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2.497.442.544 1.134.938 2.344.938 1.573 0 2.292-.337 2.657-.751.384-.435.558-1.15.558-2.361 0-1.14-.243-1.847-.705-2.319-.477-.488-1.319-.862-2.824-1.025-1.487-.161-2.192.138-2.533.529-.269.307-.437.808-.438 1.578v.021c0 .265.021.562.063.893Zm-1.626 0c.042-.331.063-.628.063-.894v-.02c-.001-.77-.169-1.271-.438-1.578-.341-.391-1.046-.69-2.533-.529-1.505.163-2.347.537-2.824 1.025-.462.472-.705 1.179-.705 2.319 0 1.211.175 1.926.558 2.361.365.414 1.084.751 2.657.751 1.21 0 1.902-.394 2.344-.938.475-.584.742-1.44.878-2.497Z"></path><path d="M14.5 14.25a1 1 0 0 1 1 1v2a1 1 0 0 1-2 0v-2a1 1 0 0 1 1-1Zm-5 0a1 1 0 0 1 1 1v2a1 1 0 0 1-2 0v-2a1 1 0 0 1 1-1Z"></path> </svg> <div> <div class="color-fg-default h4">GitHub Copilot</div> Write better code with AI </div> </a></li> <li> <a class="HeaderMenu-dropdown-link d-block no-underline position-relative py-2 Link--secondary d-flex flex-items-center Link--has-description pb-lg-3" 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2h3.5a.75.75 0 0 1 0 1.5h-3.5a.25.25 0 0 0-.25.25v8.5c0 .138.112.25.25.25h8.5a.25.25 0 0 0 .25-.25v-3.5a.75.75 0 0 1 1.5 0v3.5A1.75 1.75 0 0 1 12.25 14h-8.5A1.75 1.75 0 0 1 2 12.25v-8.5C2 2.784 2.784 2 3.75 2Zm6.854-1h4.146a.25.25 0 0 1 .25.25v4.146a.25.25 0 0 1-.427.177L13.03 4.03 9.28 7.78a.751.751 0 0 1-1.042-.018.751.751 0 0 1-.018-1.042l3.75-3.75-1.543-1.543A.25.25 0 0 1 10.604 1Z"></path> </svg> </a></li> </ul> </div> </div> </div> </li> <li class="HeaderMenu-item position-relative flex-wrap flex-justify-between flex-items-center d-block d-lg-flex flex-lg-nowrap flex-lg-items-center js-details-container js-header-menu-item"> <button type="button" class="HeaderMenu-link border-0 width-full width-lg-auto px-0 px-lg-2 py-lg-2 no-wrap d-flex flex-items-center flex-justify-between js-details-target" aria-expanded="false"> Solutions <svg opacity="0.5" aria-hidden="true" height="16" viewBox="0 0 16 16" version="1.1" width="16" data-view-component="true" class="octicon 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0 1 1.06 0Z"></path> </svg> </button> <div class="HeaderMenu-dropdown dropdown-menu rounded m-0 p-0 pt-2 pt-lg-4 position-relative position-lg-absolute left-0 left-lg-n3 pb-2 pb-lg-4 px-lg-4"> <div class="HeaderMenu-column"> <div class="border-bottom pb-3 pb-lg-0 pb-lg-3 mb-3 mb-lg-0 mb-lg-3"> <ul class="list-style-none f5" > <li> <a class="HeaderMenu-dropdown-link d-block no-underline position-relative py-2 Link--secondary d-flex flex-items-center Link--has-description" data-analytics-event="{"location":"navbar","action":"github_sponsors","context":"open_source","tag":"link","label":"github_sponsors_link_open_source_navbar"}" href="/sponsors"> <div> <div class="color-fg-default h4">GitHub Sponsors</div> Fund open source developers </div> </a></li> </ul> </div> <div class="border-bottom pb-3 pb-lg-0 pb-lg-3 mb-3 mb-lg-0 mb-lg-3"> <ul class="list-style-none f5" > <li> <a class="HeaderMenu-dropdown-link d-block no-underline position-relative py-2 Link--secondary d-flex flex-items-center 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--></option></form><form id="code-search-feedback-form" data-turbo="false" action="/search/feedback" accept-charset="UTF-8" method="post"><input type="hidden" data-csrf="true" name="authenticity_token" value="bQQYL8AC7QPHnEvZdSvt4p7YJIY03FfQiaydSwS0tbtJqnC2JnFF1fjS8q09f7A2Qcv5IztzOwVzPpL+KIQgnA==" /> <p>We read every piece of feedback, and take your input very seriously.</p> <textarea name="feedback" class="form-control width-full mb-2" style="height: 120px" id="feedback"></textarea> <input name="include_email" id="include_email" aria-label="Include my email address so I can be contacted" class="form-control mr-2" type="checkbox"> <label for="include_email" style="font-weight: normal">Include my email address so I can be contacted</label> </form></div> </scrollable-region> <div data-view-component="true" class="Overlay-footer Overlay-footer--alignEnd"> <button data-close-dialog-id="feedback-dialog" type="button" data-view-component="true" class="btn"> Cancel </button> <button 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class="repository-content " > <h1 class='sr-only'>boltdb/bolt</h1> <div class="clearfix container-xl px-md-4 px-lg-5 px-3"> <div> <div style="max-width: 100%" data-view-component="true" class="Layout Layout--flowRow-until-md react-repos-overview-margin Layout--sidebarPosition-end Layout--sidebarPosition-flowRow-end"> <div data-view-component="true" class="Layout-main"> <script crossorigin="anonymous" defer="defer" type="application/javascript" src="https://github.githubassets.com/assets/vendors-node_modules_dompurify_dist_purify_es_mjs-dd1d3ea6a436.js"></script> <script crossorigin="anonymous" defer="defer" type="application/javascript" src="https://github.githubassets.com/assets/vendors-node_modules_tanstack_query-core_build_modern_queryObserver_js-node_modules_tanstack_-defd52-843b41414e0e.js"></script> <script crossorigin="anonymous" defer="defer" type="application/javascript" 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href=\"https://coveralls.io/r/boltdb/bolt?branch=master\" rel=\"nofollow\"\u003e\u003cimg src=\"https://camo.githubusercontent.com/b12242f71415748f1e82f8f767364aa7616529c7293c3faed99ebc2ec829bf2f/68747470733a2f2f636f766572616c6c732e696f2f7265706f732f626f6c7464622f626f6c742f62616467652e7376673f6272616e63683d6d6173746572\" alt=\"Coverage Status\" data-canonical-src=\"https://coveralls.io/repos/boltdb/bolt/badge.svg?branch=master\" style=\"max-width: 100%;\"\u003e\u003c/a\u003e \u003ca href=\"https://godoc.org/github.com/boltdb/bolt\" rel=\"nofollow\"\u003e\u003cimg src=\"https://camo.githubusercontent.com/7ae05ff4f1658335bea4dbc8df3fe9c159d4f707b94146df681fda29eb97c96f/68747470733a2f2f676f646f632e6f72672f6769746875622e636f6d2f626f6c7464622f626f6c743f7374617475732e737667\" alt=\"GoDoc\" data-canonical-src=\"https://godoc.org/github.com/boltdb/bolt?status.svg\" style=\"max-width: 100%;\"\u003e\u003c/a\u003e \u003ca target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener noreferrer nofollow\" href=\"https://camo.githubusercontent.com/01d5f34f4fb2d384438b90e0de3ef68025727cbbdd1a71e21792bd066bc97acf/68747470733a2f2f696d672e736869656c64732e696f2f62616467652f76657273696f6e2d312e322e312d677265656e2e737667\"\u003e\u003cimg src=\"https://camo.githubusercontent.com/01d5f34f4fb2d384438b90e0de3ef68025727cbbdd1a71e21792bd066bc97acf/68747470733a2f2f696d672e736869656c64732e696f2f62616467652f76657273696f6e2d312e322e312d677265656e2e737667\" alt=\"Version\" data-canonical-src=\"https://img.shields.io/badge/version-1.2.1-green.svg\" style=\"max-width: 100%;\"\u003e\u003c/a\u003e\u003c/h1\u003e\u003ca id=\"user-content-bolt---\" class=\"anchor\" aria-label=\"Permalink: Bolt \" href=\"#bolt---\"\u003e\u003csvg class=\"octicon octicon-link\" viewBox=\"0 0 16 16\" version=\"1.1\" width=\"16\" height=\"16\" aria-hidden=\"true\"\u003e\u003cpath d=\"m7.775 3.275 1.25-1.25a3.5 3.5 0 1 1 4.95 4.95l-2.5 2.5a3.5 3.5 0 0 1-4.95 0 .751.751 0 0 1 .018-1.042.751.751 0 0 1 1.042-.018 1.998 1.998 0 0 0 2.83 0l2.5-2.5a2.002 2.002 0 0 0-2.83-2.83l-1.25 1.25a.751.751 0 0 1-1.042-.018.751.751 0 0 1-.018-1.042Zm-4.69 9.64a1.998 1.998 0 0 0 2.83 0l1.25-1.25a.751.751 0 0 1 1.042.018.751.751 0 0 1 .018 1.042l-1.25 1.25a3.5 3.5 0 1 1-4.95-4.95l2.5-2.5a3.5 3.5 0 0 1 4.95 0 .751.751 0 0 1-.018 1.042.751.751 0 0 1-1.042.018 1.998 1.998 0 0 0-2.83 0l-2.5 2.5a1.998 1.998 0 0 0 0 2.83Z\"\u003e\u003c/path\u003e\u003c/svg\u003e\u003c/a\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003cp dir=\"auto\"\u003eBolt is a pure Go key/value store inspired by \u003ca href=\"https://twitter.com/hyc_symas\" rel=\"nofollow\"\u003eHoward Chu's\u003c/a\u003e\n\u003ca href=\"http://symas.com/mdb/\" rel=\"nofollow\"\u003eLMDB project\u003c/a\u003e. The goal of the project is to provide a simple,\nfast, and reliable database for projects that don't require a full database\nserver such as Postgres or MySQL.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp dir=\"auto\"\u003eSince Bolt is meant to be used as such a low-level piece of functionality,\nsimplicity is key. The API will be small and only focus on getting values\nand setting values. That's it.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"markdown-heading\" dir=\"auto\"\u003e\u003ch2 tabindex=\"-1\" class=\"heading-element\" dir=\"auto\"\u003eProject Status\u003c/h2\u003e\u003ca id=\"user-content-project-status\" class=\"anchor\" aria-label=\"Permalink: Project Status\" href=\"#project-status\"\u003e\u003csvg class=\"octicon octicon-link\" viewBox=\"0 0 16 16\" version=\"1.1\" width=\"16\" height=\"16\" aria-hidden=\"true\"\u003e\u003cpath d=\"m7.775 3.275 1.25-1.25a3.5 3.5 0 1 1 4.95 4.95l-2.5 2.5a3.5 3.5 0 0 1-4.95 0 .751.751 0 0 1 .018-1.042.751.751 0 0 1 1.042-.018 1.998 1.998 0 0 0 2.83 0l2.5-2.5a2.002 2.002 0 0 0-2.83-2.83l-1.25 1.25a.751.751 0 0 1-1.042-.018.751.751 0 0 1-.018-1.042Zm-4.69 9.64a1.998 1.998 0 0 0 2.83 0l1.25-1.25a.751.751 0 0 1 1.042.018.751.751 0 0 1 .018 1.042l-1.25 1.25a3.5 3.5 0 1 1-4.95-4.95l2.5-2.5a3.5 3.5 0 0 1 4.95 0 .751.751 0 0 1-.018 1.042.751.751 0 0 1-1.042.018 1.998 1.998 0 0 0-2.83 0l-2.5 2.5a1.998 1.998 0 0 0 0 2.83Z\"\u003e\u003c/path\u003e\u003c/svg\u003e\u003c/a\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003cp dir=\"auto\"\u003eBolt is stable, the API is fixed, and the file format is fixed. Full unit\ntest coverage and randomized black box testing are used to ensure database\nconsistency and thread safety. Bolt is currently used in high-load production\nenvironments serving databases as large as 1TB. Many companies such as\nShopify and Heroku use Bolt-backed services every day.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"markdown-heading\" dir=\"auto\"\u003e\u003ch2 tabindex=\"-1\" class=\"heading-element\" dir=\"auto\"\u003eA message from the author\u003c/h2\u003e\u003ca id=\"user-content-a-message-from-the-author\" class=\"anchor\" aria-label=\"Permalink: A message from the author\" href=\"#a-message-from-the-author\"\u003e\u003csvg class=\"octicon octicon-link\" viewBox=\"0 0 16 16\" version=\"1.1\" width=\"16\" height=\"16\" aria-hidden=\"true\"\u003e\u003cpath d=\"m7.775 3.275 1.25-1.25a3.5 3.5 0 1 1 4.95 4.95l-2.5 2.5a3.5 3.5 0 0 1-4.95 0 .751.751 0 0 1 .018-1.042.751.751 0 0 1 1.042-.018 1.998 1.998 0 0 0 2.83 0l2.5-2.5a2.002 2.002 0 0 0-2.83-2.83l-1.25 1.25a.751.751 0 0 1-1.042-.018.751.751 0 0 1-.018-1.042Zm-4.69 9.64a1.998 1.998 0 0 0 2.83 0l1.25-1.25a.751.751 0 0 1 1.042.018.751.751 0 0 1 .018 1.042l-1.25 1.25a3.5 3.5 0 1 1-4.95-4.95l2.5-2.5a3.5 3.5 0 0 1 4.95 0 .751.751 0 0 1-.018 1.042.751.751 0 0 1-1.042.018 1.998 1.998 0 0 0-2.83 0l-2.5 2.5a1.998 1.998 0 0 0 0 2.83Z\"\u003e\u003c/path\u003e\u003c/svg\u003e\u003c/a\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003cblockquote\u003e\n\u003cp dir=\"auto\"\u003eThe original goal of Bolt was to provide a simple pure Go key/value store and to\nnot bloat the code with extraneous features. To that end, the project has been\na success. However, this limited scope also means that the project is complete.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp dir=\"auto\"\u003eMaintaining an open source database requires an immense amount of time and energy.\nChanges to the code can have unintended and sometimes catastrophic effects so\neven simple changes require hours and hours of careful testing and validation.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp dir=\"auto\"\u003eUnfortunately I no longer have the time or energy to continue this work. Bolt is\nin a stable state and has years of successful production use. As such, I feel that\nleaving it in its current state is the most prudent course of action.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp dir=\"auto\"\u003eIf you are interested in using a more featureful version of Bolt, I suggest that\nyou look at the CoreOS fork called \u003ca href=\"https://github.com/coreos/bbolt\"\u003ebbolt\u003c/a\u003e.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/blockquote\u003e\n\u003cul dir=\"auto\"\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eBen Johnson (\u003ca href=\"https://twitter.com/benbjohnson\" rel=\"nofollow\"\u003e@benbjohnson\u003c/a\u003e)\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003c/ul\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"markdown-heading\" dir=\"auto\"\u003e\u003ch2 tabindex=\"-1\" class=\"heading-element\" dir=\"auto\"\u003eTable of Contents\u003c/h2\u003e\u003ca id=\"user-content-table-of-contents\" class=\"anchor\" aria-label=\"Permalink: Table of Contents\" href=\"#table-of-contents\"\u003e\u003csvg class=\"octicon octicon-link\" viewBox=\"0 0 16 16\" version=\"1.1\" width=\"16\" height=\"16\" aria-hidden=\"true\"\u003e\u003cpath d=\"m7.775 3.275 1.25-1.25a3.5 3.5 0 1 1 4.95 4.95l-2.5 2.5a3.5 3.5 0 0 1-4.95 0 .751.751 0 0 1 .018-1.042.751.751 0 0 1 1.042-.018 1.998 1.998 0 0 0 2.83 0l2.5-2.5a2.002 2.002 0 0 0-2.83-2.83l-1.25 1.25a.751.751 0 0 1-1.042-.018.751.751 0 0 1-.018-1.042Zm-4.69 9.64a1.998 1.998 0 0 0 2.83 0l1.25-1.25a.751.751 0 0 1 1.042.018.751.751 0 0 1 .018 1.042l-1.25 1.25a3.5 3.5 0 1 1-4.95-4.95l2.5-2.5a3.5 3.5 0 0 1 4.95 0 .751.751 0 0 1-.018 1.042.751.751 0 0 1-1.042.018 1.998 1.998 0 0 0-2.83 0l-2.5 2.5a1.998 1.998 0 0 0 0 2.83Z\"\u003e\u003c/path\u003e\u003c/svg\u003e\u003c/a\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003cul dir=\"auto\"\u003e\n\u003cli\u003e\u003ca href=\"#getting-started\"\u003eGetting Started\u003c/a\u003e\n\u003cul dir=\"auto\"\u003e\n\u003cli\u003e\u003ca href=\"#installing\"\u003eInstalling\u003c/a\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003e\u003ca href=\"#opening-a-database\"\u003eOpening a database\u003c/a\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003e\u003ca href=\"#transactions\"\u003eTransactions\u003c/a\u003e\n\u003cul dir=\"auto\"\u003e\n\u003cli\u003e\u003ca href=\"#read-write-transactions\"\u003eRead-write transactions\u003c/a\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003e\u003ca href=\"#read-only-transactions\"\u003eRead-only transactions\u003c/a\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003e\u003ca href=\"#batch-read-write-transactions\"\u003eBatch read-write transactions\u003c/a\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003e\u003ca href=\"#managing-transactions-manually\"\u003eManaging transactions manually\u003c/a\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003c/ul\u003e\n\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003e\u003ca href=\"#using-buckets\"\u003eUsing buckets\u003c/a\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003e\u003ca href=\"#using-keyvalue-pairs\"\u003eUsing key/value pairs\u003c/a\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003e\u003ca href=\"#autoincrementing-integer-for-the-bucket\"\u003eAutoincrementing integer for the bucket\u003c/a\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003e\u003ca href=\"#iterating-over-keys\"\u003eIterating over keys\u003c/a\u003e\n\u003cul dir=\"auto\"\u003e\n\u003cli\u003e\u003ca href=\"#prefix-scans\"\u003ePrefix scans\u003c/a\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003e\u003ca href=\"#range-scans\"\u003eRange scans\u003c/a\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003e\u003ca href=\"#foreach\"\u003eForEach()\u003c/a\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003c/ul\u003e\n\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003e\u003ca href=\"#nested-buckets\"\u003eNested buckets\u003c/a\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003e\u003ca href=\"#database-backups\"\u003eDatabase backups\u003c/a\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003e\u003ca href=\"#statistics\"\u003eStatistics\u003c/a\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003e\u003ca href=\"#read-only-mode\"\u003eRead-Only Mode\u003c/a\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003e\u003ca href=\"#mobile-use-iosandroid\"\u003eMobile Use (iOS/Android)\u003c/a\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003c/ul\u003e\n\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003e\u003ca href=\"#resources\"\u003eResources\u003c/a\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003e\u003ca href=\"#comparison-with-other-databases\"\u003eComparison with other databases\u003c/a\u003e\n\u003cul dir=\"auto\"\u003e\n\u003cli\u003e\u003ca href=\"#postgres-mysql--other-relational-databases\"\u003ePostgres, MySQL, \u0026amp; other relational databases\u003c/a\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003e\u003ca href=\"#leveldb-rocksdb\"\u003eLevelDB, RocksDB\u003c/a\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003e\u003ca href=\"#lmdb\"\u003eLMDB\u003c/a\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003c/ul\u003e\n\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003e\u003ca href=\"#caveats--limitations\"\u003eCaveats \u0026amp; Limitations\u003c/a\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003e\u003ca href=\"#reading-the-source\"\u003eReading the Source\u003c/a\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003e\u003ca href=\"#other-projects-using-bolt\"\u003eOther Projects Using Bolt\u003c/a\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003c/ul\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"markdown-heading\" dir=\"auto\"\u003e\u003ch2 tabindex=\"-1\" class=\"heading-element\" dir=\"auto\"\u003eGetting Started\u003c/h2\u003e\u003ca id=\"user-content-getting-started\" class=\"anchor\" aria-label=\"Permalink: Getting Started\" href=\"#getting-started\"\u003e\u003csvg class=\"octicon octicon-link\" viewBox=\"0 0 16 16\" version=\"1.1\" width=\"16\" height=\"16\" aria-hidden=\"true\"\u003e\u003cpath d=\"m7.775 3.275 1.25-1.25a3.5 3.5 0 1 1 4.95 4.95l-2.5 2.5a3.5 3.5 0 0 1-4.95 0 .751.751 0 0 1 .018-1.042.751.751 0 0 1 1.042-.018 1.998 1.998 0 0 0 2.83 0l2.5-2.5a2.002 2.002 0 0 0-2.83-2.83l-1.25 1.25a.751.751 0 0 1-1.042-.018.751.751 0 0 1-.018-1.042Zm-4.69 9.64a1.998 1.998 0 0 0 2.83 0l1.25-1.25a.751.751 0 0 1 1.042.018.751.751 0 0 1 .018 1.042l-1.25 1.25a3.5 3.5 0 1 1-4.95-4.95l2.5-2.5a3.5 3.5 0 0 1 4.95 0 .751.751 0 0 1-.018 1.042.751.751 0 0 1-1.042.018 1.998 1.998 0 0 0-2.83 0l-2.5 2.5a1.998 1.998 0 0 0 0 2.83Z\"\u003e\u003c/path\u003e\u003c/svg\u003e\u003c/a\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"markdown-heading\" dir=\"auto\"\u003e\u003ch3 tabindex=\"-1\" class=\"heading-element\" dir=\"auto\"\u003eInstalling\u003c/h3\u003e\u003ca id=\"user-content-installing\" class=\"anchor\" aria-label=\"Permalink: Installing\" href=\"#installing\"\u003e\u003csvg class=\"octicon octicon-link\" viewBox=\"0 0 16 16\" version=\"1.1\" width=\"16\" height=\"16\" aria-hidden=\"true\"\u003e\u003cpath d=\"m7.775 3.275 1.25-1.25a3.5 3.5 0 1 1 4.95 4.95l-2.5 2.5a3.5 3.5 0 0 1-4.95 0 .751.751 0 0 1 .018-1.042.751.751 0 0 1 1.042-.018 1.998 1.998 0 0 0 2.83 0l2.5-2.5a2.002 2.002 0 0 0-2.83-2.83l-1.25 1.25a.751.751 0 0 1-1.042-.018.751.751 0 0 1-.018-1.042Zm-4.69 9.64a1.998 1.998 0 0 0 2.83 0l1.25-1.25a.751.751 0 0 1 1.042.018.751.751 0 0 1 .018 1.042l-1.25 1.25a3.5 3.5 0 1 1-4.95-4.95l2.5-2.5a3.5 3.5 0 0 1 4.95 0 .751.751 0 0 1-.018 1.042.751.751 0 0 1-1.042.018 1.998 1.998 0 0 0-2.83 0l-2.5 2.5a1.998 1.998 0 0 0 0 2.83Z\"\u003e\u003c/path\u003e\u003c/svg\u003e\u003c/a\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003cp dir=\"auto\"\u003eTo start using Bolt, install Go and run \u003ccode\u003ego get\u003c/code\u003e:\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"highlight highlight-source-shell notranslate position-relative overflow-auto\" dir=\"auto\" data-snippet-clipboard-copy-content=\"$ go get github.com/boltdb/bolt/...\"\u003e\u003cpre\u003e$ go get github.com/boltdb/bolt/...\u003c/pre\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003cp dir=\"auto\"\u003eThis will retrieve the library and install the \u003ccode\u003ebolt\u003c/code\u003e command line utility into\nyour \u003ccode\u003e$GOBIN\u003c/code\u003e path.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"markdown-heading\" dir=\"auto\"\u003e\u003ch3 tabindex=\"-1\" class=\"heading-element\" dir=\"auto\"\u003eOpening a database\u003c/h3\u003e\u003ca id=\"user-content-opening-a-database\" class=\"anchor\" aria-label=\"Permalink: Opening a database\" href=\"#opening-a-database\"\u003e\u003csvg class=\"octicon octicon-link\" viewBox=\"0 0 16 16\" version=\"1.1\" width=\"16\" height=\"16\" aria-hidden=\"true\"\u003e\u003cpath d=\"m7.775 3.275 1.25-1.25a3.5 3.5 0 1 1 4.95 4.95l-2.5 2.5a3.5 3.5 0 0 1-4.95 0 .751.751 0 0 1 .018-1.042.751.751 0 0 1 1.042-.018 1.998 1.998 0 0 0 2.83 0l2.5-2.5a2.002 2.002 0 0 0-2.83-2.83l-1.25 1.25a.751.751 0 0 1-1.042-.018.751.751 0 0 1-.018-1.042Zm-4.69 9.64a1.998 1.998 0 0 0 2.83 0l1.25-1.25a.751.751 0 0 1 1.042.018.751.751 0 0 1 .018 1.042l-1.25 1.25a3.5 3.5 0 1 1-4.95-4.95l2.5-2.5a3.5 3.5 0 0 1 4.95 0 .751.751 0 0 1-.018 1.042.751.751 0 0 1-1.042.018 1.998 1.998 0 0 0-2.83 0l-2.5 2.5a1.998 1.998 0 0 0 0 2.83Z\"\u003e\u003c/path\u003e\u003c/svg\u003e\u003c/a\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003cp dir=\"auto\"\u003eThe top-level object in Bolt is a \u003ccode\u003eDB\u003c/code\u003e. It is represented as a single file on\nyour disk and represents a consistent snapshot of your data.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp dir=\"auto\"\u003eTo open your database, simply use the \u003ccode\u003ebolt.Open()\u003c/code\u003e function:\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"highlight highlight-source-go notranslate position-relative overflow-auto\" dir=\"auto\" data-snippet-clipboard-copy-content=\"package main\n\nimport (\n\t\u0026quot;log\u0026quot;\n\n\t\u0026quot;github.com/boltdb/bolt\u0026quot;\n)\n\nfunc main() {\n\t// Open the my.db data file in your current directory.\n\t// It will be created if it doesn't exist.\n\tdb, err := bolt.Open(\u0026quot;my.db\u0026quot;, 0600, nil)\n\tif err != nil {\n\t\tlog.Fatal(err)\n\t}\n\tdefer db.Close()\n\n\t...\n}\"\u003e\u003cpre\u003e\u003cspan class=\"pl-k\"\u003epackage\u003c/span\u003e main\n\n\u003cspan class=\"pl-k\"\u003eimport\u003c/span\u003e (\n\t\u003cspan class=\"pl-s\"\u003e\"log\"\u003c/span\u003e\n\n\t\u003cspan class=\"pl-s\"\u003e\"github.com/boltdb/bolt\"\u003c/span\u003e\n)\n\n\u003cspan class=\"pl-k\"\u003efunc\u003c/span\u003e \u003cspan class=\"pl-s1\"\u003emain\u003c/span\u003e() {\n\t\u003cspan class=\"pl-c\"\u003e// Open the my.db data file in your current directory.\u003c/span\u003e\n\t\u003cspan class=\"pl-c\"\u003e// It will be created if it doesn't exist.\u003c/span\u003e\n\t\u003cspan class=\"pl-s1\"\u003edb\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan class=\"pl-s1\"\u003eerr\u003c/span\u003e \u003cspan class=\"pl-c1\"\u003e:=\u003c/span\u003e \u003cspan class=\"pl-s1\"\u003ebolt\u003c/span\u003e.\u003cspan class=\"pl-c1\"\u003eOpen\u003c/span\u003e(\u003cspan class=\"pl-s\"\u003e\"my.db\"\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan class=\"pl-c1\"\u003e0600\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan class=\"pl-c1\"\u003enil\u003c/span\u003e)\n\t\u003cspan class=\"pl-k\"\u003eif\u003c/span\u003e \u003cspan class=\"pl-s1\"\u003eerr\u003c/span\u003e \u003cspan class=\"pl-c1\"\u003e!=\u003c/span\u003e \u003cspan class=\"pl-c1\"\u003enil\u003c/span\u003e {\n\t\t\u003cspan class=\"pl-s1\"\u003elog\u003c/span\u003e.\u003cspan class=\"pl-c1\"\u003eFatal\u003c/span\u003e(\u003cspan class=\"pl-s1\"\u003eerr\u003c/span\u003e)\n\t}\n\t\u003cspan class=\"pl-k\"\u003edefer\u003c/span\u003e \u003cspan class=\"pl-s1\"\u003edb\u003c/span\u003e.\u003cspan class=\"pl-c1\"\u003eClose\u003c/span\u003e()\n\n\t\u003cspan class=\"pl-c1\"\u003e...\u003c/span\u003e\n}\u003c/pre\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003cp dir=\"auto\"\u003ePlease note that Bolt obtains a file lock on the data file so multiple processes\ncannot open the same database at the same time. Opening an already open Bolt\ndatabase will cause it to hang until the other process closes it. To prevent\nan indefinite wait you can pass a timeout option to the \u003ccode\u003eOpen()\u003c/code\u003e function:\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"highlight highlight-source-go notranslate position-relative overflow-auto\" dir=\"auto\" data-snippet-clipboard-copy-content=\"db, err := bolt.Open(\u0026quot;my.db\u0026quot;, 0600, \u0026amp;bolt.Options{Timeout: 1 * time.Second})\"\u003e\u003cpre\u003e\u003cspan class=\"pl-s1\"\u003edb\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan class=\"pl-s1\"\u003eerr\u003c/span\u003e \u003cspan class=\"pl-c1\"\u003e:=\u003c/span\u003e \u003cspan class=\"pl-s1\"\u003ebolt\u003c/span\u003e.\u003cspan class=\"pl-c1\"\u003eOpen\u003c/span\u003e(\u003cspan class=\"pl-s\"\u003e\"my.db\"\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan class=\"pl-c1\"\u003e0600\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan class=\"pl-c1\"\u003e\u0026amp;\u003c/span\u003ebolt.\u003cspan class=\"pl-smi\"\u003eOptions\u003c/span\u003e{\u003cspan class=\"pl-s1\"\u003eTimeout\u003c/span\u003e: \u003cspan class=\"pl-c1\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e \u003cspan class=\"pl-c1\"\u003e*\u003c/span\u003e \u003cspan class=\"pl-s1\"\u003etime\u003c/span\u003e.\u003cspan class=\"pl-c1\"\u003eSecond\u003c/span\u003e})\u003c/pre\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"markdown-heading\" dir=\"auto\"\u003e\u003ch3 tabindex=\"-1\" class=\"heading-element\" dir=\"auto\"\u003eTransactions\u003c/h3\u003e\u003ca id=\"user-content-transactions\" class=\"anchor\" aria-label=\"Permalink: Transactions\" href=\"#transactions\"\u003e\u003csvg class=\"octicon octicon-link\" viewBox=\"0 0 16 16\" version=\"1.1\" width=\"16\" height=\"16\" aria-hidden=\"true\"\u003e\u003cpath d=\"m7.775 3.275 1.25-1.25a3.5 3.5 0 1 1 4.95 4.95l-2.5 2.5a3.5 3.5 0 0 1-4.95 0 .751.751 0 0 1 .018-1.042.751.751 0 0 1 1.042-.018 1.998 1.998 0 0 0 2.83 0l2.5-2.5a2.002 2.002 0 0 0-2.83-2.83l-1.25 1.25a.751.751 0 0 1-1.042-.018.751.751 0 0 1-.018-1.042Zm-4.69 9.64a1.998 1.998 0 0 0 2.83 0l1.25-1.25a.751.751 0 0 1 1.042.018.751.751 0 0 1 .018 1.042l-1.25 1.25a3.5 3.5 0 1 1-4.95-4.95l2.5-2.5a3.5 3.5 0 0 1 4.95 0 .751.751 0 0 1-.018 1.042.751.751 0 0 1-1.042.018 1.998 1.998 0 0 0-2.83 0l-2.5 2.5a1.998 1.998 0 0 0 0 2.83Z\"\u003e\u003c/path\u003e\u003c/svg\u003e\u003c/a\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003cp dir=\"auto\"\u003eBolt allows only one read-write transaction at a time but allows as many\nread-only transactions as you want at a time. Each transaction has a consistent\nview of the data as it existed when the transaction started.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp dir=\"auto\"\u003eIndividual transactions and all objects created from them (e.g. buckets, keys)\nare not thread safe. To work with data in multiple goroutines you must start\na transaction for each one or use locking to ensure only one goroutine accesses\na transaction at a time. Creating transaction from the \u003ccode\u003eDB\u003c/code\u003e is thread safe.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp dir=\"auto\"\u003eRead-only transactions and read-write transactions should not depend on one\nanother and generally shouldn't be opened simultaneously in the same goroutine.\nThis can cause a deadlock as the read-write transaction needs to periodically\nre-map the data file but it cannot do so while a read-only transaction is open.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"markdown-heading\" dir=\"auto\"\u003e\u003ch4 tabindex=\"-1\" class=\"heading-element\" dir=\"auto\"\u003eRead-write transactions\u003c/h4\u003e\u003ca id=\"user-content-read-write-transactions\" class=\"anchor\" aria-label=\"Permalink: Read-write transactions\" href=\"#read-write-transactions\"\u003e\u003csvg class=\"octicon octicon-link\" viewBox=\"0 0 16 16\" version=\"1.1\" width=\"16\" height=\"16\" aria-hidden=\"true\"\u003e\u003cpath d=\"m7.775 3.275 1.25-1.25a3.5 3.5 0 1 1 4.95 4.95l-2.5 2.5a3.5 3.5 0 0 1-4.95 0 .751.751 0 0 1 .018-1.042.751.751 0 0 1 1.042-.018 1.998 1.998 0 0 0 2.83 0l2.5-2.5a2.002 2.002 0 0 0-2.83-2.83l-1.25 1.25a.751.751 0 0 1-1.042-.018.751.751 0 0 1-.018-1.042Zm-4.69 9.64a1.998 1.998 0 0 0 2.83 0l1.25-1.25a.751.751 0 0 1 1.042.018.751.751 0 0 1 .018 1.042l-1.25 1.25a3.5 3.5 0 1 1-4.95-4.95l2.5-2.5a3.5 3.5 0 0 1 4.95 0 .751.751 0 0 1-.018 1.042.751.751 0 0 1-1.042.018 1.998 1.998 0 0 0-2.83 0l-2.5 2.5a1.998 1.998 0 0 0 0 2.83Z\"\u003e\u003c/path\u003e\u003c/svg\u003e\u003c/a\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003cp dir=\"auto\"\u003eTo start a read-write transaction, you can use the \u003ccode\u003eDB.Update()\u003c/code\u003e function:\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"highlight highlight-source-go notranslate position-relative overflow-auto\" dir=\"auto\" data-snippet-clipboard-copy-content=\"err := db.Update(func(tx *bolt.Tx) error {\n\t...\n\treturn nil\n})\"\u003e\u003cpre\u003e\u003cspan class=\"pl-s1\"\u003eerr\u003c/span\u003e \u003cspan class=\"pl-c1\"\u003e:=\u003c/span\u003e \u003cspan class=\"pl-s1\"\u003edb\u003c/span\u003e.\u003cspan class=\"pl-c1\"\u003eUpdate\u003c/span\u003e(\u003cspan class=\"pl-k\"\u003efunc\u003c/span\u003e(\u003cspan class=\"pl-s1\"\u003etx\u003c/span\u003e \u003cspan class=\"pl-c1\"\u003e*\u003c/span\u003ebolt.\u003cspan class=\"pl-smi\"\u003eTx\u003c/span\u003e) \u003cspan class=\"pl-smi\"\u003eerror\u003c/span\u003e {\n\t\u003cspan class=\"pl-c1\"\u003e...\u003c/span\u003e\n\t\u003cspan class=\"pl-k\"\u003ereturn\u003c/span\u003e \u003cspan class=\"pl-c1\"\u003enil\u003c/span\u003e\n})\u003c/pre\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003cp dir=\"auto\"\u003eInside the closure, you have a consistent view of the database. You commit the\ntransaction by returning \u003ccode\u003enil\u003c/code\u003e at the end. You can also rollback the transaction\nat any point by returning an error. All database operations are allowed inside\na read-write transaction.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp dir=\"auto\"\u003eAlways check the return error as it will report any disk failures that can cause\nyour transaction to not complete. If you return an error within your closure\nit will be passed through.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"markdown-heading\" dir=\"auto\"\u003e\u003ch4 tabindex=\"-1\" class=\"heading-element\" dir=\"auto\"\u003eRead-only transactions\u003c/h4\u003e\u003ca id=\"user-content-read-only-transactions\" class=\"anchor\" aria-label=\"Permalink: Read-only transactions\" href=\"#read-only-transactions\"\u003e\u003csvg class=\"octicon octicon-link\" viewBox=\"0 0 16 16\" version=\"1.1\" width=\"16\" height=\"16\" aria-hidden=\"true\"\u003e\u003cpath d=\"m7.775 3.275 1.25-1.25a3.5 3.5 0 1 1 4.95 4.95l-2.5 2.5a3.5 3.5 0 0 1-4.95 0 .751.751 0 0 1 .018-1.042.751.751 0 0 1 1.042-.018 1.998 1.998 0 0 0 2.83 0l2.5-2.5a2.002 2.002 0 0 0-2.83-2.83l-1.25 1.25a.751.751 0 0 1-1.042-.018.751.751 0 0 1-.018-1.042Zm-4.69 9.64a1.998 1.998 0 0 0 2.83 0l1.25-1.25a.751.751 0 0 1 1.042.018.751.751 0 0 1 .018 1.042l-1.25 1.25a3.5 3.5 0 1 1-4.95-4.95l2.5-2.5a3.5 3.5 0 0 1 4.95 0 .751.751 0 0 1-.018 1.042.751.751 0 0 1-1.042.018 1.998 1.998 0 0 0-2.83 0l-2.5 2.5a1.998 1.998 0 0 0 0 2.83Z\"\u003e\u003c/path\u003e\u003c/svg\u003e\u003c/a\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003cp dir=\"auto\"\u003eTo start a read-only transaction, you can use the \u003ccode\u003eDB.View()\u003c/code\u003e function:\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"highlight highlight-source-go notranslate position-relative overflow-auto\" dir=\"auto\" data-snippet-clipboard-copy-content=\"err := db.View(func(tx *bolt.Tx) error {\n\t...\n\treturn nil\n})\"\u003e\u003cpre\u003e\u003cspan class=\"pl-s1\"\u003eerr\u003c/span\u003e \u003cspan class=\"pl-c1\"\u003e:=\u003c/span\u003e \u003cspan class=\"pl-s1\"\u003edb\u003c/span\u003e.\u003cspan class=\"pl-c1\"\u003eView\u003c/span\u003e(\u003cspan class=\"pl-k\"\u003efunc\u003c/span\u003e(\u003cspan class=\"pl-s1\"\u003etx\u003c/span\u003e \u003cspan class=\"pl-c1\"\u003e*\u003c/span\u003ebolt.\u003cspan class=\"pl-smi\"\u003eTx\u003c/span\u003e) \u003cspan class=\"pl-smi\"\u003eerror\u003c/span\u003e {\n\t\u003cspan class=\"pl-c1\"\u003e...\u003c/span\u003e\n\t\u003cspan class=\"pl-k\"\u003ereturn\u003c/span\u003e \u003cspan class=\"pl-c1\"\u003enil\u003c/span\u003e\n})\u003c/pre\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003cp dir=\"auto\"\u003eYou also get a consistent view of the database within this closure, however,\nno mutating operations are allowed within a read-only transaction. You can only\nretrieve buckets, retrieve values, and copy the database within a read-only\ntransaction.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"markdown-heading\" dir=\"auto\"\u003e\u003ch4 tabindex=\"-1\" class=\"heading-element\" dir=\"auto\"\u003eBatch read-write transactions\u003c/h4\u003e\u003ca id=\"user-content-batch-read-write-transactions\" class=\"anchor\" aria-label=\"Permalink: Batch read-write transactions\" href=\"#batch-read-write-transactions\"\u003e\u003csvg class=\"octicon octicon-link\" viewBox=\"0 0 16 16\" version=\"1.1\" width=\"16\" height=\"16\" aria-hidden=\"true\"\u003e\u003cpath d=\"m7.775 3.275 1.25-1.25a3.5 3.5 0 1 1 4.95 4.95l-2.5 2.5a3.5 3.5 0 0 1-4.95 0 .751.751 0 0 1 .018-1.042.751.751 0 0 1 1.042-.018 1.998 1.998 0 0 0 2.83 0l2.5-2.5a2.002 2.002 0 0 0-2.83-2.83l-1.25 1.25a.751.751 0 0 1-1.042-.018.751.751 0 0 1-.018-1.042Zm-4.69 9.64a1.998 1.998 0 0 0 2.83 0l1.25-1.25a.751.751 0 0 1 1.042.018.751.751 0 0 1 .018 1.042l-1.25 1.25a3.5 3.5 0 1 1-4.95-4.95l2.5-2.5a3.5 3.5 0 0 1 4.95 0 .751.751 0 0 1-.018 1.042.751.751 0 0 1-1.042.018 1.998 1.998 0 0 0-2.83 0l-2.5 2.5a1.998 1.998 0 0 0 0 2.83Z\"\u003e\u003c/path\u003e\u003c/svg\u003e\u003c/a\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003cp dir=\"auto\"\u003eEach \u003ccode\u003eDB.Update()\u003c/code\u003e waits for disk to commit the writes. This overhead\ncan be minimized by combining multiple updates with the \u003ccode\u003eDB.Batch()\u003c/code\u003e\nfunction:\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"highlight highlight-source-go notranslate position-relative overflow-auto\" dir=\"auto\" data-snippet-clipboard-copy-content=\"err := db.Batch(func(tx *bolt.Tx) error {\n\t...\n\treturn nil\n})\"\u003e\u003cpre\u003e\u003cspan class=\"pl-s1\"\u003eerr\u003c/span\u003e \u003cspan class=\"pl-c1\"\u003e:=\u003c/span\u003e \u003cspan class=\"pl-s1\"\u003edb\u003c/span\u003e.\u003cspan class=\"pl-c1\"\u003eBatch\u003c/span\u003e(\u003cspan class=\"pl-k\"\u003efunc\u003c/span\u003e(\u003cspan class=\"pl-s1\"\u003etx\u003c/span\u003e \u003cspan class=\"pl-c1\"\u003e*\u003c/span\u003ebolt.\u003cspan class=\"pl-smi\"\u003eTx\u003c/span\u003e) \u003cspan class=\"pl-smi\"\u003eerror\u003c/span\u003e {\n\t\u003cspan class=\"pl-c1\"\u003e...