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class="vector-toc-link" href="#Federal_statutes"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.1.3 Federal statutes </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Federal_statutes-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-State_constitutions_and_statutes" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#State_constitutions_and_statutes"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.1.4 State constitutions and statutes </div> </a> <ul id="toc-State_constitutions_and_statutes-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-New_York" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-4"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#New_York"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.1.4.1 New York </div> </a> <ul id="toc-New_York-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Doctrine" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Doctrine"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3 Doctrine </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Doctrine-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Doctrine subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Doctrine-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Acknowledgement" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Acknowledgement"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.1 Acknowledgement </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Acknowledgement-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Content" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Content"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.2 Content </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Content-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Extinguishment" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Extinguishment"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.3 Extinguishment </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Extinguishment-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-By_geography" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#By_geography"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4 By geography </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-By_geography-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle By geography subsection </button> <ul id="toc-By_geography-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-East_of_Mississippi" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#East_of_Mississippi"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.1 East of Mississippi </div> </a> <ul id="toc-East_of_Mississippi-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Louisiana_Purchase_and_Texas" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Louisiana_Purchase_and_Texas"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.2 Louisiana Purchase and Texas </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Louisiana_Purchase_and_Texas-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> 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class="vector-toc-text"> 7.1.1 Federal sovereign immunity </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Federal_sovereign_immunity-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Delay" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Delay"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7.2 Delay </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Delay-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Statute_of_limitations/adverse_possession" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Statute_of_limitations/adverse_possession"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7.2.1 Statute of limitations/adverse possession </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Statute_of_limitations/adverse_possession-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Laches" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Laches"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7.2.2 Laches </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Laches-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Relationship_to_other_rights" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Relationship_to_other_rights"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 8 Relationship to other rights </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Relationship_to_other_rights-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 9 See also </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Notes" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Notes"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 10 Notes </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Notes-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 11 References </div> </a> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" 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<div class="mw-indicators"> </div> <div id="siteSub" class="noprint">From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia</div> </div> <div id="contentSub"><div id="mw-content-subtitle"></div></div> <div id="mw-content-text" class="mw-body-content"><div class="mw-content-ltr mw-parser-output" lang="en" dir="ltr"><div class="shortdescription nomobile noexcerpt noprint searchaux" style="display:none">First country to recognize aboriginal title</div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Providence,_Rhode_Island,_Original_Deed.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/15/Providence%2C_Rhode_Island%2C_Original_Deed.jpg/220px-Providence%2C_Rhode_Island%2C_Original_Deed.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="263" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/15/Providence%2C_Rhode_Island%2C_Original_Deed.jpg/330px-Providence%2C_Rhode_Island%2C_Original_Deed.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/15/Providence%2C_Rhode_Island%2C_Original_Deed.jpg/440px-Providence%2C_Rhode_Island%2C_Original_Deed.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2659" data-file-height="3178" /></a><figcaption> A document commemorating a 1636 conveyance of land from Narragansett chief <a href="/wiki/Canonicus" title="Canonicus">Canonicus</a> to <a href="/wiki/Roger_Williams_(theologian)" class="mw-redirect" title="Roger Williams (theologian)">Roger Williams</a></figcaption></figure> The <a href="/wiki/United_States" title="United States">United States</a> was the first jurisdiction to acknowledge the <a href="/wiki/Common_law" title="Common law">common law</a> doctrine of <a href="/wiki/Aboriginal_title" title="Aboriginal title">aboriginal title</a> (also known as "original Indian title" or "Indian right of occupancy"). <a href="/wiki/Native_American_tribe" class="mw-redirect" title="Native American tribe">Native American tribes and nations</a> establish aboriginal title by actual, continuous, and exclusive use and occupancy for a "long time." Individuals may also establish aboriginal title, if their ancestors held title as individuals. Unlike other jurisdictions, the content of aboriginal title is not limited to historical or traditional land uses. Aboriginal title may not be <a href="/wiki/Alienation_(property_law)" title="Alienation (property law)">alienated</a>, except to the federal government or with the approval of Congress. Aboriginal title is distinct from the lands <a href="/wiki/Native_Americans_in_the_United_States" title="Native Americans in the United States">Native Americans</a> own in <a href="/wiki/Fee_simple" title="Fee simple">fee simple</a> and occupy under federal <a href="/wiki/Trust_(law)" title="Trust (law)">trust</a>. The power of Congress to extinguish aboriginal title—by "purchase or conquest," or with a <a href="/wiki/Clear_statement_rule" title="Clear statement rule">clear statement</a>—is <a href="/wiki/Plenary_power" title="Plenary power">plenary</a> and exclusive. Such extinguishment is not compensable under the <a href="/wiki/Fifth_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Fifth Amendment to the United States Constitution">Fifth Amendment</a>, although various statutes provide for compensation. Unextinguished aboriginal title provides a <a href="/wiki/Federal_common_law" title="Federal common law">federal common law</a> cause of action for <a href="/wiki/Ejectment" title="Ejectment">ejectment</a> or <a href="/wiki/Trespass" title="Trespass">trespass</a>, for which there is federal <a href="/wiki/Subject-matter_jurisdiction" title="Subject-matter jurisdiction">subject-matter jurisdiction</a>. Many potentially meritorious tribal lawsuits have been <a href="/wiki/Settlement_(litigation)" title="Settlement (litigation)">settled</a> by Congressional legislation providing for the extinguishment of aboriginal title as well as monetary compensation or the approval of <a href="/wiki/Native_American_gaming_enterprises" class="mw-redirect" title="Native American gaming enterprises">gaming and gambling enterprises</a>. Large-scale compensatory litigation first arose in the 1940s, and possessory litigation in the 1970s. <a href="/wiki/Sovereign_immunity_in_the_United_States" title="Sovereign immunity in the United States">Federal sovereign immunity</a> bars possessory claims against the federal government, although compensatory claims are possible by statute. The <a href="/wiki/Eleventh_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Eleventh Amendment to the United States Constitution">Eleventh Amendment</a> bars both possessory and compensatory claims against <a href="/wiki/U.S._state" title="U.S. state">states</a>, unless the federal government <a href="/wiki/Intervention_(law)" title="Intervention (law)">intervenes</a>. The US <a href="/wiki/Supreme_Court_of_the_United_States" title="Supreme Court of the United States">Supreme Court</a> rejected nearly all legal and equitable <a href="/wiki/Affirmative_defenses" class="mw-redirect" title="Affirmative defenses">affirmative defenses</a> in 1985. However, the <a href="/wiki/United_States_Court_of_Appeals_for_the_Second_Circuit" title="United States Court of Appeals for the Second Circuit">Second Circuit</a>—where most remaining possessory claims are[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Manual_of_Style/Dates_and_numbers#Chronological_items" title="Wikipedia:Manual of Style/Dates and numbers">when?</a>] pending—has held that <a href="/wiki/Laches_(equity)" title="Laches (equity)">laches</a> bars all claims that are "disruptive." <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="History">History</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Aboriginal_title_in_the_United_States&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: History">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Map_of_territorial_growth_1775.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/86/Map_of_territorial_growth_1775.jpg/220px-Map_of_territorial_growth_1775.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="289" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/86/Map_of_territorial_growth_1775.jpg/330px-Map_of_territorial_growth_1775.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/86/Map_of_territorial_growth_1775.jpg/440px-Map_of_territorial_growth_1775.jpg 2x" data-file-width="570" data-file-height="750" /></a><figcaption>British North America in 1775, soon after the <a href="/wiki/Royal_Proclamation_of_1763" title="Royal Proclamation of 1763">Royal Proclamation of 1763</a></figcaption></figure> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Before_1776">Before 1776</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Aboriginal_title_in_the_United_States&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Before 1776">edit</a>]</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Aboriginal_title_in_the_Thirteen_Colonies" class="mw-redirect" title="Aboriginal title in the Thirteen Colonies">Aboriginal title in the Thirteen Colonies</a></div> Before 1763, the <a href="/wiki/Colonial_history_of_the_United_States" title="Colonial history of the United States">Colonial history of the United States</a> was characterized by private purchases of lands from Indians. Many of the earliest deeds in the Eastern states purport to commemorate such transactions. The <a href="/wiki/Royal_Proclamation_of_1763" title="Royal Proclamation of 1763">Royal Proclamation of 1763</a> changed matters, reserving for <a href="/wiki/The_Crown" title="The Crown">the Crown</a> the exclusive right of preemption, requiring all such purchases to have Royal approval. It was also an attempt to restrain colonial settlement west of the <a href="/wiki/Appalachian_Mountains" title="Appalachian Mountains">Appalachian Mountains</a> (see map). Forged versions of the <a href="/wiki/Pratt-Yorke_opinion" class="mw-redirect" title="Pratt-Yorke opinion">Pratt-Yorke opinion</a> of 1757 (in its authentic form, a joint opinion of Britain's <a href="/wiki/Attorney_General_for_England_and_Wales" title="Attorney General for England and Wales">Attorney General</a> and <a href="/wiki/Solicitor_General_for_England_and_Wales" title="Solicitor General for England and Wales">Solicitor General</a> regarding land purchases in <a href="/wiki/India" title="India">India</a>) were circulated in the colonies, edited such that it appeared to apply to purchases from Native Americans. The Royal Proclamation was among the enumerated complaints in the <a href="/wiki/United_States_Declaration_of_Independence" title="United States Declaration of Independence">Declaration of Independence</a>: <blockquote>He has endeavoured to prevent the Population of these States; for that Purpose ... raising the Conditions of new Appropriations of Lands.