.svg.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="218" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/dc/Marshall_Plan.svg/330px-Marshall_Plan.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/dc/Marshall_Plan.svg/440px-Marshall_Plan.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="454" data-file-height="450" /></a><figcaption>Marshall Plan expenditures by country</figcaption></figure> <p>The <a href="/wiki/Marshall_Plan" title="Marshall Plan">Marshall Plan</a> was launched by the United States in 1947–48 to replace numerous ad hoc loan and grant programs, with a unified, long-range plan to help restore the <a href="/wiki/Economy_of_Europe" title="Economy of Europe">European economy</a>, modernize it, remove internal tariffs and barriers, and encourage European collaboration. It was funded by the Republican -controlled Congress, where the isolationist Republican element was overwhelmed by a new internationalism. Stalin refused to let any of his satellite nations in Eastern Europe participate. Much less famous was a similar aid program aimed at Japan, China and other Asian countries. All the money was donated – there was no repayment needed. (At the same time, however, there were also separate American government loan programs that did require repayment.)<sup id="cite_ref-93" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-93"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>93<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The United States had suddenly terminated the war-time <a href="/wiki/Lend-Lease" title="Lend-Lease">Lend-Lease</a> program in August 1945, to the surprise and distress of Britain, the Soviet Union and other recipients who had counted on a steady flow. However the United States did send large sums and loans and relief supplies, though in an uncoordinated fashion with no long-term plan.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMcCoy198471,_100_94-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMcCoy198471,_100-94"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>94<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Western Europe was slowly recovering by 1947; Eastern Europe was being stripped of its resources by Moscow. Churchill warned that Europe was "a rubble heap, a <a href="/wiki/Charnel_house" title="Charnel house">charnel house</a>, a breeding ground for pestilence and hate". American leaders feared that poor economic conditions could lead to Communism in France and Italy, where the far left was under Stalin's control. With the goal of containing Communism and increasing trade between the U.S. and Europe, the Truman administration devised the Marshall Plan. Dean Acheson was the key planner, But Marshall's enormous worldwide prestige was used to sell the program at home and abroad.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDallek200860–61_95-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDallek200860–61-95"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>95<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>To fund the Marshall Plan, Truman asked Congress to approve an unprecedented, multi-year, $25 billion appropriation.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHerring2008617–619_96-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHerring2008617–619-96"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>96<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Congress, under the control of conservative Republicans, agreed to fund the program for multiple reasons. The 20-member conservative isolationist wing of the Republican Party, based in the rural <a href="/wiki/Midwestern_United_States" title="Midwestern United States">Midwest</a>, was led by Senator <a href="/wiki/Kenneth_S._Wherry" title="Kenneth S. Wherry">Kenneth S. Wherry</a>. He argued that it would be "a wasteful 'operation rat-hole'"; that it made no sense to oppose communism by supporting socialist governments; and that American goods would reach Russia and increase its war potential. The isolationist bloc opposed loans or financial aid of any sort to Europe, opposed NATO, and tried to void presidential power to send troops to Europe. Their political base included many <a href="/wiki/German_Americans" title="German Americans">German-American</a> and <a href="/wiki/Nordic_and_Scandinavian_Americans" title="Nordic and Scandinavian Americans">Scandinavian American</a> communities that had suffered nasty attacks on their American patriotism during <a href="/wiki/World_War_I" title="World War I">World War I</a>. No matter what the issue, they could be counted on as vocal enemies of the Truman administration. The isolationists were outmaneuvered by the emerging internationalist wing in the Republican Party, led by Michigan Senator <a href="/wiki/Arthur_Vandenberg" title="Arthur Vandenberg">Arthur H. Vandenberg</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-97" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-97"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>97<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>With support from Republican Senator <a href="/wiki/Henry_Cabot_Lodge_Jr." title="Henry Cabot Lodge Jr.">Henry Cabot Lodge, Jr.</a>, Vandenberg admitted there was no certainty that the plan would succeed, but said it would halt economic chaos, sustain Western civilization, and stop further Soviet expansion.<sup id="cite_ref-98" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-98"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>98<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Senator <a href="/wiki/Robert_A._Taft" title="Robert A. Taft">Robert A. Taft</a>, a leading conservative Republican who was generally skeptical of American commitments in Europe, chose to focus on domestic issues and deferred to Vandenberg on foreign policy.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPatterson1996147_99-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPatterson1996147-99"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>99<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Major newspapers were highly supportive, including pro-business conservative outlets like <i><a href="/wiki/Time_(magazine)" title="Time (magazine)">Time</a></i> magazine.<sup id="cite_ref-100" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-100"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>100<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-101" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-101"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>101<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Both houses of Congress approved the initial appropriation, known as the Foreign Assistance Act, by large majorities, and Truman signed the act into law in April 1948.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMcCoy1984127–128_102-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMcCoy1984127–128-102"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>102<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Congress would eventually allocate $12.4 billion in aid over the four years of the plan.<sup id="cite_ref-103" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-103"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>103<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>A new Washington agency the <a href="/wiki/Marshall_Plan" title="Marshall Plan">European Recovery Program</a> (ERP) ran the Marshall Plan and close cooperation with the recipient nations. The money proved decisive, but the ERP was focused on a longer-range vision that included more efficiency, more high technology, and the removal of multiple internal barriers and tariffs inside Western Europe. ERP allowed each recipient to develop its own plan for the aid, it set several rules and guidelines on the use of the funding. Governments were required to exclude Communists, socialist policies were allowed, and balanced budgets were favored. Additionally, the ERP conditioned aid to the French and British on their acceptance of the reindustrialization of Germany and support for <a href="/wiki/European_integration" title="European integration">European integration</a>. The Soviets set up their own program for aid, the <a href="/wiki/Molotov_Plan" title="Molotov Plan">Molotov Plan</a>, and the new barriers reduced trade between the Eastern bloc and the Western bloc.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMcCoy1984126–127_104-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMcCoy1984126–127-104"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>104<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The Marshall Plan helped European economies recover in the late 1940s and early 1950s. By 1952, industrial productivity had increased by 35 percent compared to 1938 levels. The Marshall Plan also provided critical psychological reassurance to many Europeans, restoring optimism to a war-torn continent. Though European countries did not adopt American economic structures and ideas to the degree hoped for by some Americans, they remained firmly rooted in <a href="/wiki/Mixed_economy" title="Mixed economy">mixed economic systems</a>. The European integration process led to the creation of the <a href="/wiki/European_Economic_Community" title="European Economic Community">European Economic Community</a>, which eventually formed the basis of the <a href="/wiki/European_Union" title="European Union">European Union</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHerring2008619–620_105-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHerring2008619–620-105"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>105<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Berlin_airlift">Berlin airlift</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Foreign_policy_of_the_Harry_S._Truman_administration&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: Berlin airlift"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Berlin_Blockade" title="Berlin Blockade">Berlin Blockade</a></div> <p>In reaction to Western moves aimed at reindustrializing their German occupation zones, Stalin ordered a blockade of the <a href="/wiki/West_Berlin" title="West Berlin">Western-held sectors of Berlin</a>, which was deep in the <a href="/wiki/Soviet_occupation_zone_of_Germany" class="mw-redirect" title="Soviet occupation zone of Germany">Soviet occupation zone</a>. Stalin hoped to prevent the creation of a <a href="/wiki/West_Germany" title="West Germany">western German state</a> aligned with the U.S., or, failing that, to consolidate control over <a href="/wiki/East_Germany" title="East Germany">eastern Germany</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHerring2008623–624_106-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHerring2008623–624-106"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>106<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> After the blockade began on June 24, 1948, the commander of the American occupation zone in Germany, General <a href="/wiki/Lucius_D._Clay" title="Lucius D. Clay">Lucius D. Clay</a>, proposed sending a large armored column across the Soviet zone to <a href="/wiki/West_Berlin" title="West Berlin">West Berlin</a> with instructions to defend itself if it were stopped or attacked. Truman believed this would entail an unacceptable risk of war, and instead approved <a href="/wiki/Ernest_Bevin" title="Ernest Bevin">Ernest Bevin</a>'s plan to supply the blockaded city by air. On June 25, the Allies initiated the <a href="/wiki/Berlin_Blockade" title="Berlin Blockade">Berlin Airlift</a>, a campaign that delivered food and other supplies, such as coal, using military aircraft on a massive scale. Nothing like it had ever been attempted before, and no single nation had the capability, either logistically or materially, to accomplish it. The airlift worked, and ground access was again granted on May 11, 1949. The Berlin Airlift was one of Truman's great foreign policy successes, and it significantly aided his <a href="/wiki/Harry_S._Truman_1948_presidential_campaign" title="Harry S. Truman 1948 presidential campaign">election campaign in 1948</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-107" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-107"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>107<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="NATO">NATO</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Foreign_policy_of_the_Harry_S._Truman_administration&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: NATO"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/History_of_NATO" title="History of NATO">History of NATO</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Cold_war_europe_military_alliances_map_en.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/02/Cold_war_europe_military_alliances_map_en.png/220px-Cold_war_europe_military_alliances_map_en.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="227" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/02/Cold_war_europe_military_alliances_map_en.png/330px-Cold_war_europe_military_alliances_map_en.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/02/Cold_war_europe_military_alliances_map_en.png/440px-Cold_war_europe_military_alliances_map_en.png 2x" data-file-width="1165" data-file-height="1200" /></a><figcaption>Map of <a href="/wiki/NATO" title="NATO">NATO</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Warsaw_Pact" title="Warsaw Pact">Warsaw Pact</a> (which was created in 1955). The original NATO members are shaded dark blue.</figcaption></figure> <p>Rising tensions with the Soviets, along with the Soviet veto of numerous <a href="/wiki/United_Nations_Security_Council_resolution" title="United Nations Security Council resolution">United Nations Security Council resolutions</a>, convinced Truman, Senator Vandenberg, and other American leaders of the necessity of creating a defensive alliance devoted to <a href="/wiki/Collective_security" title="Collective security">collective security</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMcCoy1984139–140_108-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMcCoy1984139–140-108"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>108<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In 1949, the United States, Canada, and several European countries signed the <a href="/wiki/North_Atlantic_Treaty" title="North Atlantic Treaty">North Atlantic Treaty</a>, creating a trans-Atlantic military alliance and committing the United States to its first permanent alliance since the <a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_Alliance_(1778)" title="Treaty of Alliance (1778)">1778 Treaty of Alliance</a> with France.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDallek200889_109-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDallek200889-109"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>109<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The treaty establishing NATO was widely popular and easily passed the Senate in 1949. NATO's goals were to contain Soviet expansion in Europe and to send a clear message to communist leaders that the world's democracies were willing and able to build new security structures in support of democratic ideals. The treaty also re-assured France that the United States would come to its defense, paving the way for continuing French cooperation in the re-establishment of an independent German state. The U.S., Britain, France, Italy, the Netherlands, Belgium, Luxembourg, Norway, Denmark, Portugal, Iceland, and Canada were the original treaty signatories.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDallek200889–91_110-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDallek200889–91-110"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>110<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Shortly after the creation of NATO, Truman convinced Congress to pass the <a href="/wiki/Mutual_Defense_Assistance_Act" title="Mutual Defense Assistance Act">Mutual Defense Assistance Act</a>, which created a military aid program for European allies.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMcCoy1984198–201_111-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMcCoy1984198–201-111"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>111<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Cold War tensions heightened following Soviet acquisition of nuclear weapons and the beginning of the Korean War. The U.S. increased its commitment to NATO, invited Greece and Turkey to join the alliance, and launched a second major foreign aid program with the passage of the <a href="/wiki/Mutual_Security_Act" title="Mutual Security Act">Mutual Security Act</a>. Truman permanently stationed 180,000 in Europe, and European defense spending grew from 5 percent to 12 percent of gross national product. NATO established a <a href="/wiki/Structure_of_NATO" title="Structure of NATO">unified command structure</a>, and Truman appointed General <a href="/wiki/Dwight_D._Eisenhower" title="Dwight D. Eisenhower">Dwight D. Eisenhower</a> as the first <a href="/wiki/Supreme_Allied_Commander_Europe" title="Supreme Allied Commander Europe">Supreme Commander of NATO</a>. West Germany, which fell under the aegis of NATO, would eventually be incorporated into NATO in 1955.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHerring2008645–649_112-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHerring2008645–649-112"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>112<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Spain">Spain</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Foreign_policy_of_the_Harry_S._Truman_administration&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: Spain"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Spain%E2%80%93United_States_relations#Dealing_with_Franco" title="Spain–United States relations">Spain–United States relations § Dealing with Franco</a></div> <p>Truman usually worked well with his top advisors—the exceptions were Israel in 1948 and <a href="/wiki/Francoist_Spain" title="Francoist Spain">Francoist Spain</a> in 1945–50. Truman was a very strong opponent of <a href="/wiki/Francisco_Franco" title="Francisco Franco">Francisco Franco</a>, the right-wing dictator of Spain.<sup id="cite_ref-113" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-113"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>113<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> He withdrew the American ambassador (but diplomatic relations were not formally broken), kept Spain out of the UN, and rejected any Marshall Plan financial aid to Spain. Liberal opposition to Spain faded after the Wallace element left the Democratic Party in 1948; the CIO dropped its attacks on Spain. When the Korean War began in 1950, support for Spain as an anti-Communist ally grew in Congress, the Pentagon, the business community and other influential elements such as Catholics and cotton growers. Secretary of State Acheson increased his pressure on Truman, and the president stood alone in his administration as his own top appointees wanted to normalize relations.<sup id="cite_ref-114" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-114"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>114<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Admitting that he was "overruled and worn down", Truman relented and sent an ambassador and made loans available. Military talks began and President Eisenhower established the <a href="/wiki/Pact_of_Madrid" title="Pact of Madrid">Madrid Pact</a>, a security agreement, in 1953.<sup id="cite_ref-115" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-115"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>115<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Department_of_State_-_Technical_Cooperation_Administration.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fd/Department_of_State_-_Technical_Cooperation_Administration.jpg/318px-Department_of_State_-_Technical_Cooperation_Administration.jpg" decoding="async" width="318" height="173" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fd/Department_of_State_-_Technical_Cooperation_Administration.jpg/477px-Department_of_State_-_Technical_Cooperation_Administration.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fd/Department_of_State_-_Technical_Cooperation_Administration.jpg/636px-Department_of_State_-_Technical_Cooperation_Administration.jpg 2x" data-file-width="6108" data-file-height="3320" /></a><figcaption>Countries in the Point Four Program in 1952</figcaption></figure> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Point_Four:_technological_aid_to_poor_countries">Point Four: technological aid to poor countries</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Foreign_policy_of_the_Harry_S._Truman_administration&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: Point Four: technological aid to poor countries"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Point_Four_Program" title="Point Four Program">Point Four Program</a></div> <p>Point Four was a new program of technological aid to poor developing countries that started in 1949. It began with a $25 million budget; Iran was an early favored recipient. In Nepal, Point Four promoted mineral development, agriculture and public health programs, and improved trade routes to India. Truman boasted it was the "Front line of the Cold War".<sup id="cite_ref-116" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-116"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>116<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The program encouraged private investment and many of its technical people went on to careers in international trade. The Eisenhower administration kept the policy but changed the name to the <a href="/wiki/International_Cooperation_Administration" title="International Cooperation Administration">International Cooperation Administration</a> and tied it to military objectives. It is now known as the <a href="/wiki/United_States_Agency_for_International_Development" title="United States Agency for International Development">United States Agency for International Development</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-117" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-117"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>117<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-118" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-118"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>118<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="German_rearmament">German rearmament</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Foreign_policy_of_the_Harry_S._Truman_administration&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: German rearmament"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/West_German_rearmament" title="West German rearmament">West German rearmament</a></div> <p>The rearmament of West Germany was achieved in the early 1950s. The main promoter was West German Chancellor <a href="/wiki/Konrad_Adenauer" title="Konrad Adenauer">Konrad Adenauer</a>, with France the main opponent. Washington had the decisive voice. It was strongly supported by the Pentagon (the U.S. military leadership), and weakly opposed by President Harry S. Truman; the State Department was ambivalent. The outbreak of the Korean War in June 1950 changed the calculations and Washington now gave full support. That also involved putting <a href="/wiki/Dwight_D._Eisenhower" title="Dwight D. Eisenhower">Dwight D. Eisenhower</a> in charge of NATO forces, and sending more American troops to West Germany.<sup id="cite_ref-119" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-119"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>119<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Widespread fears of another rise of <a href="/wiki/Militarism#Germany" title="Militarism">German militarism</a> necessitated the new military to operate within an alliance framework, under <a href="/wiki/NATO" title="NATO">NATO</a> command.<sup id="cite_ref-120" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-120"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>120<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The events led to the establishment of the <i><a href="/wiki/Bundeswehr" title="Bundeswehr">Bundeswehr</a></i>, the West German military, in 1955.