\u003c/span\u003e\n\t\u003cspan class=\"pl-k\"\u003ereturn\u003c/span\u003e \u003cspan class=\"pl-c1\"\u003enil\u003c/span\u003e\n})\u003c/pre\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003cp dir=\"auto\"\u003eConcurrent Batch calls are opportunistically combined into larger\ntransactions. Batch is only useful when there are multiple goroutines\ncalling it.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp dir=\"auto\"\u003eThe trade-off is that \u003ccode\u003eBatch\u003c/code\u003e can call the given\nfunction multiple times, if parts of the transaction fail. The\nfunction must be idempotent and side effects must take effect only\nafter a successful return from \u003ccode\u003eDB.Batch()\u003c/code\u003e.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp dir=\"auto\"\u003eFor example: don't display messages from inside the function, instead\nset variables in the enclosing scope:\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"highlight highlight-source-go notranslate position-relative overflow-auto\" dir=\"auto\" data-snippet-clipboard-copy-content=\"var id uint64\nerr := db.Batch(func(tx *bolt.Tx) error {\n\t// Find last key in bucket, decode as bigendian uint64, increment\n\t// by one, encode back to []byte, and add new key.\n\t...\n\tid = newValue\n\treturn nil\n})\nif err != nil {\n\treturn ...\n}\nfmt.Println(\u0026quot;Allocated ID %d\u0026quot;, id)\"\u003e\u003cpre\u003e\u003cspan class=\"pl-k\"\u003evar\u003c/span\u003e \u003cspan class=\"pl-s1\"\u003eid\u003c/span\u003e \u003cspan class=\"pl-smi\"\u003euint64\u003c/span\u003e\n\u003cspan class=\"pl-s1\"\u003eerr\u003c/span\u003e \u003cspan class=\"pl-c1\"\u003e:=\u003c/span\u003e \u003cspan class=\"pl-s1\"\u003edb\u003c/span\u003e.\u003cspan class=\"pl-c1\"\u003eBatch\u003c/span\u003e(\u003cspan class=\"pl-k\"\u003efunc\u003c/span\u003e(\u003cspan class=\"pl-s1\"\u003etx\u003c/span\u003e \u003cspan class=\"pl-c1\"\u003e*\u003c/span\u003ebolt.\u003cspan class=\"pl-smi\"\u003eTx\u003c/span\u003e) \u003cspan class=\"pl-smi\"\u003eerror\u003c/span\u003e {\n\t\u003cspan class=\"pl-c\"\u003e// Find last key in bucket, decode as bigendian uint64, increment\u003c/span\u003e\n\t\u003cspan class=\"pl-c\"\u003e// by one, encode back to []byte, and add new key.\u003c/span\u003e\n\t\u003cspan class=\"pl-c1\"\u003e...\u003c/span\u003e\n\t\u003cspan class=\"pl-s1\"\u003eid\u003c/span\u003e \u003cspan class=\"pl-c1\"\u003e=\u003c/span\u003e \u003cspan class=\"pl-s1\"\u003enewValue\u003c/span\u003e\n\t\u003cspan class=\"pl-k\"\u003ereturn\u003c/span\u003e \u003cspan class=\"pl-c1\"\u003enil\u003c/span\u003e\n})\n\u003cspan class=\"pl-k\"\u003eif\u003c/span\u003e \u003cspan class=\"pl-s1\"\u003eerr\u003c/span\u003e \u003cspan class=\"pl-c1\"\u003e!=\u003c/span\u003e \u003cspan class=\"pl-c1\"\u003enil\u003c/span\u003e {\n\t\u003cspan class=\"pl-k\"\u003ereturn\u003c/span\u003e \u003cspan class=\"pl-c1\"\u003e...\u003c/span\u003e\n}\n\u003cspan class=\"pl-s1\"\u003efmt\u003c/span\u003e.\u003cspan class=\"pl-c1\"\u003ePrintln\u003c/span\u003e(\u003cspan class=\"pl-s\"\u003e\"Allocated ID %d\"\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan class=\"pl-s1\"\u003eid\u003c/span\u003e)\u003c/pre\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"markdown-heading\" dir=\"auto\"\u003e\u003ch4 tabindex=\"-1\" class=\"heading-element\" dir=\"auto\"\u003eManaging transactions manually\u003c/h4\u003e\u003ca id=\"user-content-managing-transactions-manually\" class=\"anchor\" aria-label=\"Permalink: Managing transactions manually\" href=\"#managing-transactions-manually\"\u003e\u003csvg class=\"octicon octicon-link\" viewBox=\"0 0 16 16\" version=\"1.1\" width=\"16\" height=\"16\" aria-hidden=\"true\"\u003e\u003cpath d=\"m7.775 3.275 1.25-1.25a3.5 3.5 0 1 1 4.95 4.95l-2.5 2.5a3.5 3.5 0 0 1-4.95 0 .751.751 0 0 1 .018-1.042.751.751 0 0 1 1.042-.018 1.998 1.998 0 0 0 2.83 0l2.5-2.5a2.002 2.002 0 0 0-2.83-2.83l-1.25 1.25a.751.751 0 0 1-1.042-.018.751.751 0 0 1-.018-1.042Zm-4.69 9.64a1.998 1.998 0 0 0 2.83 0l1.25-1.25a.751.751 0 0 1 1.042.018.751.751 0 0 1 .018 1.042l-1.25 1.25a3.5 3.5 0 1 1-4.95-4.95l2.5-2.5a3.5 3.5 0 0 1 4.95 0 .751.751 0 0 1-.018 1.042.751.751 0 0 1-1.042.018 1.998 1.998 0 0 0-2.83 0l-2.5 2.5a1.998 1.998 0 0 0 0 2.83Z\"\u003e\u003c/path\u003e\u003c/svg\u003e\u003c/a\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003cp dir=\"auto\"\u003eThe \u003ccode\u003eDB.View()\u003c/code\u003e and \u003ccode\u003eDB.Update()\u003c/code\u003e functions are wrappers around the \u003ccode\u003eDB.Begin()\u003c/code\u003e\nfunction. These helper functions will start the transaction, execute a function,\nand then safely close your transaction if an error is returned. This is the\nrecommended way to use Bolt transactions.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp dir=\"auto\"\u003eHowever, sometimes you may want to manually start and end your transactions.\nYou can use the \u003ccode\u003eDB.Begin()\u003c/code\u003e function directly but \u003cstrong\u003eplease\u003c/strong\u003e be sure to close\nthe transaction.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"highlight highlight-source-go notranslate position-relative overflow-auto\" dir=\"auto\" data-snippet-clipboard-copy-content=\"// Start a writable transaction.\ntx, err := db.Begin(true)\nif err != nil {\n return err\n}\ndefer tx.Rollback()\n\n// Use the transaction...\n_, err := tx.CreateBucket([]byte(\u0026quot;MyBucket\u0026quot;))\nif err != nil {\n return err\n}\n\n// Commit the transaction and check for error.\nif err := tx.Commit(); err != nil {\n return err\n}\"\u003e\u003cpre\u003e\u003cspan class=\"pl-c\"\u003e// Start a writable transaction.\u003c/span\u003e\n\u003cspan class=\"pl-s1\"\u003etx\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan class=\"pl-s1\"\u003eerr\u003c/span\u003e \u003cspan class=\"pl-c1\"\u003e:=\u003c/span\u003e \u003cspan class=\"pl-s1\"\u003edb\u003c/span\u003e.\u003cspan class=\"pl-c1\"\u003eBegin\u003c/span\u003e(\u003cspan class=\"pl-c1\"\u003etrue\u003c/span\u003e)\n\u003cspan class=\"pl-k\"\u003eif\u003c/span\u003e \u003cspan class=\"pl-s1\"\u003eerr\u003c/span\u003e \u003cspan class=\"pl-c1\"\u003e!=\u003c/span\u003e \u003cspan class=\"pl-c1\"\u003enil\u003c/span\u003e {\n \u003cspan class=\"pl-k\"\u003ereturn\u003c/span\u003e \u003cspan class=\"pl-s1\"\u003eerr\u003c/span\u003e\n}\n\u003cspan class=\"pl-k\"\u003edefer\u003c/span\u003e \u003cspan class=\"pl-s1\"\u003etx\u003c/span\u003e.\u003cspan class=\"pl-c1\"\u003eRollback\u003c/span\u003e()\n\n\u003cspan class=\"pl-c\"\u003e// Use the transaction...\u003c/span\u003e\n\u003cspan class=\"pl-s1\"\u003e_\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan class=\"pl-s1\"\u003eerr\u003c/span\u003e \u003cspan class=\"pl-c1\"\u003e:=\u003c/span\u003e \u003cspan class=\"pl-s1\"\u003etx\u003c/span\u003e.\u003cspan class=\"pl-c1\"\u003eCreateBucket\u003c/span\u003e([]\u003cspan class=\"pl-smi\"\u003ebyte\u003c/span\u003e(\u003cspan class=\"pl-s\"\u003e\"MyBucket\"\u003c/span\u003e))\n\u003cspan class=\"pl-k\"\u003eif\u003c/span\u003e \u003cspan class=\"pl-s1\"\u003eerr\u003c/span\u003e \u003cspan class=\"pl-c1\"\u003e!=\u003c/span\u003e \u003cspan class=\"pl-c1\"\u003enil\u003c/span\u003e {\n \u003cspan class=\"pl-k\"\u003ereturn\u003c/span\u003e \u003cspan class=\"pl-s1\"\u003eerr\u003c/span\u003e\n}\n\n\u003cspan class=\"pl-c\"\u003e// Commit the transaction and check for error.\u003c/span\u003e\n\u003cspan class=\"pl-k\"\u003eif\u003c/span\u003e \u003cspan class=\"pl-s1\"\u003eerr\u003c/span\u003e \u003cspan class=\"pl-c1\"\u003e:=\u003c/span\u003e \u003cspan class=\"pl-s1\"\u003etx\u003c/span\u003e.\u003cspan class=\"pl-c1\"\u003eCommit\u003c/span\u003e(); \u003cspan class=\"pl-s1\"\u003eerr\u003c/span\u003e \u003cspan class=\"pl-c1\"\u003e!=\u003c/span\u003e \u003cspan class=\"pl-c1\"\u003enil\u003c/span\u003e {\n \u003cspan class=\"pl-k\"\u003ereturn\u003c/span\u003e \u003cspan class=\"pl-s1\"\u003eerr\u003c/span\u003e\n}\u003c/pre\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003cp dir=\"auto\"\u003eThe first argument to \u003ccode\u003eDB.Begin()\u003c/code\u003e is a boolean stating if the transaction\nshould be writable.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"markdown-heading\" dir=\"auto\"\u003e\u003ch3 tabindex=\"-1\" class=\"heading-element\" dir=\"auto\"\u003eUsing buckets\u003c/h3\u003e\u003ca id=\"user-content-using-buckets\" class=\"anchor\" aria-label=\"Permalink: Using buckets\" href=\"#using-buckets\"\u003e\u003csvg class=\"octicon octicon-link\" viewBox=\"0 0 16 16\" version=\"1.1\" width=\"16\" height=\"16\" aria-hidden=\"true\"\u003e\u003cpath d=\"m7.775 3.275 1.25-1.25a3.5 3.5 0 1 1 4.95 4.95l-2.5 2.5a3.5 3.5 0 0 1-4.95 0 .751.751 0 0 1 .018-1.042.751.751 0 0 1 1.042-.018 1.998 1.998 0 0 0 2.83 0l2.5-2.5a2.002 2.002 0 0 0-2.83-2.83l-1.25 1.25a.751.751 0 0 1-1.042-.018.751.751 0 0 1-.018-1.042Zm-4.69 9.64a1.998 1.998 0 0 0 2.83 0l1.25-1.25a.751.751 0 0 1 1.042.018.751.751 0 0 1 .018 1.042l-1.25 1.25a3.5 3.5 0 1 1-4.95-4.95l2.5-2.5a3.5 3.5 0 0 1 4.95 0 .751.751 0 0 1-.018 1.042.751.751 0 0 1-1.042.018 1.998 1.998 0 0 0-2.83 0l-2.5 2.5a1.998 1.998 0 0 0 0 2.83Z\"\u003e\u003c/path\u003e\u003c/svg\u003e\u003c/a\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003cp dir=\"auto\"\u003eBuckets are collections of key/value pairs within the database. All keys in a\nbucket must be unique. You can create a bucket using the \u003ccode\u003eDB.CreateBucket()\u003c/code\u003e\nfunction:\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"highlight highlight-source-go notranslate position-relative overflow-auto\" dir=\"auto\" data-snippet-clipboard-copy-content=\"db.Update(func(tx *bolt.Tx) error {\n\tb, err := tx.CreateBucket([]byte(\u0026quot;MyBucket\u0026quot;))\n\tif err != nil {\n\t\treturn fmt.Errorf(\u0026quot;create bucket: %s\u0026quot;, err)\n\t}\n\treturn nil\n})\"\u003e\u003cpre\u003e\u003cspan class=\"pl-s1\"\u003edb\u003c/span\u003e.\u003cspan class=\"pl-c1\"\u003eUpdate\u003c/span\u003e(\u003cspan class=\"pl-k\"\u003efunc\u003c/span\u003e(\u003cspan class=\"pl-s1\"\u003etx\u003c/span\u003e \u003cspan class=\"pl-c1\"\u003e*\u003c/span\u003ebolt.\u003cspan class=\"pl-smi\"\u003eTx\u003c/span\u003e) \u003cspan class=\"pl-smi\"\u003eerror\u003c/span\u003e {\n\t\u003cspan class=\"pl-s1\"\u003eb\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan class=\"pl-s1\"\u003eerr\u003c/span\u003e \u003cspan class=\"pl-c1\"\u003e:=\u003c/span\u003e \u003cspan class=\"pl-s1\"\u003etx\u003c/span\u003e.\u003cspan class=\"pl-c1\"\u003eCreateBucket\u003c/span\u003e([]\u003cspan class=\"pl-smi\"\u003ebyte\u003c/span\u003e(\u003cspan class=\"pl-s\"\u003e\"MyBucket\"\u003c/span\u003e))\n\t\u003cspan class=\"pl-k\"\u003eif\u003c/span\u003e \u003cspan class=\"pl-s1\"\u003eerr\u003c/span\u003e \u003cspan class=\"pl-c1\"\u003e!=\u003c/span\u003e \u003cspan class=\"pl-c1\"\u003enil\u003c/span\u003e {\n\t\t\u003cspan class=\"pl-k\"\u003ereturn\u003c/span\u003e \u003cspan class=\"pl-s1\"\u003efmt\u003c/span\u003e.\u003cspan class=\"pl-c1\"\u003eErrorf\u003c/span\u003e(\u003cspan class=\"pl-s\"\u003e\"create bucket: %s\"\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan class=\"pl-s1\"\u003eerr\u003c/span\u003e)\n\t}\n\t\u003cspan class=\"pl-k\"\u003ereturn\u003c/span\u003e \u003cspan class=\"pl-c1\"\u003enil\u003c/span\u003e\n})\u003c/pre\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003cp dir=\"auto\"\u003eYou can also create a bucket only if it doesn't exist by using the\n\u003ccode\u003eTx.CreateBucketIfNotExists()\u003c/code\u003e function. It's a common pattern to call this\nfunction for all your top-level buckets after you open your database so you can\nguarantee that they exist for future transactions.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp dir=\"auto\"\u003eTo delete a bucket, simply call the \u003ccode\u003eTx.DeleteBucket()\u003c/code\u003e function.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"markdown-heading\" dir=\"auto\"\u003e\u003ch3 tabindex=\"-1\" class=\"heading-element\" dir=\"auto\"\u003eUsing key/value pairs\u003c/h3\u003e\u003ca id=\"user-content-using-keyvalue-pairs\" class=\"anchor\" aria-label=\"Permalink: Using key/value pairs\" href=\"#using-keyvalue-pairs\"\u003e\u003csvg class=\"octicon octicon-link\" viewBox=\"0 0 16 16\" version=\"1.1\" width=\"16\" height=\"16\" aria-hidden=\"true\"\u003e\u003cpath d=\"m7.775 3.275 1.25-1.25a3.5 3.5 0 1 1 4.95 4.95l-2.5 2.5a3.5 3.5 0 0 1-4.95 0 .751.751 0 0 1 .018-1.042.751.751 0 0 1 1.042-.018 1.998 1.998 0 0 0 2.83 0l2.5-2.5a2.002 2.002 0 0 0-2.83-2.83l-1.25 1.25a.751.751 0 0 1-1.042-.018.751.751 0 0 1-.018-1.042Zm-4.69 9.64a1.998 1.998 0 0 0 2.83 0l1.25-1.25a.751.751 0 0 1 1.042.018.751.751 0 0 1 .018 1.042l-1.25 1.25a3.5 3.5 0 1 1-4.95-4.95l2.5-2.5a3.5 3.5 0 0 1 4.95 0 .751.751 0 0 1-.018 1.042.751.751 0 0 1-1.042.018 1.998 1.998 0 0 0-2.83 0l-2.5 2.5a1.998 1.998 0 0 0 0 2.83Z\"\u003e\u003c/path\u003e\u003c/svg\u003e\u003c/a\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003cp dir=\"auto\"\u003eTo save a key/value pair to a bucket, use the \u003ccode\u003eBucket.Put()\u003c/code\u003e function:\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"highlight highlight-source-go notranslate position-relative overflow-auto\" dir=\"auto\" data-snippet-clipboard-copy-content=\"db.Update(func(tx *bolt.Tx) error {\n\tb := tx.Bucket([]byte(\u0026quot;MyBucket\u0026quot;))\n\terr := b.Put([]byte(\u0026quot;answer\u0026quot;), []byte(\u0026quot;42\u0026quot;))\n\treturn err\n})\"\u003e\u003cpre\u003e\u003cspan class=\"pl-s1\"\u003edb\u003c/span\u003e.\u003cspan class=\"pl-c1\"\u003eUpdate\u003c/span\u003e(\u003cspan class=\"pl-k\"\u003efunc\u003c/span\u003e(\u003cspan class=\"pl-s1\"\u003etx\u003c/span\u003e \u003cspan class=\"pl-c1\"\u003e*\u003c/span\u003ebolt.\u003cspan class=\"pl-smi\"\u003eTx\u003c/span\u003e) \u003cspan class=\"pl-smi\"\u003eerror\u003c/span\u003e {\n\t\u003cspan class=\"pl-s1\"\u003eb\u003c/span\u003e \u003cspan class=\"pl-c1\"\u003e:=\u003c/span\u003e \u003cspan class=\"pl-s1\"\u003etx\u003c/span\u003e.\u003cspan class=\"pl-c1\"\u003eBucket\u003c/span\u003e([]\u003cspan class=\"pl-smi\"\u003ebyte\u003c/span\u003e(\u003cspan class=\"pl-s\"\u003e\"MyBucket\"\u003c/span\u003e))\n\t\u003cspan class=\"pl-s1\"\u003eerr\u003c/span\u003e \u003cspan class=\"pl-c1\"\u003e:=\u003c/span\u003e \u003cspan class=\"pl-s1\"\u003eb\u003c/span\u003e.\u003cspan class=\"pl-c1\"\u003ePut\u003c/span\u003e([]\u003cspan class=\"pl-smi\"\u003ebyte\u003c/span\u003e(\u003cspan class=\"pl-s\"\u003e\"answer\"\u003c/span\u003e), []\u003cspan class=\"pl-smi\"\u003ebyte\u003c/span\u003e(\u003cspan class=\"pl-s\"\u003e\"42\"\u003c/span\u003e))\n\t\u003cspan class=\"pl-k\"\u003ereturn\u003c/span\u003e \u003cspan class=\"pl-s1\"\u003eerr\u003c/span\u003e\n})\u003c/pre\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003cp dir=\"auto\"\u003eThis will set the value of the \u003ccode\u003e\"answer\"\u003c/code\u003e key to \u003ccode\u003e\"42\"\u003c/code\u003e in the \u003ccode\u003eMyBucket\u003c/code\u003e\nbucket. To retrieve this value, we can use the \u003ccode\u003eBucket.Get()\u003c/code\u003e function:\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"highlight highlight-source-go notranslate position-relative overflow-auto\" dir=\"auto\" data-snippet-clipboard-copy-content=\"db.View(func(tx *bolt.Tx) error {\n\tb := tx.Bucket([]byte(\u0026quot;MyBucket\u0026quot;))\n\tv := b.Get([]byte(\u0026quot;answer\u0026quot;))\n\tfmt.Printf(\u0026quot;The answer is: %s\\n\u0026quot;, v)\n\treturn nil\n})\"\u003e\u003cpre\u003e\u003cspan class=\"pl-s1\"\u003edb\u003c/span\u003e.\u003cspan class=\"pl-c1\"\u003eView\u003c/span\u003e(\u003cspan class=\"pl-k\"\u003efunc\u003c/span\u003e(\u003cspan class=\"pl-s1\"\u003etx\u003c/span\u003e \u003cspan class=\"pl-c1\"\u003e*\u003c/span\u003ebolt.\u003cspan class=\"pl-smi\"\u003eTx\u003c/span\u003e) \u003cspan class=\"pl-smi\"\u003eerror\u003c/span\u003e {\n\t\u003cspan class=\"pl-s1\"\u003eb\u003c/span\u003e \u003cspan class=\"pl-c1\"\u003e:=\u003c/span\u003e \u003cspan class=\"pl-s1\"\u003etx\u003c/span\u003e.\u003cspan class=\"pl-c1\"\u003eBucket\u003c/span\u003e([]\u003cspan class=\"pl-smi\"\u003ebyte\u003c/span\u003e(\u003cspan class=\"pl-s\"\u003e\"MyBucket\"\u003c/span\u003e))\n\t\u003cspan class=\"pl-s1\"\u003ev\u003c/span\u003e \u003cspan class=\"pl-c1\"\u003e:=\u003c/span\u003e \u003cspan class=\"pl-s1\"\u003eb\u003c/span\u003e.\u003cspan class=\"pl-c1\"\u003eGet\u003c/span\u003e([]\u003cspan class=\"pl-smi\"\u003ebyte\u003c/span\u003e(\u003cspan class=\"pl-s\"\u003e\"answer\"\u003c/span\u003e))\n\t\u003cspan class=\"pl-s1\"\u003efmt\u003c/span\u003e.\u003cspan class=\"pl-c1\"\u003ePrintf\u003c/span\u003e(\u003cspan class=\"pl-s\"\u003e\"The answer is: %s\u003cspan class=\"pl-cce\"\u003e\\n\u003c/span\u003e\"\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan class=\"pl-s1\"\u003ev\u003c/span\u003e)\n\t\u003cspan class=\"pl-k\"\u003ereturn\u003c/span\u003e \u003cspan class=\"pl-c1\"\u003enil\u003c/span\u003e\n})\u003c/pre\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003cp dir=\"auto\"\u003eThe \u003ccode\u003eGet()\u003c/code\u003e function does not return an error because its operation is\nguaranteed to work (unless there is some kind of system failure). If the key\nexists then it will return its byte slice value. If it doesn't exist then it\nwill return \u003ccode\u003enil\u003c/code\u003e. It's important to note that you can have a zero-length value\nset to a key which is different than the key not existing.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp dir=\"auto\"\u003eUse the \u003ccode\u003eBucket.Delete()\u003c/code\u003e function to delete a key from the bucket.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp dir=\"auto\"\u003ePlease note that values returned from \u003ccode\u003eGet()\u003c/code\u003e are only valid while the\ntransaction is open. If you need to use a value outside of the transaction\nthen you must use \u003ccode\u003ecopy()\u003c/code\u003e to copy it to another byte slice.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"markdown-heading\" dir=\"auto\"\u003e\u003ch3 tabindex=\"-1\" class=\"heading-element\" dir=\"auto\"\u003eAutoincrementing integer for the bucket\u003c/h3\u003e\u003ca id=\"user-content-autoincrementing-integer-for-the-bucket\" class=\"anchor\" aria-label=\"Permalink: Autoincrementing integer for the bucket\" href=\"#autoincrementing-integer-for-the-bucket\"\u003e\u003csvg class=\"octicon octicon-link\" viewBox=\"0 0 16 16\" version=\"1.1\" width=\"16\" height=\"16\" aria-hidden=\"true\"\u003e\u003cpath d=\"m7.775 3.275 1.25-1.25a3.5 3.5 0 1 1 4.95 4.95l-2.5 2.5a3.5 3.5 0 0 1-4.95 0 .751.751 0 0 1 .018-1.042.751.751 0 0 1 1.042-.018 1.998 1.998 0 0 0 2.83 0l2.5-2.5a2.002 2.002 0 0 0-2.83-2.83l-1.25 1.25a.751.751 0 0 1-1.042-.018.751.751 0 0 1-.018-1.042Zm-4.69 9.64a1.998 1.998 0 0 0 2.83 0l1.25-1.25a.751.751 0 0 1 1.042.018.751.751 0 0 1 .018 1.042l-1.25 1.25a3.5 3.5 0 1 1-4.95-4.95l2.5-2.5a3.5 3.5 0 0 1 4.95 0 .751.751 0 0 1-.018 1.042.751.751 0 0 1-1.042.018 1.998 1.998 0 0 0-2.83 0l-2.5 2.5a1.998 1.998 0 0 0 0 2.83Z\"\u003e\u003c/path\u003e\u003c/svg\u003e\u003c/a\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003cp dir=\"auto\"\u003eBy using the \u003ccode\u003eNextSequence()\u003c/code\u003e function, you can let Bolt determine a sequence\nwhich can be used as the unique identifier for your key/value pairs. See the\nexample below.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"highlight highlight-source-go notranslate position-relative overflow-auto\" dir=\"auto\" data-snippet-clipboard-copy-content=\"// CreateUser saves u to the store. The new user ID is set on u once the data is persisted.\nfunc (s *Store) CreateUser(u *User) error {\n return s.db.Update(func(tx *bolt.Tx) error {\n // Retrieve the users bucket.\n // This should be created when the DB is first opened.\n b := tx.Bucket([]byte(\u0026quot;users\u0026quot;))\n\n // Generate ID for the user.\n // This returns an error only if the Tx is closed or not writeable.\n // That can't happen in an Update() call so I ignore the error check.\n id, _ := b.NextSequence()\n u.ID = int(id)\n\n // Marshal user data into bytes.\n buf, err := json.Marshal(u)\n if err != nil {\n return err\n }\n\n // Persist bytes to users bucket.\n return b.Put(itob(u.ID), buf)\n })\n}\n\n// itob returns an 8-byte big endian representation of v.\nfunc itob(v int) []byte {\n b := make([]byte, 8)\n binary.BigEndian.PutUint64(b, uint64(v))\n return b\n}\n\ntype User struct {\n ID int\n ...\n}\"\u003e\u003cpre\u003e\u003cspan class=\"pl-c\"\u003e// CreateUser saves u to the store. The new user ID is set on u once the data is persisted.\u003c/span\u003e\n\u003cspan class=\"pl-k\"\u003efunc\u003c/span\u003e (\u003cspan class=\"pl-s1\"\u003es\u003c/span\u003e \u003cspan class=\"pl-c1\"\u003e*\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan class=\"pl-smi\"\u003eStore\u003c/span\u003e) \u003cspan class=\"pl-c1\"\u003eCreateUser\u003c/span\u003e(\u003cspan class=\"pl-s1\"\u003eu\u003c/span\u003e \u003cspan class=\"pl-c1\"\u003e*\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan class=\"pl-smi\"\u003eUser\u003c/span\u003e) \u003cspan class=\"pl-smi\"\u003eerror\u003c/span\u003e {\n \u003cspan class=\"pl-k\"\u003ereturn\u003c/span\u003e \u003cspan class=\"pl-s1\"\u003es\u003c/span\u003e.\u003cspan class=\"pl-c1\"\u003edb\u003c/span\u003e.\u003cspan class=\"pl-c1\"\u003eUpdate\u003c/span\u003e(\u003cspan class=\"pl-k\"\u003efunc\u003c/span\u003e(\u003cspan class=\"pl-s1\"\u003etx\u003c/span\u003e \u003cspan class=\"pl-c1\"\u003e*\u003c/span\u003ebolt.\u003cspan class=\"pl-smi\"\u003eTx\u003c/span\u003e) \u003cspan class=\"pl-smi\"\u003eerror\u003c/span\u003e {\n \u003cspan class=\"pl-c\"\u003e// Retrieve the users bucket.\u003c/span\u003e\n \u003cspan class=\"pl-c\"\u003e// This should be created when the DB is first opened.\u003c/span\u003e\n \u003cspan class=\"pl-s1\"\u003eb\u003c/span\u003e \u003cspan class=\"pl-c1\"\u003e:=\u003c/span\u003e \u003cspan class=\"pl-s1\"\u003etx\u003c/span\u003e.\u003cspan class=\"pl-c1\"\u003eBucket\u003c/span\u003e([]\u003cspan class=\"pl-smi\"\u003ebyte\u003c/span\u003e(\u003cspan class=\"pl-s\"\u003e\"users\"\u003c/span\u003e))\n\n \u003cspan class=\"pl-c\"\u003e// Generate ID for the user.\u003c/span\u003e\n \u003cspan class=\"pl-c\"\u003e// This returns an error only if the Tx is closed or not writeable.\u003c/span\u003e\n \u003cspan class=\"pl-c\"\u003e// That can't happen in an Update() call so I ignore the error check.\u003c/span\u003e\n \u003cspan class=\"pl-s1\"\u003eid\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan class=\"pl-s1\"\u003e_\u003c/span\u003e \u003cspan class=\"pl-c1\"\u003e:=\u003c/span\u003e \u003cspan class=\"pl-s1\"\u003eb\u003c/span\u003e.\u003cspan class=\"pl-c1\"\u003eNextSequence\u003c/span\u003e()\n \u003cspan class=\"pl-s1\"\u003eu\u003c/span\u003e.\u003cspan class=\"pl-c1\"\u003eID\u003c/span\u003e \u003cspan class=\"pl-c1\"\u003e=\u003c/span\u003e \u003cspan class=\"pl-s1\"\u003eint\u003c/span\u003e(\u003cspan class=\"pl-s1\"\u003eid\u003c/span\u003e)\n\n \u003cspan class=\"pl-c\"\u003e// Marshal user data into bytes.\u003c/span\u003e\n \u003cspan class=\"pl-s1\"\u003ebuf\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan class=\"pl-s1\"\u003eerr\u003c/span\u003e \u003cspan class=\"pl-c1\"\u003e:=\u003c/span\u003e \u003cspan class=\"pl-s1\"\u003ejson\u003c/span\u003e.\u003cspan class=\"pl-c1\"\u003eMarshal\u003c/span\u003e(\u003cspan class=\"pl-s1\"\u003eu\u003c/span\u003e)\n \u003cspan class=\"pl-k\"\u003eif\u003c/span\u003e \u003cspan class=\"pl-s1\"\u003eerr\u003c/span\u003e \u003cspan class=\"pl-c1\"\u003e!=\u003c/span\u003e \u003cspan class=\"pl-c1\"\u003enil\u003c/span\u003e {\n \u003cspan class=\"pl-k\"\u003ereturn\u003c/span\u003e \u003cspan class=\"pl-s1\"\u003eerr\u003c/span\u003e\n }\n\n \u003cspan class=\"pl-c\"\u003e// Persist bytes to users bucket.\u003c/span\u003e\n \u003cspan class=\"pl-k\"\u003ereturn\u003c/span\u003e \u003cspan class=\"pl-s1\"\u003eb\u003c/span\u003e.\u003cspan class=\"pl-c1\"\u003ePut\u003c/span\u003e(\u003cspan class=\"pl-s1\"\u003eitob\u003c/span\u003e(\u003cspan class=\"pl-s1\"\u003eu\u003c/span\u003e.\u003cspan class=\"pl-c1\"\u003eID\u003c/span\u003e), \u003cspan class=\"pl-s1\"\u003ebuf\u003c/span\u003e)\n })\n}\n\n\u003cspan class=\"pl-c\"\u003e// itob returns an 8-byte big endian representation of v.\u003c/span\u003e\n\u003cspan class=\"pl-k\"\u003efunc\u003c/span\u003e \u003cspan class=\"pl-s1\"\u003eitob\u003c/span\u003e(\u003cspan class=\"pl-s1\"\u003ev\u003c/span\u003e \u003cspan class=\"pl-smi\"\u003eint\u003c/span\u003e) []\u003cspan class=\"pl-smi\"\u003ebyte\u003c/span\u003e {\n \u003cspan class=\"pl-s1\"\u003eb\u003c/span\u003e \u003cspan class=\"pl-c1\"\u003e:=\u003c/span\u003e \u003cspan class=\"pl-s1\"\u003emake\u003c/span\u003e([]\u003cspan class=\"pl-smi\"\u003ebyte\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan class=\"pl-c1\"\u003e8\u003c/span\u003e)\n \u003cspan class=\"pl-s1\"\u003ebinary\u003c/span\u003e.\u003cspan class=\"pl-c1\"\u003eBigEndian\u003c/span\u003e.\u003cspan class=\"pl-c1\"\u003ePutUint64\u003c/span\u003e(\u003cspan class=\"pl-s1\"\u003eb\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan class=\"pl-s1\"\u003euint64\u003c/span\u003e(\u003cspan class=\"pl-s1\"\u003ev\u003c/span\u003e))\n \u003cspan class=\"pl-k\"\u003ereturn\u003c/span\u003e \u003cspan class=\"pl-s1\"\u003eb\u003c/span\u003e\n}\n\n\u003cspan class=\"pl-k\"\u003etype\u003c/span\u003e \u003cspan class=\"pl-smi\"\u003eUser\u003c/span\u003e \u003cspan class=\"pl-k\"\u003estruct\u003c/span\u003e {\n \u003cspan class=\"pl-c1\"\u003eID\u003c/span\u003e \u003cspan class=\"pl-smi\"\u003eint\u003c/span\u003e\n \u003cspan class=\"pl-c1\"\u003e...\u003c/span\u003e\n}\u003c/pre\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"markdown-heading\" dir=\"auto\"\u003e\u003ch3 tabindex=\"-1\" class=\"heading-element\" dir=\"auto\"\u003eIterating over keys\u003c/h3\u003e\u003ca id=\"user-content-iterating-over-keys\" class=\"anchor\" aria-label=\"Permalink: Iterating over keys\" href=\"#iterating-over-keys\"\u003e\u003csvg class=\"octicon octicon-link\" viewBox=\"0 0 16 16\" version=\"1.1\" width=\"16\" height=\"16\" aria-hidden=\"true\"\u003e\u003cpath d=\"m7.775 3.275 1.25-1.25a3.5 3.5 0 1 1 4.95 4.95l-2.5 2.5a3.5 3.5 0 0 1-4.95 0 .751.751 0 0 1 .018-1.042.751.751 0 0 1 1.042-.018 1.998 1.998 0 0 0 2.83 0l2.5-2.5a2.002 2.002 0 0 0-2.83-2.83l-1.25 1.25a.751.751 0 0 1-1.042-.018.751.751 0 0 1-.018-1.042Zm-4.69 9.64a1.998 1.998 0 0 0 2.83 0l1.25-1.25a.751.751 0 0 1 1.042.018.751.751 0 0 1 .018 1.042l-1.25 1.25a3.5 3.5 0 1 1-4.95-4.95l2.5-2.5a3.5 3.5 0 0 1 4.95 0 .751.751 0 0 1-.018 1.042.751.751 0 0 1-1.042.018 1.998 1.998 0 0 0-2.83 0l-2.5 2.5a1.998 1.998 0 0 0 0 2.83Z\"\u003e\u003c/path\u003e\u003c/svg\u003e\u003c/a\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003cp dir=\"auto\"\u003eBolt stores its keys in byte-sorted order within a bucket. This makes sequential\niteration over these keys extremely fast. To iterate over keys we'll use a\n\u003ccode\u003eCursor\u003c/code\u003e:\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"highlight highlight-source-go notranslate position-relative overflow-auto\" dir=\"auto\" data-snippet-clipboard-copy-content=\"db.View(func(tx *bolt.Tx) error {\n\t// Assume bucket exists and has keys\n\tb := tx.Bucket([]byte(\u0026quot;MyBucket\u0026quot;))\n\n\tc := b.Cursor()\n\n\tfor k, v := c.First(); k != nil; k, v = c.Next() {\n\t\tfmt.Printf(\u0026quot;key=%s, value=%s\\n\u0026quot;, k, v)\n\t}\n\n\treturn nil\n})\"\u003e\u003cpre\u003e\u003cspan class=\"pl-s1\"\u003edb\u003c/span\u003e.\u003cspan class=\"pl-c1\"\u003eView\u003c/span\u003e(\u003cspan class=\"pl-k\"\u003efunc\u003c/span\u003e(\u003cspan class=\"pl-s1\"\u003etx\u003c/span\u003e \u003cspan class=\"pl-c1\"\u003e*\u003c/span\u003ebolt.\u003cspan class=\"pl-smi\"\u003eTx\u003c/span\u003e) \u003cspan class=\"pl-smi\"\u003eerror\u003c/span\u003e {\n\t\u003cspan class=\"pl-c\"\u003e// Assume bucket exists and has keys\u003c/span\u003e\n\t\u003cspan class=\"pl-s1\"\u003eb\u003c/span\u003e \u003cspan class=\"pl-c1\"\u003e:=\u003c/span\u003e \u003cspan class=\"pl-s1\"\u003etx\u003c/span\u003e.\u003cspan class=\"pl-c1\"\u003eBucket\u003c/span\u003e([]\u003cspan class=\"pl-smi\"\u003ebyte\u003c/span\u003e(\u003cspan class=\"pl-s\"\u003e\"MyBucket\"\u003c/span\u003e))\n\n\t\u003cspan class=\"pl-s1\"\u003ec\u003c/span\u003e \u003cspan class=\"pl-c1\"\u003e:=\u003c/span\u003e \u003cspan class=\"pl-s1\"\u003eb\u003c/span\u003e.\u003cspan class=\"pl-c1\"\u003eCursor\u003c/span\u003e()\n\n\t\u003cspan class=\"pl-k\"\u003efor\u003c/span\u003e \u003cspan class=\"pl-s1\"\u003ek\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan class=\"pl-s1\"\u003ev\u003c/span\u003e \u003cspan class=\"pl-c1\"\u003e:=\u003c/span\u003e \u003cspan class=\"pl-s1\"\u003ec\u003c/span\u003e.\u003cspan class=\"pl-c1\"\u003eFirst\u003c/span\u003e(); \u003cspan class=\"pl-s1\"\u003ek\u003c/span\u003e \u003cspan class=\"pl-c1\"\u003e!=\u003c/span\u003e \u003cspan class=\"pl-c1\"\u003enil\u003c/span\u003e; \u003cspan class=\"pl-s1\"\u003ek\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan class=\"pl-s1\"\u003ev\u003c/span\u003e \u003cspan class=\"pl-c1\"\u003e=\u003c/span\u003e \u003cspan class=\"pl-s1\"\u003ec\u003c/span\u003e.\u003cspan class=\"pl-c1\"\u003eNext\u003c/span\u003e() {\n\t\t\u003cspan class=\"pl-s1\"\u003efmt\u003c/span\u003e.\u003cspan class=\"pl-c1\"\u003ePrintf\u003c/span\u003e(\u003cspan class=\"pl-s\"\u003e\"key=%s, value=%s\u003cspan class=\"pl-cce\"\u003e\\n\u003c/span\u003e\"\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan class=\"pl-s1\"\u003ek\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan class=\"pl-s1\"\u003ev\u003c/span\u003e)\n\t}\n\n\t\u003cspan class=\"pl-k\"\u003ereturn\u003c/span\u003e \u003cspan class=\"pl-c1\"\u003enil\u003c/span\u003e\n})\u003c/pre\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003cp dir=\"auto\"\u003eThe cursor allows you to move to a specific point in the list of keys and move\nforward or backward through the keys one at a time.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp dir=\"auto\"\u003eThe following functions are available on the cursor:\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"snippet-clipboard-content notranslate position-relative overflow-auto\" data-snippet-clipboard-copy-content=\"First() Move to the first key.\nLast() Move to the last key.\nSeek() Move to a specific key.\nNext() Move to the next key.\nPrev() Move to the previous key.\"\u003e\u003cpre class=\"notranslate\"\u003e\u003ccode\u003eFirst() Move to the first key.\nLast() Move to the last key.\nSeek() Move to a specific key.\nNext() Move to the next key.\nPrev() Move to the previous key.\n\u003c/code\u003e\u003c/pre\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003cp dir=\"auto\"\u003eEach of those functions has a return signature of \u003ccode\u003e(key []byte, value []byte)\u003c/code\u003e.\nWhen you have iterated to the end of the cursor then \u003ccode\u003eNext()\u003c/code\u003e will return a\n\u003ccode\u003enil\u003c/code\u003e key. You must seek to a position using \u003ccode\u003eFirst()\u003c/code\u003e, \u003ccode\u003eLast()\u003c/code\u003e, or \u003ccode\u003eSeek()\u003c/code\u003e\nbefore calling \u003ccode\u003eNext()\u003c/code\u003e or \u003ccode\u003ePrev()\u003c/code\u003e. If you do not seek to a position then\nthese functions will return a \u003ccode\u003enil\u003c/code\u003e key.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp dir=\"auto\"\u003eDuring iteration, if the key is non-\u003ccode\u003enil\u003c/code\u003e but the value is \u003ccode\u003enil\u003c/code\u003e, that means\nthe key refers to a bucket rather than a value. Use \u003ccode\u003eBucket.Bucket()\u003c/code\u003e to\naccess the sub-bucket.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"markdown-heading\" dir=\"auto\"\u003e\u003ch4 tabindex=\"-1\" class=\"heading-element\" dir=\"auto\"\u003ePrefix scans\u003c/h4\u003e\u003ca id=\"user-content-prefix-scans\" class=\"anchor\" aria-label=\"Permalink: Prefix scans\" href=\"#prefix-scans\"\u003e\u003csvg class=\"octicon octicon-link\" viewBox=\"0 0 16 16\" version=\"1.1\" width=\"16\" height=\"16\" aria-hidden=\"true\"\u003e\u003cpath d=\"m7.775 3.275 1.25-1.25a3.5 3.5 0 1 1 4.95 4.95l-2.5 2.5a3.5 3.5 0 0 1-4.95 0 .751.751 0 0 1 .018-1.042.751.751 0 0 1 1.042-.018 1.998 1.998 0 0 0 2.83 0l2.5-2.5a2.002 2.002 0 0 0-2.83-2.83l-1.25 1.25a.751.751 0 0 1-1.042-.018.751.751 0 0 1-.018-1.042Zm-4.69 9.64a1.998 1.998 0 0 0 2.83 0l1.25-1.25a.751.751 0 0 1 1.042.018.751.751 0 0 1 .018 1.042l-1.25 1.25a3.5 3.5 0 1 1-4.95-4.95l2.5-2.5a3.5 3.5 0 0 1 4.95 0 .751.751 0 0 1-.018 1.042.751.751 0 0 1-1.042.018 1.998 1.998 0 0 0-2.83 0l-2.5 2.5a1.998 1.998 0 0 0 0 2.83Z\"\u003e\u003c/path\u003e\u003c/svg\u003e\u003c/a\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003cp dir=\"auto\"\u003eTo iterate over a key prefix, you can combine \u003ccode\u003eSeek()\u003c/code\u003e and \u003ccode\u003ebytes.HasPrefix()\u003c/code\u003e:\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"highlight highlight-source-go notranslate position-relative overflow-auto\" dir=\"auto\" data-snippet-clipboard-copy-content=\"db.View(func(tx *bolt.Tx) error {\n\t// Assume bucket exists and has keys\n\tc := tx.Bucket([]byte(\u0026quot;MyBucket\u0026quot;)).Cursor()\n\n\tprefix := []byte(\u0026quot;1234\u0026quot;)\n\tfor k, v := c.Seek(prefix); k != nil \u0026amp;\u0026amp; bytes.HasPrefix(k, prefix); k, v = c.Next() {\n\t\tfmt.Printf(\u0026quot;key=%s, value=%s\\n\u0026quot;, k, v)\n\t}\n\n\treturn nil\n})\"\u003e\u003cpre\u003e\u003cspan class=\"pl-s1\"\u003edb\u003c/span\u003e.\u003cspan class=\"pl-c1\"\u003eView\u003c/span\u003e(\u003cspan class=\"pl-k\"\u003efunc\u003c/span\u003e(\u003cspan class=\"pl-s1\"\u003etx\u003c/span\u003e \u003cspan class=\"pl-c1\"\u003e*\u003c/span\u003ebolt.\u003cspan class=\"pl-smi\"\u003eTx\u003c/span\u003e) \u003cspan class=\"pl-smi\"\u003eerror\u003c/span\u003e {\n\t\u003cspan class=\"pl-c\"\u003e// Assume bucket exists and has keys\u003c/span\u003e\n\t\u003cspan class=\"pl-s1\"\u003ec\u003c/span\u003e \u003cspan class=\"pl-c1\"\u003e:=\u003c/span\u003e \u003cspan class=\"pl-s1\"\u003etx\u003c/span\u003e.\u003cspan class=\"pl-c1\"\u003eBucket\u003c/span\u003e([]\u003cspan class=\"pl-smi\"\u003ebyte\u003c/span\u003e(\u003cspan class=\"pl-s\"\u003e\"MyBucket\"\u003c/span\u003e)).