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href="#Research_and_career"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2</span> <span>Research and career</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Research_and_career-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Research and career subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Research_and_career-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Sequencing_insulin" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Sequencing_insulin"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.1</span> <span>Sequencing insulin</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Sequencing_insulin-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Sequencing_RNA" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Sequencing_RNA"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.2</span> <span>Sequencing RNA</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Sequencing_RNA-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Sequencing_DNA" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Sequencing_DNA"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.3</span> <span>Sequencing DNA</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Sequencing_DNA-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Postgraduate_students" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Postgraduate_students"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.4</span> <span>Postgraduate students</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Postgraduate_students-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Sanger's_rule" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Sanger's_rule"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.5</span> <span>Sanger's rule</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Sanger's_rule-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Awards_and_honours" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Awards_and_honours"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.6</span> <span>Awards and honours</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Awards_and_honours-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Personal_life" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Personal_life"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3</span> <span>Personal life</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Personal_life-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Personal life subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Personal_life-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Marriage_and_family" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Marriage_and_family"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.1</span> <span>Marriage and family</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Marriage_and_family-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Later_life" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Later_life"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.2</span> <span>Later life</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Later_life-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Global_policy" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Global_policy"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> <span>Global policy</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Global_policy-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Selected_publications" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Selected_publications"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>Selected publications</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Selected_publications-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6</span> <span>References</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-References-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle References subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Citations" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Citations"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.1</span> <span>Citations</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Citations-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Bibliography" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Bibliography"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.2</span> <span>Bibliography</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Bibliography-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7</span> <span>External links</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header 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</div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading"><span class="mw-page-title-main">Frederick Sanger</span></h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. Available in 82 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-82" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-language-progressive mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-language-progressive"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">82 languages</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-af mw-list-item"><a href="https://af.wikipedia.org/wiki/Frederick_Sanger" title="Frederick Sanger – Afrikaans" lang="af" hreflang="af" data-title="Frederick Sanger" data-language-autonym="Afrikaans" data-language-local-name="Afrikaans" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Afrikaans</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%81%D8%B1%D8%AF%D8%B1%D9%8A%D9%83_%D8%B3%D8%A7%D9%86%D8%BA%D8%B1" title="فردريك سانغر – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="فردريك سانغر" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>العربية</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ast mw-list-item"><a href="https://ast.wikipedia.org/wiki/Frederick_Sanger" title="Frederick Sanger – Asturian" lang="ast" hreflang="ast" data-title="Frederick Sanger" data-language-autonym="Asturianu" data-language-local-name="Asturian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Asturianu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-az mw-list-item"><a href="https://az.wikipedia.org/wiki/Frederik_Senger" title="Frederik Senger – Azerbaijani" lang="az" hreflang="az" data-title="Frederik Senger" data-language-autonym="Azərbaycanca" data-language-local-name="Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Azərbaycanca</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-azb mw-list-item"><a href="https://azb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%81%D8%B1%D8%AF%D8%B1%DB%8C%DA%A9_%D8%B3%D9%86%D9%82%D8%B1" title="فردریک سنقر – South Azerbaijani" lang="azb" hreflang="azb" data-title="فردریک سنقر" data-language-autonym="تۆرکجه" data-language-local-name="South Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>تۆرکجه</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bn mw-list-item"><a href="https://bn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A6%AB%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%B0%E0%A7%87%E0%A6%A1%E0%A6%B0%E0%A6%BF%E0%A6%95_%E0%A6%B8%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%AF%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%99%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%97%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%B0" title="ফ্রেডরিক স্যাঙ্গার – Bangla" lang="bn" hreflang="bn" data-title="ফ্রেডরিক স্যাঙ্গার" data-language-autonym="বাংলা" data-language-local-name="Bangla" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>বাংলা</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-min-nan mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh-min-nan.wikipedia.org/wiki/Frederick_Sanger" title="Frederick Sanger – Minnan" lang="nan" hreflang="nan" data-title="Frederick Sanger" data-language-autonym="閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gú" data-language-local-name="Minnan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gú</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be mw-list-item"><a href="https://be.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A4%D1%80%D1%8D%D0%B4%D1%8D%D1%80%D1%8B%D0%BA_%D0%A1%D0%B5%D0%BD%D0%B3%D0%B5%D1%80" title="Фрэдэрык Сенгер – Belarusian" lang="be" hreflang="be" data-title="Фрэдэрык Сенгер" data-language-autonym="Беларуская" data-language-local-name="Belarusian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Беларуская</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bg mw-list-item"><a href="https://bg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A4%D1%80%D0%B5%D0%B4%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%B8%D0%BA_%D0%A1%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%B3%D1%8A%D1%80" title="Фредерик Сангър – Bulgarian" lang="bg" hreflang="bg" data-title="Фредерик Сангър" data-language-autonym="Български" data-language-local-name="Bulgarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Български</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bs mw-list-item"><a href="https://bs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Frederick_Sanger" title="Frederick Sanger – Bosnian" lang="bs" hreflang="bs" data-title="Frederick Sanger" data-language-autonym="Bosanski" data-language-local-name="Bosnian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bosanski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Frederick_Sanger" title="Frederick Sanger – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Frederick Sanger" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Català</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs mw-list-item"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Frederick_Sanger" title="Frederick Sanger – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="Frederick Sanger" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="Czech" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Čeština</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cy mw-list-item"><a href="https://cy.wikipedia.org/wiki/Frederick_Sanger" title="Frederick Sanger – Welsh" lang="cy" hreflang="cy" data-title="Frederick Sanger" data-language-autonym="Cymraeg" data-language-local-name="Welsh" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Cymraeg</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-da mw-list-item"><a href="https://da.wikipedia.org/wiki/Frederick_Sanger" title="Frederick Sanger – Danish" lang="da" hreflang="da" data-title="Frederick Sanger" data-language-autonym="Dansk" data-language-local-name="Danish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Dansk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Frederick_Sanger" title="Frederick Sanger – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Frederick Sanger" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Deutsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-el mw-list-item"><a href="https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%A6%CF%81%CE%AD%CE%BD%CF%84%CE%B5%CF%81%CE%B9%CE%BA_%CE%A3%CE%AC%CE%BD%CE%B3%CE%BA%CE%B5%CF%81" title="Φρέντερικ Σάνγκερ – Greek" lang="el" hreflang="el" data-title="Φρέντερικ Σάνγκερ" data-language-autonym="Ελληνικά" data-language-local-name="Greek" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ελληνικά</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Frederick_Sanger" title="Frederick Sanger – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Frederick Sanger" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Español</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eo mw-list-item"><a href="https://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Frederick_Sanger" title="Frederick Sanger – Esperanto" lang="eo" hreflang="eo" data-title="Frederick Sanger" data-language-autonym="Esperanto" data-language-local-name="Esperanto" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Esperanto</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eu mw-list-item"><a href="https://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Frederick_Sanger" title="Frederick Sanger – Basque" lang="eu" hreflang="eu" data-title="Frederick Sanger" data-language-autonym="Euskara" data-language-local-name="Basque" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Euskara</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%81%D8%B1%D8%AF%D8%B1%DB%8C%DA%A9_%D8%B3%D9%86%DA%AF%D8%B1" title="فردریک سنگر – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="فردریک سنگر" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>فارسی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Frederick_Sanger" title="Frederick Sanger – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Frederick Sanger" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Français</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ga mw-list-item"><a href="https://ga.wikipedia.org/wiki/Frederick_Sanger" title="Frederick Sanger – Irish" lang="ga" hreflang="ga" data-title="Frederick Sanger" data-language-autonym="Gaeilge" data-language-local-name="Irish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Gaeilge</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gd mw-list-item"><a href="https://gd.wikipedia.org/wiki/Frederick_Sanger" title="Frederick Sanger – Scottish Gaelic" lang="gd" hreflang="gd" data-title="Frederick Sanger" data-language-autonym="Gàidhlig" data-language-local-name="Scottish Gaelic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Gàidhlig</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gl mw-list-item"><a href="https://gl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Frederick_Sanger" title="Frederick Sanger – Galician" lang="gl" hreflang="gl" data-title="Frederick Sanger" data-language-autonym="Galego" data-language-local-name="Galician" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Galego</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gu mw-list-item"><a href="https://gu.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%AA%AB%E0%AB%87%E0%AA%A1%E0%AB%8D%E0%AA%B0%E0%AA%BF%E0%AA%95_%E0%AA%B8%E0%AB%87%E0%AA%82%E0%AA%97%E0%AA%B0" title="ફેડ્રિક સેંગર – Gujarati" lang="gu" hreflang="gu" data-title="ફેડ્રિક સેંગર" data-language-autonym="ગુજરાતી" data-language-local-name="Gujarati" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ગુજરાતી</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hak mw-list-item"><a href="https://hak.wikipedia.org/wiki/Frederick_Sanger" title="Frederick Sanger – Hakka Chinese" lang="hak" hreflang="hak" data-title="Frederick Sanger" data-language-autonym="客家語 / Hak-kâ-ngî" data-language-local-name="Hakka Chinese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>客家語 / Hak-kâ-ngî</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%ED%94%84%EB%A0%88%EB%8D%94%EB%A6%AD_%EC%83%9D%EC%96%B4" title="프레더릭 생어 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="프레더릭 생어" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>한국어</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hy mw-list-item"><a href="https://hy.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D5%96%D6%80%D5%A5%D5%A4%D5%A5%D6%80%D5%AB%D5%AF_%D5%8D%D5%A1%D5%B6%D5%A3%D5%A5%D6%80" title="Ֆրեդերիկ Սանգեր – Armenian" lang="hy" hreflang="hy" data-title="Ֆրեդերիկ Սանգեր" data-language-autonym="Հայերեն" data-language-local-name="Armenian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Հայերեն</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hi mw-list-item"><a href="https://hi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%AB%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%87%E0%A4%A1%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%95_%E0%A4%B8%E0%A5%88%E0%A4%82%E0%A4%97%E0%A4%B0" title="फ्रेड्रिक सैंगर – Hindi" lang="hi" hreflang="hi" data-title="फ्रेड्रिक सैंगर" data-language-autonym="हिन्दी" data-language-local-name="Hindi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>हिन्दी</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hr mw-list-item"><a href="https://hr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Frederick_Sanger" title="Frederick Sanger – Croatian" lang="hr" hreflang="hr" data-title="Frederick Sanger" data-language-autonym="Hrvatski" data-language-local-name="Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Hrvatski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-io mw-list-item"><a href="https://io.wikipedia.org/wiki/Frederick_Sanger" title="Frederick Sanger – Ido" lang="io" hreflang="io" data-title="Frederick Sanger" data-language-autonym="Ido" data-language-local-name="Ido" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ido</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Frederick_Sanger" title="Frederick Sanger – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Frederick Sanger" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Indonesia</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ia mw-list-item"><a href="https://ia.wikipedia.org/wiki/Frederick_Sanger" title="Frederick Sanger – Interlingua" lang="ia" hreflang="ia" data-title="Frederick Sanger" data-language-autonym="Interlingua" data-language-local-name="Interlingua" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Interlingua</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Frederick_Sanger" title="Frederick Sanger – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Frederick Sanger" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Italiano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he mw-list-item"><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%A4%D7%A8%D7%93%D7%A8%D7%99%D7%A7_%D7%A1%D7%A0%D7%92%D7%A8" title="פרדריק סנגר – Hebrew" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="פרדריק סנגר" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="Hebrew" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>עברית</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ka mw-list-item"><a href="https://ka.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%A4%E1%83%A0%E1%83%94%E1%83%93%E1%83%94%E1%83%A0%E1%83%98%E1%83%99_%E1%83%A1%E1%83%94%E1%83%9C%E1%83%92%E1%83%94%E1%83%A0%E1%83%98" title="ფრედერიკ სენგერი – Georgian" lang="ka" hreflang="ka" data-title="ფრედერიკ სენგერი" data-language-autonym="ქართული" data-language-local-name="Georgian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ქართული</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sw mw-list-item"><a href="https://sw.wikipedia.org/wiki/Frederick_Sanger" title="Frederick Sanger – Swahili" lang="sw" hreflang="sw" data-title="Frederick Sanger" data-language-autonym="Kiswahili" data-language-local-name="Swahili" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Kiswahili</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ky mw-list-item"><a href="https://ky.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A4%D1%80%D0%B5%D0%B4%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%B8%D0%BA_%D0%A1%D0%B5%D2%A3%D0%B5%D1%80" title="Фредерик Сеңер – Kyrgyz" lang="ky" hreflang="ky" data-title="Фредерик Сеңер" data-language-autonym="Кыргызча" data-language-local-name="Kyrgyz" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Кыргызча</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-la mw-list-item"><a href="https://la.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fridericus_Sanger" title="Fridericus Sanger – Latin" lang="la" hreflang="la" data-title="Fridericus Sanger" data-language-autonym="Latina" data-language-local-name="Latin" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Latina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lv mw-list-item"><a href="https://lv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Frederiks_Sengers" title="Frederiks Sengers – Latvian" lang="lv" hreflang="lv" data-title="Frederiks Sengers" data-language-autonym="Latviešu" data-language-local-name="Latvian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Latviešu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lb mw-list-item"><a href="https://lb.wikipedia.org/wiki/Frederick_Sanger" title="Frederick Sanger – Luxembourgish" lang="lb" hreflang="lb" data-title="Frederick Sanger" data-language-autonym="Lëtzebuergesch" data-language-local-name="Luxembourgish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Lëtzebuergesch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hu mw-list-item"><a href="https://hu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Frederick_Sanger" title="Frederick Sanger – Hungarian" lang="hu" hreflang="hu" data-title="Frederick Sanger" data-language-autonym="Magyar" data-language-local-name="Hungarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Magyar</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mg mw-list-item"><a href="https://mg.wikipedia.org/wiki/Frederick_Sanger" title="Frederick Sanger – Malagasy" lang="mg" hreflang="mg" data-title="Frederick Sanger" data-language-autonym="Malagasy" data-language-local-name="Malagasy" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Malagasy</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ml mw-list-item"><a href="https://ml.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B4%AB%E0%B5%8D%E0%B4%B0%E0%B5%86%E0%B4%A1%E0%B4%B1%E0%B4%BF%E0%B4%95%E0%B5%8D_%E0%B4%B8%E0%B4%BE%E0%B4%99%E0%B5%8D%E0%B4%99%E0%B5%BC" title="ഫ്രെഡറിക് സാങ്ങർ – Malayalam" lang="ml" hreflang="ml" data-title="ഫ്രെഡറിക് സാങ്ങർ" data-language-autonym="മലയാളം" data-language-local-name="Malayalam" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>മലയാളം</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-xmf mw-list-item"><a href="https://xmf.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%A4%E1%83%A0%E1%83%94%E1%83%93%E1%83%94%E1%83%A0%E1%83%98%E1%83%99_%E1%83%A1%E1%83%94%E1%83%9C%E1%83%92%E1%83%94%E1%83%A0%E1%83%98" title="ფრედერიკ სენგერი – Mingrelian" lang="xmf" hreflang="xmf" data-title="ფრედერიკ სენგერი" data-language-autonym="მარგალური" data-language-local-name="Mingrelian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>მარგალური</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-arz mw-list-item"><a href="https://arz.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%81%D8%B1%D8%AF%D8%B1%D9%8A%D9%83_%D8%B3%D8%A7%D9%86%D8%AC%D8%B1" title="فردريك سانجر – Egyptian Arabic" lang="arz" hreflang="arz" data-title="فردريك سانجر" data-language-autonym="مصرى" data-language-local-name="Egyptian Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>مصرى</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mzn mw-list-item"><a href="https://mzn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%81%D8%B1%D8%AF%D8%B1%DB%8C%DA%A9_%D8%B3%D9%86%DA%AF%D8%B1" title="فردریک سنگر – Mazanderani" lang="mzn" hreflang="mzn" data-title="فردریک سنگر" data-language-autonym="مازِرونی" data-language-local-name="Mazanderani" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>مازِرونی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ms mw-list-item"><a href="https://ms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Frederick_Sanger" title="Frederick Sanger – Malay" lang="ms" hreflang="ms" data-title="Frederick Sanger" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Melayu" data-language-local-name="Malay" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Melayu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Frederick_Sanger" title="Frederick Sanger – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Frederick Sanger" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Nederlands</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E3%83%95%E3%83%AC%E3%83%87%E3%83%AA%E3%83%83%E3%82%AF%E3%83%BB%E3%82%B5%E3%83%B3%E3%82%AC%E3%83%BC" title="フレデリック・サンガー – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="フレデリック・サンガー" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>日本語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-no mw-list-item"><a href="https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Frederick_Sanger" title="Frederick Sanger – Norwegian Bokmål" lang="nb" hreflang="nb" data-title="Frederick Sanger" data-language-autonym="Norsk bokmål" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Bokmål" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk bokmål</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-oc mw-list-item"><a href="https://oc.wikipedia.org/wiki/Frederick_Sanger" title="Frederick Sanger – Occitan" lang="oc" hreflang="oc" data-title="Frederick Sanger" data-language-autonym="Occitan" data-language-local-name="Occitan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Occitan</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uz mw-list-item"><a href="https://uz.wikipedia.org/wiki/Frederick_Sanger" title="Frederick Sanger – Uzbek" lang="uz" hreflang="uz" data-title="Frederick Sanger" data-language-autonym="Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча" data-language-local-name="Uzbek" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pa mw-list-item"><a href="https://pa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A8%AB%E0%A8%B0%E0%A9%88%E0%A8%A1%E0%A8%B0%E0%A8%BF%E0%A8%95_%E0%A8%B8%E0%A9%87%E0%A8%82%E0%A8%9C%E0%A8%B0" title="ਫਰੈਡਰਿਕ ਸੇਂਜਰ – Punjabi" lang="pa" hreflang="pa" data-title="ਫਰੈਡਰਿਕ ਸੇਂਜਰ" data-language-autonym="ਪੰਜਾਬੀ" data-language-local-name="Punjabi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ਪੰਜਾਬੀ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pnb mw-list-item"><a href="https://pnb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%81%D8%B1%DB%8C%DA%88%D8%B1%DA%A9_%D8%B3%DB%8C%D9%86%DA%AF%D8%B1" title="فریڈرک سینگر – Western Punjabi" lang="pnb" hreflang="pnb" data-title="فریڈرک سینگر" data-language-autonym="پنجابی" data-language-local-name="Western Punjabi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>پنجابی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nds mw-list-item"><a href="https://nds.wikipedia.org/wiki/Frederick_Sanger" title="Frederick Sanger – Low German" lang="nds" hreflang="nds" data-title="Frederick Sanger" data-language-autonym="Plattdüütsch" data-language-local-name="Low German" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Plattdüütsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Frederick_Sanger" title="Frederick Sanger – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="Frederick Sanger" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Polish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Polski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Frederick_Sanger" title="Frederick Sanger – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Frederick Sanger" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Português</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ro mw-list-item"><a href="https://ro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Frederick_Sanger" title="Frederick Sanger – Romanian" lang="ro" hreflang="ro" data-title="Frederick Sanger" data-language-autonym="Română" data-language-local-name="Romanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Română</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-qu mw-list-item"><a href="https://qu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Frederick_Sanger" title="Frederick Sanger – Quechua" lang="qu" hreflang="qu" data-title="Frederick Sanger" data-language-autonym="Runa Simi" data-language-local-name="Quechua" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Runa Simi</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-rue mw-list-item"><a href="https://rue.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A4%D1%80%D0%B5%D0%B4%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%B8%D0%BA_%D0%A1%D0%B5%D0%BD%D0%B3%D0%B5%D1%80" title="Фредерик Сенгер – Rusyn" lang="rue" hreflang="rue" data-title="Фредерик Сенгер" data-language-autonym="Русиньскый" data-language-local-name="Rusyn" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Русиньскый</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A1%D0%B5%D0%BD%D0%B3%D0%B5%D1%80,_%D0%A4%D1%80%D0%B5%D0%B4%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%B8%D0%BA" title="Сенгер, Фредерик – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Сенгер, Фредерик" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Русский</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-simple mw-list-item"><a href="https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Frederick_Sanger" title="Frederick Sanger – Simple English" lang="en-simple" hreflang="en-simple" data-title="Frederick Sanger" data-language-autonym="Simple English" data-language-local-name="Simple English" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Simple English</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sk mw-list-item"><a href="https://sk.wikipedia.org/wiki/Frederick_Sanger" title="Frederick Sanger – Slovak" lang="sk" hreflang="sk" data-title="Frederick Sanger" data-language-autonym="Slovenčina" data-language-local-name="Slovak" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Slovenčina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sl mw-list-item"><a href="https://sl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Frederick_Sanger" title="Frederick Sanger – Slovenian" lang="sl" hreflang="sl" data-title="Frederick Sanger" data-language-autonym="Slovenščina" data-language-local-name="Slovenian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Slovenščina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sr mw-list-item"><a href="https://sr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A4%D1%80%D0%B5%D0%B4%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%B8%D0%BA_%D0%A1%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%B3%D0%B5%D1%80" title="Фредерик Сангер – Serbian" lang="sr" hreflang="sr" data-title="Фредерик Сангер" data-language-autonym="Српски / srpski" data-language-local-name="Serbian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Српски / srpski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sh mw-list-item"><a href="https://sh.wikipedia.org/wiki/Frederick_Sanger" title="Frederick Sanger – Serbo-Croatian" lang="sh" hreflang="sh" data-title="Frederick Sanger" data-language-autonym="Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски" data-language-local-name="Serbo-Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fi mw-list-item"><a href="https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Frederick_Sanger" title="Frederick Sanger – Finnish" lang="fi" hreflang="fi" data-title="Frederick Sanger" data-language-autonym="Suomi" data-language-local-name="Finnish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Suomi</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sv mw-list-item"><a href="https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Frederick_Sanger" title="Frederick Sanger – Swedish" lang="sv" hreflang="sv" data-title="Frederick Sanger" data-language-autonym="Svenska" data-language-local-name="Swedish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Svenska</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ta mw-list-item"><a href="https://ta.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%AE%AA%E0%AE%BF%E0%AE%B0%E0%AE%9F%E0%AF%86%E0%AE%B0%E0%AE%BF%E0%AE%95%E0%AF%8D_%E0%AE%9A%E0%AF%87%E0%AE%99%E0%AF%8D%E0%AE%95%E0%AE%B0%E0%AF%8D" title="பிரடெரிக் சேங்கர் – Tamil" lang="ta" hreflang="ta" data-title="பிரடெரிக் சேங்கர்" data-language-autonym="தமிழ்" data-language-local-name="Tamil" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>தமிழ்</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tt mw-list-item"><a href="https://tt.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A4%D1%80%D0%B5%D0%B4%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%B8%D0%BA_%D0%A1%D3%99%D2%A3%D0%B5%D1%80" title="Фредерик Сәңер – Tatar" lang="tt" hreflang="tt" data-title="Фредерик Сәңер" data-language-autonym="Татарча / tatarça" data-language-local-name="Tatar" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Татарча / tatarça</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-te mw-list-item"><a href="https://te.