<sup id="cite_ref-121" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-121"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>121<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="NSC-68_in_1950">NSC-68 in 1950</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Foreign_policy_of_the_Harry_S._Truman_administration&action=edit&section=18" title="Edit section: NSC-68 in 1950"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In April 1950 the <a href="/wiki/United_States_National_Security_Council" title="United States National Security Council">National Security Council</a> approved <a href="/wiki/NSC_68" title="NSC 68">NSC 68</a>, drafted by <a href="/wiki/Paul_Nitze" title="Paul Nitze">Paul Nitze</a>. It urgently called for rapid rearmament and a major expansion of the defense budget, increased aid to U.S. allies, and a more aggressive posture in the Cold War. Nitze used strong and alarming language to depict the Soviet Union as a country determined to expand and engage in aggressive behavior to maintain its Communist system. This statement gave a new global and militarized twist to the existing policy of containment, which was already being implemented in Europe and Japan. NSC-68 endorsed the use of any available means to protect the interests of democracies. Unlike the X article and the Long Telegram, NSC-68 portrayed a larger threat and asserted that a Soviet offensive against the West had become global.<sup id="cite_ref-122" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-122"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>122<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The White House at first shelved NSC-68. However the sudden outbreak of the <a href="/wiki/Korean_War" title="Korean War">Korean War</a> in June 1950 confirmed for Washington the warning issued in NSC-68 and its goals were adopted as the new policy. The Cold War had become hot in Asia. The crisis now convinced Washington of the urgent necessity for higher defense spending. The budget quadrupled between 1949 and 1953.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHerring2008639,_647_123-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHerring2008639,_647-123"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>123<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Latin_America">Latin America</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Foreign_policy_of_the_Harry_S._Truman_administration&action=edit&section=19" title="Edit section: Latin America"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Latin_America%E2%80%93United_States_relations" title="Latin America–United States relations">Latin America–United States relations</a> and <a href="/wiki/Argentina%E2%80%93United_States_relations" title="Argentina–United States relations">Argentina–United States relations</a></div> <p>Cold War tensions and competition reached across the globe, affecting Europe, Asia, North America, Latin America, and Africa. The United States had historically focused its foreign policy on upholding the <a href="/wiki/Monroe_Doctrine" title="Monroe Doctrine">Monroe Doctrine</a> in the Western Hemisphere, but new commitments in Europe and Asia diminished U.S. focus on Latin America. Partially in reaction to fears of expanding Soviet influence, the U.S. led efforts to create collective security pact in the <a href="/wiki/Western_Hemisphere" title="Western Hemisphere">Western Hemisphere</a>. In 1947, the United States and most Latin American nations joined the <a href="/wiki/Inter-American_Treaty_of_Reciprocal_Assistance" title="Inter-American Treaty of Reciprocal Assistance">Rio Pact</a>, a defensive military alliance. The following year, the independent states of the <a href="/wiki/Americas" title="Americas">Americas</a> formed the <a href="/wiki/Organization_of_American_States" title="Organization of American States">Organization of American States</a> (OAS), an intergovernmental organization designed to foster regional unity. Many Latin American nations, seeking favor with the United States, cut off relations with the Soviet Union.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHerring2008626–627_124-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHerring2008626–627-124"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>124<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Latin American countries also requested aid and investment similar to the Marshall Plan, but did not get it. The Administration believed that most U.S. foreign aid was best directed to Europe and other areas that could potentially fall under the influence of Communism.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMcCoy1984228–229_125-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMcCoy1984228–229-125"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>125<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>There was bad blood with <a href="/wiki/Argentina%E2%80%93United_States_relations" title="Argentina–United States relations">Argentina</a>. Washington detested dictator <a href="/wiki/Juan_Per%C3%B3n" title="Juan Perón">Juan Perón</a>, who held <a href="/wiki/Fascist" class="mw-redirect" title="Fascist">fascist</a> sympathies, tried to remain neutral in the <a href="/wiki/Cold_War" title="Cold War">Cold War</a> and continued to harbor <a href="/wiki/German_war_crimes" title="German war crimes">Nazi war criminals</a>. Washington blocked funds from international agencies and restricted trade and investment opportunities.<sup id="cite_ref-126" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-126"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>126<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Meanwhile, Peron championed Anti-Americanism across Latin America, and financed radical elements in other countries. He did not, however, ally with the USSR in the Cold War.<sup id="cite_ref-127" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-127"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>127<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Asia">Asia</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Foreign_policy_of_the_Harry_S._Truman_administration&action=edit&section=20" title="Edit section: Asia"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Recognition_of_Israel">Recognition of Israel</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Foreign_policy_of_the_Harry_S._Truman_administration&action=edit&section=21" title="Edit section: Recognition of Israel"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Truman_receives_menorah.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5b/Truman_receives_menorah.jpg/220px-Truman_receives_menorah.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="174" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5b/Truman_receives_menorah.jpg/330px-Truman_receives_menorah.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5b/Truman_receives_menorah.jpg/440px-Truman_receives_menorah.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1200" data-file-height="949" /></a><figcaption>President Truman in the Oval Office, receiving a <a href="/wiki/Hanukkah" title="Hanukkah">Hanukkah</a> <a href="/wiki/Menorah_(Hanukkah)" class="mw-redirect" title="Menorah (Hanukkah)">Menorah</a> from the Prime Minister of Israel, <a href="/wiki/David_Ben-Gurion" title="David Ben-Gurion">David Ben-Gurion</a> (center). To the right is <a href="/wiki/Abba_Eban" title="Abba Eban">Abba Eban</a>, Ambassador of Israel to the U.S.</figcaption></figure> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Israel%E2%80%93United_States_relations" title="Israel–United States relations">Israel–United States relations</a></div> <p>Truman had long been sympathetic to the Jewish community in Kansas City. Regarding British-controlled <a href="/wiki/Mandatory_Palestine" title="Mandatory Palestine">Mandatory Palestine</a>, in 1943, he had called for a homeland for those <a href="/wiki/Holocaust_survivors" title="Holocaust survivors">Jews who survived the Nazi regime</a>. However, State Department officials were reluctant to offend the <a href="/wiki/Arabs" title="Arabs">Arabs</a>, who were opposed to the establishment of a <a href="/wiki/Jewish_state" title="Jewish state">Jewish state</a> in <a href="/wiki/Palestine_(region)" title="Palestine (region)">Palestine</a>. Secretary of Defense Forrestal warned Truman of the importance of <a href="/wiki/Saudi_Arabia" title="Saudi Arabia">Saudi Arabia</a>'s supply of oil; Truman replied that he would decide his policy on the basis of justice, not oil. American diplomats with experience in the region were likewise opposed, but Truman told them he had few Arabs among his constituents.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMcCullough1992595–97_128-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMcCullough1992595–97-128"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>128<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Regarding policy in the Eastern Mediterranean and the Middle East, Palestine was secondary to the goal of protecting the "Northern Tier" of Greece, Turkey, and Iran from communism.<sup id="cite_ref-129" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-129"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>129<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In 1947, the United Nations approved the <a href="/wiki/United_Nations_Partition_Plan_for_Palestine" title="United Nations Partition Plan for Palestine">partition</a> of Mandatory Palestine into a Jewish state and an Arab state. The British announced that they would withdraw from Palestine in May 1948, and <a href="/wiki/Yishuv" title="Yishuv">Yishuv</a> leaders began to organize a <a href="/wiki/Provisional_government_of_Israel" title="Provisional government of Israel">provisional government</a>. Meanwhile, the Truman administration debated whether or not to recognize the fledgling state of <a href="/wiki/Israel" title="Israel">Israel</a>. <sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHerring2008628–629_130-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHerring2008628–629-130"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>130<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Secretary of State Marshall argued that the consensus of that department was negative, because it would alienate the Arabs in the Middle East. Nevertheless Truman recognized the <a href="/wiki/Israel" title="Israel">State of Israel</a> on May 14, 1948, eleven minutes after <a href="/wiki/Israeli_Declaration_of_Independence" title="Israeli Declaration of Independence">it declared itself a nation</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELenczowski199026_131-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELenczowski199026-131"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>131<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Israel quickly secured its independence with a victory in the <a href="/wiki/1948_Arab%E2%80%93Israeli_War" title="1948 Arab–Israeli War">1948 Arab–Israeli War</a>, but the <a href="/wiki/Arab%E2%80%93Israeli_conflict" title="Arab–Israeli conflict">Arab–Israeli conflict</a> remains unresolved.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHerring2008629_132-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHerring2008629-132"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>132<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-133" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-133"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>133<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Truman would say that he did not think the decision to recognize Israel was "an easy one", adding "I had to make a compromise with the Arabs and divide Palestine. The Jews wanted to chase all the Arabs into the <a href="/wiki/Tigris" title="Tigris">Tigris</a> and <a href="/wiki/Euphrates" title="Euphrates">Euphrates</a> River and the Arabs wanted to chase all the Jews into the <a href="/wiki/Red_Sea" title="Red Sea">Red Sea</a>. What I was trying to do is to find a homeland for the Jews and still be just with the Arabs."<sup id="cite_ref-134" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-134"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>134<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="China">China</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Foreign_policy_of_the_Harry_S._Truman_administration&action=edit&section=22" title="Edit section: China"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Marshall_Mission" title="Marshall Mission">Marshall Mission</a>, <a href="/wiki/China%E2%80%93United_States_relations" title="China–United States relations">China–United States relations</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Taiwan%E2%80%93United_States_relations" title="Taiwan–United States relations">Taiwan–United States relations</a></div> <p>In 1945 China descended into a <a href="/wiki/Chinese_Civil_War" title="Chinese Civil War">civil war</a>. The civil war baffled Washington, as both the <a href="/wiki/Nationalist_government" title="Nationalist government">Nationalist government</a> under <a href="/wiki/Chiang_Kai-shek" title="Chiang Kai-shek">Chiang Kai-shek</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Chinese_Communist_Party" title="Chinese Communist Party">Chinese Communist Party</a> under <a href="/wiki/Mao_Zedong" title="Mao Zedong">Mao Zedong</a> had American advocates.<sup id="cite_ref-135" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-135"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>135<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Truman sent Marshall to China in early 1946 to broker a compromise featuring a coalition government. The mission failed, as both sides felt the issue would be decided on the battlefield, not at a conference table. Marshall returned to Washington in December 1946, blaming extremist elements on both sides.<sup id="cite_ref-136" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-136"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>136<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In mid-1947, Truman sent General <a href="/wiki/Albert_Coady_Wedemeyer" title="Albert Coady Wedemeyer">Albert Coady Wedemeyer</a> to China to try again, but no progress was made.<sup id="cite_ref-137" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-137"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>137<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-138" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-138"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>138<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Though the <a href="/wiki/Kuomintang" title="Kuomintang">Kuomintang</a> held were strong in the large cities, Mao had a potentially much larger base in the rural villages. Steadily the Communists gained the upper hand after 1947. Corruption, poor economic conditions, and poor military leadership eroded popular support for the Nationalists. As the Nationalists collapsed in 1948, the Truman administration faced the question of whether to intervene on the side of the Nationalists or seek good relations with Mao. Chiang's strong support among sections of the American public, along with desire to assure other allies that the U.S. was committed to containment, convinced Truman to increase economic and military aid to the Nationalists. However, Truman held out little hope for a Nationalist victory, and he refused to send U.S. soldiers.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHerring2008631–633_139-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHerring2008631–633-139"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>139<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In 1949 the Communists took control of the <a href="/wiki/Mainland_China" title="Mainland China">mainland China</a>, <a href="/wiki/Retreat_of_the_government_of_the_Republic_of_China_to_Taiwan" title="Retreat of the government of the Republic of China to Taiwan">driving the Nationalists to Taiwan</a>. The United States had a new enemy in Asia, and Truman came under fire from conservatives for "<a href="/wiki/Loss_of_China" title="Loss of China">losing</a>" China.<sup id="cite_ref-May2012_140-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-May2012-140"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>140<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Along with the <a href="/wiki/RDS-1" title="RDS-1">Soviet detonation of a nuclear weapon</a>, the Communist victory in the Chinese Civil War played a major role in escalating Cold War tensions and U.S. militarization during 1949.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPatterson1996169–170_141-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPatterson1996169–170-141"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>141<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Truman would have been willing to maintain some relationship with the new government, but Mao was unwilling.<sup id="cite_ref-142" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-142"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>142<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Chiang established the <a href="/wiki/Taiwan" title="Taiwan">Republic of China</a> on Taiwan, which retained China's seat on the UN Security Council until 1971.<sup id="cite_ref-143" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-143"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>143<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-144" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-144"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>144<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-145" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-145"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>a<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In June 1950, after the outbreak of fighting in Korea, Truman ordered the <a href="/wiki/United_States_Seventh_Fleet" title="United States Seventh Fleet">United States Seventh Fleet</a> into the <a href="/wiki/Taiwan_Strait" title="Taiwan Strait">Taiwan Strait</a> to prevent further <a href="/wiki/Cross-Strait_conflict" class="mw-redirect" title="Cross-Strait conflict">conflict between the two Chinas</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDonovan1983198–199_146-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDonovan1983198–199-146"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>145<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Japan">Japan</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Foreign_policy_of_the_Harry_S._Truman_administration&action=edit&section=23" title="Edit section: Japan"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Occupation_of_Japan" title="Occupation of Japan">Occupation of Japan</a></div> <p>Under the leadership of General <a href="/wiki/Douglas_MacArthur" title="Douglas MacArthur">Douglas MacArthur</a>, the U.S. occupied Japan after the latter's surrender in August 1945. MacArthur presided over extensive reforms of the Japanese government and society on the New Deal model.<sup id="cite_ref-147" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-147"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>146<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> He imposed a <a href="/wiki/Constitution_of_Japan" title="Constitution of Japan">new constitution</a> that established a <a href="/wiki/Parliamentary_system" title="Parliamentary system">parliamentary democracy</a> and granted <a href="/wiki/Women%27s_suffrage_in_Japan" title="Women's suffrage in Japan">women the right to vote</a>. He also reformed the <a href="/wiki/Education_in_Japan" title="Education in Japan">Japanese educational system</a> and oversaw major economic changes, although Japanese business leaders were able to resist the reforms to some degree. As the Cold War intensified in 1947, the Truman administration took greater control over the occupation, ending Japanese reparations to the Allied Powers and prioritizing <a href="/wiki/Economic_growth" title="Economic growth">economic growth</a> over long-term reform. The Japanese suffered from poor economic conditions until the beginning of the Korean War, when heavy American purchases stimulated growth.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHerring2008633–634_148-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHerring2008633–634-148"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>147<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In 1951, the United States and Japan signed the <a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_San_Francisco" title="Treaty of San Francisco">Treaty of San Francisco</a>, which restored Japanese sovereignty and allowed the United States to maintain bases in Japan.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHerring2008646–647_149-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHerring2008646–647-149"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>148<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Over the opposition of the Soviet Union and some other adversaries of Japan in World War II, the peace treaty did not contain punitive measures such as reparations.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMcCoy1984271–272_150-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMcCoy1984271–272-150"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>149<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Southeast_Asia">Southeast Asia</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Foreign_policy_of_the_Harry_S._Truman_administration&action=edit&section=24" title="Edit section: Southeast Asia"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Decolonization_of_Asia" class="mw-redirect" title="Decolonization of Asia">Decolonization of Asia</a></div> <p>With the end of World War II, the United States fulfilled the commitment made by the 1934 <a href="/wiki/Tydings%E2%80%93McDuffie_Act" title="Tydings–McDuffie Act">Tydings–McDuffie Act</a> and <a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_Manila_(1946)" title="Treaty of Manila (1946)">granted independence</a> to the <a href="/wiki/Philippines" title="Philippines">Philippines</a>. The U.S. had encouraged <a href="/wiki/Decolonization" title="Decolonization">decolonization</a> throughout World War II, but the start of the Cold War changed priorities. The U.S. used the Marshall Plan to pressure the Dutch to grant independence to <a href="/wiki/Indonesia" title="Indonesia">Indonesia</a> under the leadership of the anti-Communist <a href="/wiki/Sukarno" title="Sukarno">Sukarno</a>, and the Dutch recognized Indonesia's independence in 1949. However, in <a href="/wiki/French_Indochina" title="French Indochina">French Indochina</a>, the Truman administration recognized the <a href="/wiki/State_of_Vietnam" title="State of Vietnam">French client state</a> led by Emperor <a href="/wiki/B%E1%BA%A3o_%C4%90%E1%BA%A1i" title="Bảo Đại">Bảo Đại</a>. The U.S. feared alienating the French, who occupied a crucial position on the continent, and feared that the withdrawal of the French would allow the Communist faction of <a href="/wiki/Ho_Chi_Minh" title="Ho Chi Minh">Ho Chi Minh</a> to assume power.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHerring2008634–635_151-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHerring2008634–635-151"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>150<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Despite initial reluctance to become involved in Indochina, by 1952, the United States was heavily subsidizing the French suppression of Ho's <a href="/wiki/Viet_Minh" title="Viet Minh">Việt Minh</a> in the <a href="/wiki/First_Indochina_War" title="First Indochina War">First Indochina War</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHerring2008647_152-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHerring2008647-152"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>151<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The U.S. also established alliances in the region through the creation of the <a href="/wiki/Mutual_Defense_Treaty_(United_States%E2%80%93Philippines)" title="Mutual Defense Treaty (United States–Philippines)">Mutual Defense Treaty</a> with the Philippines and the <a href="/wiki/ANZUS" title="ANZUS">ANZUS</a> pact with <a href="/wiki/Australia" title="Australia">Australia</a> and <a href="/wiki/New_Zealand" title="New Zealand">New Zealand</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMcCoy1984270–271_153-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMcCoy1984270–271-153"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>152<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Korean_War">Korean War</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Foreign_policy_of_the_Harry_S._Truman_administration&action=edit&section=25" title="Edit section: Korean War"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/United_States_in_the_Korean_War" title="United States in the Korean War">United States in the Korean War</a> and <a href="/wiki/Korean_War" title="Korean War">Korean War</a></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Outbreak_of_the_war">Outbreak of the war</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Foreign_policy_of_the_Harry_S._Truman_administration&action=edit&section=26" title="Edit section: Outbreak of the war"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Truman_initiating_Korean_involvement.