</blockquote> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="1776–1789">1776–1789</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Aboriginal_title_in_the_United_States&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: 1776–1789">edit</a>]</div> The <a href="/wiki/Confederation_Congress_Proclamation_of_1783" title="Confederation Congress Proclamation of 1783">Confederation Congress Proclamation of 1783</a> prohibited the extinguishment of aboriginal title without the consent of Congress. But, the states, particularly New York, purchased lands from tribes during this period without the consent of the federal government. These purchases were not tested in court until the 1970s and 1980s, when the Second Circuit held that the Confederation Congress had neither the authority under the <a href="/wiki/Articles_of_Confederation" title="Articles of Confederation">Articles of Confederation</a> nor the intent to limit the ability of states to extinguish aboriginal title within their borders; thus, the Proclamation was interpreted to apply only to the federal territories. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Since_1789">Since 1789</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Aboriginal_title_in_the_United_States&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Since 1789">edit</a>]</div> States had lost the ability to extinguish aboriginal title with the ratification of the <a href="/wiki/United_States_Constitution" class="mw-redirect" title="United States Constitution">United States Constitution</a> in 1788, which vested authority over <a href="/wiki/Commerce_Clause" title="Commerce Clause">commerce with American Indian tribes</a> in the federal government. Congress codified this prohibition in the <a href="/wiki/Nonintercourse_Act" title="Nonintercourse Act">Nonintercourse Acts</a> of 1790, 1793, 1796, 1799, 1802, and 1833. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Marshall_Court">Marshall Court</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Aboriginal_title_in_the_United_States&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Marshall Court">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Aboriginal_title_in_the_Marshall_Court" title="Aboriginal title in the Marshall Court">Aboriginal title in the Marshall Court</a></div> The <a href="/wiki/Marshall_Court" title="Marshall Court">Marshall Court</a> (1801—1835) issued some of the earliest and most influential opinions on the status of aboriginal title in the United States, most of them authored by Chief Justice <a href="/wiki/John_Marshall" title="John Marshall">John Marshall</a>. But, without exception, the remarks of the Court on aboriginal title during this period are <a href="/wiki/Dicta" class="mw-redirect" title="Dicta">dicta</a>.<a href="#cite_note-1">[1]</a> Only one indigenous litigant ever appeared before the Marshall Court, and there, Marshall dismissed the case for lack of <a href="/wiki/Original_jurisdiction" title="Original jurisdiction">original jurisdiction</a>. <a href="/wiki/Fletcher_v._Peck" title="Fletcher v. Peck">Fletcher v. Peck</a> (1810) and <a href="/wiki/Johnson_v._McIntosh" title="Johnson v. McIntosh">Johnson v. McIntosh</a> (1823), the first and the most detailed explorations of the subject by Marshall, respectively, both arose out of <a href="/wiki/Collusive_lawsuit" title="Collusive lawsuit">collusive lawsuits</a>, where land speculators deceived the court with a falsified <a href="/wiki/Case_or_Controversy_clause" class="mw-redirect" title="Case or Controversy clause">case and controversy</a> in order to elicit the desired precedent.<a href="#cite_note-2">[2]</a><a href="#cite_note-3">[3]</a> In <a href="/wiki/Cherokee_Nation_v._Georgia" title="Cherokee Nation v. Georgia">Cherokee Nation v. Georgia</a> (1831) and <a href="/wiki/Worcester_v._Georgia" title="Worcester v. Georgia">Worcester v. Georgia</a> (1832), the dicta of Marshall and the dissenting justices embraced a far broader view of <a href="/wiki/Aboriginal_title" title="Aboriginal title">aboriginal title</a>. Johnson involved a pre-Revolutionary private conveyances from 1773 and 1775; Mitchel v. United States (1835) involved 1804 and 1806 conveyances in Florida under Spanish rule. In both cases, the Marshall Court continued to apply the rule that aboriginal title was <a href="/wiki/Inalienable_right" class="mw-redirect" title="Inalienable right">inalienable</a>, except to <a href="/wiki/The_Crown" title="The Crown">The Crown</a>. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Removal_era">Removal era</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Aboriginal_title_in_the_United_States&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Removal era">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Indian_removal" title="Indian removal">Indian removal</a></div> The <a href="/wiki/Indian_Removal_Act" title="Indian Removal Act">Indian Removal Act</a> of 1830 established policy that resulted in the complete extinguishment of aboriginal title in <a href="/wiki/Alabama" title="Alabama">Alabama</a> and <a href="/wiki/Mississippi" title="Mississippi">Mississippi</a> (1832); <a href="/wiki/Florida" title="Florida">Florida</a> and <a href="/wiki/Illinois" title="Illinois">Illinois</a> (1833); <a href="/wiki/Georgia_(U.S._state)" title="Georgia (U.S. state)">Georgia</a>, <a href="/wiki/North_Carolina" title="North Carolina">North Carolina</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Tennessee" title="Tennessee">Tennessee</a> (1835) [the <a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_New_Echota" title="Treaty of New Echota">Treaty of New Echota</a>]; <a href="/wiki/Indiana" title="Indiana">Indiana</a> (1840); and <a href="/wiki/Ohio" title="Ohio">Ohio</a> (1842).<a href="#cite_note-b226-4">[4]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Reservation,_treaty,_and_termination_eras">Reservation, treaty, and termination eras</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Aboriginal_title_in_the_United_States&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Reservation, treaty, and termination eras">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Indian_reservation" title="Indian reservation">Indian reservation</a> and <a href="/wiki/Indian_termination_policy" title="Indian termination policy">Indian termination policy</a></div> This shift in policy resulted in all tribal lands being either ceded to the federal government or designated as an <a href="/wiki/Indian_reservation" title="Indian reservation">Indian reservation</a> in <a href="/wiki/Iowa" title="Iowa">Iowa</a>, <a href="/wiki/Minnesota" title="Minnesota">Minnesota</a>, <a href="/wiki/Texas" title="Texas">Texas</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Kansas" title="Kansas">Kansas</a> by 1870; <a href="/wiki/Idaho" title="Idaho">Idaho</a>, <a href="/wiki/Washington_(state)" title="Washington (state)">Washington</a>, <a href="/wiki/Utah" title="Utah">Utah</a>, <a href="/wiki/Oregon" title="Oregon">Oregon</a>, <a href="/wiki/Nevada" title="Nevada">Nevada</a>, <a href="/wiki/Wyoming" title="Wyoming">Wyoming</a>, <a href="/wiki/Nebraska" title="Nebraska">Nebraska</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Colorado" title="Colorado">Colorado</a> by 1880; and <a href="/wiki/Montana" title="Montana">Montana</a>, <a href="/wiki/Arizona" title="Arizona">Arizona</a>, and <a href="/wiki/New_Mexico" title="New Mexico">New Mexico</a> by 1886.<a href="#cite_note-b235-5">[5]</a> Whereas, "it had taken whites 250 years to purchase the Eastern half of the United States, ... they needed less than 40 years for the Western half."<a href="#cite_note-b235-5">[5]</a> Unlike the Eastern purchases, "some of the transactions in the West involved immense areas of land. More than 75 percent of Nevada, for example, was acquired in two bites; the large majority of Colorado in three. It was not long before the West was dotted with Indian reservations."<a href="#cite_note-b235-5">[5]</a> Congress banned further Indian treaties by statute in 1871, but treaty-like instruments continued to be used to alienate Indian land and designate the boundaries of reservations.<a href="#cite_note-6">[6]</a> Language in an 1881 <a href="/wiki/Indian_Country" class="mw-redirect" title="Indian Country">Indian Country</a> bill—referring to "lands to which the original Indian title has never been extinguished"—was struck by its sponsors, who claimed that "there are no such lands in the United States."<a href="#cite_note-7">[7]</a> In 1887, the <a href="/wiki/Dawes_Act" title="Dawes Act">Dawes Act</a> introduced an allotment policy, whereby communal reservation lands were divided into parcels held in <a href="/wiki/Fee_simple" title="Fee simple">fee simple</a> (and thus alienable) by individual Indians, with the "surplus," as declared by the government, sold to non-Indians. Allotment ended in 1934.<a href="#cite_note-8">[8]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="1940s—present">1940s—present</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Aboriginal_title_in_the_United_States&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: 1940s—present">edit</a>]</div> The <a href="/wiki/Alaska_Native_Claims_Settlement_Act" title="Alaska Native Claims Settlement Act">Alaska Native Claims Settlement Act</a> (1971) extinguished all aboriginal title in Alaska (although the legitimacy of the act remains disputed by some Alaskan natives<a href="#cite_note-9">[9]</a><a href="#cite_note-10">[10]</a>). <a href="/wiki/Indian_Land_Claims_Settlements" title="Indian Land Claims Settlements">Indian Land Claims Settlements</a> extinguished all aboriginal title in <a href="/wiki/Rhode_Island" title="Rhode Island">Rhode Island</a> (1978) and <a href="/wiki/Maine" title="Maine">Maine</a> (1980). According to Prof. Stuart Banner: <dl><dd>[T]he story of Indians and land over the past sixty years has primarily been that of tribes' efforts to get land back, or to be compensated for land wrongfully taken. Indians have directed land claims at every branch of the federal government—at Congress, at the courts, at the <a href="/wiki/Interior_Department" class="mw-redirect" title="Interior Department">Interior Department</a>, and, for the 1940s to the 1970s, at the purpose-built administrative agency called the <a href="/wiki/Indian_Claims_Commission" title="Indian Claims Commission">Indian Claims Commission</a>. Some of these claims have been remarkably successful, culminating either directly in court judgements or indirectly in <a href="/wiki/Indian_Land_Claims_Settlements" title="Indian Land Claims Settlements">legislative settlements</a>.<a href="#cite_note-11">[11]</a></dd></dl> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Sources_of_law">Sources of law</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Aboriginal_title_in_the_United_States&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Sources of law">edit</a>]</div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Federal">Federal</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Aboriginal_title_in_the_United_States&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Federal">edit</a>]</div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Constitution_of_the_United_States">Constitution of the United States</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Aboriginal_title_in_the_United_States&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Constitution of the United States">edit</a>]</div> U.S. Const. art. I, § 8, cl. 3 provides: <blockquote>[The Congress shall have Power] To regulate Commerce with foreign Nations, and among the several States, and with the Indian tribes;</blockquote> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Federal_treaties">Federal treaties</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Aboriginal_title_in_the_United_States&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Federal treaties">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/List_of_United_States_treaties#U.S.–Native_American_treaties" class="mw-redirect" title="List of United States treaties">List of United States treaties § U.S.