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B0%AB%E0%B1%8D%E0%B0%B0%E0%B1%86%E0%B0%A1%E0%B1%86%E0%B0%B0%E0%B0%BF%E0%B0%95%E0%B1%8D_%E0%B0%B8%E0%B0%BE%E0%B0%82%E0%B0%9C%E0%B1%86%E0%B0%B0%E0%B1%8D" title="ఫ్రెడెరిక్ సాంజెర్ – Telugu" lang="te" hreflang="te" data-title="ఫ్రెడెరిక్ సాంజెర్" data-language-autonym="తెలుగు" data-language-local-name="Telugu" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>తెలుగు</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-th mw-list-item"><a href="https://th.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B9%80%E0%B8%9F%E0%B8%A3%E0%B9%80%E0%B8%94%E0%B8%AD%E0%B8%A3%E0%B8%B4%E0%B8%81_%E0%B9%81%E0%B8%8B%E0%B8%87%E0%B9%80%E0%B8%87%E0%B8%AD%E0%B8%A3%E0%B9%8C" title="เฟรเดอริก แซงเงอร์ – Thai" lang="th" hreflang="th" data-title="เฟรเดอริก แซงเงอร์" data-language-autonym="ไทย" data-language-local-name="Thai" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ไทย</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tr mw-list-item"><a href="https://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Frederick_Sanger" title="Frederick Sanger – Turkish" lang="tr" hreflang="tr" data-title="Frederick Sanger" data-language-autonym="Türkçe" data-language-local-name="Turkish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Türkçe</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uk mw-list-item"><a href="https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A4%D1%80%D0%B5%D0%B4%D0%B5%D1%80%D1%96%D0%BA_%D0%A1%D0%B5%D0%BD%D0%B3%D0%B5%D1%80" title="Фредерік Сенгер – Ukrainian" lang="uk" hreflang="uk" data-title="Фредерік Сенгер" data-language-autonym="Українська" data-language-local-name="Ukrainian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Українська</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ur mw-list-item"><a href="https://ur.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%81%D8%B1%DB%8C%DA%88%D8%B1%DA%A9_%D8%B3%D9%86%DA%AF%D8%B1" title="فریڈرک سنگر – Urdu" lang="ur" hreflang="ur" data-title="فریڈرک سنگر" data-language-autonym="اردو" data-language-local-name="Urdu" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>اردو</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vi mw-list-item"><a href="https://vi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Frederick_Sanger" title="Frederick Sanger – Vietnamese" lang="vi" hreflang="vi" data-title="Frederick Sanger" data-language-autonym="Tiếng Việt" data-language-local-name="Vietnamese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Tiếng Việt</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-war mw-list-item"><a href="https://war.wikipedia.org/wiki/Frederick_Sanger" title="Frederick Sanger – Waray" lang="war" hreflang="war" data-title="Frederick Sanger" data-language-autonym="Winaray" data-language-local-name="Waray" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Winaray</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-wuu mw-list-item"><a href="https://wuu.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E5%BC%97%E9%9B%B7%E5%BE%B7%E9%87%8C%E5%85%8B%C2%B7%E6%A1%91%E6%A0%BC" title="弗雷德里克·桑格 – Wu" lang="wuu" hreflang="wuu" data-title="弗雷德里克·桑格" data-language-autonym="吴语" data-language-local-name="Wu" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>吴语</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-yo mw-list-item"><a href="https://yo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Frederick_Sanger" title="Frederick Sanger – Yoruba" lang="yo" hreflang="yo" data-title="Frederick Sanger" data-language-autonym="Yorùbá" data-language-local-name="Yoruba" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Yorùbá</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-yue mw-list-item"><a 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searchaux" style="display:none">British biochemist (1918–2013)</div> <p class="mw-empty-elt"> </p> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1257001546">.mw-parser-output .infobox-subbox{padding:0;border:none;margin:-3px;width:auto;min-width:100%;font-size:100%;clear:none;float:none;background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .infobox-3cols-child{margin:auto}.mw-parser-output .infobox .navbar{font-size:100%}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data:not(.notheme)>div:not(.notheme)[style]{background:#1f1f23!important;color:#f8f9fa}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data:not(.notheme) div:not(.notheme){background:#1f1f23!important;color:#f8f9fa}}@media(min-width:640px){body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table{display:table!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table>caption{display:table-caption!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table>tbody{display:table-row-group}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table tr{display:table-row!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table th,body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table td{padding-left:inherit;padding-right:inherit}}</style><table class="infobox biography vcard"><tbody><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-above" style="font-size:125%;"><div class="fn">Frederick Sanger</div><div class="honorific-suffix" style="font-size: 77%; font-weight: normal;"><span class="nobold noexcerpt nowraplinks" style="font-size:;"><span style="font-size: 100;"><a href="/wiki/Member_of_the_Order_of_Merit" class="mw-redirect" title="Member of the Order of Merit">OM</a></span> <span style="font-size: 100;"><a href="/wiki/Companion_of_the_Order_of_the_Companions_of_Honour" class="mw-redirect" title="Companion of the Order of the Companions of Honour">CH</a></span> <span style="font-size: 100;"><a href="/wiki/Commander_of_the_Order_of_the_British_Empire" class="mw-redirect" title="Commander of the Order of the British Empire">CBE</a></span> <span style="font-size: 100;"><a href="/wiki/Fellow_of_the_Royal_Society" title="Fellow of the Royal Society">FRS</a></span> <span style="font-size: 100;"><a href="/wiki/Fellow_of_the_Australian_Academy_of_Science" class="mw-redirect" title="Fellow of the Australian Academy of Science">FAA</a></span></span></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-image"><span class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Frameless"><a href="/wiki/File:Frederick_Sanger2.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f8/Frederick_Sanger2.jpg/220px-Frederick_Sanger2.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="293" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f8/Frederick_Sanger2.jpg/330px-Frederick_Sanger2.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f8/Frederick_Sanger2.jpg/440px-Frederick_Sanger2.jpg 2x" data-file-width="897" data-file-height="1196" /></a></span></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Born</th><td class="infobox-data"><span style="display:none">(<span class="bday">1918-08-13</span>)</span>13 August 1918<br /><div style="display:inline" class="birthplace"><a href="/wiki/Rendcomb" title="Rendcomb">Rendcomb</a>, Gloucestershire, England</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Died</th><td class="infobox-data">19 November 2013<span style="display:none">(2013-11-19)</span> (aged 95)<br /><div style="display:inline" class="deathplace"><a href="/wiki/Cambridge" title="Cambridge">Cambridge</a>, England<sup id="cite_ref-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Alma mater</th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/St_John%27s_College,_Cambridge" title="St John's College, Cambridge">St John's College, Cambridge</a> (<a href="/wiki/B._A." class="mw-redirect" title="B. A.">BA</a>, <a href="/wiki/PhD" class="mw-redirect" title="PhD">PhD</a>)</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Known for</th><td class="infobox-data"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1126788409">.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul{line-height:inherit;list-style:none;margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol li,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul li{margin-bottom:0}</style><div class="plainlist" style="margin-left:1em;text-indent:-1em;"> <ul><li>Determining the <a href="/wiki/Amino_acid_sequence" class="mw-redirect" title="Amino acid sequence">amino acid sequence</a> of <a href="/wiki/Insulin" title="Insulin">insulin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sanger_sequencing" title="Sanger sequencing">Sanger sequencing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sanger_Centre" class="mw-redirect" title="Sanger Centre">Sanger Centre</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Spouse</th><td class="infobox-data">Margaret Joan Howe<sup id="cite_ref-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Awards</th><td class="infobox-data"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Nobel_Prize_in_Chemistry" title="Nobel Prize in Chemistry">Nobel Prize in Chemistry</a> (1958, 1980)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Foreign_Associate_of_the_National_Academy_of_Sciences" class="mw-redirect" title="Foreign Associate of the National Academy of Sciences">Foreign Associate of the National Academy of Sciences</a> (1967)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Royal_Medal" title="Royal Medal">Royal Medal</a> (1969)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gairdner_Foundation_International_Award" class="mw-redirect" title="Gairdner Foundation International Award">Gairdner Foundation International Award</a> (1971)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_Bate_Hardy_Prize" title="William Bate Hardy Prize">William Bate Hardy Prize</a> (1976)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Copley_Medal" title="Copley Medal">Copley Medal</a> (1977)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Louisa_Gross_Horwitz_Prize" title="Louisa Gross Horwitz Prize">Louisa Gross Horwitz Prize</a> (1979)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1257001546"><b>Scientific career</b></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Fields</th><td class="infobox-data category"><a href="/wiki/Biochemistry" title="Biochemistry">Biochemistry</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Institutions</th><td class="infobox-data"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/University_of_Cambridge" title="University of Cambridge">University of Cambridge</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Laboratory_of_Molecular_Biology" class="mw-redirect" title="Laboratory of Molecular Biology">Laboratory of Molecular Biology</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><a href="/wiki/Thesis" title="Thesis">Thesis</a></th><td class="infobox-data"><i><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://idiscover.lib.cam.ac.uk/primo-explore/fulldisplay?docid=44CAM_ALMA21428208290003606&context=L&vid=44CAM_PROD&search_scope=default_scope&tab=default_tab&lang=en_US">The metabolism of the amino acid lysine in the animal body</a></i> <span style="font-size:97%;">(1943)</span></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><a href="/wiki/Doctoral_advisor" title="Doctoral advisor">Doctoral advisor</a></th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Albert_Neuberger" title="Albert Neuberger">Albert Neuberger</a><sup id="cite_ref-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Doctoral students</th><td class="infobox-data"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/George_Brownlee" title="George Brownlee">George Brownlee</a><sup id="cite_ref-rsbm_2-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-rsbm-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Elizabeth_Blackburn" title="Elizabeth Blackburn">Elizabeth Blackburn</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rodney_Robert_Porter" class="mw-redirect" title="Rodney Robert Porter">Rodney Porter</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr style="display:none"><td colspan="2"> </td></tr></tbody></table> <p><b>Frederick Sanger</b> <span class="nobold noexcerpt nowraplinks" style="font-size:;"><span style="font-size: 85%;"><a href="/wiki/Member_of_the_Order_of_Merit" class="mw-redirect" title="Member of the Order of Merit">OM</a></span> <span style="font-size: 85%;"><a href="/wiki/Companion_of_the_Order_of_the_Companions_of_Honour" class="mw-redirect" title="Companion of the Order of the Companions of Honour">CH</a></span> <span style="font-size: 85%;"><a href="/wiki/Commander_of_the_Order_of_the_British_Empire" class="mw-redirect" title="Commander of the Order of the British Empire">CBE</a></span> <span style="font-size: 85%;"><a href="/wiki/Fellow_of_the_Royal_Society" title="Fellow of the Royal Society">FRS</a></span> <span style="font-size: 85%;"><a href="/wiki/Fellow_of_the_Australian_Academy_of_Science" class="mw-redirect" title="Fellow of the Australian Academy of Science">FAA</a></span></span> (<span class="rt-commentedText nowrap"><span class="IPA nopopups noexcerpt" lang="en-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Help:IPA/English" title="Help:IPA/English">/<span style="border-bottom:1px dotted"><span title="/ˈ/: primary stress follows">ˈ</span><span title="'s' in 'sigh'">s</span><span title="/æ/: 'a' in 'bad'">æ</span><span title="/ŋ/: 'ng' in 'sing'">ŋ</span><span title="/ər/: 'er' in 'letter'">ər</span></span>/</a></span></span>; 13 August 1918 – 19 November 2013) was a British <a href="/wiki/Biochemist" title="Biochemist">biochemist</a> who received the <a href="/wiki/Nobel_Prize_in_Chemistry" title="Nobel Prize in Chemistry">Nobel Prize in Chemistry</a> twice. </p><p>He won the 1958 Chemistry Prize for determining the <a href="/wiki/Amino_acid" title="Amino acid">amino acid</a> sequence of <a href="/wiki/Insulin" title="Insulin">insulin</a> and numerous other proteins, demonstrating in the process that each had a unique, definite structure; this was a foundational discovery for the <a href="/wiki/Central_dogma_of_molecular_biology" title="Central dogma of molecular biology">central dogma of molecular biology</a>. </p><p>At the newly constructed <a href="/wiki/Laboratory_of_Molecular_Biology" class="mw-redirect" title="Laboratory of Molecular Biology">Laboratory of Molecular Biology</a> in Cambridge, he developed and subsequently refined the <a href="/wiki/Sanger_sequencing" title="Sanger sequencing">first-ever DNA sequencing technique</a>, which vastly expanded the number of feasible experiments in molecular biology and remains in widespread use today. The breakthrough earned him the 1980 Nobel Prize in Chemistry, which he shared with <a href="/wiki/Walter_Gilbert" title="Walter Gilbert">Walter Gilbert</a> and <a href="/wiki/Paul_Berg" title="Paul Berg">Paul Berg</a>. </p><p>He is one of only three people to have won multiple Nobel Prizes in the same category (the others being <a href="/wiki/John_Bardeen" title="John Bardeen">John Bardeen</a> in physics and <a href="/wiki/Karl_Barry_Sharpless" title="Karl Barry Sharpless">Karl Barry Sharpless</a> in chemistry),<sup id="cite_ref-nobelfacts_5-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-nobelfacts-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and one of five persons with <a href="/wiki/Category:Nobel_laureates_with_multiple_Nobel_awards" title="Category:Nobel laureates with multiple Nobel awards">two Nobel Prizes</a>. </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Early_life_and_education">Early life and education</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Frederick_Sanger&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Early life and education"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Frederick Sanger was born on 13 August 1918 in <a href="/wiki/Rendcomb" title="Rendcomb">Rendcomb</a>, a small village in <a href="/wiki/Gloucestershire" title="Gloucestershire">Gloucestershire</a>, England, the second son of Frederick Sanger, a <a href="/wiki/General_practitioner" title="General practitioner">general practitioner</a>, and his wife, Cicely Sanger (née Crewdson).<sup id="cite_ref-nobelbio_6-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-nobelbio-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> He was one of three children. His brother, Theodore, was only a year older, while his sister May (Mary) was five years younger.<sup id="cite_ref-brownlee_7-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-brownlee-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> His father had worked as an Anglican medical missionary in China but returned to England because of ill health. He was 40 in 1916 when he married Cicely, who was four years younger. Sanger's father converted to <a href="/wiki/Quakerism" class="mw-redirect" title="Quakerism">Quakerism</a> soon after his two sons were born and brought up the children as Quakers. Sanger's mother was the daughter of an affluent cotton manufacturer and had a Quaker background, but was not a Quaker.<sup id="cite_ref-brownlee_7-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-brownlee-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>When Sanger was around five years old the family moved to the small village of <a href="/wiki/Tanworth-in-Arden" title="Tanworth-in-Arden">Tanworth-in-Arden</a> in Warwickshire. The family was reasonably wealthy and employed a governess to teach the children. In 1927, at the age of nine, he was sent to the <a href="/wiki/The_Downs_School_(Herefordshire)" class="mw-redirect" title="The Downs School (Herefordshire)">Downs School</a>, a residential preparatory school run by Quakers near <a href="/wiki/Malvern,_Worcestershire" title="Malvern, Worcestershire">Malvern</a>. His brother Theo was a year ahead of him at the same school. In 1932, at the age of 14, he was sent to the recently established <a href="/wiki/Bryanston_School" title="Bryanston School">Bryanston School</a> in Dorset. This used the <a href="/wiki/Dalton_Plan" title="Dalton Plan">Dalton</a> system and had a more liberal regime which Sanger much preferred. At the school he liked his teachers and particularly enjoyed scientific subjects.<sup id="cite_ref-brownlee_7-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-brownlee-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Able to complete his <a href="/wiki/School_Certificate_(UK)" class="mw-redirect" title="School Certificate (UK)">School Certificate</a> a year early, for which he was awarded seven credits, Sanger was able to spend most of his last year of school experimenting in the laboratory alongside his chemistry master, Geoffrey Ordish, who had originally studied at Cambridge University and been a researcher in the <a href="/wiki/Cavendish_Laboratory" title="Cavendish Laboratory">Cavendish Laboratory</a>. Working with Ordish made a refreshing change from sitting and studying books and awakened Sanger's desire to pursue a scientific career.<sup id="cite_ref-marksearly_8-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-marksearly-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In 1935, prior to heading off to college, Sanger was sent to <a href="/wiki/Schule_Schloss_Salem" title="Schule Schloss Salem">Schule Schloss Salem</a> in southern Germany on an exchange program. The school placed a heavy emphasis on athletics, which caused Sanger to be much further ahead in the course material compared to the other students. He was shocked to learn that each day was started with readings from Hitler's <a href="/wiki/Mein_Kampf" title="Mein Kampf">Mein Kampf</a>, followed by a <a href="/wiki/Sieg_Heil" class="mw-redirect" title="Sieg Heil">Sieg Heil</a> salute.<sup id="cite_ref-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In 1936 Sanger went to <a href="/wiki/St_John%27s_College,_Cambridge" title="St John's College, Cambridge">St John's College, Cambridge</a>, to study natural sciences. His father had attended the same college. For Part I of his <a href="/wiki/Tripos" title="Tripos">Tripos</a> he took courses in physics, chemistry, biochemistry and mathematics but struggled with physics and mathematics. Many of the other students had studied more mathematics at school. In his second year he replaced physics with physiology. He took three years to obtain his Part I. For his Part II he studied biochemistry and obtained a 1st Class Honours. Biochemistry was a relatively new department founded by <a href="/wiki/Gowland_Hopkins" class="mw-redirect" title="Gowland Hopkins">Gowland Hopkins</a> with enthusiastic lecturers who included <a href="/wiki/Malcolm_Dixon_(biochemist)" title="Malcolm Dixon (biochemist)">Malcolm Dixon</a>, <a href="/wiki/Joseph_Needham" title="Joseph Needham">Joseph Needham</a> and <a href="/wiki/Ernest_Baldwin" title="Ernest Baldwin">Ernest Baldwin</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-brownlee_7-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-brownlee-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Both his parents died from cancer during his first two years at Cambridge. His father was 60 and his mother was 58. As an undergraduate Sanger's beliefs were strongly influenced by his Quaker upbringing. He was a pacifist and a member of the <a href="/wiki/Peace_Pledge_Union" title="Peace Pledge Union">Peace Pledge Union</a>. It was through his involvement with the <a href="/wiki/Cambridge_Scientists%27_Anti-War_Group" title="Cambridge Scientists' Anti-War Group">Cambridge Scientists' Anti-War Group</a> that he met his future wife, Joan Howe, who was studying economics at <a href="/wiki/Newnham_College" class="mw-redirect" title="Newnham College">Newnham College</a>. They courted while he was studying for his Part II exams and married after he had graduated in December 1940. Sanger, although brought up and influenced by his religious upbringing, later began to lose sight of his Quaker related ways. He began to see the world through a more scientific lens, and with the growth of his research and scientific development he slowly drifted farther from the faith he grew up with. He has nothing but respect for the religious and states he took two things from it, truth and respect for all life.<sup id="cite_ref-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Under the <a href="/wiki/Military_Training_Act_1939" title="Military Training Act 1939">Military Training Act 1939</a> he was provisionally registered as a <a href="/wiki/Conscientious_objector" title="Conscientious objector">conscientious objector</a>, and again under the <a href="/wiki/National_Service_(Armed_Forces)_Act_1939" title="National Service (Armed Forces) Act 1939">National Service (Armed Forces) Act 1939</a>, before being granted unconditional exemption from military service by a tribunal. In the meantime he undertook training in social relief work at the Quaker centre, Spicelands, Devon and served briefly as a hospital orderly.<sup id="cite_ref-brownlee_7-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-brownlee-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Sanger began studying for a <a href="/wiki/PhD" class="mw-redirect" title="PhD">PhD</a> in October 1940 under <a href="/wiki/Norman_Pirie" title="Norman Pirie">N.W. "Bill" Pirie</a>. His project was to investigate whether edible protein could be obtained from grass. After little more than a month Pirie left the department and <a href="/wiki/Albert_Neuberger" title="Albert Neuberger">Albert Neuberger</a> became his adviser.<sup id="cite_ref-brownlee_7-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-brownlee-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Sanger changed his research project to study the metabolism of <a href="/wiki/Lysine" title="Lysine">lysine</a><sup id="cite_ref-sangerphd_11-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-sangerphd-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and a more practical problem concerning the nitrogen of potatoes.<sup id="cite_ref-12" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> His thesis had the title, "The metabolism of the amino acid lysine in the animal body". He was examined by <a href="/wiki/Charles_Harington_(chemist)" title="Charles Harington (chemist)">Charles Harington</a> and <a href="/wiki/Albert_Charles_Chibnall" class="mw-redirect" title="Albert Charles Chibnall">Albert Charles Chibnall</a> and awarded his doctorate in 1943.<sup id="cite_ref-brownlee_7-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-brownlee-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Research_and_career">Research and career</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Frederick_Sanger&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Research and career"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Insulin_seq_vertical.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2a/Insulin_seq_vertical.svg/220px-Insulin_seq_vertical.svg.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="590" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2a/Insulin_seq_vertical.svg/330px-Insulin_seq_vertical.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2a/Insulin_seq_vertical.svg/440px-Insulin_seq_vertical.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="178" data-file-height="477" /></a><figcaption>Amino acid sequence of bovine insulin, with <a href="/wiki/Disulfide#Occurrence_in_biology" title="Disulfide">disulfide bridges</a> shown in red.</figcaption></figure> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Sequencing_insulin">Sequencing insulin</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Frederick_Sanger&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Sequencing insulin"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Neuberger moved to the <a href="/wiki/National_Institute_for_Medical_Research" title="National Institute for Medical Research">National Institute for Medical Research</a> in London, but Sanger stayed in Cambridge and in 1943 joined the group of <a href="/wiki/Charles_Chibnall" class="mw-redirect" title="Charles Chibnall">Charles Chibnall</a>, a protein chemist who had recently taken up the chair in the Department of Biochemistry.<sup id="cite_ref-13" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Chibnall had already done some work on the amino acid composition of bovine <a href="/wiki/Insulin" title="Insulin">insulin</a><sup id="cite_ref-14" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and suggested that Sanger look at the amino groups in the protein. Insulin could be purchased from the <a href="/wiki/Pharmacy" title="Pharmacy">pharmacy</a> chain <a href="/wiki/Boots_UK" class="mw-redirect" title="Boots UK">Boots</a> and was one of the very few proteins that were available in a pure form. Up to this time Sanger had been funding himself. In Chibnall's group he was initially supported by the <a href="/wiki/Medical_Research_Council_(UK)" class="mw-redirect" title="Medical Research Council (UK)">Medical Research Council</a> and then from 1944 until 1951 by a <a href="/wiki/Beit_Memorial_Fellowship_for_Medical_Research" class="mw-redirect" title="Beit Memorial Fellowship for Medical Research">Beit Memorial Fellowship for Medical Research</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-nobelbio_6-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-nobelbio-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Sanger's first triumph was to determine the complete <a href="/wiki/Amino_acid" title="Amino acid">amino acid</a> <a href="/wiki/Protein_sequence" class="mw-redirect" title="Protein sequence">sequence</a> of the two polypeptide chains of bovine insulin, A and B, in 1952 and 1951, respectively.<sup id="cite_ref-15" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-lecture58_16-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-lecture58-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Prior to this it was widely assumed that proteins were somewhat amorphous. In determining these sequences, Sanger proved that <a href="/wiki/Protein" title="Protein">proteins</a> have a defined chemical composition.<sup id="cite_ref-brownlee_7-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-brownlee-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>To get to this point, Sanger refined a partition chromatography method first developed by <a href="/wiki/Richard_Laurence_Millington_Synge" title="Richard Laurence Millington Synge">Richard Laurence Millington Synge</a> and <a href="/wiki/Archer_John_Porter_Martin" class="mw-redirect" title="Archer John Porter Martin">Archer John Porter Martin</a> to determine the composition of amino acids in wool. Sanger used a chemical reagent <a href="/wiki/1-fluoro-2,4-dinitrobenzene" class="mw-redirect" title="1-fluoro-2,4-dinitrobenzene">1-fluoro-2,4-dinitrobenzene</a> (now, also known as <a href="/wiki/Sanger%27s_reagent" class="mw-redirect" title="Sanger's reagent">Sanger's reagent</a>, fluorodinitrobenzene, FDNB or DNFB), sourced from <a href="/wiki/Poisonous_gas" class="mw-redirect" title="Poisonous gas">poisonous gas</a> research by Bernard Charles Saunders at the Chemistry Department at Cambridge University. Sanger's reagent proved effective at labelling the N-terminal amino group at one end of the polypeptide chain.<sup id="cite_ref-marksinsulin_17-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-marksinsulin-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> He then partially hydrolysed the insulin into short peptides, either with hydrochloric acid or using an enzyme such as <a href="/wiki/Trypsin" title="Trypsin">trypsin</a>. The mixture of peptides was fractionated in two dimensions on a sheet of filter paper, first by <a href="/wiki/Protein_electrophoresis" class="mw-redirect" title="Protein electrophoresis">electrophoresis</a> in one dimension and then, perpendicular to that, by <a href="/wiki/Chromatography" title="Chromatography">chromatography</a> in the other. The different peptide fragments of insulin, detected with <a href="/wiki/Ninhydrin" title="Ninhydrin">ninhydrin</a>, moved to different positions on the paper, creating a distinct pattern that Sanger called "fingerprints". The peptide from the N-terminus could be recognised by the yellow colour imparted by the FDNB label and the identity of the labelled amino acid at the end of the peptide determined by complete acid hydrolysis and discovering which dinitrophenyl-amino acid was there.<sup id="cite_ref-brownlee_7-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-brownlee-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>By repeating this type of procedure Sanger was able to determine the sequences of the many peptides generated using different methods for the initial partial hydrolysis. These could then be assembled into the longer <a href="/wiki/Amino_acid_sequence" class="mw-redirect" title="Amino acid sequence">sequences</a> to deduce the complete structure of insulin. Finally, because the A and B chains are physiologically inactive without the three linking <a href="/wiki/Disulfide_bond" class="mw-redirect" title="Disulfide bond">disulfide bonds</a> (two interchain, one intrachain on A), Sanger and coworkers determined their assignments in 1955.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTERyleSangerSmithKitai1955_18-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERyleSangerSmithKitai1955-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-stretton2002_19-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-stretton2002-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Sanger's principal conclusion was that the two polypeptide chains of the protein insulin had precise amino acid sequences and, by extension, that every protein had a unique sequence. It was this achievement that earned him his first <a href="/wiki/Nobel_prize_in_Chemistry" class="mw-redirect" title="Nobel prize in Chemistry">Nobel prize in Chemistry</a> in 1958.