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2d/Truman_initiating_Korean_involvement.jpg/220px-Truman_initiating_Korean_involvement.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="280" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2d/Truman_initiating_Korean_involvement.jpg/330px-Truman_initiating_Korean_involvement.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2d/Truman_initiating_Korean_involvement.jpg/440px-Truman_initiating_Korean_involvement.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2264" data-file-height="2885" /></a><figcaption>President Truman signing a proclamation declaring a national emergency and authorizing U.S. entry into the Korean War</figcaption></figure> <p>Following World War II, the United States and the Soviet Union occupied <a href="/wiki/Korea" title="Korea">Korea</a>, which had been a <a href="/wiki/Korea_under_Japanese_rule" title="Korea under Japanese rule">colony of the Japanese Empire</a>. The <a href="/wiki/38th_parallel_north" title="38th parallel north">38th parallel</a> was chosen as a line of partition between the occupying powers since it was approximately halfway between Korea's northernmost and southernmost regions, and was always intended to mark a temporary separation before the eventual reunification of Korea.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPatterson1996208_154-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPatterson1996208-154"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>153<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Nonetheless, the Soviet Union established the Democratic People's Republic of Korea (<a href="/wiki/North_Korea" title="North Korea">North Korea</a>) in 1948, while the United States established the Republic of Korea (<a href="/wiki/South_Korea" title="South Korea">South Korea</a>) that same year.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDallek200892_155-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDallek200892-155"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>154<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Hoping to avoid a long-term military commitment in the region, Truman withdrew U.S. soldiers from the Korean Peninsula in 1949. The Soviet Union also withdrew their soldiers from Korea in 1949, but continued to supply North Korea with military aid.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPatterson1996209_156-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPatterson1996209-156"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>155<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>After getting approval from Moscow and Beijing, on June 25, 1950, <a href="/wiki/Kim_Il_Sung" title="Kim Il Sung">Kim Il Sung</a>'s <a href="/wiki/Korean_People%27s_Army" title="Korean People's Army">Korean People's Army</a> <a href="/wiki/Operation_Pokpoong" class="mw-redirect" title="Operation Pokpoong">invaded South Korea</a>, starting the Korean War. In the early weeks of the war, the North Koreans easily pushed back the southern forces.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMcCoy1984222–27_157-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMcCoy1984222–27-157"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>156<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Soviet Union was not officially involved, though it did provide pilots and warplanes. <sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPatterson1996209–210_158-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPatterson1996209–210-158"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>157<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Truman believed that allowing a Western-aligned country to fall would embolden Communists around the world and damage his own standing at home.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDallek2008106–107_159-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDallek2008106–107-159"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>158<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The top officials of the Truman administration were heavily influenced by a desire to not repeat the "<a href="/wiki/Appeasement" title="Appeasement">appeasement</a>" of <a href="/wiki/Nazi_Germany" title="Nazi Germany">Nazi Germany</a> in the 1930s; Truman stated to an aide, "there's no telling what they'll do, if we don't put up a fight right now."<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPatterson1996211_160-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPatterson1996211-160"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>159<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Truman turned to the United Nations to condemn the invasion. With the Soviet Union boycotting the <a href="/wiki/United_Nations_Security_Council" title="United Nations Security Council">United Nations Security Council</a> due to the UN's refusal to recognize the People's Republic of China, Truman won approval of <a href="/wiki/United_Nations_Security_Council_Resolution_84" title="United Nations Security Council Resolution 84">Resolution 84</a>. The resolution denounced North Korea's actions and empowered other nations to defend South Korea under the UN flag, with the U.S. in command.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDallek2008106–107_159-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDallek2008106–107-159"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>158<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Rather than asking Congress for a <a href="/wiki/Declaration_of_war_by_the_United_States" title="Declaration of war by the United States">declaration of war</a>, Truman argued that the UN Resolution provided the presidency the constitutional power to deploy soldiers as a "<a href="/wiki/Police_action" title="Police action">police action</a>" under the aegis of the UN.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDallek2008106–107_159-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDallek2008106–107-159"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>158<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The intervention in Korea was widely popular in the United States at the time, and Truman's July 1950 request for $10 billion was approved almost unanimously.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPatterson1996214–215_161-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPatterson1996214–215-161"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>160<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>North Korean forces experienced early successes, <a href="/wiki/First_Battle_of_Seoul" title="First Battle of Seoul">capturing</a> the South Korean capital of <a href="/wiki/Seoul" title="Seoul">Seoul</a> on June 28. Fearing the fall of the entire peninsula, General <a href="/wiki/Douglas_MacArthur" title="Douglas MacArthur">Douglas MacArthur</a>, commander of U.S. forces in Asia, landed American troops and sent in air and naval power. By August 1950, MacArthur had strikes, stabilized the front around the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Pusan_Perimeter" class="mw-redirect" title="Battle of Pusan Perimeter">Pusan Perimeter</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-162" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-162"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>161<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Responding to criticism over unreadiness, Truman fired Secretary of Defense Louis Johnson and replaced him with the elderly George Marshall. With UN approval, Truman decided on a "rollback" policy—<a href="/wiki/UN_offensive_into_North_Korea" title="UN offensive into North Korea">conquest of North Korea</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-163" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-163"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>162<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> MacArthur's forces launched a counterattack, scoring a stunning surprise victory with an amphibious landing at the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Inchon" title="Battle of Inchon">Battle of Inchon</a> that trapped most of the invaders. The <a href="/wiki/United_Nations_Command" title="United Nations Command">United Nations Command</a> marched north, toward the <a href="/wiki/Yalu_River" title="Yalu River">Yalu River</a> boundary with China, with the goal of reuniting Korea under UN auspices.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEStokesbury199081–90_164-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEStokesbury199081–90-164"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>163<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="China_pushes_back;_stalemate"><span id="China_pushes_back.3B_stalemate"></span>China pushes back; stalemate</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Foreign_policy_of_the_Harry_S._Truman_administration&action=edit&section=27" title="Edit section: China pushes back; stalemate"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Korean_war_1950-1953.gif" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/eb/Korean_war_1950-1953.gif/170px-Korean_war_1950-1953.gif" decoding="async" width="170" height="263" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/eb/Korean_war_1950-1953.gif/255px-Korean_war_1950-1953.gif 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/eb/Korean_war_1950-1953.gif/340px-Korean_war_1950-1953.gif 2x" data-file-width="562" data-file-height="871" /></a><figcaption>Territory often changed hands early in the war, until the front stabilized.<br /> • <span style="color:#d45444;">North Korean, Chinese, and Soviet forces</span><br /> • <span style="color:#4cd444">South Korean, U.S., <a href="/wiki/Commonwealth_of_Nations" title="Commonwealth of Nations">Commonwealth</a>, and United Nations forces</span></figcaption></figure> <p>As the UN forces approached the Yalu River, the CIA and General MacArthur both expected that the Chinese would remain out of the war. Defying those predictions, Chinese <a href="/wiki/People%27s_Volunteer_Army" title="People's Volunteer Army">People's Volunteer Army</a> forces crossed the Yalu River in November 1950 and forced the overstretched UN soldiers to retreat.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPatterson1996219–222_165-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPatterson1996219–222-165"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>164<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Fearing that the escalation of the war could spark a global conflict with the Soviet Union, Truman refused MacArthur's request to bomb Chinese supply bases north of the Yalu River.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDallek2008113_166-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDallek2008113-166"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>165<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> UN forces were pushed below the 38th parallel before the end of 1950, but, under the command of General <a href="/wiki/Matthew_Ridgway" title="Matthew Ridgway">Matthew Ridgway</a>, the UN launched <a href="/wiki/Operation_Ripper" title="Operation Ripper">a counterattack</a> that pushed Chinese forces back up to the 38th parallel.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPatterson1996225–226_167-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPatterson1996225–226-167"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>166<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> the war then became a stalemate with North and South in approximately the same positions they held when the war began. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Dismissal_of_MacArthur">Dismissal of MacArthur</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Foreign_policy_of_the_Harry_S._Truman_administration&action=edit&section=28" title="Edit section: Dismissal of MacArthur"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Relief_of_Douglas_MacArthur" title="Relief of Douglas MacArthur">Relief of Douglas MacArthur</a></div> <p>MacArthur made several public demands for an escalation of the war, leading to a break with Truman in late 1950 and early 1951.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPatterson1996226–228_168-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPatterson1996226–228-168"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>167<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> On April 5, <a href="/wiki/House_Republican_Conference" title="House Republican Conference">House Republican Conference</a> leader <a href="/wiki/Joseph_W._Martin_Jr." title="Joseph W. Martin Jr.">Joseph Martin</a> made public a letter from MacArthur that strongly criticized Truman's handling of the Korean War and called for an expansion of the conflict against China.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDallek2008117–118_169-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDallek2008117–118-169"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>168<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Washington believed that MacArthur's recommendations were wrong, but more importantly, Truman was angry that MacArthur had overstepped his bounds in trying to make foreign and military policy, potentially subverting the <a href="/wiki/Civilian_control_of_the_military" class="mw-redirect" title="Civilian control of the military">civilian control of the military</a>. After consulting with the <a href="/wiki/Joint_Chiefs_of_Staff" title="Joint Chiefs of Staff">Joint Chiefs of Staff</a> and members of Congress, Truman decided to relieve MacArthur of his command.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDallek2008118–119_170-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDallek2008118–119-170"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>169<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The <a href="/wiki/Relief_of_Douglas_MacArthur" title="Relief of Douglas MacArthur">dismissal of General Douglas MacArthur</a> ignited a firestorm of outrage against Truman and support for MacArthur. Fierce criticism from virtually all quarters accused Truman of refusing to shoulder the blame for a war gone sour and blaming his generals instead. Others, including Eleanor Roosevelt, supported and applauded Truman's decision. MacArthur meanwhile returned to the U.S. to a hero's welcome, and addressed a <a href="/wiki/Joint_session_of_the_United_States_Congress" title="Joint session of the United States Congress">joint session of Congress</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-171" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-171"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>170<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In part due to the dismissal of MacArthur, Truman's approval mark in February 1952 stood at 22% according to <a href="/wiki/Gallup_(company)" class="mw-redirect" title="Gallup (company)">Gallup polls</a>, which was, until <a href="/wiki/George_W._Bush" title="George W. Bush">George W. Bush</a> in 2008, the all-time lowest approval mark for an active American president.<sup id="cite_ref-172" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-172"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>171<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Though the public generally favored MacArthur over Truman immediately after MacArthur's dismissal, congressional hearings and newspaper editorials helped turn public opinion against MacArthur's advocacy for escalation.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPatterson1996230–232_173-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPatterson1996230–232-173"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>172<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The war remained a frustrating stalemate for two years.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDallek2008124_174-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDallek2008124-174"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>173<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> UN and Chinese forces fought inconclusive conflicts like the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Heartbreak_Ridge" title="Battle of Heartbreak Ridge">Battle of Heartbreak Ridge</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Pork_Chop_Hill" title="Battle of Pork Chop Hill">Battle of Pork Chop Hill</a>, but neither side was able to advance far past the 38th parallel.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPatterson1996232_175-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPatterson1996232-175"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>174<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Throughout late 1951, Truman sought a cease fire, but disputes over prisoner exchanges led to the collapse of negotiations.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDallek2008124_174-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDallek2008124-174"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>173<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Of the 116,000 Chinese and Korean prisoners-of-war held by the United States, only 83,000 were willing to return to their home countries, and Truman was unwilling to forcibly return the prisoners.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDallek2008137_176-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDallek2008137-176"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>175<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Korean War ended with an <a href="/wiki/Korean_Armistice_Agreement" title="Korean Armistice Agreement">armistice</a> in 1953 after Truman left office, dividing North Korea and South Korea along a border close to the 38th parallel.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEChambers_II1999849_177-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEChambers_II1999849-177"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>176<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Over 30,000 Americans and approximately 3 million Koreans died in the conflict.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHerring2008645_178-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHerring2008645-178"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>177<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The United States maintained a <a href="/wiki/United_States_Forces_Korea" title="United States Forces Korea">permanent military presence</a> in South Korea after the war.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPatterson1996235_179-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPatterson1996235-179"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>178<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="International_trips">International trips</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Foreign_policy_of_the_Harry_S._Truman_administration&action=edit&section=29" title="Edit section: International trips"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Truman made five international trips during his presidency:<sup id="cite_ref-180" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-180"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>179<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> His only trans-Atlantic trip was to participate in the 1945 <a href="/wiki/Potsdam_Conference" title="Potsdam Conference">Potsdam Conference</a> with British Prime Ministers Churchill and Attlee and Soviet Premier Stalin. He also visited neighboring Bermuda, Canada and Mexico, plus Brazil in <a href="/wiki/South_America" title="South America">South America</a>. Truman only left the <a href="/wiki/Contiguous_United_States" title="Contiguous United States">continental United States</a> on two other occasions (to <a href="/wiki/Puerto_Rico" title="Puerto Rico">Puerto Rico</a>, the <a href="/wiki/United_States_Virgin_Islands" title="United States Virgin Islands">Virgin Islands</a>, <a href="/wiki/Guantanamo_Bay_Naval_Base" title="Guantanamo Bay Naval Base">Guantanamo Bay Naval Base</a>, Cuba, February 20 – March 5, 1948; and to <a href="/wiki/Wake_Island" title="Wake Island">Wake Island</a>, October 11–18, 1950) during his nearly eight years in office.<sup id="cite_ref-181" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-181"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>180<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <table class="wikitable"> <tbody><tr> <th> </th> <th>Dates </th> <th>Country </th> <th>Locations </th> <th>Details </th></tr> <tr> <td rowspan="2">1 </td> <td>July 16 – August 2, 1945 </td> <td><small><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:WhiteFlag.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/45/WhiteFlag.png/25px-WhiteFlag.png" decoding="async" width="25" height="17" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/45/WhiteFlag.png/38px-WhiteFlag.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/45/WhiteFlag.png/50px-WhiteFlag.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /></a></span></small> <a href="/wiki/Allied-occupied_Germany" title="Allied-occupied Germany">Germany</a> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Potsdam" title="Potsdam">Potsdam</a> </td> <td>Attended <a href="/wiki/Potsdam_Conference" title="Potsdam Conference">Potsdam Conference</a> with British Prime Ministers Winston Churchill and <a href="/wiki/Clement_Attlee" title="Clement Attlee">Clement Attlee</a> and Soviet dictator <a href="/wiki/Joseph_Stalin" title="Joseph Stalin">Joseph Stalin</a>. </td></tr> <tr> <td>August 2, 1945 </td> <td><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/a/ae/Flag_of_the_United_Kingdom.svg/23px-Flag_of_the_United_Kingdom.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="12" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/a/ae/Flag_of_the_United_Kingdom.svg/35px-Flag_of_the_United_Kingdom.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/a/ae/Flag_of_the_United_Kingdom.svg/46px-Flag_of_the_United_Kingdom.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1200" data-file-height="600" /></span></span> </span><a href="/wiki/United_Kingdom" title="United Kingdom">United Kingdom</a> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Plymouth" title="Plymouth">Plymouth</a> </td> <td>Informal meeting with King <a href="/wiki/George_VI" title="George VI">George VI</a>. </td></tr> <tr> <td>2 </td> <td>August 23–30, 1946 </td> <td><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bf/Flag_of_Bermuda.svg/23px-Flag_of_Bermuda.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="12" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bf/Flag_of_Bermuda.svg/35px-Flag_of_Bermuda.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bf/Flag_of_Bermuda.svg/46px-Flag_of_Bermuda.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1000" data-file-height="500" /></span></span> </span><a href="/wiki/Bermuda" title="Bermuda">Bermuda</a> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Hamilton,_Bermuda" title="Hamilton, Bermuda">Hamilton</a> </td> <td>Informal visit. Met with Governor General <a href="/wiki/Ralph_Leatham" title="Ralph Leatham">Ralph Leatham</a> and inspected <a href="/wiki/Military_of_Bermuda#Former_US_Bases_In_Bermuda" title="Military of Bermuda">U.S. military facilities</a>. </td></tr> <tr> <td>3 </td> <td>March 3–6, 1947 </td> <td><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8f/Flag_of_Mexico_%281934-1968%29.svg/23px-Flag_of_Mexico_%281934-1968%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="13" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8f/Flag_of_Mexico_%281934-1968%29.svg/35px-Flag_of_Mexico_%281934-1968%29.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8f/Flag_of_Mexico_%281934-1968%29.svg/46px-Flag_of_Mexico_%281934-1968%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="700" data-file-height="400" /></span></span> </span><a href="/wiki/Mexico" title="Mexico">Mexico</a> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Mexico_City" title="Mexico City">Mexico, D.F.