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</a> <ul id="toc-Formal_Theory_in_Political_Science-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Experimental_and_Empirical_Research" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Experimental_and_Empirical_Research"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.1.2</span> <span>Experimental and Empirical Research</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Experimental_and_Empirical_Research-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Constitutional_Design_and_Comparative_Politics" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Constitutional_Design_and_Comparative_Politics"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.1.3</span> <span>Constitutional Design and Comparative Politics</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Constitutional_Design_and_Comparative_Politics-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Teaching_and_Mentoring" 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data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1257001546">.mw-parser-output .infobox-subbox{padding:0;border:none;margin:-3px;width:auto;min-width:100%;font-size:100%;clear:none;float:none;background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .infobox-3cols-child{margin:auto}.mw-parser-output .infobox .navbar{font-size:100%}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data:not(.notheme)>div:not(.notheme)[style]{background:#1f1f23!important;color:#f8f9fa}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data:not(.notheme) div:not(.notheme){background:#1f1f23!important;color:#f8f9fa}}@media(min-width:640px){body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table{display:table!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table>caption{display:table-caption!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table>tbody{display:table-row-group}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table tr{display:table-row!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table th,body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table td{padding-left:inherit;padding-right:inherit}}</style><table class="infobox biography vcard"><tbody><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-above" style="font-size:125%;"><div class="fn">Peter C. Ordeshook</div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Born</th><td class="infobox-data"><span style="display:none"> (<span class="bday">1942-05-21</span>) </span>May 21, 1942<span class="noprint ForceAgeToShow"> (age 82)</span></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Nationality</th><td class="infobox-data category"><a href="/wiki/United_States" title="United States">American</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Alma mater</th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/University_of_Rochester" title="University of Rochester">University of Rochester</a><br /><a href="/wiki/Massachusetts_Institute_of_Technology" title="Massachusetts Institute of Technology">Massachusetts Institute of Technology</a></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1257001546"><b>Scientific career</b></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Fields</th><td class="infobox-data category"><a href="/wiki/Political_science" title="Political science">Political science</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Institutions</th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/California_Institute_of_Technology" title="California Institute of Technology">California Institute of Technology</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><a href="/wiki/Doctoral_advisor" title="Doctoral advisor">Doctoral advisor</a></th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/William_H._Riker" title="William H. Riker">William H. Riker</a></td></tr><tr style="display:none"><td colspan="2"> </td></tr></tbody></table> <p><b>Peter Carl Ordeshook</b> (born May 21, 1942) is an American <a href="/wiki/Political_science" title="Political science">political scientist</a>. He is the Mary Stillman Harkness Professor of Political Science at the <a href="/wiki/California_Institute_of_Technology" title="California Institute of Technology">California Institute of Technology</a> in <a href="/wiki/Pasadena,_California" title="Pasadena, California">Pasadena, California</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_1-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>He held faculty positions at Carnegie Mellon University (1968–1982) and the University of Texas at Austin (1982–1987), where he served as the Frank C. Erwin Jr. Centennial Chair in Government. He was a fellow at the Center for Advanced Study in the Behavioral Sciences at Stanford University from 1975 to 1976, and he was the president of the Public Choice Society from 1986 to 1988. He has been a professor at Caltech since 1987. He has authored influential papers and books, such as "A Theory of the Calculus of Voting" (with <a href="/wiki/William_H._Riker" title="William