<sup id="cite_ref-nobel1958_20-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-nobel1958-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This discovery was crucial to the later <a href="/wiki/Sequence_hypothesis" title="Sequence hypothesis">sequence hypothesis</a> of <a href="/wiki/Francis_Crick" title="Francis Crick">Francis Crick</a> for developing ideas of how DNA codes for proteins.<sup id="cite_ref-markspath_21-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-markspath-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Sequencing_RNA">Sequencing RNA</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Frederick_Sanger&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Sequencing RNA"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>From 1951 Sanger was a member of the external staff of the <a href="/wiki/Medical_Research_Council_(UK)" class="mw-redirect" title="Medical Research Council (UK)">Medical Research Council</a><sup id="cite_ref-nobelbio_6-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-nobelbio-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and when they opened the <a href="/wiki/Laboratory_of_Molecular_Biology" class="mw-redirect" title="Laboratory of Molecular Biology">Laboratory of Molecular Biology</a> in 1962, he moved from his laboratories in the Biochemistry Department of the university to the top floor of the new building. He became head of the Protein Chemistry division.<sup id="cite_ref-brownlee_7-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-brownlee-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Prior to his move, Sanger began exploring the possibility of sequencing RNA molecules and began developing methods for separating ribonucleotide fragments generated with specific nucleases. This work he did while trying to refine the sequencing techniques he had developed during his work on insulin.<sup id="cite_ref-markspath_21-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-markspath-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The key challenge in the work was finding a pure piece of RNA to sequence. In the course of the work he discovered in 1964, with Kjeld Marcker, the <a href="/wiki/Formylmethionine" class="mw-redirect" title="Formylmethionine">formylmethionine tRNA</a> which initiates protein synthesis in bacteria.<sup id="cite_ref-22" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> He was beaten in the race to be the first to sequence a <a href="/wiki/TRNA" class="mw-redirect" title="TRNA">tRNA</a> molecule by a group led by <a href="/wiki/Robert_W._Holley" title="Robert W. Holley">Robert Holley</a> from <a href="/wiki/Cornell_University" title="Cornell University">Cornell University</a>, who published the sequence of the 77 ribonucleotides of <a href="/wiki/Alanine" title="Alanine">alanine</a> tRNA from <i><a href="/wiki/Saccharomyces_cerevisiae" title="Saccharomyces cerevisiae">Saccharomyces cerevisiae</a></i> in 1965.<sup id="cite_ref-23" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> By 1967 Sanger's group had determined the nucleotide sequence of the <a href="/wiki/5S_ribosomal_RNA" title="5S ribosomal RNA">5S ribosomal RNA</a> from <i><a href="/wiki/Escherichia_coli" title="Escherichia coli">Escherichia coli</a></i>, a small RNA of 120 nucleotides.<sup id="cite_ref-24" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Sequencing_DNA">Sequencing DNA</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Frederick_Sanger&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Sequencing DNA"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/DNA_sequencing" title="DNA sequencing">DNA sequencing</a></div> <p>Sanger then turned to sequencing DNA, which would require an entirely different approach. He looked at different ways of using <a href="/wiki/DNA_polymerase_I" title="DNA polymerase I">DNA polymerase I</a> from <i>E. coli</i> to copy single stranded DNA.<sup id="cite_ref-25" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In 1975, together with <a href="/wiki/Alan_Coulson" title="Alan Coulson">Alan Coulson</a>, he published a sequencing procedure using DNA polymerase with radiolabelled nucleotides that he called the "Plus and Minus" technique.<sup id="cite_ref-26" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-lecture80_27-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-lecture80-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This involved two closely related methods that generated short oligonucleotides with defined 3' termini. These could be fractionated by <a href="/wiki/Electrophoresis" title="Electrophoresis">electrophoresis</a> on a <a href="/wiki/Polyacrylamide" title="Polyacrylamide">polyacrylamide</a> gel and visualised using <a href="/wiki/Autoradiography" class="mw-redirect" title="Autoradiography">autoradiography</a>. The procedure could sequence up to 80 nucleotides in one go and was a big improvement on what had gone before, but was still very laborious. Nevertheless, his group were able to sequence most of the 5,386 nucleotides of the single-stranded <a href="/wiki/Bacteriophage" title="Bacteriophage">bacteriophage</a> <a href="/wiki/Phi_X_174" title="Phi X 174">φX174</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-28" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This was the first fully sequenced DNA-based genome. To their surprise they discovered that the <a href="/wiki/Coding_region" title="Coding region">coding regions</a> of some of the genes overlapped with one another.<sup id="cite_ref-rsbm_2-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-rsbm-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In 1977 Sanger and colleagues introduced the "dideoxy" chain-termination method for sequencing DNA molecules, also known as the "<a href="/wiki/Sanger_method" class="mw-redirect" title="Sanger method">Sanger method</a>".<sup id="cite_ref-lecture80_27-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-lecture80-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESangerNicklenCoulson1977_29-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESangerNicklenCoulson1977-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This was a major breakthrough and allowed long stretches of DNA to be rapidly and accurately sequenced. It earned him his second Nobel prize in Chemistry in 1980, which he shared with <a href="/wiki/Walter_Gilbert" title="Walter Gilbert">Walter Gilbert</a> and <a href="/wiki/Paul_Berg" title="Paul Berg">Paul Berg</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-nobel1980_30-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-nobel1980-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The new method was used by Sanger and colleagues to sequence human mitochondrial DNA (16,569 base pairs)<sup id="cite_ref-31" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and bacteriophage λ (48,502 base pairs).<sup id="cite_ref-32" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The dideoxy method was eventually used to sequence the entire <a href="/wiki/Human_genome" title="Human genome">human genome</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-obituarynature_33-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-obituarynature-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Postgraduate_students">Postgraduate students</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Frederick_Sanger&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Postgraduate students"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>During the course of his career Sanger supervised more than ten PhD students, two of whom went on to also win Nobel Prizes. His first graduate student was <a href="/wiki/Rodney_Robert_Porter" class="mw-redirect" title="Rodney Robert Porter">Rodney Porter</a> who joined the research group in 1947.<sup id="cite_ref-rsbm_2-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-rsbm-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Porter later shared the 1972 <a href="/wiki/Nobel_Prize_in_Physiology_or_Medicine" title="Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine">Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine</a> with <a href="/wiki/Gerald_Edelman" title="Gerald Edelman">Gerald Edelman</a> for his work on the chemical structure of <a href="/wiki/Antibodies" class="mw-redirect" title="Antibodies">antibodies</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-34" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Elizabeth_Blackburn" title="Elizabeth Blackburn">Elizabeth Blackburn</a> studied for a PhD in Sanger's laboratory between 1971 and 1974.<sup id="cite_ref-rsbm_2-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-rsbm-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-blackphd_35-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-blackphd-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> She shared the 2009 Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine with <a href="/wiki/Carol_W._Greider" title="Carol W. Greider">Carol W. Greider</a> and <a href="/wiki/Jack_W._Szostak" title="Jack W. Szostak">Jack W. Szostak</a> for her work on <a href="/wiki/Telomere" title="Telomere">telomeres</a> and the action of <a href="/wiki/Telomerase" title="Telomerase">telomerase</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-36" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Sanger's_rule"><span id="Sanger.27s_rule"></span>Sanger's rule</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Frederick_Sanger&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Sanger's rule"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1244412712">.mw-parser-output .templatequote{overflow:hidden;margin:1em 0;padding:0 32px}.mw-parser-output .templatequotecite{line-height:1.5em;text-align:left;margin-top:0}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .templatequotecite{padding-left:1.6em}}</style><blockquote class="templatequote"><p>... anytime you get technical development that’s two to threefold or more efficient, accurate, cheaper, a whole range of experiments opens up.<sup id="cite_ref-37" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></p></blockquote> <p>This rule should not be confused with Terence Sanger's rule, which is related to <a href="/wiki/Oja%27s_rule" title="Oja's rule">Oja's rule</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Awards_and_honours">Awards and honours</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Frederick_Sanger&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Awards and honours"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>As of 2015<sup class="plainlinks noexcerpt noprint asof-tag update" style="display:none;"><a class="external text" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Frederick_Sanger&action=edit">[update]</a></sup>, Sanger is one of the only two people to have been awarded the Nobel Prize in Chemistry twice (the other being <a href="/wiki/Karl_Barry_Sharpless" title="Karl Barry Sharpless">Karl Barry Sharpless</a> in 2001 and 2022<i>)</i>, and one of only five two-time Nobel laureates: The other four were <a href="/wiki/Marie_Curie" title="Marie Curie">Marie Curie</a> (<a href="/wiki/Nobel_Prize_in_Physics" title="Nobel Prize in Physics">Physics</a>, 1903 and <a href="/wiki/Nobel_Prize_in_Chemistry" title="Nobel Prize in Chemistry">Chemistry</a>, 1911), <a href="/wiki/Linus_Pauling" title="Linus Pauling">Linus Pauling</a> (<a href="/wiki/Nobel_Prize_in_Chemistry" title="Nobel Prize in Chemistry">Chemistry</a>, 1954 and <a href="/wiki/Nobel_Prize_for_Peace" class="mw-redirect" title="Nobel Prize for Peace">Peace</a>, 1962), <a href="/wiki/John_Bardeen" title="John Bardeen">John Bardeen</a> (twice <a href="/wiki/Nobel_Prize_in_Physics" title="Nobel Prize in Physics">Physics</a>, 1956 and 1972), and <a href="/wiki/Karl_Barry_Sharpless" title="Karl Barry Sharpless">Karl Barry Sharpless</a> (twice <a href="/wiki/Nobel_Prize_in_Chemistry" title="Nobel Prize in Chemistry">Chemistry</a>, 2001 and 2022).<sup id="cite_ref-nobelfacts_5-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-nobelfacts-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <ul><li>Elected <a href="/wiki/List_of_Fellows_of_the_Royal_Society_elected_in_1954" class="mw-redirect" title="List of Fellows of the Royal Society elected in 1954">Fellow of the Royal Society (FRS) in 1954</a><sup id="cite_ref-rsbm_2-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-rsbm-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Commander_of_the_Order_of_the_British_Empire" class="mw-redirect" title="Commander of the Order of the British Empire">Commander of the Order of the British Empire</a> (CBE) – 1963<sup id="cite_ref-rsbm_2-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-rsbm-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Member_of_the_Order_of_the_Companions_of_Honour" class="mw-redirect" title="Member of the Order of the Companions of Honour">Member of the Order of the Companions of Honour</a> (CH) – 1981<sup id="cite_ref-rsbm_2-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-rsbm-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Member_of_the_Order_of_Merit" class="mw-redirect" title="Member of the Order of Merit">Member of the Order of Merit</a> (OM) – 1986<sup id="cite_ref-rsbm_2-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-rsbm-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>Corresponding Member of the <a href="/wiki/Australian_Academy_of_Science" title="Australian Academy of Science">Australian Academy of Science</a> – 1982<sup id="cite_ref-rsbm_2-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-rsbm-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_Bate_Hardy_Prize" title="William Bate Hardy Prize">William Bate Hardy Prize</a> – 1976<sup id="cite_ref-rsbm_2-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-rsbm-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nobel_Prize_in_Chemistry" title="Nobel Prize in Chemistry">Nobel Prize in Chemistry</a> – 1958, 1980<sup id="cite_ref-nobel1958_20-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-nobel1958-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-nobel1980_30-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-nobel1980-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Corday%E2%80%93Morgan_Medal" class="mw-redirect" title="Corday–Morgan Medal">Corday–Morgan Medal</a> – 1951<sup id="cite_ref-rsbm_2-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-rsbm-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Royal_Medal" title="Royal Medal">Royal Medal</a> – 1969<sup id="cite_ref-rsbm_2-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-rsbm-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gairdner_Foundation_International_Award" class="mw-redirect" title="Gairdner Foundation International Award">Gairdner Foundation International Award</a> – 1971<sup id="cite_ref-rsbm_2-12" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-rsbm-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Copley_Medal" title="Copley Medal">Copley Medal</a> – 1977<sup id="cite_ref-rsbm_2-13" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-rsbm-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>G.W. Wheland Award – 1978<sup id="cite_ref-rsbm_2-14" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-rsbm-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Louisa_Gross_Horwitz_Prize" title="Louisa Gross Horwitz Prize">Louisa Gross Horwitz Prize</a> of <a href="/wiki/Columbia_University" title="Columbia University">Columbia University</a> – 1979<sup id="cite_ref-rsbm_2-15" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-rsbm-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Albert_Lasker_Award_for_Basic_Medical_Research" title="Albert Lasker Award for Basic Medical Research">Albert Lasker Award for Basic Medical Research</a> – 1979<sup id="cite_ref-rsbm_2-16" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-rsbm-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Association_of_Biomolecular_Resource_Facilities" title="Association of Biomolecular Resource Facilities">Association of Biomolecular Resource Facilities</a> Award – 1994<sup id="cite_ref-38" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>Golden Plate Award of the <a href="/wiki/Academy_of_Achievement" title="Academy of Achievement">American Academy of Achievement</a> – 2000<sup id="cite_ref-39" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-39"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-40" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>Citation for Chemical Breakthrough Award from the Division of History of Chemistry of the American Chemical Society – 2016<sup id="cite_ref-Award_41-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Award-41"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>41<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Breakthrough_42-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Breakthrough-42"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>42<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESangerNicklenCoulson1977_29-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESangerNicklenCoulson1977-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li></ul> <p>The <a href="/wiki/Wellcome_Trust_Sanger_Institute" class="mw-redirect" title="Wellcome Trust Sanger Institute">Wellcome Trust Sanger Institute</a> (formerly the <i>Sanger Centre</i>) is named in his honour.<sup id="cite_ref-rsbm_2-17" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-rsbm-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Personal_life">Personal life</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Frederick_Sanger&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Personal life"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Marriage_and_family">Marriage and family</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Frederick_Sanger&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Marriage and family"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Sanger married Margaret Joan Howe (not to be confused with <a href="/wiki/Margaret_Sanger" title="Margaret Sanger">Margaret Sanger</a>, the American pioneer of birth control) in 1940. She died in 2012. They had three children — Robin, born in 1943, Peter born in 1946 and Sally Joan born in 1960.<sup id="cite_ref-nobelbio_6-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-nobelbio-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> He said that his wife had "contributed more to his work than anyone else by providing a peaceful and happy home."<sup id="cite_ref-Telegraph_obit_43-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Telegraph_obit-43"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>43<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Later_life">Later life</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Frederick_Sanger&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Later life"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:EBI_and_Sanger_Center,_Genome_campus,_Cambridgeshire.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/84/EBI_and_Sanger_Center%2C_Genome_campus%2C_Cambridgeshire.jpg/300px-EBI_and_Sanger_Center%2C_Genome_campus%2C_Cambridgeshire.jpg" decoding="async" width="300" height="83" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/84/EBI_and_Sanger_Center%2C_Genome_campus%2C_Cambridgeshire.jpg/450px-EBI_and_Sanger_Center%2C_Genome_campus%2C_Cambridgeshire.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/84/EBI_and_Sanger_Center%2C_Genome_campus%2C_Cambridgeshire.jpg/600px-EBI_and_Sanger_Center%2C_Genome_campus%2C_Cambridgeshire.jpg 2x" data-file-width="6550" data-file-height="1804" /></a><figcaption> The Sanger Institute</figcaption></figure> <p>Sanger retired in 1983, aged 65, to his home, "Far Leys", in <a href="/wiki/Swaffham_Bulbeck" title="Swaffham Bulbeck">Swaffham Bulbeck</a> outside Cambridge.<sup id="cite_ref-rsbm_2-18" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-rsbm-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In 1992, the <a href="/wiki/Wellcome_Trust" title="Wellcome Trust">Wellcome Trust</a> and the Medical Research Council founded the Sanger Centre (now the <a href="/wiki/Sanger_Institute" class="mw-redirect" title="Sanger Institute">Sanger Institute</a>), named after him.<sup id="cite_ref-Our_people_44-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Our_people-44"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>44<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The institute is on the <a href="/wiki/Wellcome_Trust_Genome_Campus" class="mw-redirect" title="Wellcome Trust Genome Campus">Wellcome Trust Genome Campus</a> near <a href="/wiki/Hinxton" title="Hinxton">Hinxton</a>, only a few miles from Sanger's home. He agreed to having the Centre named after him when asked by <a href="/wiki/John_Sulston" title="John Sulston">John Sulston</a>, the founding director, but warned, "It had better be good."<sup id="cite_ref-Our_people_44-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Our_people-44"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>44<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It was opened by Sanger in person on 4 October 1993, with a staff of fewer than 50 people, and went on to take a leading role in the <a href="/wiki/Human_Genome_Project" title="Human Genome Project">sequencing of the human genome</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Our_people_44-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Our_people-44"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>44<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Institute had about 900 people in 2020 and is one of the world's largest <a href="/wiki/Genomic" class="mw-redirect" title="Genomic">genomic</a> research centres. </p><p>Sanger said he found no evidence for a God so he became an agnostic.<sup id="cite_ref-hargittai_45-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-hargittai-45"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>45<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In an interview published in the <i><a href="/wiki/The_Times" title="The Times">Times</a></i> newspaper in 2000 Sanger is quoted as saying: "My father was a committed Quaker and I was brought up as a Quaker, and for them truth is very important. I drifted away from those beliefs – one is obviously looking for truth, but one needs some evidence for it. Even if I wanted to believe in God I would find it very difficult. I would need to see proof."<sup id="cite_ref-times_46-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-times-46"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>46<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>He declined the offer of a <a href="/wiki/Orders,_decorations,_and_medals_of_the_United_Kingdom#Knighthood" title="Orders, decorations, and medals of the United Kingdom">knighthood</a>, as he did not wish to be addressed as "Sir". He is quoted as saying, "A knighthood makes you different, doesn't it, and I don't want to be different." In 1986 he accepted admission to the <a href="/wiki/Order_of_Merit_(Commonwealth)" class="mw-redirect" title="Order of Merit (Commonwealth)">Order of Merit</a>, which can have only 24 living members.<sup id="cite_ref-Telegraph_obit_43-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Telegraph_obit-43"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>43<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-hargittai_45-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-hargittai-45"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>45<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-times_46-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-times-46"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>46<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In 2007 the British <a href="/wiki/Biochemical_Society" title="Biochemical Society">Biochemical Society</a> was given a grant by the <a href="/wiki/Wellcome_Trust" title="Wellcome Trust">Wellcome Trust</a> to catalogue and preserve the 35 laboratory notebooks in which Sanger recorded his research from 1944 to 1983. In reporting this matter, <i><a href="/wiki/Science_(journal)" title="Science (journal)">Science</a></i> noted that Sanger, "the most self-effacing person you could hope to meet", was spending his time gardening at his <a href="/wiki/Cambridgeshire" title="Cambridgeshire">Cambridgeshire</a> home.<sup id="cite_ref-47" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-47"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>47<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Sanger died in his sleep at <a href="/wiki/Addenbrooke%27s_Hospital" title="Addenbrooke's Hospital">Addenbrooke's Hospital</a> in <a href="/wiki/Cambridge" title="Cambridge">Cambridge</a> on 19 November 2013.<sup id="cite_ref-Telegraph_obit_43-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Telegraph_obit-43"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>43<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-death_48-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-death-48"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>48<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> As noted in his obituary, he had described himself as "just a chap who messed about in a lab",<sup id="cite_ref-49" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-49"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>49<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and "academically not brilliant".<sup id="cite_ref-50" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-50"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>50<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Global_policy">Global policy</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Frederick_Sanger&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Global policy"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>He was one of the signatories of the agreement to convene a convention for drafting a <a href="/wiki/World_constitution" title="World constitution">world constitution</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-51" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-51"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>51<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-52" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-52"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>52<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> As a result, for the first time in human history, a <a href="/wiki/World_Constituent_Assembly" class="mw-redirect" title="World Constituent Assembly">World Constituent Assembly</a> convened to draft and adopt a <a href="/wiki/Constitution_for_the_Federation_of_Earth" class="mw-redirect" title="Constitution for the Federation of Earth">Constitution for the Federation of Earth</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-53" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-53"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>53<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Selected_publications">Selected publications</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Frederick_Sanger&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: Selected publications"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239549316">.mw-parser-output .refbegin{margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul{margin-left:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{margin-left:0;padding-left:3.2em;text-indent:-3.2em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul,.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul li{list-style:none}@media(max-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{padding-left:1.6em;text-indent:-1.6em}}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns ul{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .refbegin{font-size:90%}}</style><div class="refbegin refbegin-columns references-column-width" style="column-width: 30em"> <ul><li><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite id="CITEREFNeubergerSanger1942" class="citation cs2">Neuberger, A.; Sanger, F. (1942), "The nitrogen of the potato", <i>Biochemical Journal</i>, <b>36</b> (7–9): 662–671, <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1042%2Fbj0360662">10.1042/bj0360662</a>, <a href="/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1266851">1266851</a></span>, <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/16747571">16747571</a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Biochemical+Journal&rft.atitle=The+nitrogen+of+the+potato&rft.volume=36&rft.issue=7%E2%80%939&rft.pages=662-671&rft.date=1942&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC1266851%23id-name%3DPMC&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F16747571&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1042%2Fbj0360662&rft.aulast=Neuberger&rft.aufirst=A.&rft.au=Sanger%2C+F.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFrederick+Sanger" class="Z3988"></span>.</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFNeubergerSanger1944" class="citation cs2">Neuberger, A.; Sanger, F. (1944), "The metabolism of lysine", <i>Biochemical Journal</i>, <b>38</b> (1): 119–125, <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1042%2Fbj0380119">10.1042/bj0380119</a>, <a href="/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1258037">1258037</a></span>, <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/16747737">16747737</a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Biochemical+Journal&rft.atitle=The+metabolism+of+lysine&rft.volume=38&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=119-125&rft.date=1944&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC1258037%23id-name%3DPMC&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F16747737&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1042%2Fbj0380119&rft.aulast=Neuberger&rft.aufirst=A.&rft.au=Sanger%2C+F.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFrederick+Sanger" class="Z3988"></span>.</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation cs2">Sanger, F. (1945), "The free amino groups of insulin", <i>Biochemical Journal</i>, <b>39</b> (5): 507–515, <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1042%2Fbj0390507">10.1042/bj0390507</a>, <a href="/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1258275">1258275</a></span>, <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/16747948">16747948</a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Biochemical+Journal&rft.atitle=The+free+amino+groups+of+insulin&rft.volume=39&rft.issue=5&rft.pages=507-515&rft.date=1945&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC1258275%23id-name%3DPMC&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F16747948&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1042%2Fbj0390507&rft.aulast=Sanger&rft.aufirst=F.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFrederick+Sanger" class="Z3988"></span>.