\u003cspan class=\"pl-c1\"\u003eCursor\u003c/span\u003e()\n\n\t\u003cspan class=\"pl-s1\"\u003eprefix\u003c/span\u003e \u003cspan class=\"pl-c1\"\u003e:=\u003c/span\u003e []\u003cspan class=\"pl-smi\"\u003ebyte\u003c/span\u003e(\u003cspan class=\"pl-s\"\u003e\"1234\"\u003c/span\u003e)\n\t\u003cspan class=\"pl-k\"\u003efor\u003c/span\u003e \u003cspan class=\"pl-s1\"\u003ek\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan class=\"pl-s1\"\u003ev\u003c/span\u003e \u003cspan class=\"pl-c1\"\u003e:=\u003c/span\u003e \u003cspan class=\"pl-s1\"\u003ec\u003c/span\u003e.\u003cspan class=\"pl-c1\"\u003eSeek\u003c/span\u003e(\u003cspan class=\"pl-s1\"\u003eprefix\u003c/span\u003e); \u003cspan class=\"pl-s1\"\u003ek\u003c/span\u003e \u003cspan class=\"pl-c1\"\u003e!=\u003c/span\u003e \u003cspan class=\"pl-c1\"\u003enil\u003c/span\u003e \u003cspan class=\"pl-c1\"\u003e\u0026amp;\u0026amp;\u003c/span\u003e \u003cspan class=\"pl-s1\"\u003ebytes\u003c/span\u003e.\u003cspan class=\"pl-c1\"\u003eHasPrefix\u003c/span\u003e(\u003cspan class=\"pl-s1\"\u003ek\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan class=\"pl-s1\"\u003eprefix\u003c/span\u003e); \u003cspan class=\"pl-s1\"\u003ek\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan class=\"pl-s1\"\u003ev\u003c/span\u003e \u003cspan class=\"pl-c1\"\u003e=\u003c/span\u003e \u003cspan class=\"pl-s1\"\u003ec\u003c/span\u003e.\u003cspan class=\"pl-c1\"\u003eNext\u003c/span\u003e() {\n\t\t\u003cspan class=\"pl-s1\"\u003efmt\u003c/span\u003e.\u003cspan class=\"pl-c1\"\u003ePrintf\u003c/span\u003e(\u003cspan class=\"pl-s\"\u003e\"key=%s, value=%s\u003cspan class=\"pl-cce\"\u003e\\n\u003c/span\u003e\"\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan class=\"pl-s1\"\u003ek\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan class=\"pl-s1\"\u003ev\u003c/span\u003e)\n\t}\n\n\t\u003cspan class=\"pl-k\"\u003ereturn\u003c/span\u003e \u003cspan class=\"pl-c1\"\u003enil\u003c/span\u003e\n})\u003c/pre\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"markdown-heading\" dir=\"auto\"\u003e\u003ch4 tabindex=\"-1\" class=\"heading-element\" dir=\"auto\"\u003eRange scans\u003c/h4\u003e\u003ca id=\"user-content-range-scans\" class=\"anchor\" aria-label=\"Permalink: Range scans\" href=\"#range-scans\"\u003e\u003csvg class=\"octicon octicon-link\" viewBox=\"0 0 16 16\" version=\"1.1\" width=\"16\" height=\"16\" aria-hidden=\"true\"\u003e\u003cpath d=\"m7.775 3.275 1.25-1.25a3.5 3.5 0 1 1 4.95 4.95l-2.5 2.5a3.5 3.5 0 0 1-4.95 0 .751.751 0 0 1 .018-1.042.751.751 0 0 1 1.042-.018 1.998 1.998 0 0 0 2.83 0l2.5-2.5a2.002 2.002 0 0 0-2.83-2.83l-1.25 1.25a.751.751 0 0 1-1.042-.018.751.751 0 0 1-.018-1.042Zm-4.69 9.64a1.998 1.998 0 0 0 2.83 0l1.25-1.25a.751.751 0 0 1 1.042.018.751.751 0 0 1 .018 1.042l-1.25 1.25a3.5 3.5 0 1 1-4.95-4.95l2.5-2.5a3.5 3.5 0 0 1 4.95 0 .751.751 0 0 1-.018 1.042.751.751 0 0 1-1.042.018 1.998 1.998 0 0 0-2.83 0l-2.5 2.5a1.998 1.998 0 0 0 0 2.83Z\"\u003e\u003c/path\u003e\u003c/svg\u003e\u003c/a\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003cp dir=\"auto\"\u003eAnother common use case is scanning over a range such as a time range. If you\nuse a sortable time encoding such as RFC3339 then you can query a specific\ndate range like this:\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"highlight highlight-source-go notranslate position-relative overflow-auto\" dir=\"auto\" data-snippet-clipboard-copy-content=\"db.View(func(tx *bolt.Tx) error {\n\t// Assume our events bucket exists and has RFC3339 encoded time keys.\n\tc := tx.Bucket([]byte(\u0026quot;Events\u0026quot;)).Cursor()\n\n\t// Our time range spans the 90's decade.\n\tmin := []byte(\u0026quot;1990-01-01T00:00:00Z\u0026quot;)\n\tmax := []byte(\u0026quot;2000-01-01T00:00:00Z\u0026quot;)\n\n\t// Iterate over the 90's.\n\tfor k, v := c.Seek(min); k != nil \u0026amp;\u0026amp; bytes.Compare(k, max) \u0026lt;= 0; k, v = c.Next() {\n\t\tfmt.Printf(\u0026quot;%s: %s\\n\u0026quot;, k, v)\n\t}\n\n\treturn nil\n})\"\u003e\u003cpre\u003e\u003cspan class=\"pl-s1\"\u003edb\u003c/span\u003e.\u003cspan class=\"pl-c1\"\u003eView\u003c/span\u003e(\u003cspan class=\"pl-k\"\u003efunc\u003c/span\u003e(\u003cspan class=\"pl-s1\"\u003etx\u003c/span\u003e \u003cspan class=\"pl-c1\"\u003e*\u003c/span\u003ebolt.\u003cspan class=\"pl-smi\"\u003eTx\u003c/span\u003e) \u003cspan class=\"pl-smi\"\u003eerror\u003c/span\u003e {\n\t\u003cspan class=\"pl-c\"\u003e// Assume our events bucket exists and has RFC3339 encoded time keys.\u003c/span\u003e\n\t\u003cspan class=\"pl-s1\"\u003ec\u003c/span\u003e \u003cspan class=\"pl-c1\"\u003e:=\u003c/span\u003e \u003cspan class=\"pl-s1\"\u003etx\u003c/span\u003e.\u003cspan class=\"pl-c1\"\u003eBucket\u003c/span\u003e([]\u003cspan class=\"pl-smi\"\u003ebyte\u003c/span\u003e(\u003cspan class=\"pl-s\"\u003e\"Events\"\u003c/span\u003e)).\u003cspan class=\"pl-c1\"\u003eCursor\u003c/span\u003e()\n\n\t\u003cspan class=\"pl-c\"\u003e// Our time range spans the 90's decade.\u003c/span\u003e\n\t\u003cspan class=\"pl-s1\"\u003emin\u003c/span\u003e \u003cspan class=\"pl-c1\"\u003e:=\u003c/span\u003e []\u003cspan class=\"pl-smi\"\u003ebyte\u003c/span\u003e(\u003cspan class=\"pl-s\"\u003e\"1990-01-01T00:00:00Z\"\u003c/span\u003e)\n\t\u003cspan class=\"pl-s1\"\u003emax\u003c/span\u003e \u003cspan class=\"pl-c1\"\u003e:=\u003c/span\u003e []\u003cspan class=\"pl-smi\"\u003ebyte\u003c/span\u003e(\u003cspan class=\"pl-s\"\u003e\"2000-01-01T00:00:00Z\"\u003c/span\u003e)\n\n\t\u003cspan class=\"pl-c\"\u003e// Iterate over the 90's.\u003c/span\u003e\n\t\u003cspan class=\"pl-k\"\u003efor\u003c/span\u003e \u003cspan class=\"pl-s1\"\u003ek\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan class=\"pl-s1\"\u003ev\u003c/span\u003e \u003cspan class=\"pl-c1\"\u003e:=\u003c/span\u003e \u003cspan class=\"pl-s1\"\u003ec\u003c/span\u003e.\u003cspan class=\"pl-c1\"\u003eSeek\u003c/span\u003e(\u003cspan class=\"pl-s1\"\u003emin\u003c/span\u003e); \u003cspan class=\"pl-s1\"\u003ek\u003c/span\u003e \u003cspan class=\"pl-c1\"\u003e!=\u003c/span\u003e \u003cspan class=\"pl-c1\"\u003enil\u003c/span\u003e \u003cspan class=\"pl-c1\"\u003e\u0026amp;\u0026amp;\u003c/span\u003e \u003cspan class=\"pl-s1\"\u003ebytes\u003c/span\u003e.\u003cspan class=\"pl-c1\"\u003eCompare\u003c/span\u003e(\u003cspan class=\"pl-s1\"\u003ek\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan class=\"pl-s1\"\u003emax\u003c/span\u003e) \u003cspan class=\"pl-c1\"\u003e\u0026lt;=\u003c/span\u003e \u003cspan class=\"pl-c1\"\u003e0\u003c/span\u003e; \u003cspan class=\"pl-s1\"\u003ek\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan class=\"pl-s1\"\u003ev\u003c/span\u003e \u003cspan class=\"pl-c1\"\u003e=\u003c/span\u003e \u003cspan class=\"pl-s1\"\u003ec\u003c/span\u003e.\u003cspan class=\"pl-c1\"\u003eNext\u003c/span\u003e() {\n\t\t\u003cspan class=\"pl-s1\"\u003efmt\u003c/span\u003e.\u003cspan class=\"pl-c1\"\u003ePrintf\u003c/span\u003e(\u003cspan class=\"pl-s\"\u003e\"%s: %s\u003cspan class=\"pl-cce\"\u003e\\n\u003c/span\u003e\"\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan class=\"pl-s1\"\u003ek\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan class=\"pl-s1\"\u003ev\u003c/span\u003e)\n\t}\n\n\t\u003cspan class=\"pl-k\"\u003ereturn\u003c/span\u003e \u003cspan class=\"pl-c1\"\u003enil\u003c/span\u003e\n})\u003c/pre\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003cp dir=\"auto\"\u003eNote that, while RFC3339 is sortable, the Golang implementation of RFC3339Nano does not use a fixed number of digits after the decimal point and is therefore not sortable.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"markdown-heading\" dir=\"auto\"\u003e\u003ch4 tabindex=\"-1\" class=\"heading-element\" dir=\"auto\"\u003eForEach()\u003c/h4\u003e\u003ca id=\"user-content-foreach\" class=\"anchor\" aria-label=\"Permalink: ForEach()\" href=\"#foreach\"\u003e\u003csvg class=\"octicon octicon-link\" viewBox=\"0 0 16 16\" version=\"1.1\" width=\"16\" height=\"16\" aria-hidden=\"true\"\u003e\u003cpath d=\"m7.775 3.275 1.25-1.25a3.5 3.5 0 1 1 4.95 4.95l-2.5 2.5a3.5 3.5 0 0 1-4.95 0 .751.751 0 0 1 .018-1.042.751.751 0 0 1 1.042-.018 1.998 1.998 0 0 0 2.83 0l2.5-2.5a2.002 2.002 0 0 0-2.83-2.83l-1.25 1.25a.751.751 0 0 1-1.042-.018.751.751 0 0 1-.018-1.042Zm-4.69 9.64a1.998 1.998 0 0 0 2.83 0l1.25-1.25a.751.751 0 0 1 1.042.018.751.751 0 0 1 .018 1.042l-1.25 1.25a3.5 3.5 0 1 1-4.95-4.95l2.5-2.5a3.5 3.5 0 0 1 4.95 0 .751.751 0 0 1-.018 1.042.751.751 0 0 1-1.042.018 1.998 1.998 0 0 0-2.83 0l-2.5 2.5a1.998 1.998 0 0 0 0 2.83Z\"\u003e\u003c/path\u003e\u003c/svg\u003e\u003c/a\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003cp dir=\"auto\"\u003eYou can also use the function \u003ccode\u003eForEach()\u003c/code\u003e if you know you'll be iterating over\nall the keys in a bucket:\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"highlight highlight-source-go notranslate position-relative overflow-auto\" dir=\"auto\" data-snippet-clipboard-copy-content=\"db.View(func(tx *bolt.Tx) error {\n\t// Assume bucket exists and has keys\n\tb := tx.Bucket([]byte(\u0026quot;MyBucket\u0026quot;))\n\n\tb.ForEach(func(k, v []byte) error {\n\t\tfmt.Printf(\u0026quot;key=%s, value=%s\\n\u0026quot;, k, v)\n\t\treturn nil\n\t})\n\treturn nil\n})\"\u003e\u003cpre\u003e\u003cspan class=\"pl-s1\"\u003edb\u003c/span\u003e.\u003cspan class=\"pl-c1\"\u003eView\u003c/span\u003e(\u003cspan class=\"pl-k\"\u003efunc\u003c/span\u003e(\u003cspan class=\"pl-s1\"\u003etx\u003c/span\u003e \u003cspan class=\"pl-c1\"\u003e*\u003c/span\u003ebolt.\u003cspan class=\"pl-smi\"\u003eTx\u003c/span\u003e) \u003cspan class=\"pl-smi\"\u003eerror\u003c/span\u003e {\n\t\u003cspan class=\"pl-c\"\u003e// Assume bucket exists and has keys\u003c/span\u003e\n\t\u003cspan class=\"pl-s1\"\u003eb\u003c/span\u003e \u003cspan class=\"pl-c1\"\u003e:=\u003c/span\u003e \u003cspan class=\"pl-s1\"\u003etx\u003c/span\u003e.\u003cspan class=\"pl-c1\"\u003eBucket\u003c/span\u003e([]\u003cspan class=\"pl-smi\"\u003ebyte\u003c/span\u003e(\u003cspan class=\"pl-s\"\u003e\"MyBucket\"\u003c/span\u003e))\n\n\t\u003cspan class=\"pl-s1\"\u003eb\u003c/span\u003e.\u003cspan class=\"pl-c1\"\u003eForEach\u003c/span\u003e(\u003cspan class=\"pl-k\"\u003efunc\u003c/span\u003e(\u003cspan class=\"pl-s1\"\u003ek\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan class=\"pl-s1\"\u003ev\u003c/span\u003e []\u003cspan class=\"pl-smi\"\u003ebyte\u003c/span\u003e) \u003cspan class=\"pl-smi\"\u003eerror\u003c/span\u003e {\n\t\t\u003cspan class=\"pl-s1\"\u003efmt\u003c/span\u003e.\u003cspan class=\"pl-c1\"\u003ePrintf\u003c/span\u003e(\u003cspan class=\"pl-s\"\u003e\"key=%s, value=%s\u003cspan class=\"pl-cce\"\u003e\\n\u003c/span\u003e\"\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan class=\"pl-s1\"\u003ek\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan class=\"pl-s1\"\u003ev\u003c/span\u003e)\n\t\t\u003cspan class=\"pl-k\"\u003ereturn\u003c/span\u003e \u003cspan class=\"pl-c1\"\u003enil\u003c/span\u003e\n\t})\n\t\u003cspan class=\"pl-k\"\u003ereturn\u003c/span\u003e \u003cspan class=\"pl-c1\"\u003enil\u003c/span\u003e\n})\u003c/pre\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003cp dir=\"auto\"\u003ePlease note that keys and values in \u003ccode\u003eForEach()\u003c/code\u003e are only valid while\nthe transaction is open. If you need to use a key or value outside of\nthe transaction, you must use \u003ccode\u003ecopy()\u003c/code\u003e to copy it to another byte\nslice.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"markdown-heading\" dir=\"auto\"\u003e\u003ch3 tabindex=\"-1\" class=\"heading-element\" dir=\"auto\"\u003eNested buckets\u003c/h3\u003e\u003ca id=\"user-content-nested-buckets\" class=\"anchor\" aria-label=\"Permalink: Nested buckets\" href=\"#nested-buckets\"\u003e\u003csvg class=\"octicon octicon-link\" viewBox=\"0 0 16 16\" version=\"1.1\" width=\"16\" height=\"16\" aria-hidden=\"true\"\u003e\u003cpath d=\"m7.775 3.275 1.25-1.25a3.5 3.5 0 1 1 4.95 4.95l-2.5 2.5a3.5 3.5 0 0 1-4.95 0 .751.751 0 0 1 .018-1.042.751.751 0 0 1 1.042-.018 1.998 1.998 0 0 0 2.83 0l2.5-2.5a2.002 2.002 0 0 0-2.83-2.83l-1.25 1.25a.751.751 0 0 1-1.042-.018.751.751 0 0 1-.018-1.042Zm-4.69 9.64a1.998 1.998 0 0 0 2.83 0l1.25-1.25a.751.751 0 0 1 1.042.018.751.751 0 0 1 .018 1.042l-1.25 1.25a3.5 3.5 0 1 1-4.95-4.95l2.5-2.5a3.5 3.5 0 0 1 4.95 0 .751.751 0 0 1-.018 1.042.751.751 0 0 1-1.042.018 1.998 1.998 0 0 0-2.83 0l-2.5 2.5a1.998 1.998 0 0 0 0 2.83Z\"\u003e\u003c/path\u003e\u003c/svg\u003e\u003c/a\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003cp dir=\"auto\"\u003eYou can also store a bucket in a key to create nested buckets. The API is the\nsame as the bucket management API on the \u003ccode\u003eDB\u003c/code\u003e object:\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"highlight highlight-source-go notranslate position-relative overflow-auto\" dir=\"auto\" data-snippet-clipboard-copy-content=\"func (*Bucket) CreateBucket(key []byte) (*Bucket, error)\nfunc (*Bucket) CreateBucketIfNotExists(key []byte) (*Bucket, error)\nfunc (*Bucket) DeleteBucket(key []byte) error\"\u003e\u003cpre\u003e\u003cspan class=\"pl-k\"\u003efunc\u003c/span\u003e (\u003cspan class=\"pl-c1\"\u003e*\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan class=\"pl-smi\"\u003eBucket\u003c/span\u003e) \u003cspan class=\"pl-c1\"\u003eCreateBucket\u003c/span\u003e(\u003cspan class=\"pl-s1\"\u003ekey\u003c/span\u003e []\u003cspan class=\"pl-smi\"\u003ebyte\u003c/span\u003e) (\u003cspan class=\"pl-c1\"\u003e*\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan class=\"pl-smi\"\u003eBucket\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan class=\"pl-smi\"\u003eerror\u003c/span\u003e)\n\u003cspan class=\"pl-k\"\u003efunc\u003c/span\u003e (\u003cspan class=\"pl-c1\"\u003e*\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan class=\"pl-smi\"\u003eBucket\u003c/span\u003e) \u003cspan class=\"pl-c1\"\u003eCreateBucketIfNotExists\u003c/span\u003e(\u003cspan class=\"pl-s1\"\u003ekey\u003c/span\u003e []\u003cspan class=\"pl-smi\"\u003ebyte\u003c/span\u003e) (\u003cspan class=\"pl-c1\"\u003e*\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan class=\"pl-smi\"\u003eBucket\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan class=\"pl-smi\"\u003eerror\u003c/span\u003e)\n\u003cspan class=\"pl-k\"\u003efunc\u003c/span\u003e (\u003cspan class=\"pl-c1\"\u003e*\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan class=\"pl-smi\"\u003eBucket\u003c/span\u003e) \u003cspan class=\"pl-c1\"\u003eDeleteBucket\u003c/span\u003e(\u003cspan class=\"pl-s1\"\u003ekey\u003c/span\u003e []\u003cspan class=\"pl-smi\"\u003ebyte\u003c/span\u003e) \u003cspan class=\"pl-smi\"\u003eerror\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/pre\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003cp dir=\"auto\"\u003eSay you had a multi-tenant application where the root level bucket was the account bucket. Inside of this bucket was a sequence of accounts which themselves are buckets. And inside the sequence bucket you could have many buckets pertaining to the Account itself (Users, Notes, etc) isolating the information into logical groupings.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"highlight highlight-source-go notranslate position-relative overflow-auto\" dir=\"auto\" data-snippet-clipboard-copy-content=\"\n// createUser creates a new user in the given account.\nfunc createUser(accountID int, u *User) error {\n // Start the transaction.\n tx, err := db.Begin(true)\n if err != nil {\n return err\n }\n defer tx.Rollback()\n\n // Retrieve the root bucket for the account.\n // Assume this has already been created when the account was set up.\n root := tx.Bucket([]byte(strconv.FormatUint(accountID, 10)))\n\n // Setup the users bucket.\n bkt, err := root.CreateBucketIfNotExists([]byte(\u0026quot;USERS\u0026quot;))\n if err != nil {\n return err\n }\n\n // Generate an ID for the new user.\n userID, err := bkt.NextSequence()\n if err != nil {\n return err\n }\n u.ID = userID\n\n // Marshal and save the encoded user.\n if buf, err := json.Marshal(u); err != nil {\n return err\n } else if err := bkt.Put([]byte(strconv.FormatUint(u.ID, 10)), buf); err != nil {\n return err\n }\n\n // Commit the transaction.\n if err := tx.Commit(); err != nil {\n return err\n }\n\n return nil\n}\n\"\u003e\u003cpre\u003e\u003cspan class=\"pl-c\"\u003e// createUser creates a new user in the given account.\u003c/span\u003e\n\u003cspan class=\"pl-k\"\u003efunc\u003c/span\u003e \u003cspan class=\"pl-s1\"\u003ecreateUser\u003c/span\u003e(\u003cspan class=\"pl-s1\"\u003eaccountID\u003c/span\u003e \u003cspan class=\"pl-smi\"\u003eint\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan class=\"pl-s1\"\u003eu\u003c/span\u003e \u003cspan class=\"pl-c1\"\u003e*\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan class=\"pl-smi\"\u003eUser\u003c/span\u003e) \u003cspan class=\"pl-smi\"\u003eerror\u003c/span\u003e {\n \u003cspan class=\"pl-c\"\u003e// Start the transaction.\u003c/span\u003e\n \u003cspan class=\"pl-s1\"\u003etx\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan class=\"pl-s1\"\u003eerr\u003c/span\u003e \u003cspan class=\"pl-c1\"\u003e:=\u003c/span\u003e \u003cspan class=\"pl-s1\"\u003edb\u003c/span\u003e.\u003cspan class=\"pl-c1\"\u003eBegin\u003c/span\u003e(\u003cspan class=\"pl-c1\"\u003etrue\u003c/span\u003e)\n \u003cspan class=\"pl-k\"\u003eif\u003c/span\u003e \u003cspan class=\"pl-s1\"\u003eerr\u003c/span\u003e \u003cspan class=\"pl-c1\"\u003e!=\u003c/span\u003e \u003cspan class=\"pl-c1\"\u003enil\u003c/span\u003e {\n \u003cspan class=\"pl-k\"\u003ereturn\u003c/span\u003e \u003cspan class=\"pl-s1\"\u003eerr\u003c/span\u003e\n }\n \u003cspan class=\"pl-k\"\u003edefer\u003c/span\u003e \u003cspan class=\"pl-s1\"\u003etx\u003c/span\u003e.\u003cspan class=\"pl-c1\"\u003eRollback\u003c/span\u003e()\n\n \u003cspan class=\"pl-c\"\u003e// Retrieve the root bucket for the account.\u003c/span\u003e\n \u003cspan class=\"pl-c\"\u003e// Assume this has already been created when the account was set up.\u003c/span\u003e\n \u003cspan class=\"pl-s1\"\u003eroot\u003c/span\u003e \u003cspan class=\"pl-c1\"\u003e:=\u003c/span\u003e \u003cspan class=\"pl-s1\"\u003etx\u003c/span\u003e.\u003cspan class=\"pl-c1\"\u003eBucket\u003c/span\u003e([]\u003cspan class=\"pl-smi\"\u003ebyte\u003c/span\u003e(\u003cspan class=\"pl-s1\"\u003estrconv\u003c/span\u003e.\u003cspan class=\"pl-c1\"\u003eFormatUint\u003c/span\u003e(\u003cspan class=\"pl-s1\"\u003eaccountID\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan class=\"pl-c1\"\u003e10\u003c/span\u003e)))\n\n \u003cspan class=\"pl-c\"\u003e// Setup the users bucket.\u003c/span\u003e\n \u003cspan class=\"pl-s1\"\u003ebkt\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan class=\"pl-s1\"\u003eerr\u003c/span\u003e \u003cspan class=\"pl-c1\"\u003e:=\u003c/span\u003e \u003cspan class=\"pl-s1\"\u003eroot\u003c/span\u003e.\u003cspan class=\"pl-c1\"\u003eCreateBucketIfNotExists\u003c/span\u003e([]\u003cspan class=\"pl-smi\"\u003ebyte\u003c/span\u003e(\u003cspan class=\"pl-s\"\u003e\"USERS\"\u003c/span\u003e))\n \u003cspan class=\"pl-k\"\u003eif\u003c/span\u003e \u003cspan class=\"pl-s1\"\u003eerr\u003c/span\u003e \u003cspan class=\"pl-c1\"\u003e!=\u003c/span\u003e \u003cspan class=\"pl-c1\"\u003enil\u003c/span\u003e {\n \u003cspan class=\"pl-k\"\u003ereturn\u003c/span\u003e \u003cspan class=\"pl-s1\"\u003eerr\u003c/span\u003e\n }\n\n \u003cspan class=\"pl-c\"\u003e// Generate an ID for the new user.\u003c/span\u003e\n \u003cspan class=\"pl-s1\"\u003euserID\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan class=\"pl-s1\"\u003eerr\u003c/span\u003e \u003cspan class=\"pl-c1\"\u003e:=\u003c/span\u003e \u003cspan class=\"pl-s1\"\u003ebkt\u003c/span\u003e.\u003cspan class=\"pl-c1\"\u003eNextSequence\u003c/span\u003e()\n \u003cspan class=\"pl-k\"\u003eif\u003c/span\u003e \u003cspan class=\"pl-s1\"\u003eerr\u003c/span\u003e \u003cspan class=\"pl-c1\"\u003e!=\u003c/span\u003e \u003cspan class=\"pl-c1\"\u003enil\u003c/span\u003e {\n \u003cspan class=\"pl-k\"\u003ereturn\u003c/span\u003e \u003cspan class=\"pl-s1\"\u003eerr\u003c/span\u003e\n }\n \u003cspan class=\"pl-s1\"\u003eu\u003c/span\u003e.\u003cspan class=\"pl-c1\"\u003eID\u003c/span\u003e \u003cspan class=\"pl-c1\"\u003e=\u003c/span\u003e \u003cspan class=\"pl-s1\"\u003euserID\u003c/span\u003e\n\n \u003cspan class=\"pl-c\"\u003e// Marshal and save the encoded user.\u003c/span\u003e\n \u003cspan class=\"pl-k\"\u003eif\u003c/span\u003e \u003cspan class=\"pl-s1\"\u003ebuf\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan class=\"pl-s1\"\u003eerr\u003c/span\u003e \u003cspan class=\"pl-c1\"\u003e:=\u003c/span\u003e \u003cspan class=\"pl-s1\"\u003ejson\u003c/span\u003e.\u003cspan class=\"pl-c1\"\u003eMarshal\u003c/span\u003e(\u003cspan class=\"pl-s1\"\u003eu\u003c/span\u003e); \u003cspan class=\"pl-s1\"\u003eerr\u003c/span\u003e \u003cspan class=\"pl-c1\"\u003e!=\u003c/span\u003e \u003cspan class=\"pl-c1\"\u003enil\u003c/span\u003e {\n \u003cspan class=\"pl-k\"\u003ereturn\u003c/span\u003e \u003cspan class=\"pl-s1\"\u003eerr\u003c/span\u003e\n } \u003cspan class=\"pl-k\"\u003eelse\u003c/span\u003e \u003cspan class=\"pl-k\"\u003eif\u003c/span\u003e \u003cspan class=\"pl-s1\"\u003eerr\u003c/span\u003e \u003cspan class=\"pl-c1\"\u003e:=\u003c/span\u003e \u003cspan class=\"pl-s1\"\u003ebkt\u003c/span\u003e.\u003cspan class=\"pl-c1\"\u003ePut\u003c/span\u003e([]\u003cspan class=\"pl-smi\"\u003ebyte\u003c/span\u003e(\u003cspan class=\"pl-s1\"\u003estrconv\u003c/span\u003e.\u003cspan class=\"pl-c1\"\u003eFormatUint\u003c/span\u003e(\u003cspan class=\"pl-s1\"\u003eu\u003c/span\u003e.\u003cspan class=\"pl-c1\"\u003eID\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan class=\"pl-c1\"\u003e10\u003c/span\u003e)), \u003cspan class=\"pl-s1\"\u003ebuf\u003c/span\u003e); \u003cspan class=\"pl-s1\"\u003eerr\u003c/span\u003e \u003cspan class=\"pl-c1\"\u003e!=\u003c/span\u003e \u003cspan class=\"pl-c1\"\u003enil\u003c/span\u003e {\n \u003cspan class=\"pl-k\"\u003ereturn\u003c/span\u003e \u003cspan class=\"pl-s1\"\u003eerr\u003c/span\u003e\n }\n\n \u003cspan class=\"pl-c\"\u003e// Commit the transaction.\u003c/span\u003e\n \u003cspan class=\"pl-k\"\u003eif\u003c/span\u003e \u003cspan class=\"pl-s1\"\u003eerr\u003c/span\u003e \u003cspan class=\"pl-c1\"\u003e:=\u003c/span\u003e \u003cspan class=\"pl-s1\"\u003etx\u003c/span\u003e.\u003cspan class=\"pl-c1\"\u003eCommit\u003c/span\u003e(); \u003cspan class=\"pl-s1\"\u003eerr\u003c/span\u003e \u003cspan class=\"pl-c1\"\u003e!=\u003c/span\u003e \u003cspan class=\"pl-c1\"\u003enil\u003c/span\u003e {\n \u003cspan class=\"pl-k\"\u003ereturn\u003c/span\u003e \u003cspan class=\"pl-s1\"\u003eerr\u003c/span\u003e\n }\n\n \u003cspan class=\"pl-k\"\u003ereturn\u003c/span\u003e \u003cspan class=\"pl-c1\"\u003enil\u003c/span\u003e\n}\u003c/pre\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"markdown-heading\" dir=\"auto\"\u003e\u003ch3 tabindex=\"-1\" class=\"heading-element\" dir=\"auto\"\u003eDatabase backups\u003c/h3\u003e\u003ca id=\"user-content-database-backups\" class=\"anchor\" aria-label=\"Permalink: Database backups\" href=\"#database-backups\"\u003e\u003csvg class=\"octicon octicon-link\" viewBox=\"0 0 16 16\" version=\"1.1\" width=\"16\" height=\"16\" aria-hidden=\"true\"\u003e\u003cpath d=\"m7.775 3.275 1.25-1.25a3.5 3.5 0 1 1 4.95 4.95l-2.5 2.5a3.5 3.5 0 0 1-4.95 0 .751.751 0 0 1 .018-1.042.751.751 0 0 1 1.042-.018 1.998 1.998 0 0 0 2.83 0l2.5-2.5a2.002 2.002 0 0 0-2.83-2.83l-1.25 1.25a.751.751 0 0 1-1.042-.018.751.751 0 0 1-.018-1.042Zm-4.69 9.64a1.998 1.998 0 0 0 2.83 0l1.25-1.25a.751.751 0 0 1 1.042.018.751.751 0 0 1 .018 1.042l-1.25 1.25a3.5 3.5 0 1 1-4.95-4.95l2.5-2.5a3.5 3.5 0 0 1 4.95 0 .751.751 0 0 1-.018 1.042.751.751 0 0 1-1.042.018 1.998 1.998 0 0 0-2.83 0l-2.5 2.5a1.998 1.998 0 0 0 0 2.83Z\"\u003e\u003c/path\u003e\u003c/svg\u003e\u003c/a\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003cp dir=\"auto\"\u003eBolt is a single file so it's easy to backup. You can use the \u003ccode\u003eTx.WriteTo()\u003c/code\u003e\nfunction to write a consistent view of the database to a writer. If you call\nthis from a read-only transaction, it will perform a hot backup and not block\nyour other database reads and writes.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp dir=\"auto\"\u003eBy default, it will use a regular file handle which will utilize the operating\nsystem's page cache. See the \u003ca href=\"https://godoc.org/github.com/boltdb/bolt#Tx\" rel=\"nofollow\"\u003e\u003ccode\u003eTx\u003c/code\u003e\u003c/a\u003e\ndocumentation for information about optimizing for larger-than-RAM datasets.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp dir=\"auto\"\u003eOne common use case is to backup over HTTP so you can use tools like \u003ccode\u003ecURL\u003c/code\u003e to\ndo database backups:\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"highlight highlight-source-go notranslate position-relative overflow-auto\" dir=\"auto\" data-snippet-clipboard-copy-content=\"func BackupHandleFunc(w http.ResponseWriter, req *http.Request) {\n\terr := db.View(func(tx *bolt.Tx) error {\n\t\tw.Header().Set(\u0026quot;Content-Type\u0026quot;, \u0026quot;application/octet-stream\u0026quot;)\n\t\tw.Header().Set(\u0026quot;Content-Disposition\u0026quot;, `attachment; filename=\u0026quot;my.db\u0026quot;`)\n\t\tw.Header().Set(\u0026quot;Content-Length\u0026quot;, strconv.Itoa(int(tx.Size())))\n\t\t_, err := tx.WriteTo(w)\n\t\treturn err\n\t})\n\tif err != nil {\n\t\thttp.Error(w, err.Error(), http.StatusInternalServerError)\n\t}\n}\"\u003e\u003cpre\u003e\u003cspan class=\"pl-k\"\u003efunc\u003c/span\u003e \u003cspan class=\"pl-s1\"\u003eBackupHandleFunc\u003c/span\u003e(\u003cspan class=\"pl-s1\"\u003ew\u003c/span\u003e http.\u003cspan class=\"pl-smi\"\u003eResponseWriter\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan class=\"pl-s1\"\u003ereq\u003c/span\u003e \u003cspan class=\"pl-c1\"\u003e*\u003c/span\u003ehttp.\u003cspan class=\"pl-smi\"\u003eRequest\u003c/span\u003e) {\n\t\u003cspan class=\"pl-s1\"\u003eerr\u003c/span\u003e \u003cspan class=\"pl-c1\"\u003e:=\u003c/span\u003e \u003cspan class=\"pl-s1\"\u003edb\u003c/span\u003e.\u003cspan class=\"pl-c1\"\u003eView\u003c/span\u003e(\u003cspan class=\"pl-k\"\u003efunc\u003c/span\u003e(\u003cspan class=\"pl-s1\"\u003etx\u003c/span\u003e \u003cspan class=\"pl-c1\"\u003e*\u003c/span\u003ebolt.\u003cspan class=\"pl-smi\"\u003eTx\u003c/span\u003e) \u003cspan class=\"pl-smi\"\u003eerror\u003c/span\u003e {\n\t\t\u003cspan class=\"pl-s1\"\u003ew\u003c/span\u003e.\u003cspan class=\"pl-c1\"\u003eHeader\u003c/span\u003e().\u003cspan class=\"pl-c1\"\u003eSet\u003c/span\u003e(\u003cspan class=\"pl-s\"\u003e\"Content-Type\"\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan class=\"pl-s\"\u003e\"application/octet-stream\"\u003c/span\u003e)\n\t\t\u003cspan class=\"pl-s1\"\u003ew\u003c/span\u003e.\u003cspan class=\"pl-c1\"\u003eHeader\u003c/span\u003e().\u003cspan class=\"pl-c1\"\u003eSet\u003c/span\u003e(\u003cspan class=\"pl-s\"\u003e\"Content-Disposition\"\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan class=\"pl-s\"\u003e`attachment; filename=\"my.db\"`\u003c/span\u003e)\n\t\t\u003cspan class=\"pl-s1\"\u003ew\u003c/span\u003e.\u003cspan class=\"pl-c1\"\u003eHeader\u003c/span\u003e().\u003cspan class=\"pl-c1\"\u003eSet\u003c/span\u003e(\u003cspan class=\"pl-s\"\u003e\"Content-Length\"\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan class=\"pl-s1\"\u003estrconv\u003c/span\u003e.\u003cspan class=\"pl-c1\"\u003eItoa\u003c/span\u003e(\u003cspan class=\"pl-s1\"\u003eint\u003c/span\u003e(\u003cspan class=\"pl-s1\"\u003etx\u003c/span\u003e.\u003cspan class=\"pl-c1\"\u003eSize\u003c/span\u003e())))\n\t\t\u003cspan class=\"pl-s1\"\u003e_\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan class=\"pl-s1\"\u003eerr\u003c/span\u003e \u003cspan class=\"pl-c1\"\u003e:=\u003c/span\u003e \u003cspan class=\"pl-s1\"\u003etx\u003c/span\u003e.\u003cspan class=\"pl-c1\"\u003eWriteTo\u003c/span\u003e(\u003cspan class=\"pl-s1\"\u003ew\u003c/span\u003e)\n\t\t\u003cspan class=\"pl-k\"\u003ereturn\u003c/span\u003e \u003cspan class=\"pl-s1\"\u003eerr\u003c/span\u003e\n\t})\n\t\u003cspan class=\"pl-k\"\u003eif\u003c/span\u003e \u003cspan class=\"pl-s1\"\u003eerr\u003c/span\u003e \u003cspan class=\"pl-c1\"\u003e!=\u003c/span\u003e \u003cspan class=\"pl-c1\"\u003enil\u003c/span\u003e {\n\t\t\u003cspan class=\"pl-s1\"\u003ehttp\u003c/span\u003e.\u003cspan class=\"pl-c1\"\u003eError\u003c/span\u003e(\u003cspan class=\"pl-s1\"\u003ew\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan class=\"pl-s1\"\u003eerr\u003c/span\u003e.\u003cspan class=\"pl-c1\"\u003eError\u003c/span\u003e(), \u003cspan class=\"pl-s1\"\u003ehttp\u003c/span\u003e.\u003cspan class=\"pl-c1\"\u003eStatusInternalServerError\u003c/span\u003e)\n\t}\n}\u003c/pre\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003cp dir=\"auto\"\u003eThen you can backup using this command:\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"highlight highlight-source-shell notranslate position-relative overflow-auto\" dir=\"auto\" data-snippet-clipboard-copy-content=\"$ curl http://localhost/backup \u0026gt; my.db\"\u003e\u003cpre\u003e$ curl http://localhost/backup \u003cspan class=\"pl-k\"\u003e\u0026gt;\u003c/span\u003e my.db\u003c/pre\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003cp dir=\"auto\"\u003eOr you can open your browser to \u003ccode\u003ehttp://localhost/backup\u003c/code\u003e and it will download\nautomatically.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp dir=\"auto\"\u003eIf you want to backup to another file you can use the \u003ccode\u003eTx.CopyFile()\u003c/code\u003e helper\nfunction.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"markdown-heading\" dir=\"auto\"\u003e\u003ch3 tabindex=\"-1\" class=\"heading-element\" dir=\"auto\"\u003eStatistics\u003c/h3\u003e\u003ca id=\"user-content-statistics\" class=\"anchor\" aria-label=\"Permalink: Statistics\" href=\"#statistics\"\u003e\u003csvg class=\"octicon octicon-link\" viewBox=\"0 0 16 16\" version=\"1.1\" width=\"16\" height=\"16\" aria-hidden=\"true\"\u003e\u003cpath d=\"m7.775 3.275 1.25-1.25a3.5 3.5 0 1 1 4.95 4.95l-2.5 2.5a3.5 3.5 0 0 1-4.95 0 .751.751 0 0 1 .018-1.042.751.751 0 0 1 1.042-.018 1.998 1.998 0 0 0 2.83 0l2.5-2.5a2.002 2.002 0 0 0-2.83-2.83l-1.25 1.25a.751.751 0 0 1-1.042-.018.751.751 0 0 1-.018-1.042Zm-4.69 9.64a1.998 1.998 0 0 0 2.83 0l1.25-1.25a.751.751 0 0 1 1.042.018.751.751 0 0 1 .018 1.042l-1.25 1.25a3.5 3.5 0 1 1-4.95-4.95l2.5-2.5a3.5 3.5 0 0 1 4.95 0 .751.751 0 0 1-.018 1.042.751.751 0 0 1-1.042.018 1.998 1.998 0 0 0-2.83 0l-2.5 2.5a1.998 1.998 0 0 0 0 2.83Z\"\u003e\u003c/path\u003e\u003c/svg\u003e\u003c/a\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003cp dir=\"auto\"\u003eThe database keeps a running count of many of the internal operations it\nperforms so you can better understand what's going on. By grabbing a snapshot\nof these stats at two points in time we can see what operations were performed\nin that time range.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp dir=\"auto\"\u003eFor example, we could start a goroutine to log stats every 10 seconds:\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"highlight highlight-source-go notranslate position-relative overflow-auto\" dir=\"auto\" data-snippet-clipboard-copy-content=\"go func() {\n\t// Grab the initial stats.\n\tprev := db.Stats()\n\n\tfor {\n\t\t// Wait for 10s.\n\t\ttime.Sleep(10 * time.Second)\n\n\t\t// Grab the current stats and diff them.\n\t\tstats := db.Stats()\n\t\tdiff := stats.Sub(\u0026amp;prev)\n\n\t\t// Encode stats to JSON and print to STDERR.\n\t\tjson.NewEncoder(os.Stderr).Encode(diff)\n\n\t\t// Save stats for the next loop.\n\t\tprev = stats\n\t}\n}()\"\u003e\u003cpre\u003e\u003cspan class=\"pl-k\"\u003ego\u003c/span\u003e \u003cspan class=\"pl-k\"\u003efunc\u003c/span\u003e() {\n\t\u003cspan class=\"pl-c\"\u003e// Grab the initial stats.\u003c/span\u003e\n\t\u003cspan class=\"pl-s1\"\u003eprev\u003c/span\u003e \u003cspan class=\"pl-c1\"\u003e:=\u003c/span\u003e \u003cspan class=\"pl-s1\"\u003edb\u003c/span\u003e.\u003cspan class=\"pl-c1\"\u003eStats\u003c/span\u003e()\n\n\t\u003cspan class=\"pl-k\"\u003efor\u003c/span\u003e {\n\t\t\u003cspan class=\"pl-c\"\u003e// Wait for 10s.\u003c/span\u003e\n\t\t\u003cspan class=\"pl-s1\"\u003etime\u003c/span\u003e.\u003cspan class=\"pl-c1\"\u003eSleep\u003c/span\u003e(\u003cspan class=\"pl-c1\"\u003e10\u003c/span\u003e \u003cspan class=\"pl-c1\"\u003e*\u003c/span\u003e \u003cspan class=\"pl-s1\"\u003etime\u003c/span\u003e.\u003cspan class=\"pl-c1\"\u003eSecond\u003c/span\u003e)\n\n\t\t\u003cspan class=\"pl-c\"\u003e// Grab the current stats and diff them.\u003c/span\u003e\n\t\t\u003cspan class=\"pl-s1\"\u003estats\u003c/span\u003e \u003cspan class=\"pl-c1\"\u003e:=\u003c/span\u003e \u003cspan class=\"pl-s1\"\u003edb\u003c/span\u003e.\u003cspan class=\"pl-c1\"\u003eStats\u003c/span\u003e()\n\t\t\u003cspan class=\"pl-s1\"\u003ediff\u003c/span\u003e \u003cspan class=\"pl-c1\"\u003e:=\u003c/span\u003e \u003cspan class=\"pl-s1\"\u003estats\u003c/span\u003e.\u003cspan class=\"pl-c1\"\u003eSub\u003c/span\u003e(\u003cspan class=\"pl-c1\"\u003e\u0026amp;\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan class=\"pl-s1\"\u003eprev\u003c/span\u003e)\n\n\t\t\u003cspan class=\"pl-c\"\u003e// Encode stats to JSON and print to STDERR.\u003c/span\u003e\n\t\t\u003cspan class=\"pl-s1\"\u003ejson\u003c/span\u003e.\u003cspan class=\"pl-c1\"\u003eNewEncoder\u003c/span\u003e(\u003cspan class=\"pl-s1\"\u003eos\u003c/span\u003e.\u003cspan class=\"pl-c1\"\u003eStderr\u003c/span\u003e).\u003cspan class=\"pl-c1\"\u003eEncode\u003c/span\u003e(\u003cspan class=\"pl-s1\"\u003ediff\u003c/span\u003e)\n\n\t\t\u003cspan class=\"pl-c\"\u003e// Save stats for the next loop.\u003c/span\u003e\n\t\t\u003cspan class=\"pl-s1\"\u003eprev\u003c/span\u003e \u003cspan class=\"pl-c1\"\u003e=\u003c/span\u003e \u003cspan class=\"pl-s1\"\u003estats\u003c/span\u003e\n\t}\n}()\u003c/pre\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003cp dir=\"auto\"\u003eIt's also useful to pipe these stats to a service such as statsd for monitoring\nor to provide an HTTP endpoint that will perform a fixed-length sample.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"markdown-heading\" dir=\"auto\"\u003e\u003ch3 tabindex=\"-1\" class=\"heading-element\" dir=\"auto\"\u003eRead-Only Mode\u003c/h3\u003e\u003ca id=\"user-content-read-only-mode\" class=\"anchor\" aria-label=\"Permalink: Read-Only Mode\" href=\"#read-only-mode\"\u003e\u003csvg class=\"octicon octicon-link\" viewBox=\"0 0 16 16\" version=\"1.1\" width=\"16\" height=\"16\" aria-hidden=\"true\"\u003e\u003cpath d=\"m7.775 3.275 1.25-1.25a3.5 3.5 0 1 1 4.95 4.95l-2.5 2.5a3.5 3.5 0 0 1-4.95 0 .751.751 0 0 1 .018-1.042.751.751 0 0 1 1.042-.018 1.998 1.998 0 0 0 2.83 0l2.5-2.5a2.002 2.002 0 0 0-2.83-2.83l-1.25 1.25a.751.751 0 0 1-1.042-.018.751.751 0 0 1-.018-1.042Zm-4.69 9.64a1.998 1.998 0 0 0 2.83 0l1.25-1.25a.751.751 0 0 1 1.042.018.751.751 0 0 1 .018 1.042l-1.25 1.25a3.5 3.5 0 1 1-4.95-4.95l2.5-2.5a3.5 3.5 0 0 1 4.95 0 .751.751 0 0 1-.018 1.042.751.751 0 0 1-1.042.018 1.998 1.998 0 0 0-2.83 0l-2.5 2.5a1.998 1.998 0 0 0 0 2.83Z\"\u003e\u003c/path\u003e\u003c/svg\u003e\u003c/a\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003cp dir=\"auto\"\u003eSometimes it is useful to create a shared, read-only Bolt database. To this,\nset the \u003ccode\u003eOptions.ReadOnly\u003c/code\u003e flag when opening your database. Read-only mode\nuses a shared lock to allow multiple processes to read from the database but\nit will block any processes from opening the database in read-write mode.