</a> </td> <td>State visit. Met with President <a href="/wiki/Miguel_Alem%C3%A1n_Vald%C3%A9s" title="Miguel Alemán Valdés">Miguel Alemán Valdés</a>. </td></tr> <tr> <td>4 </td> <td>June 10–12, 1947 </td> <td><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6d/Flag_of_Canada_%281921%E2%80%931957%29.svg/23px-Flag_of_Canada_%281921%E2%80%931957%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="12" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6d/Flag_of_Canada_%281921%E2%80%931957%29.svg/35px-Flag_of_Canada_%281921%E2%80%931957%29.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6d/Flag_of_Canada_%281921%E2%80%931957%29.svg/46px-Flag_of_Canada_%281921%E2%80%931957%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1000" data-file-height="500" /></span></span> </span><a href="/wiki/Canada" title="Canada">Canada</a> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Ottawa" title="Ottawa">Ottawa</a> </td> <td>Official visit. Met with Governor General <a href="/wiki/Harold_Alexander,_1st_Earl_Alexander_of_Tunis" title="Harold Alexander, 1st Earl Alexander of Tunis">Harold Alexander</a> and Prime Minister <a href="/wiki/William_Lyon_Mackenzie_King" title="William Lyon Mackenzie King">Mackenzie King</a> and addressed Parliament. </td></tr> <tr> <td>5 </td> <td>September 1–7, 1947 </td> <td><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/92/Flag_of_Brazil_%281889%E2%80%931960%29.svg/22px-Flag_of_Brazil_%281889%E2%80%931960%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="22" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/92/Flag_of_Brazil_%281889%E2%80%931960%29.svg/33px-Flag_of_Brazil_%281889%E2%80%931960%29.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/92/Flag_of_Brazil_%281889%E2%80%931960%29.svg/43px-Flag_of_Brazil_%281889%E2%80%931960%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1000" data-file-height="700" /></span></span> </span><a href="/wiki/Brazil" title="Brazil">Brazil</a> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Rio_de_Janeiro" title="Rio de Janeiro">Rio de Janeiro</a> </td> <td>State visit. Addressed <a href="/wiki/Pan-American_Conference" title="Pan-American Conference">Inter-American Conference for the Maintenance of Continental Peace and Security</a> and the Brazilian Congress. </td></tr></tbody></table> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Legacy">Legacy</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Foreign_policy_of_the_Harry_S._Truman_administration&action=edit&section=30" title="Edit section: Legacy"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Truman_pass-the-buck.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="Man in suit sitting behind desk with sign that says "The buck stops here"" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1f/Truman_pass-the-buck.jpg/220px-Truman_pass-the-buck.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="158" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1f/Truman_pass-the-buck.jpg/330px-Truman_pass-the-buck.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1f/Truman_pass-the-buck.jpg/440px-Truman_pass-the-buck.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1200" data-file-height="863" /></a><figcaption>Truman poses in 1959 at the recreation of the Truman Oval Office at the Truman Library in 1959, with the famous "<a href="/wiki/Buck_passing" title="Buck passing">The Buck Stops Here</a>" sign on his desk.</figcaption></figure> <p>Scholars have on average <a href="/wiki/Historical_rankings_of_presidents_of_the_United_States" title="Historical rankings of presidents of the United States">ranked</a> Truman in the top ten American presidents, most often at #7. In 1962, a poll of 75 historians conducted by <a href="/wiki/Arthur_M._Schlesinger_Sr." title="Arthur M. Schlesinger Sr.">Arthur M. Schlesinger, Sr.</a> ranked Truman among the "near great" presidents. Truman's <a href="/wiki/Historical_rankings_of_presidents_of_the_United_States" title="Historical rankings of presidents of the United States">ranking in polls of political scientists and historians</a>, never fallen lower than ninth, and ranking as high as fifth in a <a href="/wiki/C-SPAN" title="C-SPAN">C-SPAN</a> poll in 2009.<sup id="cite_ref-182" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-182"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>181<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> A 2018 poll of the <a href="/wiki/American_Political_Science_Association" title="American Political Science Association">American Political Science Association</a>'s Presidents and Executive Politics section ranked Truman as the seventh best president.<sup id="cite_ref-183" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-183"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>182<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> A 2017 <a href="/wiki/C-SPAN" title="C-SPAN">C-SPAN</a> poll of historians ranked Truman as the sixth best president.<sup id="cite_ref-184" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-184"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>183<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>According to Professor <a href="/wiki/Alonzo_Hamby" title="Alonzo Hamby">Alonzo Hamby</a>, when left office in January 1953: "he was one of the most unpopular politicians in the United States. The Korean War, accusations of corruption in his administration, and the anticommunist red-baiting of McCarthy and his allies had all contributed to the President's poor standing with the public."<sup id="cite_ref-185" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-185"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>184<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Journalist <a href="/wiki/Samuel_Lubell" title="Samuel Lubell">Samuel Lubell</a> wrote in 1952 that "after seven years of Truman's hectic, even furious, activity the nation seemed to be about on the same general spot as when he first came to office ... Nowhere in the whole Truman record can one point to a single, decisive break-through ... All his skills and energies—and he was among our hardest-working Presidents—were directed to standing still".<sup id="cite_ref-lubell1956_186-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-lubell1956-186"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>185<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Nonetheless, Truman's image in university textbooks was quite favorable in the 1950s.<sup id="cite_ref-187" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-187"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>186<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>During the years of campus unrest in the 1960s and 1970s revisionist historians on the left attacked his foreign policy as too hostile to Communism, and his domestic policy as too favorable toward business.<sup id="cite_ref-188" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-188"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>187<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> That revisionism was not accepted by more established scholars.<sup id="cite_ref-189" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-189"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>188<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The harsh perspective faded with the decline in Communism's appeal after 1980, leading to a more balanced view.<sup id="cite_ref-190" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-190"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>189<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-191" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-191"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>190<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The fall of the Soviet Union in 1991 caused Truman advocates to claim vindication for Truman's decisions in the postwar period. According to biographer <a href="/wiki/Robert_Dallek" title="Robert Dallek">Robert Dallek</a>, "His contribution to victory in the cold war without a devastating nuclear conflict elevated him to the stature of a great or near-great president."<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDallek2008152_192-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDallek2008152-192"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>191<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The 1992 publication of <a href="/wiki/David_McCullough" title="David McCullough">David McCullough</a>'s favorable biography of Truman further cemented the view of Truman as a highly regarded Chief Executive.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDallek2008152_192-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDallek2008152-192"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>191<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> According to historian Daniel R. McCoy in his book on the Truman presidency, </p> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1244412712">.mw-parser-output .templatequote{overflow:hidden;margin:1em 0;padding:0 32px}.mw-parser-output .templatequotecite{line-height:1.5em;text-align:left;margin-top:0}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .templatequotecite{padding-left:1.6em}}</style><blockquote class="templatequote"> <p>Harry Truman himself gave a strong and far-from-incorrect impression of being a tough, concerned and direct leader. He was occasionally vulgar, often partisan, and usually nationalistic ... On his own terms, Truman can be seen as having prevented the coming of a third world war and having preserved from Communist oppression much of what he called the free world. Yet clearly he largely failed to achieve his Wilsonian aim of securing perpetual peace, making the world safe for democracy, and advancing opportunities for individual development internationally.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMcCoy1984318–319_193-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMcCoy1984318–319-193"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>192<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> </blockquote> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Foreign_policy_of_the_Harry_S._Truman_administration&action=edit&section=31" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Presidency_of_Harry_S._Truman" title="Presidency of Harry S. Truman">Presidency of Harry S. Truman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_United_States_foreign_policy#Cold_War:_1947–1991" class="mw-redirect" title="History of United States foreign policy">History of United States foreign policy#Cold War: 1947–1991</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Notes">Notes</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Foreign_policy_of_the_Harry_S._Truman_administration&action=edit&section=32" title="Edit section: Notes"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist reflist-lower-alpha"> <div class="mw-references-wrap"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-145"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-145">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">For the historiography see <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite id="CITEREFBrazinsky2012" class="citation book cs1">Brazinsky, Gregg (2012). "The Birth of a Rivalry: Sino-American Relations during the Truman Administration". In Margolies, Daniel S. (ed.). <i>A Companion to Harry S. Truman</i>. pp. 484–497.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=The+Birth+of+a+Rivalry%3A+Sino-American+Relations+during+the+Truman+Administration&rft.btitle=A+Companion+to+Harry+S.+Truman&rft.pages=484-497&rft.date=2012&rft.aulast=Brazinsky&rft.aufirst=Gregg&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AForeign+policy+of+the+Harry+S.+Truman+administration" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Foreign_policy_of_the_Harry_S._Truman_administration&action=edit&section=33" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239543626"><div class="reflist reflist-columns references-column-width reflist-columns-2"> <ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-1">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Wilson D. Miscamble, <i>From Roosevelt to Truman: Potsdam, Hiroshima, and the Cold War</i> (Cambridge UP, 2007).</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-2">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Tsuyoshi Hasegawa, <i>Racing the enemy: Stalin, Truman, and the surrender of Japan</i> (2009).</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-3">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Stephen McGlinchey, "The Marshall plan, the Truman Doctrine, and the division of Europe." <i>E-International Relations</i> (2009) <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.e-ir.info/2009/10/13/the-marshall-plan-the-truman-doctrine-and-the-division-of-europe/">online</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-4">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">John Allphin Moore, and Jerry Pubantz, <i>To create a new world?: American presidents and the United Nations</i> (Peter Lang, 1999) pp. 27-79.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-5">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Elizabeth Spalding, <i>The first cold warrior: Harry Truman, containment, and the remaking of liberal internationalism</i> (2006).</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-6"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-6">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">John W. Spanier, <i>The Truman-MacArthur controversy and the Korean war</i> (1959).</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-7"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-7">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Barton J. Bernstein, "Truman and the H-Bomb." <i>Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists</i> 40.3 (1984): 12-18.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMcCullough1992366-8"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMcCullough1992366_8-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFMcCullough1992">McCullough 1992</a>, p. 366.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-9"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-9">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAndrew_Alexander2011" class="citation book cs1">Andrew Alexander (2011). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=zO-tAwAAQBAJ&pg=PT241"><i>America and the Imperialism of Ignorance: US Foreign Policy Since 1945</i></a>. Biteback. p. 241. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1849542579" title="Special:BookSources/978-1849542579"><bdi>978-1849542579</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=America+and+the+Imperialism+of+Ignorance%3A+US+Foreign+Policy+Since+1945&rft.pages=241&rft.pub=Biteback&rft.date=2011&rft.isbn=978-1849542579&rft.au=Andrew+Alexander&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DzO-tAwAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPT241&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AForeign+policy+of+the+Harry+S.+Truman+administration" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-10"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-10">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Michael F. Hopkins, "President Harry Truman's Secretaries of State: Stettinius, Byrnes, Marshall and Acheson". <i>Journal of Transatlantic Studies</i> 6.3 (2008): 290–304.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-11"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-11">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Robert L. Messer, <i>The End of an Alliance: James F. Byrnes, Roosevelt, Truman, and the Origins of the Cold War</i> (1982).</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-12"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-12">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Frank W. Thackeray and John E. Findling, eds. <i>Statesmen Who Changed the World: A Bio-Bibliographical Dictionary of Diplomacy</i> (Greenwood, 1993) pp 337–45.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-13"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-13">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Gerald Pops, "The ethical leadership of George C. Marshall". <i>Public Integrity</i> 8.2 (2006): 165–185. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://academic.udayton.edu/RichardGhere/POL%20318/Pops.pdf">Online</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHerring2008613–614-14"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHerring2008613–614_14-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHerring2008613–614_14-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFHerring2008">Herring 2008</a>, pp. 613–614.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMcCoy1984148–149-15"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMcCoy1984148–149_15-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFMcCoy1984">McCoy 1984</a>, pp. 148–149.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-16"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-16">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Frank W. Thackeray and John E. Findling, eds. <i>Statesmen Who Changed the World: A Bio-Bibliographical Dictionary of Diplomacy</i> (Greenwood, 1993) pp 3–12.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-17"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-17">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Townsend Hoopes, "God and John Foster Dulles" <i>Foreign Policy</i> No. 13 (Winter, 1973–1974), pp. 154–177 at p 162</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-18"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-18">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Michael Schaller, "MacArthur's Japan: The View from Washington". <i>Diplomatic History</i> 10.1 (1986): 1–23. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/24911678">online</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-19"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-19">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Deborah Welch Larson, "The Origins of Commitment: Truman and West Berlin". <i>Journal of Cold War Studies</i> 13.1 (2011): 180–212.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-20"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-20">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Hopkins, "President Harry Truman's Secretaries of State". p 293.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMcCoy198421–22-21"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMcCoy198421–22_21-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMcCoy198421–22_21-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMcCoy198421–22_21-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFMcCoy1984">McCoy 1984</a>, pp. 21–22.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-bernstein1-22"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-bernstein1_22-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Barton J. Bernstein, "Roosevelt, Truman, and the atomic bomb, 1941–1945: a reinterpretation". <i>Political Science Quarterly</i> 90.1 (1975): 23–69.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-23"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-23">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPhilip_Padgett2018" class="citation book cs1">Philip Padgett (2018). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=WrtSDwAAQBAJ&pg=RA1-PR115"><i>Advocating Overlord: The D-Day Strategy and the Atomic Bomb</i></a>. University of Nebraska Press. p. cxv. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1640120488" title="Special:BookSources/978-1640120488"><bdi>978-1640120488</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Advocating+Overlord%3A+The+D-Day+Strategy+and+the+Atomic+Bomb&rft.pages=cxv&rft.pub=University+of+Nebraska+Press&rft.date=2018&rft.isbn=978-1640120488&rft.au=Philip+Padgett&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DWrtSDwAAQBAJ%26pg%3DRA1-PR115&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AForeign+policy+of+the+Harry+S.+Truman+administration" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEDallek200819–20-24"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDallek200819–20_24-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFDallek2008">Dallek 2008</a>, pp. 19–20.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-25"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-25">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Robert Cecil, "Potsdam and its Legends". <i>International Affairs</i> 46.3 (1970): 455–465.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMcCoy198423–24-26"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMcCoy198423–24_26-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFMcCoy1984">McCoy 1984</a>, pp. 23–24.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-27"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-27">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">John Lewis Gaddis, "Intelligence, espionage, and Cold War origins". <i>Diplomatic History</i> 13.2 (1989): 191–212.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEPatterson1996108–111-28"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPatterson1996108–111_28-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFPatterson1996">Patterson 1996</a>, pp. 108–111.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMcCoy198439–40-29"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMcCoy198439–40_29-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFMcCoy1984">McCoy 1984</a>, pp. 39–40.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEPatterson1996109-30"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPatterson1996109_30-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFPatterson1996">Patterson 1996</a>, p. 109.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-31"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-31">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.publishersweekly.com/978-0-671-63866-5">"Review of: Thank God for the Atom Bomb, and Other Essays by Paul Fussell"</a>. PWxyz. January 1, 1988<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">May 27,</span> 2018</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Review+of%3A+Thank+God+for+the+Atom+Bomb%2C+and+Other+Essays+by+Paul+Fussell&rft.pub=PWxyz&rft.date=1988-01-01&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.publishersweekly.com%2F978-0-671-63866-5&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AForeign+policy+of+the+Harry+S.+Truman+administration" class="Z3988"></span><br /><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFussell1988" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Paul_Fussell" title="Paul Fussell">Fussell, Paul</a> (1988). <span class="id-lock-registration" title="Free registration required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/thankgodforatomb00fuss">"Thank God for the Atom Bomb"</a></span>. <i>Thank God for the Atom Bomb and Other Essays</i>. New York: Summit Books. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0671638665" title="Special:BookSources/978-0671638665"><bdi>978-0671638665</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Thank+God+for+the+Atom+Bomb&rft.btitle=Thank+God+for+the+Atom+Bomb+and+Other+Essays&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=Summit+Books&rft.date=1988&rft.isbn=978-0671638665&rft.aulast=Fussell&rft.aufirst=Paul&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fthankgodforatomb00fuss&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AForeign+policy+of+the+Harry+S.+Truman+administration" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-32"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-32">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLambers2006" class="citation book cs1">Lambers, William (May 30, 2006). <i>Nuclear Weapons</i>. William K Lambers. p. 11. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0972462945" title="Special:BookSources/0972462945"><bdi>0972462945</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Nuclear+Weapons&rft.pages=11&rft.pub=William+K+Lambers&rft.date=2006-05-30&rft.isbn=0972462945&rft.aulast=Lambers&rft.aufirst=William&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AForeign+policy+of+the+Harry+S.+Truman+administration" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHerring2008591–593-33"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHerring2008591–593_33-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFHerring2008">Herring 2008</a>, pp. 591–593.