</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation cs2">Sanger, F. (1947), "Oxidation of insulin by performic acid", <i>Nature</i>, <b>160</b> (4061): 295–296, <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1947Natur.160..295S">1947Natur.160..295S</a>, <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1038%2F160295b0">10.1038/160295b0</a>, <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/20344639">20344639</a>, <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:4127677">4127677</a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Nature&rft.atitle=Oxidation+of+insulin+by+performic+acid&rft.volume=160&rft.issue=4061&rft.pages=295-296&rft.date=1947&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1038%2F160295b0&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A4127677%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F20344639&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F1947Natur.160..295S&rft.aulast=Sanger&rft.aufirst=F.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFrederick+Sanger" class="Z3988"></span>.</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation cs2">Porter, R.R.; Sanger, F. (1948), "The free amino groups of haemoglobins", <i>Biochemical Journal</i>, <b>42</b> (2): 287–294, <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1042%2Fbj0420287">10.1042/bj0420287</a>, <a href="/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1258669">1258669</a></span>, <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/16748281">16748281</a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Biochemical+Journal&rft.atitle=The+free+amino+groups+of+haemoglobins&rft.volume=42&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=287-294&rft.date=1948&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC1258669%23id-name%3DPMC&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F16748281&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1042%2Fbj0420287&rft.aulast=Porter&rft.aufirst=R.R.&rft.au=Sanger%2C+F.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFrederick+Sanger" class="Z3988"></span>.</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation cs2">Sanger, F. (1949a), "Fractionation of oxidized insulin", <i>Biochemical Journal</i>, <b>44</b> (1): 126–128, <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1042%2Fbj0440126">10.1042/bj0440126</a>, <a href="/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1274818">1274818</a></span>, <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/16748471">16748471</a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Biochemical+Journal&rft.atitle=Fractionation+of+oxidized+insulin&rft.volume=44&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=126-128&rft.date=1949&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC1274818%23id-name%3DPMC&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F16748471&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1042%2Fbj0440126&rft.aulast=Sanger&rft.aufirst=F.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFrederick+Sanger" class="Z3988"></span>.</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation cs2">Sanger, F. (1949b), "The terminal peptides of insulin", <i>Biochemical Journal</i>, <b>45</b> (5): 563–574, <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1042%2Fbj0450563">10.1042/bj0450563</a>, <a href="/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1275055">1275055</a></span>, <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/15396627">15396627</a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Biochemical+Journal&rft.atitle=The+terminal+peptides+of+insulin&rft.volume=45&rft.issue=5&rft.pages=563-574&rft.date=1949&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC1275055%23id-name%3DPMC&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F15396627&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1042%2Fbj0450563&rft.aulast=Sanger&rft.aufirst=F.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFrederick+Sanger" class="Z3988"></span>.</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSangerTuppy1951a" class="citation cs2">Sanger, F.; Tuppy, H. (1951a), "The amino-acid sequence in the phenylalanyl chain of insulin. 1. The identification of lower peptides from partial hydrolysates", <i>Biochemical Journal</i>, <b>49</b> (4): 463–481, <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1042%2Fbj0490463">10.1042/bj0490463</a>, <a href="/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1197535">1197535</a></span>, <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/14886310">14886310</a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Biochemical+Journal&rft.atitle=The+amino-acid+sequence+in+the+phenylalanyl+chain+of+insulin.+1.+The+identification+of+lower+peptides+from+partial+hydrolysates&rft.volume=49&rft.issue=4&rft.pages=463-481&rft.date=1951&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC1197535%23id-name%3DPMC&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F14886310&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1042%2Fbj0490463&rft.aulast=Sanger&rft.aufirst=F.&rft.au=Tuppy%2C+H.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFrederick+Sanger" class="Z3988"></span>.</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSangerTuppy1951b" class="citation cs2">Sanger, F.; Tuppy, H. (1951b), "The amino-acid sequence in the phenylalanyl chain of insulin. 2. The investigation of peptides from enzymic hydrolysates", <i>Biochemical Journal</i>, <b>49</b> (4): 481–490, <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1042%2Fbj0490481">10.1042/bj0490481</a>, <a href="/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1197536">1197536</a></span>, <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/14886311">14886311</a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Biochemical+Journal&rft.atitle=The+amino-acid+sequence+in+the+phenylalanyl+chain+of+insulin.+2.+The+investigation+of+peptides+from+enzymic+hydrolysates&rft.volume=49&rft.issue=4&rft.pages=481-490&rft.date=1951&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC1197536%23id-name%3DPMC&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F14886311&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1042%2Fbj0490481&rft.aulast=Sanger&rft.aufirst=F.&rft.au=Tuppy%2C+H.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFrederick+Sanger" class="Z3988"></span>.</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSangerThompson1953a" class="citation cs2">Sanger, F.; Thompson, E.O.P. (1953a), "The amino-acid sequence in the glycyl chain of insulin. 1. The identification of lower peptides from partial hydrolysates", <i>Biochemical Journal</i>, <b>53</b> (3): 353–366, <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1042%2Fbj0530353">10.1042/bj0530353</a>, <a href="/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1198157">1198157</a></span>, <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/13032078">13032078</a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Biochemical+Journal&rft.atitle=The+amino-acid+sequence+in+the+glycyl+chain+of+insulin.+1.+The+identification+of+lower+peptides+from+partial+hydrolysates&rft.volume=53&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=353-366&rft.date=1953&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC1198157%23id-name%3DPMC&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F13032078&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1042%2Fbj0530353&rft.aulast=Sanger&rft.aufirst=F.&rft.au=Thompson%2C+E.O.P.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFrederick+Sanger" class="Z3988"></span>.</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSangerThompson1953b" class="citation cs2">Sanger, F.; Thompson, E.O.P. (1953b), "The amino-acid sequence in the glycyl chain of insulin. 2. The investigation of peptides from enzymic hydrolysates", <i>Biochemical Journal</i>, <b>53</b> (3): 366–374, <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1042%2Fbj0530366">10.1042/bj0530366</a>, <a href="/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1198158">1198158</a></span>, <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/13032079">13032079</a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Biochemical+Journal&rft.atitle=The+amino-acid+sequence+in+the+glycyl+chain+of+insulin.+2.+The+investigation+of+peptides+from+enzymic+hydrolysates&rft.volume=53&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=366-374&rft.date=1953&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC1198158%23id-name%3DPMC&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F13032079&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1042%2Fbj0530366&rft.aulast=Sanger&rft.aufirst=F.&rft.au=Thompson%2C+E.O.P.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFrederick+Sanger" class="Z3988"></span>.</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation cs2">Sanger, F.; Thompson, E.O.P.; Kitai, R. (1955), "The amide groups of insulin", <i>Biochemical Journal</i>, <b>59</b> (3): 509–518, <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1042%2Fbj0590509">10.1042/bj0590509</a>, <a href="/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1216278">1216278</a></span>, <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/14363129">14363129</a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Biochemical+Journal&rft.atitle=The+amide+groups+of+insulin&rft.volume=59&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=509-518&rft.date=1955&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC1216278%23id-name%3DPMC&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F14363129&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1042%2Fbj0590509&rft.aulast=Sanger&rft.aufirst=F.&rft.au=Thompson%2C+E.O.P.&rft.au=Kitai%2C+R.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFrederick+Sanger" class="Z3988"></span>.</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRyleSangerSmithKitai1955" class="citation cs2">Ryle, A.P.; Sanger, F.; Smith, L.F.; Kitai, R. (1955), "The disulphide bonds of insulin", <i>Biochemical Journal</i>, <b>60</b> (4): 541–556, <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1042%2Fbj0600541">10.1042/bj0600541</a>, <a href="/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1216151">1216151</a></span>, <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/13249947">13249947</a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Biochemical+Journal&rft.atitle=The+disulphide+bonds+of+insulin&rft.volume=60&rft.issue=4&rft.pages=541-556&rft.date=1955&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC1216151%23id-name%3DPMC&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F13249947&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1042%2Fbj0600541&rft.aulast=Ryle&rft.aufirst=A.P.&rft.au=Sanger%2C+F.&rft.au=Smith%2C+L.F.&rft.au=Kitai%2C+R.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFrederick+Sanger" class="Z3988"></span>.</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation cs2">Brown, H.; Sanger, F.; Kitai, R. (1955), "The structure of pig and sheep insulins", <i>Biochemical Journal</i>, <b>60</b> (4): 556–565, <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1042%2Fbj0600556">10.1042/bj0600556</a>, <a href="/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1216152">1216152</a></span>, <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/13249948">13249948</a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Biochemical+Journal&rft.atitle=The+structure+of+pig+and+sheep+insulins&rft.volume=60&rft.issue=4&rft.pages=556-565&rft.date=1955&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC1216152%23id-name%3DPMC&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F13249948&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1042%2Fbj0600556&rft.aulast=Brown&rft.aufirst=H.&rft.au=Sanger%2C+F.&rft.au=Kitai%2C+R.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFrederick+Sanger" class="Z3988"></span>.</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSanger1959" class="citation cs2">Sanger, F. (1959), "Chemistry of Insulin: determination of the structure of insulin opens the way to greater understanding of life processes", <i>Science</i>, <b>129</b> (3359): 1340–1344, <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1959Sci...129.1340G">1959Sci...129.1340G</a>, <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1126%2Fscience.129.3359.1340">10.1126/science.129.3359.1340</a>, <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/13658959">13658959</a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Science&rft.atitle=Chemistry+of+Insulin%3A+determination+of+the+structure+of+insulin+opens+the+way+to+greater+understanding+of+life+processes&rft.volume=129&rft.issue=3359&rft.pages=1340-1344&rft.date=1959&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F13658959&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1126%2Fscience.129.3359.1340&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F1959Sci...129.1340G&rft.aulast=Sanger&rft.aufirst=F.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFrederick+Sanger" class="Z3988"></span>.</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation cs2">Milstein, C.; Sanger, F. (1961), "An amino acid sequence in the active centre of phosphoglucomutase", <i>Biochemical Journal</i>, <b>79</b> (3): 456–469, <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1042%2Fbj0790456">10.1042/bj0790456</a>, <a href="/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1205670">1205670</a></span>, <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/13771000">13771000</a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Biochemical+Journal&rft.atitle=An+amino+acid+sequence+in+the+active+centre+of+phosphoglucomutase&rft.volume=79&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=456-469&rft.date=1961&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC1205670%23id-name%3DPMC&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F13771000&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1042%2Fbj0790456&rft.aulast=Milstein&rft.aufirst=C.&rft.au=Sanger%2C+F.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFrederick+Sanger" class="Z3988"></span>.</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMarckerSanger1964" class="citation cs2">Marcker, K.; Sanger, F. (1964), "<i>N</i>-formyl-methionyl-S-RNA", <i>Journal of Molecular Biology</i>, <b>8</b> (6): 835–840, <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2FS0022-2836%2864%2980164-9">10.1016/S0022-2836(64)80164-9</a>, <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/14187409">14187409</a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+Molecular+Biology&rft.atitle=N-formyl-methionyl-S-RNA&rft.volume=8&rft.issue=6&rft.pages=835-840&rft.date=1964&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1016%2FS0022-2836%2864%2980164-9&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F14187409&rft.aulast=Marcker&rft.aufirst=K.&rft.au=Sanger%2C+F.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFrederick+Sanger" class="Z3988"></span>.</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation cs2">Sanger, F.; Brownlee, G.G.; Barrell, B.G. (1965), "A two-dimensional fractionation procedure for radioactive nucleotides", <i>Journal of Molecular Biology</i>, <b>13</b> (2): 373–398, <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2FS0022-2836%2865%2980104-8">10.1016/S0022-2836(65)80104-8</a>, <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/5325727">5325727</a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+Molecular+Biology&rft.atitle=A+two-dimensional+fractionation+procedure+for+radioactive+nucleotides&rft.volume=13&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=373-398&rft.date=1965&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1016%2FS0022-2836%2865%2980104-8&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F5325727&rft.aulast=Sanger&rft.aufirst=F.&rft.au=Brownlee%2C+G.G.&rft.au=Barrell%2C+B.G.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFrederick+Sanger" class="Z3988"></span>.</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBrownleeSangerBarrell1967" class="citation cs2">Brownlee, G.G.; Sanger, F.; Barrell, B.G. (1967), "Nucleotide sequence of 5S-ribosomal RNA from <i>Escherichia coli</i>", <i>Nature</i>, <b>215</b> (5102): 735–736, <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1967Natur.215..735B">1967Natur.215..735B</a>, <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1038%2F215735a0">10.1038/215735a0</a>, <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/4862513">4862513</a>, <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:4270186">4270186</a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Nature&rft.atitle=Nucleotide+sequence+of+5S-ribosomal+RNA+from+Escherichia+coli&rft.volume=215&rft.issue=5102&rft.pages=735-736&rft.date=1967&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1038%2F215735a0&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A4270186%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F4862513&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F1967Natur.215..735B&rft.aulast=Brownlee&rft.aufirst=G.G.&rft.au=Sanger%2C+F.&rft.au=Barrell%2C+B.G.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFrederick+Sanger" class="Z3988"></span>.</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation cs2">Brownlee, G.G.; Sanger, F. (1967), "Nucleotide sequences from the low molecular weight ribosomal RNA of <i>Escherichia coli</i>", <i>Journal of Molecular Biology</i>, <b>23</b> (3): 337–353, <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2FS0022-2836%2867%2980109-8">10.1016/S0022-2836(67)80109-8</a>, <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/4291728">4291728</a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+Molecular+Biology&rft.atitle=Nucleotide+sequences+from+the+low+molecular+weight+ribosomal+RNA+of+Escherichia+coli&rft.volume=23&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=337-353&rft.date=1967&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1016%2FS0022-2836%2867%2980109-8&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F4291728&rft.aulast=Brownlee&rft.aufirst=G.G.&rft.au=Sanger%2C+F.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFrederick+Sanger" class="Z3988"></span>.</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBrownleeSangerBarrell1968" class="citation cs2">Brownlee, G.G.; Sanger, F.; Barrell, B.G. (1968), "The sequence of 5S ribosomal ribonucleic acid", <i>Journal of Molecular Biology</i>, <b>34</b> (3): 379–412, <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2F0022-2836%2868%2990168-X">10.1016/0022-2836(68)90168-X</a>, <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/4938553">4938553</a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+Molecular+Biology&rft.atitle=The+sequence+of+5S+ribosomal+ribonucleic+acid&rft.volume=34&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=379-412&rft.date=1968&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1016%2F0022-2836%2868%2990168-X&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F4938553&rft.aulast=Brownlee&rft.aufirst=G.G.&rft.au=Sanger%2C+F.&rft.au=Barrell%2C+B.G.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFrederick+Sanger" class="Z3988"></span>.</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation cs2">Adams, J.M.; Jeppesen, P.G.; Sanger, F.; Barrell, B.G. (1969), "Nucleotide sequence from the coat protein cistron of R17 bacteriophage RNA", <i>Nature</i>, <b>223</b> (5210): 1009–1014, <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1969Natur.223.1009A">1969Natur.223.1009A</a>, <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1038%2F2231009a0">10.1038/2231009a0</a>, <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/5811898">5811898</a>, <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:4152602">4152602</a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Nature&rft.atitle=Nucleotide+sequence+from+the+coat+protein+cistron+of+R17+bacteriophage+RNA&rft.volume=223&rft.issue=5210&rft.pages=1009-1014&rft.date=1969&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1038%2F2231009a0&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A4152602%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F5811898&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F1969Natur.223.1009A&rft.aulast=Adams&rft.aufirst=J.M.&rft.au=Jeppesen%2C+P.G.&rft.au=Sanger%2C+F.&rft.au=Barrell%2C+B.G.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFrederick+Sanger" class="Z3988"></span>.</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation cs2">Barrell, B.G.; Sanger, F. (1969), "The sequence of phenylalanine tRNA from <i>E. coli</i>", <i>FEBS Letters</i>, <b>3</b> (4): 275–278, <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1969FEBSL...3..275B">1969FEBSL...3..275B</a>, <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2F0014-5793%2869%2980157-2">10.1016/0014-5793(69)80157-2</a></span>, <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/11947028">11947028</a>, <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:34155866">34155866</a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=FEBS+Letters&rft.atitle=The+sequence+of+phenylalanine+tRNA+from+E.+coli&rft.volume=3&rft.issue=4&rft.pages=275-278&rft.date=1969&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1016%2F0014-5793%2869%2980157-2&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A34155866%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F11947028&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F1969FEBSL...3..275B&rft.aulast=Barrell&rft.aufirst=B.G.&rft.au=Sanger%2C+F.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFrederick+Sanger" class="Z3988"></span>.</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation cs2">Jeppesen, P.G.; Barrell, B.G.; Sanger, F.; Coulson, A.R. (1972), "Nucleotide sequences of two fragments from the coat-protein cistron of bacteriophage R17 ribonucleic acid", <i>Biochemical Journal</i>, <b>128</b> (5): 993–1006, <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1042%2Fbj1280993h">10.1042/bj1280993h</a>, <a href="/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1173988">1173988</a></span>, <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/4566195">4566195</a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Biochemical+Journal&rft.atitle=Nucleotide+sequences+of+two+fragments+from+the+coat-protein+cistron+of+bacteriophage+R17+ribonucleic+acid&rft.volume=128&rft.issue=5&rft.pages=993-1006&rft.date=1972&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC1173988%23id-name%3DPMC&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F4566195&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1042%2Fbj1280993h&rft.aulast=Jeppesen&rft.aufirst=P.G.&rft.au=Barrell%2C+B.G.&rft.au=Sanger%2C+F.&rft.au=Coulson%2C+A.R.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFrederick+Sanger" class="Z3988"></span>.</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSangerDonelsonCoulsonKössel1973" class="citation cs2">Sanger, F.; Donelson, J.E.; Coulson, A.R.; Kössel, H.; Fischer, D. (1973), "Use of DNA Polymerase I Primed by a Synthetic Oligonucleotide to Determine a Nucleotide Sequence in Phage f1 DNA", <i>Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences USA</i>, <b>70</b> (4): 1209–1213, <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1973PNAS...70.1209S">1973PNAS...70.1209S</a>, <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1073%2Fpnas.70.4.1209">10.1073/pnas.70.4.1209</a></span>, <a href="/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC433459">433459</a></span>, <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/4577794">4577794</a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Proceedings+of+the+National+Academy+of+Sciences+USA&rft.atitle=Use+of+DNA+Polymerase+I+Primed+by+a+Synthetic+Oligonucleotide+to+Determine+a+Nucleotide+Sequence+in+Phage+f1+DNA&rft.volume=70&rft.issue=4&rft.pages=1209-1213&rft.date=1973&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC433459%23id-name%3DPMC&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F4577794&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1073%2Fpnas.70.4.1209&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F1973PNAS...70.1209S&rft.aulast=Sanger&rft.aufirst=F.&rft.au=Donelson%2C+J.E.&rft.au=Coulson%2C+A.R.&rft.au=K%C3%B6ssel%2C+H.&rft.au=Fischer%2C+D.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFrederick+Sanger" class="Z3988"></span>.</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSangerCoulson1975" class="citation cs2">Sanger, F.; Coulson, A.R. (1975), "A rapid method for determining sequences in DNA by primed synthesis with DNA polymerase", <i>Journal of Molecular Biology</i>, <b>94</b> (3): 441–448, <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2F0022-2836%2875%2990213-2">10.1016/0022-2836(75)90213-2</a>, <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/1100841">1100841</a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+Molecular+Biology&rft.atitle=A+rapid+method+for+determining+sequences+in+DNA+by+primed+synthesis+with+DNA+polymerase&rft.volume=94&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=441-448&rft.date=1975&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1016%2F0022-2836%2875%2990213-2&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F1100841&rft.aulast=Sanger&rft.aufirst=F.&rft.au=Coulson%2C+A.R.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFrederick+Sanger" class="Z3988"></span>.</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSangerNicklenCoulson1977" class="citation cs2">Sanger, F.; Nicklen, S.; Coulson, A.R. (1977), "DNA sequencing with chain-terminating inhibitors", <i>Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences USA</i>, <b>74</b> (12): 5463–5467, <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1977PNAS...74.5463S">1977PNAS...74.5463S</a>, <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1073%2Fpnas.74.12.5463">10.1073/pnas.74.12.5463</a></span>, <a href="/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC431765">431765</a></span>, <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/271968">271968</a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Proceedings+of+the+National+Academy+of+Sciences+USA&rft.atitle=DNA+sequencing+with+chain-terminating+inhibitors&rft.volume=74&rft.issue=12&rft.pages=5463-5467&rft.date=1977&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC431765%23id-name%3DPMC&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F271968&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1073%2Fpnas.74.12.5463&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F1977PNAS...74.5463S&rft.aulast=Sanger&rft.aufirst=F.&rft.au=Nicklen%2C+S.&rft.au=Coulson%2C+A.R.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFrederick+Sanger" class="Z3988"></span>. According to the <a href="/wiki/Institute_for_Scientific_Information" title="Institute for Scientific Information">Institute for Scientific Information</a> (ISI) database, by October 2010 this paper had been cited over 64,000 times.</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSangerAirBarrellBrown1977" class="citation cs2">Sanger, F.; Air, G.M.; Barrell, B.G.; Brown, N.L.; Coulson, A.R.; Fiddes, C.A.; Hutchinson, C.A.; Slocombe, P.M.; Smith, M. (1977), "Nucleotide sequence of bacteriophage φX174 DNA", <i>Nature</i>, <b>265</b> (5596): 687–695, <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1977Natur.265..687S">1977Natur.265..687S</a>, <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1038%2F265687a0">10.1038/265687a0</a>, <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/870828">870828</a>, <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:4206886">4206886</a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Nature&rft.atitle=Nucleotide+sequence+of+bacteriophage+%CF%86X174+DNA&rft.volume=265&rft.issue=5596&rft.pages=687-695&rft.date=1977&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1038%2F265687a0&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A4206886%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F870828&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F1977Natur.265..687S&rft.aulast=Sanger&rft.aufirst=F.&rft.au=Air%2C+G.M.&rft.au=Barrell%2C+B.G.&rft.au=Brown%2C+N.L.&rft.au=Coulson%2C+A.R.&rft.au=Fiddes%2C+C.A.&rft.au=Hutchinson%2C+C.A.&rft.au=Slocombe%2C+P.M.&rft.au=Smith%2C+M.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFrederick+Sanger" class="Z3988"></span>.</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation cs2">Sanger, F.; Coulson, A.R. (1978), "The use of thin acrylamide gels for DNA sequencing", <i>FEBS Letters</i>, <b>87</b> (1): 107–110, <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1978FEBSL..87..107S">1978FEBSL..87..107S</a>, <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2F0014-5793%2878%2980145-8">10.1016/0014-5793(78)80145-8</a>, <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/631324">631324</a>, <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:1620755">1620755</a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=FEBS+Letters&rft.atitle=The+use+of+thin+acrylamide+gels+for+DNA+sequencing&rft.volume=87&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=107-110&rft.date=1978&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1016%2F0014-5793%2878%2980145-8&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A1620755%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F631324&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F1978FEBSL..87..107S&rft.aulast=Sanger&rft.aufirst=F.&rft.au=Coulson%2C+A.R.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFrederick+Sanger" class="Z3988"></span>.</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation cs2">Sanger, F.; Coulson, A.R.; Barrell, B.G.; Smith, A.J.; Roe, B.A. (1980), "Cloning in single-stranded bacteriophage as an aid to rapid DNA sequencing", <i>Journal of Molecular Biology</i>, <b>143</b> (2): 161–178, <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2F0022-2836%2880%2990196-5">10.1016/0022-2836(80)90196-5</a>, <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/6260957">6260957</a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+Molecular+Biology&rft.atitle=Cloning+in+single-stranded+bacteriophage+as+an+aid+to+rapid+DNA+sequencing&rft.volume=143&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=161-178&rft.date=1980&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1016%2F0022-2836%2880%2990196-5&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F6260957&rft.aulast=Sanger&rft.aufirst=F.&rft.au=Coulson%2C+A.R.&rft.au=Barrell%2C+B.G.&rft.au=Smith%2C+A.J.&rft.au=Roe%2C+B.A.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFrederick+Sanger" class="Z3988"></span>.</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAndersonBankierBarrellDe_Bruijn1981" class="citation cs2">Anderson, S.; Bankier, A.T.; Barrell, B.G.; De Bruijn, M.H.; Coulson, A.R.; Drouin, J.; Eperon, I.C.; Nierlich, D.P.; Roe, B.A.; Sanger, F.; Schreier, P.H.; Smith, A.J.; Staden, R.; Young, I.G. (1981), "Sequence and organization of the human mitochondrial genome", <i>Nature</i>, <b>290</b> (5806): 457–465, <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1981Natur.290..457A">1981Natur.290..457A</a>, <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1038%2F290457a0">10.1038/290457a0</a>, <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/7219534">7219534</a>, <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:4355527">4355527</a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Nature&rft.atitle=Sequence+and+organization+of+the+human+mitochondrial+genome&rft.volume=290&rft.issue=5806&rft.pages=457-465&rft.date=1981&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1038%2F290457a0&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A4355527%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F7219534&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F1981Natur.290..457A&rft.aulast=Anderson&rft.aufirst=S.