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"highlight highlight-source-go notranslate position-relative overflow-auto\" dir=\"auto\" data-snippet-clipboard-copy-content=\"db, err := bolt.Open(\u0026quot;my.db\u0026quot;, 0666, \u0026amp;bolt.Options{ReadOnly: true})\nif err != nil {\n\tlog.Fatal(err)\n}\"\u003e\u003cpre\u003e\u003cspan class=\"pl-s1\"\u003edb\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan class=\"pl-s1\"\u003eerr\u003c/span\u003e \u003cspan class=\"pl-c1\"\u003e:=\u003c/span\u003e \u003cspan class=\"pl-s1\"\u003ebolt\u003c/span\u003e.\u003cspan class=\"pl-c1\"\u003eOpen\u003c/span\u003e(\u003cspan class=\"pl-s\"\u003e\"my.db\"\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan class=\"pl-c1\"\u003e0666\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan class=\"pl-c1\"\u003e\u0026amp;\u003c/span\u003ebolt.\u003cspan class=\"pl-smi\"\u003eOptions\u003c/span\u003e{\u003cspan class=\"pl-s1\"\u003eReadOnly\u003c/span\u003e: \u003cspan class=\"pl-c1\"\u003etrue\u003c/span\u003e})\n\u003cspan class=\"pl-k\"\u003eif\u003c/span\u003e \u003cspan class=\"pl-s1\"\u003eerr\u003c/span\u003e \u003cspan class=\"pl-c1\"\u003e!=\u003c/span\u003e \u003cspan class=\"pl-c1\"\u003enil\u003c/span\u003e {\n\t\u003cspan class=\"pl-s1\"\u003elog\u003c/span\u003e.\u003cspan class=\"pl-c1\"\u003eFatal\u003c/span\u003e(\u003cspan class=\"pl-s1\"\u003eerr\u003c/span\u003e)\n}\u003c/pre\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"markdown-heading\" dir=\"auto\"\u003e\u003ch3 tabindex=\"-1\" class=\"heading-element\" dir=\"auto\"\u003eMobile Use (iOS/Android)\u003c/h3\u003e\u003ca id=\"user-content-mobile-use-iosandroid\" class=\"anchor\" aria-label=\"Permalink: Mobile Use (iOS/Android)\" href=\"#mobile-use-iosandroid\"\u003e\u003csvg class=\"octicon octicon-link\" viewBox=\"0 0 16 16\" version=\"1.1\" width=\"16\" height=\"16\" aria-hidden=\"true\"\u003e\u003cpath d=\"m7.775 3.275 1.25-1.25a3.5 3.5 0 1 1 4.95 4.95l-2.5 2.5a3.5 3.5 0 0 1-4.95 0 .751.751 0 0 1 .018-1.042.751.751 0 0 1 1.042-.018 1.998 1.998 0 0 0 2.83 0l2.5-2.5a2.002 2.002 0 0 0-2.83-2.83l-1.25 1.25a.751.751 0 0 1-1.042-.018.751.751 0 0 1-.018-1.042Zm-4.69 9.64a1.998 1.998 0 0 0 2.83 0l1.25-1.25a.751.751 0 0 1 1.042.018.751.751 0 0 1 .018 1.042l-1.25 1.25a3.5 3.5 0 1 1-4.95-4.95l2.5-2.5a3.5 3.5 0 0 1 4.95 0 .751.751 0 0 1-.018 1.042.751.751 0 0 1-1.042.018 1.998 1.998 0 0 0-2.83 0l-2.5 2.5a1.998 1.998 0 0 0 0 2.83Z\"\u003e\u003c/path\u003e\u003c/svg\u003e\u003c/a\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003cp dir=\"auto\"\u003eBolt is able to run on mobile devices by leveraging the binding feature of the\n\u003ca href=\"https://github.com/golang/mobile\"\u003egomobile\u003c/a\u003e tool. Create a struct that will\ncontain your database logic and a reference to a \u003ccode\u003e*bolt.DB\u003c/code\u003e with a initializing\nconstructor that takes in a filepath where the database file will be stored.\nNeither Android nor iOS require extra permissions or cleanup from using this method.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"highlight highlight-source-go notranslate position-relative overflow-auto\" dir=\"auto\" data-snippet-clipboard-copy-content=\"func NewBoltDB(filepath string) *BoltDB {\n\tdb, err := bolt.Open(filepath+\u0026quot;/demo.db\u0026quot;, 0600, nil)\n\tif err != nil {\n\t\tlog.Fatal(err)\n\t}\n\n\treturn \u0026amp;BoltDB{db}\n}\n\ntype BoltDB struct {\n\tdb *bolt.DB\n\t...\n}\n\nfunc (b *BoltDB) Path() string {\n\treturn b.db.Path()\n}\n\nfunc (b *BoltDB) Close() {\n\tb.db.Close()\n}\"\u003e\u003cpre\u003e\u003cspan class=\"pl-k\"\u003efunc\u003c/span\u003e \u003cspan class=\"pl-s1\"\u003eNewBoltDB\u003c/span\u003e(\u003cspan class=\"pl-s1\"\u003efilepath\u003c/span\u003e \u003cspan class=\"pl-smi\"\u003estring\u003c/span\u003e) \u003cspan class=\"pl-c1\"\u003e*\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan class=\"pl-smi\"\u003eBoltDB\u003c/span\u003e {\n\t\u003cspan class=\"pl-s1\"\u003edb\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan class=\"pl-s1\"\u003eerr\u003c/span\u003e \u003cspan class=\"pl-c1\"\u003e:=\u003c/span\u003e \u003cspan class=\"pl-s1\"\u003ebolt\u003c/span\u003e.\u003cspan class=\"pl-c1\"\u003eOpen\u003c/span\u003e(\u003cspan class=\"pl-s1\"\u003efilepath\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan class=\"pl-c1\"\u003e+\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan class=\"pl-s\"\u003e\"/demo.db\"\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan class=\"pl-c1\"\u003e0600\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan class=\"pl-c1\"\u003enil\u003c/span\u003e)\n\t\u003cspan class=\"pl-k\"\u003eif\u003c/span\u003e \u003cspan class=\"pl-s1\"\u003eerr\u003c/span\u003e \u003cspan class=\"pl-c1\"\u003e!=\u003c/span\u003e \u003cspan class=\"pl-c1\"\u003enil\u003c/span\u003e {\n\t\t\u003cspan class=\"pl-s1\"\u003elog\u003c/span\u003e.\u003cspan class=\"pl-c1\"\u003eFatal\u003c/span\u003e(\u003cspan class=\"pl-s1\"\u003eerr\u003c/span\u003e)\n\t}\n\n\t\u003cspan class=\"pl-k\"\u003ereturn\u003c/span\u003e \u003cspan class=\"pl-c1\"\u003e\u0026amp;\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan class=\"pl-smi\"\u003eBoltDB\u003c/span\u003e{\u003cspan class=\"pl-s1\"\u003edb\u003c/span\u003e}\n}\n\n\u003cspan class=\"pl-k\"\u003etype\u003c/span\u003e \u003cspan class=\"pl-smi\"\u003eBoltDB\u003c/span\u003e \u003cspan class=\"pl-k\"\u003estruct\u003c/span\u003e {\n\t\u003cspan class=\"pl-c1\"\u003edb\u003c/span\u003e \u003cspan class=\"pl-c1\"\u003e*\u003c/span\u003ebolt.\u003cspan class=\"pl-smi\"\u003eDB\u003c/span\u003e\n\t\u003cspan class=\"pl-c1\"\u003e...\u003c/span\u003e\n}\n\n\u003cspan class=\"pl-k\"\u003efunc\u003c/span\u003e (\u003cspan class=\"pl-s1\"\u003eb\u003c/span\u003e \u003cspan class=\"pl-c1\"\u003e*\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan class=\"pl-smi\"\u003eBoltDB\u003c/span\u003e) \u003cspan class=\"pl-c1\"\u003ePath\u003c/span\u003e() \u003cspan class=\"pl-smi\"\u003estring\u003c/span\u003e {\n\t\u003cspan class=\"pl-k\"\u003ereturn\u003c/span\u003e \u003cspan class=\"pl-s1\"\u003eb\u003c/span\u003e.\u003cspan class=\"pl-c1\"\u003edb\u003c/span\u003e.\u003cspan class=\"pl-c1\"\u003ePath\u003c/span\u003e()\n}\n\n\u003cspan class=\"pl-k\"\u003efunc\u003c/span\u003e (\u003cspan class=\"pl-s1\"\u003eb\u003c/span\u003e \u003cspan class=\"pl-c1\"\u003e*\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan class=\"pl-smi\"\u003eBoltDB\u003c/span\u003e) \u003cspan class=\"pl-c1\"\u003eClose\u003c/span\u003e() {\n\t\u003cspan class=\"pl-s1\"\u003eb\u003c/span\u003e.\u003cspan class=\"pl-c1\"\u003edb\u003c/span\u003e.\u003cspan class=\"pl-c1\"\u003eClose\u003c/span\u003e()\n}\u003c/pre\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003cp dir=\"auto\"\u003eDatabase logic should be defined as methods on this wrapper struct.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp dir=\"auto\"\u003eTo initialize this struct from the native language (both platforms now sync\ntheir local storage to the cloud. These snippets disable that functionality for the\ndatabase file):\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"markdown-heading\" dir=\"auto\"\u003e\u003ch4 tabindex=\"-1\" class=\"heading-element\" dir=\"auto\"\u003eAndroid\u003c/h4\u003e\u003ca id=\"user-content-android\" class=\"anchor\" aria-label=\"Permalink: Android\" href=\"#android\"\u003e\u003csvg class=\"octicon octicon-link\" viewBox=\"0 0 16 16\" version=\"1.1\" width=\"16\" height=\"16\" aria-hidden=\"true\"\u003e\u003cpath d=\"m7.775 3.275 1.25-1.25a3.5 3.5 0 1 1 4.95 4.95l-2.5 2.5a3.5 3.5 0 0 1-4.95 0 .751.751 0 0 1 .018-1.042.751.751 0 0 1 1.042-.018 1.998 1.998 0 0 0 2.83 0l2.5-2.5a2.002 2.002 0 0 0-2.83-2.83l-1.25 1.25a.751.751 0 0 1-1.042-.018.751.751 0 0 1-.018-1.042Zm-4.69 9.64a1.998 1.998 0 0 0 2.83 0l1.25-1.25a.751.751 0 0 1 1.042.018.751.751 0 0 1 .018 1.042l-1.25 1.25a3.5 3.5 0 1 1-4.95-4.95l2.5-2.5a3.5 3.5 0 0 1 4.95 0 .751.751 0 0 1-.018 1.042.751.751 0 0 1-1.042.018 1.998 1.998 0 0 0-2.83 0l-2.5 2.5a1.998 1.998 0 0 0 0 2.83Z\"\u003e\u003c/path\u003e\u003c/svg\u003e\u003c/a\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"highlight highlight-source-java notranslate position-relative overflow-auto\" dir=\"auto\" data-snippet-clipboard-copy-content=\"String path;\nif (android.os.Build.VERSION.SDK_INT \u0026gt;=android.os.Build.VERSION_CODES.LOLLIPOP){\n path = getNoBackupFilesDir().getAbsolutePath();\n} else{\n path = getFilesDir().getAbsolutePath();\n}\nBoltmobiledemo.BoltDB boltDB = Boltmobiledemo.NewBoltDB(path)\"\u003e\u003cpre\u003e\u003cspan class=\"pl-smi\"\u003eString\u003c/span\u003e \u003cspan class=\"pl-s1\"\u003epath\u003c/span\u003e;\n\u003cspan class=\"pl-k\"\u003eif\u003c/span\u003e (\u003cspan class=\"pl-s1\"\u003eandroid\u003c/span\u003e.\u003cspan class=\"pl-s1\"\u003eos\u003c/span\u003e.\u003cspan class=\"pl-s1\"\u003eBuild\u003c/span\u003e.\u003cspan class=\"pl-c1\"\u003eVERSION\u003c/span\u003e.\u003cspan class=\"pl-c1\"\u003eSDK_INT\u003c/span\u003e \u0026gt;=\u003cspan class=\"pl-s1\"\u003eandroid\u003c/span\u003e.\u003cspan class=\"pl-s1\"\u003eos\u003c/span\u003e.\u003cspan class=\"pl-s1\"\u003eBuild\u003c/span\u003e.\u003cspan class=\"pl-c1\"\u003eVERSION_CODES\u003c/span\u003e.\u003cspan class=\"pl-c1\"\u003eLOLLIPOP\u003c/span\u003e){\n \u003cspan class=\"pl-s1\"\u003epath\u003c/span\u003e = \u003cspan class=\"pl-en\"\u003egetNoBackupFilesDir\u003c/span\u003e().\u003cspan class=\"pl-en\"\u003egetAbsolutePath\u003c/span\u003e();\n} \u003cspan class=\"pl-k\"\u003eelse\u003c/span\u003e{\n \u003cspan class=\"pl-s1\"\u003epath\u003c/span\u003e = \u003cspan class=\"pl-en\"\u003egetFilesDir\u003c/span\u003e().\u003cspan class=\"pl-en\"\u003egetAbsolutePath\u003c/span\u003e();\n}\n\u003cspan class=\"pl-smi\"\u003eBoltmobiledemo\u003c/span\u003e.\u003cspan class=\"pl-smi\"\u003eBoltDB\u003c/span\u003e \u003cspan class=\"pl-s1\"\u003eboltDB\u003c/span\u003e = \u003cspan class=\"pl-smi\"\u003eBoltmobiledemo\u003c/span\u003e.\u003cspan class=\"pl-en\"\u003eNewBoltDB\u003c/span\u003e(\u003cspan class=\"pl-s1\"\u003epath\u003c/span\u003e)\u003c/pre\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"markdown-heading\" dir=\"auto\"\u003e\u003ch4 tabindex=\"-1\" class=\"heading-element\" dir=\"auto\"\u003eiOS\u003c/h4\u003e\u003ca id=\"user-content-ios\" class=\"anchor\" aria-label=\"Permalink: iOS\" href=\"#ios\"\u003e\u003csvg class=\"octicon octicon-link\" viewBox=\"0 0 16 16\" version=\"1.1\" width=\"16\" height=\"16\" aria-hidden=\"true\"\u003e\u003cpath d=\"m7.775 3.275 1.25-1.25a3.5 3.5 0 1 1 4.95 4.95l-2.5 2.5a3.5 3.5 0 0 1-4.95 0 .751.751 0 0 1 .018-1.042.751.751 0 0 1 1.042-.018 1.998 1.998 0 0 0 2.83 0l2.5-2.5a2.002 2.002 0 0 0-2.83-2.83l-1.25 1.25a.751.751 0 0 1-1.042-.018.751.751 0 0 1-.018-1.042Zm-4.69 9.64a1.998 1.998 0 0 0 2.83 0l1.25-1.25a.751.751 0 0 1 1.042.018.751.751 0 0 1 .018 1.042l-1.25 1.25a3.5 3.5 0 1 1-4.95-4.95l2.5-2.5a3.5 3.5 0 0 1 4.95 0 .751.751 0 0 1-.018 1.042.751.751 0 0 1-1.042.018 1.998 1.998 0 0 0-2.83 0l-2.5 2.5a1.998 1.998 0 0 0 0 2.83Z\"\u003e\u003c/path\u003e\u003c/svg\u003e\u003c/a\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"highlight highlight-source-objc notranslate position-relative overflow-auto\" dir=\"auto\" data-snippet-clipboard-copy-content=\"- (void)demo {\n NSString* path = [NSSearchPathForDirectoriesInDomains(NSLibraryDirectory,\n NSUserDomainMask,\n YES) objectAtIndex:0];\n\tGoBoltmobiledemoBoltDB * demo = GoBoltmobiledemoNewBoltDB(path);\n\t[self addSkipBackupAttributeToItemAtPath:demo.path];\n\t//Some DB Logic would go here\n\t[demo close];\n}\n\n- (BOOL)addSkipBackupAttributeToItemAtPath:(NSString *) filePathString\n{\n NSURL* URL= [NSURL fileURLWithPath: filePathString];\n assert([[NSFileManager defaultManager] fileExistsAtPath: [URL path]]);\n\n NSError *error = nil;\n BOOL success = [URL setResourceValue: [NSNumber numberWithBool: YES]\n forKey: NSURLIsExcludedFromBackupKey error: \u0026amp;error];\n if(!success){\n NSLog(@\u0026quot;Error excluding %@ from backup %@\u0026quot;, [URL lastPathComponent], error);\n }\n return success;\n}\n\"\u003e\u003cpre\u003e- (\u003cspan class=\"pl-k\"\u003evoid\u003c/span\u003e)demo {\n \u003cspan class=\"pl-c1\"\u003eNSString\u003c/span\u003e* path = [\u003cspan class=\"pl-c1\"\u003eNSSearchPathForDirectoriesInDomains\u003c/span\u003e(NSLibraryDirectory,\n NSUserDomainMask,\n \u003cspan class=\"pl-c1\"\u003eYES\u003c/span\u003e) \u003cspan class=\"pl-c1\"\u003eobjectAtIndex:\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan class=\"pl-c1\"\u003e0\u003c/span\u003e];\n\tGoBoltmobiledemoBoltDB * demo = \u003cspan class=\"pl-c1\"\u003eGoBoltmobiledemoNewBoltDB\u003c/span\u003e(path);\n\t[\u003cspan class=\"pl-c1\"\u003eself\u003c/span\u003e \u003cspan class=\"pl-c1\"\u003eaddSkipBackupAttributeToItemAtPath:\u003c/span\u003edemo.path];\n\t\u003cspan class=\"pl-c\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"pl-c\"\u003e//\u003c/span\u003eSome DB Logic would go here\u003c/span\u003e\n\t[demo \u003cspan class=\"pl-c1\"\u003eclose\u003c/span\u003e];\n}\n\n- (\u003cspan class=\"pl-c1\"\u003eBOOL\u003c/span\u003e)addSkipBackupAttributeToItemAtPath:(\u003cspan class=\"pl-c1\"\u003eNSString\u003c/span\u003e *) filePathString\n{\n \u003cspan class=\"pl-c1\"\u003eNSURL\u003c/span\u003e* URL= [\u003cspan class=\"pl-c1\"\u003eNSURL\u003c/span\u003e \u003cspan class=\"pl-c1\"\u003efileURLWithPath:\u003c/span\u003e filePathString];\n \u003cspan class=\"pl-c1\"\u003eassert\u003c/span\u003e([[\u003cspan class=\"pl-c1\"\u003eNSFileManager\u003c/span\u003e \u003cspan class=\"pl-c1\"\u003edefaultManager\u003c/span\u003e] \u003cspan class=\"pl-c1\"\u003efileExistsAtPath:\u003c/span\u003e [URL \u003cspan class=\"pl-c1\"\u003epath\u003c/span\u003e]]);\n\n \u003cspan class=\"pl-c1\"\u003eNSError\u003c/span\u003e *error = \u003cspan class=\"pl-c1\"\u003enil\u003c/span\u003e;\n \u003cspan class=\"pl-c1\"\u003eBOOL\u003c/span\u003e success = [URL \u003cspan class=\"pl-c1\"\u003esetResourceValue:\u003c/span\u003e [\u003cspan class=\"pl-c1\"\u003eNSNumber\u003c/span\u003e \u003cspan class=\"pl-c1\"\u003enumberWithBool:\u003c/span\u003e \u003cspan class=\"pl-c1\"\u003eYES\u003c/span\u003e]\n \u003cspan class=\"pl-c1\"\u003eforKey:\u003c/span\u003e \u003cspan class=\"pl-c1\"\u003eNSURLIsExcludedFromBackupKey\u003c/span\u003e \u003cspan class=\"pl-c1\"\u003eerror:\u003c/span\u003e \u0026amp;error];\n \u003cspan class=\"pl-k\"\u003eif\u003c/span\u003e(!success){\n \u003cspan class=\"pl-c1\"\u003eNSLog\u003c/span\u003e(\u003cspan class=\"pl-s\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"pl-pds\"\u003e@\"\u003c/span\u003eError excluding \u003cspan class=\"pl-c1\"\u003e%@\u003c/span\u003e from backup \u003cspan class=\"pl-c1\"\u003e%@\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan class=\"pl-pds\"\u003e\"\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e, [URL \u003cspan class=\"pl-c1\"\u003elastPathComponent\u003c/span\u003e], error);\n }\n \u003cspan class=\"pl-k\"\u003ereturn\u003c/span\u003e success;\n}\n\u003c/pre\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"markdown-heading\" dir=\"auto\"\u003e\u003ch2 tabindex=\"-1\" class=\"heading-element\" dir=\"auto\"\u003eResources\u003c/h2\u003e\u003ca id=\"user-content-resources\" class=\"anchor\" aria-label=\"Permalink: Resources\" href=\"#resources\"\u003e\u003csvg class=\"octicon octicon-link\" viewBox=\"0 0 16 16\" version=\"1.1\" width=\"16\" height=\"16\" aria-hidden=\"true\"\u003e\u003cpath d=\"m7.775 3.275 1.25-1.25a3.5 3.5 0 1 1 4.95 4.95l-2.5 2.5a3.5 3.5 0 0 1-4.95 0 .751.751 0 0 1 .018-1.042.751.751 0 0 1 1.042-.018 1.998 1.998 0 0 0 2.83 0l2.5-2.5a2.002 2.002 0 0 0-2.83-2.83l-1.25 1.25a.751.751 0 0 1-1.042-.018.751.751 0 0 1-.018-1.042Zm-4.69 9.64a1.998 1.998 0 0 0 2.83 0l1.25-1.25a.751.751 0 0 1 1.042.018.751.751 0 0 1 .018 1.042l-1.25 1.25a3.5 3.5 0 1 1-4.95-4.95l2.5-2.5a3.5 3.5 0 0 1 4.95 0 .751.751 0 0 1-.018 1.042.751.751 0 0 1-1.042.018 1.998 1.998 0 0 0-2.83 0l-2.5 2.5a1.998 1.998 0 0 0 0 2.83Z\"\u003e\u003c/path\u003e\u003c/svg\u003e\u003c/a\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003cp dir=\"auto\"\u003eFor more information on getting started with Bolt, check out the following articles:\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cul dir=\"auto\"\u003e\n\u003cli\u003e\u003ca href=\"http://npf.io/2014/07/intro-to-boltdb-painless-performant-persistence/\" rel=\"nofollow\"\u003eIntro to BoltDB: Painless Performant Persistence\u003c/a\u003e by \u003ca href=\"https://github.com/natefinch\"\u003eNate Finch\u003c/a\u003e.\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003e\u003ca href=\"https://www.progville.com/go/bolt-embedded-db-golang/\" rel=\"nofollow\"\u003eBolt -- an embedded key/value database for Go\u003c/a\u003e by Progville\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003c/ul\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"markdown-heading\" dir=\"auto\"\u003e\u003ch2 tabindex=\"-1\" class=\"heading-element\" dir=\"auto\"\u003eComparison with other databases\u003c/h2\u003e\u003ca id=\"user-content-comparison-with-other-databases\" class=\"anchor\" aria-label=\"Permalink: Comparison with other databases\" href=\"#comparison-with-other-databases\"\u003e\u003csvg class=\"octicon octicon-link\" viewBox=\"0 0 16 16\" version=\"1.1\" width=\"16\" height=\"16\" aria-hidden=\"true\"\u003e\u003cpath d=\"m7.775 3.275 1.25-1.25a3.5 3.5 0 1 1 4.95 4.95l-2.5 2.5a3.5 3.5 0 0 1-4.95 0 .751.751 0 0 1 .018-1.042.751.751 0 0 1 1.042-.018 1.998 1.998 0 0 0 2.83 0l2.5-2.5a2.002 2.002 0 0 0-2.83-2.83l-1.25 1.25a.751.751 0 0 1-1.042-.018.751.751 0 0 1-.018-1.042Zm-4.69 9.64a1.998 1.998 0 0 0 2.83 0l1.25-1.25a.751.751 0 0 1 1.042.018.751.751 0 0 1 .018 1.042l-1.25 1.25a3.5 3.5 0 1 1-4.95-4.95l2.5-2.5a3.5 3.5 0 0 1 4.95 0 .751.751 0 0 1-.018 1.042.751.751 0 0 1-1.042.018 1.998 1.998 0 0 0-2.83 0l-2.5 2.5a1.998 1.998 0 0 0 0 2.83Z\"\u003e\u003c/path\u003e\u003c/svg\u003e\u003c/a\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"markdown-heading\" dir=\"auto\"\u003e\u003ch3 tabindex=\"-1\" class=\"heading-element\" dir=\"auto\"\u003ePostgres, MySQL, \u0026amp; other relational databases\u003c/h3\u003e\u003ca id=\"user-content-postgres-mysql--other-relational-databases\" class=\"anchor\" aria-label=\"Permalink: Postgres, MySQL, \u0026amp; other relational databases\" href=\"#postgres-mysql--other-relational-databases\"\u003e\u003csvg class=\"octicon octicon-link\" viewBox=\"0 0 16 16\" version=\"1.1\" width=\"16\" height=\"16\" aria-hidden=\"true\"\u003e\u003cpath d=\"m7.775 3.275 1.25-1.25a3.5 3.5 0 1 1 4.95 4.95l-2.5 2.5a3.5 3.5 0 0 1-4.95 0 .751.751 0 0 1 .018-1.042.751.751 0 0 1 1.042-.018 1.998 1.998 0 0 0 2.83 0l2.5-2.5a2.002 2.002 0 0 0-2.83-2.83l-1.25 1.25a.751.751 0 0 1-1.042-.018.751.751 0 0 1-.018-1.042Zm-4.69 9.64a1.998 1.998 0 0 0 2.83 0l1.25-1.25a.751.751 0 0 1 1.042.018.751.751 0 0 1 .018 1.042l-1.25 1.25a3.5 3.5 0 1 1-4.95-4.95l2.5-2.5a3.5 3.5 0 0 1 4.95 0 .751.751 0 0 1-.018 1.042.751.751 0 0 1-1.042.018 1.998 1.998 0 0 0-2.83 0l-2.5 2.5a1.998 1.998 0 0 0 0 2.83Z\"\u003e\u003c/path\u003e\u003c/svg\u003e\u003c/a\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003cp dir=\"auto\"\u003eRelational databases structure data into rows and are only accessible through\nthe use of SQL. This approach provides flexibility in how you store and query\nyour data but also incurs overhead in parsing and planning SQL statements. Bolt\naccesses all data by a byte slice key. This makes Bolt fast to read and write\ndata by key but provides no built-in support for joining values together.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp dir=\"auto\"\u003eMost relational databases (with the exception of SQLite) are standalone servers\nthat run separately from your application. This gives your systems\nflexibility to connect multiple application servers to a single database\nserver but also adds overhead in serializing and transporting data over the\nnetwork. Bolt runs as a library included in your application so all data access\nhas to go through your application's process. This brings data closer to your\napplication but limits multi-process access to the data.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"markdown-heading\" dir=\"auto\"\u003e\u003ch3 tabindex=\"-1\" class=\"heading-element\" dir=\"auto\"\u003eLevelDB, RocksDB\u003c/h3\u003e\u003ca id=\"user-content-leveldb-rocksdb\" class=\"anchor\" aria-label=\"Permalink: LevelDB, RocksDB\" href=\"#leveldb-rocksdb\"\u003e\u003csvg class=\"octicon octicon-link\" viewBox=\"0 0 16 16\" version=\"1.1\" width=\"16\" height=\"16\" aria-hidden=\"true\"\u003e\u003cpath d=\"m7.775 3.275 1.25-1.25a3.5 3.5 0 1 1 4.95 4.95l-2.5 2.5a3.5 3.5 0 0 1-4.95 0 .751.751 0 0 1 .018-1.042.751.751 0 0 1 1.042-.018 1.998 1.998 0 0 0 2.83 0l2.5-2.5a2.002 2.002 0 0 0-2.83-2.83l-1.25 1.25a.751.751 0 0 1-1.042-.018.751.751 0 0 1-.018-1.042Zm-4.69 9.64a1.998 1.998 0 0 0 2.83 0l1.25-1.25a.751.751 0 0 1 1.042.018.751.751 0 0 1 .018 1.042l-1.25 1.25a3.5 3.5 0 1 1-4.95-4.95l2.5-2.5a3.5 3.5 0 0 1 4.95 0 .751.751 0 0 1-.018 1.042.751.751 0 0 1-1.042.018 1.998 1.998 0 0 0-2.83 0l-2.5 2.5a1.998 1.998 0 0 0 0 2.83Z\"\u003e\u003c/path\u003e\u003c/svg\u003e\u003c/a\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003cp dir=\"auto\"\u003eLevelDB and its derivatives (RocksDB, HyperLevelDB) are similar to Bolt in that\nthey are libraries bundled into the application, however, their underlying\nstructure is a log-structured merge-tree (LSM tree). An LSM tree optimizes\nrandom writes by using a write ahead log and multi-tiered, sorted files called\nSSTables. Bolt uses a B+tree internally and only a single file. Both approaches\nhave trade-offs.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp dir=\"auto\"\u003eIf you require a high random write throughput (\u0026gt;10,000 w/sec) or you need to use\nspinning disks then LevelDB could be a good choice. If your application is\nread-heavy or does a lot of range scans then Bolt could be a good choice.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp dir=\"auto\"\u003eOne other important consideration is that LevelDB does not have transactions.\nIt supports batch writing of key/values pairs and it supports read snapshots\nbut it will not give you the ability to do a compare-and-swap operation safely.\nBolt supports fully serializable ACID transactions.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"markdown-heading\" dir=\"auto\"\u003e\u003ch3 tabindex=\"-1\" class=\"heading-element\" dir=\"auto\"\u003eLMDB\u003c/h3\u003e\u003ca id=\"user-content-lmdb\" class=\"anchor\" aria-label=\"Permalink: LMDB\" href=\"#lmdb\"\u003e\u003csvg class=\"octicon octicon-link\" viewBox=\"0 0 16 16\" version=\"1.1\" width=\"16\" height=\"16\" aria-hidden=\"true\"\u003e\u003cpath d=\"m7.775 3.275 1.25-1.25a3.5 3.5 0 1 1 4.95 4.95l-2.5 2.5a3.5 3.5 0 0 1-4.95 0 .751.751 0 0 1 .018-1.042.751.751 0 0 1 1.042-.018 1.998 1.998 0 0 0 2.83 0l2.5-2.5a2.002 2.002 0 0 0-2.83-2.83l-1.25 1.25a.751.751 0 0 1-1.042-.018.751.751 0 0 1-.018-1.042Zm-4.69 9.64a1.998 1.998 0 0 0 2.83 0l1.25-1.25a.751.751 0 0 1 1.042.018.751.751 0 0 1 .018 1.042l-1.25 1.25a3.5 3.5 0 1 1-4.95-4.95l2.5-2.5a3.5 3.5 0 0 1 4.95 0 .751.751 0 0 1-.018 1.042.751.751 0 0 1-1.042.018 1.998 1.998 0 0 0-2.83 0l-2.5 2.5a1.998 1.998 0 0 0 0 2.83Z\"\u003e\u003c/path\u003e\u003c/svg\u003e\u003c/a\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003cp dir=\"auto\"\u003eBolt was originally a port of LMDB so it is architecturally similar. Both use\na B+tree, have ACID semantics with fully serializable transactions, and support\nlock-free MVCC using a single writer and multiple readers.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp dir=\"auto\"\u003eThe two projects have somewhat diverged. LMDB heavily focuses on raw performance\nwhile Bolt has focused on simplicity and ease of use. For example, LMDB allows\nseveral unsafe actions such as direct writes for the sake of performance. Bolt\nopts to disallow actions which can leave the database in a corrupted state. The\nonly exception to this in Bolt is \u003ccode\u003eDB.NoSync\u003c/code\u003e.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp dir=\"auto\"\u003eThere are also a few differences in API. LMDB requires a maximum mmap size when\nopening an \u003ccode\u003emdb_env\u003c/code\u003e whereas Bolt will handle incremental mmap resizing\nautomatically. LMDB overloads the getter and setter functions with multiple\nflags whereas Bolt splits these specialized cases into their own functions.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"markdown-heading\" dir=\"auto\"\u003e\u003ch2 tabindex=\"-1\" class=\"heading-element\" dir=\"auto\"\u003eCaveats \u0026amp; Limitations\u003c/h2\u003e\u003ca id=\"user-content-caveats--limitations\" class=\"anchor\" aria-label=\"Permalink: Caveats \u0026amp; Limitations\" href=\"#caveats--limitations\"\u003e\u003csvg class=\"octicon octicon-link\" viewBox=\"0 0 16 16\" version=\"1.1\" width=\"16\" height=\"16\" aria-hidden=\"true\"\u003e\u003cpath d=\"m7.775 3.275 1.25-1.25a3.5 3.5 0 1 1 4.95 4.95l-2.5 2.5a3.5 3.5 0 0 1-4.95 0 .751.751 0 0 1 .018-1.042.751.751 0 0 1 1.042-.018 1.998 1.998 0 0 0 2.83 0l2.5-2.5a2.002 2.002 0 0 0-2.83-2.83l-1.25 1.25a.751.751 0 0 1-1.042-.018.751.751 0 0 1-.018-1.042Zm-4.69 9.64a1.998 1.998 0 0 0 2.83 0l1.25-1.25a.751.751 0 0 1 1.042.018.751.751 0 0 1 .018 1.042l-1.25 1.25a3.5 3.5 0 1 1-4.95-4.95l2.5-2.5a3.5 3.5 0 0 1 4.95 0 .751.751 0 0 1-.018 1.042.751.751 0 0 1-1.042.018 1.998 1.998 0 0 0-2.83 0l-2.5 2.5a1.998 1.998 0 0 0 0 2.83Z\"\u003e\u003c/path\u003e\u003c/svg\u003e\u003c/a\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003cp dir=\"auto\"\u003eIt's important to pick the right tool for the job and Bolt is no exception.\nHere are a few things to note when evaluating and using Bolt:\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cul dir=\"auto\"\u003e\n\u003cli\u003e\n\u003cp dir=\"auto\"\u003eBolt is good for read intensive workloads. Sequential write performance is\nalso fast but random writes can be slow. You can use \u003ccode\u003eDB.Batch()\u003c/code\u003e or add a\nwrite-ahead log to help mitigate this issue.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003e\n\u003cp dir=\"auto\"\u003eBolt uses a B+tree internally so there can be a lot of random page access.\nSSDs provide a significant performance boost over spinning disks.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003e\n\u003cp dir=\"auto\"\u003eTry to avoid long running read transactions. Bolt uses copy-on-write so\nold pages cannot be reclaimed while an old transaction is using them.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003e\n\u003cp dir=\"auto\"\u003eByte slices returned from Bolt are only valid during a transaction. Once the\ntransaction has been committed or rolled back then the memory they point to\ncan be reused by a new page or can be unmapped from virtual memory and you'll\nsee an \u003ccode\u003eunexpected fault address\u003c/code\u003e panic when accessing it.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003e\n\u003cp dir=\"auto\"\u003eBolt uses an exclusive write lock on the database file so it cannot be\nshared by multiple processes.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003e\n\u003cp dir=\"auto\"\u003eBe careful when using \u003ccode\u003eBucket.FillPercent\u003c/code\u003e. Setting a high fill percent for\nbuckets that have random inserts will cause your database to have very poor\npage utilization.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003e\n\u003cp dir=\"auto\"\u003eUse larger buckets in general. Smaller buckets causes poor page utilization\nonce they become larger than the page size (typically 4KB).\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003e\n\u003cp dir=\"auto\"\u003eBulk loading a lot of random writes into a new bucket can be slow as the\npage will not split until the transaction is committed. Randomly inserting\nmore than 100,000 key/value pairs into a single new bucket in a single\ntransaction is not advised.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003e\n\u003cp dir=\"auto\"\u003eBolt uses a memory-mapped file so the underlying operating system handles the\ncaching of the data. Typically, the OS will cache as much of the file as it\ncan in memory and will release memory as needed to other processes. This means\nthat Bolt can show very high memory usage when working with large databases.\nHowever, this is expected and the OS will release memory as needed. Bolt can\nhandle databases much larger than the available physical RAM, provided its\nmemory-map fits in the process virtual address space. It may be problematic\non 32-bits systems.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003e\n\u003cp dir=\"auto\"\u003eThe data structures in the Bolt database are memory mapped so the data file\nwill be endian specific. This means that you cannot copy a Bolt file from a\nlittle endian machine to a big endian machine and have it work. For most\nusers this is not a concern since most modern CPUs are little endian.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003e\n\u003cp dir=\"auto\"\u003eBecause of the way pages are laid out on disk, Bolt cannot truncate data files\nand return free pages back to the disk. Instead, Bolt maintains a free list\nof unused pages within its data file. These free pages can be reused by later\ntransactions. This works well for many use cases as databases generally tend\nto grow. However, it's important to note that deleting large chunks of data\nwill not allow you to reclaim that space on disk.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp dir=\"auto\"\u003eFor more information on page allocation, \u003ca href=\"https://github.com/boltdb/bolt/issues/308#issuecomment-74811638\" data-hovercard-type=\"issue\" data-hovercard-url=\"/boltdb/bolt/issues/308/hovercard\"\u003esee this comment\u003c/a\u003e.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003c/ul\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"markdown-heading\" dir=\"auto\"\u003e\u003ch2 tabindex=\"-1\" class=\"heading-element\" dir=\"auto\"\u003eReading the Source\u003c/h2\u003e\u003ca id=\"user-content-reading-the-source\" class=\"anchor\" aria-label=\"Permalink: Reading the Source\" href=\"#reading-the-source\"\u003e\u003csvg class=\"octicon octicon-link\" viewBox=\"0 0 16 16\" version=\"1.1\" width=\"16\" height=\"16\" aria-hidden=\"true\"\u003e\u003cpath d=\"m7.775 3.275 1.25-1.25a3.5 3.5 0 1 1 4.95 4.95l-2.5 2.5a3.5 3.5 0 0 1-4.95 0 .751.751 0 0 1 .018-1.042.751.751 0 0 1 1.042-.018 1.998 1.998 0 0 0 2.83 0l2.5-2.5a2.002 2.002 0 0 0-2.83-2.83l-1.25 1.25a.751.751 0 0 1-1.042-.018.751.751 0 0 1-.018-1.042Zm-4.69 9.64a1.998 1.998 0 0 0 2.83 0l1.25-1.25a.751.751 0 0 1 1.042.018.751.751 0 0 1 .018 1.042l-1.25 1.25a3.5 3.5 0 1 1-4.95-4.95l2.5-2.5a3.5 3.5 0 0 1 4.95 0 .751.751 0 0 1-.018 1.042.751.751 0 0 1-1.042.018 1.998 1.998 0 0 0-2.83 0l-2.5 2.5a1.998 1.998 0 0 0 0 2.83Z\"\u003e\u003c/path\u003e\u003c/svg\u003e\u003c/a\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003cp dir=\"auto\"\u003eBolt is a relatively small code base (\u0026lt;3KLOC) for an embedded, serializable,\ntransactional key/value database so it can be a good starting point for people\ninterested in how databases work.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp dir=\"auto\"\u003eThe best places to start are the main entry points into Bolt:\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cul dir=\"auto\"\u003e\n\u003cli\u003e\n\u003cp dir=\"auto\"\u003e\u003ccode\u003eOpen()\u003c/code\u003e - Initializes the reference to the database. It's responsible for\ncreating the database if it doesn't exist, obtaining an exclusive lock on the\nfile, reading the meta pages, \u0026amp; memory-mapping the file.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003e\n\u003cp dir=\"auto\"\u003e\u003ccode\u003eDB.Begin()\u003c/code\u003e - Starts a read-only or read-write transaction depending on the\nvalue of the \u003ccode\u003ewritable\u003c/code\u003e argument. This requires briefly obtaining the \"meta\"\nlock to keep track of open transactions. Only one read-write transaction can\nexist at a time so the \"rwlock\" is acquired during the life of a read-write\ntransaction.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003e\n\u003cp dir=\"auto\"\u003e\u003ccode\u003eBucket.Put()\u003c/code\u003e - Writes a key/value pair into a bucket. After validating the\narguments, a cursor is used to traverse the B+tree to the page and position\nwhere they key \u0026amp; value will be written. Once the position is found, the bucket\nmaterializes the underlying page and the page's parent pages into memory as\n\"nodes\". These nodes are where mutations occur during read-write transactions.\nThese changes get flushed to disk during commit.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003e\n\u003cp dir=\"auto\"\u003e\u003ccode\u003eBucket.Get()\u003c/code\u003e - Retrieves a key/value pair from a bucket. This uses a cursor\nto move to the page \u0026amp; position of a key/value pair. During a read-only\ntransaction, the key and value data is returned as a direct reference to the\nunderlying mmap file so there's no allocation overhead. For read-write\ntransactions, this data may reference the mmap file or one of the in-memory\nnode values.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003e\n\u003cp dir=\"auto\"\u003e\u003ccode\u003eCursor\u003c/code\u003e - This object is simply for traversing the B+tree of on-disk pages\nor in-memory nodes. It can seek to a specific key, move to the first or last\nvalue, or it can move forward or backward. The cursor handles the movement up\nand down the B+tree transparently to the end user.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003e\n\u003cp dir=\"auto\"\u003e\u003ccode\u003eTx.Commit()\u003c/code\u003e - Converts the in-memory dirty nodes and the list of free pages\ninto pages to be written to disk. Writing to disk then occurs in two phases.\nFirst, the dirty pages are written to disk and an \u003ccode\u003efsync()\u003c/code\u003e occurs. Second, a\nnew meta page with an incremented transaction ID is written and another\n\u003ccode\u003efsync()\u003c/code\u003e occurs. This two phase write ensures that partially written data\npages are ignored in the event of a crash since the meta page pointing to them\nis never written. Partially written meta pages are invalidated because they\nare written with a checksum.