H. Riker">William H. Riker</a>) and "Game Theory and Political Theory". He is a Fellow of the <a href="/wiki/American_Academy_of_Arts_and_Sciences" title="American Academy of Arts and Sciences">American Academy of Arts and Sciences</a>. </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Early_life_and_education">Early life and education</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Peter_Ordeshook&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Early life and education"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Peter Ordeshook was born in Chelsea, Massachusetts, May 21, 1942, the son of Mary Romanowicz and Peter Ordeshook whose parents had emigrated from Poland and Ukraine respectively in 1907. His Ukrainian side of the family came from <a href="/wiki/Kamin-Kashyrskyi" title="Kamin-Kashyrskyi">Kamin-Kashyrskyi</a> of Volyn area in Ukraine. He attended Chelsea High School. </p><p>Odershook graduated from the <a href="/wiki/Massachusetts_Institute_of_Technology" title="Massachusetts Institute of Technology">Massachusetts Institute of Technology</a> in 1964 with a Bachelor of Science degree in economics, politics, and engineering. He enrolled for graduate studies at the <a href="/wiki/University_of_Rochester" title="University of Rochester">University of Rochester</a> and received his <a href="/wiki/Ph.D." class="mw-redirect" title="Ph.D.">Ph.D.</a> in Political Science in 1969.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_1-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Academic_career">Academic career</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Peter_Ordeshook&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Academic career"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Research">Research</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Peter_Ordeshook&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Research"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Ordeshook's research spans a broad spectrum in political science, covering areas as diverse as <a href="/wiki/Positive_political_theory" title="Positive political theory">positive political theory</a>/applications of <a href="/wiki/Game_theory" title="Game theory">game theory</a> to politics, <a href="/wiki/Political_economy" title="Political economy">political economy</a>, <a href="/wiki/Political_behavior" class="mw-redirect" title="Political behavior">political behavior</a> (in particular <a href="/wiki/Voting_behavior" title="Voting behavior">voting behavior</a>), <a href="/wiki/Political_institutions" class="mw-redirect" title="Political institutions">political institutions</a> and <a href="/wiki/Political_engineering" title="Political engineering">political engineering</a>, <a href="/wiki/American_politics" class="mw-redirect" title="American politics">American politics</a>, <a href="/wiki/International_relations" title="International relations">international relations</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Comparative_politics" title="Comparative politics">comparative politics</a>, employing <a href="/wiki/Mathematical_modeling" class="mw-redirect" title="Mathematical modeling">mathematical modeling</a>, <a href="/wiki/Experimental_design" class="mw-redirect" title="Experimental design">experimental design</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Empirical_research" title="Empirical research">empirical research</a> methods. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Formal_Theory_in_Political_Science">Formal Theory in Political Science</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Peter_Ordeshook&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Formal Theory in Political Science"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Ordeshook was one of the pioneers who introduced formal mathematical models into political science, and has been highly influential in the field. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Experimental_and_Empirical_Research">Experimental and Empirical Research</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Peter_Ordeshook&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Experimental and Empirical Research"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Experimental political science employs controlled experiments to study political phenomena, test hypotheses, and understand causal relationships. Ordeshook’s contribution to experimental research is exemplified by his collaborative work with Richard McKelvey. McKelvey and Ordeshook were early developers of laboratory experiments that showed, among other findings, how people can use relatively simple pieces of information to make complex political decisions. Specifically, they examined when uninformed voters can use cues from polls and endorsements to cast the same votes they would have cast if they were more informed. One experiment focused on whether these cues could lead otherwise uninformed voters to have a thought like “if that many voters are voting for the [rightist candidate], he can’t be <i>too</i> liberal” and