&rft.au=Bankier%2C+A.T.&rft.au=Barrell%2C+B.G.&rft.au=De+Bruijn%2C+M.H.&rft.au=Coulson%2C+A.R.&rft.au=Drouin%2C+J.&rft.au=Eperon%2C+I.C.&rft.au=Nierlich%2C+D.P.&rft.au=Roe%2C+B.A.&rft.au=Sanger%2C+F.&rft.au=Schreier%2C+P.H.&rft.au=Smith%2C+A.J.&rft.au=Staden%2C+R.&rft.au=Young%2C+I.G.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFrederick+Sanger" class="Z3988"></span>.</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation cs2">Anderson, S.; De Bruijn, M.H.; Coulson, A.R.; Eperon, I.C.; Sanger, F.; Young, I.G. (1982), "Complete sequence of bovine mitochondrial DNA. Conserved features of the mammalian mitochondrial genome", <i>Journal of Molecular Biology</i>, <b>156</b> (4): 683–717, <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2F0022-2836%2882%2990137-1">10.1016/0022-2836(82)90137-1</a>, <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/7120390">7120390</a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+Molecular+Biology&rft.atitle=Complete+sequence+of+bovine+mitochondrial+DNA.+Conserved+features+of+the+mammalian+mitochondrial+genome&rft.volume=156&rft.issue=4&rft.pages=683-717&rft.date=1982&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1016%2F0022-2836%2882%2990137-1&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F7120390&rft.aulast=Anderson&rft.aufirst=S.&rft.au=De+Bruijn%2C+M.H.&rft.au=Coulson%2C+A.R.&rft.au=Eperon%2C+I.C.&rft.au=Sanger%2C+F.&rft.au=Young%2C+I.G.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFrederick+Sanger" class="Z3988"></span>.</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSangerCoulsonHongHill1982" class="citation cs2">Sanger, F.; Coulson, A.R.; Hong, G.F.; <a href="/wiki/Diana_Hill_(scientist)" title="Diana Hill (scientist)">Hill, D.F.</a>; <a href="/wiki/George_Petersen_(biochemist)" title="George Petersen (biochemist)">Petersen, G.B.</a> (1982), "Nucleotide sequence of bacteriophage λ DNA", <i>Journal of Molecular Biology</i>, <b>162</b> (4): 729–773, <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2F0022-2836%2882%2990546-0">10.1016/0022-2836(82)90546-0</a>, <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/6221115">6221115</a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+Molecular+Biology&rft.atitle=Nucleotide+sequence+of+bacteriophage+%CE%BB+DNA&rft.volume=162&rft.issue=4&rft.pages=729-773&rft.date=1982&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1016%2F0022-2836%2882%2990546-0&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F6221115&rft.aulast=Sanger&rft.aufirst=F.&rft.au=Coulson%2C+A.R.&rft.au=Hong%2C+G.F.&rft.au=Hill%2C+D.F.&rft.au=Petersen%2C+G.B.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFrederick+Sanger" class="Z3988"></span>.</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation cs2">Sanger, F. (1988), "Sequences, sequences, and sequences", <i>Annual Review of Biochemistry</i>, <b>57</b>: 1–28, <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1146%2Fannurev.bi.57.070188.000245">10.1146/annurev.bi.57.070188.000245</a></span>, <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/2460023">2460023</a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Annual+Review+of+Biochemistry&rft.atitle=Sequences%2C+sequences%2C+and+sequences&rft.volume=57&rft.pages=1-28&rft.date=1988&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1146%2Fannurev.bi.57.070188.000245&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F2460023&rft.aulast=Sanger&rft.aufirst=F.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFrederick+Sanger" class="Z3988"></span>.</li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Frederick_Sanger&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Citations">Citations</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Frederick_Sanger&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: Citations"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-1">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAllenMuir2001" class="citation journal cs1">Allen, A.K.; <a href="/wiki/Helen_Muir" title="Helen Muir">Muir, H.M.</a> (2001). 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class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.nobelprize.org/prizes/chemistry/1958/sanger/biographical/">"The Nobel Prize in Chemistry 1958"</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=The+Nobel+Prize+in+Chemistry+1958&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.nobelprize.org%2Fprizes%2Fchemistry%2F1958%2Fsanger%2Fbiographical%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFrederick+Sanger" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-nobelfacts-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-nobelfacts_5-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-nobelfacts_5-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/facts/">"Nobel Prize Facts"</a>. Nobelprize.org<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">1 September</span> 2015</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Nobel+Prize+Facts&rft.pub=Nobelprize.org&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.nobelprize.org%2Fnobel_prizes%2Ffacts%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFrederick+Sanger" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-nobelbio-6"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-nobelbio_6-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-nobelbio_6-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-nobelbio_6-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-nobelbio_6-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.nobelprize.org/prizes/chemistry/1958/sanger/biographical/">"The Nobel Prize in Chemistry 1958: Frederick Sanger – biography"</a>. Nobelprize.org<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">10 August</span> 2020</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=The+Nobel+Prize+in+Chemistry+1958%3A+Frederick+Sanger+%E2%80%93+biography&rft.pub=Nobelprize.org&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.nobelprize.org%2Fprizes%2Fchemistry%2F1958%2Fsanger%2Fbiographical%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFrederick+Sanger" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-brownlee-7"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-brownlee_7-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-brownlee_7-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-brownlee_7-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-brownlee_7-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-brownlee_7-4"><sup><i><b>e</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-brownlee_7-5"><sup><i><b>f</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-brownlee_7-6"><sup><i><b>g</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-brownlee_7-7"><sup><i><b>h</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-brownlee_7-8"><sup><i><b>i</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-brownlee_7-9"><sup><i><b>j</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20140313164607/http://jiscmediahub.ac.uk/record/display/012-00002584">"A Life of Research on the Sequences of Proteins and Nucleic Acids: Fred Sanger in conversation with George Brownlee"</a>. Biochemical Society, Edina – Film & Sound Online. 9 October 1992. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://jiscmediahub.ac.uk/record/display/012-00002584">the original</a> on 13 March 2014<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">29 April</span> 2013</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=A+Life+of+Research+on+the+Sequences+of+Proteins+and+Nucleic+Acids%3A+Fred+Sanger+in+conversation+with+George+Brownlee&rft.pub=Biochemical+Society%2C+Edina+%E2%80%93+Film+%26+Sound+Online&rft.date=1992-10-09&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fjiscmediahub.ac.uk%2Frecord%2Fdisplay%2F012-00002584&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFrederick+Sanger" class="Z3988"></span>. Subscription required. A 200 min interview divided into 44 segments. Notes give the content of each segment. <sup class="noprint Inline-Template"><span style="white-space: nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Link_rot" title="Wikipedia:Link rot"><span title=" Dead link tagged March 2019">dead link</span></a></i><span style="visibility:hidden; color:transparent; padding-left:2px">‍</span>]</span></sup></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-marksearly-8"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-marksearly_8-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMarks" class="citation web cs1">Marks, Lara. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.whatisbiotechnology.org/exhibitions/sanger/early">"Sanger's early life: From the cradle to the laboratory"</a>. <i>The path to DNA sequencing: The life and work of Fred Sanger</i>. What is Biotechnology<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">1 September</span> 2015</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=The+path+to+DNA+sequencing%3A+The+life+and+work+of+Fred+Sanger&rft.atitle=Sanger%27s+early+life%3A+From+the+cradle+to+the+laboratory&rft.aulast=Marks&rft.aufirst=Lara&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.whatisbiotechnology.org%2Fexhibitions%2Fsanger%2Fearly&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFrederick+Sanger" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-9"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-9">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJeffers2017" class="citation book cs1">Jeffers, Joe S. (2017). <i>Frederick Sanger Two-Time Nobel Laureate in Chemistry</i>. Springer International. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3-319-54707-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-3-319-54707-7"><bdi>978-3-319-54707-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Frederick+Sanger+Two-Time+Nobel+Laureate+in+Chemistry&rft.pub=Springer+International&rft.date=2017&rft.isbn=978-3-319-54707-7&rft.aulast=Jeffers&rft.aufirst=Joe+S.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFrederick+Sanger" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-10"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-10">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.nobelprize.org/prizes/chemistry/1980/sanger/25898-interview-transcript-1980-2/">"The Nobel Prize in Chemistry 1980"</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=The+Nobel+Prize+in+Chemistry+1980&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.nobelprize.org%2Fprizes%2Fchemistry%2F1980%2Fsanger%2F25898-interview-transcript-1980-2%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFrederick+Sanger" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-sangerphd-11"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-sangerphd_11-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSanger1944" class="citation thesis cs1"><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Sanger, Frederick</a> (1944). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210417201357/http://ulmss-newton.lib.cam.ac.uk/vwebv/holdingsInfo?bibId=35253"><i>The metabolism of the amino acid lysine in the animal body</i></a> (PhD thesis). University of Cambridge. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://ulmss-newton.lib.cam.ac.uk/vwebv/holdingsInfo?bibId=35253">the original</a> on 17 April 2021<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">5 December</span> 2013</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Adissertation&rft.title=The+metabolism+of+the+amino+acid+lysine+in+the+animal+body&rft.degree=PhD&rft.inst=University+of+Cambridge&rft.date=1944&rft.aulast=Sanger&rft.aufirst=Frederick&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fulmss-newton.lib.cam.ac.uk%2Fvwebv%2FholdingsInfo%3FbibId%3D35253&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFrederick+Sanger" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-12"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-12">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFNeubergerSanger1942">Neuberger & Sanger 1942</a>; <a href="#CITEREFNeubergerSanger1944">Neuberger & Sanger 1944</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-13"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-13">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://achievement.org/achiever/frederick-sanger-ph-d/#interview">"Frederick Sanger, Ph.D. Biography and Interview"</a>. <i>www.achievement.org</i>. <a href="/wiki/American_Academy_of_Achievement" class="mw-redirect" title="American Academy of Achievement">American Academy of Achievement</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=www.achievement.org&rft.atitle=Frederick+Sanger%2C+Ph.D.+Biography+and+Interview&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fachievement.org%2Fachiever%2Ffrederick-sanger-ph-d%2F%23interview&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFrederick+Sanger" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-14"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-14">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFChibnall1942" class="citation journal cs1">Chibnall, A. C. (1942). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://rspa.royalsocietypublishing.org/content/royprsa/181/985/210.full.pdf">"Bakerian Lecture: Amino-Acid Analysis and the Structure of Proteins"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. <i>Proceedings of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences</i>. <b>131</b> (863): 136–160. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1942RSPSB.131..136C">1942RSPSB.131..136C</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1098%2Frspb.1942.0021">10.1098/rspb.1942.0021</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:85124201">85124201</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Proceedings+of+the+Royal+Society+B%3A+Biological+Sciences&rft.atitle=Bakerian+Lecture%3A+Amino-Acid+Analysis+and+the+Structure+of+Proteins&rft.volume=131&rft.issue=863&rft.pages=136-160&rft.date=1942&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A85124201%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1098%2Frspb.1942.0021&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F1942RSPSB.131..136C&rft.aulast=Chibnall&rft.aufirst=A.+C.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Frspa.royalsocietypublishing.org%2Fcontent%2Froyprsa%2F181%2F985%2F210.full.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFrederick+Sanger" class="Z3988"></span> Section on insulin starts on page 153.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-15"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-15">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFSangerTuppy1951a">Sanger & Tuppy 1951a</a>; <a href="#CITEREFSangerTuppy1951b">Sanger & Tuppy 1951b</a>; <a href="#CITEREFSangerThompson1953a">Sanger & Thompson 1953a</a>; <a href="#CITEREFSangerThompson1953b">Sanger & Thompson 1953b</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-lecture58-16"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-lecture58_16-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSanger1958" class="citation cs2">Sanger, F. (1958), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/chemistry/laureates/1958/sanger-lecture.pdf"><i>Nobel lecture: The chemistry of insulin</i></a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>, Nobelprize.org<span class="reference-accessdate">, retrieved <span class="nowrap">18 October</span> 2010</span></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Nobel+lecture%3A+The+chemistry+of+insulin&rft.pub=Nobelprize.org&rft.date=1958&rft.aulast=Sanger&rft.aufirst=F.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fnobelprize.org%2Fnobel_prizes%2Fchemistry%2Flaureates%2F1958%2Fsanger-lecture.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFrederick+Sanger" class="Z3988"></span>. Sanger's Nobel lecture was also published in Science: <a href="#CITEREFSanger1959">Sanger 1959</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-marksinsulin-17"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-marksinsulin_17-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMarks" class="citation web cs1">Marks, Lara. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.whatisbiotechnology.org/exhibitions/sanger/insulin">"Sequencing proteins: Insulin"</a>. <i>The path to DNA sequencing: The life and work of Fred Sanger</i>. What is Biotechnology<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">1 September</span> 2015</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=The+path+to+DNA+sequencing%3A+The+life+and+work+of+Fred+Sanger&rft.atitle=Sequencing+proteins%3A+Insulin&rft.aulast=Marks&rft.aufirst=Lara&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.whatisbiotechnology.org%2Fexhibitions%2Fsanger%2Finsulin&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFrederick+Sanger" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTERyleSangerSmithKitai1955-18"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERyleSangerSmithKitai1955_18-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFRyleSangerSmithKitai1955">Ryle et al. 1955</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-stretton2002-19"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-stretton2002_19-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFStretton2002" class="citation journal cs1">Stretton, A.O. (2002). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1462286">"The first sequence. Fred Sanger and insulin"</a>. <i>Genetics</i>. <b>162</b> (2): 527–532. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1093%2Fgenetics%2F162.2.527">10.1093/genetics/162.2.527</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1462286">1462286</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/12399368">12399368</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Genetics&rft.atitle=The+first+sequence.+Fred+Sanger+and+insulin&rft.volume=162&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=527-532&rft.date=2002&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC1462286%23id-name%3DPMC&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F12399368&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1093%2Fgenetics%2F162.2.527&rft.aulast=Stretton&rft.aufirst=A.O.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC1462286&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFrederick+Sanger" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-nobel1958-20"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-nobel1958_20-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-nobel1958_20-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/chemistry/laureates/1958/">"The Nobel Prize in Chemistry 1958: Frederick Sanger"</a>. Nobelprize.org<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">8 October</span> 2010</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=The+Nobel+Prize+in+Chemistry+1958%3A+Frederick+Sanger&rft.pub=Nobelprize.org&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fnobelprize.org%2Fnobel_prizes%2Fchemistry%2Flaureates%2F1958%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFrederick+Sanger" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-markspath-21"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-markspath_21-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-markspath_21-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMarks" class="citation web cs1">Marks, Lara. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.whatisbiotechnology.org/exhibitions/sanger/path">"The path to sequencing nucleic acids"</a>. <i>The path to DNA sequencing: The life and work of Fred Sanger</i>. What is Biotechnology<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">1 September</span> 2015</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=The+path+to+DNA+sequencing%3A+The+life+and+work+of+Fred+Sanger&rft.atitle=The+path+to+sequencing+nucleic+acids&rft.aulast=Marks&rft.aufirst=Lara&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.whatisbiotechnology.org%2Fexhibitions%2Fsanger%2Fpath&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFrederick+Sanger" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-22"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-22">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFMarckerSanger1964">Marcker & Sanger 1964</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-23"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-23">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHolleyApgarEverettMadison1965" class="citation journal cs1">Holley, R. 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Retrieved <span class="nowrap">15 September</span> 2019</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Nobel+lecture%3A+Determination+of+nucleotide+sequences+in+DNA&rft.pub=Nobelprize.org&rft.date=1980&rft.aulast=Sanger&rft.aufirst=F.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.nobelprize.org%2Fuploads%2F2018%2F06%2Fsanger-lecture-1.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFrederick+Sanger" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-28"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-28">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFSangerAirBarrellBrown1977">Sanger et al. 1977</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESangerNicklenCoulson1977-29"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESangerNicklenCoulson1977_29-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESangerNicklenCoulson1977_29-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFSangerNicklenCoulson1977">Sanger, Nicklen & Coulson 1977</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-nobel1980-30"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-nobel1980_30-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-nobel1980_30-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/chemistry/laureates/1980/">"The Nobel Prize in Chemistry 1980: Paul Berg, Walter Gilbert, Frederick Sanger"</a>. 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Retrieved <span class="nowrap">14 June</span> 2017</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=American+Chemical+Society%2C+Division+of+the+History+of+Chemistry&rft.atitle=Citation+for+Chemical+Breakthrough+Award&rft.date=2016&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.scs.illinois.edu%2F~mainzv%2FHIST%2Fawards%2FCitations%2F2016-ACS%2520Rendering_Sanger.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFrederick+Sanger" class="Z3988"></span><sup class="noprint Inline-Template"><span style="white-space: nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Link_rot" title="Wikipedia:Link rot"><span title=" Dead link tagged June 2024">permanent dead link</span></a></i><span style="visibility:hidden; color:transparent; padding-left:2px">‍</span>]</span></sup></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Telegraph_obit-43"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Telegraph_obit_43-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Telegraph_obit_43-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Telegraph_obit_43-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation news cs1"><span class="id-lock-subscription" title="Paid subscription required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/obituaries/science-obituaries/10462574/Frederick-Sanger-OM.html">"Frederick Sanger, OM"</a></span>. <i>The Telegraph</i>. 20 November 2013. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20220112/https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/obituaries/science-obituaries/10462574/Frederick-Sanger-OM.html">Archived</a> from the original on 12 January 2022<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">20 November</span> 2013</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Telegraph&rft.atitle=Frederick+Sanger%2C+OM&rft.date=2013-11-20&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.telegraph.co.uk%2Fnews%2Fobituaries%2Fscience-obituaries%2F10462574%2FFrederick-Sanger-OM.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFrederick+Sanger" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Our_people-44"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Our_people_44-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Our_people_44-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Our_people_44-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20110407064631/http://www.sanger.ac.uk/about/people/biographies/fsanger.html">"Frederick Sanger"</a>. Wellcome Trust Sanger Institute. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.sanger.ac.uk/about/people/biographies/fsanger.html">the original</a> on 7 April 2011<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">12 October</span> 2010</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Frederick+Sanger&rft.pub=Wellcome+Trust+Sanger+Institute&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.sanger.ac.uk%2Fabout%2Fpeople%2Fbiographies%2Ffsanger.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFrederick+Sanger" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-hargittai-45"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-hargittai_45-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-hargittai_45-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHargittai1999" class="citation journal cs1">Hargittai, István (April 1999). "Interview: Frederick Sanger". <i>The Chemical Intelligencer</i>. <b>4</b> (2). New York: Springer-Verlag: 6–11.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Chemical+Intelligencer&rft.atitle=Interview%3A+Frederick+Sanger&rft.volume=4&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=6-11&rft.date=1999-04&rft.aulast=Hargittai&rft.aufirst=Istv%C3%A1n&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFrederick+Sanger" class="Z3988"></span>. This interview, which took place on 16 September 1997, was republished in <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHargittai2002" class="citation book cs1">Hargittai, István (2002). "Chapter 5: Frederick Sanger". <i>Candid science II: conversations with famous biomedical scientists</i>. 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London. p. 40. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.warwick.ac.uk/fac/sci/Chemistry/MedChem/MedChemInfo/info/Sanger.html">the original</a> on 11 December 2008<span class="reference-accessdate">. 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(2007). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.sciencemag.org/content/vol317/issue5840/newsmakers.dtl?cookietest=yes">"Newsmakers: A Life in Science"</a>. <i>Science</i>. <b>317</b> (5840): 879. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1126%2Fscience.317.5840.879e">10.1126/science.317.5840.879e</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:220092058">220092058</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Science&rft.atitle=Newsmakers%3A+A+Life+in+Science&rft.volume=317&rft.issue=5840&rft.pages=879&rft.date=2007&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1126%2Fscience.317.5840.879e&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A220092058%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.sciencemag.org%2Fcontent%2Fvol317%2Fissue5840%2Fnewsmakers.dtl%3Fcookietest%3Dyes&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFrederick+Sanger" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-death-48"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-death_48-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation news cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/science-environment-25020112">"Frederick Sanger: Nobel Prize winner dies at 95"</a>. BBC.co.uk. 20 November 2013<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">20 November</span> 2013</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.atitle=Frederick+Sanger%3A+Nobel+Prize+winner+dies+at+95&rft.date=2013-11-20&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.bbc.co.uk%2Fnews%2Fscience-environment-25020112&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFrederick+Sanger" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-49"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-49">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation news cs1">"Frederick Sanger: Unassuming British biochemist whose pivotal and far-reaching discoveries made him one of a handful of double Nobel prizewinners". <i>The Times</i>. London. 21 November 2013. p. 63.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Times&rft.atitle=Frederick+Sanger%3A+Unassuming+British+biochemist+whose+pivotal+and+far-reaching+discoveries+made+him+one+of+a+handful+of+double+Nobel+prizewinners&rft.pages=63&rft.date=2013-11-21&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFrederick+Sanger" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-50"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-50">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://theconversation.com/frederick-sangers-achievements-cannot-be-overstated-20596">"Frederick Sanger's achievements cannot be overstated"</a>. <i>The Conversation</i>. 21 November 2013.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=The+Conversation&rft.atitle=Frederick+Sanger%27s+achievements+cannot+be+overstated&rft.date=2013-11-21&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Ftheconversation.com%2Ffrederick-sangers-achievements-cannot-be-overstated-20596&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFrederick+Sanger" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-51"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-51">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.afb.org/HelenKellerArchive?a=d&d=A-HK01-07-B149-F04-022.1.8">"Letters from Thane Read asking Helen Keller to sign the World Constitution for world peace. 1961"</a>. <i>Helen Keller Archive</i>. 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Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://encyclopedia.uia.org/en/strategy/193465">the original</a> on 19 July 2023<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">15 July</span> 2023</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=The+Encyclopedia+of+World+Problems+%7C+Union+of+International+Associations+%28UIA%29&rft.atitle=Preparing+earth+constitution+%7C+Global+Strategies+%26+Solutions+%7C+The+Encyclopedia+of+World+Problems&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fencyclopedia.uia.org%2Fen%2Fstrategy%2F193465&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFrederick+Sanger" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Bibliography">Bibliography</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Frederick_Sanger&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: Bibliography"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1184024115">.mw-parser-output .div-col{margin-top:0.3em;column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .div-col-small{font-size:90%}.mw-parser-output .div-col-rules{column-rule:1px solid #aaa}.mw-parser-output .div-col dl,.mw-parser-output .div-col ol,.mw-parser-output .div-col ul{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .div-col li,.mw-parser-output .div-col dd{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}</style><div class="div-col" style="column-width: 35em;"> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/George_Brownlee" title="George Brownlee">Brownlee, George G.</a> (2014). <i>Fred Sanger, double Nobel laureate: a biography</i>. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-107-08334-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-107-08334-9"><bdi>978-1-107-08334-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Fred+Sanger%2C+double+Nobel+laureate%3A+a+biography&rft.place=Cambridge%2C+UK&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2014&rft.isbn=978-1-107-08334-9&rft.aulast=Brownlee&rft.aufirst=George+G.