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003c/ul\u003e\n\u003cp dir=\"auto\"\u003eIf you have additional notes that could be helpful for others, please submit\nthem via pull request.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"markdown-heading\" dir=\"auto\"\u003e\u003ch2 tabindex=\"-1\" class=\"heading-element\" dir=\"auto\"\u003eOther Projects Using Bolt\u003c/h2\u003e\u003ca id=\"user-content-other-projects-using-bolt\" class=\"anchor\" aria-label=\"Permalink: Other Projects Using Bolt\" href=\"#other-projects-using-bolt\"\u003e\u003csvg class=\"octicon octicon-link\" viewBox=\"0 0 16 16\" version=\"1.1\" width=\"16\" height=\"16\" aria-hidden=\"true\"\u003e\u003cpath d=\"m7.775 3.275 1.25-1.25a3.5 3.5 0 1 1 4.95 4.95l-2.5 2.5a3.5 3.5 0 0 1-4.95 0 .751.751 0 0 1 .018-1.042.751.751 0 0 1 1.042-.018 1.998 1.998 0 0 0 2.83 0l2.5-2.5a2.002 2.002 0 0 0-2.83-2.83l-1.25 1.25a.751.751 0 0 1-1.042-.018.751.751 0 0 1-.018-1.042Zm-4.69 9.64a1.998 1.998 0 0 0 2.83 0l1.25-1.25a.751.751 0 0 1 1.042.018.751.751 0 0 1 .018 1.042l-1.25 1.25a3.5 3.5 0 1 1-4.95-4.95l2.5-2.5a3.5 3.5 0 0 1 4.95 0 .751.751 0 0 1-.018 1.042.751.751 0 0 1-1.042.018 1.998 1.998 0 0 0-2.83 0l-2.5 2.5a1.998 1.998 0 0 0 0 2.83Z\"\u003e\u003c/path\u003e\u003c/svg\u003e\u003c/a\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003cp dir=\"auto\"\u003eBelow is a list of public, open source projects that use Bolt:\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cul dir=\"auto\"\u003e\n\u003cli\u003e\u003ca href=\"https://github.com/evnix/boltdbweb\"\u003eBoltDbWeb\u003c/a\u003e - A web based GUI for BoltDB files.\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003e\u003ca href=\"http://gocode.io\" rel=\"nofollow\"\u003eOperation Go: A Routine Mission\u003c/a\u003e - An online programming game for Golang using Bolt for user accounts and a leaderboard.\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003e\u003ca href=\"https://bazil.org/\" rel=\"nofollow\"\u003eBazil\u003c/a\u003e - A file system that lets your data reside where it is most convenient for it to reside.\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003e\u003ca href=\"https://github.com/janelia-flyem/dvid\"\u003eDVID\u003c/a\u003e - Added Bolt as optional storage engine and testing it against Basho-tuned leveldb.\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003e\u003ca href=\"https://github.com/skybox/skybox\"\u003eSkybox Analytics\u003c/a\u003e - A standalone funnel analysis tool for web analytics.\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003e\u003ca href=\"https://github.com/benbjohnson/scuttlebutt\"\u003eScuttlebutt\u003c/a\u003e - Uses Bolt to store and process all Twitter mentions of GitHub projects.\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003e\u003ca href=\"https://github.com/peterhellberg/wiki\"\u003eWiki\u003c/a\u003e - A tiny wiki using Goji, BoltDB and Blackfriday.\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003e\u003ca href=\"https://github.com/pressly/chainstore\"\u003eChainStore\u003c/a\u003e - Simple key-value interface to a variety of storage engines organized as a chain of operations.\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003e\u003ca href=\"https://github.com/msiebuhr/MetricBase\"\u003eMetricBase\u003c/a\u003e - Single-binary version of Graphite.\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003e\u003ca href=\"https://github.com/gitchain/gitchain\"\u003eGitchain\u003c/a\u003e - Decentralized, peer-to-peer Git repositories aka \"Git meets Bitcoin\".\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003e\u003ca href=\"https://github.com/sclasen/event-shuttle\"\u003eevent-shuttle\u003c/a\u003e - A Unix system service to collect and reliably deliver messages to Kafka.\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003e\u003ca href=\"https://github.com/kelseyhightower/ipxed\"\u003eipxed\u003c/a\u003e - Web interface and api for ipxed.\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003e\u003ca href=\"https://github.com/yosssi/boltstore\"\u003eBoltStore\u003c/a\u003e - Session store using Bolt.\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003e\u003ca href=\"https://godoc.org/bitbucket.org/kardianos/photosite/session\" rel=\"nofollow\"\u003ephotosite/session\u003c/a\u003e - Sessions for a photo viewing site.\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003e\u003ca href=\"https://github.com/siddontang/ledisdb\"\u003eLedisDB\u003c/a\u003e - A high performance NoSQL, using Bolt as optional storage.\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003e\u003ca href=\"https://github.com/AndreasBriese/ipLocator\"\u003eipLocator\u003c/a\u003e - A fast ip-geo-location-server using bolt with bloom filters.\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003e\u003ca href=\"https://github.com/google/cayley\"\u003ecayley\u003c/a\u003e - Cayley is an open-source graph database using Bolt as optional backend.\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003e\u003ca href=\"http://www.blevesearch.com/\" rel=\"nofollow\"\u003ebleve\u003c/a\u003e - A pure Go search engine similar to ElasticSearch that uses Bolt as the default storage backend.\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003e\u003ca href=\"https://github.com/optiflows/tentacool\"\u003etentacool\u003c/a\u003e - REST api server to manage system stuff (IP, DNS, Gateway...) on a linux server.\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003e\u003ca href=\"https://github.com/chrislusf/seaweedfs\"\u003eSeaweed File System\u003c/a\u003e - Highly scalable distributed key~file system with O(1) disk read.\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003e\u003ca href=\"https://influxdata.com\" rel=\"nofollow\"\u003eInfluxDB\u003c/a\u003e - Scalable datastore for metrics, events, and real-time analytics.\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003e\u003ca href=\"http://tshannon.bitbucket.org/freehold/\" rel=\"nofollow\"\u003eFreehold\u003c/a\u003e - An open, secure, and lightweight platform for your files and data.\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003e\u003ca href=\"https://github.com/oliver006/prom_annotation_server\"\u003ePrometheus Annotation Server\u003c/a\u003e - Annotation server for PromDash \u0026amp; Prometheus service monitoring system.\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003e\u003ca href=\"https://github.com/hashicorp/consul\"\u003eConsul\u003c/a\u003e - Consul is service discovery and configuration made easy. Distributed, highly available, and datacenter-aware.\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003e\u003ca href=\"https://github.com/ajvb/kala\"\u003eKala\u003c/a\u003e - Kala is a modern job scheduler optimized to run on a single node. It is persistent, JSON over HTTP API, ISO 8601 duration notation, and dependent jobs.\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003e\u003ca href=\"https://github.com/odeke-em/drive\"\u003edrive\u003c/a\u003e - drive is an unofficial Google Drive command line client for *NIX operating systems.\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003e\u003ca href=\"https://github.com/djherbis/stow\"\u003estow\u003c/a\u003e - a persistence manager for objects\nbacked by boltdb.\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003e\u003ca href=\"https://github.com/joyrexus/buckets\"\u003ebuckets\u003c/a\u003e - a bolt wrapper streamlining\nsimple tx and key scans.\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003e\u003ca href=\"https://github.com/abhigupta912/mbuckets\"\u003embuckets\u003c/a\u003e - A Bolt wrapper that allows easy operations on multi level (nested) buckets.\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003e\u003ca href=\"https://github.com/darklynx/request-baskets\"\u003eRequest Baskets\u003c/a\u003e - A web service to collect arbitrary HTTP requests and inspect them via REST API or simple web UI, similar to \u003ca href=\"http://requestb.in/\" rel=\"nofollow\"\u003eRequestBin\u003c/a\u003e service\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003e\u003ca href=\"https://goreportcard.com/\" rel=\"nofollow\"\u003eGo Report Card\u003c/a\u003e - Go code quality report cards as a (free and open source) service.\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003e\u003ca href=\"https://github.com/bobintornado/boltdb-boilerplate\"\u003eBoltdb Boilerplate\u003c/a\u003e - Boilerplate wrapper around bolt aiming to make simple calls one-liners.\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003e\u003ca href=\"https://github.com/crowdriff/lru\"\u003elru\u003c/a\u003e - Easy to use Bolt-backed Least-Recently-Used (LRU) read-through cache with chainable remote stores.\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003e\u003ca href=\"https://github.com/asdine/storm\"\u003eStorm\u003c/a\u003e - Simple and powerful ORM for BoltDB.\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003e\u003ca href=\"https://github.com/josephspurrier/gowebapp\"\u003eGoWebApp\u003c/a\u003e - A basic MVC web application in Go using BoltDB.\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003e\u003ca href=\"https://github.com/xyproto/simplebolt\"\u003eSimpleBolt\u003c/a\u003e - A simple way to use BoltDB. Deals mainly with strings.\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003e\u003ca href=\"https://github.com/xyproto/algernon\"\u003eAlgernon\u003c/a\u003e - A HTTP/2 web server with built-in support for Lua. Uses BoltDB as the default database backend.\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003e\u003ca href=\"https://github.com/dankomiocevic/mulifs\"\u003eMuLiFS\u003c/a\u003e - Music Library Filesystem creates a filesystem to organise your music files.\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003e\u003ca href=\"https://github.com/pankajkhairnar/goShort\"\u003eGoShort\u003c/a\u003e - GoShort is a URL shortener written in Golang and BoltDB for persistent key/value storage and for routing it's using high performent HTTPRouter.\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003e\u003ca href=\"https://github.com/anacrolix/torrent\"\u003etorrent\u003c/a\u003e - Full-featured BitTorrent client package and utilities in Go. BoltDB is a storage backend in development.\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003e\u003ca href=\"https://github.com/gopherpit/gopherpit\"\u003egopherpit\u003c/a\u003e - A web service to manage Go remote import paths with custom domains\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003e\u003ca href=\"https://github.com/hasit/bolter\"\u003ebolter\u003c/a\u003e - Command-line app for viewing BoltDB file in your terminal.\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003e\u003ca href=\"https://github.com/btcsuite/btcwallet\"\u003ebtcwallet\u003c/a\u003e - A bitcoin wallet.\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003e\u003ca href=\"https://github.com/decred/dcrwallet\"\u003edcrwallet\u003c/a\u003e - A wallet for the Decred cryptocurrency.\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003e\u003ca href=\"https://github.com/timshannon/ironsmith\"\u003eIronsmith\u003c/a\u003e - A simple, script-driven continuous integration (build - \u0026gt; test -\u0026gt; release) tool, with no external dependencies\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003e\u003ca href=\"https://github.com/timshannon/bolthold\"\u003eBoltHold\u003c/a\u003e - An embeddable NoSQL store for Go types built on BoltDB\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003e\u003ca href=\"https://ponzu-cms.org\" rel=\"nofollow\"\u003ePonzu CMS\u003c/a\u003e - Headless CMS + automatic JSON API with auto-HTTPS, HTTP/2 Server Push, and flexible server framework.\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003c/ul\u003e\n\u003cp dir=\"auto\"\u003eIf you are using Bolt in a project please send a pull request to add it to the list.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/article\u003e","loaded":true,"timedOut":false,"errorMessage":null,"headerInfo":{"toc":[{"level":1,"text":"Bolt ","anchor":"bolt---","htmlText":"Bolt "},{"level":2,"text":"Project Status","anchor":"project-status","htmlText":"Project Status"},{"level":2,"text":"A message from the author","anchor":"a-message-from-the-author","htmlText":"A message from the author"},{"level":2,"text":"Table of Contents","anchor":"table-of-contents","htmlText":"Table of Contents"},{"level":2,"text":"Getting Started","anchor":"getting-started","htmlText":"Getting Started"},{"level":3,"text":"Installing","anchor":"installing","htmlText":"Installing"},{"level":3,"text":"Opening a database","anchor":"opening-a-database","htmlText":"Opening a database"},{"level":3,"text":"Transactions","anchor":"transactions","htmlText":"Transactions"},{"level":4,"text":"Read-write transactions","anchor":"read-write-transactions","htmlText":"Read-write transactions"},{"level":4,"text":"Read-only transactions","anchor":"read-only-transactions","htmlText":"Read-only transactions"},{"level":4,"text":"Batch read-write transactions","anchor":"batch-read-write-transactions","htmlText":"Batch read-write transactions"},{"level":4,"text":"Managing transactions manually","anchor":"managing-transactions-manually","htmlText":"Managing transactions manually"},{"level":3,"text":"Using buckets","anchor":"using-buckets","htmlText":"Using buckets"},{"level":3,"text":"Using key/value pairs","anchor":"using-keyvalue-pairs","htmlText":"Using key/value pairs"},{"level":3,"text":"Autoincrementing integer for the bucket","anchor":"autoincrementing-integer-for-the-bucket","htmlText":"Autoincrementing integer for the bucket"},{"level":3,"text":"Iterating over keys","anchor":"iterating-over-keys","htmlText":"Iterating over keys"},{"level":4,"text":"Prefix scans","anchor":"prefix-scans","htmlText":"Prefix scans"},{"level":4,"text":"Range scans","anchor":"range-scans","htmlText":"Range scans"},{"level":4,"text":"ForEach()","anchor":"foreach","htmlText":"ForEach()"},{"level":3,"text":"Nested buckets","anchor":"nested-buckets","htmlText":"Nested buckets"},{"level":3,"text":"Database backups","anchor":"database-backups","htmlText":"Database backups"},{"level":3,"text":"Statistics","anchor":"statistics","htmlText":"Statistics"},{"level":3,"text":"Read-Only Mode","anchor":"read-only-mode","htmlText":"Read-Only Mode"},{"level":3,"text":"Mobile Use (iOS/Android)","anchor":"mobile-use-iosandroid","htmlText":"Mobile Use (iOS/Android)"},{"level":4,"text":"Android","anchor":"android","htmlText":"Android"},{"level":4,"text":"iOS","anchor":"ios","htmlText":"iOS"},{"level":2,"text":"Resources","anchor":"resources","htmlText":"Resources"},{"level":2,"text":"Comparison with other databases","anchor":"comparison-with-other-databases","htmlText":"Comparison with other databases"},{"level":3,"text":"Postgres, MySQL, \u0026 other relational databases","anchor":"postgres-mysql--other-relational-databases","htmlText":"Postgres, MySQL, \u0026amp; other relational databases"},{"level":3,"text":"LevelDB, RocksDB","anchor":"leveldb-rocksdb","htmlText":"LevelDB, RocksDB"},{"level":3,"text":"LMDB","anchor":"lmdb","htmlText":"LMDB"},{"level":2,"text":"Caveats \u0026 Limitations","anchor":"caveats--limitations","htmlText":"Caveats \u0026amp; Limitations"},{"level":2,"text":"Reading the Source","anchor":"reading-the-source","htmlText":"Reading the Source"},{"level":2,"text":"Other Projects Using Bolt","anchor":"other-projects-using-bolt","htmlText":"Other Projects Using Bolt"}],"siteNavLoginPath":"/login?return_to=https%3A%2F%2Fgithub.com%2Fboltdb%2Fbolt"}},{"displayName":"LICENSE","repoName":"bolt","refName":"master","path":"LICENSE","preferredFileType":"license","tabName":"MIT","richText":null,"loaded":false,"timedOut":false,"errorMessage":null,"headerInfo":{"toc":null,"siteNavLoginPath":"/login?return_to=https%3A%2F%2Fgithub.com%2Fboltdb%2Fbolt"}}],"overviewFilesProcessingTime":0}},"appPayload":{"helpUrl":"https://docs.github.com","findFileWorkerPath":"/assets-cdn/worker/find-file-worker-7d7eb7c71814.js","findInFileWorkerPath":"/assets-cdn/worker/find-in-file-worker-708ec8ade250.js","githubDevUrl":null,"enabled_features":{"copilot_workspace":null,"code_nav_ui_events":false,"overview_shared_code_dropdown_button":true,"react_blob_overlay":false,"accessible_code_button":true,"github_models_repo_integration":false}}}}</script> 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data-component="IconButton" type="button" aria-label="Open more actions menu" aria-haspopup="true" aria-expanded="false" tabindex="0" class="prc-Button-ButtonBase-c50BI prc-Button-IconButton-szpyj" data-loading="false" data-no-visuals="true" data-size="medium" data-variant="default" aria-describedby=":R75ab:-loading-announcement" id=":R75ab:"><svg aria-hidden="true" focusable="false" class="octicon octicon-kebab-horizontal" viewBox="0 0 16 16" width="16" height="16" fill="currentColor" display="inline-block" overflow="visible" style="vertical-align:text-bottom"><path d="M8 9a1.5 1.5 0 1 0 0-3 1.5 1.5 0 0 0 0 3ZM1.5 9a1.5 1.5 0 1 0 0-3 1.5 1.5 0 0 0 0 3Zm13 0a1.5 1.5 0 1 0 0-3 1.5 1.5 0 0 0 0 3Z"></path></svg></button></div></div></div><div class="Box-sc-g0xbh4-0 vIPPs"><div data-hpc="true"><button hidden="" data-testid="focus-next-element-button" data-hotkey="j"></button><button hidden="" data-testid="focus-previous-element-button" data-hotkey="k"></button><h2 class="sr-only ScreenReaderHeading-module__userSelectNone--vW4Cq prc-Heading-Heading-6CmGO" data-testid="screen-reader-heading" id="folders-and-files">Folders and files</h2><table aria-labelledby="folders-and-files" class="Box-sc-g0xbh4-0 fdROMU"><thead class="Box-sc-g0xbh4-0 jGKpsv"><tr class="Box-sc-g0xbh4-0 jdgHnn"><th colSpan="2" class="Box-sc-g0xbh4-0 bQivRW"><span class="text-bold">Name</span></th><th colSpan="1" class="Box-sc-g0xbh4-0 ldkMIO"><span class="text-bold">Name</span></th><th class="hide-sm"><div title="Last commit message" class="Truncate__StyledTruncate-sc-23o1d2-0 liVpTx width-fit"><span class="text-bold">Last commit message</span></div></th><th colSpan="1" class="Box-sc-g0xbh4-0 jMbWeI"><div title="Last commit date" class="Truncate__StyledTruncate-sc-23o1d2-0 liVpTx width-fit"><span class="text-bold">Last commit date</span></div></th></tr></thead><tbody><tr class="Box-sc-g0xbh4-0 gpqjiB"><td colSpan="3" class="bgColor-muted p-1 rounded-top-2"><div class="Box-sc-g0xbh4-0 dzCJzi"><h2 class="sr-only ScreenReaderHeading-module__userSelectNone--vW4Cq prc-Heading-Heading-6CmGO" data-testid="screen-reader-heading">Latest commit</h2><div style="width:120px" class="Skeleton Skeleton--text" data-testid="loading"> </div><div class="d-flex flex-shrink-0 gap-2"><div data-testid="latest-commit-details" class="d-none d-sm-flex flex-items-center"></div><div class="d-flex gap-2"><h2 class="sr-only ScreenReaderHeading-module__userSelectNone--vW4Cq prc-Heading-Heading-6CmGO" data-testid="screen-reader-heading">History</h2><a href="/boltdb/bolt/commits/master/" class="prc-Button-ButtonBase-c50BI d-none d-lg-flex LinkButton-module__code-view-link-button--xvCGA flex-items-center fgColor-default" data-loading="false" data-size="small" data-variant="invisible" aria-describedby=":Raqj8pab:-loading-announcement"><span data-component="buttonContent" data-align="center" class="prc-Button-ButtonContent-HKbr-"><span data-component="leadingVisual" class="prc-Button-Visual-2epfX prc-Button-VisualWrap-Db-eB"><svg aria-hidden="true" focusable="false" class="octicon octicon-history" viewBox="0 0 16 16" width="16" height="16" fill="currentColor" display="inline-block" overflow="visible" style="vertical-align:text-bottom"><path d="m.427 1.927 1.215 1.215a8.002 8.002 0 1 1-1.6 5.685.75.75 0 1 1 1.493-.154 6.5 6.5 0 1 0 1.18-4.458l1.358 1.358A.25.25 0 0 1 3.896 6H.25A.25.25 0 0 1 0 5.75V2.104a.25.25 0 0 1 .427-.177ZM7.75 4a.75.75 0 0 1 .75.75v2.992l2.028.812a.75.75 0 0 1-.557 1.392l-2.5-1A.751.751 0 0 1 7 8.25v-3.5A.75.75 0 0 1 7.75 4Z"></path></svg></span><span data-component="text" class="prc-Button-Label-pTQ3x"><span class="fgColor-default">816 Commits</span></span></span></a><div class="d-sm-none"></div><div class="d-flex d-lg-none"><span role="tooltip" aria-label="816 Commits" id="history-icon-button-tooltip" class="Tooltip__TooltipBase-sc-17tf59c-0 hWlpPn tooltipped-n"><a href="/boltdb/bolt/commits/master/" class="prc-Button-ButtonBase-c50BI 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class="react-directory-row-commit-cell"><div class="Skeleton Skeleton--text"> </div></td><td><div class="Skeleton Skeleton--text"> </div></td></tr><tr class="react-directory-row truncate-for-mobile" id="folder-row-26"><td class="react-directory-row-name-cell-small-screen" colSpan="2"><div class="react-directory-filename-column"><svg aria-hidden="true" focusable="false" class="octicon octicon-file color-fg-muted" viewBox="0 0 16 16" width="16" height="16" fill="currentColor" display="inline-block" overflow="visible" style="vertical-align:text-bottom"><path d="M2 1.75C2 .784 2.784 0 3.75 0h6.586c.464 0 .909.184 1.237.513l2.914 2.914c.329.328.513.773.513 1.237v9.586A1.75 1.75 0 0 1 13.25 16h-9.5A1.75 1.75 0 0 1 2 14.25Zm1.75-.25a.25.25 0 0 0-.25.25v12.5c0 .138.112.25.25.25h9.5a.25.25 0 0 0 .25-.25V6h-2.75A1.75 1.75 0 0 1 9 4.25V1.5Zm6.75.062V4.25c0 .138.112.25.25.25h2.688l-.011-.013-2.914-2.914-.013-.011Z"></path></svg><div class="overflow-hidden"><div 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class="markdown-body entry-content container-lg" itemprop="text"><div class="markdown-heading" dir="auto"><h1 tabindex="-1" class="heading-element" dir="auto">Bolt <a href="https://coveralls.io/r/boltdb/bolt?branch=master" rel="nofollow"><img src="https://camo.githubusercontent.com/b12242f71415748f1e82f8f767364aa7616529c7293c3faed99ebc2ec829bf2f/68747470733a2f2f636f766572616c6c732e696f2f7265706f732f626f6c7464622f626f6c742f62616467652e7376673f6272616e63683d6d6173746572" alt="Coverage Status" data-canonical-src="https://coveralls.io/repos/boltdb/bolt/badge.svg?branch=master" style="max-width: 100%;"></a> <a href="https://godoc.org/github.com/boltdb/bolt" rel="nofollow"><img src="https://camo.githubusercontent.com/7ae05ff4f1658335bea4dbc8df3fe9c159d4f707b94146df681fda29eb97c96f/68747470733a2f2f676f646f632e6f72672f6769746875622e636f6d2f626f6c7464622f626f6c743f7374617475732e737667" alt="GoDoc" data-canonical-src="https://godoc.org/github.com/boltdb/bolt?status.svg" style="max-width: 100%;"></a> <a target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer nofollow" href="https://camo.githubusercontent.com/01d5f34f4fb2d384438b90e0de3ef68025727cbbdd1a71e21792bd066bc97acf/68747470733a2f2f696d672e736869656c64732e696f2f62616467652f76657273696f6e2d312e322e312d677265656e2e737667"><img src="https://camo.githubusercontent.com/01d5f34f4fb2d384438b90e0de3ef68025727cbbdd1a71e21792bd066bc97acf/68747470733a2f2f696d672e736869656c64732e696f2f62616467652f76657273696f6e2d312e322e312d677265656e2e737667" alt="Version" data-canonical-src="https://img.shields.io/badge/version-1.2.1-green.svg" style="max-width: 100%;"></a></h1><a id="user-content-bolt---" class="anchor" aria-label="Permalink: Bolt " href="#bolt---"><svg class="octicon octicon-link" viewBox="0 0 16 16" version="1.1" width="16" height="16" aria-hidden="true"><path d="m7.775 3.275 1.25-1.25a3.5 3.5 0 1 1 4.95 4.95l-2.5 2.5a3.5 3.5 0 0 1-4.95 0 .751.751 0 0 1 .018-1.042.751.751 0 0 1 1.042-.018 1.998 1.998 0 0 0 2.83 0l2.5-2.5a2.002 2.002 0 0 0-2.83-2.83l-1.25 1.25a.751.751 0 0 1-1.042-.018.751.751 0 0 1-.018-1.042Zm-4.69 9.64a1.998 1.998 0 0 0 2.83 0l1.25-1.25a.751.751 0 0 1 1.042.018.751.751 0 0 1 .018 1.042l-1.25 1.25a3.5 3.5 0 1 1-4.95-4.95l2.5-2.5a3.5 3.5 0 0 1 4.95 0 .751.751 0 0 1-.018 1.042.751.751 0 0 1-1.042.018 1.998 1.998 0 0 0-2.83 0l-2.5 2.5a1.998 1.998 0 0 0 0 2.83Z"></path></svg></a></div> <p dir="auto">Bolt is a pure Go key/value store inspired by <a href="https://twitter.com/hyc_symas" rel="nofollow">Howard Chu's</a> <a href="http://symas.com/mdb/" rel="nofollow">LMDB project</a>. The goal of the project is to provide a simple, fast, and reliable database for projects that don't require a full database server such as Postgres or MySQL.</p> <p dir="auto">Since Bolt is meant to be used as such a low-level piece of functionality, simplicity is key. The API will be small and only focus on getting values and setting values. That's it.</p> <div class="markdown-heading" dir="auto"><h2 tabindex="-1" class="heading-element" dir="auto">Project Status</h2><a id="user-content-project-status" class="anchor" aria-label="Permalink: Project Status" href="#project-status"><svg class="octicon octicon-link" viewBox="0 0 16 16" version="1.1" width="16" height="16" aria-hidden="true"><path d="m7.775 3.275 1.25-1.25a3.5 3.5 0 1 1 4.95 4.95l-2.5 2.5a3.5 3.5 0 0 1-4.95 0 .751.751 0 0 1 .018-1.042.751.751 0 0 1 1.042-.018 1.998 1.998 0 0 0 2.83 0l2.5-2.5a2.002 2.002 0 0 0-2.83-2.83l-1.25 1.25a.751.751 0 0 1-1.042-.018.751.751 0 0 1-.018-1.042Zm-4.69 9.64a1.998 1.998 0 0 0 2.83 0l1.25-1.25a.751.751 0 0 1 1.042.018.751.751 0 0 1 .018 1.042l-1.25 1.25a3.5 3.5 0 1 1-4.95-4.95l2.5-2.5a3.5 3.5 0 0 1 4.95 0 .751.751 0 0 1-.018 1.042.751.751 0 0 1-1.042.018 1.998 1.998 0 0 0-2.83 0l-2.5 2.5a1.998 1.998 0 0 0 0 2.83Z"></path></svg></a></div> <p dir="auto">Bolt is stable, the API is fixed, and the file format is fixed. Full unit test coverage and randomized black box testing are used to ensure database consistency and thread safety. Bolt is currently used in high-load production environments serving databases as large as 1TB. Many companies such as Shopify and Heroku use Bolt-backed services every day.</p> <div class="markdown-heading" dir="auto"><h2 tabindex="-1" class="heading-element" dir="auto">A message from the author</h2><a id="user-content-a-message-from-the-author" class="anchor" aria-label="Permalink: A message from the author" href="#a-message-from-the-author"><svg class="octicon octicon-link" viewBox="0 0 16 16" version="1.1" width="16" height="16" aria-hidden="true"><path d="m7.775 3.275 1.25-1.25a3.5 3.5 0 1 1 4.95 4.95l-2.5 2.5a3.5 3.5 0 0 1-4.95 0 .751.751 0 0 1 .018-1.042.751.751 0 0 1 1.042-.018 1.998 1.998 0 0 0 2.83 0l2.5-2.5a2.002 2.002 0 0 0-2.83-2.83l-1.25 1.25a.751.751 0 0 1-1.042-.018.751.751 0 0 1-.018-1.042Zm-4.69 9.64a1.998 1.998 0 0 0 2.83 0l1.25-1.25a.751.751 0 0 1 1.042.018.751.751 0 0 1 .018 1.042l-1.25 1.25a3.5 3.5 0 1 1-4.95-4.95l2.5-2.5a3.5 3.5 0 0 1 4.95 0 .751.751 0 0 1-.018 1.042.751.751 0 0 1-1.042.018 1.998 1.998 0 0 0-2.83 0l-2.5 2.5a1.998 1.998 0 0 0 0 2.83Z"></path></svg></a></div> <blockquote> <p dir="auto">The original goal of Bolt was to provide a simple pure Go key/value store and to not bloat the code with extraneous features. To that end, the project has been a success. However, this limited scope also means that the project is complete.</p> <p dir="auto">Maintaining an open source database requires an immense amount of time and energy. Changes to the code can have unintended and sometimes catastrophic effects so even simple changes require hours and hours of careful testing and validation.</p> <p dir="auto">Unfortunately I no longer have the time or energy to continue this work. Bolt is in a stable state and has years of successful production use. As such, I feel that leaving it in its current state is the most prudent course of action.</p> <p dir="auto">If you are interested in using a more featureful version of Bolt, I suggest that you look at the CoreOS fork called <a href="https://github.com/coreos/bbolt">bbolt</a>.</p> </blockquote> <ul dir="auto"> <li>Ben Johnson (<a href="https://twitter.com/benbjohnson" rel="nofollow">@benbjohnson</a>)</li> </ul> <div class="markdown-heading" dir="auto"><h2 tabindex="-1" class="heading-element" dir="auto">Table of Contents</h2><a id="user-content-table-of-contents" class="anchor" aria-label="Permalink: Table of Contents" href="#table-of-contents"><svg class="octicon octicon-link" viewBox="0 0 16 16" version="1.1" width="16" height="16" aria-hidden="true"><path d="m7.775 3.275 1.25-1.25a3.5 3.5 0 1 1 4.95 4.95l-2.5 2.5a3.5 3.5 0 0 1-4.95 0 .751.751 0 0 1 .018-1.042.751.751 0 0 1 1.042-.018 1.998 1.998 0 0 0 2.83 0l2.5-2.5a2.002 2.002 0 0 0-2.83-2.83l-1.25 1.25a.751.751 0 0 1-1.042-.018.751.751 0 0 1-.018-1.042Zm-4.69 9.64a1.998 1.998 0 0 0 2.83 0l1.25-1.25a.751.751 0 0 1 1.042.018.751.751 0 0 1 .018 1.042l-1.25 1.25a3.5 3.5 0 1 1-4.95-4.95l2.5-2.5a3.5 3.5 0 0 1 4.95 0 .751.751 0 0 1-.018 1.042.751.751 0 0 1-1.042.018 1.998 1.998 0 0 0-2.83 0l-2.5 2.5a1.998 1.998 0 0 0 0 2.83Z"></path></svg></a></div> <ul dir="auto"> <li><a href="#getting-started">Getting Started</a> <ul dir="auto"> <li><a href="#installing">Installing</a></li> <li><a href="#opening-a-database">Opening a database</a></li> <li><a href="#transactions">Transactions</a> <ul dir="auto"> <li><a href="#read-write-transactions">Read-write transactions</a></li> <li><a href="#read-only-transactions">Read-only transactions</a></li> <li><a href="#batch-read-write-transactions">Batch read-write transactions</a></li> <li><a href="#managing-transactions-manually">Managing transactions manually</a></li> </ul> </li> <li><a href="#using-buckets">Using buckets</a></li> <li><a href="#using-keyvalue-pairs">Using key/value pairs</a></li> <li><a href="#autoincrementing-integer-for-the-bucket">Autoincrementing integer for the bucket</a></li> <li><a href="#iterating-over-keys">Iterating over keys</a> <ul dir="auto"> <li><a href="#prefix-scans">Prefix scans</a></li> <li><a href="#range-scans">Range scans</a></li> <li><a href="#foreach">ForEach()</a></li> </ul> </li> <li><a href="#nested-buckets">Nested buckets</a></li> <li><a href="#database-backups">Database backups</a></li> <li><a href="#statistics">Statistics</a></li> <li><a href="#read-only-mode">Read-Only Mode</a></li> <li><a href="#mobile-use-iosandroid">Mobile Use (iOS/Android)</a></li> </ul> </li> <li><a href="#resources">Resources</a></li> <li><a href="#comparison-with-other-databases">Comparison with other databases</a> <ul dir="auto"> <li><a href="#postgres-mysql--other-relational-databases">Postgres, MySQL, & other relational databases</a></li> <li><a href="#leveldb-rocksdb">LevelDB, RocksDB</a></li> <li><a href="#lmdb">LMDB</a></li> </ul> </li> <li><a href="#caveats--limitations">Caveats & Limitations</a></li> <li><a href="#reading-the-source">Reading the Source</a></li> <li><a href="#other-projects-using-bolt">Other Projects Using Bolt</a></li> </ul> <div class="markdown-heading" dir="auto"><h2 tabindex="-1" class="heading-element" dir="auto">Getting Started</h2><a id="user-content-getting-started" class="anchor" aria-label="Permalink: Getting Started" href="#getting-started"><svg class="octicon octicon-link" viewBox="0 0 16 16" version="1.1" width="16" height="16" aria-hidden="true"><path d="m7.775 3.275 1.25-1.25a3.5 3.5 0 1 1 4.95 4.95l-2.5 2.5a3.5 3.5 0 0 1-4.95 0 .751.751 0 0 1 .018-1.042.751.751 0 0 1 1.042-.018 1.998 1.998 0 0 0 2.83 0l2.5-2.5a2.002 2.002 0 0 0-2.83-2.83l-1.25 1.25a.751.751 0 0 1-1.042-.018.751.751 0 0 1-.018-1.042Zm-4.69 9.64a1.998 1.998 0 0 0 2.83 0l1.25-1.25a.751.751 0 0 1 1.042.018.751.751 0 0 1 .018 1.042l-1.25 1.25a3.5 3.5 0 1 1-4.95-4.95l2.5-2.5a3.5 3.5 0 0 1 4.95 0 .751.751 0 0 1-.018 1.042.751.751 0 0 1-1.042.018 1.998 1.998 0 0 0-2.83 0l-2.5 2.5a1.998 1.998 0 0 0 0 2.83Z"></path></svg></a></div> <div class="markdown-heading" dir="auto"><h3 tabindex="-1" class="heading-element" dir="auto">Installing</h3><a id="user-content-installing" class="anchor" aria-label="Permalink: Installing" href="#installing"><svg class="octicon octicon-link" viewBox="0 0 16 16" version="1.1" width="16" height="16" aria-hidden="true"><path d="m7.775 3.275 1.25-1.25a3.5 3.5 0 1 1 4.95 4.95l-2.5 2.5a3.5 3.5 0 0 1-4.95 0 .751.751 0 0 1 .018-1.042.751.751 0 0 1 1.042-.018 1.998 1.998 0 0 0 2.83 0l2.5-2.5a2.002 2.002 0 0 0-2.83-2.83l-1.25 1.25a.751.751 0 0 1-1.042-.018.751.751 0 0 1-.018-1.042Zm-4.69 9.64a1.998 1.998 0 0 0 2.83 0l1.25-1.25a.751.751 0 0 1 1.042.018.751.751 0 0 1 .018 1.042l-1.25 1.25a3.5 3.5 0 1 1-4.95-4.95l2.5-2.5a3.5 3.5 0 0 1 4.95 0 .751.751 0 0 1-.018 1.042.751.751 0 0 1-1.042.018 1.998 1.998 0 0 0-2.83 0l-2.5 2.5a1.998 1.998 0 0 0 0 2.83Z"></path></svg></a></div> <p dir="auto">To start using Bolt, install Go and run <code>go get</code>:</p> <div class="highlight highlight-source-shell notranslate position-relative overflow-auto" dir="auto" data-snippet-clipboard-copy-content="$ go get github.com/boltdb/bolt/..."><pre>$ go get github.com/boltdb/bolt/...</pre></div> <p dir="auto">This will retrieve the library and install the <code>bolt</code> command line utility into your <code>$GOBIN</code> path.</p> <div class="markdown-heading" dir="auto"><h3 tabindex="-1" class="heading-element" dir="auto">Opening a database</h3><a id="user-content-opening-a-database" class="anchor" aria-label="Permalink: Opening a database" href="#opening-a-database"><svg class="octicon octicon-link" viewBox="0 0 16 16" version="1.1" width="16" height="16" aria-hidden="true"><path d="m7.775 3.275 1.25-1.25a3.5 3.5 0 1 1 4.95 4.95l-2.5 2.5a3.5 3.5 0 0 1-4.95 0 .751.751 0 0 1 .018-1.042.751.751 0 0 1 1.042-.018 1.998 1.998 0 0 0 2.83 0l2.5-2.5a2.002 2.002 0 0 0-2.83-2.83l-1.25 1.25a.751.751 0 0 1-1.042-.018.751.751 0 0 1-.018-1.042Zm-4.69 9.64a1.998 1.998 0 0 0 2.83 0l1.25-1.25a.751.751 0 0 1 1.042.018.751.751 0 0 1 .018 1.042l-1.25 1.25a3.5 3.5 0 1 1-4.95-4.95l2.5-2.5a3.5 3.5 0 0 1 4.95 0 .751.751 0 0 1-.018 1.042.751.751 0 0 1-1.042.018 1.998 1.998 0 0 0-2.83 0l-2.5 2.5a1.998 1.998 0 0 0 0 2.83Z"></path></svg></a></div> <p dir="auto">The top-level object in Bolt is a <code>DB</code>. It is represented as a single file on your disk and represents a consistent snapshot of your data.</p> <p dir="auto">To open your database, simply use the <code>bolt.Open()</code> function:</p> <div class="highlight highlight-source-go notranslate position-relative overflow-auto" dir="auto" data-snippet-clipboard-copy-content="package main import ( "log" "github.com/boltdb/bolt" ) func main() { // Open the my.db data file in your current directory. // It will be created if it doesn't exist. db, err := bolt.Open("my.db", 0600, nil) if err != nil { log.Fatal(err) } defer db.Close() ... }"><pre><span class="pl-k">package</span> main <span class="pl-k">import</span> ( <span class="pl-s">"log"</span> <span class="pl-s">"github.com/boltdb/bolt"</span> ) <span class="pl-k">func</span> <span class="pl-s1">main</span>() { <span class="pl-c">// Open the my.db data file in your current directory.</span> <span class="pl-c">// It will be created if it doesn't exist.</span> <span class="pl-s1">db</span>, <span class="pl-s1">err</span> <span class="pl-c1">:=</span> <span class="pl-s1">bolt</span>.