use that fact to figure out how they would vote if they knew more about the issues (McKelvey and Ordeshook 1985). Political economist Thomas Palfrey describes their main finding as follows: </p><p>“Perhaps the most striking experiment… only a few of the voters in the experiments knew where the candidates located... they proved that this information alone is sufficient to reveal enough to voters that even uninformed voters behave optimally – i.e., as if they were fully informed.” </p><p>McKelvey and Ordeshook’s experiments showed an unexpected range of conditions under which (a) <i>uninformed voters vote competently</i> and (b) <i>election outcomes are identical to what they would have been if all voters were sufficiently informed</i>. These findings prompted a reconsideration of how voters use information to make decisions. </p><p>Ordeshook's contributions extend beyond his influential theoretical and experimental work. He has also emphasized the importance of empirical testing and validation of formal theories through rigorous analysis of real world data and has made significant contributions to empirical research. For example, Ordeshook and Zeng (1997) tested hypotheses generated from rational voter models, in particular the expected utility models of voting (Downs 1957, Riker and Ordeshook 1968), in the context of three-candidate presidential elections. These models posit that turnout and candidate choice decisions are influenced by, among other factors, the voter's consideration of the potential benefit of the decision weighted by the probability that the benefit would be realized. Ordeshook and Zeng found empirical evidence that expected utility calculations add little to our understanding of the decision to vote, but such strategic considerations significantly influence candidate choice decisions, especially among voters who favor a minor party candidate. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Constitutional_Design_and_Comparative_Politics">Constitutional Design and Comparative Politics</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Peter_Ordeshook&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Constitutional Design and Comparative Politics"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Ordeshook (1992) re-examined the importance of constitutional devices such as the separation of powers and scheduled elections, and the role of federalism for the stability of the American political system. Chen and Ordeshook (1994) studied the role of constitutional secessions clauses. In the 1990s and early 2000s, Ordeshook collaborated with his students and social scientists from Russia and Ukraine, and helped each of these countries design their new constitution. Their work studied the design of a federalist system (Filippov, Ordeshook and Shvetsova, 2004), and the forensics of election fraud in Russia and Ukraine (Myagkov and Ordeshook, 2009). </p><p>In 1996-1998 Ordeshook was invited to teach Political Science and Game Theory at The International Summer School in Political Science and International Relations, funded by the <a href="/wiki/Stefan_Batory_Foundation" title="Stefan Batory Foundation">Stefan Batory Foundation</a>. At the time the Summer School was focused on sponsoring the students from the former Soviet Union and other Soviet bloc countries so that they would engage in intensive study of the subjects previously not available under Soviet regime thus allowing the new generation of potential scholars to be exposed to the Western thought and democracy. </p><p>After engaging in the study of budding Russian federalism (with Olga Shvetsova, Misha Myagkov, and Mikhail G. Filippov) and sharing his expertise on the subject with Russian lawmakers, Peter Ordeshook turned to studying another post-Soviet state, namely Ukraine.  His work and collaboration with prominent Ukrainian Sociologist, <a href="/wiki/Valeriy_Khmelko" title="Valeriy Khmelko">Valeriy Khmelko</a> and <a href="/wiki/Melvin_J._Hinich" title="Melvin J. Hinich">Melvin J. Hinich</a> resulted in publications in <i>Post-Soviet Affairs</i> (1999, 2002), where they analyze the results of Ukraine's 1998 parliamentary and 1999 presidential elections using spatial model of voting, specifically concentrating on East/West divide of Ukraine.   </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Teaching_and_Mentoring">Teaching and Mentoring</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Peter_Ordeshook&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Teaching and Mentoring"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In the early to mid 1990s Ordeshook served as the Director of Graduate Studies at Caltech's Division of Humanities and Social Sciences, putting a significant effort in finding and attracting promising graduate students to the program, and pioneering recruitment of students from China and the former USSR. Aligned with Ordeshook’s research interest in voting, corruption and constitutional design, collaborations with many of these students resulted in research