–Native American treaties</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Native_American_treaties" class="mw-redirect" title="Native American treaties">Native American treaties</a></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Federal_statutes">Federal statutes</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Aboriginal_title_in_the_United_States&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: Federal statutes">edit</a>]</div> Relevant federal statutes include: <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Royal_Proclamation_of_1763" title="Royal Proclamation of 1763">Royal Proclamation of 1763</a> (British North America)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Confederation_Congress_Proclamation_of_1783" title="Confederation Congress Proclamation of 1783">Confederation Congress Proclamation of 1783</a> (Articles of Confederation-era)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Northwest_Ordinance" title="Northwest Ordinance">Northwest Ordinance</a> (1787)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nonintercourse_Act" title="Nonintercourse Act">Nonintercourse Act</a> (1790, 1793, 1796, 1799, 1802, 1834)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indian_Removal_Act" title="Indian Removal Act">Indian Removal Act</a> (1830)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dawes_Act" title="Dawes Act">Dawes Act</a> (1887)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Curtis_Act_of_1898" title="Curtis Act of 1898">Curtis Act of 1898</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indian_Reorganization_Act" title="Indian Reorganization Act">Indian Reorganization Act</a> (1934)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indian_Claims_Commission" title="Indian Claims Commission">Indian Claims Commission</a> Act (1946)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alaska_Native_Claims_Settlement_Act" title="Alaska Native Claims Settlement Act">Alaska Native Claims Settlement Act</a> (1971)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indian_Land_Claims_Settlements" title="Indian Land Claims Settlements">Indian Land Claims Settlements</a> (1978–2006)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indian_Claims_Limitations_Act" title="Indian Claims Limitations Act">Indian Claims Limitations Act</a> (1982)</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="State_constitutions_and_statutes">State constitutions and statutes</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Aboriginal_title_in_the_United_States&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: State constitutions and statutes">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/U.S._state_nonintercourse_acts" class="mw-redirect" title="U.S. state nonintercourse acts">U.S. state nonintercourse acts</a></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading5"><h5 id="New_York">New York</h5>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Aboriginal_title_in_the_United_States&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: New York">edit</a>]</div> N.Y. Const. of 1777 art. XXXVII provided: <blockquote>And whereas it is of great importance to the safety of this State that peace and amity with the Indians within the same be at all times supported and maintained; and whereas the frauds too often practiced towards the said Indians, in contracts made for their lands, have, in divers instances, been productive of dangerous discontents and animosities: Be it ordained, that no purchases or contracts for the sale of lands, made since the fourteenth day of October, in the year of our Lord one thousand seven hundred and seventy-five, or which may hereafter be made with or of the said Indians, within the limits of this State, shall be binding on the said Indians, or deemed valid, unless made under the authority and with the consent of the legislature of this State.</blockquote> N.Y. Const. of 1821 art. VII, § 12 provided: <blockquote>[Indian lands.]—No purchase or contract for the sale of lands in this state, made since the fourteenth day of October, one thousand seven hundred and seventy-five, or which may hereafter be made, of or with the Indians in this state, shall be valid, unless made under the authority, and with the consent, of the legislature.</blockquote> N.Y. Const. of 1846 art. I, § 16 provided: <blockquote>[Indian lands.]—No purchase or contract for the sale of lands in this state, made since the fourteenth day of October, one thousand seven hundred and seventy-five, or which may hereafter be made, of or with the Indians, shall be valid unless made under the authority and with the consent of the legislature.</blockquote> N.Y. Const. of 1894 art. 1, § 15 and N.Y. Const. of 1938 art I. § 13 provided: <blockquote>[Purchase of lands of Indians.]-No purchase or contract for the sale of lands in this State, made since the fourteenth day of October, one thousand seven hundred and seventy-five; or which may hereafter be made, of, or with the indians, shall be valid, unless made under the authority, and with the consent of the Legislature.</blockquote> § 13 was repealed on November 6, 1962, by popular vote. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Doctrine">Doctrine</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Aboriginal_title_in_the_United_States&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: Doctrine">edit</a>]</div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Acknowledgement">Acknowledgement</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Aboriginal_title_in_the_United_States&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: Acknowledgement">edit</a>]</div> The test for the acknowledgement of aboriginal title in the United States is actual, exclusive and continuous use and occupancy for a "long time".<a href="#cite_note-12">[12]</a> Unlike nearly all common law jurisdictions, the United States acknowledges that aboriginal title may be acquired post-sovereignty; a "long time" can mean as little as 30 years.<a href="#cite_note-13">[13]</a> However, the requirement of exclusivity may prevent any tribe from claiming aboriginal title where multiple tribes once shared the same area.<a href="#cite_note-14">[14]</a> Improper designation of an ancestral group may also bar acknowledgement.<a href="#cite_note-Chippewa_Indians_v._U_1974-15">[15]</a> 'Cramer v. United States' (1923) was the first Supreme Court decision to acknowledge the doctrine of individual aboriginal title, not held in common by tribes.<a href="#cite_note-cramer-16">[16]</a> Individual aboriginal title may be an <a href="/wiki/Affirmative_defense" title="Affirmative defense">affirmative defense</a> to crimes such as trespassing on <a href="/wiki/US_Forest_Service" class="mw-redirect" title="US Forest Service">US Forest Service</a> lands.<a href="#cite_note-17">[17]</a> However, a claimant asserting individual aboriginal title must show that his or her ancestors held aboriginal title as individuals.<a href="#cite_note-18">[18]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Content">Content</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Aboriginal_title_in_the_United_States&action=edit&section=18" title="Edit section: Content">edit</a>]</div> Where tribal land has previously been dispossessed, the tribe cannot unify its aboriginal title with purchased fee simple to reconstitute "<a href="/wiki/Indian_Country" class="mw-redirect" title="Indian Country">Indian Country</a>" for the purposes of <a href="/wiki/Tribal_sovereignty_in_the_United_States" title="Tribal sovereignty in the United States">tribal sovereignty in the United States</a>.<a href="#cite_note-19">[19]</a> Similarly, states can tax and exercise criminal jurisdiction in alienated tribal land, whether or not the tribe reacquires it.<a href="#cite_note-20">[20]</a><a href="#cite_note-21">[21]</a><a href="#cite_note-22">[22]</a> Nor can Indians tax non-Indians who own land in fee simple otherwise within their jurisdiction.<a href="#cite_note-23">[23]</a> Courts has not been receptive to the view that aboriginal title was converted to fee simple during the rule of other countries (e.g. Russia in Alaska).<a href="#cite_note-24">[24]</a> The Nonintercourse Act does not prohibit leases.<a href="#cite_note-25">[25]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Extinguishment">Extinguishment</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Aboriginal_title_in_the_United_States&action=edit&section=19" title="Edit section: Extinguishment">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Treaty_of_Penn_with_Indians_by_Benjamin_West.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/15/Treaty_of_Penn_with_Indians_by_Benjamin_West.jpg/220px-Treaty_of_Penn_with_Indians_by_Benjamin_West.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="153" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/15/Treaty_of_Penn_with_Indians_by_Benjamin_West.jpg/330px-Treaty_of_Penn_with_Indians_by_Benjamin_West.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/15/Treaty_of_Penn_with_Indians_by_Benjamin_West.jpg/440px-Treaty_of_Penn_with_Indians_by_Benjamin_West.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1150" data-file-height="800" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Johnson_v._McIntosh" title="Johnson v. McIntosh">Johnson v. McIntosh</a> opined that aboriginal title could be extinguished "either by purchase ...</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:U.S._Army-Cavalry_Pursuing_Indians-1876.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fb/U.S._Army-Cavalry_Pursuing_Indians-1876.jpg/220px-U.S._Army-Cavalry_Pursuing_Indians-1876.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fb/U.S._Army-Cavalry_Pursuing_Indians-1876.jpg/330px-U.S._Army-Cavalry_Pursuing_Indians-1876.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fb/U.S._Army-Cavalry_Pursuing_Indians-1876.jpg/440px-U.S._Army-Cavalry_Pursuing_Indians-1876.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1746" data-file-height="1308" /></a><figcaption>... or by conquest."<a href="#cite_note-jvm-26">[26]</a></figcaption></figure> The modern test for extinguishment of aboriginal title was most thoroughly explained in <a href="/wiki/United_States_v._Santa_Fe_Pacific_R._Co." class="mw-redirect" title="United States v. Santa Fe Pacific R. Co.">United States v. Santa Fe Pacific R. Co.</a> (1941): extinguishment must come from Congress, or a part of the federal government properly delegated by Congress, and must satisfy a <a href="/wiki/Clear_statement_rule" title="Clear statement rule">clear statement rule</a>.<a href="#cite_note-27">[27]</a><a href="#cite_note-28">[28]</a> The earliest and most widely acknowledged method of extinguishing aboriginal title was by treaty.<a href="#cite_note-29">[29]</a><a href="#cite_note-30">[30]</a><a href="#cite_note-31">[31]</a><a href="#cite_note-32">[32]</a> Even <a href="/wiki/Fraud" title="Fraud">fraud</a> will not void the extinguishment of aboriginal title by the federal government (or by any actor, if the tribe waives the issue in the lower court).<a href="#cite_note-Delaware_Nation_v_2006-33">[33]</a> Some cases hold that an <a href="/wiki/Executive_order_(United_States)" class="mw-redirect" title="Executive order (United States)">executive order</a> may extinguish aboriginal title,<a href="#cite_note-34">[34]</a> although the dominant view is that the power lies with Congress.<a href="#cite_note-Chippewa_Indians_v._U_1974-15">[15]</a> Extinguishment retroactively validates trespasses and removals of resources from aboriginal lands, and thus bars compensation (either statutory or constitutional) for those encroachments.<a href="#cite_note-35">[35]</a> Since 1790, states have not been able to extinguish aboriginal title. They cannot even foreclose on tribal lands due to the non-payment of taxes.<a href="#cite_note-36">[36]</a> However, extinguishment by state governments before between independence and 1790 is generally valid.<a href="#cite_note-37">[37]</a> The Second Circuit has held that states retained the power to purchase land directly from tribes during the <a href="/wiki/Articles_of_Confederation" title="Articles of Confederation">Articles of Confederation</a> period, and thus those purchases remain valid even if un-ratified by the federal government.<a href="#cite_note-38">[38]</a> The infamous <a href="/wiki/Lone_Wolf_v._Hitchcock" title="Lone Wolf v. Hitchcock">Lone Wolf v. Hitchcock</a> (1903) held that Congress's power to extinguish was plenary, notwithstanding Indian treaties to the contrary.<a href="#cite_note-39">[39]</a> While this decision has not been overruled per se, it has been modified in effect by the judicial enforcement of the federal government's <a href="/wiki/Fiduciary_duty" class="mw-redirect" title="Fiduciary duty">fiduciary duty</a>. The rule of construction against extinguishment, even in the face of overlapping land grants, was based on the assumption that Congress would not lightly extinguish due to its "<a href="/wiki/Christian_charity" class="mw-redirect" title="Christian charity">Christian charity</a>."<a href="#cite_note-40">[40]</a> Land grants themselves therefore do not extinguish aboriginal title, nor Indian usufructuary rights.<a href="#cite_note-41">[41]</a> Furthermore, land grants are interpreted narrowly to avoid overlapping with unextinguished aboriginal title.<a href="#cite_note-42">[42]</a><a href="#cite_note-43">[43]</a> Extinguishment can be accomplished through <a href="/wiki/Res_judicata" title="Res judicata">res judicata</a>.<a href="#cite_note-44">[44]</a> Extinguishment may also be effected through <a href="/wiki/Collateral_estoppel" title="Collateral estoppel">collateral estoppel</a> following a final decision by a <a href="/wiki/Court_of_Claims_(United_States)" class="mw-redirect" title="Court of Claims (United States)">Court of Claims</a>.<a href="#cite_note-45">[45]</a> Even before a final ICC judgement, if a tribe claims compensation on the theory that its lands were extinguished, it cannot later attempt to claim valid title to those lands.<a href="#cite_note-46">[46]</a> An ICC judgement acts as a bar to future claims,<a href="#cite_note-47">[47]</a><a href="#cite_note-48">[48]</a> and an ICC payment conclusively establishes extinguishment (although, for timing purposes, the ICC has not jurisdiction to extinguish).<a href="#cite_note-49">[49]</a><a href="#cite_note-50">[50]</a> Even though ICCA settlements are binding, the scope of the settlement may be up for debate.<a href="#cite_note-51">[51]</a> The United States is bound by prior determinations as well.<a href="#cite_note-52">[52]</a> The <a href="/w/index.php?title=Grand_Canyon_National_Park_Enlargement_Act&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Grand Canyon National Park Enlargement Act (page does not exist)">Grand Canyon National Park Enlargement Act</a> is an example of an act extinguishing aboriginal title.