<span class="pl-c1">Open</span>(<span class="pl-s">"my.db"</span>, <span class="pl-c1">0600</span>, <span class="pl-c1">nil</span>) <span class="pl-k">if</span> <span class="pl-s1">err</span> <span class="pl-c1">!=</span> <span class="pl-c1">nil</span> { <span class="pl-s1">log</span>.<span class="pl-c1">Fatal</span>(<span class="pl-s1">err</span>) } <span class="pl-k">defer</span> <span class="pl-s1">db</span>.<span class="pl-c1">Close</span>() <span class="pl-c1">...</span> }</pre></div> <p dir="auto">Please note that Bolt obtains a file lock on the data file so multiple processes cannot open the same database at the same time. Opening an already open Bolt database will cause it to hang until the other process closes it. To prevent an indefinite wait you can pass a timeout option to the <code>Open()</code> function:</p> <div class="highlight highlight-source-go notranslate position-relative overflow-auto" dir="auto" data-snippet-clipboard-copy-content="db, err := bolt.Open("my.db", 0600, &bolt.Options{Timeout: 1 * time.Second})"><pre><span class="pl-s1">db</span>, <span class="pl-s1">err</span> <span class="pl-c1">:=</span> <span class="pl-s1">bolt</span>.<span class="pl-c1">Open</span>(<span class="pl-s">"my.db"</span>, <span class="pl-c1">0600</span>, <span class="pl-c1">&</span>bolt.<span class="pl-smi">Options</span>{<span class="pl-s1">Timeout</span>: <span class="pl-c1">1</span> <span class="pl-c1">*</span> <span class="pl-s1">time</span>.<span class="pl-c1">Second</span>})</pre></div> <div class="markdown-heading" dir="auto"><h3 tabindex="-1" class="heading-element" dir="auto">Transactions</h3><a id="user-content-transactions" class="anchor" aria-label="Permalink: Transactions" href="#transactions"><svg class="octicon octicon-link" viewBox="0 0 16 16" version="1.1" width="16" height="16" aria-hidden="true"><path d="m7.775 3.275 1.25-1.25a3.5 3.5 0 1 1 4.95 4.95l-2.5 2.5a3.5 3.5 0 0 1-4.95 0 .751.751 0 0 1 .018-1.042.751.751 0 0 1 1.042-.018 1.998 1.998 0 0 0 2.83 0l2.5-2.5a2.002 2.002 0 0 0-2.83-2.83l-1.25 1.25a.751.751 0 0 1-1.042-.018.751.751 0 0 1-.018-1.042Zm-4.69 9.64a1.998 1.998 0 0 0 2.83 0l1.25-1.25a.751.751 0 0 1 1.042.018.751.751 0 0 1 .018 1.042l-1.25 1.25a3.5 3.5 0 1 1-4.95-4.95l2.5-2.5a3.5 3.5 0 0 1 4.95 0 .751.751 0 0 1-.018 1.042.751.751 0 0 1-1.042.018 1.998 1.998 0 0 0-2.83 0l-2.5 2.5a1.998 1.998 0 0 0 0 2.83Z"></path></svg></a></div> <p dir="auto">Bolt allows only one read-write transaction at a time but allows as many read-only transactions as you want at a time. Each transaction has a consistent view of the data as it existed when the transaction started.</p> <p dir="auto">Individual transactions and all objects created from them (e.g. buckets, keys) are not thread safe. To work with data in multiple goroutines you must start a transaction for each one or use locking to ensure only one goroutine accesses a transaction at a time. Creating transaction from the <code>DB</code> is thread safe.</p> <p dir="auto">Read-only transactions and read-write transactions should not depend on one another and generally shouldn't be opened simultaneously in the same goroutine. This can cause a deadlock as the read-write transaction needs to periodically re-map the data file but it cannot do so while a read-only transaction is open.</p> <div class="markdown-heading" dir="auto"><h4 tabindex="-1" class="heading-element" dir="auto">Read-write transactions</h4><a id="user-content-read-write-transactions" class="anchor" aria-label="Permalink: Read-write transactions" href="#read-write-transactions"><svg class="octicon octicon-link" viewBox="0 0 16 16" version="1.1" width="16" height="16" aria-hidden="true"><path d="m7.775 3.275 1.25-1.25a3.5 3.5 0 1 1 4.95 4.95l-2.5 2.5a3.5 3.5 0 0 1-4.95 0 .751.751 0 0 1 .018-1.042.751.751 0 0 1 1.042-.018 1.998 1.998 0 0 0 2.83 0l2.5-2.5a2.002 2.002 0 0 0-2.83-2.83l-1.25 1.25a.751.751 0 0 1-1.042-.018.751.751 0 0 1-.018-1.042Zm-4.69 9.64a1.998 1.998 0 0 0 2.83 0l1.25-1.25a.751.751 0 0 1 1.042.018.751.751 0 0 1 .018 1.042l-1.25 1.25a3.5 3.5 0 1 1-4.95-4.95l2.5-2.5a3.5 3.5 0 0 1 4.95 0 .751.751 0 0 1-.018 1.042.751.751 0 0 1-1.042.018 1.998 1.998 0 0 0-2.83 0l-2.5 2.5a1.998 1.998 0 0 0 0 2.83Z"></path></svg></a></div> <p dir="auto">To start a read-write transaction, you can use the <code>DB.Update()</code> function:</p> <div class="highlight highlight-source-go notranslate position-relative overflow-auto" dir="auto" data-snippet-clipboard-copy-content="err := db.Update(func(tx *bolt.Tx) error { ... return nil })"><pre><span class="pl-s1">err</span> <span class="pl-c1">:=</span> <span class="pl-s1">db</span>.<span class="pl-c1">Update</span>(<span class="pl-k">func</span>(<span class="pl-s1">tx</span> <span class="pl-c1">*</span>bolt.<span class="pl-smi">Tx</span>) <span class="pl-smi">error</span> { <span class="pl-c1">...</span> <span class="pl-k">return</span> <span class="pl-c1">nil</span> })</pre></div> <p dir="auto">Inside the closure, you have a consistent view of the database. You commit the transaction by returning <code>nil</code> at the end. You can also rollback the transaction at any point by returning an error. All database operations are allowed inside a read-write transaction.</p> <p dir="auto">Always check the return error as it will report any disk failures that can cause your transaction to not complete. If you return an error within your closure it will be passed through.</p> <div class="markdown-heading" dir="auto"><h4 tabindex="-1" class="heading-element" dir="auto">Read-only transactions</h4><a id="user-content-read-only-transactions" class="anchor" aria-label="Permalink: Read-only transactions" href="#read-only-transactions"><svg class="octicon octicon-link" viewBox="0 0 16 16" version="1.1" width="16" height="16" aria-hidden="true"><path d="m7.775 3.275 1.25-1.25a3.5 3.5 0 1 1 4.95 4.95l-2.5 2.5a3.5 3.5 0 0 1-4.95 0 .751.751 0 0 1 .018-1.042.751.751 0 0 1 1.042-.018 1.998 1.998 0 0 0 2.83 0l2.5-2.5a2.002 2.002 0 0 0-2.83-2.83l-1.25 1.25a.751.751 0 0 1-1.042-.018.751.751 0 0 1-.018-1.042Zm-4.69 9.64a1.998 1.998 0 0 0 2.83 0l1.25-1.25a.751.751 0 0 1 1.042.018.751.751 0 0 1 .018 1.042l-1.25 1.25a3.5 3.5 0 1 1-4.95-4.95l2.5-2.5a3.5 3.5 0 0 1 4.95 0 .751.751 0 0 1-.018 1.042.751.751 0 0 1-1.042.018 1.998 1.998 0 0 0-2.83 0l-2.5 2.5a1.998 1.998 0 0 0 0 2.83Z"></path></svg></a></div> <p dir="auto">To start a read-only transaction, you can use the <code>DB.View()</code> function:</p> <div class="highlight highlight-source-go notranslate position-relative overflow-auto" dir="auto" data-snippet-clipboard-copy-content="err := db.View(func(tx *bolt.Tx) error { ... return nil })"><pre><span class="pl-s1">err</span> <span class="pl-c1">:=</span> <span class="pl-s1">db</span>.<span class="pl-c1">View</span>(<span class="pl-k">func</span>(<span class="pl-s1">tx</span> <span class="pl-c1">*</span>bolt.<span class="pl-smi">Tx</span>) <span class="pl-smi">error</span> { <span class="pl-c1">...</span> <span class="pl-k">return</span> <span class="pl-c1">nil</span> })</pre></div> <p dir="auto">You also get a consistent view of the database within this closure, however, no mutating operations are allowed within a read-only transaction. You can only retrieve buckets, retrieve values, and copy the database within a read-only transaction.</p> <div class="markdown-heading" dir="auto"><h4 tabindex="-1" class="heading-element" dir="auto">Batch read-write transactions</h4><a id="user-content-batch-read-write-transactions" class="anchor" aria-label="Permalink: Batch read-write transactions" href="#batch-read-write-transactions"><svg class="octicon octicon-link" viewBox="0 0 16 16" version="1.1" width="16" height="16" aria-hidden="true"><path d="m7.775 3.275 1.25-1.25a3.5 3.5 0 1 1 4.95 4.95l-2.5 2.5a3.5 3.5 0 0 1-4.95 0 .751.751 0 0 1 .018-1.042.751.751 0 0 1 1.042-.018 1.998 1.998 0 0 0 2.83 0l2.5-2.5a2.002 2.002 0 0 0-2.83-2.83l-1.25 1.25a.751.751 0 0 1-1.042-.018.751.751 0 0 1-.018-1.042Zm-4.69 9.64a1.998 1.998 0 0 0 2.83 0l1.25-1.25a.751.751 0 0 1 1.042.018.751.751 0 0 1 .018 1.042l-1.25 1.25a3.5 3.5 0 1 1-4.95-4.95l2.5-2.5a3.5 3.5 0 0 1 4.95 0 .751.751 0 0 1-.018 1.042.751.751 0 0 1-1.042.018 1.998 1.998 0 0 0-2.83 0l-2.5 2.5a1.998 1.998 0 0 0 0 2.83Z"></path></svg></a></div> <p dir="auto">Each <code>DB.Update()</code> waits for disk to commit the writes. This overhead can be minimized by combining multiple updates with the <code>DB.Batch()</code> function:</p> <div class="highlight highlight-source-go notranslate position-relative overflow-auto" dir="auto" data-snippet-clipboard-copy-content="err := db.Batch(func(tx *bolt.Tx) error { ... return nil })"><pre><span class="pl-s1">err</span> <span class="pl-c1">:=</span> <span class="pl-s1">db</span>.<span class="pl-c1">Batch</span>(<span class="pl-k">func</span>(<span class="pl-s1">tx</span> <span class="pl-c1">*</span>bolt.<span class="pl-smi">Tx</span>) <span class="pl-smi">error</span> { <span class="pl-c1">...</span> <span class="pl-k">return</span> <span class="pl-c1">nil</span> })</pre></div> <p dir="auto">Concurrent Batch calls are opportunistically combined into larger transactions. Batch is only useful when there are multiple goroutines calling it.</p> <p dir="auto">The trade-off is that <code>Batch</code> can call the given function multiple times, if parts of the transaction fail. The function must be idempotent and side effects must take effect only after a successful return from <code>DB.Batch()</code>.</p> <p dir="auto">For example: don't display messages from inside the function, instead set variables in the enclosing scope:</p> <div class="highlight highlight-source-go notranslate position-relative overflow-auto" dir="auto" data-snippet-clipboard-copy-content="var id uint64 err := db.Batch(func(tx *bolt.Tx) error { // Find last key in bucket, decode as bigendian uint64, increment // by one, encode back to []byte, and add new key. ... id = newValue return nil }) if err != nil { return ... } fmt.Println("Allocated ID %d", id)"><pre><span class="pl-k">var</span> <span class="pl-s1">id</span> <span class="pl-smi">uint64</span> <span class="pl-s1">err</span> <span class="pl-c1">:=</span> <span class="pl-s1">db</span>.<span class="pl-c1">Batch</span>(<span class="pl-k">func</span>(<span class="pl-s1">tx</span> <span class="pl-c1">*</span>bolt.<span class="pl-smi">Tx</span>) <span class="pl-smi">error</span> { <span class="pl-c">// Find last key in bucket, decode as bigendian uint64, increment</span> <span class="pl-c">// by one, encode back to []byte, and add new key.</span> <span class="pl-c1">...</span> <span class="pl-s1">id</span> <span class="pl-c1">=</span> <span class="pl-s1">newValue</span> <span class="pl-k">return</span> <span class="pl-c1">nil</span> }) <span class="pl-k">if</span> <span class="pl-s1">err</span> <span class="pl-c1">!=</span> <span class="pl-c1">nil</span> { <span class="pl-k">return</span> <span class="pl-c1">...</span> } <span class="pl-s1">fmt</span>.<span class="pl-c1">Println</span>(<span class="pl-s">"Allocated ID %d"</span>, <span class="pl-s1">id</span>)</pre></div> <div class="markdown-heading" dir="auto"><h4 tabindex="-1" class="heading-element" dir="auto">Managing transactions manually</h4><a id="user-content-managing-transactions-manually" class="anchor" aria-label="Permalink: Managing transactions manually" href="#managing-transactions-manually"><svg class="octicon octicon-link" viewBox="0 0 16 16" version="1.1" width="16" height="16" aria-hidden="true"><path d="m7.775 3.275 1.25-1.25a3.5 3.5 0 1 1 4.95 4.95l-2.5 2.5a3.5 3.5 0 0 1-4.95 0 .751.751 0 0 1 .018-1.042.751.751 0 0 1 1.042-.018 1.998 1.998 0 0 0 2.83 0l2.5-2.5a2.002 2.002 0 0 0-2.83-2.83l-1.25 1.25a.751.751 0 0 1-1.042-.018.751.751 0 0 1-.018-1.042Zm-4.69 9.64a1.998 1.998 0 0 0 2.83 0l1.25-1.25a.751.751 0 0 1 1.042.018.751.751 0 0 1 .018 1.042l-1.25 1.25a3.5 3.5 0 1 1-4.95-4.95l2.5-2.5a3.5 3.5 0 0 1 4.95 0 .751.751 0 0 1-.018 1.042.751.751 0 0 1-1.042.018 1.998 1.998 0 0 0-2.83 0l-2.5 2.5a1.998 1.998 0 0 0 0 2.83Z"></path></svg></a></div> <p dir="auto">The <code>DB.View()</code> and <code>DB.Update()</code> functions are wrappers around the <code>DB.Begin()</code> function. These helper functions will start the transaction, execute a function, and then safely close your transaction if an error is returned. This is the recommended way to use Bolt transactions.</p> <p dir="auto">However, sometimes you may want to manually start and end your transactions. You can use the <code>DB.Begin()</code> function directly but <strong>please</strong> be sure to close the transaction.</p> <div class="highlight highlight-source-go notranslate position-relative overflow-auto" dir="auto" data-snippet-clipboard-copy-content="// Start a writable transaction. tx, err := db.Begin(true) if err != nil { return err } defer tx.Rollback() // Use the transaction... _, err := tx.CreateBucket([]byte("MyBucket")) if err != nil { return err } // Commit the transaction and check for error. if err := tx.Commit(); err != nil { return err }"><pre><span class="pl-c">// Start a writable transaction.</span> <span class="pl-s1">tx</span>, <span class="pl-s1">err</span> <span class="pl-c1">:=</span> <span class="pl-s1">db</span>.<span class="pl-c1">Begin</span>(<span class="pl-c1">true</span>) <span class="pl-k">if</span> <span class="pl-s1">err</span> <span class="pl-c1">!=</span> <span class="pl-c1">nil</span> { <span class="pl-k">return</span> <span class="pl-s1">err</span> } <span class="pl-k">defer</span> <span class="pl-s1">tx</span>.<span class="pl-c1">Rollback</span>() <span class="pl-c">// Use the transaction...</span> <span class="pl-s1">_</span>, <span class="pl-s1">err</span> <span class="pl-c1">:=</span> <span class="pl-s1">tx</span>.<span class="pl-c1">CreateBucket</span>([]<span class="pl-smi">byte</span>(<span class="pl-s">"MyBucket"</span>)) <span class="pl-k">if</span> <span class="pl-s1">err</span> <span class="pl-c1">!=</span> <span class="pl-c1">nil</span> { <span class="pl-k">return</span> <span class="pl-s1">err</span> } <span class="pl-c">// Commit the transaction and check for error.</span> <span class="pl-k">if</span> <span class="pl-s1">err</span> <span class="pl-c1">:=</span> <span class="pl-s1">tx</span>.<span class="pl-c1">Commit</span>(); <span class="pl-s1">err</span> <span class="pl-c1">!=</span> <span class="pl-c1">nil</span> { <span class="pl-k">return</span> <span class="pl-s1">err</span> }</pre></div> <p dir="auto">The first argument to <code>DB.Begin()</code> is a boolean stating if the transaction should be writable.</p> <div class="markdown-heading" dir="auto"><h3 tabindex="-1" class="heading-element" dir="auto">Using buckets</h3><a id="user-content-using-buckets" class="anchor" aria-label="Permalink: Using buckets" href="#using-buckets"><svg class="octicon octicon-link" viewBox="0 0 16 16" version="1.1" width="16" height="16" aria-hidden="true"><path d="m7.775 3.275 1.25-1.25a3.5 3.5 0 1 1 4.95 4.95l-2.5 2.5a3.5 3.5 0 0 1-4.95 0 .751.751 0 0 1 .018-1.042.751.751 0 0 1 1.042-.018 1.998 1.998 0 0 0 2.83 0l2.5-2.5a2.002 2.002 0 0 0-2.83-2.83l-1.25 1.25a.751.751 0 0 1-1.042-.018.751.751 0 0 1-.018-1.042Zm-4.69 9.64a1.998 1.998 0 0 0 2.83 0l1.25-1.25a.751.751 0 0 1 1.042.018.751.751 0 0 1 .018 1.042l-1.25 1.25a3.5 3.5 0 1 1-4.95-4.95l2.5-2.5a3.5 3.5 0 0 1 4.95 0 .751.751 0 0 1-.018 1.042.751.751 0 0 1-1.042.018 1.998 1.998 0 0 0-2.83 0l-2.5 2.5a1.998 1.998 0 0 0 0 2.83Z"></path></svg></a></div> <p dir="auto">Buckets are collections of key/value pairs within the database. All keys in a bucket must be unique. You can create a bucket using the <code>DB.CreateBucket()</code> function:</p> <div class="highlight highlight-source-go notranslate position-relative overflow-auto" dir="auto" data-snippet-clipboard-copy-content="db.Update(func(tx *bolt.Tx) error { b, err := tx.CreateBucket([]byte("MyBucket")) if err != nil { return fmt.Errorf("create bucket: %s", err) } return nil })"><pre><span class="pl-s1">db</span>.<span class="pl-c1">Update</span>(<span class="pl-k">func</span>(<span class="pl-s1">tx</span> <span class="pl-c1">*</span>bolt.<span class="pl-smi">Tx</span>) <span class="pl-smi">error</span> { <span class="pl-s1">b</span>, <span class="pl-s1">err</span> <span class="pl-c1">:=</span> <span class="pl-s1">tx</span>.<span class="pl-c1">CreateBucket</span>([]<span class="pl-smi">byte</span>(<span class="pl-s">"MyBucket"</span>)) <span class="pl-k">if</span> <span class="pl-s1">err</span> <span class="pl-c1">!=</span> <span class="pl-c1">nil</span> { <span class="pl-k">return</span> <span class="pl-s1">fmt</span>.<span class="pl-c1">Errorf</span>(<span class="pl-s">"create bucket: %s"</span>, <span class="pl-s1">err</span>) } <span class="pl-k">return</span> <span class="pl-c1">nil</span> })</pre></div> <p dir="auto">You can also create a bucket only if it doesn't exist by using the <code>Tx.CreateBucketIfNotExists()</code> function. It's a common pattern to call this function for all your top-level buckets after you open your database so you can guarantee that they exist for future transactions.</p> <p dir="auto">To delete a bucket, simply call the <code>Tx.DeleteBucket()</code> function.</p> <div class="markdown-heading" dir="auto"><h3 tabindex="-1" class="heading-element" dir="auto">Using key/value pairs</h3><a id="user-content-using-keyvalue-pairs" class="anchor" aria-label="Permalink: Using key/value pairs" href="#using-keyvalue-pairs"><svg class="octicon octicon-link" viewBox="0 0 16 16" version="1.1" width="16" height="16" aria-hidden="true"><path d="m7.775 3.275 1.25-1.25a3.5 3.5 0 1 1 4.95 4.95l-2.5 2.5a3.5 3.5 0 0 1-4.95 0 .751.751 0 0 1 .018-1.042.751.751 0 0 1 1.042-.018 1.998 1.998 0 0 0 2.83 0l2.5-2.5a2.002 2.002 0 0 0-2.83-2.83l-1.25 1.25a.751.751 0 0 1-1.042-.018.751.751 0 0 1-.018-1.042Zm-4.69 9.64a1.998 1.998 0 0 0 2.83 0l1.25-1.25a.751.751 0 0 1 1.042.018.751.751 0 0 1 .018 1.042l-1.25 1.25a3.5 3.5 0 1 1-4.95-4.95l2.5-2.5a3.5 3.5 0 0 1 4.95 0 .751.751 0 0 1-.018 1.042.751.751 0 0 1-1.042.018 1.998 1.998 0 0 0-2.83 0l-2.5 2.5a1.998 1.998 0 0 0 0 2.83Z"></path></svg></a></div> <p dir="auto">To save a key/value pair to a bucket, use the <code>Bucket.Put()</code> function:</p> <div class="highlight highlight-source-go notranslate position-relative overflow-auto" dir="auto" data-snippet-clipboard-copy-content="db.Update(func(tx *bolt.Tx) error { b := tx.Bucket([]byte("MyBucket")) err := b.Put([]byte("answer"), []byte("42")) return err })"><pre><span class="pl-s1">db</span>.<span class="pl-c1">Update</span>(<span class="pl-k">func</span>(<span class="pl-s1">tx</span> <span class="pl-c1">*</span>bolt.<span class="pl-smi">Tx</span>) <span class="pl-smi">error</span> { <span class="pl-s1">b</span> <span class="pl-c1">:=</span> <span class="pl-s1">tx</span>.<span class="pl-c1">Bucket</span>([]<span class="pl-smi">byte</span>(<span class="pl-s">"MyBucket"</span>)) <span class="pl-s1">err</span> <span class="pl-c1">:=</span> <span class="pl-s1">b</span>.<span class="pl-c1">Put</span>([]<span class="pl-smi">byte</span>(<span class="pl-s">"answer"</span>), []<span class="pl-smi">byte</span>(<span class="pl-s">"42"</span>)) <span class="pl-k">return</span> <span class="pl-s1">err</span> })</pre></div> <p dir="auto">This will set the value of the <code>"answer"</code> key to <code>"42"</code> in the <code>MyBucket</code> bucket. To retrieve this value, we can use the <code>Bucket.Get()</code> function:</p> <div class="highlight highlight-source-go notranslate position-relative overflow-auto" dir="auto" data-snippet-clipboard-copy-content="db.View(func(tx *bolt.Tx) error { b := tx.Bucket([]byte("MyBucket")) v := b.Get([]byte("answer")) fmt.Printf("The answer is: %s\n", v) return nil })"><pre><span class="pl-s1">db</span>.<span class="pl-c1">View</span>(<span class="pl-k">func</span>(<span class="pl-s1">tx</span> <span class="pl-c1">*</span>bolt.<span class="pl-smi">Tx</span>) <span class="pl-smi">error</span> { <span class="pl-s1">b</span> <span class="pl-c1">:=</span> <span class="pl-s1">tx</span>.<span class="pl-c1">Bucket</span>([]<span class="pl-smi">byte</span>(<span class="pl-s">"MyBucket"</span>)) <span class="pl-s1">v</span> <span class="pl-c1">:=</span> <span class="pl-s1">b</span>.<span class="pl-c1">Get</span>([]<span class="pl-smi">byte</span>(<span class="pl-s">"answer"</span>)) <span class="pl-s1">fmt</span>.<span class="pl-c1">Printf</span>(<span class="pl-s">"The answer is: %s<span class="pl-cce">\n</span>"</span>, <span class="pl-s1">v</span>) <span class="pl-k">return</span> <span class="pl-c1">nil</span> })</pre></div> <p dir="auto">The <code>Get()</code> function does not return an error because its operation is guaranteed to work (unless there is some kind of system failure). If the key exists then it will return its byte slice value. If it doesn't exist then it will return <code>nil</code>. It's important to note that you can have a zero-length value set to a key which is different than the key not existing.</p> <p dir="auto">Use the <code>Bucket.Delete()</code> function to delete a key from the bucket.</p> <p dir="auto">Please note that values returned from <code>Get()</code> are only valid while the transaction is open. If you need to use a value outside of the transaction then you must use <code>copy()</code> to copy it to another byte slice.</p> <div class="markdown-heading" dir="auto"><h3 tabindex="-1" class="heading-element" dir="auto">Autoincrementing integer for the bucket</h3><a id="user-content-autoincrementing-integer-for-the-bucket" class="anchor" aria-label="Permalink: Autoincrementing integer for the bucket" href="#autoincrementing-integer-for-the-bucket"><svg class="octicon octicon-link" viewBox="0 0 16 16" version="1.1" width="16" height="16" aria-hidden="true"><path d="m7.775 3.275 1.25-1.25a3.5 3.5 0 1 1 4.95 4.95l-2.5 2.5a3.5 3.5 0 0 1-4.95 0 .751.751 0 0 1 .018-1.042.751.751 0 0 1 1.042-.018 1.998 1.998 0 0 0 2.83 0l2.5-2.5a2.002 2.002 0 0 0-2.83-2.83l-1.25 1.25a.751.751 0 0 1-1.042-.018.751.751 0 0 1-.018-1.042Zm-4.69 9.64a1.998 1.998 0 0 0 2.83 0l1.25-1.25a.751.751 0 0 1 1.042.018.751.751 0 0 1 .018 1.042l-1.25 1.25a3.5 3.5 0 1 1-4.95-4.95l2.5-2.5a3.5 3.5 0 0 1 4.95 0 .751.751 0 0 1-.018 1.042.751.751 0 0 1-1.042.018 1.998 1.998 0 0 0-2.83 0l-2.5 2.5a1.998 1.998 0 0 0 0 2.83Z"></path></svg></a></div> <p dir="auto">By using the <code>NextSequence()</code> function, you can let Bolt determine a sequence which can be used as the unique identifier for your key/value pairs. See the example below.</p> <div class="highlight highlight-source-go notranslate position-relative overflow-auto" dir="auto" data-snippet-clipboard-copy-content="// CreateUser saves u to the store. The new user ID is set on u once the data is persisted. func (s *Store) CreateUser(u *User) error { return s.db.Update(func(tx *bolt.Tx) error { // Retrieve the users bucket. // This should be created when the DB is first opened. b := tx.Bucket([]byte("users")) // Generate ID for the user. // This returns an error only if the Tx is closed or not writeable. // That can't happen in an Update() call so I ignore the error check. id, _ := b.NextSequence() u.ID = int(id) // Marshal user data into bytes. buf, err := json.Marshal(u) if err != nil { return err } // Persist bytes to users bucket. return b.Put(itob(u.ID), buf) }) } // itob returns an 8-byte big endian representation of v. func itob(v int) []byte { b := make([]byte, 8) binary.BigEndian.PutUint64(b, uint64(v)) return b } type User struct { ID int ... }"><pre><span class="pl-c">// CreateUser saves u to the store. The new user ID is set on u once the data is persisted.</span> <span class="pl-k">func</span> (<span class="pl-s1">s</span> <span class="pl-c1">*</span><span class="pl-smi">Store</span>) <span class="pl-c1">CreateUser</span>(<span class="pl-s1">u</span> <span class="pl-c1">*</span><span class="pl-smi">User</span>) <span class="pl-smi">error</span> { <span class="pl-k">return</span> <span class="pl-s1">s</span>.<span class="pl-c1">db</span>.<span class="pl-c1">Update</span>(<span class="pl-k">func</span>(<span class="pl-s1">tx</span> <span class="pl-c1">*</span>bolt.<span class="pl-smi">Tx</span>) <span class="pl-smi">error</span> { <span class="pl-c">// Retrieve the users bucket.</span> <span class="pl-c">// This should be created when the DB is first opened.</span> <span class="pl-s1">b</span> <span class="pl-c1">:=</span> <span class="pl-s1">tx</span>.<span class="pl-c1">Bucket</span>([]<span class="pl-smi">byte</span>(<span class="pl-s">"users"</span>)) <span class="pl-c">// Generate ID for the user.</span> <span class="pl-c">// This returns an error only if the Tx is closed or not writeable.</span> <span class="pl-c">// That can't happen in an Update() call so I ignore the error check.</span> <span class="pl-s1">id</span>, <span class="pl-s1">_</span> <span class="pl-c1">:=</span> <span class="pl-s1">b</span>.<span class="pl-c1">NextSequence</span>() <span class="pl-s1">u</span>.<span class="pl-c1">ID</span> <span class="pl-c1">=</span> <span class="pl-s1">int</span>(<span class="pl-s1">id</span>) <span class="pl-c">// Marshal user data into bytes.</span> <span class="pl-s1">buf</span>, <span class="pl-s1">err</span> <span class="pl-c1">:=</span> <span class="pl-s1">json</span>.<span class="pl-c1">Marshal</span>(<span class="pl-s1">u</span>) <span class="pl-k">if</span> <span class="pl-s1">err</span> <span class="pl-c1">!=</span> <span class="pl-c1">nil</span> { <span class="pl-k">return</span> <span class="pl-s1">err</span> } <span class="pl-c">// Persist bytes to users bucket.</span> <span class="pl-k">return</span> <span class="pl-s1">b</span>.<span class="pl-c1">Put</span>(<span class="pl-s1">itob</span>(<span class="pl-s1">u</span>.<span class="pl-c1">ID</span>), <span class="pl-s1">buf</span>) }) } <span class="pl-c">// itob returns an 8-byte big endian representation of v.</span> <span class="pl-k">func</span> <span class="pl-s1">itob</span>(<span class="pl-s1">v</span> <span class="pl-smi">int</span>) []<span class="pl-smi">byte</span> { <span class="pl-s1">b</span> <span class="pl-c1">:=</span> <span class="pl-s1">make</span>([]<span class="pl-smi">byte</span>, <span class="pl-c1">8</span>) <span class="pl-s1">binary</span>.<span class="pl-c1">BigEndian</span>.<span class="pl-c1">PutUint64</span>(<span class="pl-s1">b</span>, <span class="pl-s1">uint64</span>(<span class="pl-s1">v</span>)) <span class="pl-k">return</span> <span class="pl-s1">b</span> } <span class="pl-k">type</span> <span class="pl-smi">User</span> <span class="pl-k">struct</span> { <span class="pl-c1">ID</span> <span class="pl-smi">int</span> <span class="pl-c1">...</span> }</pre></div> <div class="markdown-heading" dir="auto"><h3 tabindex="-1" class="heading-element" dir="auto">Iterating over keys</h3><a id="user-content-iterating-over-keys" class="anchor" aria-label="Permalink: Iterating over keys" href="#iterating-over-keys"><svg class="octicon octicon-link" viewBox="0 0 16 16" version="1.1" width="16" height="16" aria-hidden="true"><path d="m7.775 3.275 1.25-1.25a3.5 3.5 0 1 1 4.95 4.95l-2.5 2.5a3.5 3.5 0 0 1-4.95 0 .751.751 0 0 1 .018-1.042.751.751 0 0 1 1.042-.018 1.998 1.998 0 0 0 2.83 0l2.5-2.5a2.002 2.002 0 0 0-2.83-2.83l-1.25 1.25a.751.751 0 0 1-1.042-.018.751.751 0 0 1-.018-1.042Zm-4.69 9.64a1.998 1.998 0 0 0 2.83 0l1.25-1.25a.751.751 0 0 1 1.042.018.751.751 0 0 1 .018 1.042l-1.25 1.25a3.5 3.5 0 1 1-4.95-4.95l2.5-2.5a3.5 3.5 0 0 1 4.95 0 .751.751 0 0 1-.018 1.042.751.751 0 0 1-1.042.018 1.998 1.998 0 0 0-2.83 0l-2.5 2.5a1.998 1.998 0 0 0 0 2.83Z"></path></svg></a></div> <p dir="auto">Bolt stores its keys in byte-sorted order within a bucket. This makes sequential iteration over these keys extremely fast. To iterate over keys we'll use a <code>Cursor</code>:</p> <div class="highlight highlight-source-go notranslate position-relative overflow-auto" dir="auto" data-snippet-clipboard-copy-content="db.View(func(tx *bolt.Tx) error { // Assume bucket exists and has keys b := tx.Bucket([]byte("MyBucket")) c := b.Cursor() for k, v := c.First(); k != nil; k, v = c.Next() { fmt.Printf("key=%s, value=%s\n", k, v) } return nil })"><pre><span class="pl-s1">db</span>.<span class="pl-c1">View</span>(<span class="pl-k">func</span>(<span class="pl-s1">tx</span> <span class="pl-c1">*</span>bolt.<span class="pl-smi">Tx</span>) <span class="pl-smi">error</span> { <span class="pl-c">// Assume bucket exists and has keys</span> <span class="pl-s1">b</span> <span class="pl-c1">:=</span> <span class="pl-s1">tx</span>.<span class="pl-c1">Bucket</span>([]<span class="pl-smi">byte</span>(<span class="pl-s">"MyBucket"</span>)) <span class="pl-s1">c</span> <span class="pl-c1">:=</span> <span class="pl-s1">b</span>.<span class="pl-c1">Cursor</span>() <span class="pl-k">for</span> <span class="pl-s1">k</span>, <span class="pl-s1">v</span> <span class="pl-c1">:=</span> <span class="pl-s1">c</span>.<span class="pl-c1">First</span>(); <span class="pl-s1">k</span> <span class="pl-c1">!=</span> <span class="pl-c1">nil</span>; <span class="pl-s1">k</span>, <span class="pl-s1">v</span> <span class="pl-c1">=</span> <span class="pl-s1">c</span>.<span class="pl-c1">Next</span>() { <span class="pl-s1">fmt</span>.<span class="pl-c1">Printf</span>(<span class="pl-s">"key=%s, value=%s<span class="pl-cce">\n</span>"</span>, <span class="pl-s1">k</span>, <span class="pl-s1">v</span>) } <span class="pl-k">return</span> <span class="pl-c1">nil</span> })</pre></div> <p dir="auto">The cursor allows you to move to a specific point in the list of keys and move forward or backward through the keys one at a time.</p> <p dir="auto">The following functions are available on the cursor:</p> <div class="snippet-clipboard-content notranslate position-relative overflow-auto" data-snippet-clipboard-copy-content="First() Move to the first key. Last() Move to the last key. Seek() Move to a specific key. Next() Move to the next key. Prev() Move to the previous key."><pre class="notranslate"><code>First() Move to the first key. Last() Move to the last key. Seek() Move to a specific key. Next() Move to the next key. Prev() Move to the previous key. </code></pre></div> <p dir="auto">Each of those functions has a return signature of <code>(key []byte, value []byte)</code>. When you have iterated to the end of the cursor then <code>Next()</code> will return a <code>nil</code> key. You must seek to a position using <code>First()</code>, <code>Last()</code>, or <code>Seek()</code> before calling <code>Next()</code> or <code>Prev()</code>. If you do not seek to a position then these functions will return a <code>nil</code> key.</p> <p dir="auto">During iteration, if the key is non-<code>nil</code> but the value is <code>nil</code>, that means the key refers to a bucket rather than a value. Use <code>Bucket.Bucket()</code> to access the sub-bucket.</p> <div class="markdown-heading" dir="auto"><h4 tabindex="-1" class="heading-element" dir="auto">Prefix scans</h4><a id="user-content-prefix-scans" class="anchor" aria-label="Permalink: Prefix scans" href="#prefix-scans"><svg class="octicon octicon-link" viewBox="0 0 16 16" version="1.1" width="16" height="16" aria-hidden="true"><path d="m7.775 3.275 1.25-1.25a3.5 3.5 0 1 1 4.95 4.95l-2.5 2.5a3.5 3.5 0 0 1-4.95 0 .751.751 0 0 1 .018-1.042.751.751 0 0 1 1.042-.018 1.998 1.998 0 0 0 2.83 0l2.5-2.5a2.002 2.002 0 0 0-2.83-2.83l-1.25 1.25a.751.751 0 0 1-1.042-.018.751.751 0 0 1-.018-1.042Zm-4.69 9.64a1.998 1.998 0 0 0 2.83 0l1.25-1.25a.751.751 0 0 1 1.042.018.751.751 0 0 1 .018 1.042l-1.25 1.25a3.5 3.5 0 1 1-4.95-4.95l2.5-2.5a3.5 3.5 0 0 1 4.95 0 .751.751 0 0 1-.018 1.042.751.751 0 0 1-1.042.018 1.998 1.998 0 0 0-2.83 0l-2.5 2.5a1.998 1.998 0 0 0 0 2.83Z"></path></svg></a></div> <p dir="auto">To iterate over a key prefix, you can combine <code>Seek()</code> and <code>bytes.HasPrefix()</code>:</p> <div class="highlight highlight-source-go notranslate position-relative overflow-auto" dir="auto" data-snippet-clipboard-copy-content="db.View(func(tx *bolt.Tx) error { // Assume bucket exists and has keys c := tx.Bucket([]byte("MyBucket")).Cursor() prefix := []byte("1234") for k, v := c.Seek(prefix); k != nil && bytes.HasPrefix(k, prefix); k, v = c.Next() { fmt.Printf("key=%s, value=%s\n", k, v) } return nil })"><pre><span class="pl-s1">db</span>.<span class="pl-c1">View</span>(<span class="pl-k">func</span>(<span class="pl-s1">tx</span> <span class="pl-c1">*</span>bolt.<span class="pl-smi">Tx</span>) <span class="pl-smi">error</span> { <span class="pl-c">// Assume bucket exists and has keys</span> <span class="pl-s1">c</span> <span class="pl-c1">:=</span> <span class="pl-s1">tx</span>.<span class="pl-c1">Bucket</span>([]<span class="pl-smi">byte</span>(<span class="pl-s">"MyBucket"</span>)).<span class="pl-c1">Cursor</span>() <span class="pl-s1">prefix</span> <span class="pl-c1">:=</span> []<span class="pl-smi">byte</span>(<span class="pl-s">"1234"</span>) <span class="pl-k">for</span> <span class="pl-s1">k</span>, <span class="pl-s1">v</span> <span class="pl-c1">:=</span> <span class="pl-s1">c</span>.<span class="pl-c1">Seek</span>(<span class="pl-s1">prefix</span>); <span class="pl-s1">k</span> <span class="pl-c1">!=</span> <span class="pl-c1">nil</span> <span class="pl-c1">&&</span> <span class="pl-s1">bytes</span>.<span class="pl-c1">HasPrefix</span>(<span class="pl-s1">k</span>, <span class="pl-s1">prefix</span>); <span class="pl-s1">k</span>, <span class="pl-s1">v</span> <span class="pl-c1">=</span> <span class="pl-s1">c</span>.<span class="pl-c1">Next</span>() { <span class="pl-s1">fmt</span>.<span class="pl-c1">Printf</span>(<span class="pl-s">"key=%s, value=%s<span class="pl-cce">\n</span>"</span>, <span class="pl-s1">k</span>, <span class="pl-s1">v</span>) } <span class="pl-k">return</span> <span class="pl-c1">nil</span> })</pre></div> <div class="markdown-heading" dir="auto"><h4 tabindex="-1" class="heading-element" dir="auto">Range scans</h4><a id="user-content-range-scans" class="anchor" aria-label="Permalink: Range scans" href="#range-scans"><svg class="octicon octicon-link" viewBox="0 0 16 16" version="1.1" width="16" height="16" aria-hidden="true"><path d="m7.775 3.275 1.25-1.25a3.5 3.5 0 1 1 4.95 4.95l-2.5 2.5a3.5 3.5 0 0 1-4.95 0 .751.751 0 0 1 .018-1.042.751.751 0 0 1 1.042-.018 1.998 1.998 0 0 0 2.83 0l2.5-2.5a2.002 2.002 0 0 0-2.83-2.83l-1.25 1.25a.751.751 0 0 1-1.042-.018.751.751 0 0 1-.018-1.042Zm-4.69 9.64a1.998 1.998 0 0 0 2.83 0l1.25-1.25a.751.751 0 0 1 1.042.018.751.751 0 0 1 .018 1.042l-1.25 1.25a3.5 3.5 0 1 1-4.95-4.95l2.5-2.5a3.5 3.5 0 0 1 4.95 0 .751.751 0 0 1-.018 1.042.751.751 0 0 1-1.042.018 1.998 1.998 0 0 0-2.83 0l-2.5 2.5a1.998 1.998 0 0 0 0 2.83Z"></path></svg></a></div> <p dir="auto">Another common use case is scanning over a range such as a time range. If you use a sortable time encoding such as RFC3339 then you can query a specific date range like this:</p> <div class="highlight highlight-source-go notranslate position-relative overflow-auto" dir="auto" data-snippet-clipboard-copy-content="db.View(func(tx *bolt.Tx) error { // Assume our events bucket exists and has RFC3339 encoded time keys. c := tx.Bucket([]byte("Events")).Cursor() // Our time range spans the 90's decade. min := []byte("1990-01-01T00:00:00Z") max := []byte("2000-01-01T00:00:00Z") // Iterate over the 90's. for k, v := c.Seek(min); k != nil && bytes.Compare(k, max) <= 0; k, v = c.Next() { fmt.Printf("%s: %s\n", k, v) } return nil })"><pre><span class="pl-s1">db</span>.