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFrederick+Sanger" class="Z3988"></span> Chapters 4-6 contain the 1992 interview that the author conducted with Sanger.</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation cs2">Finch, John (2008), <i>A Nobel Fellow on every floor: a history of the Medical Research Council Laboratory of Molecular Biology</i>, Cambridge: Medical Research Council, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-84046-940-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-84046-940-0"><bdi>978-1-84046-940-0</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+Nobel+Fellow+on+every+floor%3A+a+history+of+the+Medical+Research+Council+Laboratory+of+Molecular+Biology&rft.place=Cambridge&rft.pub=Medical+Research+Council&rft.date=2008&rft.isbn=978-1-84046-940-0&rft.aulast=Finch&rft.aufirst=John&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFrederick+Sanger" class="Z3988"></span>.</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation journal cs1">García-Sancho, Miguel (2010). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.pure.ed.ac.uk/ws/files/16303515/sangerjhb.pdf">"A new insight into Sanger's development of sequencing: from proteins to DNA, 1943–1977"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. <i>Journal of the History of Biology</i>. <b>43</b> (2): 265–323. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1007%2Fs10739-009-9184-1">10.1007/s10739-009-9184-1</a>. <a href="/wiki/Hdl_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Hdl (identifier)">hdl</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://hdl.handle.net/20.500.11820%2Fe4febe48-772a-4f47-a1c5-a5ca89505367">20.500.11820/e4febe48-772a-4f47-a1c5-a5ca89505367</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/20665230">20665230</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:1134280">1134280</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+the+History+of+Biology&rft.atitle=A+new+insight+into+Sanger%27s+development+of+sequencing%3A+from+proteins+to+DNA%2C+1943%E2%80%931977&rft.volume=43&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=265-323&rft.date=2010&rft_id=info%3Ahdl%2F20.500.11820%2Fe4febe48-772a-4f47-a1c5-a5ca89505367&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A1134280%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F20665230&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1007%2Fs10739-009-9184-1&rft.aulast=Garc%C3%ADa-Sancho&rft.aufirst=Miguel&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.pure.ed.ac.uk%2Fws%2Ffiles%2F16303515%2Fsangerjhb.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFrederick+Sanger" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation cs2">Sanger, F.; Dowding, M. (1996), <i>Selected Papers of Frederick Sanger: with commentaries</i>, Singapore: World Scientific, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-981-02-2430-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-981-02-2430-1"><bdi>978-981-02-2430-1</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Selected+Papers+of+Frederick+Sanger%3A+with+commentaries&rft.place=Singapore&rft.pub=World+Scientific&rft.date=1996&rft.isbn=978-981-02-2430-1&rft.aulast=Sanger&rft.aufirst=F.&rft.au=Dowding%2C+M.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFrederick+Sanger" class="Z3988"></span>.</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation cs2"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.bbc.co.uk/archive/scientists/10603.shtml"><i>Interviews with Nobel Prize–winning scientists: Dr Frederick Sanger</i></a>, British Broadcasting Corporation, c. 1985</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Interviews+with+Nobel+Prize%E2%80%93winning+scientists%3A+Dr+Frederick+Sanger&rft.pub=British+Broadcasting+Corporation&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.bbc.co.uk%2Farchive%2Fscientists%2F10603.shtml&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFrederick+Sanger" class="Z3988"></span>. Interviewed by <a href="/wiki/Lewis_Wolpert" title="Lewis Wolpert">Lewis Wolpert</a>. Duration 1 hour.</li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Frederick_Sanger&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: External links"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1235681985">.mw-parser-output .side-box{margin:4px 0;box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #aaa;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em;background-color:var(--background-color-interactive-subtle,#f8f9fa);display:flow-root}.mw-parser-output .side-box-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{padding:0.25em 0.9em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-image{padding:2px 0 2px 0.9em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-imageright{padding:2px 0.9em 2px 0;text-align:center}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .side-box-flex{display:flex;align-items:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{flex:1;min-width:0}}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .side-box{width:238px}.mw-parser-output .side-box-right{clear:right;float:right;margin-left:1em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-left{margin-right:1em}}</style><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1237033735">@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox{display:none!important}}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox img[src*="Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg"]{background-color:white}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox img[src*="Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg"]{background-color:white}}</style><div class="side-box side-box-right plainlinks sistersitebox"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"> <div class="side-box-flex"> <div class="side-box-image"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/30px-Commons-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="30" height="40" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/45px-Commons-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/59px-Commons-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="1376" /></span></span></div> <div class="side-box-text plainlist">Wikimedia Commons has media related to <span style="font-weight: bold; font-style: italic;"><a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Frederick_Sanger" class="extiw" title="commons:Category:Frederick Sanger">Frederick Sanger</a></span>.</div></div> </div> <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.sanger.ac.uk/">The Sanger Institute</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/chemistry/laureates/1958/">About the 1958 Nobel Prize</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/chemistry/laureates/1980/">About the 1980 Nobel Prize</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20041026014225/http://www.vega.org.uk/series/facetoface/sanger/index.php">Fred Sanger</a> 2001 Video Documentary by The Vega Science Trust</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.npg.org.uk/collections/search/person.php?LinkID=mp06016">Portraits of Frederick Sanger</a> at the <a href="/wiki/National_Portrait_Gallery,_London" title="National Portrait Gallery, London">National Portrait Gallery, London</a> <span class="mw-valign-text-top noprint" typeof="mw:File/Frameless"><a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q151564#P1816" title="Edit this at Wikidata"><img alt="Edit this at Wikidata" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg/10px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg.png" decoding="async" width="10" height="10" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg/15px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg/20px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="20" data-file-height="20" /></a></span></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.sms.cam.ac.uk/media/1130236">Frederick Sanger interviewed by Alan Macfarlane, 24 August 2007 (video)</a>, also available on <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=0JsrvWYS7zY">Video</a> on <a href="/wiki/YouTube_video_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="YouTube video (identifier)">YouTube</a>. Duration 57 minutes.</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://wellcomelibrary.org/using-the-library/subject-guides/genetics/makers-of-modern-genetics/digitised-archives/fred-sanger/">Frederick Sanger archive collection</a> – Wellcome Library finding aid for the digitised collection.</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.nobelprize.org/laureate/222">Frederick Sanger</a> on Nobelprize.org <span class="mw-valign-text-top noprint" typeof="mw:File/Frameless"><a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q151564#P8024" title="Edit this at Wikidata"><img alt="Edit this at Wikidata" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg/10px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg.png" decoding="async" width="10" height="10" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg/15px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg/20px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="20" data-file-height="20" /></a></span></li></ul> <div class="navbox-styles"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1129693374">.mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul{margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt,.mw-parser-output .hlist li{margin:0;display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul ul{display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist .mw-empty-li{display:none}.mw-parser-output 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li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .navbar a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini abbr{font-variant:small-caps;border-bottom:none;text-decoration:none;cursor:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-full{font-size:114%;margin:0 7em}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-mini{font-size:114%;margin:0 4em}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}}</style><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Nobel_Prize_in_Chemistry" title="Template:Nobel Prize in Chemistry"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Nobel_Prize_in_Chemistry" title="Template talk:Nobel Prize in Chemistry"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Nobel_Prize_in_Chemistry" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Nobel Prize in Chemistry"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Laureates_of_the_Nobel_Prize_in_Chemistry" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/List_of_Nobel_laureates_in_Chemistry" title="List of Nobel laureates in Chemistry">Laureates</a> of the <a href="/wiki/Nobel_Prize_in_Chemistry" title="Nobel Prize in Chemistry">Nobel Prize in Chemistry</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">1901–1925</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><span class="nowrap">1901: <a href="/wiki/Jacobus_Henricus_van_%27t_Hoff" title="Jacobus Henricus van 't Hoff">Jacobus van 't Hoff</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">1902: <a href="/wiki/Emil_Fischer" title="Emil Fischer">Emil Fischer</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">1903: <a href="/wiki/Svante_Arrhenius" title="Svante Arrhenius">Svante Arrhenius</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">1904: <a href="/wiki/William_Ramsay" title="William Ramsay">William Ramsay</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">1905: <a href="/wiki/Adolf_von_Baeyer" title="Adolf von Baeyer">Adolf von Baeyer</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">1906: <a href="/wiki/Henri_Moissan" title="Henri Moissan">Henri Moissan</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">1907: <a href="/wiki/Eduard_Buchner" title="Eduard Buchner">Eduard Buchner</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">1908: <a href="/wiki/Ernest_Rutherford" title="Ernest Rutherford">Ernest Rutherford</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">1909: <a href="/wiki/Wilhelm_Ostwald" title="Wilhelm Ostwald">Wilhelm Ostwald</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">1910: <a href="/wiki/Otto_Wallach" title="Otto Wallach">Otto Wallach</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">1911: <a href="/wiki/Marie_Curie" title="Marie Curie">Marie Curie</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">1912: <a href="/wiki/Victor_Grignard" title="Victor Grignard">Victor Grignard</a> / <a href="/wiki/Paul_Sabatier_(chemist)" title="Paul Sabatier (chemist)">Paul Sabatier</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">1913: <a href="/wiki/Alfred_Werner" title="Alfred Werner">Alfred Werner</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">1914: <a href="/wiki/Theodore_William_Richards" title="Theodore William Richards">Theodore Richards</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">1915: <a href="/wiki/Richard_Willst%C3%A4tter" title="Richard Willstätter">Richard Willstätter</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><span class="tmp-color" style="color:darkgrey">1916</span></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><span class="tmp-color" style="color:darkgrey">1917</span></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">1918: <a href="/wiki/Fritz_Haber" title="Fritz Haber">Fritz Haber</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><span class="tmp-color" style="color:darkgrey">1919</span></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">1920: <a href="/wiki/Walther_Nernst" title="Walther Nernst">Walther Nernst</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">1921: <a href="/wiki/Frederick_Soddy" title="Frederick Soddy">Frederick Soddy</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">1922: <a href="/wiki/Francis_William_Aston" title="Francis William Aston">Francis Aston</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">1923: <a href="/wiki/Fritz_Pregl" title="Fritz Pregl">Fritz Pregl</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><span class="tmp-color" style="color:darkgrey">1924</span></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">1925: <a href="/wiki/Richard_Adolf_Zsigmondy" title="Richard Adolf Zsigmondy">Richard Zsigmondy</a></span></li></ul> </div></td><td class="noviewer navbox-image" rowspan="5" style="width:1px;padding:0 0 0 2px"><div><span typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/e/ed/Nobel_Prize.png/80px-Nobel_Prize.png" decoding="async" width="80" height="79" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/e/ed/Nobel_Prize.png/120px-Nobel_Prize.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/e/ed/Nobel_Prize.png/160px-Nobel_Prize.png 2x" data-file-width="500" data-file-height="492" /></span></span></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">1926–1950</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><span class="nowrap">1926: <a href="/wiki/Theodor_Svedberg" title="Theodor Svedberg">Theodor Svedberg</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">1927: <a href="/wiki/Heinrich_Otto_Wieland" title="Heinrich Otto Wieland">Heinrich Wieland</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">1928: <a href="/wiki/Adolf_Windaus" title="Adolf Windaus">Adolf Windaus</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">1929: <a href="/wiki/Arthur_Harden" title="Arthur Harden">Arthur Harden</a> / <a href="/wiki/Hans_von_Euler-Chelpin" title="Hans von Euler-Chelpin">Hans von Euler-Chelpin</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">1930: <a href="/wiki/Hans_Fischer" title="Hans Fischer">Hans Fischer</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">1931: <a href="/wiki/Carl_Bosch" title="Carl Bosch">Carl Bosch</a> / <a href="/wiki/Friedrich_Bergius" title="Friedrich Bergius">Friedrich Bergius</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">1932: <a href="/wiki/Irving_Langmuir" title="Irving Langmuir">Irving Langmuir</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><span class="tmp-color" style="color:darkgrey">1933</span></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">1934: <a href="/wiki/Harold_Urey" title="Harold Urey">Harold Urey</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">1935: <a href="/wiki/Fr%C3%A9d%C3%A9ric_Joliot-Curie" title="Frédéric Joliot-Curie">Frédéric Joliot-Curie</a> / <a href="/wiki/Ir%C3%A8ne_Joliot-Curie" title="Irène Joliot-Curie">Irène Joliot-Curie</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">1936: <a href="/wiki/Peter_Debye" title="Peter Debye">Peter Debye</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">1937: <a href="/wiki/Norman_Haworth" title="Norman Haworth">Norman Haworth</a> / <a href="/wiki/Paul_Karrer" title="Paul Karrer">Paul Karrer</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">1938: <a href="/wiki/Richard_Kuhn" title="Richard Kuhn">Richard Kuhn</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">1939: <a href="/wiki/Adolf_Butenandt" title="Adolf Butenandt">Adolf Butenandt</a> / <a href="/wiki/Leopold_Ru%C5%BEi%C4%8Dka" title="Leopold Ružička">Leopold Ružička</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><span class="tmp-color" style="color:darkgrey">1940</span></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><span class="tmp-color" style="color:darkgrey">1941</span></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><span class="tmp-color" style="color:darkgrey">1942</span></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">1943: <a href="/wiki/George_de_Hevesy" title="George de Hevesy">George de Hevesy</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">1944: <a href="/wiki/Otto_Hahn" title="Otto Hahn">Otto Hahn</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">1945: <a href="/wiki/Artturi_Ilmari_Virtanen" title="Artturi Ilmari Virtanen">Artturi Virtanen</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">1946: <a href="/wiki/James_B._Sumner" title="James B. Sumner">James B. Sumner</a> / <a href="/wiki/John_Howard_Northrop" title="John Howard Northrop">John Northrop</a> / <a href="/wiki/Wendell_Meredith_Stanley" title="Wendell Meredith Stanley">Wendell Meredith Stanley</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">1947: <a href="/wiki/Robert_Robinson_(chemist)" title="Robert Robinson (chemist)">Robert Robinson</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">1948: <a href="/wiki/Arne_Tiselius" title="Arne Tiselius">Arne Tiselius</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">1949: <a href="/wiki/William_Giauque" title="William Giauque">William Giauque</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">1950: <a href="/wiki/Otto_Diels" title="Otto Diels">Otto Diels</a> / <a href="/wiki/Kurt_Alder" title="Kurt Alder">Kurt Alder</a></span></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">1951–1975</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><span class="nowrap">1951: <a href="/wiki/Edwin_McMillan" title="Edwin McMillan">Edwin McMillan</a> / <a href="/wiki/Glenn_T._Seaborg" title="Glenn T. Seaborg">Glenn T. Seaborg</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">1952: <a href="/wiki/Archer_Martin" title="Archer Martin">Archer Martin</a> / <a href="/wiki/Richard_Laurence_Millington_Synge" title="Richard Laurence Millington Synge">Richard Synge</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">1953: <a href="/wiki/Hermann_Staudinger" title="Hermann Staudinger">Hermann Staudinger</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">1954: <a href="/wiki/Linus_Pauling" title="Linus Pauling">Linus Pauling</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">1955: <a href="/wiki/Vincent_du_Vigneaud" title="Vincent du Vigneaud">Vincent du Vigneaud</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">1956: <a href="/wiki/Cyril_Norman_Hinshelwood" class="mw-redirect" title="Cyril Norman Hinshelwood">Cyril Hinshelwood</a> / <a href="/wiki/Nikolay_Semyonov" title="Nikolay Semyonov">Nikolay Semyonov</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">1957: <a href="/wiki/Alexander_R._Todd" class="mw-redirect" title="Alexander R. Todd">Alexander Todd</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">1958: <a class="mw-selflink selflink">Frederick Sanger</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">1959: <a href="/wiki/Jaroslav_Heyrovsk%C3%BD" title="Jaroslav Heyrovský">Jaroslav Heyrovský</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">1960: <a href="/wiki/Willard_Libby" title="Willard Libby">Willard Libby</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">1961: <a href="/wiki/Melvin_Calvin" title="Melvin Calvin">Melvin Calvin</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">1962: <a href="/wiki/Max_Perutz" title="Max Perutz">Max Perutz</a> / <a href="/wiki/John_Kendrew" title="John Kendrew">John Kendrew</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">1963: <a href="/wiki/Karl_Ziegler" title="Karl Ziegler">Karl Ziegler</a> / <a href="/wiki/Giulio_Natta" title="Giulio Natta">Giulio Natta</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">1964: <a href="/wiki/Dorothy_Hodgkin" title="Dorothy Hodgkin">Dorothy Hodgkin</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">1965: <a href="/wiki/Robert_Burns_Woodward" title="Robert Burns Woodward">Robert Woodward</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">1966: <a href="/wiki/Robert_S._Mulliken" title="Robert S. Mulliken">Robert S. Mulliken</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">1967: <a href="/wiki/Manfred_Eigen" title="Manfred Eigen">Manfred Eigen</a> / <a href="/wiki/Ronald_George_Wreyford_Norrish" title="Ronald George Wreyford Norrish">Ronald Norrish</a> / <a href="/wiki/George_Porter" title="George Porter">George Porter</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">1968: <a href="/wiki/Lars_Onsager" title="Lars Onsager">Lars Onsager</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">1969: <a href="/wiki/Derek_Barton" title="Derek Barton">Derek Barton</a> / <a href="/wiki/Odd_Hassel" title="Odd Hassel">Odd Hassel</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">1970: <a href="/wiki/Luis_Federico_Leloir" title="Luis Federico Leloir">Luis Federico Leloir</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">1971: <a href="/wiki/Gerhard_Herzberg" title="Gerhard Herzberg">Gerhard Herzberg</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">1972: <a href="/wiki/Christian_B._Anfinsen" title="Christian B. Anfinsen">Christian B. Anfinsen</a> / <a href="/wiki/Stanford_Moore" title="Stanford Moore">Stanford Moore</a> / <a href="/wiki/William_Howard_Stein" title="William Howard Stein">William Stein</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">1973: <a href="/wiki/Ernst_Otto_Fischer" title="Ernst Otto Fischer">Ernst Otto Fischer</a> / <a href="/wiki/Geoffrey_Wilkinson" title="Geoffrey Wilkinson">Geoffrey Wilkinson</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">1974: <a href="/wiki/Paul_Flory" title="Paul Flory">Paul Flory</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">1975: <a href="/wiki/John_Cornforth" title="John Cornforth">John Cornforth</a> / <a href="/wiki/Vladimir_Prelog" title="Vladimir Prelog">Vladimir Prelog</a></span></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">1976–2000</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><span class="nowrap">1976: <a href="/wiki/William_Lipscomb" title="William Lipscomb">William Lipscomb</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">1977: <a href="/wiki/Ilya_Prigogine" title="Ilya Prigogine">Ilya Prigogine</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">1978: <a href="/wiki/Peter_D._Mitchell" title="Peter D. Mitchell">Peter D. Mitchell</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">1979: <a href="/wiki/Herbert_C._Brown" title="Herbert C. Brown">Herbert C. Brown</a> / <a href="/wiki/Georg_Wittig" title="Georg Wittig">Georg Wittig</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">1980: <a href="/wiki/Paul_Berg" title="Paul Berg">Paul Berg</a> / <a href="/wiki/Walter_Gilbert" title="Walter Gilbert">Walter Gilbert</a> / <a class="mw-selflink selflink">Frederick Sanger</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">1981: <a href="/wiki/Kenichi_Fukui" title="Kenichi Fukui">Kenichi Fukui</a> / <a href="/wiki/Roald_Hoffmann" title="Roald Hoffmann">Roald Hoffmann</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">1982: <a href="/wiki/Aaron_Klug" title="Aaron Klug">Aaron Klug</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">1983: <a href="/wiki/Henry_Taube" title="Henry Taube">Henry Taube</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">1984: <a href="/wiki/Robert_Bruce_Merrifield" title="Robert Bruce Merrifield">Robert Merrifield</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">1985: <a href="/wiki/Herbert_A._Hauptman" title="Herbert A. Hauptman">Herbert A. Hauptman</a> / <a href="/wiki/Jerome_Karle" title="Jerome Karle">Jerome Karle</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">1986: <a href="/wiki/Dudley_R._Herschbach" title="Dudley R. Herschbach">Dudley R. Herschbach</a> / <a href="/wiki/Yuan_T._Lee" title="Yuan T. Lee">Yuan T. Lee</a> / <a href="/wiki/John_Polanyi" title="John Polanyi">John Polanyi</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">1987: <a href="/wiki/Donald_J._Cram" title="Donald J. Cram">Donald J. Cram</a> / <a href="/wiki/Jean-Marie_Lehn" title="Jean-Marie Lehn">Jean-Marie Lehn</a> / <a href="/wiki/Charles_J._Pedersen" title="Charles J. Pedersen">Charles J. Pedersen</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">1988: <a href="/wiki/Johann_Deisenhofer" title="Johann Deisenhofer">Johann Deisenhofer</a> / <a href="/wiki/Robert_Huber" title="Robert Huber">Robert Huber</a> / <a href="/wiki/Hartmut_Michel" title="Hartmut Michel">Hartmut Michel</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">1989: <a href="/wiki/Sidney_Altman" title="Sidney Altman">Sidney Altman</a> / <a href="/wiki/Thomas_Cech" title="Thomas Cech">Thomas Cech</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">1990: <a href="/wiki/Elias_James_Corey" title="Elias James Corey">Elias Corey</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">1991: <a href="/wiki/Richard_R._Ernst" title="Richard R. Ernst">Richard R. Ernst</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">1992: <a href="/wiki/Rudolph_A._Marcus" title="Rudolph A. Marcus">Rudolph A. Marcus</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">1993: <a href="/wiki/Kary_Mullis" title="Kary Mullis">Kary Mullis</a> / <a href="/wiki/Michael_Smith_(chemist)" title="Michael Smith (chemist)">Michael Smith</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">1994: <a href="/wiki/George_Andrew_Olah" title="George Andrew Olah">George Olah</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">1995: <a href="/wiki/Paul_J._Crutzen" title="Paul J. Crutzen">Paul J. Crutzen</a> / <a href="/wiki/Mario_Molina" title="Mario Molina">Mario Molina</a> / <a href="/wiki/F._Sherwood_Rowland" title="F. Sherwood Rowland">F. Sherwood Rowland</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">1996: <a href="/wiki/Robert_Curl" title="Robert Curl">Robert Curl</a> / <a href="/wiki/Harry_Kroto" title="Harry Kroto">Harold Kroto</a> / <a href="/wiki/Richard_Smalley" title="Richard Smalley">Richard Smalley</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">1997: <a href="/wiki/Paul_D._Boyer" title="Paul D. Boyer">Paul D. Boyer</a> / <a href="/wiki/John_E._Walker" title="John E. Walker">John E. Walker</a> / <a href="/wiki/Jens_Christian_Skou" title="Jens Christian Skou">Jens Christian Skou</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">1998: <a href="/wiki/Walter_Kohn" title="Walter Kohn">Walter Kohn</a> / <a href="/wiki/John_Pople" title="John Pople">John Pople</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">1999: <a href="/wiki/Ahmed_Zewail" title="Ahmed Zewail">Ahmed Zewail</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">2000: <a href="/wiki/Alan_J._Heeger" title="Alan J. Heeger">Alan J. Heeger</a> / <a href="/wiki/Alan_MacDiarmid" title="Alan MacDiarmid">Alan MacDiarmid</a> / <a href="/wiki/Hideki_Shirakawa" title="Hideki Shirakawa">Hideki Shirakawa</a></span></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">2001–present</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><span class="nowrap">2001: <a href="/wiki/William_Standish_Knowles" title="William Standish Knowles">William Knowles</a> / <a href="/wiki/Ry%C5%8Dji_Noyori" title="Ryōji Noyori">Ryoji Noyori</a> / <a href="/wiki/Karl_Barry_Sharpless" title="Karl Barry Sharpless">K. Barry Sharpless</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">2002: <a href="/wiki/John_B._Fenn" title="John B. Fenn">John B. Fenn</a> / <a href="/wiki/Koichi_Tanaka" title="Koichi Tanaka">Koichi Tanaka</a> / <a href="/wiki/Kurt_W%C3%BCthrich" title="Kurt Wüthrich">Kurt Wüthrich</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">2003: <a href="/wiki/Peter_Agre" title="Peter Agre">Peter Agre</a> / <a href="/wiki/Roderick_MacKinnon" title="Roderick MacKinnon">Roderick MacKinnon</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">2004: <a href="/wiki/Aaron_Ciechanover" title="Aaron Ciechanover">Aaron Ciechanover</a> / <a href="/wiki/Avram_Hershko" title="Avram Hershko">Avram Hershko</a> / <a href="/wiki/Irwin_Rose" title="Irwin Rose">Irwin Rose</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">2005: <a href="/wiki/Robert_H._Grubbs" title="Robert H. Grubbs">Robert H. Grubbs</a> / <a href="/wiki/Richard_R._Schrock" title="Richard R. Schrock">Richard R. Schrock</a> / <a href="/wiki/Yves_Chauvin" title="Yves Chauvin">Yves Chauvin</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">2006: <a href="/wiki/Roger_D._Kornberg" title="Roger D. Kornberg">Roger D. Kornberg</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">2007: <a href="/wiki/Gerhard_Ertl" title="Gerhard Ertl">Gerhard Ertl</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">2008: <a href="/wiki/Osamu_Shimomura" title="Osamu Shimomura">Osamu Shimomura</a> / <a href="/wiki/Martin_Chalfie" title="Martin Chalfie">Martin Chalfie</a> / <a href="/wiki/Roger_Y._Tsien" title="Roger Y. Tsien">Roger Y. Tsien</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">2009: <a href="/wiki/Venki_Ramakrishnan" title="Venki Ramakrishnan">Venkatraman Ramakrishnan</a> / <a href="/wiki/Thomas_A._Steitz" title="Thomas A. Steitz">Thomas A. Steitz</a> / <a href="/wiki/Ada_Yonath" title="Ada Yonath">Ada E. Yonath</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">2010: <a href="/wiki/Richard_F._Heck" title="Richard F. Heck">Richard F. Heck</a> / <a href="/wiki/Akira_Suzuki" title="Akira Suzuki">Akira Suzuki</a> / <a href="/wiki/Ei-ichi_Negishi" title="Ei-ichi Negishi">Ei-ichi Negishi</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">2011: <a href="/wiki/Dan_Shechtman" title="Dan Shechtman">Dan Shechtman</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">2012: <a href="/wiki/Robert_Lefkowitz" title="Robert Lefkowitz">Robert Lefkowitz</a> / <a href="/wiki/Brian_Kobilka" title="Brian Kobilka">Brian Kobilka</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">2013: <a href="/wiki/Martin_Karplus" title="Martin Karplus">Martin Karplus</a> / <a href="/wiki/Michael_Levitt_(biophysicist)" title="Michael Levitt (biophysicist)">Michael Levitt</a> / <a href="/wiki/Arieh_Warshel" title="Arieh