<a href="#cite_note-53">[53]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="By_geography">By geography</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Aboriginal_title_in_the_United_States&action=edit&section=20" title="Edit section: By geography">edit</a>]</div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="East_of_Mississippi">East of Mississippi</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Aboriginal_title_in_the_United_States&action=edit&section=21" title="Edit section: East of Mississippi">edit</a>]</div> <a href="/wiki/Indian_removal" title="Indian removal">Indian removal</a> policy resulted in the complete extinguishment of aboriginal title in <a href="/wiki/Alabama" title="Alabama">Alabama</a> and <a href="/wiki/Mississippi" title="Mississippi">Mississippi</a> (1832), <a href="/wiki/Florida" title="Florida">Florida</a> and <a href="/wiki/Illinois" title="Illinois">Illinois</a> (1833), <a href="/wiki/Georgia_(U.S._state)" title="Georgia (U.S. state)">Georgia</a>, <a href="/wiki/North_Carolina" title="North Carolina">North Carolina</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Tennessee" title="Tennessee">Tennessee</a> (1835) [the <a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_New_Echota" title="Treaty of New Echota">Treaty of New Echota</a>], <a href="/wiki/Indian_removals_in_Indiana" title="Indian removals in Indiana">Indiana</a> (1840), and <a href="/wiki/Ohio" title="Ohio">Ohio</a> (1842).<a href="#cite_note-b226-4">[4]</a> <a href="/wiki/Indian_Land_Claims_Settlements" title="Indian Land Claims Settlements">Indian Land Claims Settlements</a> extinguished all aboriginal title in <a href="/wiki/Rhode_Island" title="Rhode Island">Rhode Island</a> in 1978<a href="#cite_note-54">[54]</a> and <a href="/wiki/Maine" title="Maine">Maine</a> in 1980.<a href="#cite_note-passamaquoddy-55">[55]</a> Similar, but non-statewide, acts extinguished some aboriginal title in <a href="/wiki/Connecticut" title="Connecticut">Connecticut</a>, <a href="/wiki/Florida" title="Florida">Florida</a>, <a href="/wiki/Massachusetts" title="Massachusetts">Massachusetts</a>, and <a href="/wiki/New_York_(state)" title="New York (state)">New York</a>. The <a href="/wiki/Vermont_Supreme_Court" title="Vermont Supreme Court">Vermont Supreme Court</a> has held, in actions where aboriginal title was raised as a defense by criminal defendants, that all aboriginal title in <a href="/wiki/Vermont" title="Vermont">Vermont</a> was extinguished when Vermont became a state.<a href="#cite_note-56">[56]</a> Commentators have criticized these decisions as inconsistent with federal law.<a href="#cite_note-57">[57]</a> Some eastern states argued that the Nonintercourse Act did not apply in the original colonies, or at least not in tribal areas surrounded by settlements. The First and Second Circuits have rejected this view, holding that the act applied in the entire United States.<a href="#cite_note-passamaquoddy-55">[55]</a><a href="#cite_note-58">[58]</a> <ul class="gallery mw-gallery-traditional"> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 155px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 150px; height: 150px;"><a href="/wiki/File:Indiana_Indian_treaties.svg" class="mw-file-description" title="Indian removal treaties in Indiana"><img alt="Indian removal treaties in Indiana" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a2/Indiana_Indian_treaties.svg/78px-Indiana_Indian_treaties.svg.png" decoding="async" width="78" height="120" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a2/Indiana_Indian_treaties.svg/117px-Indiana_Indian_treaties.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a2/Indiana_Indian_treaties.svg/156px-Indiana_Indian_treaties.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="2887" data-file-height="4423" /></a></div> <div class="gallerytext"><a href="/wiki/Indian_removals_in_Indiana" title="Indian removals in Indiana">Indian removal treaties in Indiana</a></div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 155px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 150px; height: 150px;"><a href="/wiki/File:Iowa_cessions_map.png" class="mw-file-description" title="Indian cessions in Iowa"><img alt="Indian cessions in Iowa" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0f/Iowa_cessions_map.png/120px-Iowa_cessions_map.png" decoding="async" width="120" height="90" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0f/Iowa_cessions_map.png/180px-Iowa_cessions_map.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0f/Iowa_cessions_map.png/240px-Iowa_cessions_map.png 2x" data-file-width="3009" data-file-height="2254" /></a></div> <div class="gallerytext">Indian cessions in Iowa</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 155px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 150px; height: 150px;"><a href="/wiki/File:Royce-areas-michigan.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Major Native American land cessions that resulted in what is now Michigan"><img alt="Major Native American land cessions that resulted in what is now Michigan" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/73/Royce-areas-michigan.jpg/103px-Royce-areas-michigan.jpg" decoding="async" width="103" height="120" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/73/Royce-areas-michigan.jpg/155px-Royce-areas-michigan.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/73/Royce-areas-michigan.jpg/206px-Royce-areas-michigan.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1495" data-file-height="1740" /></a></div> <div class="gallerytext">Major Native American land cessions that resulted in what is now Michigan</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 155px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 150px; height: 150px;"><a href="/wiki/File:Pennsylvania_land_purchases.png" class="mw-file-description" title="Land purchases in Pennsylvania"><img alt="Land purchases in Pennsylvania" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/61/Pennsylvania_land_purchases.png/120px-Pennsylvania_land_purchases.png" decoding="async" width="120" height="71" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/61/Pennsylvania_land_purchases.png/180px-Pennsylvania_land_purchases.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/61/Pennsylvania_land_purchases.png/240px-Pennsylvania_land_purchases.png 2x" data-file-width="1300" data-file-height="773" /></a></div> <div class="gallerytext">Land purchases in Pennsylvania</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 155px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 150px; height: 150px;"><a href="/wiki/File:Trails_of_Tears_en.png" class="mw-file-description" title="Removal of the Five Civilized Tribes"><img alt="Removal of the Five Civilized Tribes" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/16/Trails_of_Tears_en.png/120px-Trails_of_Tears_en.png" decoding="async" width="120" height="92" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/16/Trails_of_Tears_en.png/180px-Trails_of_Tears_en.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/16/Trails_of_Tears_en.png/240px-Trails_of_Tears_en.png 2x" data-file-width="2025" data-file-height="1547" /></a></div> <div class="gallerytext">Removal of the <a href="/wiki/Five_Civilized_Tribes" title="Five Civilized Tribes">Five Civilized Tribes</a></div> </li> </ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Louisiana_Purchase_and_Texas">Louisiana Purchase and Texas</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Aboriginal_title_in_the_United_States&action=edit&section=22" title="Edit section: Louisiana Purchase and Texas">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Louisiana_Purchase" title="Louisiana Purchase">Louisiana Purchase</a> and <a href="/wiki/Texas_Annexation" class="mw-redirect" title="Texas Annexation">Texas Annexation</a></div> <a href="/wiki/Indian_reservation" title="Indian reservation">Indian reservation</a> policy resulted in the extinguishment of all aboriginal title outside of reservations in <a href="/wiki/Iowa" title="Iowa">Iowa</a>, <a href="/wiki/Minnesota" title="Minnesota">Minnesota</a>, <a href="/wiki/Texas" title="Texas">Texas</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Kansas" title="Kansas">Kansas</a> by 1870, <a href="/wiki/Wyoming" title="Wyoming">Wyoming</a>, <a href="/wiki/Nebraska" title="Nebraska">Nebraska</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Colorado" title="Colorado">Colorado</a> by 1880, and <a href="/wiki/Montana" title="Montana">Montana</a> by 1886.<a href="#cite_note-b235-5">[5]</a> The Fifth Circuit has held that the <a href="/wiki/Louisiana_Land_Claims_Act" class="mw-redirect" title="Louisiana Land Claims Act">Louisiana Land Claims Act</a>, requiring all persons with "incomplete title" to file claims, applied to aboriginal title. Thus, the Act extinguished aboriginal title on all lands conveyed before those acts.<a href="#cite_note-59">[59]</a> Some of the statutes cited by the Fifth Circuit applied to <a href="/wiki/Arkansas" title="Arkansas">Arkansas</a> and <a href="/wiki/Missouri" title="Missouri">Missouri</a> as well.<a href="#cite_note-60">[60]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Hawaii">Hawaii</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Aboriginal_title_in_the_United_States&action=edit&section=23" title="Edit section: Hawaii">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Hawaiian_sovereignty_movement" title="Hawaiian sovereignty movement">Hawaiian sovereignty movement</a></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Mexican_Cession">Mexican Cession</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Aboriginal_title_in_the_United_States&action=edit&section=24" title="Edit section: Mexican Cession">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_Guadalupe_Hidalgo" title="Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo">Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo</a></div> Indian reservation policy resulted in the extinguishment of all aboriginal title outside of reservations in <a href="/wiki/Utah" title="Utah">Utah</a> and <a href="/wiki/Nevada" title="Nevada">Nevada</a> by 1880, and <a href="/wiki/Arizona" title="Arizona">Arizona</a> and <a href="/wiki/New_Mexico" title="New Mexico">New Mexico</a> by 1886.<a href="#cite_note-b235-5">[5]</a> <a href="/wiki/Aboriginal_title_in_California" title="Aboriginal title in California">California was different</a>. There, the Land Claims Act of 1851 required "each and every person claiming lands in California by virtue of any right or title derived by the Mexican government" to file their claim within two years.<a href="#cite_note-61">[61]</a> Despite early authority to the contrary,<a href="#cite_note-62">[62]</a> the established view is that the Act applied to aboriginal title, and thus extinguished all aboriginal title in California (as no tribes are known to have filed claims).<a href="#cite_note-63">[63]</a> Cramer v. United States (1926) has distinguished this line of cases for individual aboriginal title.<a href="#cite_note-cramer-16">[16]</a> The above commentary is challenged below. In 1833, the Mexican government gave tribal communities a brief notice that they had the option to make modest claims upon Mission lands before each mission was closed and its property sold off. Most Spanish residents in the state failed to inform the tribal members of their rights to claim land, or had already driven most of the Mission Indians into the Sierras. In addition, once California became a state, federal rules required that Indian communities interact exclusively with the federal government. The 1894 U.S. Government report <a href="/wiki/California_Indian_Reservations_and_Cessions" title="California Indian Reservations and Cessions">California Indian Reservations and Cessions</a> includes the lost 18 treaties made between California tribes and the U.S. military that were then made secret by an act of Congress shortly after the treaties were forced upon at gunpoint by the U.S. Army on all of the state's tribes with the promise of lands. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Oregon_territory">Oregon territory</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Aboriginal_title_in_the_United_States&action=edit&section=25" title="Edit section: Oregon territory">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Oregon_Treaty" title="Oregon Treaty">Oregon Treaty</a></div> Indian reservation policy resulted in the extinguishment of all aboriginal title outside of reservations in <a href="/wiki/Idaho" title="Idaho">Idaho</a>, <a href="/wiki/Washington_(state)" title="Washington (state)">Washington</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Oregon" title="Oregon">Oregon</a> in 1880.<a href="#cite_note-b235-5">[5]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:ANCSA_Regional_Corporations_Map.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/63/ANCSA_Regional_Corporations_Map.jpg/220px-ANCSA_Regional_Corporations_Map.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="163" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/63/ANCSA_Regional_Corporations_Map.jpg/330px-ANCSA_Regional_Corporations_Map.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/63/ANCSA_Regional_Corporations_Map.jpg/440px-ANCSA_Regional_Corporations_Map.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1100" data-file-height="816" /></a><figcaption>ANCSA established <a href="/wiki/Alaska_Native_Regional_Corporations" class="mw-redirect" title="Alaska Native Regional Corporations">Alaska Native Regional Corporations</a>.