<span class="pl-c1">View</span>(<span class="pl-k">func</span>(<span class="pl-s1">tx</span> <span class="pl-c1">*</span>bolt.<span class="pl-smi">Tx</span>) <span class="pl-smi">error</span> { <span class="pl-c">// Assume our events bucket exists and has RFC3339 encoded time keys.</span> <span class="pl-s1">c</span> <span class="pl-c1">:=</span> <span class="pl-s1">tx</span>.<span class="pl-c1">Bucket</span>([]<span class="pl-smi">byte</span>(<span class="pl-s">"Events"</span>)).<span class="pl-c1">Cursor</span>() <span class="pl-c">// Our time range spans the 90's decade.</span> <span class="pl-s1">min</span> <span class="pl-c1">:=</span> []<span class="pl-smi">byte</span>(<span class="pl-s">"1990-01-01T00:00:00Z"</span>) <span class="pl-s1">max</span> <span class="pl-c1">:=</span> []<span class="pl-smi">byte</span>(<span class="pl-s">"2000-01-01T00:00:00Z"</span>) <span class="pl-c">// Iterate over the 90's.</span> <span class="pl-k">for</span> <span class="pl-s1">k</span>, <span class="pl-s1">v</span> <span class="pl-c1">:=</span> <span class="pl-s1">c</span>.<span class="pl-c1">Seek</span>(<span class="pl-s1">min</span>); <span class="pl-s1">k</span> <span class="pl-c1">!=</span> <span class="pl-c1">nil</span> <span class="pl-c1">&&</span> <span class="pl-s1">bytes</span>.<span class="pl-c1">Compare</span>(<span class="pl-s1">k</span>, <span class="pl-s1">max</span>) <span class="pl-c1"><=</span> <span class="pl-c1">0</span>; <span class="pl-s1">k</span>, <span class="pl-s1">v</span> <span class="pl-c1">=</span> <span class="pl-s1">c</span>.<span class="pl-c1">Next</span>() { <span class="pl-s1">fmt</span>.<span class="pl-c1">Printf</span>(<span class="pl-s">"%s: %s<span class="pl-cce">\n</span>"</span>, <span class="pl-s1">k</span>, <span class="pl-s1">v</span>) } <span class="pl-k">return</span> <span class="pl-c1">nil</span> })</pre></div> <p dir="auto">Note that, while RFC3339 is sortable, the Golang implementation of RFC3339Nano does not use a fixed number of digits after the decimal point and is therefore not sortable.</p> <div class="markdown-heading" dir="auto"><h4 tabindex="-1" class="heading-element" dir="auto">ForEach()</h4><a id="user-content-foreach" class="anchor" aria-label="Permalink: ForEach()" href="#foreach"><svg class="octicon octicon-link" viewBox="0 0 16 16" version="1.1" width="16" height="16" aria-hidden="true"><path d="m7.775 3.275 1.25-1.25a3.5 3.5 0 1 1 4.95 4.95l-2.5 2.5a3.5 3.5 0 0 1-4.95 0 .751.751 0 0 1 .018-1.042.751.751 0 0 1 1.042-.018 1.998 1.998 0 0 0 2.83 0l2.5-2.5a2.002 2.002 0 0 0-2.83-2.83l-1.25 1.25a.751.751 0 0 1-1.042-.018.751.751 0 0 1-.018-1.042Zm-4.69 9.64a1.998 1.998 0 0 0 2.83 0l1.25-1.25a.751.751 0 0 1 1.042.018.751.751 0 0 1 .018 1.042l-1.25 1.25a3.5 3.5 0 1 1-4.95-4.95l2.5-2.5a3.5 3.5 0 0 1 4.95 0 .751.751 0 0 1-.018 1.042.751.751 0 0 1-1.042.018 1.998 1.998 0 0 0-2.83 0l-2.5 2.5a1.998 1.998 0 0 0 0 2.83Z"></path></svg></a></div> <p dir="auto">You can also use the function <code>ForEach()</code> if you know you'll be iterating over all the keys in a bucket:</p> <div class="highlight highlight-source-go notranslate position-relative overflow-auto" dir="auto" data-snippet-clipboard-copy-content="db.View(func(tx *bolt.Tx) error { // Assume bucket exists and has keys b := tx.Bucket([]byte("MyBucket")) b.ForEach(func(k, v []byte) error { fmt.Printf("key=%s, value=%s\n", k, v) return nil }) return nil })"><pre><span class="pl-s1">db</span>.<span class="pl-c1">View</span>(<span class="pl-k">func</span>(<span class="pl-s1">tx</span> <span class="pl-c1">*</span>bolt.<span class="pl-smi">Tx</span>) <span class="pl-smi">error</span> { <span class="pl-c">// Assume bucket exists and has keys</span> <span class="pl-s1">b</span> <span class="pl-c1">:=</span> <span class="pl-s1">tx</span>.<span class="pl-c1">Bucket</span>([]<span class="pl-smi">byte</span>(<span class="pl-s">"MyBucket"</span>)) <span class="pl-s1">b</span>.<span class="pl-c1">ForEach</span>(<span class="pl-k">func</span>(<span class="pl-s1">k</span>, <span class="pl-s1">v</span> []<span class="pl-smi">byte</span>) <span class="pl-smi">error</span> { <span class="pl-s1">fmt</span>.<span class="pl-c1">Printf</span>(<span class="pl-s">"key=%s, value=%s<span class="pl-cce">\n</span>"</span>, <span class="pl-s1">k</span>, <span class="pl-s1">v</span>) <span class="pl-k">return</span> <span class="pl-c1">nil</span> }) <span class="pl-k">return</span> <span class="pl-c1">nil</span> })</pre></div> <p dir="auto">Please note that keys and values in <code>ForEach()</code> are only valid while the transaction is open. If you need to use a key or value outside of the transaction, you must use <code>copy()</code> to copy it to another byte slice.</p> <div class="markdown-heading" dir="auto"><h3 tabindex="-1" class="heading-element" dir="auto">Nested buckets</h3><a id="user-content-nested-buckets" class="anchor" aria-label="Permalink: Nested buckets" href="#nested-buckets"><svg class="octicon octicon-link" viewBox="0 0 16 16" version="1.1" width="16" height="16" aria-hidden="true"><path d="m7.775 3.275 1.25-1.25a3.5 3.5 0 1 1 4.95 4.95l-2.5 2.5a3.5 3.5 0 0 1-4.95 0 .751.751 0 0 1 .018-1.042.751.751 0 0 1 1.042-.018 1.998 1.998 0 0 0 2.83 0l2.5-2.5a2.002 2.002 0 0 0-2.83-2.83l-1.25 1.25a.751.751 0 0 1-1.042-.018.751.751 0 0 1-.018-1.042Zm-4.69 9.64a1.998 1.998 0 0 0 2.83 0l1.25-1.25a.751.751 0 0 1 1.042.018.751.751 0 0 1 .018 1.042l-1.25 1.25a3.5 3.5 0 1 1-4.95-4.95l2.5-2.5a3.5 3.5 0 0 1 4.95 0 .751.751 0 0 1-.018 1.042.751.751 0 0 1-1.042.018 1.998 1.998 0 0 0-2.83 0l-2.5 2.5a1.998 1.998 0 0 0 0 2.83Z"></path></svg></a></div> <p dir="auto">You can also store a bucket in a key to create nested buckets. The API is the same as the bucket management API on the <code>DB</code> object:</p> <div class="highlight highlight-source-go notranslate position-relative overflow-auto" dir="auto" data-snippet-clipboard-copy-content="func (*Bucket) CreateBucket(key []byte) (*Bucket, error) func (*Bucket) CreateBucketIfNotExists(key []byte) (*Bucket, error) func (*Bucket) DeleteBucket(key []byte) error"><pre><span class="pl-k">func</span> (<span class="pl-c1">*</span><span class="pl-smi">Bucket</span>) <span class="pl-c1">CreateBucket</span>(<span class="pl-s1">key</span> []<span class="pl-smi">byte</span>) (<span class="pl-c1">*</span><span class="pl-smi">Bucket</span>, <span class="pl-smi">error</span>) <span class="pl-k">func</span> (<span class="pl-c1">*</span><span class="pl-smi">Bucket</span>) <span class="pl-c1">CreateBucketIfNotExists</span>(<span class="pl-s1">key</span> []<span class="pl-smi">byte</span>) (<span class="pl-c1">*</span><span class="pl-smi">Bucket</span>, <span class="pl-smi">error</span>) <span class="pl-k">func</span> (<span class="pl-c1">*</span><span class="pl-smi">Bucket</span>) <span class="pl-c1">DeleteBucket</span>(<span class="pl-s1">key</span> []<span class="pl-smi">byte</span>) <span class="pl-smi">error</span></pre></div> <p dir="auto">Say you had a multi-tenant application where the root level bucket was the account bucket. Inside of this bucket was a sequence of accounts which themselves are buckets. And inside the sequence bucket you could have many buckets pertaining to the Account itself (Users, Notes, etc) isolating the information into logical groupings.</p> <div class="highlight highlight-source-go notranslate position-relative overflow-auto" dir="auto" data-snippet-clipboard-copy-content=" // createUser creates a new user in the given account. func createUser(accountID int, u *User) error { // Start the transaction. tx, err := db.Begin(true) if err != nil { return err } defer tx.Rollback() // Retrieve the root bucket for the account. // Assume this has already been created when the account was set up. root := tx.Bucket([]byte(strconv.FormatUint(accountID, 10))) // Setup the users bucket. bkt, err := root.CreateBucketIfNotExists([]byte("USERS")) if err != nil { return err } // Generate an ID for the new user. userID, err := bkt.NextSequence() if err != nil { return err } u.ID = userID // Marshal and save the encoded user. if buf, err := json.Marshal(u); err != nil { return err } else if err := bkt.Put([]byte(strconv.FormatUint(u.ID, 10)), buf); err != nil { return err } // Commit the transaction. if err := tx.Commit(); err != nil { return err } return nil } "><pre><span class="pl-c">// createUser creates a new user in the given account.</span> <span class="pl-k">func</span> <span class="pl-s1">createUser</span>(<span class="pl-s1">accountID</span> <span class="pl-smi">int</span>, <span class="pl-s1">u</span> <span class="pl-c1">*</span><span class="pl-smi">User</span>) <span class="pl-smi">error</span> { <span class="pl-c">// Start the transaction.</span> <span class="pl-s1">tx</span>, <span class="pl-s1">err</span> <span class="pl-c1">:=</span> <span class="pl-s1">db</span>.<span class="pl-c1">Begin</span>(<span class="pl-c1">true</span>) <span class="pl-k">if</span> <span class="pl-s1">err</span> <span class="pl-c1">!=</span> <span class="pl-c1">nil</span> { <span class="pl-k">return</span> <span class="pl-s1">err</span> } <span class="pl-k">defer</span> <span class="pl-s1">tx</span>.<span class="pl-c1">Rollback</span>() <span class="pl-c">// Retrieve the root bucket for the account.</span> <span class="pl-c">// Assume this has already been created when the account was set up.</span> <span class="pl-s1">root</span> <span class="pl-c1">:=</span> <span class="pl-s1">tx</span>.<span class="pl-c1">Bucket</span>([]<span class="pl-smi">byte</span>(<span class="pl-s1">strconv</span>.<span class="pl-c1">FormatUint</span>(<span class="pl-s1">accountID</span>, <span class="pl-c1">10</span>))) <span class="pl-c">// Setup the users bucket.</span> <span class="pl-s1">bkt</span>, <span class="pl-s1">err</span> <span class="pl-c1">:=</span> <span class="pl-s1">root</span>.<span class="pl-c1">CreateBucketIfNotExists</span>([]<span class="pl-smi">byte</span>(<span class="pl-s">"USERS"</span>)) <span class="pl-k">if</span> <span class="pl-s1">err</span> <span class="pl-c1">!=</span> <span class="pl-c1">nil</span> { <span class="pl-k">return</span> <span class="pl-s1">err</span> } <span class="pl-c">// Generate an ID for the new user.</span> <span class="pl-s1">userID</span>, <span class="pl-s1">err</span> <span class="pl-c1">:=</span> <span class="pl-s1">bkt</span>.<span class="pl-c1">NextSequence</span>() <span class="pl-k">if</span> <span class="pl-s1">err</span> <span class="pl-c1">!=</span> <span class="pl-c1">nil</span> { <span class="pl-k">return</span> <span class="pl-s1">err</span> } <span class="pl-s1">u</span>.<span class="pl-c1">ID</span> <span class="pl-c1">=</span> <span class="pl-s1">userID</span> <span class="pl-c">// Marshal and save the encoded user.</span> <span class="pl-k">if</span> <span class="pl-s1">buf</span>, <span class="pl-s1">err</span> <span class="pl-c1">:=</span> <span class="pl-s1">json</span>.<span class="pl-c1">Marshal</span>(<span class="pl-s1">u</span>); <span class="pl-s1">err</span> <span class="pl-c1">!=</span> <span class="pl-c1">nil</span> { <span class="pl-k">return</span> <span class="pl-s1">err</span> } <span class="pl-k">else</span> <span class="pl-k">if</span> <span class="pl-s1">err</span> <span class="pl-c1">:=</span> <span class="pl-s1">bkt</span>.<span class="pl-c1">Put</span>([]<span class="pl-smi">byte</span>(<span class="pl-s1">strconv</span>.<span class="pl-c1">FormatUint</span>(<span class="pl-s1">u</span>.<span class="pl-c1">ID</span>, <span class="pl-c1">10</span>)), <span class="pl-s1">buf</span>); <span class="pl-s1">err</span> <span class="pl-c1">!=</span> <span class="pl-c1">nil</span> { <span class="pl-k">return</span> <span class="pl-s1">err</span> } <span class="pl-c">// Commit the transaction.</span> <span class="pl-k">if</span> <span class="pl-s1">err</span> <span class="pl-c1">:=</span> <span class="pl-s1">tx</span>.<span class="pl-c1">Commit</span>(); <span class="pl-s1">err</span> <span class="pl-c1">!=</span> <span class="pl-c1">nil</span> { <span class="pl-k">return</span> <span class="pl-s1">err</span> } <span class="pl-k">return</span> <span class="pl-c1">nil</span> }</pre></div> <div class="markdown-heading" dir="auto"><h3 tabindex="-1" class="heading-element" dir="auto">Database backups</h3><a id="user-content-database-backups" class="anchor" aria-label="Permalink: Database backups" href="#database-backups"><svg class="octicon octicon-link" viewBox="0 0 16 16" version="1.1" width="16" height="16" aria-hidden="true"><path d="m7.775 3.275 1.25-1.25a3.5 3.5 0 1 1 4.95 4.95l-2.5 2.5a3.5 3.5 0 0 1-4.95 0 .751.751 0 0 1 .018-1.042.751.751 0 0 1 1.042-.018 1.998 1.998 0 0 0 2.83 0l2.5-2.5a2.002 2.002 0 0 0-2.83-2.83l-1.25 1.25a.751.751 0 0 1-1.042-.018.751.751 0 0 1-.018-1.042Zm-4.69 9.64a1.998 1.998 0 0 0 2.83 0l1.25-1.25a.751.751 0 0 1 1.042.018.751.751 0 0 1 .018 1.042l-1.25 1.25a3.5 3.5 0 1 1-4.95-4.95l2.5-2.5a3.5 3.5 0 0 1 4.95 0 .751.751 0 0 1-.018 1.042.751.751 0 0 1-1.042.018 1.998 1.998 0 0 0-2.83 0l-2.5 2.5a1.998 1.998 0 0 0 0 2.83Z"></path></svg></a></div> <p dir="auto">Bolt is a single file so it's easy to backup. You can use the <code>Tx.WriteTo()</code> function to write a consistent view of the database to a writer. If you call this from a read-only transaction, it will perform a hot backup and not block your other database reads and writes.</p> <p dir="auto">By default, it will use a regular file handle which will utilize the operating system's page cache. See the <a href="https://godoc.org/github.com/boltdb/bolt#Tx" rel="nofollow"><code>Tx</code></a> documentation for information about optimizing for larger-than-RAM datasets.</p> <p dir="auto">One common use case is to backup over HTTP so you can use tools like <code>cURL</code> to do database backups:</p> <div class="highlight highlight-source-go notranslate position-relative overflow-auto" dir="auto" data-snippet-clipboard-copy-content="func BackupHandleFunc(w http.ResponseWriter, req *http.Request) { err := db.View(func(tx *bolt.Tx) error { w.Header().Set("Content-Type", "application/octet-stream") w.Header().Set("Content-Disposition", `attachment; filename="my.db"`) w.Header().Set("Content-Length", strconv.Itoa(int(tx.Size()))) _, err := tx.WriteTo(w) return err }) if err != nil { http.Error(w, err.Error(), http.StatusInternalServerError) } }"><pre><span class="pl-k">func</span> <span class="pl-s1">BackupHandleFunc</span>(<span class="pl-s1">w</span> http.<span class="pl-smi">ResponseWriter</span>, <span class="pl-s1">req</span> <span class="pl-c1">*</span>http.<span class="pl-smi">Request</span>) { <span class="pl-s1">err</span> <span class="pl-c1">:=</span> <span class="pl-s1">db</span>.<span class="pl-c1">View</span>(<span class="pl-k">func</span>(<span class="pl-s1">tx</span> <span class="pl-c1">*</span>bolt.<span class="pl-smi">Tx</span>) <span class="pl-smi">error</span> { <span class="pl-s1">w</span>.<span class="pl-c1">Header</span>().<span class="pl-c1">Set</span>(<span class="pl-s">"Content-Type"</span>, <span class="pl-s">"application/octet-stream"</span>) <span class="pl-s1">w</span>.<span class="pl-c1">Header</span>().<span class="pl-c1">Set</span>(<span class="pl-s">"Content-Disposition"</span>, <span class="pl-s">`attachment; filename="my.db"`</span>) <span class="pl-s1">w</span>.<span class="pl-c1">Header</span>().<span class="pl-c1">Set</span>(<span class="pl-s">"Content-Length"</span>, <span class="pl-s1">strconv</span>.<span class="pl-c1">Itoa</span>(<span class="pl-s1">int</span>(<span class="pl-s1">tx</span>.<span class="pl-c1">Size</span>()))) <span class="pl-s1">_</span>, <span class="pl-s1">err</span> <span class="pl-c1">:=</span> <span class="pl-s1">tx</span>.<span class="pl-c1">WriteTo</span>(<span class="pl-s1">w</span>) <span class="pl-k">return</span> <span class="pl-s1">err</span> }) <span class="pl-k">if</span> <span class="pl-s1">err</span> <span class="pl-c1">!=</span> <span class="pl-c1">nil</span> { <span class="pl-s1">http</span>.<span class="pl-c1">Error</span>(<span class="pl-s1">w</span>, <span class="pl-s1">err</span>.<span class="pl-c1">Error</span>(), <span class="pl-s1">http</span>.<span class="pl-c1">StatusInternalServerError</span>) } }</pre></div> <p dir="auto">Then you can backup using this command:</p> <div class="highlight highlight-source-shell notranslate position-relative overflow-auto" dir="auto" data-snippet-clipboard-copy-content="$ curl http://localhost/backup > my.db"><pre>$ curl http://localhost/backup <span class="pl-k">></span> my.db</pre></div> <p dir="auto">Or you can open your browser to <code>http://localhost/backup</code> and it will download automatically.</p> <p dir="auto">If you want to backup to another file you can use the <code>Tx.CopyFile()</code> helper function.</p> <div class="markdown-heading" dir="auto"><h3 tabindex="-1" class="heading-element" dir="auto">Statistics</h3><a id="user-content-statistics" class="anchor" aria-label="Permalink: Statistics" href="#statistics"><svg class="octicon octicon-link" viewBox="0 0 16 16" version="1.1" width="16" height="16" aria-hidden="true"><path d="m7.775 3.275 1.25-1.25a3.5 3.5 0 1 1 4.95 4.95l-2.5 2.5a3.5 3.5 0 0 1-4.95 0 .751.751 0 0 1 .018-1.042.751.751 0 0 1 1.042-.018 1.998 1.998 0 0 0 2.83 0l2.5-2.5a2.002 2.002 0 0 0-2.83-2.83l-1.25 1.25a.751.751 0 0 1-1.042-.018.751.751 0 0 1-.018-1.042Zm-4.69 9.64a1.998 1.998 0 0 0 2.83 0l1.25-1.25a.751.751 0 0 1 1.042.018.751.751 0 0 1 .018 1.042l-1.25 1.25a3.5 3.5 0 1 1-4.95-4.95l2.5-2.5a3.5 3.5 0 0 1 4.95 0 .751.751 0 0 1-.018 1.042.751.751 0 0 1-1.042.018 1.998 1.998 0 0 0-2.83 0l-2.5 2.5a1.998 1.998 0 0 0 0 2.83Z"></path></svg></a></div> <p dir="auto">The database keeps a running count of many of the internal operations it performs so you can better understand what's going on. By grabbing a snapshot of these stats at two points in time we can see what operations were performed in that time range.</p> <p dir="auto">For example, we could start a goroutine to log stats every 10 seconds:</p> <div class="highlight highlight-source-go notranslate position-relative overflow-auto" dir="auto" data-snippet-clipboard-copy-content="go func() { // Grab the initial stats. prev := db.Stats() for { // Wait for 10s. time.Sleep(10 * time.Second) // Grab the current stats and diff them. stats := db.Stats() diff := stats.Sub(&prev) // Encode stats to JSON and print to STDERR. json.NewEncoder(os.Stderr).Encode(diff) // Save stats for the next loop. prev = stats } }()"><pre><span class="pl-k">go</span> <span class="pl-k">func</span>() { <span class="pl-c">// Grab the initial stats.</span> <span class="pl-s1">prev</span> <span class="pl-c1">:=</span> <span class="pl-s1">db</span>.<span class="pl-c1">Stats</span>() <span class="pl-k">for</span> { <span class="pl-c">// Wait for 10s.</span> <span class="pl-s1">time</span>.<span class="pl-c1">Sleep</span>(<span class="pl-c1">10</span> <span class="pl-c1">*</span> <span class="pl-s1">time</span>.<span class="pl-c1">Second</span>) <span class="pl-c">// Grab the current stats and diff them.</span> <span class="pl-s1">stats</span> <span class="pl-c1">:=</span> <span class="pl-s1">db</span>.<span class="pl-c1">Stats</span>() <span class="pl-s1">diff</span> <span class="pl-c1">:=</span> <span class="pl-s1">stats</span>.<span class="pl-c1">Sub</span>(<span class="pl-c1">&</span><span class="pl-s1">prev</span>) <span class="pl-c">// Encode stats to JSON and print to STDERR.</span> <span class="pl-s1">json</span>.<span class="pl-c1">NewEncoder</span>(<span class="pl-s1">os</span>.<span class="pl-c1">Stderr</span>).<span class="pl-c1">Encode</span>(<span class="pl-s1">diff</span>) <span class="pl-c">// Save stats for the next loop.</span> <span class="pl-s1">prev</span> <span class="pl-c1">=</span> <span class="pl-s1">stats</span> } }()</pre></div> <p dir="auto">It's also useful to pipe these stats to a service such as statsd for monitoring or to provide an HTTP endpoint that will perform a fixed-length sample.</p> <div class="markdown-heading" dir="auto"><h3 tabindex="-1" class="heading-element" dir="auto">Read-Only Mode</h3><a id="user-content-read-only-mode" class="anchor" aria-label="Permalink: Read-Only Mode" href="#read-only-mode"><svg class="octicon octicon-link" viewBox="0 0 16 16" version="1.1" width="16" height="16" aria-hidden="true"><path d="m7.775 3.275 1.25-1.25a3.5 3.5 0 1 1 4.95 4.95l-2.5 2.5a3.5 3.5 0 0 1-4.95 0 .751.751 0 0 1 .018-1.042.751.751 0 0 1 1.042-.018 1.998 1.998 0 0 0 2.83 0l2.5-2.5a2.002 2.002 0 0 0-2.83-2.83l-1.25 1.25a.751.751 0 0 1-1.042-.018.751.751 0 0 1-.018-1.042Zm-4.69 9.64a1.998 1.998 0 0 0 2.83 0l1.25-1.25a.751.751 0 0 1 1.042.018.751.751 0 0 1 .018 1.042l-1.25 1.25a3.5 3.5 0 1 1-4.95-4.95l2.5-2.5a3.5 3.5 0 0 1 4.95 0 .751.751 0 0 1-.018 1.042.751.751 0 0 1-1.042.018 1.998 1.998 0 0 0-2.83 0l-2.5 2.5a1.998 1.998 0 0 0 0 2.83Z"></path></svg></a></div> <p dir="auto">Sometimes it is useful to create a shared, read-only Bolt database. To this, set the <code>Options.ReadOnly</code> flag when opening your database. Read-only mode uses a shared lock to allow multiple processes to read from the database but it will block any processes from opening the database in read-write mode.</p> <div class="highlight highlight-source-go notranslate position-relative overflow-auto" dir="auto" data-snippet-clipboard-copy-content="db, err := bolt.Open("my.db", 0666, &bolt.Options{ReadOnly: true}) if err != nil { log.Fatal(err) }"><pre><span class="pl-s1">db</span>, <span class="pl-s1">err</span> <span class="pl-c1">:=</span> <span class="pl-s1">bolt</span>.<span class="pl-c1">Open</span>(<span class="pl-s">"my.db"</span>, <span class="pl-c1">0666</span>, <span class="pl-c1">&</span>bolt.<span class="pl-smi">Options</span>{<span class="pl-s1">ReadOnly</span>: <span class="pl-c1">true</span>}) <span class="pl-k">if</span> <span class="pl-s1">err</span> <span class="pl-c1">!=</span> <span class="pl-c1">nil</span> { <span class="pl-s1">log</span>.<span class="pl-c1">Fatal</span>(<span class="pl-s1">err</span>) }</pre></div> <div class="markdown-heading" dir="auto"><h3 tabindex="-1" class="heading-element" dir="auto">Mobile Use (iOS/Android)</h3><a id="user-content-mobile-use-iosandroid" class="anchor" aria-label="Permalink: Mobile Use (iOS/Android)" href="#mobile-use-iosandroid"><svg class="octicon octicon-link" viewBox="0 0 16 16" version="1.1" width="16" height="16" aria-hidden="true"><path d="m7.775 3.275 1.25-1.25a3.5 3.5 0 1 1 4.95 4.95l-2.5 2.5a3.5 3.5 0 0 1-4.95 0 .751.751 0 0 1 .018-1.042.751.751 0 0 1 1.042-.018 1.998 1.998 0 0 0 2.83 0l2.5-2.5a2.002 2.002 0 0 0-2.83-2.83l-1.25 1.25a.751.751 0 0 1-1.042-.018.751.751 0 0 1-.018-1.042Zm-4.69 9.64a1.998 1.998 0 0 0 2.83 0l1.25-1.25a.751.751 0 0 1 1.042.018.751.751 0 0 1 .018 1.042l-1.25 1.25a3.5 3.5 0 1 1-4.95-4.95l2.5-2.5a3.5 3.5 0 0 1 4.95 0 .751.751 0 0 1-.018 1.042.751.751 0 0 1-1.042.018 1.998 1.998 0 0 0-2.83 0l-2.5 2.5a1.998 1.998 0 0 0 0 2.83Z"></path></svg></a></div> <p dir="auto">Bolt is able to run on mobile devices by leveraging the binding feature of the <a href="https://github.com/golang/mobile">gomobile</a> tool. Create a struct that will contain your database logic and a reference to a <code>*bolt.DB</code> with a initializing constructor that takes in a filepath where the database file will be stored. Neither Android nor iOS require extra permissions or cleanup from using this method.</p> <div class="highlight highlight-source-go notranslate position-relative overflow-auto" dir="auto" data-snippet-clipboard-copy-content="func NewBoltDB(filepath string) *BoltDB { db, err := bolt.Open(filepath+"/demo.db", 0600, nil) if err != nil { log.Fatal(err) } return &BoltDB{db} } type BoltDB struct { db *bolt.DB ... } func (b *BoltDB) Path() string { return b.db.Path() } func (b *BoltDB) Close() { b.db.Close() }"><pre><span class="pl-k">func</span> <span class="pl-s1">NewBoltDB</span>(<span class="pl-s1">filepath</span> <span class="pl-smi">string</span>) <span class="pl-c1">*</span><span class="pl-smi">BoltDB</span> { <span class="pl-s1">db</span>, <span class="pl-s1">err</span> <span class="pl-c1">:=</span> <span class="pl-s1">bolt</span>.<span class="pl-c1">Open</span>(<span class="pl-s1">filepath</span><span class="pl-c1">+</span><span class="pl-s">"/demo.db"</span>, <span class="pl-c1">0600</span>, <span class="pl-c1">nil</span>) <span class="pl-k">if</span> <span class="pl-s1">err</span> <span class="pl-c1">!=</span> <span class="pl-c1">nil</span> { <span class="pl-s1">log</span>.<span class="pl-c1">Fatal</span>(<span class="pl-s1">err</span>) } <span class="pl-k">return</span> <span class="pl-c1">&</span><span class="pl-smi">BoltDB</span>{<span class="pl-s1">db</span>} } <span class="pl-k">type</span> <span class="pl-smi">BoltDB</span> <span class="pl-k">struct</span> { <span class="pl-c1">db</span> <span class="pl-c1">*</span>bolt.<span class="pl-smi">DB</span> <span class="pl-c1">...</span> } <span class="pl-k">func</span> (<span class="pl-s1">b</span> <span class="pl-c1">*</span><span class="pl-smi">BoltDB</span>) <span class="pl-c1">Path</span>() <span class="pl-smi">string</span> { <span class="pl-k">return</span> <span class="pl-s1">b</span>.<span class="pl-c1">db</span>.<span class="pl-c1">Path</span>() } <span class="pl-k">func</span> (<span class="pl-s1">b</span> <span class="pl-c1">*</span><span class="pl-smi">BoltDB</span>) <span class="pl-c1">Close</span>() { <span class="pl-s1">b</span>.<span class="pl-c1">db</span>.<span class="pl-c1">Close</span>() }</pre></div> <p dir="auto">Database logic should be defined as methods on this wrapper struct.</p> <p dir="auto">To initialize this struct from the native language (both platforms now sync their local storage to the cloud. These snippets disable that functionality for the database file):</p> <div class="markdown-heading" dir="auto"><h4 tabindex="-1" class="heading-element" dir="auto">Android</h4><a id="user-content-android" class="anchor" aria-label="Permalink: Android" href="#android"><svg class="octicon octicon-link" viewBox="0 0 16 16" version="1.1" width="16" height="16" aria-hidden="true"><path d="m7.775 3.275 1.25-1.25a3.5 3.5 0 1 1 4.95 4.95l-2.5 2.5a3.5 3.5 0 0 1-4.95 0 .751.751 0 0 1 .018-1.042.751.751 0 0 1 1.042-.018 1.998 1.998 0 0 0 2.83 0l2.5-2.5a2.002 2.002 0 0 0-2.83-2.83l-1.25 1.25a.751.751 0 0 1-1.042-.018.751.751 0 0 1-.018-1.042Zm-4.69 9.64a1.998 1.998 0 0 0 2.83 0l1.25-1.25a.751.751 0 0 1 1.042.018.751.751 0 0 1 .018 1.042l-1.25 1.25a3.5 3.5 0 1 1-4.95-4.95l2.5-2.5a3.5 3.5 0 0 1 4.95 0 .751.751 0 0 1-.018 1.042.751.751 0 0 1-1.042.018 1.998 1.998 0 0 0-2.83 0l-2.5 2.5a1.998 1.998 0 0 0 0 2.83Z"></path></svg></a></div> <div class="highlight highlight-source-java notranslate position-relative overflow-auto" dir="auto" data-snippet-clipboard-copy-content="String path; if (android.os.Build.VERSION.SDK_INT >=android.os.Build.VERSION_CODES.LOLLIPOP){ path = getNoBackupFilesDir().getAbsolutePath(); } else{ path = getFilesDir().getAbsolutePath(); } Boltmobiledemo.BoltDB boltDB = Boltmobiledemo.NewBoltDB(path)"><pre><span class="pl-smi">String</span> <span class="pl-s1">path</span>; <span class="pl-k">if</span> (<span class="pl-s1">android</span>.<span class="pl-s1">os</span>.<span class="pl-s1">Build</span>.<span class="pl-c1">VERSION</span>.<span class="pl-c1">SDK_INT</span> >=<span class="pl-s1">android</span>.<span class="pl-s1">os</span>.<span class="pl-s1">Build</span>.<span class="pl-c1">VERSION_CODES</span>.<span class="pl-c1">LOLLIPOP</span>){ <span class="pl-s1">path</span> = <span class="pl-en">getNoBackupFilesDir</span>().<span class="pl-en">getAbsolutePath</span>(); } <span class="pl-k">else</span>{ <span class="pl-s1">path</span> = <span class="pl-en">getFilesDir</span>().<span class="pl-en">getAbsolutePath</span>(); } <span class="pl-smi">Boltmobiledemo</span>.<span class="pl-smi">BoltDB</span> <span class="pl-s1">boltDB</span> = <span class="pl-smi">Boltmobiledemo</span>.<span class="pl-en">NewBoltDB</span>(<span class="pl-s1">path</span>)</pre></div> <div class="markdown-heading" dir="auto"><h4 tabindex="-1" class="heading-element" dir="auto">iOS</h4><a id="user-content-ios" class="anchor" aria-label="Permalink: iOS" href="#ios"><svg class="octicon octicon-link" viewBox="0 0 16 16" version="1.1" width="16" height="16" aria-hidden="true"><path d="m7.775 3.275 1.25-1.25a3.5 3.5 0 1 1 4.95 4.95l-2.5 2.5a3.5 3.5 0 0 1-4.95 0 .751.751 0 0 1 .018-1.042.751.751 0 0 1 1.042-.018 1.998 1.998 0 0 0 2.83 0l2.5-2.5a2.002 2.002 0 0 0-2.83-2.83l-1.25 1.25a.751.751 0 0 1-1.042-.018.751.751 0 0 1-.018-1.042Zm-4.69 9.64a1.998 1.998 0 0 0 2.83 0l1.25-1.25a.751.751 0 0 1 1.042.018.751.751 0 0 1 .018 1.042l-1.25 1.25a3.5 3.5 0 1 1-4.95-4.95l2.5-2.5a3.5 3.5 0 0 1 4.95 0 .751.751 0 0 1-.018 1.042.751.751 0 0 1-1.042.018 1.998 1.998 0 0 0-2.83 0l-2.5 2.5a1.998 1.998 0 0 0 0 2.83Z"></path></svg></a></div> <div class="highlight highlight-source-objc notranslate position-relative overflow-auto" dir="auto" data-snippet-clipboard-copy-content="- (void)demo { NSString* path = [NSSearchPathForDirectoriesInDomains(NSLibraryDirectory, NSUserDomainMask, YES) objectAtIndex:0]; GoBoltmobiledemoBoltDB * demo = GoBoltmobiledemoNewBoltDB(path); [self addSkipBackupAttributeToItemAtPath:demo.path]; //Some DB Logic would go here [demo close]; } - (BOOL)addSkipBackupAttributeToItemAtPath:(NSString *) filePathString { NSURL* URL= [NSURL fileURLWithPath: filePathString]; assert([[NSFileManager defaultManager] fileExistsAtPath: [URL path]]); NSError *error = nil; BOOL success = [URL setResourceValue: [NSNumber numberWithBool: YES] forKey: NSURLIsExcludedFromBackupKey error: &error]; if(!success){ NSLog(@"Error excluding %@ from backup %@", [URL lastPathComponent], error); } return success; } "><pre>- (<span class="pl-k">void</span>)demo { <span class="pl-c1">NSString</span>* path = [<span class="pl-c1">NSSearchPathForDirectoriesInDomains</span>(NSLibraryDirectory, NSUserDomainMask, <span class="pl-c1">YES</span>) <span class="pl-c1">objectAtIndex:</span><span class="pl-c1">0</span>]; GoBoltmobiledemoBoltDB * demo = <span class="pl-c1">GoBoltmobiledemoNewBoltDB</span>(path); [<span class="pl-c1">self</span> <span class="pl-c1">addSkipBackupAttributeToItemAtPath:</span>demo.path]; <span class="pl-c"><span class="pl-c">//</span>Some DB Logic would go here</span> [demo <span class="pl-c1">close</span>]; } - (<span class="pl-c1">BOOL</span>)addSkipBackupAttributeToItemAtPath:(<span class="pl-c1">NSString</span> *) filePathString { <span class="pl-c1">NSURL</span>* URL= [<span class="pl-c1">NSURL</span> <span class="pl-c1">fileURLWithPath:</span> filePathString]; <span class="pl-c1">assert</span>([[<span class="pl-c1">NSFileManager</span> <span class="pl-c1">defaultManager</span>] <span class="pl-c1">fileExistsAtPath:</span> [URL <span class="pl-c1">path</span>]]); <span class="pl-c1">NSError</span> *error = <span class="pl-c1">nil</span>; <span class="pl-c1">BOOL</span> success = [URL <span class="pl-c1">setResourceValue:</span> [<span class="pl-c1">NSNumber</span> <span class="pl-c1">numberWithBool:</span> <span class="pl-c1">YES</span>] <span class="pl-c1">forKey:</span> <span class="pl-c1">NSURLIsExcludedFromBackupKey</span> <span class="pl-c1">error:</span> &error]; <span class="pl-k">if</span>(!success){ <span class="pl-c1">NSLog</span>(<span class="pl-s"><span class="pl-pds">@"</span>Error excluding <span class="pl-c1">%@</span> from backup <span class="pl-c1">%@</span><span class="pl-pds">"</span></span>, [URL <span class="pl-c1">lastPathComponent</span>], error); } <span class="pl-k">return</span> success; } </pre></div> <div class="markdown-heading" dir="auto"><h2 tabindex="-1" class="heading-element" dir="auto">Resources</h2><a id="user-content-resources" class="anchor" aria-label="Permalink: Resources" href="#resources"><svg class="octicon octicon-link" viewBox="0 0 16 16" version="1.1" width="16" height="16" aria-hidden="true"><path d="m7.775 3.275 1.25-1.25a3.5 3.5 0 1 1 4.95 4.95l-2.5 2.5a3.5 3.5 0 0 1-4.95 0 .751.751 0 0 1 .018-1.042.751.751 0 0 1 1.042-.018 1.998 1.998 0 0 0 2.83 0l2.5-2.5a2.002 2.002 0 0 0-2.83-2.83l-1.25 1.25a.751.751 0 0 1-1.042-.018.751.751 0 0 1-.018-1.042Zm-4.69 9.64a1.998 1.998 0 0 0 2.83 0l1.25-1.25a.751.751 0 0 1 1.042.018.751.751 0 0 1 .018 1.042l-1.25 1.25a3.5 3.5 0 1 1-4.95-4.95l2.5-2.5a3.5 3.5 0 0 1 4.95 0 .751.751 0 0 1-.018 1.042.751.751 0 0 1-1.042.018 1.998 1.998 0 0 0-2.83 0l-2.5 2.5a1.998 1.998 0 0 0 0 2.83Z"></path></svg></a></div> <p dir="auto">For more information on getting started with Bolt, check out the following articles:</p> <ul dir="auto"> <li><a href="http://npf.io/2014/07/intro-to-boltdb-painless-performant-persistence/" rel="nofollow">Intro to BoltDB: Painless Performant Persistence</a> by <a href="https://github.com/natefinch">Nate Finch</a>.</li> <li><a href="https://www.progville.com/go/bolt-embedded-db-golang/" rel="nofollow">Bolt -- an embedded key/value database for Go</a> by Progville</li> </ul> <div class="markdown-heading" dir="auto"><h2 tabindex="-1" class="heading-element" dir="auto">Comparison with other databases</h2><a id="user-content-comparison-with-other-databases" class="anchor" aria-label="Permalink: Comparison with other databases" href="#comparison-with-other-databases"><svg class="octicon octicon-link" viewBox="0 0 16 16" version="1.1" width="16" height="16" aria-hidden="true"><path d="m7.775 3.275 1.25-1.25a3.5 3.5 0 1 1 4.95 4.95l-2.5 2.5a3.5 3.5 0 0 1-4.95 0 .751.751 0 0 1 .018-1.042.751.751 0 0 1 1.042-.018 1.998 1.998 0 0 0 2.83 0l2.5-2.5a2.002 2.002 0 0 0-2.83-2.83l-1.25 1.25a.751.751 0 0 1-1.042-.018.751.751 0 0 1-.018-1.042Zm-4.69 9.64a1.998 1.998 0 0 0 2.83 0l1.25-1.25a.751.751 0 0 1 1.042.018.751.751 0 0 1 .018 1.042l-1.25 1.25a3.5 3.5 0 1 1-4.95-4.95l2.5-2.5a3.5 3.5 0 0 1 4.95 0 .751.751 0 0 1-.018 1.042.751.751 0 0 1-1.042.018 1.998 1.998 0 0 0-2.83 0l-2.5 2.5a1.998 1.998 0 0 0 0 2.83Z"></path></svg></a></div> <div class="markdown-heading" dir="auto"><h3 tabindex="-1" class="heading-element" dir="auto">Postgres, MySQL, & other relational databases</h3><a id="user-content-postgres-mysql--other-relational-databases" class="anchor" aria-label="Permalink: Postgres, MySQL, & other relational databases" href="#postgres-mysql--other-relational-databases"><svg class="octicon octicon-link" viewBox="0 0 16 16" version="1.1" width="16" height="16" aria-hidden="true"><path d="m7.775 3.275 1.25-1.25a3.5 3.5 0 1 1 4.95 4.95l-2.5 2.5a3.5 3.5 0 0 1-4.95 0 .751.751 0 0 1 .018-1.042.751.751 0 0 1 1.042-.018 1.998 1.998 0 0 0 2.83 0l2.5-2.5a2.002 2.002 0 0 0-2.83-2.83l-1.25 1.25a.751.751 0 0 1-1.042-.018.751.751 0 0 1-.018-1.042Zm-4.69 9.64a1.998 1.998 0 0 0 2.83 0l1.25-1.25a.751.751 0 0 1 1.042.018.751.751 0 0 1 .018 1.042l-1.25 1.25a3.5 3.5 0 1 1-4.95-4.95l2.5-2.5a3.5 3.5 0 0 1 4.95 0 .751.751 0 0 1-.018 1.042.751.751 0 0 1-1.042.018 1.998 1.998 0 0 0-2.83 0l-2.5 2.5a1.998 1.998 0 0 0 0 2.83Z"></path></svg></a></div> <p dir="auto">Relational databases structure data into rows and are only accessible through the use of SQL. This approach provides flexibility in how you store and query your data but also incurs overhead in parsing and planning SQL statements. Bolt accesses all data by a byte slice key. This makes Bolt fast to read and write data by key but provides no built-in support for joining values together.