Warshel">Arieh Warshel</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">2014: <a href="/wiki/Eric_Betzig" title="Eric Betzig">Eric Betzig</a> / <a href="/wiki/Stefan_Hell" title="Stefan Hell">Stefan Hell</a> / <a href="/wiki/William_E._Moerner" title="William E. Moerner">William E. Moerner</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">2015: <a href="/wiki/Tomas_Lindahl" title="Tomas Lindahl">Tomas Lindahl</a> / <a href="/wiki/Paul_L._Modrich" title="Paul L. Modrich">Paul L. Modrich</a> / <a href="/wiki/Aziz_Sancar" title="Aziz Sancar">Aziz Sancar</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">2016: <a href="/wiki/Jean-Pierre_Sauvage" title="Jean-Pierre Sauvage">Jean-Pierre Sauvage</a> / <a href="/wiki/Fraser_Stoddart" title="Fraser Stoddart">Fraser Stoddart</a> / <a href="/wiki/Ben_Feringa" title="Ben Feringa">Ben Feringa</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">2017: <a href="/wiki/Jacques_Dubochet" title="Jacques Dubochet">Jacques Dubochet</a> / <a href="/wiki/Joachim_Frank" title="Joachim Frank">Joachim Frank</a> / <a href="/wiki/Richard_Henderson_(biologist)" title="Richard Henderson (biologist)">Richard Henderson</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">2018: <a href="/wiki/Frances_Arnold" title="Frances Arnold">Frances Arnold</a> / <a href="/wiki/Gregory_Winter" title="Gregory Winter">Gregory Winter</a> / <a href="/wiki/George_Smith_(chemist)" title="George Smith (chemist)">George Smith</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">2019: <a href="/wiki/John_B._Goodenough" title="John B. Goodenough">John B. Goodenough</a> / <a href="/wiki/M._Stanley_Whittingham" title="M. Stanley Whittingham">M. Stanley Whittingham</a> / <a href="/wiki/Akira_Yoshino" title="Akira Yoshino">Akira Yoshino</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">2020: <a href="/wiki/Emmanuelle_Charpentier" title="Emmanuelle Charpentier">Emmanuelle Charpentier</a> / <a href="/wiki/Jennifer_Doudna" title="Jennifer Doudna">Jennifer Doudna</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">2021: <a href="/wiki/David_MacMillan" title="David MacMillan">David MacMillan</a> / <a href="/wiki/Benjamin_List" title="Benjamin List">Benjamin List</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">2022: <a href="/wiki/Carolyn_Bertozzi" title="Carolyn Bertozzi">Carolyn R. Bertozzi</a> / <a href="/wiki/Morten_P._Meldal" title="Morten P. Meldal">Morten P. Meldal</a> / <a href="/wiki/Karl_Barry_Sharpless" title="Karl Barry Sharpless">Karl Barry Sharpless</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">2023: <a href="/wiki/Moungi_Bawendi" title="Moungi Bawendi">Moungi G. Bawendi</a> / <a href="/wiki/Louis_E._Brus" title="Louis E. Brus">Louis E. Brus</a> / <a href="/wiki/Alexey_Ekimov" title="Alexey Ekimov">Alexei I. Ekimov</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">2024: <a href="/wiki/David_Baker_(biochemist)" title="David Baker (biochemist)">David Baker</a> / <a href="/wiki/Demis_Hassabis" title="Demis Hassabis">Demis Hassabis</a> / <a href="/wiki/John_M._Jumper" title="John M. Jumper">John M. Jumper</a></span></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r886047488">.mw-parser-output .nobold{font-weight:normal}</style></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="1958_Nobel_Prize_laureates" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:1958_Nobel_Prize_winners" title="Template:1958 Nobel Prize winners"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:1958_Nobel_Prize_winners" title="Template talk:1958 Nobel Prize winners"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:1958_Nobel_Prize_winners" title="Special:EditPage/Template:1958 Nobel Prize winners"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="1958_Nobel_Prize_laureates" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">1958 <a href="/wiki/Nobel_Prize" title="Nobel Prize">Nobel Prize</a> laureates</div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Nobel_Prize_in_Chemistry" title="Nobel Prize in Chemistry">Chemistry</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Frederick Sanger</a> (Great Britain)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Nobel_Prize_in_Literature" title="Nobel Prize in Literature">Literature</a> (<a href="/wiki/1958_Nobel_Prize_in_Literature" title="1958 Nobel Prize in Literature">1958</a>)</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Boris_Pasternak" title="Boris Pasternak">Boris Pasternak</a> (Soviet Union)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Nobel_Peace_Prize" title="Nobel Peace Prize">Peace</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Dominique_Pire" title="Dominique Pire">Dominique Pire</a> (Belgium)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Nobel_Prize_in_Physics" title="Nobel Prize in Physics">Physics</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Pavel_Cherenkov" title="Pavel Cherenkov">Pavel Cherenkov</a> (Soviet Union)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ilya_Frank" title="Ilya Frank">Ilya Frank</a> (Soviet Union)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Igor_Tamm" title="Igor Tamm">Igor Tamm</a> (Soviet Union)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Nobel_Prize_in_Physiology_or_Medicine" title="Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine">Physiology or Medicine</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/George_Beadle" title="George Beadle">George Wells Beadle</a> (United States)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Edward_Tatum" title="Edward Tatum">Edward Lawrie Tatum</a> (United States)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joshua_Lederberg" title="Joshua Lederberg">Joshua Lederberg</a> (United States)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <dl><dt><span class="nobold"><a href="/wiki/List_of_Nobel_laureates" title="List of Nobel laureates">Nobel Prize recipients</a></span></dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/Template:1953_Nobel_Prize_winners" title="Template:1953 Nobel Prize winners">1953</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Template:1954_Nobel_Prize_winners" title="Template:1954 Nobel Prize winners">1954</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Template:1955_Nobel_Prize_winners" title="Template:1955 Nobel Prize winners">1955</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Template:1956_Nobel_Prize_winners" title="Template:1956 Nobel Prize winners">1956</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Template:1957_Nobel_Prize_winners" title="Template:1957 Nobel Prize winners">1957</a></dd> <dd><b>1958 </b></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Template:1959_Nobel_Prize_winners" title="Template:1959 Nobel Prize winners">1959</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Template:1960_Nobel_Prize_winners" title="Template:1960 Nobel Prize winners">1960</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Template:1961_Nobel_Prize_winners" title="Template:1961 Nobel Prize winners">1961</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Template:1962_Nobel_Prize_winners" title="Template:1962 Nobel Prize winners">1962</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Template:1963_Nobel_Prize_winners" title="Template:1963 Nobel Prize winners">1963</a></dd></dl> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886047488"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="1980_Nobel_Prize_laureates" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:1980_Nobel_Prize_winners" title="Template:1980 Nobel Prize winners"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:1980_Nobel_Prize_winners" title="Template talk:1980 Nobel Prize winners"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:1980_Nobel_Prize_winners" title="Special:EditPage/Template:1980 Nobel Prize winners"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="1980_Nobel_Prize_laureates" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">1980 <a href="/wiki/Nobel_Prize" title="Nobel Prize">Nobel Prize</a> laureates</div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Nobel_Prize_in_Chemistry" title="Nobel Prize in Chemistry">Chemistry</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Paul_Berg" title="Paul Berg">Paul Berg</a> (United States)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Walter_Gilbert" title="Walter Gilbert">Walter Gilbert</a> (United States)</li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Frederick Sanger</a> (Great Britain)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Nobel_Prize_in_Literature" title="Nobel Prize in Literature">Literature</a> (<a href="/wiki/1980_Nobel_Prize_in_Literature" title="1980 Nobel Prize in Literature">1980</a>)</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Czes%C5%82aw_Mi%C5%82osz" title="Czesław Miłosz">Czesław Miłosz</a> (Poland/United States)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Nobel_Peace_Prize" title="Nobel Peace Prize">Peace</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Adolfo_P%C3%A9rez_Esquivel" title="Adolfo Pérez Esquivel">Adolfo Pérez Esquivel</a> (Argentina)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Nobel_Prize_in_Physics" title="Nobel Prize in Physics">Physics</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/James_Cronin" title="James Cronin">James Cronin</a> (United States)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Val_Logsdon_Fitch" title="Val Logsdon Fitch">Val Logsdon Fitch</a> (United States)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Nobel_Prize_in_Physiology_or_Medicine" title="Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine">Physiology or Medicine</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Baruj_Benacerraf" title="Baruj Benacerraf">Baruj Benacerraf</a> (United States)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jean_Dausset" title="Jean Dausset">Jean Dausset</a> (France)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/George_Davis_Snell" title="George Davis Snell">George Davis Snell</a> (United States)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Nobel_Memorial_Prize_in_Economic_Sciences" title="Nobel Memorial Prize in Economic Sciences">Economic Sciences</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Lawrence_Klein" title="Lawrence Klein">Lawrence Klein</a> (United States)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <dl><dt><span class="nobold"><a href="/wiki/List_of_Nobel_laureates" title="List of Nobel laureates">Nobel Prize recipients</a></span></dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/Template:1975_Nobel_Prize_winners" title="Template:1975 Nobel Prize winners">1975</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Template:1976_Nobel_Prize_winners" title="Template:1976 Nobel Prize winners">1976</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Template:1977_Nobel_Prize_winners" title="Template:1977 Nobel Prize winners">1977</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Template:1978_Nobel_Prize_winners" title="Template:1978 Nobel Prize winners">1978</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Template:1979_Nobel_Prize_winners" title="Template:1979 Nobel Prize winners">1979</a></dd> <dd><b>1980 </b></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Template:1981_Nobel_Prize_winners" title="Template:1981 Nobel Prize winners">1981</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Template:1982_Nobel_Prize_winners" title="Template:1982 Nobel Prize winners">1982</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Template:1983_Nobel_Prize_winners" title="Template:1983 Nobel Prize winners">1983</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Template:1984_Nobel_Prize_winners" title="Template:1984 Nobel Prize winners">1984</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Template:1985_Nobel_Prize_winners" title="Template:1985 Nobel Prize winners">1985</a></dd></dl> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Copley_Medallists_(1951–2000)" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Copley_Medallists_1951%E2%80%932000" title="Template:Copley Medallists 1951–2000"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Copley_Medallists_1951%E2%80%932000" title="Template talk:Copley Medallists 1951–2000"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Copley_Medallists_1951%E2%80%932000" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Copley Medallists 1951–2000"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Copley_Medallists_(1951–2000)" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Copley_Medal" title="Copley Medal">Copley Medallists</a> (1951–2000)</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/David_Keilin" title="David Keilin">David Keilin</a> (1951)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Paul_Dirac" title="Paul Dirac">Paul Dirac</a> (1952)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Albert_Kluyver" title="Albert Kluyver">Albert Kluyver</a> (1953)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/E._T._Whittaker" title="E. T. Whittaker">E. T. Whittaker</a> (1954)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Ronald_Fisher" title="Ronald Fisher">Ronald Fisher</a> (1955)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Patrick_Blackett" title="Patrick Blackett">Patrick Blackett</a> (1956)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Howard_Florey" title="Howard Florey">Howard Florey</a> (1957)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/John_Edensor_Littlewood" title="John Edensor Littlewood">John Edensor Littlewood</a> (1958)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Macfarlane_Burnet" title="Macfarlane Burnet">Macfarlane Burnet</a> (1959)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Harold_Jeffreys" title="Harold Jeffreys">Harold Jeffreys</a> (1960)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Hans_Krebs_(biochemist)" title="Hans Krebs (biochemist)">Hans Krebs</a> (1961)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Cyril_Norman_Hinshelwood" class="mw-redirect" title="Cyril Norman Hinshelwood">Cyril Norman Hinshelwood</a> (1962)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Paul_Fildes" title="Paul Fildes">Paul Fildes</a> (1963)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Sydney_Chapman_(mathematician)" title="Sydney Chapman (mathematician)">Sydney Chapman</a> (1964)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Alan_Hodgkin" title="Alan Hodgkin">Alan Hodgkin</a> (1965)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Lawrence_Bragg" title="Lawrence Bragg">Lawrence Bragg</a> (1966)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Bernard_Katz" title="Bernard Katz">Bernard Katz</a> (1967)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Tadeusz_Reichstein" title="Tadeusz Reichstein">Tadeusz Reichstein</a> (1968)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Peter_Medawar" title="Peter Medawar">Peter Medawar</a> (1969)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Alexander_R._Todd" class="mw-redirect" title="Alexander R. Todd">Alexander R. Todd</a> (1970)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Norman_Pirie" title="Norman Pirie">Norman Pirie</a> (1971)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Nevill_Francis_Mott" title="Nevill Francis Mott">Nevill Francis Mott</a> (1972)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Andrew_Huxley" title="Andrew Huxley">Andrew Huxley</a> (1973)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/W._V._D._Hodge" title="W. V. D. Hodge">W. V. D. Hodge</a> (1974)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Francis_Crick" title="Francis Crick">Francis Crick</a> (1975)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Dorothy_Hodgkin" title="Dorothy Hodgkin">Dorothy Hodgkin</a> (1976)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Frederick Sanger</a> (1977)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Robert_Burns_Woodward" title="Robert Burns Woodward">Robert Burns Woodward</a> (1978)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Max_Perutz" title="Max Perutz">Max Perutz</a> (1979)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Derek_Barton" title="Derek Barton">Derek Barton</a> (1980)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Peter_D._Mitchell" title="Peter D. Mitchell">Peter D. Mitchell</a> (1981)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/John_Cornforth" title="John Cornforth">John Cornforth</a> (1982)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Rodney_Robert_Porter" class="mw-redirect" title="Rodney Robert Porter">Rodney Robert Porter</a> (1983)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Subrahmanyan_Chandrasekhar" title="Subrahmanyan Chandrasekhar">Subrahmanyan Chandrasekhar</a> (1984)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Aaron_Klug" title="Aaron Klug">Aaron Klug</a> (1985)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Rudolf_Peierls" title="Rudolf Peierls">Rudolf Peierls</a> (1986)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Robin_Hill_(biochemist)" title="Robin Hill (biochemist)">Robin Hill</a> (1987)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Michael_Atiyah" title="Michael Atiyah">Michael Atiyah</a> (1988)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/C%C3%A9sar_Milstein" title="César Milstein">César Milstein</a> (1989)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Abdus_Salam" title="Abdus Salam">Abdus Salam</a> (1990)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Sydney_Brenner" title="Sydney Brenner">Sydney Brenner</a> (1991)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/George_Porter" title="George Porter">George Porter</a> (1992)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/James_Watson" title="James Watson">James D. Watson</a> (1993)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Frederick_Charles_Frank" title="Frederick Charles Frank">Frederick Charles Frank</a> (1994)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Frank_Fenner" title="Frank Fenner">Frank Fenner</a> (1995)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Alan_Cottrell" title="Alan Cottrell">Alan Cottrell</a> (1996)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Hugh_Huxley" title="Hugh Huxley">Hugh Huxley</a> (1997)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/James_Lighthill" title="James Lighthill">James Lighthill</a> (1998)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/John_Maynard_Smith" title="John Maynard Smith">John Maynard Smith</a> (1999)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Alan_R._Battersby" title="Alan R. Battersby">Alan Battersby</a> (2000)</span></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="World_Constitutional_Convention_call_signatories" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:World_Constitutional_Convention_call_signatories" title="Template:World Constitutional Convention call signatories"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:World_Constitutional_Convention_call_signatories" title="Template talk:World Constitutional Convention call signatories"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:World_Constitutional_Convention_call_signatories" title="Special:EditPage/Template:World Constitutional Convention call signatories"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="World_Constitutional_Convention_call_signatories" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/World_Constitutional_Convention" title="World Constitutional Convention">World Constitutional Convention</a> <a href="/wiki/World_Constitutional_Convention_call" class="mw-redirect" title="World Constitutional Convention call">call</a> signatories</div></th></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><span class="nowrap"> <b><a href="/wiki/Constitution_for_the_Federation_of_Earth" class="mw-redirect" title="Constitution for the Federation of Earth">Constitution for the Federation of Earth</a></b> </span></li></ul> <dl><dd></dd></dl> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/World_Constitution_Coordinating_Committee" title="World Constitution Coordinating Committee">World Constitution Coordinating Committee</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thane_Read" title="Thane Read">Thane Read</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philip_Isely" title="Philip Isely">Philip Isely</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Margaret_Isely" title="Margaret Isely">Margaret Isely</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Georgia_Lloyd" title="Georgia Lloyd">Georgia Lloyd</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/List_of_countries" class="mw-redirect" title="List of countries">Countries</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f2/Flag_of_Costa_Rica.svg/23px-Flag_of_Costa_Rica.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="14" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f2/Flag_of_Costa_Rica.svg/35px-Flag_of_Costa_Rica.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f2/Flag_of_Costa_Rica.svg/46px-Flag_of_Costa_Rica.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1000" data-file-height="600" /></span></span> </span><a href="/wiki/Costa_Rica" title="Costa Rica">Costa Rica</a></li> <li><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/32/Flag_of_Pakistan.svg/23px-Flag_of_Pakistan.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/32/Flag_of_Pakistan.svg/35px-Flag_of_Pakistan.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/32/Flag_of_Pakistan.svg/45px-Flag_of_Pakistan.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /></span></span> </span><a href="/wiki/Pakistan" title="Pakistan">Pakistan</a></li> <li><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fd/Flag_of_Senegal.svg/23px-Flag_of_Senegal.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fd/Flag_of_Senegal.svg/35px-Flag_of_Senegal.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fd/Flag_of_Senegal.svg/45px-Flag_of_Senegal.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /></span></span> </span><a href="/wiki/Senegal" title="Senegal">Senegal</a></li> <li><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/17/Flag_of_Sierra_Leone.svg/23px-Flag_of_Sierra_Leone.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/17/Flag_of_Sierra_Leone.svg/35px-Flag_of_Sierra_Leone.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/17/Flag_of_Sierra_Leone.svg/45px-Flag_of_Sierra_Leone.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /></span></span> </span><a href="/wiki/Sierra_Leone" title="Sierra Leone">Sierra Leone</a></li> <li><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/38/Flag_of_Tanzania.svg/23px-Flag_of_Tanzania.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/38/Flag_of_Tanzania.svg/35px-Flag_of_Tanzania.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/38/Flag_of_Tanzania.svg/45px-Flag_of_Tanzania.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /></span></span> </span><a href="/wiki/Tanzania" title="Tanzania">Tanzania</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Head_of_government" title="Head of government">Head of governments</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Lists_of_presidents" title="Lists of presidents">Presidents</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/France" title="France"><img alt="France" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/c/c3/Flag_of_France.svg/23px-Flag_of_France.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/c/c3/Flag_of_France.svg/35px-Flag_of_France.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/c/c3/Flag_of_France.svg/45px-Flag_of_France.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /></a></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Edgar_Faure" title="Edgar Faure">Edgar Faure</a></li> <li><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/Costa_Rica" title="Costa Rica"><img alt="Costa Rica" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f2/Flag_of_Costa_Rica.svg/23px-Flag_of_Costa_Rica.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="14" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f2/Flag_of_Costa_Rica.svg/35px-Flag_of_Costa_Rica.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f2/Flag_of_Costa_Rica.svg/46px-Flag_of_Costa_Rica.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1000" data-file-height="600" /></a></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Francisco_Orlich_Bolmarcich" title="Francisco Orlich Bolmarcich">Francisco Orlich Bolmarcich</a></li> <li><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/Costa_Rica" title="Costa Rica"><img alt="Costa Rica" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f2/Flag_of_Costa_Rica.svg/23px-Flag_of_Costa_Rica.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="14" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f2/Flag_of_Costa_Rica.svg/35px-Flag_of_Costa_Rica.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f2/Flag_of_Costa_Rica.svg/46px-Flag_of_Costa_Rica.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1000" data-file-height="600" /></a></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Jos%C3%A9_Figueres_Ferrer" title="José Figueres Ferrer">José Figueres Ferrer</a></li> <li><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/Tanzania" title="Tanzania"><img alt="Tanzania" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/38/Flag_of_Tanzania.svg/23px-Flag_of_Tanzania.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/38/Flag_of_Tanzania.svg/35px-Flag_of_Tanzania.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/38/Flag_of_Tanzania.svg/45px-Flag_of_Tanzania.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /></a></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Julius_Nyerere" title="Julius Nyerere">Julius Nyerere</a></li> <li><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/Senegal" title="Senegal"><img alt="Senegal" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fd/Flag_of_Senegal.svg/23px-Flag_of_Senegal.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fd/Flag_of_Senegal.svg/35px-Flag_of_Senegal.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fd/Flag_of_Senegal.svg/45px-Flag_of_Senegal.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /></a></span></span> <a href="/wiki/L%C3%A9opold_S%C3%A9dar_Senghor" title="Léopold Sédar Senghor">Léopold Sédar Senghor</a></li> <li><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/Pakistan" title="Pakistan"><img alt="Pakistan" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/32/Flag_of_Pakistan.svg/23px-Flag_of_Pakistan.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/32/Flag_of_Pakistan.svg/35px-Flag_of_Pakistan.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/32/Flag_of_Pakistan.svg/45px-Flag_of_Pakistan.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /></a></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Ayub_Khan" title="Ayub Khan">Muhammad Ayub Khan</a></li> <li><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/Costa_Rica" title="Costa Rica"><img alt="Costa Rica" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f2/Flag_of_Costa_Rica.svg/23px-Flag_of_Costa_Rica.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="14" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f2/Flag_of_Costa_Rica.svg/35px-Flag_of_Costa_Rica.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f2/Flag_of_Costa_Rica.svg/46px-Flag_of_Costa_Rica.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1000" data-file-height="600" /></a></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Otilio_Ulate_Blanco" title="Otilio Ulate Blanco">Otilio Ulate Blanco</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Vice-presidents</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/Kenya" title="Kenya"><img alt="Kenya" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/49/Flag_of_Kenya.svg/23px-Flag_of_Kenya.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/49/Flag_of_Kenya.svg/35px-Flag_of_Kenya.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/49/Flag_of_Kenya.svg/45px-Flag_of_Kenya.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /></a></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Jaramogi_Oginga_Odinga" title="Jaramogi Oginga Odinga">Jaramogi Oginga Odinga</a></li> <li class="mw-empty-elt"></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Prime_Ministers" class="mw-redirect" title="Prime Ministers">Prime Ministers</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/United_Kingdom" title="United Kingdom"><img alt="United Kingdom" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/a/ae/Flag_of_the_United_Kingdom.svg/23px-Flag_of_the_United_Kingdom.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="12" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/a/ae/Flag_of_the_United_Kingdom.svg/35px-Flag_of_the_United_Kingdom.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/a/ae/Flag_of_the_United_Kingdom.svg/46px-Flag_of_the_United_Kingdom.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1200" data-file-height="600" /></a></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Clement_Attlee" title="Clement Attlee">Clement Attlee</a></li> <li><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/Sierra_Leone" title="Sierra Leone"><img alt="Sierra Leone" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/17/Flag_of_Sierra_Leone.svg/23px-Flag_of_Sierra_Leone.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/17/Flag_of_Sierra_Leone.svg/35px-Flag_of_Sierra_Leone.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/17/Flag_of_Sierra_Leone.svg/45px-Flag_of_Sierra_Leone.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /></a></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Milton_Margai" title="Milton Margai">Milton Margai</a></li> <li><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/Japan" title="Japan"><img alt="Japan" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/9e/Flag_of_Japan.svg/23px-Flag_of_Japan.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/9e/Flag_of_Japan.svg/35px-Flag_of_Japan.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/9e/Flag_of_Japan.svg/45px-Flag_of_Japan.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /></a></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Tetsu_Katayama" title="Tetsu Katayama">Tetsu Katayama</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Governors" class="mw-redirect" title="Governors">Governors</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/California" title="California"><img alt="California" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/01/Flag_of_California.svg/23px-Flag_of_California.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/01/Flag_of_California.svg/35px-Flag_of_California.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/01/Flag_of_California.svg/45px-Flag_of_California.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /></a></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Culbert_Olson" title="Culbert Olson">Culbert Olson</a></li> <li><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/Hiroshima_Prefecture" title="Hiroshima Prefecture"><img alt="Hiroshima Prefecture" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ed/Flag_of_Hiroshima_Prefecture.svg/23px-Flag_of_Hiroshima_Prefecture.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ed/Flag_of_Hiroshima_Prefecture.svg/35px-Flag_of_Hiroshima_Prefecture.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ed/Flag_of_Hiroshima_Prefecture.svg/45px-Flag_of_Hiroshima_Prefecture.