</figcaption></figure> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Alaska">Alaska</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Aboriginal_title_in_the_United_States&action=edit&section=26" title="Edit section: Alaska">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Alaska_Native_Claims_Settlement_Act" title="Alaska Native Claims Settlement Act">Alaska Native Claims Settlement Act</a></div> The <a href="/wiki/Alaska_Native_Claims_Settlement_Act" title="Alaska Native Claims Settlement Act">Alaska Native Claims Settlement Act</a> (ANCSA) extinguished all aboriginal title in Alaska in 1971.<a href="#cite_note-64">[64]</a> Moreover, ANCSA extinguished every claim "based on" aboriginal title, such as <a href="/wiki/Trespass" title="Trespass">trespass</a> and breach of fiduciary duty (and even the extinguishment of these did not constitute a taking).<a href="#cite_note-65">[65]</a><a href="#cite_note-66">[66]</a> ANCSA has been interpreted not to apply offshore lands,<a href="#cite_note-67">[67]</a><a href="#cite_note-hodel-68">[68]</a> although it did extinguish some rights to hunt and fish offshore.<a href="#cite_note-69">[69]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Other">Other</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Aboriginal_title_in_the_United_States&action=edit&section=27" title="Edit section: Other">edit</a>]</div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Submerged_lands">Submerged lands</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Aboriginal_title_in_the_United_States&action=edit&section=28" title="Edit section: Submerged lands">edit</a>]</div> Title to the bed and banks of rivers, and the mineral rights therein, generally passes to states upon their gaining statehood.<a href="#cite_note-70">[70]</a> However, this general doctrine does not apply where a tribe held treaty rights to the bed prior to statehood.<a href="#cite_note-71">[71]</a> Additionally, tribes can gain title to dry lands formerly covered by rivers after a river changes course.<a href="#cite_note-72">[72]</a> The United States can sue on behalf of tribes to gain title to those lands.<a href="#cite_note-73">[73]</a> The <a href="/wiki/Federal_navigable_servitude" class="mw-redirect" title="Federal navigable servitude">federal navigable servitude</a> also bars the assertion of aboriginal title, although this may give rise to a claim for breach of fiduciary duty under the ICCA.<a href="#cite_note-74">[74]</a> Aboriginal title is absolutely extinguished to offshore submerged lands in the <a href="/wiki/Outer_Continental_Shelf" title="Outer Continental Shelf">Outer Continental Shelf</a>, however, under the doctrine of <a href="/wiki/Paramountcy" class="mw-redirect" title="Paramountcy">paramountcy</a>.<a href="#cite_note-hodel-68">[68]</a><a href="#cite_note-75">[75]</a><a href="#cite_note-76">[76]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Guam">Guam</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Aboriginal_title_in_the_United_States&action=edit&section=29" title="Edit section: Guam">edit</a>]</div> The Ninth Circuit assumed but did not decide that unextinguished aboriginal title remains in Guam, but held that the government of Guam had no standing to assert it.<a href="#cite_note-77">[77]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Possessory_cause_of_action">Possessory cause of action</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Aboriginal_title_in_the_United_States&action=edit&section=30" title="Edit section: Possessory cause of action">edit</a>]</div> For the first 100 years of the <a href="/wiki/History_of_the_United_States" title="History of the United States">history of the United States</a>, the doctrine of aboriginal title existed only in <a href="/wiki/Dicta" class="mw-redirect" title="Dicta">dicta</a> supplied by decisions concerning land disputes between non-indigenous parties. It was generally assumed, but untested, that aboriginal title could be vindicated by <a href="/wiki/Cause_of_action" title="Cause of action">causes of action</a> such as <a href="/wiki/Ejectment" title="Ejectment">ejectment</a> and <a href="/wiki/Trespass" title="Trespass">trespass</a>.<a href="#cite_note-78">[78]</a> <a href="/wiki/Seneca_Nation_of_Indians_v._Christy" title="Seneca Nation of Indians v. Christy">Seneca Nation of Indians v. Christy</a> (1896), the first aboriginal title claim by an indigenous plaintiff to reach the U.S. Supreme Court, typifies the state of the law up until that point, and largely until the 1970s. The <a href="/wiki/New_York_Court_of_Appeals" title="New York Court of Appeals">New York Court of Appeals</a> ruled against the Seneca, both on the merits and on <a href="/wiki/Statute_of_limitations" title="Statute of limitations">statute of limitations</a> grounds, and the Supreme Court declined to review the decision because of <a href="/wiki/Adequate_and_independent_state_grounds" class="mw-redirect" title="Adequate and independent state grounds">adequate and independent state grounds</a>.<a href="#cite_note-79">[79]</a> The situation changed dramatically in the 1970s and 1980s. <a href="/wiki/Oneida_Indian_Nation_of_N.Y._State_v._Oneida_County" class="mw-redirect" title="Oneida Indian Nation of N.Y. State v. Oneida County">Oneida Indian Nation of N.Y. State v. Oneida County</a> (1974) ["Oneida I"] held for the first time that there was federal <a href="/wiki/Subject-matter_jurisdiction" title="Subject-matter jurisdiction">subject-matter jurisdiction</a> for possessory claims by Indian tribes based upon aboriginal title.<a href="#cite_note-oneidaI-80">[80]</a> <a href="/wiki/Oneida_County_v._Oneida_Indian_Nation_of_N.Y._State" class="mw-redirect" title="Oneida County v. Oneida Indian Nation of N.Y. State">Oneida County v. Oneida Indian Nation of N.Y. State</a> (1985) ["Oneida II"], held that there was a <a href="/wiki/Federal_common_law" title="Federal common law">federal common law</a> cause of action for such possessory claims, not pre-empted by the <a href="/wiki/Indian_Intercourse_Act" class="mw-redirect" title="Indian Intercourse Act">Nonintercourse Act</a>, and rejected all of the counties' remaining affirmative defenses. Most importantly, Oneida II held that there was no statute of limitations applicable to such a cause of action, allowing the Oneida to challenge a conveyance from 1795.<a href="#cite_note-oneidaII-81">[81]</a> The Second Circuit had also held that the Act creates an <a href="/wiki/Implied_cause_of_action" class="mw-redirect" title="Implied cause of action">implied cause of action</a>, a question the Supreme Court did not reach. Oneida I and Oneida II opened the doors of the federal courts to dozens of high-profile land claims, especially in the former <a href="/wiki/Thirteen_Colonies" title="Thirteen Colonies">Thirteen Colonies</a>, where tribal land continued to be purchased by the states without federal approval after the passage of the Constitution and the Nonintercourse Act.<a href="#cite_note-82">[82]</a> <a href="/wiki/Joint_Tribal_Council_of_the_Passamaquoddy_Tribe_v._Morton" title="Joint Tribal Council of the Passamaquoddy Tribe v. Morton">Joint Tribal Council of the Passamaquoddy Tribe v. Morton</a> (1975) held that (even unrecognized) tribes could sue the federal government to compel it to bring suits against the state governments to vindicate Indian land claims.<a href="#cite_note-passamaquoddy-55">[55]</a> To have standing, plaintiffs must prove that the surviving tribal organization is the successor in interest to the historical tribe. <a href="/wiki/Mashpee_Tribe_v._New_Seabury_Corp." title="Mashpee Tribe v. New Seabury Corp.">Mashpee Tribe v. New Seabury Corp.</a> (1979) is an example of a claim defeated by disproving this element.<a href="#cite_note-83">[83]</a> The First Circuit has also held that the cause of action under the Nonintercourse Act accrues only to tribes, not individuals;<a href="#cite_note-84">[84]</a> moreover, where a jury finds against tribal status, non-federally-recognized tribes are not entitled to reverse that holding as a matter of law.<a href="#cite_note-mashapee-85">[85]</a> In suits against private parties, the United States is not a <a href="/wiki/Necessary_party" class="mw-redirect" title="Necessary party">necessary party</a>.<a href="#cite_note-sokaogon-86">[86]</a><a href="#cite_note-87">[87]</a> Similarly, historically, a <a href="/wiki/Court_of_equity" title="Court of equity">court of equity</a> could not set aside fraudulent transfers of aboriginal title unless all parties to the fraud were before it.<a href="#cite_note-88">[88]</a> Old lower court decisions have expressed the view that aboriginal title is a <a href="/wiki/Political_question_doctrine" class="mw-redirect" title="Political question doctrine">political</a>, <a href="/wiki/Justiciable" class="mw-redirect" title="Justiciable">non-justiciable</a> question.<a href="#cite_note-89">[89]</a> But, this view was subsequently rejected by the Supreme Court in Oneida II. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Compensatory_causes_of_action">Compensatory causes of action</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Aboriginal_title_in_the_United_States&action=edit&section=31" title="Edit section: Compensatory causes of action">edit</a>]</div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Constitutional">Constitutional</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Aboriginal_title_in_the_United_States&action=edit&section=32" title="Edit section: Constitutional">edit</a>]</div> The <a href="/wiki/Insular_Cases" title="Insular Cases">Insular Cases</a> seemed to take the view that aboriginal title was constitutionally protected property, at least within the <a href="/wiki/Philippines" title="Philippines">Philippines</a>.<a href="#cite_note-90">[90]</a> In the 1930s and 1940s, the Supreme Court held that the <a href="/wiki/Takings_Clause" class="mw-redirect" title="Takings Clause">Takings Clause</a> of the <a href="/wiki/Fifth_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Fifth Amendment to the United States Constitution">Fifth Amendment to the United States Constitution</a> required compensation for the taking of Indian lands when held in fee simple (as limited by treaty)<a href="#cite_note-91">[91]</a><a href="#cite_note-92">[92]</a> and treaty title.<a href="#cite_note-93">[93]</a><a href="#cite_note-94">[94]</a> It took the contrary view with a reservation created by <a href="/wiki/Executive_order_(United_States)" class="mw-redirect" title="Executive order (United States)">executive order</a>.<a href="#cite_note-95">[95]</a> The taking of reservation land is now acknowledged as a taking.<a href="#cite_note-96">[96]</a> Tillamooks I (1946) was the closest the Supreme Court ever came to holding that unrecognized aboriginal title is property under the Fifth Amendment. Although the suit had been instituted under a special jurisdictional statute waiving the defense of sovereign immunity, the Court ordered compensation even while insisting that the statute itself had not created a property right; only the dissent referred to the Fifth Amendment.<a href="#cite_note-97">[97]</a> According to the Ninth Circuit in Miller v. United States (1947), Tillamooks I held that even unrecognized aboriginal title is property under the Fifth Amendment, the extinguishment of which requires just compensation.<a href="#cite_note-98">[98]</a> Although the issue was not raised in the case, a footnote in Hynes v. Grimes Packing (1949) repudiated the 9th Circuit view and insisted that aboriginal title was non-compensable.<a href="#cite_note-99">[99]</a> Tillamooks II (1951) appeared to accept the Hynes view by denying interest to the compensation paid on remand following Tillamooks I.<a href="#cite_note-100">[100]</a> <a href="/wiki/Tee-Hit-Ton_Indians_v._United_States" title="Tee-Hit-Ton Indians v. United States">Tee-Hit-Ton Indians v. United States</a> (1955) finally held that unrecognized aboriginal title was not property within the meaning of the Fifth Amendment, and thus could be extinguished without compensation.<a href="#cite_note-101">[101]</a> Even the partition of a reservation does not implicate the Takings Clause,<a href="#cite_note-102">[102]</a> nor the modification of ANCSA.<a href="#cite_note-103">[103]</a> Recognized Indian title, unlike original Indian title, may give rise to Taking claims.<a href="#cite_note-104">[104]</a> The claims court has sometimes refused takings claims, and thus denied interest, even where tribes were acknowledged to hold fee simple.<a href="#cite_note-105">[105]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Statutory">Statutory</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Aboriginal_title_in_the_United_States&action=edit&section=33" title="Edit section: Statutory">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Indian_Claims_Commission" title="Indian Claims Commission">Indian Claims Commission</a></div> The Nonintercourse Act (discussed below) creates a trust relationship between tribes and the federal government, which is not easy to terminate.<a href="#cite_note-106">[106]</a> The ICCA also acknowledges a cause of action for breach of "fair and honorable dealings."<a href="#cite_note-107">[107]</a> This is compensable with money damages for breach of <a href="/wiki/Fiduciary_duty" class="mw-redirect" title="Fiduciary duty">fiduciary duty</a>.<a href="#cite_note-108">[108]</a><a href="#cite_note-109">[109]</a> This fiduciary duty gives rise for a claim of <a href="/wiki/Unconscionable_compensation" class="mw-redirect" title="Unconscionable compensation">unconscionable compensation</a> even when the transfer remains valid.<a href="#cite_note-110">[110]</a><a href="#cite_note-111">[111]</a> Liability under the fiduciary duty is sometimes the same whether the breach occurred before or after the ratification of the Constitution.