</p> <p dir="auto">Most relational databases (with the exception of SQLite) are standalone servers that run separately from your application. This gives your systems flexibility to connect multiple application servers to a single database server but also adds overhead in serializing and transporting data over the network. Bolt runs as a library included in your application so all data access has to go through your application's process. This brings data closer to your application but limits multi-process access to the data.</p> <div class="markdown-heading" dir="auto"><h3 tabindex="-1" class="heading-element" dir="auto">LevelDB, RocksDB</h3><a id="user-content-leveldb-rocksdb" class="anchor" aria-label="Permalink: LevelDB, RocksDB" href="#leveldb-rocksdb"><svg class="octicon octicon-link" viewBox="0 0 16 16" version="1.1" width="16" height="16" aria-hidden="true"><path d="m7.775 3.275 1.25-1.25a3.5 3.5 0 1 1 4.95 4.95l-2.5 2.5a3.5 3.5 0 0 1-4.95 0 .751.751 0 0 1 .018-1.042.751.751 0 0 1 1.042-.018 1.998 1.998 0 0 0 2.83 0l2.5-2.5a2.002 2.002 0 0 0-2.83-2.83l-1.25 1.25a.751.751 0 0 1-1.042-.018.751.751 0 0 1-.018-1.042Zm-4.69 9.64a1.998 1.998 0 0 0 2.83 0l1.25-1.25a.751.751 0 0 1 1.042.018.751.751 0 0 1 .018 1.042l-1.25 1.25a3.5 3.5 0 1 1-4.95-4.95l2.5-2.5a3.5 3.5 0 0 1 4.95 0 .751.751 0 0 1-.018 1.042.751.751 0 0 1-1.042.018 1.998 1.998 0 0 0-2.83 0l-2.5 2.5a1.998 1.998 0 0 0 0 2.83Z"></path></svg></a></div> <p dir="auto">LevelDB and its derivatives (RocksDB, HyperLevelDB) are similar to Bolt in that they are libraries bundled into the application, however, their underlying structure is a log-structured merge-tree (LSM tree). An LSM tree optimizes random writes by using a write ahead log and multi-tiered, sorted files called SSTables. Bolt uses a B+tree internally and only a single file. Both approaches have trade-offs.</p> <p dir="auto">If you require a high random write throughput (>10,000 w/sec) or you need to use spinning disks then LevelDB could be a good choice. If your application is read-heavy or does a lot of range scans then Bolt could be a good choice.</p> <p dir="auto">One other important consideration is that LevelDB does not have transactions. It supports batch writing of key/values pairs and it supports read snapshots but it will not give you the ability to do a compare-and-swap operation safely. Bolt supports fully serializable ACID transactions.</p> <div class="markdown-heading" dir="auto"><h3 tabindex="-1" class="heading-element" dir="auto">LMDB</h3><a id="user-content-lmdb" class="anchor" aria-label="Permalink: LMDB" href="#lmdb"><svg class="octicon octicon-link" viewBox="0 0 16 16" version="1.1" width="16" height="16" aria-hidden="true"><path d="m7.775 3.275 1.25-1.25a3.5 3.5 0 1 1 4.95 4.95l-2.5 2.5a3.5 3.5 0 0 1-4.95 0 .751.751 0 0 1 .018-1.042.751.751 0 0 1 1.042-.018 1.998 1.998 0 0 0 2.83 0l2.5-2.5a2.002 2.002 0 0 0-2.83-2.83l-1.25 1.25a.751.751 0 0 1-1.042-.018.751.751 0 0 1-.018-1.042Zm-4.69 9.64a1.998 1.998 0 0 0 2.83 0l1.25-1.25a.751.751 0 0 1 1.042.018.751.751 0 0 1 .018 1.042l-1.25 1.25a3.5 3.5 0 1 1-4.95-4.95l2.5-2.5a3.5 3.5 0 0 1 4.95 0 .751.751 0 0 1-.018 1.042.751.751 0 0 1-1.042.018 1.998 1.998 0 0 0-2.83 0l-2.5 2.5a1.998 1.998 0 0 0 0 2.83Z"></path></svg></a></div> <p dir="auto">Bolt was originally a port of LMDB so it is architecturally similar. Both use a B+tree, have ACID semantics with fully serializable transactions, and support lock-free MVCC using a single writer and multiple readers.</p> <p dir="auto">The two projects have somewhat diverged. LMDB heavily focuses on raw performance while Bolt has focused on simplicity and ease of use. For example, LMDB allows several unsafe actions such as direct writes for the sake of performance. Bolt opts to disallow actions which can leave the database in a corrupted state. The only exception to this in Bolt is <code>DB.NoSync</code>.</p> <p dir="auto">There are also a few differences in API. LMDB requires a maximum mmap size when opening an <code>mdb_env</code> whereas Bolt will handle incremental mmap resizing automatically. LMDB overloads the getter and setter functions with multiple flags whereas Bolt splits these specialized cases into their own functions.</p> <div class="markdown-heading" dir="auto"><h2 tabindex="-1" class="heading-element" dir="auto">Caveats & Limitations</h2><a id="user-content-caveats--limitations" class="anchor" aria-label="Permalink: Caveats & Limitations" href="#caveats--limitations"><svg class="octicon octicon-link" viewBox="0 0 16 16" version="1.1" width="16" height="16" aria-hidden="true"><path d="m7.775 3.275 1.25-1.25a3.5 3.5 0 1 1 4.95 4.95l-2.5 2.5a3.5 3.5 0 0 1-4.95 0 .751.751 0 0 1 .018-1.042.751.751 0 0 1 1.042-.018 1.998 1.998 0 0 0 2.83 0l2.5-2.5a2.002 2.002 0 0 0-2.83-2.83l-1.25 1.25a.751.751 0 0 1-1.042-.018.751.751 0 0 1-.018-1.042Zm-4.69 9.64a1.998 1.998 0 0 0 2.83 0l1.25-1.25a.751.751 0 0 1 1.042.018.751.751 0 0 1 .018 1.042l-1.25 1.25a3.5 3.5 0 1 1-4.95-4.95l2.5-2.5a3.5 3.5 0 0 1 4.95 0 .751.751 0 0 1-.018 1.042.751.751 0 0 1-1.042.018 1.998 1.998 0 0 0-2.83 0l-2.5 2.5a1.998 1.998 0 0 0 0 2.83Z"></path></svg></a></div> <p dir="auto">It's important to pick the right tool for the job and Bolt is no exception. Here are a few things to note when evaluating and using Bolt:</p> <ul dir="auto"> <li> <p dir="auto">Bolt is good for read intensive workloads. Sequential write performance is also fast but random writes can be slow. You can use <code>DB.Batch()</code> or add a write-ahead log to help mitigate this issue.</p> </li> <li> <p dir="auto">Bolt uses a B+tree internally so there can be a lot of random page access. SSDs provide a significant performance boost over spinning disks.</p> </li> <li> <p dir="auto">Try to avoid long running read transactions. Bolt uses copy-on-write so old pages cannot be reclaimed while an old transaction is using them.</p> </li> <li> <p dir="auto">Byte slices returned from Bolt are only valid during a transaction. Once the transaction has been committed or rolled back then the memory they point to can be reused by a new page or can be unmapped from virtual memory and you'll see an <code>unexpected fault address</code> panic when accessing it.</p> </li> <li> <p dir="auto">Bolt uses an exclusive write lock on the database file so it cannot be shared by multiple processes.</p> </li> <li> <p dir="auto">Be careful when using <code>Bucket.FillPercent</code>. Setting a high fill percent for buckets that have random inserts will cause your database to have very poor page utilization.</p> </li> <li> <p dir="auto">Use larger buckets in general. Smaller buckets causes poor page utilization once they become larger than the page size (typically 4KB).</p> </li> <li> <p dir="auto">Bulk loading a lot of random writes into a new bucket can be slow as the page will not split until the transaction is committed. Randomly inserting more than 100,000 key/value pairs into a single new bucket in a single transaction is not advised.</p> </li> <li> <p dir="auto">Bolt uses a memory-mapped file so the underlying operating system handles the caching of the data. Typically, the OS will cache as much of the file as it can in memory and will release memory as needed to other processes. This means that Bolt can show very high memory usage when working with large databases. However, this is expected and the OS will release memory as needed. Bolt can handle databases much larger than the available physical RAM, provided its memory-map fits in the process virtual address space. It may be problematic on 32-bits systems.</p> </li> <li> <p dir="auto">The data structures in the Bolt database are memory mapped so the data file will be endian specific. This means that you cannot copy a Bolt file from a little endian machine to a big endian machine and have it work. For most users this is not a concern since most modern CPUs are little endian.</p> </li> <li> <p dir="auto">Because of the way pages are laid out on disk, Bolt cannot truncate data files and return free pages back to the disk. Instead, Bolt maintains a free list of unused pages within its data file. These free pages can be reused by later transactions. This works well for many use cases as databases generally tend to grow. However, it's important to note that deleting large chunks of data will not allow you to reclaim that space on disk.</p> <p dir="auto">For more information on page allocation, <a href="https://github.com/boltdb/bolt/issues/308#issuecomment-74811638" data-hovercard-type="issue" data-hovercard-url="/boltdb/bolt/issues/308/hovercard">see this comment</a>.</p> </li> </ul> <div class="markdown-heading" dir="auto"><h2 tabindex="-1" class="heading-element" dir="auto">Reading the Source</h2><a id="user-content-reading-the-source" class="anchor" aria-label="Permalink: Reading the Source" href="#reading-the-source"><svg class="octicon octicon-link" viewBox="0 0 16 16" version="1.1" width="16" height="16" aria-hidden="true"><path d="m7.775 3.275 1.25-1.25a3.5 3.5 0 1 1 4.95 4.95l-2.5 2.5a3.5 3.5 0 0 1-4.95 0 .751.751 0 0 1 .018-1.042.751.751 0 0 1 1.042-.018 1.998 1.998 0 0 0 2.83 0l2.5-2.5a2.002 2.002 0 0 0-2.83-2.83l-1.25 1.25a.751.751 0 0 1-1.042-.018.751.751 0 0 1-.018-1.042Zm-4.69 9.64a1.998 1.998 0 0 0 2.83 0l1.25-1.25a.751.751 0 0 1 1.042.018.751.751 0 0 1 .018 1.042l-1.25 1.25a3.5 3.5 0 1 1-4.95-4.95l2.5-2.5a3.5 3.5 0 0 1 4.95 0 .751.751 0 0 1-.018 1.042.751.751 0 0 1-1.042.018 1.998 1.998 0 0 0-2.83 0l-2.5 2.5a1.998 1.998 0 0 0 0 2.83Z"></path></svg></a></div> <p dir="auto">Bolt is a relatively small code base (<3KLOC) for an embedded, serializable, transactional key/value database so it can be a good starting point for people interested in how databases work.</p> <p dir="auto">The best places to start are the main entry points into Bolt:</p> <ul dir="auto"> <li> <p dir="auto"><code>Open()</code> - Initializes the reference to the database. It's responsible for creating the database if it doesn't exist, obtaining an exclusive lock on the file, reading the meta pages, & memory-mapping the file.</p> </li> <li> <p dir="auto"><code>DB.Begin()</code> - Starts a read-only or read-write transaction depending on the value of the <code>writable</code> argument. This requires briefly obtaining the "meta" lock to keep track of open transactions. Only one read-write transaction can exist at a time so the "rwlock" is acquired during the life of a read-write transaction.</p> </li> <li> <p dir="auto"><code>Bucket.Put()</code> - Writes a key/value pair into a bucket. After validating the arguments, a cursor is used to traverse the B+tree to the page and position where they key & value will be written. Once the position is found, the bucket materializes the underlying page and the page's parent pages into memory as "nodes". These nodes are where mutations occur during read-write transactions. These changes get flushed to disk during commit.</p> </li> <li> <p dir="auto"><code>Bucket.Get()</code> - Retrieves a key/value pair from a bucket. This uses a cursor to move to the page & position of a key/value pair. During a read-only transaction, the key and value data is returned as a direct reference to the underlying mmap file so there's no allocation overhead. For read-write transactions, this data may reference the mmap file or one of the in-memory node values.</p> </li> <li> <p dir="auto"><code>Cursor</code> - This object is simply for traversing the B+tree of on-disk pages or in-memory nodes. It can seek to a specific key, move to the first or last value, or it can move forward or backward. The cursor handles the movement up and down the B+tree transparently to the end user.</p> </li> <li> <p dir="auto"><code>Tx.Commit()</code> - Converts the in-memory dirty nodes and the list of free pages into pages to be written to disk. Writing to disk then occurs in two phases. First, the dirty pages are written to disk and an <code>fsync()</code> occurs. Second, a new meta page with an incremented transaction ID is written and another <code>fsync()</code> occurs. This two phase write ensures that partially written data pages are ignored in the event of a crash since the meta page pointing to them is never written. Partially written meta pages are invalidated because they are written with a checksum.</p> </li> </ul> <p dir="auto">If you have additional notes that could be helpful for others, please submit them via pull request.</p> <div class="markdown-heading" dir="auto"><h2 tabindex="-1" class="heading-element" dir="auto">Other Projects Using Bolt</h2><a id="user-content-other-projects-using-bolt" class="anchor" aria-label="Permalink: Other Projects Using Bolt" href="#other-projects-using-bolt"><svg class="octicon octicon-link" viewBox="0 0 16 16" version="1.1" width="16" height="16" aria-hidden="true"><path d="m7.775 3.275 1.25-1.25a3.5 3.5 0 1 1 4.95 4.95l-2.5 2.5a3.5 3.5 0 0 1-4.95 0 .751.751 0 0 1 .018-1.042.751.751 0 0 1 1.042-.018 1.998 1.998 0 0 0 2.83 0l2.5-2.5a2.002 2.002 0 0 0-2.83-2.83l-1.25 1.25a.751.751 0 0 1-1.042-.018.751.751 0 0 1-.018-1.042Zm-4.69 9.64a1.998 1.998 0 0 0 2.83 0l1.25-1.25a.751.751 0 0 1 1.042.018.751.751 0 0 1 .018 1.042l-1.25 1.25a3.5 3.5 0 1 1-4.95-4.95l2.5-2.5a3.5 3.5 0 0 1 4.95 0 .751.751 0 0 1-.018 1.042.751.751 0 0 1-1.042.018 1.998 1.998 0 0 0-2.83 0l-2.5 2.5a1.998 1.998 0 0 0 0 2.83Z"></path></svg></a></div> <p dir="auto">Below is a list of public, open source projects that use Bolt:</p> <ul dir="auto"> <li><a href="https://github.com/evnix/boltdbweb">BoltDbWeb</a> - A web based GUI for BoltDB files.</li> <li><a href="http://gocode.io" rel="nofollow">Operation Go: A Routine Mission</a> - An online programming game for Golang using Bolt for user accounts and a leaderboard.</li> <li><a href="https://bazil.org/" rel="nofollow">Bazil</a> - A file system that lets your data reside where it is most convenient for it to reside.</li> <li><a href="https://github.com/janelia-flyem/dvid">DVID</a> - Added Bolt as optional storage engine and testing it against Basho-tuned leveldb.</li> <li><a href="https://github.com/skybox/skybox">Skybox Analytics</a> - A standalone funnel analysis tool for web analytics.</li> <li><a href="https://github.com/benbjohnson/scuttlebutt">Scuttlebutt</a> - Uses Bolt to store and process all Twitter mentions of GitHub projects.</li> <li><a href="https://github.com/peterhellberg/wiki">Wiki</a> - A tiny wiki using Goji, BoltDB and Blackfriday.</li> <li><a href="https://github.com/pressly/chainstore">ChainStore</a> - Simple key-value interface to a variety of storage engines organized as a chain of operations.</li> <li><a href="https://github.com/msiebuhr/MetricBase">MetricBase</a> - Single-binary version of Graphite.</li> <li><a href="https://github.com/gitchain/gitchain">Gitchain</a> - Decentralized, peer-to-peer Git repositories aka "Git meets Bitcoin".</li> <li><a href="https://github.com/sclasen/event-shuttle">event-shuttle</a> - A Unix system service to collect and reliably deliver messages to Kafka.</li> <li><a href="https://github.com/kelseyhightower/ipxed">ipxed</a> - Web interface and api for ipxed.</li> <li><a href="https://github.com/yosssi/boltstore">BoltStore</a> - Session store using Bolt.</li> <li><a href="https://godoc.org/bitbucket.org/kardianos/photosite/session" rel="nofollow">photosite/session</a> - Sessions for a photo viewing site.</li> <li><a href="https://github.com/siddontang/ledisdb">LedisDB</a> - A high performance NoSQL, using Bolt as optional storage.</li> <li><a href="https://github.com/AndreasBriese/ipLocator">ipLocator</a> - A fast ip-geo-location-server using bolt with bloom filters.</li> <li><a href="https://github.com/google/cayley">cayley</a> - Cayley is an open-source graph database using Bolt as optional backend.</li> <li><a href="http://www.blevesearch.com/" rel="nofollow">bleve</a> - A pure Go search engine similar to ElasticSearch that uses Bolt as the default storage backend.</li> <li><a href="https://github.com/optiflows/tentacool">tentacool</a> - REST api server to manage system stuff (IP, DNS, Gateway...) on a linux server.</li> <li><a href="https://github.com/chrislusf/seaweedfs">Seaweed File System</a> - Highly scalable distributed key~file system with O(1) disk read.</li> <li><a href="https://influxdata.com" rel="nofollow">InfluxDB</a> - Scalable datastore for metrics, events, and real-time analytics.</li> <li><a href="http://tshannon.bitbucket.org/freehold/" rel="nofollow">Freehold</a> - An open, secure, and lightweight platform for your files and data.</li> <li><a href="https://github.com/oliver006/prom_annotation_server">Prometheus Annotation Server</a> - Annotation server for PromDash & Prometheus service monitoring system.</li> <li><a href="https://github.com/hashicorp/consul">Consul</a> - Consul is service discovery and configuration made easy. Distributed, highly available, and datacenter-aware.</li> <li><a href="https://github.com/ajvb/kala">Kala</a> - Kala is a modern job scheduler optimized to run on a single node. It is persistent, JSON over HTTP API, ISO 8601 duration notation, and dependent jobs.</li> <li><a href="https://github.com/odeke-em/drive">drive</a> - drive is an unofficial Google Drive command line client for *NIX operating systems.</li> <li><a href="https://github.com/djherbis/stow">stow</a> - a persistence manager for objects backed by boltdb.</li> <li><a href="https://github.com/joyrexus/buckets">buckets</a> - a bolt wrapper streamlining simple tx and key scans.</li> <li><a href="https://github.com/abhigupta912/mbuckets">mbuckets</a> - A Bolt wrapper that allows easy operations on multi level (nested) buckets.</li> <li><a href="https://github.com/darklynx/request-baskets">Request Baskets</a> - A web service to collect arbitrary HTTP requests and inspect them via REST API or simple web UI, similar to <a href="http://requestb.in/" rel="nofollow">RequestBin</a> service</li> <li><a href="https://goreportcard.com/" rel="nofollow">Go Report Card</a> - Go code quality report cards as a (free and open source) service.</li> <li><a href="https://github.com/bobintornado/boltdb-boilerplate">Boltdb Boilerplate</a> - Boilerplate wrapper around bolt aiming to make simple calls one-liners.</li> <li><a href="https://github.com/crowdriff/lru">lru</a> - Easy to use Bolt-backed Least-Recently-Used (LRU) read-through cache with chainable remote stores.</li> <li><a href="https://github.com/asdine/storm">Storm</a> - Simple and powerful ORM for BoltDB.</li> <li><a href="https://github.com/josephspurrier/gowebapp">GoWebApp</a> - A basic MVC web application in Go using BoltDB.</li> <li><a href="https://github.com/xyproto/simplebolt">SimpleBolt</a> - A simple way to use BoltDB. Deals mainly with strings.</li> <li><a href="https://github.com/xyproto/algernon">Algernon</a> - A HTTP/2 web server with built-in support for Lua. Uses BoltDB as the default database backend.</li> <li><a href="https://github.com/dankomiocevic/mulifs">MuLiFS</a> - Music Library Filesystem creates a filesystem to organise your music files.</li> <li><a href="https://github.com/pankajkhairnar/goShort">GoShort</a> - GoShort is a URL shortener written in Golang and BoltDB for persistent key/value storage and for routing it's using high performent HTTPRouter.</li> <li><a href="https://github.com/anacrolix/torrent">torrent</a> - Full-featured BitTorrent client package and utilities in Go. BoltDB is a storage backend in development.</li> <li><a href="https://github.com/gopherpit/gopherpit">gopherpit</a> - A web service to manage Go remote import paths with custom domains</li> <li><a href="https://github.com/hasit/bolter">bolter</a> - Command-line app for viewing BoltDB file in your terminal.</li> <li><a href="https://github.com/btcsuite/btcwallet">btcwallet</a> - A bitcoin wallet.</li> <li><a href="https://github.com/decred/dcrwallet">dcrwallet</a> - A wallet for the Decred cryptocurrency.</li> <li><a href="https://github.com/timshannon/ironsmith">Ironsmith</a> - A simple, script-driven continuous integration (build - > test -> release) tool, with no external dependencies</li> <li><a href="https://github.com/timshannon/bolthold">BoltHold</a> - An embeddable NoSQL store for Go types built on BoltDB</li> <li><a href="https://ponzu-cms.org" rel="nofollow">Ponzu CMS</a> - Headless CMS + automatic JSON API with auto-HTTPS, HTTP/2 Server Push, and flexible server framework.</li> </ul> <p dir="auto">If you are using Bolt in a project please send a pull request to add it to the list.</p> </article></div></div></div></div></div> <!-- --> <!-- --> <script type="application/json" id="__PRIMER_DATA_:R0:__">{"resolvedServerColorMode":"day"}</script></div> </react-partial> <input type="hidden" data-csrf="true" value="2oAZyzbxfi0Jia/KgiI/omu0ejrMSWAR1eSfC1iblQyzPofrfEJ0T/EwDUB9i95Uwr98ND7RWjtja+9LookmRQ==" /> </div> <div data-view-component="true" class="Layout-sidebar"> <div class="BorderGrid about-margin" data-pjax> <div class="BorderGrid-row"> <div class="BorderGrid-cell"> <div class="hide-sm hide-md"> <h2 class="mb-3 h4">About</h2> <p class="f4 my-3"> An embedded key/value database for Go. </p> <h3 class="sr-only">Topics</h3> <div class="my-3"> <div class="f6"> <a href="/topics/go" title="Topic: go" data-view-component="true" class="topic-tag topic-tag-link"> go </a> <a href="/topics/database" title="Topic: database" data-view-component="true" 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properties</span></a> </div> <h3 class="sr-only">Stars</h3> <div class="mt-2"> <a href="/boltdb/bolt/stargazers" data-view-component="true" class="Link Link--muted"><svg aria-hidden="true" height="16" viewBox="0 0 16 16" version="1.1" width="16" data-view-component="true" class="octicon octicon-star mr-2"> <path d="M8 .25a.75.75 0 0 1 .673.418l1.882 3.815 4.21.612a.75.75 0 0 1 .416 1.279l-3.046 2.97.719 4.192a.751.751 0 0 1-1.088.791L8 12.347l-3.766 1.98a.75.75 0 0 1-1.088-.79l.72-4.194L.818 6.374a.75.75 0 0 1 .416-1.28l4.21-.611L7.327.668A.75.75 0 0 1 8 .25Zm0 2.445L6.615 5.5a.75.75 0 0 1-.564.41l-3.097.45 2.24 2.184a.75.75 0 0 1 .216.664l-.528 3.084 2.769-1.456a.75.75 0 0 1 .698 0l2.77 1.456-.53-3.084a.75.75 0 0 1 .216-.664l2.24-2.183-3.096-.45a.75.75 0 0 1-.564-.41L8 2.694Z"></path> </svg> <strong>14.4k</strong> stars</a> </div> <h3 class="sr-only">Watchers</h3> <div class="mt-2"> <a href="/boltdb/bolt/watchers" data-view-component="true" class="Link Link--muted"><svg 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class="Link--primary no-underline Link">Releases <span title="5" data-view-component="true" class="Counter">5</span></a></h2> <a class="Link--primary d-flex no-underline" data-pjax="#repo-content-pjax-container" data-turbo-frame="repo-content-turbo-frame" href="/boltdb/bolt/releases/tag/v1.3.1"> <svg aria-hidden="true" height="16" viewBox="0 0 16 16" version="1.1" width="16" data-view-component="true" class="octicon octicon-tag flex-shrink-0 mt-1 color-fg-success"> <path d="M1 7.775V2.75C1 1.784 1.784 1 2.75 1h5.025c.464 0 .91.184 1.238.513l6.25 6.25a1.75 1.75 0 0 1 0 2.474l-5.026 5.026a1.75 1.75 0 0 1-2.474 0l-6.25-6.25A1.752 1.752 0 0 1 1 7.775Zm1.5 0c0 .066.026.13.073.177l6.25 6.25a.25.25 0 0 0 .354 0l5.025-5.025a.25.25 0 0 0 0-.354l-6.25-6.25a.25.25 0 0 0-.177-.073H2.75a.25.25 0 0 0-.25.25ZM6 5a1 1 0 1 1 0 2 1 1 0 0 1 0-2Z"></path> </svg> <div class="ml-2 min-width-0"> <div class="d-flex"> <span class="css-truncate css-truncate-target text-bold mr-2" style="max-width: none;">v1.3.1</span> <span title="Label: Latest" data-view-component="true" class="Label Label--success flex-shrink-0"> Latest </span> </div> <div class="text-small color-fg-muted"><relative-time datetime="2017-07-17T17:14:43Z" class="no-wrap">Jul 17, 2017</relative-time></div> </div> </a> <div data-view-component="true" class="mt-3"> <a text="small" data-pjax="#repo-content-pjax-container" data-turbo-frame="repo-content-turbo-frame" href="/boltdb/bolt/releases" data-view-component="true" class="Link">+ 4 releases</a></div> </div> </div> <div class="BorderGrid-row"> <div class="BorderGrid-cell"> <h2 class="h4 mb-3"> <a href="/orgs/boltdb/packages?repo_name=bolt" data-view-component="true" class="Link--primary no-underline Link d-flex flex-items-center">Packages <span title="0" hidden="hidden" data-view-component="true" class="Counter ml-1">0</span></a></h2> <div class="text-small color-fg-muted" > No packages published <br> </div> </div> </div> <div class="BorderGrid-row" > <div class="BorderGrid-cell"> <h2 class="h4 mb-3"> <a href="/boltdb/bolt/network/dependents" data-view-component="true" class="Link--primary no-underline Link">Used by <span title="9,133" data-view-component="true" class="Counter">9.1k</span></a> </h2> <a class="d-flex flex-items-center" href="/boltdb/bolt/network/dependents"> <ul class="hx_flex-avatar-stack list-style-none min-width-0"> <li class="hx_flex-avatar-stack-item"> <img class="avatar avatar-user" src="https://avatars.githubusercontent.com/u/198551240?s=64&v=4" width="32" height="32" alt="@aZRielshANE18352" /> </li> <li class="hx_flex-avatar-stack-item"> <img class="avatar avatar-user" src="https://avatars.githubusercontent.com/u/91836902?s=64&v=4" width="32" height="32" alt="@DrNikita" /> </li> <li class="hx_flex-avatar-stack-item"> <img class="avatar avatar-user" src="https://avatars.githubusercontent.com/u/6934246?s=64&v=4" width="32" height="32" alt="@frodejac" /> </li> <li class="hx_flex-avatar-stack-item"> <img class="avatar avatar-user" src="https://avatars.githubusercontent.com/u/4716030?s=64&v=4" width="32" height="32" alt="@SomniSom" /> </li> <li class="hx_flex-avatar-stack-item"> <img class="avatar avatar-user" src="https://avatars.githubusercontent.com/u/113294358?s=64&v=4" width="32" height="32" alt="@Srihari-Krishna" /> </li> <li class="hx_flex-avatar-stack-item"> <img class="avatar" src="https://avatars.githubusercontent.com/u/168707809?s=64&v=4" width="32" height="32" alt="@MainH-onmicrosoft-com" /> </li> <li class="hx_flex-avatar-stack-item"> <img class="avatar" src="https://avatars.githubusercontent.com/u/204139956?s=64&v=4" width="32" height="32" alt="@thenotbots" /> </li> <li class="hx_flex-avatar-stack-item"> <img class="avatar" src="https://avatars.githubusercontent.com/u/204139956?s=64&v=4" width="32" height="32" alt="@thenotbots" /> </li> </ul> <span class="px-2 text-bold text-small no-wrap"> + 9,125 </span> </a> </div> </div> <div class="BorderGrid-row"> <div class="BorderGrid-cell"> <h2 class="h4 mb-3"> <a href="/boltdb/bolt/graphs/contributors" data-view-component="true" class="Link--primary no-underline Link d-flex flex-items-center">Contributors <span title="98" data-view-component="true" class="Counter ml-1">98</span></a></h2> <ul class="list-style-none d-flex flex-wrap mb-n2"> <li class="mb-2 mr-2" > <a href="https://github.com/benbjohnson" class="" data-hovercard-type="user" data-hovercard-url="/users/benbjohnson/hovercard" data-octo-click="hovercard-link-click" data-octo-dimensions="link_type:self" > <img src="https://avatars.githubusercontent.com/u/118015?s=64&v=4" alt="@benbjohnson" size="32" height="32" width="32" data-view-component="true" class="avatar circle" /> </a> </li> <li class="mb-2 mr-2" > <a href="https://github.com/mkobetic" class="" data-hovercard-type="user" data-hovercard-url="/users/mkobetic/hovercard" data-octo-click="hovercard-link-click" data-octo-dimensions="link_type:self" > <img src="https://avatars.githubusercontent.com/u/871693?s=64&v=4" alt="@mkobetic" size="32" height="32" width="32" data-view-component="true" class="avatar circle" /> </a> </li> <li class="mb-2 mr-2" > <a href="https://github.com/snormore" class="" data-hovercard-type="user" data-hovercard-url="/users/snormore/hovercard" data-octo-click="hovercard-link-click" data-octo-dimensions="link_type:self" > <img src="https://avatars.githubusercontent.com/u/182290?s=64&v=4" alt="@snormore" size="32" height="32" width="32" data-view-component="true" class="avatar circle" /> </a> </li> <li class="mb-2 mr-2" > <a href="https://github.com/tv42" class="" data-hovercard-type="user" data-hovercard-url="/users/tv42/hovercard" data-octo-click="hovercard-link-click" data-octo-dimensions="link_type:self" > <img src="https://avatars.githubusercontent.com/u/419909?s=64&v=4" alt="@tv42" size="32" height="32" width="32" data-view-component="true" class="avatar circle" /> </a> </li> <li class="mb-2 mr-2" > <a href="https://github.com/josharian" class="" data-hovercard-type="user" data-hovercard-url="/users/josharian/hovercard" data-octo-click="hovercard-link-click" data-octo-dimensions="link_type:self" > <img src="https://avatars.githubusercontent.com/u/67496?s=64&v=4" alt="@josharian" size="32" height="32" width="32" data-view-component="true" class="avatar circle" /> </a> </li> <li class="mb-2 mr-2" > <a href="https://github.com/rhcarvalho" class="" data-hovercard-type="user" data-hovercard-url="/users/rhcarvalho/hovercard" data-octo-click="hovercard-link-click" data-octo-dimensions="link_type:self" > <img src="https://avatars.githubusercontent.com/u/88819?s=64&v=4" alt="@rhcarvalho" size="32" height="32" width="32" data-view-component="true" class="avatar circle" /> </a> </li> <li class="mb-2 mr-2" > <a href="https://github.com/gyuho" class="" data-hovercard-type="user" data-hovercard-url="/users/gyuho/hovercard" data-octo-click="hovercard-link-click" data-octo-dimensions="link_type:self" > <img src="https://avatars.githubusercontent.com/u/6799218?s=64&v=4" alt="@gyuho" size="32" height="32" width="32" data-view-component="true" class="avatar circle" /> </a> </li> <li class="mb-2 mr-2" > <a href="https://github.com/sasha-s" class="" data-hovercard-type="user" data-hovercard-url="/users/sasha-s/hovercard" data-octo-click="hovercard-link-click" data-octo-dimensions="link_type:self" > <img src="https://avatars.githubusercontent.com/u/8562967?s=64&v=4" alt="@sasha-s" size="32" height="32" width="32" data-view-component="true" class="avatar circle" /> </a> </li> <li class="mb-2 mr-2" > <a href="https://github.com/pmezard" class="" data-hovercard-type="user" data-hovercard-url="/users/pmezard/hovercard" data-octo-click="hovercard-link-click" data-octo-dimensions="link_type:self" > <img src="https://avatars.githubusercontent.com/u/1430779?s=64&v=4" alt="@pmezard" size="32" height="32" width="32" data-view-component="true" class="avatar circle" /> </a> </li> <li class="mb-2 mr-2" > <a href="https://github.com/asdine" class="" data-hovercard-type="user" data-hovercard-url="/users/asdine/hovercard" data-octo-click="hovercard-link-click" data-octo-dimensions="link_type:self" > <img src="https://avatars.githubusercontent.com/u/2102036?s=64&v=4" alt="@asdine" size="32" height="32" width="32" data-view-component="true" class="avatar circle" /> </a> </li> <li class="mb-2 mr-2" > <a href="https://github.com/TrevorSStone" class="" data-hovercard-type="user" data-hovercard-url="/users/TrevorSStone/hovercard" data-octo-click="hovercard-link-click" data-octo-dimensions="link_type:self" > <img src="https://avatars.githubusercontent.com/u/2424354?s=64&v=4" alt="@TrevorSStone" size="32" height="32" width="32" data-view-component="true" class="avatar circle" /> </a> </li> <li class="mb-2 mr-2" > <a href="https://github.com/xiang90" class="" data-hovercard-type="user" data-hovercard-url="/users/xiang90/hovercard" data-octo-click="hovercard-link-click" data-octo-dimensions="link_type:self" > <img src="https://avatars.githubusercontent.com/u/4479947?s=64&v=4" alt="@xiang90" size="32" height="32" width="32" data-view-component="true" class="avatar circle" /> </a> </li> <li class="mb-2 mr-2" > <a href="https://github.com/azazeal" class="" data-hovercard-type="user" data-hovercard-url="/users/azazeal/hovercard" data-octo-click="hovercard-link-click" data-octo-dimensions="link_type:self" > <img src="https://avatars.githubusercontent.com/u/45078?s=64&v=4" alt="@azazeal" size="32" height="32" width="32" data-view-component="true" class="avatar circle" /> </a> </li> <li class="mb-2 mr-2" > <a href="https://github.com/vincent-petithory" class="" data-hovercard-type="user" data-hovercard-url="/users/vincent-petithory/hovercard" data-octo-click="hovercard-link-click" data-octo-dimensions="link_type:self" > <img src="https://avatars.githubusercontent.com/u/110640?s=64&v=4" alt="@vincent-petithory" size="32" height="32" width="32" data-view-component="true" class="avatar circle" /> </a> </li> </ul> <div data-view-component="true" class="mt-3"> <a text="small" href="/boltdb/bolt/graphs/contributors" data-view-component="true" class="Link--inTextBlock Link">+ 84 contributors</a></div> </div> </div> <div class="BorderGrid-row"> <div class="BorderGrid-cell"> <h2 class="h4 mb-3">Languages</h2> <div class="mb-2"> <span data-view-component="true" class="Progress"> <span style="background-color:#00ADD8 !important;;width: 99.9%;" itemprop="keywords" data-view-component="true" class="Progress-item color-bg-success-emphasis"></span> <span style="background-color:#427819 !important;;width: 0.1%;" itemprop="keywords" data-view-component="true" class="Progress-item color-bg-success-emphasis"></span> </span></div> <ul class="list-style-none"> <li class="d-inline"> <a class="d-inline-flex flex-items-center flex-nowrap Link--secondary no-underline text-small mr-3" href="/boltdb/bolt/search?l=go" data-ga-click="Repository, language stats search click, location:repo overview"> <svg style="color:#00ADD8;" aria-hidden="true" height="16" viewBox="0 0 16 16" version="1.1" width="16" data-view-component="true" class="octicon octicon-dot-fill mr-2"> <path d="M8 4a4 4 0 1 1 0 8 4 4 0 0 1 0-8Z"></path> </svg> <span class="color-fg-default text-bold mr-1">Go</span> <span>99.9%</span> </a> </li> <li class="d-inline"> <a class="d-inline-flex flex-items-center flex-nowrap Link--secondary no-underline text-small mr-3" href="/boltdb/bolt/search?l=makefile" data-ga-click="Repository, language stats search click, location:repo overview"> <svg style="color:#427819;" aria-hidden="true" height="16" viewBox="0 0 16 16" version="1.1" width="16" data-view-component="true" class="octicon octicon-dot-fill mr-2"> <path d="M8 4a4 4 0 1 1 0 8 4 4 0 0 1 0-8Z"></path> </svg> <span class="color-fg-default text-bold mr-1">Makefile</span> <span>0.1%</span> </a> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </div> </div> 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