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-34"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-34">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKramerKauzlarich2011" class="citation cs2">Kramer, Ronald C; Kauzlarich, David (2011), Rothe, Dawn; Mullins, Christopher W (eds.), "Nuclear weapons, international law, and the normalization of state crime", <i>State crime: Current perspectives</i>, pp. 94–121, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0813549019" title="Special:BookSources/978-0813549019"><bdi>978-0813549019</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=State+crime%3A+Current+perspectives&rft.atitle=Nuclear+weapons%2C+international+law%2C+and+the+normalization+of+state+crime&rft.pages=94-121&rft.date=2011&rft.isbn=978-0813549019&rft.aulast=Kramer&rft.aufirst=Ronald+C&rft.au=Kauzlarich%2C+David&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AForeign+policy+of+the+Harry+S.+Truman+administration" class="Z3988"></span>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-35"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-35">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Herbert Feis, <i>Churchill, Roosevelt, Stalin: The war they waged and the peace they sought</i> (1957) pp. 599–600, 636–638, 652</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-36"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-36">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Michael S. 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University Press of Kentucky. p. 75. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0813171288" title="Special:BookSources/0813171288"><bdi>0813171288</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+First+Cold+Warrior%3A+Harry+Truman%2C+Containment%2C+and+the+Remaking+of+Liberal+Internationalism&rft.pages=75&rft.pub=University+Press+of+Kentucky&rft.date=2006&rft.isbn=0813171288&rft.au=Elizabeth+Spalding&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DJX2GZ8HlzTkC%26pg%3DPA75&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AForeign+policy+of+the+Harry+S.+Truman+administration" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-83"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-83">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Frank Cain, "America's trade embargo against China and the East in the Cold War Years". <i>Journal of Transatlantic Studies</i> (2020): 1–17.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEKirkendall1990237-84"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKirkendall1990237_84-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFKirkendall1990">Kirkendall 1990</a>, p. 237.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEDallek200862–63-85"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDallek200862–63_85-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFDallek2008">Dallek 2008</a>, pp. 62–63.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-86"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-86">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCharles_A._Stevenson2008" class="citation journal cs1">Charles A. 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(University of North Carolina Press, 1981) <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.questia.com/library/94810075/the-road-to-confrontation-american-policy-toward">online</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20190329002417/https://www.questia.com/library/94810075/the-road-to-confrontation-american-policy-toward">Archived</a> March 29, 2019, at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEDonovan1983198–199-146"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDonovan1983198–199_146-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFDonovan1983">Donovan 1983</a>, pp. 198–199.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-147"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-147">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Michael Schaller, "MacArthur's Japan: The View from Washington." <i>Diplomatic History</i> 10.1 (1986): 1–23 <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.jstor.org/stable/24911678">online</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHerring2008633–634-148"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHerring2008633–634_148-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFHerring2008">Herring 2008</a>, pp. 633–634.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHerring2008646–647-149"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHerring2008646–647_149-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFHerring2008">Herring 2008</a>, pp. 646–647.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMcCoy1984271–272-150"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMcCoy1984271–272_150-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFMcCoy1984">McCoy 1984</a>, pp. 271–272.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHerring2008634–635-151"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHerring2008634–635_151-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFHerring2008">Herring 2008</a>, pp. 634–635.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHerring2008647-152"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHerring2008647_152-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFHerring2008">Herring 2008</a>, p. 647.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMcCoy1984270–271-153"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMcCoy1984270–271_153-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFMcCoy1984">McCoy 1984</a>, pp. 270–271.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEPatterson1996208-154"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPatterson1996208_154-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFPatterson1996">Patterson 1996</a>, p. 208.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEDallek200892-155"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDallek200892_155-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFDallek2008">Dallek 2008</a>, p. 92.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEPatterson1996209-156"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPatterson1996209_156-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFPatterson1996">Patterson 1996</a>, p. 209.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMcCoy1984222–27-157"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMcCoy1984222–27_157-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFMcCoy1984">McCoy 1984</a>, pp. 222–27.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEPatterson1996209–210-158"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPatterson1996209–210_158-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFPatterson1996">Patterson 1996</a>, pp. 209–210.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEDallek2008106–107-159"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDallek2008106–107_159-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDallek2008106–107_159-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDallek2008106–107_159-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFDallek2008">Dallek 2008</a>, pp. 106–107.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEPatterson1996211-160"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPatterson1996211_160-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFPatterson1996">Patterson 1996</a>, p. 211.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEPatterson1996214–215-161"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPatterson1996214–215_161-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFPatterson1996">Patterson 1996</a>, pp. 214–215.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-162"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-162">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJohn_J._Chapin2015" class="citation book cs1">John J. Chapin (2015). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=-C1vCwAAQBAJ"><i>Fire Brigade: U.S. Marines In The Pusan Perimeter</i></a>. Pickle Partners. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1786251619" title="Special:BookSources/978-1786251619"><bdi>978-1786251619</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Fire+Brigade%3A+U.S.+Marines+In+The+Pusan+Perimeter&rft.pub=Pickle+Partners&rft.date=2015&rft.isbn=978-1786251619&rft.au=John+J.+Chapin&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D-C1vCwAAQBAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AForeign+policy+of+the+Harry+S.+Truman+administration" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-163"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-163">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">James I Matray, "Truman's Plan for Victory: National Self-Determination and the Thirty-Eighth Parallel Decision in Korea". <i>Journal of American History</i> 66.2 (1979): 314–333. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/1900879">in JSTOR</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEStokesbury199081–90-164"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEStokesbury199081–90_164-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFStokesbury1990">Stokesbury 1990</a>, pp. 81–90.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEPatterson1996219–222-165"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPatterson1996219–222_165-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFPatterson1996">Patterson 1996</a>, pp. 219–222.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEDallek2008113-166"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDallek2008113_166-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFDallek2008">Dallek 2008</a>, pp. 113.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEPatterson1996225–226-167"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPatterson1996225–226_167-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFPatterson1996">Patterson 1996</a>, pp. 225–226.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEPatterson1996226–228-168"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPatterson1996226–228_168-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFPatterson1996">Patterson 1996</a>, pp. 226–228.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEDallek2008117–118-169"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDallek2008117–118_169-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFDallek2008">Dallek 2008</a>, pp. 117–118.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEDallek2008118–119-170"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDallek2008118–119_170-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFDallek2008">Dallek 2008</a>, pp. 118–119.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-171"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-171">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Larry Blomstedt, <i>Truman, Congress, and Korea: The Politics of America's First Undeclared War</i>, University Press of Kentucky, 2015.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-172"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-172">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPaul_J._Lavrakas2008" class="citation book cs1">Paul J. Lavrakas (2008). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=2sr0CAAAQBAJ&pg=PA30"><i>Encyclopedia of Survey Research Methods</i></a>. SAGE. p. 30. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1506317885" title="Special:BookSources/978-1506317885"><bdi>978-1506317885</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Encyclopedia+of+Survey+Research+Methods&rft.pages=30&rft.pub=SAGE&rft.date=2008&rft.isbn=978-1506317885&rft.au=Paul+J.+Lavrakas&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D2sr0CAAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPA30&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AForeign+policy+of+the+Harry+S.+Truman+administration" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEPatterson1996230–232-173"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPatterson1996230–232_173-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFPatterson1996">Patterson 1996</a>, pp. 230–232.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEDallek2008124-174"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDallek2008124_174-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDallek2008124_174-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFDallek2008">Dallek 2008</a>, p. 124.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEPatterson1996232-175"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPatterson1996232_175-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFPatterson1996">Patterson 1996</a>, p. 232.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEDallek2008137-176"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDallek2008137_176-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFDallek2008">Dallek 2008</a>, p. 137.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEChambers_II1999849-177"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEChambers_II1999849_177-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFChambers_II1999">Chambers II 1999</a>, p. 849.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHerring2008645-178"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHerring2008645_178-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFHerring2008">Herring 2008</a>, p. 645.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEPatterson1996235-179"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPatterson1996235_179-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFPatterson1996">Patterson 1996</a>, p. 235.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-180"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-180">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://history.state.gov/departmenthistory/travels/president/truman-harry-s">"Travels of President Harry S. Truman"</a>. U.S. Department of State Office of the Historian.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Travels+of+President+Harry+S.+Truman&rft.pub=U.S.+Department+of+State+Office+of+the+Historian&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fhistory.state.gov%2Fdepartmenthistory%2Ftravels%2Fpresident%2Ftruman-harry-s&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AForeign+policy+of+the+Harry+S.+Truman+administration" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-181"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-181">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.trumanlibrary.org/calendar/travel_log/index.htm">"President Truman's Travel logs"</a>. The Harry S. Truman Library and Museum<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">February 26,</span> 2016</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=President+Truman%27s+Travel+logs&rft.pub=The+Harry+S.+Truman+Library+and+Museum&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.trumanlibrary.org%2Fcalendar%2Ftravel_log%2Findex.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AForeign+policy+of+the+Harry+S.+Truman+administration" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-182"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-182">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">see <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.nbcnews.com/id/wbna29216774">Associated Press, "List of Presidential rankings" Feb. 16, 2009.</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-183"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-183">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRottinghausVaughn2018" class="citation news cs1">Rottinghaus, Brandon; Vaughn, Justin S. (February 19, 2018). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.nytimes.com/interactive/2018/02/19/opinion/how-does-trump-stack-up-against-the-best-and-worst-presidents.html/">"How Does Trump Stack Up Against the Best — and Worst — Presidents?"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/The_New_York_Times" title="The New York Times">The New York Times</a></i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">May 14,</span> 2018</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+New+York+Times&rft.atitle=How+Does+Trump+Stack+Up+Against+the+Best+%E2%80%94+and+Worst+%E2%80%94+Presidents%3F&rft.date=2018-02-19&rft.aulast=Rottinghaus&rft.aufirst=Brandon&rft.au=Vaughn%2C+Justin+S.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.nytimes.com%2Finteractive%2F2018%2F02%2F19%2Fopinion%2Fhow-does-trump-stack-up-against-the-best-and-worst-presidents.html%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AForeign+policy+of+the+Harry+S.+Truman+administration" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-184"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-184">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.c-span.org/presidentsurvey2017/?page=overall">"Total Scores/Overall Rankings"</a>. <i>Presidential Historians Survey 2017</i>. C-SPAN<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">May 14,</span> 2018</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Presidential+Historians+Survey+2017&rft.atitle=Total+Scores%2FOverall+Rankings&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.c-span.org%2Fpresidentsurvey2017%2F%3Fpage%3Doverall&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AForeign+policy+of+the+Harry+S.+Truman+administration" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-185"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-185">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Alonzo L. Hamby, "HARRY S. TRUMAN: IMPACT AND LEGACY" <i>Miller Center</i> (2023) <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://millercenter.org/president/truman/impact-and-legacy">online</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-lubell1956-186"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-lubell1956_186-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLubell1956" class="citation book cs1">Lubell, Samuel (1956). <i>The Future of American Politics</i> (2nd ed.). Anchor Press. pp. 9–10. <a href="/wiki/OL_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OL (identifier)">OL</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://openlibrary.org/books/OL6193934M">6193934M</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Future+of+American+Politics&rft.pages=9-10&rft.edition=2nd&rft.pub=Anchor+Press&rft.date=1956&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fopenlibrary.org%2Fbooks%2FOL6193934M%23id-name%3DOL&rft.aulast=Lubell&rft.aufirst=Samuel&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AForeign+policy+of+the+Harry+S.+Truman+administration" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-187"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-187">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Robert Griffith, "Truman and the Historians: The Reconstruction of Postwar American History". <i><a href="/wiki/Wisconsin_Magazine_of_History" class="mw-redirect" title="Wisconsin Magazine of History">Wisconsin Magazine of History</a></i> (1975): 20–47.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-188"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-188">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">See Barton J. Bernstein, ed., <i>Politics and Policies of the Truman Administration</i> (1970) pp 3–14.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-189"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-189">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Richard S. Kirkendall, <i>The Truman period as a research field</i> (2nd ed. 1974) p 14.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-190"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-190">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKim_Hakjoon2015" class="citation book cs1">Kim Hakjoon (2015). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=pJiZCgAAQBAJ&pg=PA315">"A Review of Korean War Studies Since 1992–1994"</a>. In Matray, James I. (ed.). <i>Northeast Asia and the Legacy of Harry S. Truman: Japan, China, and the Two Koreas</i>. Truman State University Press. p. 315. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1612480671" title="Special:BookSources/978-1612480671"><bdi>978-1612480671</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=A+Review+of+Korean+War+Studies+Since+1992%E2%80%931994&rft.btitle=Northeast+Asia+and+the+Legacy+of+Harry+S.+Truman%3A+Japan%2C+China%2C+and+the+Two+Koreas&rft.pages=315&rft.pub=Truman+State+University+Press&rft.date=2015&rft.isbn=978-1612480671&rft.au=Kim+Hakjoon&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DpJiZCgAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPA315&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AForeign+policy+of+the+Harry+S.+Truman+administration" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-191"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-191">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Kent M. Beck, "What was Liberalism in the 1950s?". <i>Political Science Quarterly</i> 102.2 (1987): 233–258 at p 237.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEDallek2008152-192"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDallek2008152_192-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDallek2008152_192-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFDallek2008">Dallek 2008</a>, p. 152.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMcCoy1984318–319-193"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMcCoy1984318–319_193-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFMcCoy1984">McCoy 1984</a>, pp. 318–319.</span> </li> </ol></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Works_cited">Works cited</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Foreign_policy_of_the_Harry_S._Truman_administration&action=edit&section=34" title="Edit section: Works cited"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239549316">.mw-parser-output .refbegin{margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul{margin-left:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{margin-left:0;padding-left:3.2em;text-indent:-3.2em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul,.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul li{list-style:none}@media(max-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{padding-left:1.6em;text-indent:-1.6em}}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns ul{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .refbegin{font-size:90%}}</style><div class="refbegin refbegin-columns references-column-width" style="column-width: 30em"> <ul><li>Bowen, Wayne H. <i>Truman, Franco's Spain, and the Cold War</i> (2017) <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.amazon.com/Truman-Francos-Spain-Cold-War/dp/0826221173/">excerpt</a>.</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFChambers_II1999" class="citation book cs1">Chambers II, John W. (1999). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/oxfordcompaniont00cham"><i>The Oxford Companion to American Military History</i></a>. Oxford: Oxford University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0195071980" title="Special:BookSources/0195071980"><bdi>0195071980</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Oxford+Companion+to+American+Military+History&rft.place=Oxford&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=1999&rft.isbn=0195071980&rft.aulast=Chambers+II&rft.aufirst=John+W.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Foxfordcompaniont00cham&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AForeign+policy+of+the+Harry+S.+Truman+administration" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li>Congressional Quarterly. <i>Congress and the Nation; a review of government and politics in the postwar years: 1945–1984</i> (1965) <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/congressnation45-64cong/mode/1up">online</a></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDallek2008" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Robert_Dallek" title="Robert Dallek">Dallek, Robert</a> (2008). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/harrystruman00dall"><i>Harry S. Truman</i></a>. New York: Times Books. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0805069389" title="Special:BookSources/978-0805069389"><bdi>978-0805069389</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Harry+S.