<a href="#cite_note-112">[112]</a> However, other cases have held that the duty did not arise until 1790.<a href="#cite_note-six_nations-113">[113]</a> This duty also gives rise to recovery for <a href="/wiki/Negligence" title="Negligence">negligence</a>, such as "surveying errors".<a href="#cite_note-114">[114]</a><a href="#cite_note-115">[115]</a> In no case would the ICCA compensate a tribe for harm by state governments.<a href="#cite_note-six_nations-113">[113]</a> Prior to 1946, Native American land claims were explicitly barred from Claims Courts by statute.<a href="#cite_note-navajo-116">[116]</a> The <a href="/wiki/Indian_Claims_Commission_Act" class="mw-redirect" title="Indian Claims Commission Act">Indian Claims Commission Act</a> of 1946 (ICCA) created forum of Indian land claims before the <a href="/wiki/Indian_Claims_Commission" title="Indian Claims Commission">Indian Claims Commission</a> (subsequently merged into the <a href="/wiki/United_States_Court_of_Claims" title="United States Court of Claims">United States Court of Claims</a>, and then the <a href="/wiki/United_States_Court_of_Federal_Claims" title="United States Court of Federal Claims">United States Court of Federal Claims</a>). However, the ICCA created a four-year statute of limitations.<a href="#cite_note-sokaogon-86">[86]</a> Moreover, the ICC and its successors may award only money damages, and cannot—for example—title land.<a href="#cite_note-navajo-116">[116]</a> Finally, the ICCA is the exclusive forum to pursue claims against the federal government.<a href="#cite_note-117">[117]</a> In claims court, lands are valued at the date of purchase, not at present value, and without interest.<a href="#cite_note-118">[118]</a> Recovery is limited to that fair market value, and may not be increased to another measure, such as <a href="/wiki/Restitution" class="mw-redirect" title="Restitution">restitution</a> of the profit gained by the United States through breaching its duty.<a href="#cite_note-119">[119]</a> Other payments or in-kind services may be offset from judgements.<a href="#cite_note-120">[120]</a><a href="#cite_note-121">[121]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Affirmative_defenses">Affirmative defenses</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Aboriginal_title_in_the_United_States&action=edit&section=34" title="Edit section: Affirmative defenses">edit</a>]</div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Immunity">Immunity</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Aboriginal_title_in_the_United_States&action=edit&section=35" title="Edit section: Immunity">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Sovereign_immunity_in_the_United_States" title="Sovereign immunity in the United States">Sovereign immunity in the United States</a></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Federal_sovereign_immunity">Federal sovereign immunity</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Aboriginal_title_in_the_United_States&action=edit&section=36" title="Edit section: Federal sovereign immunity">edit</a>]</div> Because of the ease with which the federal government may extinguish aboriginal title, and the fact that it may constitutionally do so without compensation, meritorious claims against the federal government are difficult to construct. <a href="/wiki/Federal_Power_Commission_v._Tuscarora_Indian_Nation" title="Federal Power Commission v. Tuscarora Indian Nation">Federal Power Commission v. Tuscarora Indian Nation</a> (1960) held that the Nonintercourse Act did not apply to the federal government.<a href="#cite_note-122">[122]</a> Additionally, the federal government cannot be sued without its consent. The federal government has consented to some compensatory suits under the Indian Claims Commission Act, supra, subject to a statute of limitations. Nor can the states sue the federal government in its capacity as guardian of the tribes.<a href="#cite_note-123">[123]</a> Prior to the ICCA, <a href="/wiki/Private_bill" class="mw-redirect" title="Private bill">private bills</a> waived sovereign immunity for specific tribal complaints. The ICCA, and its amendments, also created a statute of limitations for claims against the federal government.<a href="#cite_note-124">[124]</a> <dl><dt>State sovereign immunity</dt></dl> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Lakecoeurdalenebig.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cc/Lakecoeurdalenebig.jpg/220px-Lakecoeurdalenebig.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cc/Lakecoeurdalenebig.jpg/330px-Lakecoeurdalenebig.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cc/Lakecoeurdalenebig.jpg/440px-Lakecoeurdalenebig.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1280" data-file-height="960" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Coeur_d%27Alene_people" title="Coeur d'Alene people">Coeur d'Alene Tribe</a> was unable to sue Idaho to recover <a href="/wiki/Lake_Coeur_d%27Alene" title="Lake Coeur d'Alene">Lake Coeur d'Alene</a> due to state sovereign immunity;<a href="#cite_note-CdA-125">[125]</a> however, the federal government successfully brought an identical suit on the tribe's behalf.<a href="#cite_note-CdA2-126">[126]</a></figcaption></figure> The vast majority of allegedly illegal expropriation of tribal lands has occurred at the hands of <a href="/wiki/U.S._state" title="U.S. state">states</a>; however, regardless of the merits of these claims, states generally may not be sued.<a href="#cite_note-127">[127]</a> The <a href="/wiki/Eleventh_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Eleventh Amendment to the United States Constitution">Eleventh Amendment</a>, and the broader principle of state sovereign immunity derived from the structure of the Constitution, bars most suits against states without their consent. Although states may sue other states, the Supreme Court ruled in <a href="/w/index.php?title=Blatchford_v._Native_Vill._of_Noatak&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Blatchford v. Native Vill. of Noatak (page does not exist)">Blatchford v. Native Vill. of Noatak</a> (1991) that tribes—even though they also enjoy sovereign immunity—have no greater ability to sue states than private individuals.<a href="#cite_note-128">[128]</a> There are several exceptions to state sovereign immunity potentially relevant to aboriginal title claimants: the doctrine of <a href="/wiki/Ex_parte_Young" title="Ex parte Young">Ex parte Young</a> (1908), Congressional abrogation of state sovereign immunity by statute, and the ability of the federal government itself to sue states. While—under Ex parte Young—tribes may obtain some prospective, equitable relief in suits nominally against state officials (generally, for treaty rights),<a href="#cite_note-129">[129]</a> the Supreme Court in <a href="/wiki/Idaho_v._Coeur_d%27Alene_Tribe_of_Idaho" title="Idaho v. Coeur d'Alene Tribe of Idaho">Idaho v. Coeur d'Alene Tribe</a> (1997) held that state sovereign immunity barred not only <a href="/wiki/Quiet_title" title="Quiet title">quiet title</a> suits but also suits against state officials which would constitute the equivalent of quiet title.<a href="#cite_note-CdA-125">[125]</a> Although Coeur d'Alene involved sovereign title to a lake bed, this precedent has been applied to bar even suits against states in their capacity as ordinary property owners.<a href="#cite_note-130">[130]</a> There are at least two Congressional statutes which may have contemplated authorizing aboriginal title suits against states: the <a href="/wiki/Indian_Nonintercourse_Act" class="mw-redirect" title="Indian Nonintercourse Act">Nonintercourse Act</a> and 28 U.S.C. § 1362, providing: "district courts shall have original jurisdiction of all civil actions, brought by any Indian tribe or band with a governing body duly recognized by the Secretary of the Interior, wherein the matter in controversy arises under the Constitution, laws, or treaties of the United States."<a href="#cite_note-131">[131]</a> The Supreme Court rejected the latter in Blatchford, supra; the <a href="/wiki/United_States_Court_of_Appeals_for_the_Fifth_Circuit" title="United States Court of Appeals for the Fifth Circuit">Fifth Circuit</a> rejected the former in 2000.<a href="#cite_note-132">[132]</a> The Supreme Court mooted both in <a href="/wiki/Seminole_Tribe_v._Florida" class="mw-redirect" title="Seminole Tribe v. Florida">Seminole Tribe v. Florida</a> (1996)—a suit under the <a href="/wiki/Indian_Gaming_Regulatory_Act" title="Indian Gaming Regulatory Act">Indian Gaming Regulatory Act</a>—when it held that Congress could not constitutionally abrogate state sovereign immunity under the <a href="/wiki/Indian_Commerce_Clause" class="mw-redirect" title="Indian Commerce Clause">Indian Commerce Clause</a>, the basis for both statutes.<a href="#cite_note-133">[133]</a> This holding has subsequently been expanded to nearly all of Congress's <a href="/wiki/Article_One_of_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Article One of the United States Constitution">Article One</a> powers,<a href="#cite_note-134">[134]</a> leaving only the <a href="/wiki/Reconstruction_Amendments" title="Reconstruction Amendments">Reconstruction Amendments</a> as a basis for abrogating state sovereign immunity. Finally, the federal government may bring suits against states on behalf of the tribes in its guardian capacity, as it historically has.<a href="#cite_note-CdA2-126">[126]</a><a href="#cite_note-135">[135]</a> Similarly, tribes may <a href="/wiki/Intervention_(law)" title="Intervention (law)">intervene</a> in suits brought by the federal government (or the federal government may intervene in suits brought by the tribes) against states.<a href="#cite_note-136">[136]</a> This exception is rather narrow, and states may assert sovereign immunity where tribes assert different claims, or ask for different relief, than the federal government.<a href="#cite_note-oneida2010-137">[137]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Delay">Delay</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Aboriginal_title_in_the_United_States&action=edit&section=37" title="Edit section: Delay">edit</a>]</div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Statute_of_limitations/adverse_possession">Statute of limitations/adverse possession</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Aboriginal_title_in_the_United_States&action=edit&section=38" title="Edit section: Statute of limitations/adverse possession">edit</a>]</div> <a href="/wiki/Oneida_County_v._Oneida_Indian_Nation_of_N.Y._State" class="mw-redirect" title="Oneida County v. Oneida Indian Nation of N.Y. State">Oneida County v. Oneida Indian Nation of N.Y. State</a> (1985) ["Oneida II"] held that it would violate federal policy to apply the state <a href="/wiki/Statute_of_limitations" title="Statute of limitations">statute of limitations</a> to the federal cause of action for ejectment based on aboriginal title; thus, there is no statute of limitations.<a href="#cite_note-oneidaII-81">[81]</a> Similarly, the widely held view is that aboriginal title cannot be <a href="/wiki/Adverse_possession" title="Adverse possession">adversely possessed</a>. However, if a tribe is subject to an <a href="/wiki/Indian_Termination_Act" class="mw-redirect" title="Indian Termination Act">Indian Termination Act</a>, the state statute of limitations (and any generally applicable state law) will apply to its land claim, as the Supreme Court held in <a href="/wiki/South_Carolina_v._Catawba_Indian_Tribe" class="mw-redirect" title="South Carolina v. Catawba Indian Tribe">South Carolina v. Catawba Indian Tribe</a> (1986).<a href="#cite_note-138">[138]</a> State statute of limitations do apply, however, for tribal actions under state law, such as <a href="/wiki/Quiet_title" title="Quiet title">quiet title</a>, even if based on aboriginal title.<a href="#cite_note-139">[139]</a> Similarly, the Supreme Court in 1907 declared that, for the sake of stability in property law, that it would defer to state court interpretations of Indian treaties.<a href="#cite_note-140">[140]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Laches">Laches</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Aboriginal_title_in_the_United_States&action=edit&section=39" title="Edit section: Laches">edit</a>]</div> In Oneida II, the four dissenting justices would have applied <a href="/wiki/Laches_(equity)" title="Laches (equity)">laches</a> to dismiss the claim.<a href="#cite_note-oneidaII-81">[81]</a> Although the majority did not reach the issue (which the defendants had not preserved on appeal), it noted that "it is far from clear that this defense is available in suits such as this one" and that the "application of the equitable defense of laches in an action at law would be novel indeed."<a href="#cite_note-oneidaII-81">[81]</a> A footnote in the majority also quoted Ewert v. Bluejacket (1922),<a href="#cite_note-141">[141]</a> which held that laches "cannot properly have application to give vitality to a void deed and to bar the rights of Indian wards in lands subject to statutory restrictions."<a href="#cite_note-oneidaII-81">[81]</a> <a href="/wiki/City_of_Sherrill_v._Oneida_Indian_Nation_of_N.Y." class="mw-redirect" title="City of Sherrill v. Oneida Indian Nation of N.Y.">City of Sherrill v. Oneida Indian Nation of N.Y.</a> (2005) applied laches to an attempt to revive <a href="/wiki/Tribal_sovereignty_in_the_United_States" title="Tribal sovereignty in the United States">tribal sovereignty</a> over land reacquired by the tribe in fee simple.