contributions such as  Constitutional Secessions Clauses (with Yan Chen, <i>Constitutional Political Economy</i>,1994), Designing Federalism (with M. Filippov and O. Shvetsova, Cambridge University Press, 2004), Endogenous Time Preferences in Social Networks (with Marianna Klochko, Edward Elgar, 2005),  and The Forensics of Election Fraud: Russia and Ukraine (with Mikhail Myagkov, Cambridge University Press, 2009). </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Selected_publications">Selected publications</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Peter_Ordeshook&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Selected publications"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li>Riker, W.H. and Ordeshook, P.C., 1968. "A Theory of the Calculus of Voting." <i>American political science review</i>, 62(1), pp. 25–42.</li> <li>Davis, O., Hinich, M., & Ordeshook, P. 1970. "An Expository Development of a Mathematical Model of the Electoral Process." <i>American Political Science Review</i>, 64(2), 426-448.</li> <li>McKelvey, R.D., and Ordeshook, P.C., 1985. “Elections with Limited Information: A Fulfilled Expectations Model Using Contemporaneous Poll and Endorsement Data as Information Sources.” <i>Journal of Economic Theory</i> 36: 55-85.</li> <li>Ordeshook, P.C. 1986. <i>Game Theory and Political Theory</i>, Cambridge University Press.</li> <li>Ordeshook, P., & Schwartz, T. 1987. "Agendas and the Control of Political Outcomes." <i>American Political Science Review</i>, 81(1), 179-199.</li> <li>Ordeshook, P.C., & Palfrey,T.R. 1988. "Agendas, Strategic Voting, and Signaling with Incomplete Information." <i>American Journal of Political Science</i>, 32(2), 441–466.</li> <li>Niou, E.M., Ordeshook, P.C., & Rose, G.F. 1989. <i>The Balance of Power: Stability in International Systems</i>. Cambridge University Press.</li> <li>Ordeshook,P.C., 1990. "The emerging discipline of political economy", in Alt, J.E. & Shepsle, K.A. (Eds.), <i>Perspectives on Positive Political Economy</i>, Cambridge University Press.</li> <li>Ordeshook, P.C., 1992. <i>A Political Theory Primer</i>. Routledge Press.</li> <li>Ordeshook, P.C., 1992. "Constitutional stability". <i>Constitutional political economy</i>, 3(2), pp. 137–175.</li> <li>Chen Y. and Ordeshook, P.C., 1994. "Constitutional secession clauses", <i>Constitutional Political Economy</i>, 5, pp. 45–60.</li> <li>Ordeshook, P.C. and Shvetsova, O.V., 1994. "Ethnic heterogeneity, district magnitude, and the number of parties." <i>American journal of political science</i>, pp. 100–123.</li> <li>Ordeshook, P.C. and Zeng, L., 1997. "Rational Voters and Strategic Voting: Evidence from the 1968, 1980 and 1992 Elections", <i>Journal of Theoretical Politics</i>, 9(2): 167–187.</li> <li>Ordeshook, P.C., 1998. <i>Lessons for Citizens of a New Democracy</i>. Edward Elgar Publishing.</li> <li>Filippov, M., Ordeshook, P.C. and Shvetsova, O., 2004. <i>Designing federalism: A theory of self-sustainable federal institutions</i>. Cambridge University Press.</li> <li>Klochko, M.A. and Ordeshook, P.C., 2005. <i>Endogenous time preferences in social networks</i>. Edward Elgar Publishing.</li> <li>Myagkov, M., Ordeshook, P.C. and Shakin, D., 2009. <i>The forensics of election fraud: Russia and Ukraine</i>. Cambridge University Press.</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Peter_Ordeshook&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-:0-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:0_1-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:0_1-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.hss.caltech.edu/content/peter-c-ordeshook">"Caltech profile page"</a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">24 May</span> 2023</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Caltech+profile+page&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.hss.caltech.edu%2Fcontent%2Fpeter-c-ordeshook&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APeter+Ordeshook" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> </ol></div></div> <ul><li>Downs, A., 1957. <i>An economic theory of democracy</i>. Harper and Row, 28.</li> <li>Walter, B., 1975. [Review of <i>An Introduction to Positive Political Theory</i> by W.H. Riker & P.C. Ordeshook]. <i>The American Political Science Review</i>, 69(3), 1007–1009.</li> <li>Enelow, J.M. and Hinich, M.J., 1984. <i>The spatial theory of voting: An introduction.</i> CUP Archive.</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Peter_Ordeshook&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: External links"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.hss.caltech.edu/people/peter-c-ordeshook">Caltech profile page</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://scholar.google.com/scholar?hl=en&as_sdt=0%2C23&q=peter+ordeshook&oq=peter+orde">Google scholar page</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.amacad.org/person/peter-carl-ordeshook">American Academy of Arts and Sciences page</a></li></ul> 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