+Truman&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=Times+Books&rft.date=2008&rft.isbn=978-0805069389&rft.aulast=Dallek&rft.aufirst=Robert&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fharrystruman00dall&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AForeign+policy+of+the+Harry+S.+Truman+administration" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDonovan1983" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Robert_J._Donovan" title="Robert J. Donovan">Donovan, Robert J.</a> (1983). <span class="id-lock-registration" title="Free registration required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/tumultuousyearsp0000dono_n2q0"><i>Tumultuous Years: 1949–1953</i></a></span>. New York: W. W. Norton. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0393016192" title="Special:BookSources/978-0393016192"><bdi>978-0393016192</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Tumultuous+Years%3A+1949%E2%80%931953&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=W.+W.+Norton&rft.date=1983&rft.isbn=978-0393016192&rft.aulast=Donovan&rft.aufirst=Robert+J.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Ftumultuousyearsp0000dono_n2q0&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AForeign+policy+of+the+Harry+S.+Truman+administration" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHamby1995" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Alonzo_Hamby" title="Alonzo Hamby">Hamby, Alonzo L.</a> (1995). <span class="id-lock-registration" title="Free registration required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/manofpeoplelifeo0000hamb"><i>Man of the People: A Life of Harry S. Truman</i></a></span>. Oxford University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0195045468" title="Special:BookSources/978-0195045468"><bdi>978-0195045468</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Man+of+the+People%3A+A+Life+of+Harry+S.+Truman&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=1995&rft.isbn=978-0195045468&rft.aulast=Hamby&rft.aufirst=Alonzo+L.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fmanofpeoplelifeo0000hamb&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AForeign+policy+of+the+Harry+S.+Truman+administration" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHerring2008" class="citation book cs1">Herring, George C. (2008). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/fromcolonytosupe00herr"><i>From Colony to Superpower; U.S. Foreign Relations Since 1776</i></a>. Oxford University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0195078220" title="Special:BookSources/978-0195078220"><bdi>978-0195078220</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=From+Colony+to+Superpower%3B+U.S.+Foreign+Relations+Since+1776&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2008&rft.isbn=978-0195078220&rft.aulast=Herring&rft.aufirst=George+C.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Ffromcolonytosupe00herr&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AForeign+policy+of+the+Harry+S.+Truman+administration" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHogan1998" class="citation book cs1">Hogan, Michael J. (1998). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=Hd4C3cY7Y7IC&pg=PR7"><i>A Cross of Iron: Harry S. Truman and the Origins of the National Security State, 1945–1954</i></a>. Cambridge University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0521795371" title="Special:BookSources/978-0521795371"><bdi>978-0521795371</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+Cross+of+Iron%3A+Harry+S.+Truman+and+the+Origins+of+the+National+Security+State%2C+1945%E2%80%931954&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=1998&rft.isbn=978-0521795371&rft.aulast=Hogan&rft.aufirst=Michael+J.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DHd4C3cY7Y7IC%26pg%3DPR7&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AForeign+policy+of+the+Harry+S.+Truman+administration" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKirkendall1990" class="citation book cs1">Kirkendall, Richard S. (1990). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/harrystrumanency0000unse"><i>Harry S. Truman Encyclopedia</i></a>. G. K. Hall Publishing. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0816189151" title="Special:BookSources/978-0816189151"><bdi>978-0816189151</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Harry+S.+Truman+Encyclopedia&rft.pub=G.+K.+Hall+Publishing&rft.date=1990&rft.isbn=978-0816189151&rft.aulast=Kirkendall&rft.aufirst=Richard+S.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fharrystrumanency0000unse&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AForeign+policy+of+the+Harry+S.+Truman+administration" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLenczowski1990" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/George_Lenczowski" title="George Lenczowski">Lenczowski, George</a> (1990). <i>American Presidents and the Middle East</i>. Durham: Duke University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0822309727" title="Special:BookSources/978-0822309727"><bdi>978-0822309727</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=American+Presidents+and+the+Middle+East&rft.place=Durham&rft.pub=Duke+University+Press&rft.date=1990&rft.isbn=978-0822309727&rft.aulast=Lenczowski&rft.aufirst=George&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AForeign+policy+of+the+Harry+S.+Truman+administration" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMcCoy1984" class="citation book cs1">McCoy, Donald R. (1984). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/presidencyofharr0000mcco"><i>The Presidency of Harry S. Truman</i></a>. University Press of Kansas.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Presidency+of+Harry+S.+Truman&rft.pub=University+Press+of+Kansas&rft.date=1984&rft.aulast=McCoy&rft.aufirst=Donald+R.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fpresidencyofharr0000mcco&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AForeign+policy+of+the+Harry+S.+Truman+administration" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMcCullough1992" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/David_McCullough" title="David McCullough">McCullough, David</a> (1992). <a href="/wiki/Truman_(book)" title="Truman (book)"><i>Truman</i></a>. Simon & Schuster. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0671869205" title="Special:BookSources/978-0671869205"><bdi>978-0671869205</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Truman&rft.pub=Simon+%26+Schuster&rft.date=1992&rft.isbn=978-0671869205&rft.aulast=McCullough&rft.aufirst=David&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AForeign+policy+of+the+Harry+S.+Truman+administration" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPatterson1996" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/James_T._Patterson_(historian)" title="James T. Patterson (historian)">Patterson, James</a> (1996). <span class="id-lock-registration" title="Free registration required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/grandexpectation00patt"><i>Grand Expectations: The United States 1945–1974</i></a></span>. Oxford University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0195117974" title="Special:BookSources/978-0195117974"><bdi>978-0195117974</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Grand+Expectations%3A+The+United+States+1945%E2%80%931974&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=1996&rft.isbn=978-0195117974&rft.aulast=Patterson&rft.aufirst=James&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fgrandexpectation00patt&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AForeign+policy+of+the+Harry+S.+Truman+administration" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFStokesbury1990" class="citation book cs1">Stokesbury, James L. (1990). <i>A Short History of the Korean War</i>. New York: Harper Perennial. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0688095130" title="Special:BookSources/978-0688095130"><bdi>978-0688095130</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+Short+History+of+the+Korean+War&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=Harper+Perennial&rft.date=1990&rft.isbn=978-0688095130&rft.aulast=Stokesbury&rft.aufirst=James+L.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AForeign+policy+of+the+Harry+S.+Truman+administration" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Further_reading">Further reading</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Foreign_policy_of_the_Harry_S._Truman_administration&action=edit&section=35" title="Edit section: Further reading"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Dean_Acheson#Further_reading" title="Dean Acheson">Dean Acheson § Further reading</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Korean_War#Bibliography" title="Korean War">Korean War § Bibliography</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239549316"><div class="refbegin refbegin-columns references-column-width" style="column-width: 30em"> <ul><li>Anderson Terry H. <i>The United States, Great Britain, and the Cold War, 1944–1947</i>, (1981).</li> <li>Barnes, Robert. <i>The US, the UN and the Korean War: Communism in the Far East and the American Struggle for Hegemony in the Cold War</i> (Bloomsbury, 2014).</li> <li>Beisner, Robert L. <i>Dean Acheson: A Life in the Cold War</i> (2015) <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/deanachesonlifei00beis">online</a>, a major scholarly study</li> <li>Beisner, Robert L. "Patterns of Peril: Dean Acheson Joins the Cold Warriors, 1945–46". <i>Diplomatic History</i> 1996 20(3): 321–355. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.jstor.org/stable/24913420">online</a></li> <li>Benson, Michael T. <i>Harry S. Truman and the founding of Israel</i> (Greenwood, 1997).</li> <li>Bernstein, Barton J. "The quest for security: American foreign policy and international control of atomic energy, 1942–1946". <i>Journal of American History</i> 60.4 (1974): 1003–1044 <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/1901011">online</a>.</li> <li>Beschloss, Michael R. <i>The Conquerors: Roosevelt, Truman and the Destruction of Hitler's Germany, 1941–1945</i> (2003) <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.amazon.com/Conquerors-Roosevelt-Destruction-Hitlers-1941-1945/dp/0743244540">excerpt</a></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBlomstedt,_Larry2015" class="citation book cs1">Blomstedt, Larry (2015). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=hWzgCgAAQBAJ&pg=PA37"><i>Truman, Congress, and Korea: The Politics of America's First Undeclared War</i></a>. University Press of Kentucky. pp. 33–38. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0813166124" title="Special:BookSources/978-0813166124"><bdi>978-0813166124</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Truman%2C+Congress%2C+and+Korea%3A+The+Politics+of+America%27s+First+Undeclared+War&rft.pages=33-38&rft.pub=University+Press+of+Kentucky&rft.date=2015&rft.isbn=978-0813166124&rft.au=Blomstedt%2C+Larry&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DhWzgCgAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPA37&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AForeign+policy+of+the+Harry+S.+Truman+administration" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li>Borstelmann, Thomas. "Jim crow's coming out: Race relations and American foreign policy in the Truman years". <i>Presidential Studies Quarterly</i> 29.3 (1999): 549–569. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/27552018">online</a></li> <li>Bostdorff, Denise M. <i>Proclaiming the Truman Doctrine: The Cold War Call to Arms</i> (2008) <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.amazon.com/dp/1603440321">excerpt</a></li> <li>Brinkley, Douglas, ed. <i>Dean Acheson and the Making of U.S. Foreign Policy</i>. 1993. 271 pp. essays by scholars</li> <li>Bryan, Ferald J. "George C. 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"The Korean War: on what legal basis did Truman act?" <i>American Journal of International Law</i> 89.1 (1995): 21–39. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.constitutionproject.org/pdf/425.pdf">online</a></li> <li>Fletcher, Luke. "The Collapse of the Western World: Acheson, Nitze, and the NSC 68/Rearmament Decision". <i>Diplomatic History</i> 40#4 (2016): 750–777.</li> <li>Frazier, Robert. "Acheson and the Formulation of the Truman Doctrine". <i>Journal of Modern Greek Studies</i> 1999 17(2): 229–251. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.worldcat.org/search?fq=x0:jrnl&q=n2:0738-1727">0738-1727</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://muse.jhu.edu/journals/journal_of_modern_greek_studies/v017/17.2frazier.html">in Project Muse</a></li> <li>Freda, Isabelle. "Screening Power: Harry Truman and the Nuclear Leviathan" <i>Comparative Cinema</i> 7.12 (2019): 38–52. Hollywood's take.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Lewis_Gaddis" title="John Lewis Gaddis">Gaddis, John Lewis</a>. "Reconsiderations: Was the Truman Doctrine a Real Turning Point?" <i>Foreign Affairs</i> 1974 52(2): 386–402. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/20038055">online</a></li> <li>Gaddis, John Lewis. <i>Strategies of Containment: A Critical Appraisal of Postwar American National Security Policy</i> (1982, 2nd ed 2005) <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/strategiesofcon000gadd">online</a></li> <li>Gaddis, John Lewis. <i>George F. Kennan: An American Life</i> (2011). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/georgefkennaname0000gadd_l5o4">online</a></li> <li>Geselbracht, Raymond H. ed. <i>Foreign Aid and the Legacy of Harry S. Truman</i> (2015).</li> <li>Graebner, Norman A. ed. <i>An Uncertain Tradition: American Secretaries of State in the Twentieth Century</i> (1961)</li> <li>Gusterson, Hugh. "Presenting the Creation: Dean Acheson and the Rhetorical Legitimation of NATO". <i>Alternatives</i> 24.1 (1999): 39–57.</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHaas2016" class="citation book cs1">Haas, Lawrence J. (2016). <i>Harry and Arthur: Truman, Vandenberg, and the Partnership That Created the Free World</i>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2307%2Fj.ctt1d4v19t">10.2307/j.ctt1d4v19t</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1612348346" title="Special:BookSources/978-1612348346"><bdi>978-1612348346</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Harry+and+Arthur%3A+Truman%2C+Vandenberg%2C+and+the+Partnership+That+Created+the+Free+World&rft.date=2016&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2307%2Fj.ctt1d4v19t&rft.isbn=978-1612348346&rft.aulast=Haas&rft.aufirst=Lawrence+J.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AForeign+policy+of+the+Harry+S.+Truman+administration" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li>Hamby, Alonzo L. <i>Beyond the New Deal: Harry S. 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Bohlen, <a href="/wiki/W._Averell_Harriman" title="W. Averell Harriman">W. Averell Harriman</a>, George Kennan, Robert Lovett, and John J. McCloy; <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.amazon.com/gp/reader/0684837714">excerpt and text search</a></li> <li>Ivie, Robert L. "Fire, Flood, and Red Fever: Motivating Metaphors of Global Emergency in the Truman Doctrine Speech". <i>Presidential Studies Quarterly</i> 1999 29(3): 570–591. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.worldcat.org/search?fq=x0:jrnl&q=n2:0360-4918">0360-4918</a></li> <li>Jones, Howard. <i>"A New Kind of War": America's Global Strategy and the Truman Doctrine in Greece</i> (Oxford University Press. 1997).</li> <li>Judis, John B.: <i>Genesis: Truman, American Jews, and the Origins of the Arab/Israeli Conflict</i>. 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"The Foreign Policy of the Truman Administration: A Post-Cold War Appraisal". <i>Presidential Studies Quarterly</i> 24.3 (1994): 479–494. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/27551279">online</a></li> <li>Miscamble, Wilson D. <i>The Most Controversial Decision: Truman, the Atomic Bombs, and the Defeat of Japan</i> (Cambridge University Press, 2011)</li> <li>Moore Jr, John Allphin, and Jerry Pubantz. <i>American Presidents and the United Nations: Internationalism in the Balance</i> (Routledge, 2022). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.amazon.com/gp/product/B08XQVHDKX/">excerpt</a></li> <li>Mower, A. Glenn. <i>The United States, the United Nations, and human rights: the Eleanor Roosevelt and Jimmy Carter eras</i> (1979) <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/unitedstatesunit0000mowe">online</a></li> <li>Nau, Henry R. <i>Conservative Internationalism: Armed Diplomacy Under Jefferson, Polk, Truman, and Reagan</i> (Princeton University Press, 2015).</li> <li>Nelson, Anna Kasten. "President Truman and the evolution of the National Security Council". <i>Journal of American History</i> 72.2 (1985): 360–378. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/1903380">online</a></li> <li>Offner, Arnold A. <span style="padding-right:.15em;">"</span>'Another Such Victory': President Truman, American Foreign Policy, and the Cold War". <i>Diplomatic History</i> 1999 23#2: 127–155.</li> <li>Offner, Arnold A. <i>Another Such Victory: President Truman and the Cold War</i>. (2002) 640pp, negative appraisal <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/anothersuchvicto00offn">online</a></li> <li>Ottolenghi, Michael. "Harry Truman's recognition of Israel." <i>Historical Journal</i> 47.4 (2004): 963–988 <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1017%2FS0018246X04004066">10.1017/S0018246X04004066</a></li> <li>Pach Jr., Chester J. <i>Arming the Free World: The Origins of the United States Military Assistance Program, 1945–1950</i>, (1991)</li> <li>Paterson, Thomas G. <i>Meeting the Communist Threat: Truman to Reagan</i> (1988), by leading liberal historian</li> <li>Paterson, Thomas G. "Presidential foreign policy, public opinion, and Congress: the Truman years". <i>Diplomatic History</i> 3.1 (1979): 1–18.</li> <li>Pelz, Stephen. "When the Kitchen Gets Hot, Pass the Buck: Truman and Korea in 1950", <i>Reviews in American History</i> 6 (December 1978), 548–555.</li> <li>Pearlman, Michael D. <i>Truman and MacArthur: Policy, Politics, and the Hunger for Honor and Renown</i> (Indiana University Press, 2008).</li> <li>Pierce, Anne R. <i>Woodrow Wilson & Harry Truman: Mission and Power in American Foreign Policy</i> (Routledge, 2017).</li> <li>Pierpaoli Jr., Paul G. <i>Truman and Korea: The Political Culture of the Early Cold War</i>. (University of Missouri Press, 1999) <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&d=108668070">online edition</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Forrest_Pogue" title="Forrest Pogue">Pogue, Forrest.</a> <i>George C. Marshall: Statesman 1945–1959</i> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20130510235644/http://www.marshallfoundation.org/library/poguecollection.htm">online</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/georgecmarshalls00pogu">online</a></li> <li>Purifoy, Lewis McCarroll. <i>Harry Truman's China Policy</i>. (Franklin Watts, 1976).</li> <li>Rovere, Richard. <i>General MacArthur and President Truman: The Struggle for Control of American Foreign Policy</i> (Transaction, 1992).</li> <li>Rusell, Ruth B. <i>A History of the United Nations Charter: The Role of the United States, 1940–1945</i> (Brookings Institution, 1958.)</li> <li>Satterthwaite, Joseph C. "The Truman doctrine: Turkey". <i>Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science</i> 401.1 (1972): 74–84. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://deepblue.lib.umich.edu/bitstream/handle/2027.42/67096/10.1177_000271627240100109.pdf?sequence=2">online</a></li> <li>Schlesinger, Stephen C. <i>Act of creation: The founding of the United Nations: A story of superpowers, secret agents, wartime allies and enemies, and their quest for a peaceful world.</i> (Westview Press, 2003).</li> <li>Schwartzberg, Steven. <i>Democracy and US Policy in Latin America during the Truman Years</i> (University Press of Florida, 2003).</li> <li>Shaffer, Robert. "The Christian Century: Protestants Protesting Harry Truman's Cold War". <i>Peace & Change</i> 42.1 (2017): 93–127.</li> <li>Sjöstedt, Roxanna. "The discursive origins of a doctrine: Norms, identity, and securitization under Harry S. Truman and George W. Bush". <i>Foreign Policy Analysis</i> 3.3 (2007): 233–254.</li> <li>Snetsinger, John. <i>Truman, the Jewish Vote, and the Creation of Israel</i> (Hoover Institute Press, 1974).</li> <li>Spalding, Elizabeth Edwards. "The enduring significance of the Truman doctrine". <i>Orbis</i> 61.4 (2017): 561–574.</li> <li>Spalding, Elizabeth. <i>The first cold warrior: Harry Truman, containment, and the remaking of liberal internationalism</i> (UP of Kentucky, 2006)</li> <li>Steil, Benn. <i>The Marshall Plan: Dawn of the Cold War</i> (2018) <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.amazon.com/Marshall-Plan-Dawn-Cold-War/dp/1501102370">excerpt</a>.</li> <li>Stoler, Mark A. <i>George C. Marshall: Soldier-Statesman of the American Century</i> (1989) <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/georgecmarshall00mark">online</a></li> <li>Thornton, Richard C. <i>Odd Man Out: Truman, Stalin, Mao, and the Origins of the Korean War</i> (2001) <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/oddmanouttrumans0000thor">online</a></li> <li>Wainstock, Dennis D. <i>Truman, MacArthur, and the Korean War</i> (1999)</li> <li>Warren, Aiden, and Joseph M. Siracusa. "The Transition from Roosevelt to Truman." in <i>US Presidents and Cold War Nuclear Diplomacy</i> (Palgrave Macmillan Cham, 2021) pp. 19–34.</li> <li>Webb, Clive. "Harry S. Truman and Clement Attlee: 'Trouble Always Brings Us Together'." in <i>The Palgrave Handbook of Presidents and Prime Ministers From Cleveland and Salisbury to Trump and Johnson</i> (Palgrave Macmillan, Cham, 2022) pp. 157–178. <a href="/wiki/Clement_Attlee" title="Clement Attlee">Clement Attlee</a> was the British prime minister.</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Historiography,_memory_and_teaching"><span id="Historiography.2C_memory_and_teaching"></span>Historiography, memory and teaching</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Foreign_policy_of_the_Harry_S._Truman_administration&action=edit&section=36" title="Edit section: Historiography, memory and teaching"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li>Corke, Sarah-Jane. "History, historians and the naming of foreign policy: a postmodern reflection on American strategic thinking during the Truman administration". <i>Intelligence and National Security</i> 16.3 (2001): 146–165.</li> <li>Diebold, William, et al. "The Marshall Plan in retrospect: a review of recent scholarship". <i>Journal of International Affairs</i> (1988) 41#2: 421–435. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/24356953">in JSTOR</a></li> <li>Gaddis, John Lewis. "The emerging post-revisionist synthesis on the origins of the Cold War". <i>Diplomatic History</i> 7.3 (1983): 171–190. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/pdf/10.1111/j.1467-7709.1983.tb00389.x">online</a></li> <li>Griffith, Robert. "Truman and the Historians: The Reconstruction of Postwar American History". <i>Wisconsin Magazine of History</i> (1975) 59#1 pp: 20–47, covers both foreign and domestic policy. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/4635005">online</a></li> <li>Margolies, Daniel S. ed. <i>A Companion to Harry S. Truman</i> (2012) <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.amazon.com/Companion-Harry-S-Truman/dp/1444331418?asin=1444331418&revisionId=&format=4&depth=1">excerpt</a> most of the 27 chapters deal with foreign policy topics.</li> <li>Matray, James I., and Donald W. Boose Jr, eds. <i>The Ashgate research companion to the Korean War</i> (2014) <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.amazon.com/Ashgate-Research-Companion-Korean-War/dp/0367669382/">excerpt</a>.</li> <li>Melanson, Richard A. <i>American foreign policy since the Vietnam War: the search for consensus from Nixon to Clinton</i> (Routledge, 2015).</li> <li>Miscamble, Wilson D. "The Foreign Policy of the Truman Administration: A Post-Cold War Appraisal". <i>Presidential Studies Quarterly</i> 24.3 (1994): 479–494. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/27551279">Online</a></li> <li>O'Connell, Kaete. "Harry S. Truman and US Foreign Relations". in <i>Oxford Research Encyclopedia of American History</i> (2019). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1093/acrefore/9780199329175.013.737">online</a></li> <li>Romero, Federico. "Cold War historiography at the crossroads". <i>Cold War History</i> 14.4 (2014): 685–703.</li> <li>Smith, Geoffrey S. "'Harry, We Hardly Know You': Revisionism, Politics and Diplomacy, 1945–1954", <i>American Political Science Review</i> 70#2 (June 1976), 560–582. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/1959657">online</a></li> <li>Trachtenberg, Marc. "The United States and Eastern Europe in 1945" <i>Journal of Cold War Studies</i> (2008) 10#4 pp 94–132. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://muse.jhu.edu/article/252651/summary">excerpt</a></li> <li>Walker, J. Samuel. <i>Prompt and Utter Destruction: Truman and the Use of Atomic Bombs against Japan</i> (1997)</li> <li>Walker, J. Samuel. "Recent Literature on Truman's Atomic Bomb Decision: A Search for Middle Ground" <i>Diplomatic History</i> April 2005 – 29#2 pp 311–334.</li> <li>Weissman, Alexander D. "Pivotal politics—The Marshall Plan: A turning point in foreign aid and the struggle for democracy". <i>History Teacher</i> 47.1 (2013): 111–129. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.societyforhistoryeducation.org/pdfs/THT-NHDWeissman.pdf">online</a>, for middle and high schools.</li> <li>Westad, Odd Arne. <i>Reviewing the Cold War: Approaches, Interpretations, Theory</i> (Routledge, 2013).</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Primary_sources">Primary sources</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Foreign_policy_of_the_Harry_S._Truman_administration&action=edit&section=37" title="Edit section: Primary sources"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAcheson1969" class="citation book cs1">Acheson, Dean (1969). <i>Present at the Creation: My Years in the State Department</i>. New York: Norton. pp. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/presentatcreatio00ache/page/798">798</a> pp. <a href="/wiki/ASIN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ASIN (identifier)">ASIN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.amazon.com/dp/B0006D5KRE">B0006D5KRE</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Present+at+the+Creation%3A+My+Years+in+the+State+Department&rft.place=New+York&rft.pages=798+pp&rft.pub=Norton&rft.date=1969&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.amazon.com%2Fdp%2FB0006D5KRE%23id-name%3DASIN&rft.aulast=Acheson&rft.aufirst=Dean&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AForeign+policy+of+the+Harry+S.+Truman+administration" class="Z3988"></span> highly revealing memoir; won the Pulitzer prize; <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/presentatcreatio00dean">online</a></li> <li>Bernstein, Barton J. and Allen J. Matusow, eds. <i>The Truman administration: A Documentary History</i> (1966); 518 pp. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/politicspolicies00bern">online</a></li> <li>Mills, Walter, and E. S. Duffield, eds. <i>The Forestall Diaries</i> (1951).</li></ul> </div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236075235">.mw-parser-output .navbox{box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #a2a9b1;width:100%;clear:both;font-size:88%;text-align:center;padding:1px;margin:1em auto 0}.mw-parser-output .navbox .navbox{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .navbox+.navbox,.mw-parser-output .navbox+.navbox-styles+.navbox{margin-top:-1px}.mw-parser-output .navbox-inner,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup{width:100%}.mw-parser-output .navbox-group,.mw-parser-output .navbox-title,.mw-parser-output .navbox-abovebelow{padding:0.25em 1em;line-height:1.5em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .navbox-group{white-space:nowrap;text-align:right}.mw-parser-output .navbox,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup{background-color:#fdfdfd}.mw-parser-output .navbox-list{line-height:1.5em;border-color:#fdfdfd}.mw-parser-output .navbox-list-with-group{text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid}.mw-parser-output tr+tr>.navbox-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output tr+tr>.navbox-group,.mw-parser-output tr+tr>.navbox-image,.mw-parser-output tr+tr>.navbox-list{border-top:2px solid #fdfdfd}.mw-parser-output .navbox-title{background-color:#ccf}.mw-parser-output .navbox-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output .navbox-group,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup .navbox-title{background-color:#ddf}.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup .navbox-group,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup .navbox-abovebelow{background-color:#e6e6ff}.mw-parser-output .navbox-even{background-color:#f7f7f7}.mw-parser-output .navbox-odd{background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td dl,.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td ol,.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td ul,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist ul{padding:0.125em 0}.mw-parser-output .navbox .navbar{display:block;font-size:100%}.mw-parser-output .navbox-title .navbar{float:left;text-align:left;margin-right:0.5em}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .navbox-image img{max-width:none!important}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .navbox{display:none!important}}</style></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Harry_S._Truman" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Harry_S._Truman" title="Template:Harry S. Truman"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Harry_S._Truman" title="Template talk:Harry S. Truman"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Harry_S._Truman" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Harry S. Truman"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Harry_S._Truman" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Harry_S._Truman" title="Harry S. Truman">Harry S. Truman</a></div></th></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/List_of_presidents_of_the_United_States" title="List of presidents of the United States">33rd</a> <a href="/wiki/President_of_the_United_States" title="President of the United States">President of the United States</a> (1945–1953)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/List_of_vice_presidents_of_the_United_States" title="List of vice presidents of the United States">34th</a> <a href="/wiki/Vice_President_of_the_United_States" title="Vice President of the United States">Vice President of the United States</a> (1945)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/List_of_United_States_senators_from_Missouri" title="List of United States senators from Missouri">U.S. Senator from Missouri</a> (1935–1945)</span></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Presidency_of_Harry_S._Truman" title="Presidency of Harry S. Truman">Presidency</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_the_Harry_S._Truman_presidency" title="Timeline of the Harry S. Truman presidency">Timeline</a></li> <li>Inaugurations <ul><li><a href="/wiki/First_inauguration_of_Harry_S._Truman" title="First inauguration of Harry S. Truman">first</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Second_inauguration_of_Harry_S._Truman" title="Second inauguration of Harry S. Truman">second</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Attempted_assassination_of_Harry_S._Truman" title="Attempted assassination of Harry S. Truman">Assassination attempt</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/1952_Puerto_Rican_constitutional_referendum" title="1952 Puerto Rican constitutional referendum">1952 Puerto Rican constitutional referendum</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/State_of_the_Union" title="State of the Union">State of the Union Address</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/1946_State_of_the_Union_Address" title="1946 State of the Union Address">1946</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1947_State_of_the_Union_Address" title="1947 State of the Union Address">1947</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1948_State_of_the_Union_Address" title="1948 State of the Union Address">1948</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1949_State_of_the_Union_Address" title="1949 State of the Union Address">1949</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1950_State_of_the_Union_Address" title="1950 State of the Union Address">1950</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1951_State_of_the_Union_Address" title="1951 State of the Union Address">1951</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1952_State_of_the_Union_Address" title="1952 State of the Union Address">1952</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/January_1953_State_of_the_Union_Address" title="January 1953 State of the Union Address">1953</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_federal_judges_appointed_by_Harry_S._Truman" title="List of federal judges appointed by Harry S. Truman">Judicial appointments</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Harry_S._Truman_Supreme_Court_candidates" title="Harry S. Truman Supreme Court candidates">Supreme Court</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sherman_Minton_Supreme_Court_nomination" title="Sherman Minton Supreme Court nomination">Sherman Minton Supreme Court nomination</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Harry_S._Truman#Administration_and_cabinet" title="Harry S. Truman">Cabinet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Truman_Balcony" title="Truman Balcony">Truman Balcony</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buck_passing#"The_buck_stops_here"" title="Buck passing">"The buck stops here"</a></li> <li><a href="https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Author:Harry_S._Truman/Executive_orders" class="extiw" title="wikisource:Author:Harry S. Truman/Executive orders">Executive Orders</a></li> <li><a href="https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Author:Harry_S._Truman/Presidential_Proclamations" class="extiw" title="wikisource:Author:Harry S. Truman/Presidential Proclamations">Presidential Proclamations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Presidential_transition_of_Dwight_D._Eisenhower" title="Presidential transition of Dwight D. Eisenhower">Eisenhower transition</a></li></ul> </div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Foreign policy</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Truman_Doctrine" title="Truman Doctrine">Truman Doctrine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Potsdam_Conference" title="Potsdam Conference">Potsdam Conference</a> <ul><li>1945; <a href="/wiki/Potsdam_Agreement" title="Potsdam Agreement">Agreement on Europe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Potsdam_Declaration" title="Potsdam Declaration">Declaration to Japan</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Atomic_bombings_of_Hiroshima_and_Nagasaki" title="Atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki">Atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki</a> (1945)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/War_Brides_Act" title="War Brides Act">War Brides Act</a> (1945)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alien_Fianc%C3%A9es_and_Fianc%C3%A9s_Act" title="Alien Fiancées and Fiancés Act">Alien Fiancées and Fiancés Act</a> (1946)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Luce%E2%80%93Celler_Act" title="Luce–Celler Act">Luce–Celler Act</a> (1946)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Executive_Order_9835" title="Executive Order 9835">Executive Order 9835</a> (1947)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/General_Agreement_on_Tariffs_and_Trade" title="General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade">General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade</a> (1947)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hoover_Commission" title="Hoover Commission">Hoover Commission</a> (1947)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Security_Act_of_1947" title="National Security Act of 1947">National Security Act of 1947</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/United_States_Department_of_Defense" title="United States Department of Defense">U.S. Department of Defense</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joint_Chiefs_of_Staff" title="Joint Chiefs of Staff">Joint Chiefs of Staff</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_National_Security_Council" title="United States National Security Council">National Security Council</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Security_Resources_Board" title="National Security Resources Board">National Security Resources Board</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_Air_Force" title="United States Air Force">Air Force</a>/<a href="/wiki/United_States_Department_of_the_Air_Force" title="United States Department of the Air Force">Department</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Central_Intelligence_Agency" title="Central Intelligence Agency">Central Intelligence Agency</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Displaced_Persons_Act" title="Displaced Persons Act">Displaced Persons Act</a> (1948)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Key_West_Agreement" title="Key West Agreement">Key West Agreement</a> (1948)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marshall_Plan" title="Marshall Plan">Marshall Plan</a> (1948)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cape_Canaveral_Space_Force_Station" title="Cape Canaveral Space Force Station">Joint Long Range Proving Grounds</a> (1949)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/North_Atlantic_Treaty" title="North Atlantic Treaty">North Atlantic Treaty</a> <ul><li>1949; <a href="/wiki/NATO" title="NATO">NATO</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Revolt_of_the_Admirals" title="Revolt of the Admirals">Revolt of the Admirals</a> (1949)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Korean_War" title="Korean War">Korean War</a> <ul><li>1950–1953; <a href="/wiki/United_Nations_Security_Council_Resolution_82" title="United Nations Security Council Resolution 82">U.N. Security Council Resolutions 82,</a> <a href="/wiki/United_Nations_Security_Council_Resolution_83" title="United Nations Security Council Resolution 83">83</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Defense_Production_Act_of_1950" title="Defense Production Act of 1950">Defense Production Act of 1950</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Relief_of_Douglas_MacArthur" title="Relief of Douglas MacArthur">Relief of Douglas MacArthur</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Office_of_Defense_Mobilization" title="Office of Defense Mobilization">Office of Defense Mobilization</a> <ul><li>1950; <a href="/wiki/President%27s_Science_Advisory_Committee" title="President's Science Advisory Committee">Science Advisory Committee</a>, 1951</li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Immigration_and_Nationality_Act_of_1952" title="Immigration and Nationality Act of 1952">Immigration and Nationality Act of 1952</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Security_Agency" title="National Security Agency">National Security Agency</a> (1952)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Fair_Deal" title="Fair Deal">Fair Deal</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Medal_of_Freedom_(1945)" title="Medal of Freedom (1945)">Medal of Freedom</a> (1945)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Revenue_Act_of_1945" title="Revenue Act of 1945">Revenue Act of 1945</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Mental_Health_Act" title="National Mental Health Act">National Mental Health Act</a> <ul><li>1946; <a href="/wiki/National_Institute_of_Mental_Health" title="National Institute of Mental Health">National Institute of Mental Health</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Atomic_Energy_Act_of_1946" title="Atomic Energy Act of 1946">Atomic Energy Act of 1946</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/United_States_Atomic_Energy_Commission" title="United States Atomic Energy Commission">U.S. Atomic Energy Commission</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Employment_Act_of_1946" title="Employment Act of 1946">Employment Act of 1946</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Council_of_Economic_Advisers" title="Council of Economic Advisers">Council of Economic Advisers</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Flood_Control_Act" title="Flood Control Act">Flood Control Acts</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Flood_Control_Act_of_1946" title="Flood Control Act of 1946">1946</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Flood_Control_Act_of_1948" title="Flood Control Act of 1948">1948</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Flood_Control_Act_of_1950" title="Flood Control Act of 1950">1950</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fulbright_Program" title="Fulbright Program">Fulbright Program</a> (1946)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hill%E2%80%93Burton_Act" title="Hill–Burton Act">Hill–Burton Act</a> (1946)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Legislative_Reorganization_Act_of_1946" title="Legislative Reorganization Act of 1946">Legislative Reorganization Act of 1946</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Federal_Regulation_of_Lobbying_Act_of_1946" title="Federal Regulation of Lobbying Act of 1946">Federal Regulation of Lobbying Act of 1946</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Federal_Tort_Claims_Act" title="Federal Tort Claims Act">Federal Tort Claims Act</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Congressional_Research_Service" title="Congressional Research Service">Legislative Reference Service</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_School_Lunch_Act" title="National School Lunch Act">National School Lunch Act</a> (1946)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/President%27s_Committee_on_Civil_Rights" title="President's Committee on Civil Rights">President's Committee on Civil Rights</a> (1946)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Federal_Insecticide,_Fungicide,_and_Rodenticide_Act" title="Federal Insecticide, Fungicide, and Rodenticide Act">Federal Insecticide, Fungicide, and Rodenticide Act</a> (1947)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Housing_and_Home_Finance_Agency" title="Housing and Home Finance Agency">Housing and Home Finance Agency</a> (1947)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Presidential_Succession_Act" title="Presidential Succession Act">Presidential Succession Act of 1947</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Taft%E2%80%93Hartley_Act" title="Taft–Hartley Act">Taft–Hartley Act</a> (1947)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Agricultural_Act_of_1948" title="Agricultural Act of 1948">Agricultural Act of 1948</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Executive_Order_9981" title="Executive Order 9981">Executive Order 9981</a> (1948)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Revenue_Act_of_1948" title="Revenue Act of 1948">Revenue Act of 1948</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Agricultural_Act_of_1949" title="Agricultural Act of 1949">Agricultural Act of 1949</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Housing_Act_of_1949" title="Housing Act of 1949">Housing Act of 1949</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dingell%E2%80%93Johnson_Act" title="Dingell–Johnson Act">Dingell–Johnson Act</a> (1950)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Revenue_Act_of_1950" title="Revenue Act of 1950">Revenue Act of 1950</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Excess_profits_tax" title="Excess profits tax">Excess profits tax</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Unrelated_Business_Income_Tax" title="Unrelated Business Income Tax">Unrelated Business Income Tax</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Revenue_Act_of_1951" title="Revenue Act of 1951">Revenue Act of 1951</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Federal-Aid_Highway_Act_of_1952" title="Federal-Aid Highway Act of 1952">Federal-Aid Highway Act of 1952</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1952_steel_strike" title="1952 steel strike">1952 steel strike</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Life</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Harry_S._Truman#Early_life_and_career" title="Harry S. Truman">Early life and career</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Harry_S._Truman_Presidential_Library_and_Museum" title="Harry S. Truman Presidential Library and Museum">Presidential Library, Museum, and gravesite</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Harry_S_Truman_Office_and_Courtroom" title="Harry S Truman Office and Courtroom">Missouri Office and Courtroom</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Truman_Committee" title="Truman Committee">Truman Committee</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1944_Democratic_Party_vice_presidential_candidate_selection" title="1944 Democratic Party vice presidential candidate selection">1944 Democratic Party vice presidential candidate selection</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Homes</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Harry_S_Truman_Birthplace_State_Historic_Site" title="Harry S Truman Birthplace State Historic Site">Birthplace</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Harry_S._Truman_Farm_Home" title="Harry S. Truman Farm Home">Harry S. Truman Farm Home</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Harry_S._Truman_National_Historic_Site" title="Harry S. Truman National Historic Site">Harry S. Truman home and National Historic Site</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Harry_S._Truman_Historic_District" title="Harry S. Truman Historic District">Historic District</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Blair_House" title="Blair House">Blair House</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Harry_S._Truman_Little_White_House" title="Harry S. Truman Little White House">Truman Little White House</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Electoral_history_of_Harry_S._Truman" title="Electoral history of Harry S. Truman">Elections</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/1934_United_States_Senate_election_in_Missouri" title="1934 United States Senate election in Missouri">United States Senate election in Missouri, 1934</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1940_United_States_Senate_election_in_Missouri" title="1940 United States Senate election in Missouri">1940</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1944_Democratic_National_Convention" title="1944 Democratic National Convention">Democratic National Convention 1944</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1948_Democratic_National_Convention" title="1948 Democratic National Convention">1948</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1944_United_States_presidential_election" title="1944 United States presidential election">1944 United States presidential election</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1948_United_States_presidential_election" title="1948 United States presidential election">1948</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Harry_S._Truman_1948_presidential_campaign" title="Harry S. Truman 1948 presidential campaign">campaign</a></li> <li>"<a href="/wiki/Dewey_Defeats_Truman" title="Dewey Defeats Truman">Dewey Defeats Truman</a>"</li> <li><a href="/wiki/I%27m_Just_Wild_About_Harry" title="I'm Just Wild About Harry">campaign song</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1952_Democratic_Party_presidential_primaries" title="1952 Democratic Party presidential primaries">1952 Democratic Party presidential primaries</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Legacy</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bibliography_of_Harry_S._Truman" title="Bibliography of Harry S. Truman">Bibliography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Truman_Day" title="Truman Day">Truman Day</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Harry_S_Truman_Building" title="Harry S Truman Building">Harry S Truman Building</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Truman_Reservoir" title="Truman Reservoir">Truman Dam and Reservoir</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Harry_S._Truman_Scholarship" title="Harry S. Truman Scholarship">Harry S. Truman Scholarship</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Truman_Sports_Complex" title="Truman Sports Complex">Truman Sports Complex</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Presidents_of_the_United_States_on_U.S._postage_stamps#Harry_S._Truman" title="Presidents of the United States on U.S. postage stamps">U.S. Postage stamps</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Statue_of_Harry_S._Truman" title="Statue of Harry S. Truman">Statue of Harry S. Truman</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Public image</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Give_%27em_Hell,_Harry!" title="Give 'em Hell, Harry!">Give 'em Hell, Harry!