<a href="#cite_note-142">[142]</a> Building on Sherrill, the <a href="/wiki/United_States_Court_of_Appeals_for_the_Second_Circuit" title="United States Court of Appeals for the Second Circuit">Second Circuit</a> in <a href="/wiki/Cayuga_Indian_Nation_of_N.Y._v._Pataki" class="mw-redirect" title="Cayuga Indian Nation of N.Y. v. Pataki">Cayuga Indian Nation of N.Y. v. Pataki</a> (2005) held that "these equitable defenses apply to 'disruptive' Indian land claims more generally."<a href="#cite_note-143">[143]</a> Although the <a href="/wiki/Solicitor_General_of_the_United_States" title="Solicitor General of the United States">Solicitor General</a> joined the Cayugas' appeal,<a href="#cite_note-144">[144]</a> the Supreme Court denied certiorari.<a href="#cite_note-145">[145]</a> The Second Circuit has also applied laches to non-possessory contract claims for <a href="/wiki/Unconscionable_consideration" class="mw-redirect" title="Unconscionable consideration">unconscionable consideration</a>.<a href="#cite_note-oneida2010-137">[137]</a> This doctrine has been criticized for not requiring the defendant to satisfy the traditional elements of the laches defense, applying only to Indian land claims, and having the potential to bar nearly all Indian land and treaty claims.<a href="#cite_note-146">[146]</a> No other Circuit has adopted the Second Circuit's expansive view of Sherrill. The <a href="/wiki/United_States_Court_of_Appeals_for_the_Third_Circuit" title="United States Court of Appeals for the Third Circuit">Third</a>, <a href="/wiki/United_States_Court_of_Appeals_for_the_Sixth_Circuit" title="United States Court of Appeals for the Sixth Circuit">Sixth</a>, <a href="/wiki/United_States_Court_of_Appeals_for_the_Eighth_Circuit" title="United States Court of Appeals for the Eighth Circuit">Eighth</a>, and <a href="/wiki/United_States_Court_of_Appeals_for_the_Tenth_Circuit" title="United States Court of Appeals for the Tenth Circuit">Tenth</a> Circuits, since Sherrill, have declined to reach the question of the scope of laches as a defense to ancient tribal claims.<a href="#cite_note-Delaware_Nation_v_2006-33">[33]</a><a href="#cite_note-147">[147]</a><a href="#cite_note-148">[148]</a><a href="#cite_note-149">[149]</a><a href="#cite_note-150">[150]</a> The <a href="/wiki/United_States_Court_of_Appeals_for_the_First_Circuit" title="United States Court of Appeals for the First Circuit">First Circuit</a> has limited Sherrill to assertions of sovereignty,<a href="#cite_note-151">[151]</a> in an opinion that was reversed on other grounds.<a href="#cite_note-152">[152]</a> Some <a href="/wiki/United_States_district_court" title="United States district court">district courts</a> take the First Circuit's view;<a href="#cite_note-153">[153]</a><a href="#cite_note-154">[154]</a> others the Second Circuit's;<a href="#cite_note-155">[155]</a><a href="#cite_note-156">[156]</a><a href="#cite_note-157">[157]</a> others strike a middle ground.<a href="#cite_note-158">[158]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Relationship_to_other_rights">Relationship to other rights</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Aboriginal_title_in_the_United_States&action=edit&section=40" title="Edit section: Relationship to other rights">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Indian_reservations_in_the_Continental_United_States.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2b/Indian_reservations_in_the_Continental_United_States.png/220px-Indian_reservations_in_the_Continental_United_States.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="150" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2b/Indian_reservations_in_the_Continental_United_States.png/330px-Indian_reservations_in_the_Continental_United_States.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2b/Indian_reservations_in_the_Continental_United_States.png/440px-Indian_reservations_in_the_Continental_United_States.png 2x" data-file-width="966" data-file-height="660" /></a><figcaption>A map of <a href="/wiki/Indian_reservation" title="Indian reservation">Indian reservations</a></figcaption></figure> Aboriginal title is distinct from recognized Indian title, where the United States federal government recognizes tribal land by treaty or otherwise. Aboriginal title is not a prerequisite to recognized title.<a href="#cite_note-159">[159]</a> The relationship between aboriginal title and reservations is unclear.<a href="#cite_note-160">[160]</a> Often, courts will not reach the question of aboriginal title, if the same land is found to comprise part of an <a href="/wiki/Indian_reservation" title="Indian reservation">Indian reservation</a>.<a href="#cite_note-CdA2-126">[126]</a> Some reservations were created in a process that extinguished aboriginal title.<a href="#cite_note-161">[161]</a> Although Congress has the power to grant tribes land in fee simple, some reservations may continue to be held in aboriginal title.<a href="#cite_note-162">[162]</a> The old view was that the extinguishment of aboriginal title extinguished all tribal rights to the same land.<a href="#cite_note-163">[163]</a> The current view is that usufructuary rights pursuant to a treaty may survive the extinguishment of aboriginal title.<a href="#cite_note-164">[164]</a> However, such usufructs may be lost when tribes cede land to the federal government.<a href="#cite_note-165">[165]</a> Certain usufructs may be extinguished by implication.<a href="#cite_note-166">[166]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Aboriginal_title_in_the_United_States&action=edit&section=41" title="Edit section: See also">edit</a>]</div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Checkerboarding_(land)" title="Checkerboarding (land)">Checkerboarding (land)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Diminishment" title="Diminishment">Diminishment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Land_Buy-Back_Program_for_Tribal_Nations" title="Land Buy-Back Program for Tribal Nations">Land Buy-Back Program for Tribal Nations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Off-reservation_trust_land" title="Off-reservation trust land">Off-reservation trust land</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tribal_sovereignty_in_the_United_States" title="Tribal sovereignty in the United States">Tribal sovereignty in the United States</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Notes">Notes</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Aboriginal_title_in_the_United_States&action=edit&section=42" title="Edit section: Notes">edit</a>]</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist reflist-columns references-column-width" style="column-width: 30em;"> <ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-1"><a href="#cite_ref-1">^</a> Banner, 2005, p. 180. </li> <li id="cite_note-2"><a href="#cite_ref-2">^</a> Banner, 2005, p. 171--72, 179. </li> <li id="cite_note-3"><a href="#cite_ref-3">^</a> Kades, 148 U. Pa. L. Rev. at 1092--93. </li> <li id="cite_note-b226-4">^ <a href="#cite_ref-b226_4-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-b226_4-1">b</a> Banner, 2005, p. 226. </li> <li id="cite_note-b235-5">^ <a href="#cite_ref-b235_5-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-b235_5-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-b235_5-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-b235_5-3">d</a> <a href="#cite_ref-b235_5-4">e</a> <a href="#cite_ref-b235_5-5">f</a> Banner, 2005, p. 235. </li> <li id="cite_note-6"><a href="#cite_ref-6">^</a> Banner, 2005, p. 251. </li> <li id="cite_note-7"><a href="#cite_ref-7">^</a> Banner, 2005, pp. 235--36. </li> <li id="cite_note-8"><a href="#cite_ref-8">^</a> Banner, 2005, pp. 287--88. </li> <li id="cite_note-9"><a href="#cite_ref-9">^</a> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20110821040428/http://www.akhistorycourse.org/articles/article.php?artID=280">"Alaska History and Cultural Studies - Alaska's Cultures - ANCSA: What Political Process? - Paul Ongtooguk"</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.akhistorycourse.org/articles/article.php?artID=280">the original</a> on August 21, 2011. Retrieved August 29, 2011.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Alaska+History+and+Cultural+Studies+-+Alaska%27s+Cultures+-+ANCSA%3A+What+Political+Process%3F+-+Paul+Ongtooguk&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.akhistorycourse.org%2Farticles%2Farticle.php%3FartID%3D280&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAboriginal+title+in+the+United+States" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-10"><a href="#cite_ref-10">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.alaskool.org/projects/ancsa/articles/ADN/RyanOlsenDec2004.htm">"How can AFN be the voice of Natives when its officers are not elected?"</a>. www.alaskool.org.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=www.alaskool.org&rft.atitle=How+can+AFN+be+the+voice+of+Natives+when+its+officers+are+not+elected%3F&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.alaskool.org%2Fprojects%2Fancsa%2Farticles%2FADN%2FRyanOlsenDec2004.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAboriginal+title+in+the+United+States" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-11"><a href="#cite_ref-11">^</a> Banner, 2005, p. 291. </li> <li id="cite_note-12"><a href="#cite_ref-12">^</a> Confederated Tribes v. United States, 177 Ct. Cl. 184, 194 (1966). </li> <li id="cite_note-13"><a href="#cite_ref-13">^</a> Alabama-Coushatta Tribe of Texas v. U.S., 2000 WL 1013532 (Fed. Cl.). </li> <li id="cite_note-14"><a href="#cite_ref-14">^</a> Strong v. United States, 207 Ct.Cl. 254 (1975). </li> <li id="cite_note-Chippewa_Indians_v._U_1974-15">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Chippewa_Indians_v._U_1974_15-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Chippewa_Indians_v._U_1974_15-1">b</a> Turtle Mountain Band of Chippewa Indians v. U. S., 203 Ct.Cl. 426 (1974). </li> <li id="cite_note-cramer-16">^ <a href="#cite_ref-cramer_16-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-cramer_16-1">b</a> Cramer v. United States, 261 U.S. 219 (1923). </li> <li id="cite_note-17"><a href="#cite_ref-17">^</a> United States v. Lowry, 512 F.3d 1194 (9th Cir. 2008). </li> <li id="cite_note-18"><a href="#cite_ref-18">^</a> United States v. Hensher, 1996 WL 539113 (9th Cir.) (unreported). </li> <li id="cite_note-19"><a href="#cite_ref-19">^</a> City of Sherrill, N.Y. v. Oneida Indian Nation of New York, 544 U.S. 197 (2005) ["Oneida III"]. </li> <li id="cite_note-20"><a href="#cite_ref-20">^</a> Cass County, Minn. v. Leech Lake Band of Chippewa Indians, 524 U.S. 103 (1998). </li> <li id="cite_note-21"><a href="#cite_ref-21">^</a> Hagen v. Utah, 510 U.S. 399 (1994). </li> <li id="cite_note-22"><a href="#cite_ref-22">^</a> U.S. v. Unzeuta, 281 U.S. 138 (1930). </li> <li id="cite_note-23"><a href="#cite_ref-23">^</a> Alaska v. Native Village of Venetie Tribal Government, 522 U.S. 520 (1998). </li> <li id="cite_note-24"><a href="#cite_ref-24">^</a> Aleut Community of St. Paul Island v. U. S., 202 Ct.Cl. 182 (1973). </li> <li id="cite_note-25"><a href="#cite_ref-25">^</a> San Xavier Development Authority v. Charles, 237 F.3d 1149 (9th Cir. 2001). </li> <li id="cite_note-jvm-26"><a href="#cite_ref-jvm_26-0">^</a> <a href="/wiki/Johnson_v._McIntosh" title="Johnson v. McIntosh">Johnson v. McIntosh</a>, 21 U.S. (8 Wheat.) 543 (1823). </li> <li id="cite_note-27"><a href="#cite_ref-27">^</a> United States v. Santa Fe Pacific R. Co., 314 U.S. 339 (1941). </li> <li id="cite_note-28"><a href="#cite_ref-28">^</a> Whitefoot v. U. S., 155 Ct.Cl. 127 (1961). </li> <li id="cite_note-29"><a href="#cite_ref-29">^</a> Hale v. Gaines, 63 U.S. 144 (1859). </li> <li id="cite_note-30"><a href="#cite_ref-30">^</a> Chouteau v. Molony, 57 U.S. 203 (1853). </li> <li id="cite_note-31"><a href="#cite_ref-31">^</a> Thredgill v. Pintard, 53 U.S. 24 (1851). </li> <li id="cite_note-32"><a href="#cite_ref-32">^</a> Clark v. Smith, 38 U.S. 195 (1839). </li> <li id="cite_note-Delaware_Nation_v_2006-33">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Delaware_Nation_v_2006_33-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Delaware_Nation_v_2006_33-1">b</a> Delaware Nation v. Pennsylvania, 446 F.3d 410 (3rd Cir. 2006). </li> <li id="cite_note-34"><a href="#cite_ref-34">^</a> Gila River Pima-Maricopa Indian Community v. U. S., 204 Ct.Cl. 137 (1974). </li> <li id="cite_note-35"><a href="#cite_ref-35">^</a> U.S. v. Northern Paiute Nation, 203 Ct.Cl. 468 (1974). </li> <li id="cite_note-36"><a href="#cite_ref-36">^</a> Oneida Indian Nation of New York v. Madison County, Oneida County, N.Y., 605 F.3d 149 (2d Cir. 2010). </li> <li id="cite_note-37"><a href="#cite_ref-37">^</a> Seneca Nation of Indians v. New York, 382 F.3d 245 (2d Cir. 2004). </li> <li id="cite_note-38"><a href="#cite_ref-38">^</a> Oneida Indian Nation of New York v. State of N.Y., 860 F.2d 1145 (2d Cir. 1988). </li> <li id="cite_note-39"><a href="#cite_ref-39">^</a> Lone Wolf v. Hitchcock, 187 U.S. 553 (1903). </li> <li id="cite_note-40"><a href="#cite_ref-40">^</a> Beecher v. Wetherby, 95 U.S. 517 (1877). </li> <li id="cite_note-41"><a href="#cite_ref-41">^</a> United States v. Winans, 198 U.S. 371 (1905). </li> <li id="cite_note-42"><a href="#cite_ref-42">^</a> Dubuque & S.C.R. Co. v. Des Moines Valley R. Co., 109 U.S. 329 (1883). </li> <li id="cite_note-43"><a href="#cite_ref-43">^</a> Denn v. Reid, 35 U.S. 524 (1836). </li> <li id="cite_note-44"><a href="#cite_ref-44">^</a> Oglala Sioux Tribe of Pine Ridge Indian Reservation v. Homestake Min. Co., 722 F.2d 1407 (8th Cir. 