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /></a></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Hiroo_%C5%8Chara" title="Hiroo Ōhara">Hiroo Ōhara</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Mayors" class="mw-redirect" title="Mayors">Mayors</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/Greater_Accra_Region" title="Greater Accra Region"><img alt="Greater Accra Region" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9b/Flag_of_Greater_Accra_Region.svg/23px-Flag_of_Greater_Accra_Region.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9b/Flag_of_Greater_Accra_Region.svg/35px-Flag_of_Greater_Accra_Region.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9b/Flag_of_Greater_Accra_Region.svg/45px-Flag_of_Greater_Accra_Region.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="304" data-file-height="202" /></a></span></span> <a href="/wiki/E.C._Quaye" class="mw-redirect" title="E.C. Quaye">E.C. Quaye</a></li> <li><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/Hiroshima_Prefecture" title="Hiroshima Prefecture"><img alt="Hiroshima Prefecture" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ed/Flag_of_Hiroshima_Prefecture.svg/23px-Flag_of_Hiroshima_Prefecture.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ed/Flag_of_Hiroshima_Prefecture.svg/35px-Flag_of_Hiroshima_Prefecture.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ed/Flag_of_Hiroshima_Prefecture.svg/45px-Flag_of_Hiroshima_Prefecture.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /></a></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Setsuo_Yamada" title="Setsuo Yamada">Setsuo Yamada</a></li> <li><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/Hiroshima_Prefecture" title="Hiroshima Prefecture"><img alt="Hiroshima Prefecture" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ed/Flag_of_Hiroshima_Prefecture.svg/23px-Flag_of_Hiroshima_Prefecture.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ed/Flag_of_Hiroshima_Prefecture.svg/35px-Flag_of_Hiroshima_Prefecture.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ed/Flag_of_Hiroshima_Prefecture.svg/45px-Flag_of_Hiroshima_Prefecture.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /></a></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Shinzo_Hamai" title="Shinzo Hamai">Shinzo Hamai</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Politicians" class="mw-redirect" title="Politicians">Politicians</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">International</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b7/Flag_of_Europe.svg/23px-Flag_of_Europe.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b7/Flag_of_Europe.svg/35px-Flag_of_Europe.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b7/Flag_of_Europe.svg/45px-Flag_of_Europe.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="810" data-file-height="540" /></span></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Cornelis_Berkhouwer" title="Cornelis Berkhouwer">Cornelis Berkhouwer</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">National</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/Pakistan" title="Pakistan"><img alt="Pakistan" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/32/Flag_of_Pakistan.svg/23px-Flag_of_Pakistan.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/32/Flag_of_Pakistan.svg/35px-Flag_of_Pakistan.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/32/Flag_of_Pakistan.svg/45px-Flag_of_Pakistan.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /></a></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Ahmed_Ebrahim_Haroon_Jaffer" class="mw-redirect" title="Ahmed Ebrahim Haroon Jaffer">Ahmed Ebrahim Haroon Jaffer</a></li> <li><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/Japan" title="Japan"><img alt="Japan" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/9e/Flag_of_Japan.svg/23px-Flag_of_Japan.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/9e/Flag_of_Japan.svg/35px-Flag_of_Japan.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/9e/Flag_of_Japan.svg/45px-Flag_of_Japan.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /></a></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Akira_Kazami" title="Akira Kazami">Akira Kazami</a></li> <li><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/India" title="India"><img alt="India" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/41/Flag_of_India.svg/23px-Flag_of_India.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/41/Flag_of_India.svg/35px-Flag_of_India.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/41/Flag_of_India.svg/45px-Flag_of_India.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /></a></span></span> <a href="/wiki/B._Satya_Narayan_Reddy" title="B. Satya Narayan Reddy">B. Satya Narayan Reddy</a></li> <li><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/Japan" title="Japan"><img alt="Japan" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/9e/Flag_of_Japan.svg/23px-Flag_of_Japan.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/9e/Flag_of_Japan.svg/35px-Flag_of_Japan.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/9e/Flag_of_Japan.svg/45px-Flag_of_Japan.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /></a></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Chiyo_Sakakibara" title="Chiyo Sakakibara">Chiyo Sakakibara</a></li> <li><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/India" title="India"><img alt="India" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/41/Flag_of_India.svg/23px-Flag_of_India.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/41/Flag_of_India.svg/35px-Flag_of_India.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/41/Flag_of_India.svg/45px-Flag_of_India.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /></a></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Diwan_Chaman_Lall" title="Diwan Chaman Lall">Diwan Chaman Lall</a></li> <li><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/Mexico" title="Mexico"><img alt="Mexico" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fc/Flag_of_Mexico.svg/23px-Flag_of_Mexico.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="13" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fc/Flag_of_Mexico.svg/35px-Flag_of_Mexico.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fc/Flag_of_Mexico.svg/46px-Flag_of_Mexico.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="980" data-file-height="560" /></a></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Ezequiel_Padilla_Pe%C3%B1aloza" title="Ezequiel Padilla Peñaloza">Ezequiel Padilla Peñaloza</a></li> <li><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/Germany" title="Germany"><img alt="Germany" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/b/ba/Flag_of_Germany.svg/23px-Flag_of_Germany.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="14" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/b/ba/Flag_of_Germany.svg/35px-Flag_of_Germany.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/b/ba/Flag_of_Germany.svg/46px-Flag_of_Germany.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1000" data-file-height="600" /></a></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Gerhard_Jahn" title="Gerhard Jahn">Gerhard Jahn</a></li> <li><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/Japan" title="Japan"><img alt="Japan" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/9e/Flag_of_Japan.svg/23px-Flag_of_Japan.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/9e/Flag_of_Japan.svg/35px-Flag_of_Japan.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/9e/Flag_of_Japan.svg/45px-Flag_of_Japan.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /></a></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Hisato_Ichimada" title="Hisato Ichimada">Hisato Ichimada</a></li> <li><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/United_Kingdom" title="United Kingdom"><img alt="United Kingdom" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/a/ae/Flag_of_the_United_Kingdom.svg/23px-Flag_of_the_United_Kingdom.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="12" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/a/ae/Flag_of_the_United_Kingdom.svg/35px-Flag_of_the_United_Kingdom.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/a/ae/Flag_of_the_United_Kingdom.svg/46px-Flag_of_the_United_Kingdom.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1200" data-file-height="600" /></a></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Henry_Usborne" title="Henry Usborne">Henry Usborne</a></li> <li><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/Japan" title="Japan"><img alt="Japan" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/9e/Flag_of_Japan.svg/23px-Flag_of_Japan.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/9e/Flag_of_Japan.svg/35px-Flag_of_Japan.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/9e/Flag_of_Japan.svg/45px-Flag_of_Japan.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /></a></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Ichir%C5%8D_Kiyose" title="Ichirō Kiyose">Ichirō Kiyose</a></li> <li><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/India" title="India"><img alt="India" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/41/Flag_of_India.svg/23px-Flag_of_India.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/41/Flag_of_India.svg/35px-Flag_of_India.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/41/Flag_of_India.svg/45px-Flag_of_India.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /></a></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Inder_Kumar_Gujral" title="Inder Kumar Gujral">Inder Kumar Gujral</a></li> <li><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/France" title="France"><img alt="France" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/c/c3/Flag_of_France.svg/23px-Flag_of_France.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/c/c3/Flag_of_France.svg/35px-Flag_of_France.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/c/c3/Flag_of_France.svg/45px-Flag_of_France.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /></a></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Ir%C3%A8ne_de_Lipkowski" title="Irène de Lipkowski">Irène de Lipkowski</a></li> <li><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/United_Kingdom" title="United Kingdom"><img alt="United Kingdom" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/a/ae/Flag_of_the_United_Kingdom.svg/23px-Flag_of_the_United_Kingdom.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="12" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/a/ae/Flag_of_the_United_Kingdom.svg/35px-Flag_of_the_United_Kingdom.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/a/ae/Flag_of_the_United_Kingdom.svg/46px-Flag_of_the_United_Kingdom.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1200" data-file-height="600" /></a></span></span> <a href="/wiki/John_Foster_(MP_for_Northwich)" title="John Foster (MP for Northwich)">John Foster</a></li> <li><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/India" title="India"><img alt="India" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/41/Flag_of_India.svg/23px-Flag_of_India.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/41/Flag_of_India.svg/35px-Flag_of_India.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/41/Flag_of_India.svg/45px-Flag_of_India.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /></a></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Kanaiyalal_Maneklal_Munshi" title="Kanaiyalal Maneklal Munshi">Kanaiyalal Maneklal Munshi</a></li> <li><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/Japan" title="Japan"><img alt="Japan" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/9e/Flag_of_Japan.svg/23px-Flag_of_Japan.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/9e/Flag_of_Japan.svg/35px-Flag_of_Japan.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/9e/Flag_of_Japan.svg/45px-Flag_of_Japan.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /></a></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Kenz%C5%8D_Matsumura" title="Kenzō Matsumura">Kenzō Matsumura</a></li> <li><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/Ghana" title="Ghana"><img alt="Ghana" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/19/Flag_of_Ghana.svg/23px-Flag_of_Ghana.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/19/Flag_of_Ghana.svg/35px-Flag_of_Ghana.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/19/Flag_of_Ghana.svg/45px-Flag_of_Ghana.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /></a></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Komla_Agbeli_Gbedemah" title="Komla Agbeli Gbedemah">Komla Agbeli Gbedemah</a></li> <li><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/United_Kingdom" title="United Kingdom"><img alt="United Kingdom" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/a/ae/Flag_of_the_United_Kingdom.svg/23px-Flag_of_the_United_Kingdom.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="12" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/a/ae/Flag_of_the_United_Kingdom.svg/35px-Flag_of_the_United_Kingdom.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/a/ae/Flag_of_the_United_Kingdom.svg/46px-Flag_of_the_United_Kingdom.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1200" data-file-height="600" /></a></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Lewis_Silkin,_1st_Baron_Silkin" title="Lewis Silkin, 1st Baron Silkin">Lewis Silkin</a></li> <li><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/India" title="India"><img alt="India" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/41/Flag_of_India.svg/23px-Flag_of_India.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/41/Flag_of_India.svg/35px-Flag_of_India.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/41/Flag_of_India.svg/45px-Flag_of_India.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /></a></span></span> <a href="/wiki/N._G._Ranga" title="N. G. Ranga">N. G. Ranga</a></li> <li><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/Brazil" title="Brazil"><img alt="Brazil" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/0/05/Flag_of_Brazil.svg/22px-Flag_of_Brazil.svg.png" decoding="async" width="22" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/0/05/Flag_of_Brazil.svg/33px-Flag_of_Brazil.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/0/05/Flag_of_Brazil.svg/43px-Flag_of_Brazil.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1000" data-file-height="700" /></a></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Pascoal_Ranieri_Mazzilli" title="Pascoal Ranieri Mazzilli">Pascoal Ranieri Mazzilli</a></li> <li><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/Scotland" title="Scotland"><img alt="Scotland" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/10/Flag_of_Scotland.svg/23px-Flag_of_Scotland.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="14" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/10/Flag_of_Scotland.svg/35px-Flag_of_Scotland.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/10/Flag_of_Scotland.svg/46px-Flag_of_Scotland.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1000" data-file-height="600" /></a></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Patrick_Wolrige-Gordon" title="Patrick Wolrige-Gordon">Patrick Wolrige-Gordon</a></li> <li><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/United_Kingdom" title="United Kingdom"><img alt="United Kingdom" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/a/ae/Flag_of_the_United_Kingdom.svg/23px-Flag_of_the_United_Kingdom.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="12" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/a/ae/Flag_of_the_United_Kingdom.svg/35px-Flag_of_the_United_Kingdom.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/a/ae/Flag_of_the_United_Kingdom.svg/46px-Flag_of_the_United_Kingdom.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1200" data-file-height="600" /></a></span></span> <a href="/wiki/William_Beveridge" title="William Beveridge">William Beveridge</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Religious_leader" class="mw-redirect" title="Religious leader">Religious leaders</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Abb%C3%A9_Pierre" title="Abbé Pierre">Abbé Pierre</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dana_McLean_Greeley" title="Dana McLean Greeley">Dana McLean Greeley</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/George_MacLeod" title="George MacLeod">George MacLeod</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Collins_(priest)" title="John Collins (priest)">John Collins</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Martin_Niem%C3%B6ller" title="Martin Niemöller">Martin Niemöller</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Michael_Scott_(priest)" title="Michael Scott (priest)">Michael Scott</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/List_of_Nobel_laureates" title="List of Nobel laureates">Nobel laureates</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Physics</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Alfred_Kastler" title="Alfred Kastler">Alfred Kastler</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/C._F._Powell" title="C. F. Powell">C. F. Powell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hideki_Yukawa" title="Hideki Yukawa">Hideki Yukawa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Max_Born" title="Max Born">Max Born</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Chemistry</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Frederick Sanger</a> <small>(twice)</small></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Otto_Hahn" title="Otto Hahn">Otto Hahn</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Physiology or Medicine</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Albert_Szent-Gy%C3%B6rgyi" title="Albert Szent-Györgyi">Albert Szent-Györgyi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dickinson_W._Richards" title="Dickinson W. Richards">Dickinson W. Richards</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hermann_Joseph_Muller" title="Hermann Joseph Muller">Hermann Joseph Muller</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Macfarlane_Burnet" title="Macfarlane Burnet">Macfarlane Burnet</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Literature</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bertrand_Russell" title="Bertrand Russell">Bertrand Russell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Salvatore_Quasimodo" title="Salvatore Quasimodo">Salvatore Quasimodo</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Peace</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/John_Boyd_Orr" title="John Boyd Orr">John Boyd Orr</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joseph_Rotblat" title="Joseph Rotblat">Joseph Rotblat</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Multiple</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Linus_Pauling" title="Linus Pauling">Linus Pauling</a> <small>(Chemistry & Peace)</small></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Scientists" class="mw-redirect" title="Scientists">Scientists</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Charles_C._Price" title="Charles C. Price">Charles C. Price</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Edward_Condon" title="Edward Condon">Edward Condon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Edris_Rice-Wray_Carson" title="Edris Rice-Wray Carson">Edris Rice-Wray Carson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Harlow_Shapley" title="Harlow Shapley">Harlow Shapley</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jean_Orcel" title="Jean Orcel">Jean Orcel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pitirim_Sorokin" title="Pitirim Sorokin">Pitirim Sorokin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Priyadaranjan_Ray" title="Priyadaranjan Ray">Priyadaranjan Ray</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ren%C3%A9_Dumont" title="René Dumont">René Dumont</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wilder_Penfield" title="Wilder Penfield">Wilder Penfield</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Human_rights_activists" class="mw-redirect" title="Human rights activists">Human rights activists</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Martin_Luther_King_Jr." title="Martin Luther King Jr.">Martin Luther King Jr.</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Humanitarians" class="mw-redirect" title="Humanitarians">Humanitarians</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Andr%C3%A9_and_Magda_Trocm%C3%A9" title="André and Magda Trocmé">André and Magda Trocmé</a> <small>(Righteous Among the Nations)</small></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Brock_Chisholm" title="Brock Chisholm">Brock Chisholm</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Veterans" class="mw-redirect" title="Veterans">Veterans</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hugh_B._Hester" title="Hugh B. Hester">Hugh B. Hester</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Varied Fields</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Arthur_Ernest_Bishop" title="Arthur Ernest Bishop">Arthur Ernest Bishop</a> <small>(inventor)</small></li> <li><a href="/wiki/David_Alfaro_Siqueiros" title="David Alfaro Siqueiros">David Alfaro Siqueiros</a> <small>(Social realist)</small></li> <li><a href="/wiki/E._M._L._Odjidja" title="E. M. L. Odjidja">E. M. L. Odjidja</a> <small>(teacher)</small></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Edward_J._Sparling" title="Edward J. Sparling">Edward J. Sparling</a> <small>(educator)</small></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Erich_Kahler" title="Erich Kahler">Erich Kahler</a> <small>(scholar)</small></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gregorio_Bermann" title="Gregorio Bermann">Gregorio Bermann</a> <small>(humanist)</small></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gerard_Piel" title="Gerard Piel">Gerard Piel</a> <small>(science editor)</small></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Henri_Laugier" title="Henri Laugier">Henri Laugier</a> <small>(scholar)</small></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hugh_J._Schonfield" title="Hugh J. Schonfield">Hugh J. Schonfield</a> <small>(scholar & pacifist)</small></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kaoru_%C5%8Cta" title="Kaoru Ōta">Kaoru Ōta</a> <small>(union leader)</small></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kay_Boyle" title="Kay Boyle">Kay Boyle</a> <small>(writer)</small></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lloyd_Morain" title="Lloyd Morain">Lloyd Morain</a> <small>(humanist)</small></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mark_Van_Doren" title="Mark Van Doren">Mark Van Doren</a> <small>(writer & scholar)</small></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maur%C3%ADcio_Campos_de_Medeiros" title="Maurício Campos de Medeiros">Maurício Campos de Medeiros</a> <small>(teacher)</small></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oscar_Niemeyer" title="Oscar Niemeyer">Oscar Niemeyer</a> <small>(architect)</small></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%C5%8Cuchi_Hy%C5%8Dei" title="Ōuchi Hyōei">Ōuchi Hyōei</a> <small>(economist)</small></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rameshwari_Nehru" title="Rameshwari Nehru">Rameshwari Nehru</a> <small>(social worker)</small></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Satish_Gujral" title="Satish Gujral">Satish Gujral</a> <small>(artist)</small></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shigeri_Yamataka" title="Shigeri Yamataka">Shigeri Yamataka</a> <small>(feminist)</small></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sophia_Wadia" title="Sophia Wadia">Sophia Wadia</a> <small>(theosophist)</small></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stanley_Slotkin" title="Stanley Slotkin">Stanley Slotkin</a> <small>(businessman)</small></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stuart_Hall_(cultural_theorist)" title="Stuart Hall (cultural theorist)">Stuart Hall</a> <small>(cultural theorist)</small></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tamaki_Uemura" title="Tamaki Uemura">Tamaki Uemura</a> <small>(<a href="/wiki/YWCA" title="YWCA">YWCA</a> executive)</small></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tano_J%C5%8Ddai" title="Tano Jōdai">Tano Jōdai</a> <small>(teacher & pacifist)</small></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Toyohiko_Kagawa" title="Toyohiko Kagawa">Toyohiko Kagawa</a> <small>(pacifist)</small></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Related</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/World_Committee_for_a_World_Constitutional_Convention" class="mw-redirect" title="World Committee for a World Constitutional Convention">World Committee for a World Constitutional Convention</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Provisional_World_Parliament" title="Provisional World Parliament">Provisional World Parliament</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Other</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/World_constitution" title="World constitution">World constitution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/World_government" title="World government">World government</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/World_federalism" class="mw-redirect" title="World federalism">World federalism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li>Source: <a rel="nofollow" class="external autonumber" href="https://www.afb.org/HelenKellerArchive?a=d&d=A-HK01-07-B154-F05-028.1.4">[1]</a>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external autonumber" href="https://www.afb.org/HelenKellerArchive?a=d&d=A-HK01-07-B149-F04-022.1.3">[2]</a>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external autonumber" href="https://www.afb.org/HelenKellerArchive?a=d&d=A-HK01-07-B149-F04-022.1.8">[3]</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external autonumber" href="https://books.google.com/books/about/Emerging_World_Law.html?id=Qw-IOgAACAAJ">[4]</a></li> <li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Category"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/23px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/31px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Category:World_Constitutional_Convention_call_signatories" title="Category:World Constitutional Convention call signatories">Category</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1130092004">.mw-parser-output .portal-bar{font-size:88%;font-weight:bold;display:flex;justify-content:center;align-items:baseline}.mw-parser-output .portal-bar-bordered{padding:0 2em;background-color:#fdfdfd;border:1px solid #a2a9b1;clear:both;margin:1em auto 0}.mw-parser-output .portal-bar-related{font-size:100%;justify-content:flex-start}.mw-parser-output .portal-bar-unbordered{padding:0 1.7em;margin-left:0}.mw-parser-output .portal-bar-header{margin:0 1em 0 0.5em;flex:0 0 auto;min-height:24px}.mw-parser-output .portal-bar-content{display:flex;flex-flow:row 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.navbox+link+.portal-bar-bordered,.mw-parser-output .navbox+style+.portal-bar-bordered,.mw-parser-output .sister-bar+link+.portal-bar,.mw-parser-output .sister-bar+style+.portal-bar,.mw-parser-output .portal-bar+.navbox-styles+.navbox,.mw-parser-output .portal-bar+.navbox-styles+.sister-bar{margin-top:-1px}</style><div class="portal-bar noprint metadata noviewer portal-bar-bordered" role="navigation" aria-label="Portals"><span class="portal-bar-header"><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Contents/Portals" title="Wikipedia:Contents/Portals">Portals</a>:</span><ul class="portal-bar-content"><li class="portal-bar-item"><span class="nowrap"><span typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/6/69/P_vip.svg/19px-P_vip.svg.png" decoding="async" width="19" height="19" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/6/69/P_vip.svg/28px-P_vip.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/6/69/P_vip.svg/37px-P_vip.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1911" data-file-height="1944" /></span></span> </span><a href="/wiki/Portal:Biography" title="Portal:Biography">Biography</a></li><li class="portal-bar-item"><span class="nowrap"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Issoria_lathonia.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="icon" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2d/Issoria_lathonia.jpg/21px-Issoria_lathonia.jpg" decoding="async" width="21" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2d/Issoria_lathonia.jpg/32px-Issoria_lathonia.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2d/Issoria_lathonia.jpg/42px-Issoria_lathonia.jpg 2x" data-file-width="629" data-file-height="445" /></a></span> </span><a href="/wiki/Portal:Biology" title="Portal:Biology">Biology</a></li><li class="portal-bar-item"><span class="nowrap"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Sida-aids.png" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="icon" 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class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Authority_control_databases_frameless&#124;text-top&#124;10px&#124;alt=Edit_this_at_Wikidata&#124;link=https&#58;//www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q151564#identifiers&#124;class=noprint&#124;Edit_this_at_Wikidata" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Help:Authority_control" title="Help:Authority control">Authority control databases</a> <span class="mw-valign-text-top noprint" typeof="mw:File/Frameless"><a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q151564#identifiers" title="Edit this at Wikidata"><img alt="Edit this at Wikidata" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg/10px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg.png" decoding="async" width="10" height="10" class="mw-file-element" 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href="https://id.oclc.org/worldcat/entity/E39PBJcR4CRDKcjqRr6mgH86Kd">WorldCat</a></span></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">National</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><ul><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://d-nb.info/gnd/142077445">Germany</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://id.loc.gov/authorities/n96003800">United States</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://catalogue.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/cb13609989v">France</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://data.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/cb13609989v">BnF data</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://aleph.nkp.cz/F/?func=find-c&local_base=aut&ccl_term=ica=nlk20000090554&CON_LNG=ENG">Czech Republic</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://data.bibliotheken.nl/id/thes/p387211748">Netherlands</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://lod.nl.go.kr/resource/KAC200806724">Korea</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://dbn.bn.org.pl/descriptor-details/9810602013205606">Poland</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://cantic.bnc.cat/registre/981061121684706706">Catalonia</a></span></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Other</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><ul><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" 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