</a></i> (1975 play and film)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Harry_Truman_(song)" title="Harry Truman (song)">Harry Truman</a></i> (1975 song by <a href="/wiki/Chicago_(band)" title="Chicago (band)">Chicago</a>)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Collision_Course:_Truman_vs._MacArthur" title="Collision Course: Truman vs. MacArthur">Collision Course: Truman vs. MacArthur</a></i> (1976 film)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Backstairs_at_the_White_House" title="Backstairs at the White House">Backstairs at the White House</a></i> (1979 miniseries)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Truman_(1995_film)" title="Truman (1995 film)">Truman</a></i> (1995 film)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Truman_(1997_film)" title="Truman (1997 film)">Truman</a></i> (1997 documentary film)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_First_Lady_(American_TV_series)" title="The First Lady (American TV series)">The First Lady</a></i> (2022 TV series)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Oppenheimer_(film)" title="Oppenheimer (film)">Oppenheimer</a></i> (2023 film)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Family</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bess_Truman" title="Bess Truman">Bess Wallace Truman</a> (wife)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Margaret_Truman" title="Margaret Truman">Margaret Truman</a> (daughter)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Martha_Ellen_Young_Truman" class="mw-redirect" title="Martha Ellen Young Truman">Martha Ellen Young Truman</a> (mother)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Clifton_Truman_Daniel" title="Clifton Truman Daniel">Clifton Truman Daniel</a> (grandson)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow hlist" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><b><a href="/wiki/Franklin_D._Roosevelt" title="Franklin D. Roosevelt">← Franklin D. Roosevelt</a></b></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/Dwight_D._Eisenhower" title="Dwight D. Eisenhower">Dwight D. Eisenhower →</a></b></li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Henry_A._Wallace" title="Henry A. Wallace">← Henry A. Wallace</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alben_W._Barkley" title="Alben W. Barkley">Alben W. Barkley →</a></li></ul> <ul><li><b><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Category"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/23px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/31px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Category:Harry_S._Truman" title="Category:Harry S. Truman">Category</a></b></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="History_of_the_United_States_foreign_policy" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Foreign_policy_of_U.S._presidents" title="Template:Foreign policy of U.S. presidents"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Foreign_policy_of_U.S._presidents" title="Template talk:Foreign policy of U.S. presidents"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Foreign_policy_of_U.S._presidents" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Foreign policy of U.S. presidents"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="History_of_the_United_States_foreign_policy" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_United_States_foreign_policy" title="History of the United States foreign policy">History of the United States foreign policy</a></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_U.S._foreign_policy,_1776%E2%80%931801" title="History of U.S. foreign policy, 1776–1801">1776–1801</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_U.S._foreign_policy,_1801%E2%80%931829" title="History of U.S. foreign policy, 1801–1829">1801–1829</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_U.S._foreign_policy,_1829%E2%80%931861" title="History of U.S. foreign policy, 1829–1861">1829–1861</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_U.S._foreign_policy,_1861%E2%80%931897" title="History of U.S. foreign policy, 1861–1897">1861–1897</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_U.S._foreign_policy,_1897%E2%80%931913" title="History of U.S. foreign policy, 1897–1913">1897–1913</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Foreign_policy_of_the_Theodore_Roosevelt_administration" title="Foreign policy of the Theodore Roosevelt administration">T. Roosevelt</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_U.S._foreign_policy,_1913%E2%80%931933" title="History of U.S. foreign policy, 1913–1933">1913–1933</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Foreign_policy_of_the_Woodrow_Wilson_administration" title="Foreign policy of the Woodrow Wilson administration">Wilson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Foreign_policy_of_Herbert_Hoover" title="Foreign policy of Herbert Hoover">Hoover</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Foreign_policy_of_the_Franklin_D._Roosevelt_administration" title="Foreign policy of the Franklin D. Roosevelt administration">F. D. Roosevelt</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Truman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Foreign_policy_of_the_Dwight_D._Eisenhower_administration" title="Foreign policy of the Dwight D. Eisenhower administration">Eisenhower</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Foreign_policy_of_the_John_F._Kennedy_administration" title="Foreign policy of the John F. Kennedy administration">Kennedy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Foreign_policy_of_the_Lyndon_B._Johnson_administration" title="Foreign policy of the Lyndon B. Johnson administration">L. Johnson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Foreign_policy_of_the_Richard_Nixon_administration" title="Foreign policy of the Richard Nixon administration">Nixon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Foreign_policy_of_the_Gerald_Ford_administration" title="Foreign policy of the Gerald Ford administration">Ford</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Foreign_policy_of_the_Jimmy_Carter_administration" title="Foreign policy of the Jimmy Carter administration">Carter</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Foreign_policy_of_the_Ronald_Reagan_administration" title="Foreign policy of the Ronald Reagan administration">Reagan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Foreign_policy_of_the_George_H._W._Bush_administration" title="Foreign policy of the George H. W. Bush administration">G. H. W. Bush</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Foreign_policy_of_the_Bill_Clinton_administration" title="Foreign policy of the Bill Clinton administration">Clinton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Foreign_policy_of_the_George_W._Bush_administration" title="Foreign policy of the George W. Bush administration">G. W. Bush</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Foreign_policy_of_the_Barack_Obama_administration" title="Foreign policy of the Barack Obama administration">Obama</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Foreign_policy_of_the_first_Donald_Trump_administration" title="Foreign policy of the first Donald Trump administration">Trump</a> (1st)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Foreign_policy_of_the_Joe_Biden_administration" title="Foreign policy of the Joe Biden administration">Biden</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="List-Class article"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/d/db/Symbol_list_class.svg/16px-Symbol_list_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/d/db/Symbol_list_class.svg/23px-Symbol_list_class.svg.png 1.5x, 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<li><a href="/wiki/Federal_drug_policy_of_the_United_States" title="Federal drug policy of the United States">Drug</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_policy_of_the_United_States" title="Education policy of the United States">Education</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fireworks_policy_of_the_United_States" title="Fireworks policy of the United States">Fireworks</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fiscal_policy_of_the_United_States" title="Fiscal policy of the United States">Fiscal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Taxation_in_the_United_States" title="Taxation in the United States">Taxation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Telecommunications_policy_of_the_United_States" title="Telecommunications policy of the United States">Telecommunications</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Foreign_trade_of_the_United_States" title="Foreign trade of the United States">Trade</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transportation_policy_of_the_United_States" title="Transportation policy of the United States">Transportation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vaccination_policy_of_the_United_States" title="Vaccination policy of the United States">Vaccination</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Visa_policy_of_the_United_States" title="Visa policy of the United States">Visa</a></li></ul> </div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Category:United_States_domestic_policy" title="Category:United States domestic policy">Domestic</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Square_Deal" title="Square Deal">Square Deal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_New_Freedom" title="The New Freedom">New Freedom</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/New_Deal" title="New Deal">New Deal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fair_Deal" title="Fair Deal">Fair Deal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/New_Frontier" title="New Frontier">New Frontier</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Great_Society" title="Great Society">Great Society</a>/<a href="/wiki/War_on_poverty" title="War on poverty">War on Poverty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Domestic_policy_of_the_Ronald_Reagan_administration" title="Domestic policy of the Ronald Reagan administration">Reagan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Domestic_policy_of_the_George_W._Bush_administration" title="Domestic policy of the George W. Bush administration">G. W. Bush</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Domestic_policy_of_the_Barack_Obama_administration" class="mw-redirect" title="Domestic policy of the Barack Obama administration">Obama</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/First_presidency_of_Donald_Trump##Energy" title="First presidency of Donald Trump">Trump</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Category:United_States_economic_policy" title="Category:United States economic policy">Economic</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Monetary_policy_of_the_United_States" title="Monetary policy of the United States">Monetary</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_monetary_policy_in_the_United_States" title="History of monetary policy in the United States">history</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th id="By_Presidency" scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">By Presidency</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Nixonomics" title="Nixonomics">Nixon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reaganomics" title="Reaganomics">Reagan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Economic_policy_of_the_Bill_Clinton_administration" title="Economic policy of the Bill Clinton administration">Clinton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Economic_policy_of_the_George_W._Bush_administration" title="Economic policy of the George W. Bush administration">G. W. Bush</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Economic_policy_of_the_Barack_Obama_administration" title="Economic policy of the Barack Obama administration">Obama</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Economic_policy_of_the_first_Donald_Trump_administration" title="Economic policy of the first Donald Trump administration">Trump</a> (1st)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Economic_policy_of_the_Joe_Biden_administration" title="Economic policy of the Joe Biden administration">Biden</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Energy_policy_of_the_United_States" title="Energy policy of the United States">Energy</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hydropower_policy_of_the_United_States" title="Hydropower policy of the United States">Hydropower</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_energy_policy_of_the_United_States" title="Nuclear energy policy of the United States">Nuclear energy</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Low-level_radioactive_waste_policy_of_the_United_States" title="Low-level radioactive waste policy of the United States">Low-level radioactive waste</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Smart_grid_policy_of_the_United_States" title="Smart grid policy of the United States">Smart grid</a></li></ul> </div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th id="By_Presidency" scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">By Presidency</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Energy_policy_of_the_Barack_Obama_administration" title="Energy policy of the Barack Obama administration">Obama</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/First_presidency_of_Donald_Trump#Energy" title="First presidency of Donald Trump">Trump</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Environmental_policy_of_the_United_States" title="Environmental policy of the United States">Environmental</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Solid_waste_policy_of_the_United_States" title="Solid waste policy of the United States">Solid waste</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_change_policy_of_the_United_States" title="Climate change policy of the United States">Climate change</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Climate_change_policy_of_the_George_W._Bush_administration" title="Climate change policy of the George W. Bush administration">G. W. Bush</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th id="By_Presidency" scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">By Presidency</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_policy_of_the_Barack_Obama_administration" class="mw-redirect" title="Environmental policy of the Barack Obama administration">Obama</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_policy_of_the_first_Donald_Trump_administration" title="Environmental policy of the first Donald Trump administration">Trump</a> (1st)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_policy_of_the_Joe_Biden_administration" title="Environmental policy of the Joe Biden administration">Biden</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Foreign_policy_of_the_United_States" title="Foreign policy of the United States">Foreign</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_United_States_foreign_policy" class="mw-redirect" title="History of United States foreign policy">History</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Criticism_of_United_States_foreign_policy" title="Criticism of United States foreign policy">Criticism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_foreign_policy_in_the_Middle_East" title="United States foreign policy in the Middle East">Middle East</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Middle_Eastern_foreign_policy_of_the_Barack_Obama_administration" title="Middle Eastern foreign policy of the Barack Obama administration">Obama</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th id="By_Presidency" scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">By Presidency</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Foreign_policy_of_the_Theodore_Roosevelt_administration" title="Foreign policy of the Theodore Roosevelt administration">T. Roosevelt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Foreign_policy_of_the_Woodrow_Wilson_administration" title="Foreign policy of the Woodrow Wilson administration">Wilson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Foreign_policy_of_Herbert_Hoover" title="Foreign policy of Herbert Hoover">Hoover</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Foreign_policy_of_the_Franklin_D._Roosevelt_administration" title="Foreign policy of the Franklin D. Roosevelt administration">F. D. Roosevelt</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Truman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Foreign_policy_of_the_Dwight_D._Eisenhower_administration" title="Foreign policy of the Dwight D. Eisenhower administration">Eisenhower</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Foreign_policy_of_the_John_F._Kennedy_administration" title="Foreign policy of the John F. Kennedy administration">Kennedy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Foreign_policy_of_the_Lyndon_B._Johnson_administration" title="Foreign policy of the Lyndon B. Johnson administration">L. B. Johnson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Foreign_policy_of_the_Richard_Nixon_administration" title="Foreign policy of the Richard Nixon administration">Nixon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Foreign_policy_of_the_Gerald_Ford_administration" title="Foreign policy of the Gerald Ford administration">Ford</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Foreign_policy_of_the_Jimmy_Carter_administration" title="Foreign policy of the Jimmy Carter administration">Carter</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Foreign_policy_of_the_Ronald_Reagan_administration" title="Foreign policy of the Ronald Reagan administration">Reagan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Foreign_policy_of_the_George_H._W._Bush_administration" title="Foreign policy of the George H. W. Bush administration">G. H. W. Bush</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Foreign_policy_of_the_Bill_Clinton_administration" title="Foreign policy of the Bill Clinton administration">Clinton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Foreign_policy_of_the_George_W._Bush_administration" title="Foreign policy of the George W. Bush administration">G. W. Bush</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Foreign_policy_of_the_Barack_Obama_administration" title="Foreign policy of the Barack Obama administration">Obama</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Foreign_policy_of_the_first_Donald_Trump_administration" title="Foreign policy of the first Donald Trump administration">Trump</a> (1st)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Foreign_policy_of_the_Joe_Biden_administration" title="Foreign policy of the Joe Biden administration">Biden</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Gun_politics_in_the_United_States" title="Gun politics in the United States">Gun control</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Gun_control_policy_of_the_Bill_Clinton_administration" title="Gun control policy of the Bill Clinton administration">Clinton</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Immigration_policy_of_the_United_States" title="Immigration policy of the United States">Immigration</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Same-sex_immigration_policy_of_the_United_States" title="Same-sex immigration policy of the United States">Same-sex immigration</a></li></ul> </div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th id="By_Presidency" scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">By Presidency</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Immigration_policy_of_Donald_Trump" title="Immigration policy of Donald Trump">Trump</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Immigration_policy_of_the_Joe_Biden_administration" title="Immigration policy of the Joe Biden administration">Biden</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Infrastructure_policy_of_the_United_States" title="Infrastructure policy of the United States">Infrastructure</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Infrastructure_policy_of_Donald_Trump" title="Infrastructure policy of Donald Trump">Trump</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Infrastructure_policy_of_the_Joe_Biden_administration" class="mw-redirect" title="Infrastructure policy of the Joe Biden administration">Biden</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Federal_Indian_Policy" title="Federal Indian Policy">Native American</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Native_American_policy_of_the_Ulysses_S._Grant_administration" title="Native American policy of the Ulysses S. Grant administration">Grant</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Native_American_policy_of_the_Richard_Nixon_administration" title="Native American policy of the Richard Nixon administration">Nixon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Native_American_policy_of_the_Barack_Obama_administration" title="Native American policy of the Barack Obama administration">Obama</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Science_policy_of_the_United_States" title="Science policy of the United States">Science</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Genetic_policy_of_the_United_States" title="Genetic policy of the United States">Genetic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stem_cell_laws_and_policy_in_the_United_States" title="Stem cell laws and policy in the United States">Stem cell</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Social_policy_of_the_United_States" class="mw-redirect" title="Social policy of the United States">Social</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Social_policy_of_the_Barack_Obama_administration" title="Social policy of the Barack Obama administration">Obama</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_policy_of_Donald_Trump" title="Social policy of Donald Trump">Trump</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_policy_of_the_Joe_Biden_administration" title="Social policy of the Joe Biden administration">Biden</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Space_policy_of_the_United_States" title="Space policy of the United States">Space</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Space_policy_of_the_Barack_Obama_administration" title="Space policy of the Barack Obama administration">Obama</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Space_policy_of_the_Donald_Trump_administration" title="Space policy of the Donald Trump administration">Trump</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Space_policy_of_the_Joe_Biden_administration" class="mw-redirect" title="Space policy of the Joe Biden administration">Biden</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div>    </div><noscript><img src="https://login.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:CentralAutoLogin/start?type=1x1" alt="" width="1" height="1" style="border: none; position: absolute;"></noscript> <div class="printfooter" data-nosnippet="">Retrieved from "<a dir="ltr" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Foreign_policy_of_the_Harry_S._Truman_administration&oldid=1257091937">https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Foreign_policy_of_the_Harry_S._Truman_administration&oldid=1257091937</a>"</div></div> <div id="catlinks" class="catlinks" data-mw="interface"><div id="mw-normal-catlinks" class="mw-normal-catlinks"><a href="/wiki/Help:Category" title="Help:Category">Categories</a>: <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Presidency_of_Harry_S._Truman" title="Category:Presidency of Harry S. 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