1983). </li> <li id="cite_note-45"><a href="#cite_ref-45">^</a> United States v. Dann, 470 U.S. 39 (1985). </li> <li id="cite_note-46"><a href="#cite_ref-46">^</a> Temoak Band of Western Shoshone Indians, Nevada v. U.S., 219 Ct.Cl. 346 (1979). </li> <li id="cite_note-47"><a href="#cite_ref-47">^</a> Western Shoshone Nat. Council v. Molini, 951 F.2d 200 (9th Cir. 1991). </li> <li id="cite_note-48"><a href="#cite_ref-48">^</a> Pueblo of Taos v. U.S., 231 Ct.Cl. 1051 (1982). </li> <li id="cite_note-49"><a href="#cite_ref-49">^</a> United States v. Pend Oreille Public Utility Dist. No. 1, 926 F.2d 1502 (9th Cir. 1991). </li> <li id="cite_note-50"><a href="#cite_ref-50">^</a> Western Shoshone Nat. Council v. U.S., 279 Fed.Appx. 980 (Fed. Cir. 2008). </li> <li id="cite_note-51"><a href="#cite_ref-51">^</a> Devils Lake Sioux Tribe v. State of N.D., 917 F.2d 1049 (8th Cir. 1990). </li> <li id="cite_note-52"><a href="#cite_ref-52">^</a> U. S. v. Turtle Mountain Band of Chippewa Indians, 222 Ct.Cl. 1 (1979). </li> <li id="cite_note-53"><a href="#cite_ref-53">^</a> Havasupai Tribe v. Robertson, 943 F.2d 32 (9th Cir. 1991). </li> <li id="cite_note-54"><a href="#cite_ref-54">^</a> Greene v. Rhode Island, 398 F.3d 45 (1st Cir. 2005). </li> <li id="cite_note-passamaquoddy-55">^ <a href="#cite_ref-passamaquoddy_55-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-passamaquoddy_55-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-passamaquoddy_55-2">c</a> <a href="/wiki/Joint_Tribal_Council_of_the_Passamaquoddy_Tribe_v._Morton" title="Joint Tribal Council of the Passamaquoddy Tribe v. Morton">Joint Tribal Council of the Passamaquoddy Tribe v. Morton</a>, 528 F.2d 370 (1st Cir. 1975). </li> <li id="cite_note-56"><a href="#cite_ref-56">^</a> State v. Cameron, 658 A.2d 939, 940 (Vt. 1995) ("Our holding in that case was made as a matter of law based on historical fact. Consequently, under the doctrine of stare decisis, Elliott is precedent binding in general, not just binding on parties to the original case ...Elliott affects all lands within Vermont's boundaries."); State v. Elliott, 616 A.2d 210, 214 (Vt. 1992) ("[A] series of historical events, beginning with the Wentworth Grants of 1763, and ending with Vermont's admission to the Union in 1791, extinguished the aboriginal rights claimed here."); id. at 218 ("The legal standard does not require that extinguishment spring full blown from a single telling event. Extinguishment may be established by the increasing weight of history."). </li> <li id="cite_note-57"><a href="#cite_ref-57">^</a> Gene Bergman, Defying Precedent: Can Abenaki Aboriginal Title Be Extinguished by the "Weight of History", 18 Am. Indian L. Rev. 447 (1993); John P. Lowndes, When History Outweighs Law: Extinguishment of Abenaki Aboriginal Title, 42 Buff. L. Rev. 77 (1994); Robert O. Lucido II, Aboriginal Title: The Abenaki Land Claim in Vermont, 16 Vt. L. Rev. 611 (1992); Joseph William Singer, Well Settled?: The Increasing Weight of History in American Indian Land Claims, 28 Ga. L. Rev. 481 (1994). </li> <li id="cite_note-58"><a href="#cite_ref-58">^</a> Mohegan Tribe v. State of Conn., 638 F.2d 612 (2d Cir. 1980). </li> <li id="cite_note-59"><a href="#cite_ref-59">^</a> Chitimacha Tribe of Louisiana v. Harry L. Laws Co., Inc., 490 F. Supp. 164 (W.D. La. 1980). aff'd, 690 F.2d 1157 (5th Cir. 1982). </li> <li id="cite_note-60"><a href="#cite_ref-60">^</a> Act of March 2, 1805, 2 Stat. 324; Act of April 21, 1806, 2 Stat. 391; Act of March 3, 1807, 2 Stat. 440; Act of March 10, 1812, 2 Stat. 692; Act of April 14, 1812, 2 Stat. 709; Act of February 27, 1813, 2 Stat. 807; Act of April 18, 1814, 3 Stat. 139; Act of April 29, 1816, 3 Stat. 328; Act of May 11, 1820, 3 Stat. 573; Act of May 16, 1826, 4 Stat. 168; Act of May 26, 1824, 4 Stat. 52 (extended to Louisiana by Act of June 17, 1844, 5 Stat. 676). </li> <li id="cite_note-61"><a href="#cite_ref-61">^</a> 9 Stat. 631. </li> <li id="cite_note-62"><a href="#cite_ref-62">^</a> Byrne v. Alas, 16 P. 523, 528 (Cal. 1888). </li> <li id="cite_note-63"><a href="#cite_ref-63">^</a> Super v. Work, 3 F.2d 90 (D.C. Cir.1925), aff'd, 271 U.S. 643 (1926) (per curiam); United States v. Title Insurance and Trust Co., 265 U.S. 472 (1924); Barker v. Harvey, 181 U.S. 481 (1901); United States ex rel. Chunie v. Ringrose, 788 F.2d 638 (9th Cir. 1986). See also Bruce S. Flushman & Joe Barbieri, Aboriginal Title: The Special Case of California, 17 Pac. L.J. 391 (1986). </li> <li id="cite_note-64"><a href="#cite_ref-64">^</a> Inupiat Community of Arctic Slope v. U.S., 746 F.2d 570 (9th Cir. 1984). </li> <li id="cite_note-65"><a href="#cite_ref-65">^</a> U.S. v. Atlantic Richfield Co., 612 F.2d 1132 (9th Cir. 1980). </li> <li id="cite_note-66"><a href="#cite_ref-66">^</a> Inupiat Community of Arctic Slope v. United States, 230 Ct.Cl. 647 (1982). </li> <li id="cite_note-67"><a href="#cite_ref-67">^</a> Amoco Production Co. v. Village of Gambell, AK, 480 U.S. 531 (1987). </li> <li id="cite_note-hodel-68">^ <a href="#cite_ref-hodel_68-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-hodel_68-1">b</a> People of Village of Gambell v. Hodel, 869 F.2d 1273 (9th Cir.1989). </li> <li id="cite_note-69"><a href="#cite_ref-69">^</a> People of Village of Gambell v. Clark, 746 F.2d 572 (9th Cir. 1984). </li> <li id="cite_note-70"><a href="#cite_ref-70">^</a> Montana v. United States, 450 U.S. 544 (1981); State of Alaska v. Ahtna, Inc., 891 F.2d 1401 (9th Cir. 1989); Yankton Sioux Tribe of Indians v. State of S.D., 796 F.2d 241 (8th Cir. 1986). </li> <li id="cite_note-71"><a href="#cite_ref-71">^</a> Choctaw Nation v. Oklahoma, 397 U.S. 620 (1970); Muckleshoot Indian Tribe v. Trans-Canada Enterprises, Ltd., 713 F.2d 455 (9th Cir. 1983). </li> <li id="cite_note-72"><a href="#cite_ref-72">^</a> Wilson v. Omaha Indian Tribe, 442 U.S. 653 (1979). </li> <li id="cite_note-73"><a href="#cite_ref-73">^</a> United States v. Aranson, 696 F.2d 654 (9th Cir. 1983). </li> <li id="cite_note-74"><a href="#cite_ref-74">^</a> Confederated Tribes of Colville Reservation v. U.S., 964 F.2d 1102 (Fed. Cir. 1992). </li> <li id="cite_note-75"><a href="#cite_ref-75">^</a> Northern Mariana Islands v. United States, 399 F.3d 1057 (9th Cir. 2005). </li> <li id="cite_note-76"><a href="#cite_ref-76">^</a> Native Village of Eyak v. Trawler Diane Marie, Inc.,154 F.3d 1090 (9th Cir. 1998). </li> <li id="cite_note-77"><a href="#cite_ref-77">^</a> Government of Guam, ex rel. Guam Economic Development Authority v. United States, 179 F.3d 630 (9th Cir. 1999); see John Briscoe, The Aboriginal Land Title of the Native People of Guam, 26 Hawaii L. Rev. 1 (2003). </li> <li id="cite_note-78"><a href="#cite_ref-78">^</a> Marsh v. Brooks, 49 U.S. 223 (1850) ("[T]hat an action of ejectment could be maintained on an Indian right to occupancy and use, is not open to question."). </li> <li id="cite_note-79"><a href="#cite_ref-79">^</a> Seneca Nation of Indians v. Christy, 162 U.S. 283 (1896). </li> <li id="cite_note-oneidaI-80"><a href="#cite_ref-oneidaI_80-0">^</a> Oneida Indian Nation of N.Y. State v. Oneida County, 414 U.S. 661 (1974). </li> <li id="cite_note-oneidaII-81">^ <a href="#cite_ref-oneidaII_81-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-oneidaII_81-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-oneidaII_81-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-oneidaII_81-3">d</a> <a href="#cite_ref-oneidaII_81-4">e</a> Oneida County v. Oneida Indian Nation of N.Y. State, 470 U.S. 226 (1985). </li> <li id="cite_note-82"><a href="#cite_ref-82">^</a> Golden Hill Paugussett Tribe of Indians v. Weicker, 39 F.3d 51 (2d Cir. 1994). </li> <li id="cite_note-83"><a href="#cite_ref-83">^</a> Mashpee Tribe v. New Seabury Corp., 592 F.2d 575 (1st Cir 1979). </li> <li id="cite_note-84"><a href="#cite_ref-84">^</a> Epps v. Andrus, 611 F.2d 915 (1st Cir. 1979). </li> <li id="cite_note-mashapee-85"><a href="#cite_ref-mashapee_85-0">^</a> Mashpee Tribe v. Secretary of Interior, 820 F.2d 480 (1st Cir. 1987) (Breyer, J.). </li> <li id="cite_note-sokaogon-86">^ <a href="#cite_ref-sokaogon_86-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-sokaogon_86-1">b</a> Sokaogon Chippewa Community v. State of Wis., Oneida County, 879 F.2d 300 (7th Cir.1989) . </li> <li id="cite_note-87"><a href="#cite_ref-87">^</a> Fort Mojave Tribe v. Lafollette, 478 F.2d 1016 (9th Cir. 1973). </li> <li id="cite_note-88"><a href="#cite_ref-88">^</a> Coy v. Mason, 58 U.S. 580 (1854). </li> <li id="cite_note-89"><a href="#cite_ref-89">^</a> Cowlitz Tribe of Indians v. City of Tacoma, 253 F.2d 625 (9th Cir. 1958). </li> <li id="cite_note-90"><a href="#cite_ref-90">^</a> Carino v. Insular Government of Philippine Islands, 212 U.S. 449 (1909). </li> <li id="cite_note-91"><a href="#cite_ref-91">^</a> U.S. v. Shoshone Tribe of Indians of Wind River Reservation in Wyoming, 304 U.S. 111 (1938). </li> <li id="cite_note-92"><a href="#cite_ref-92">^</a> U.S. v. Creek Nation, 295 U.S. 103 (1935). </li> <li id="cite_note-93"><a href="#cite_ref-93">^</a> Northwestern Bands of Shoshone Indians v. United States, 324 U.S. 335 (1945). </li> <li id="cite_note-94"><a href="#cite_ref-94">^</a> U.S. v. Klamath and Moadoc Tribes, 304 U.S. 119 (1938). </li> <li id="cite_note-95"><a href="#cite_ref-95">^</a> Sioux Tribe of Indians v. U.S., 316 U.S. 317 (1942). </li> <li id="cite_note-96"><a href="#cite_ref-96">^</a> Fort Berthold Reservation v. U. S., 182 Ct.Cl. 543 (1968). </li> <li id="cite_note-97"><a href="#cite_ref-97">^</a> United States v. Alcea Band of Tillamooks, 329 U.S. 40 (1946) ["Tillamooks I"]. </li> <li id="cite_note-98"><a href="#cite_ref-98">^</a> Miller v. United States, 159 F.2d 997 (9th Cir. 1947). </li> <li id="cite_note-99"><a href="#cite_ref-99">^</a> Hynes v. Grimes Packing Co., 337 U.S. 86 (1949) . </li> <li id="cite_note-100"><a href="#cite_ref-100">^</a> United States v. Alcea Band of Tillamooks, 341 U.S. 48 (1951) ["Tillamooks II"]. </li> <li id="cite_note-101"><a href="#cite_ref-101">^</a> Tee-Hit-Ton Indians v. United States, 348 U.S. 272 (1955). </li> <li id="cite_note-102"><a href="#cite_ref-102">^</a> Karuk Tribe of California v. Ammon, 209 F.3d 1366 (Fed. Cir. 2000). </li> <li id="cite_note-103"><a href="#cite_ref-103">^</a> Seldovia Native Ass'n, Inc. v. U.S., 144 F.3d 769 (Fed. Cir. 1998). </li> <li id="cite_note-104"><a href="#cite_ref-104">^</a> Zuni Indian Tribe of New Mexico v. U.S., 16 Cl.Ct. 670 (1989). </li> <li id="cite_note-105"><a href="#cite_ref-105">^</a> U. S. v. Cherokee Nation, 200 Ct.Cl. 583 (1973). </li> <li id="cite_note-106"><a href="#cite_ref-106">^</a> Joint Tribal Council of the Passamaquoddy Tribe v. Morton, 528 F.2d 370 (1st 1975). </li> <li id="cite_note-107"><a href="#cite_ref-107">^</a> Oneida Tribe of Indians of Wis. v. U. S., 165 Ct.Cl. 487 (1964). </li> <li id="cite_note-108"><a href="#cite_ref-108">^</a> Cobell v. Norton, 240 F.3d 1081 (D.C. Cir. 2001). </li> <li id="cite_note-109"><a href="#cite_ref-109">^</a> Shoshone Indian Tribe of Wind River Reservation v. U.S., 364 F.3d 1339 (Fed Cir. 2004). </li> <li id="cite_note-110"><a href="#cite_ref-110">^</a> Yankton Sioux Tribe v. United States, 224 Ct.Cl. 62 (1980). </li> <li id="cite_note-111"><a href="#cite_ref-111">^</a> Miami Tribe of Oklahoma v. U. S., 222 Ct.Cl. 242 (1980). </li> <li id="cite_note-112"><a href="#cite_ref-112">^</a> U.S. v. Oneida Nation of New York, 217 Ct.Cl. (1978). </li> <li id="cite_note-six_nations-113">^ <a href="#cite_ref-six_nations_113-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-six_nations_113-1">b</a> Six Nations v. U. S., 173 Ct.Cl. 899 (1965). </li> <li id="cite_note-114"><a href="#cite_ref-114">^</a> Coast Indian Community v. U. S., 213 Ct.Cl. 129 (1977). </li> <li id="cite_note-115"><a href="#cite_ref-115">^</a> Confederated Salish & Kootenai Tribes of Flathead Reservation, Mont. v. U. S., 173 Ct.Cl. 398 (1965). </li> <li id="cite_note-navajo-116">^ <a href="#cite_ref-navajo_116-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-navajo_116-1">b</a> Navajo Tribe of Indians v. State of N.M., 809 F.2d 1455 (10th Cir. 1987). </li> <li id="cite_note-117"><a href="#cite_ref-117">^</a> Oglala Sioux Tribe of Pine Ridge Indian Reservation v. United States, 650 F.2d 140 (8th Cir. 1981). </li> <li id="cite_note-118"><a href="#cite_ref-118">^</a> Caddo Tribe of Oklahoma v. U. S., 222 Ct.Cl. 306 (1980). </li> <li id="cite_note-119"><a href="#cite_ref-119">^</a> Sac and Fox Tribe of Indians of Okl. v. U. S., 179 Ct.Cl. 8 (1967). </li> <li id="cite_note-120"><a href="#cite_ref-120">^</a> U. S. v. Pueblo De Zia, 200 Ct.Cl. 601 (1973). </li> <li id="cite_note-121"><a href="#cite_ref-121">^</a> U.S. v. Delaware Tribe of Indians, 192 Ct.Cl. 385 (1970). </li> <li id="cite_note-122"><a href="#cite_ref-122">^</a> <a href="/wiki/Federal_Power_Commission_v._Tuscarora_Indian_Nation" title="Federal Power Commission v. Tuscarora Indian Nation">Federal Power Commission v. Tuscarora Indian Nation</a>, 362 U.S. 99, 120 (1960) ("[25 U.S.C. § 177] is not applicable to the sovereign United States ..."). </li> <li id="cite_note-123"><a href="#cite_ref-123">^</a> Kansas v. United States, 204 U.S. 331 (1907). </li> <li id="cite_note-124"><a href="#cite_ref-124">^</a> Nichols v. Rysavy, 809 F.2d 1317 (8th Cir. 1987). </li> <li id="cite_note-CdA-125">^ <a href="#cite_ref-CdA_125-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-CdA_125-1">b</a> Idaho v. Coeur d'Alene Tribe of Idaho, 521 U.S. 261 (1997). </li> <li id="cite_note-CdA2-126">^ <a href="#cite_ref-CdA2_126-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-CdA2_126-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-CdA2_126-2">c</a> Idaho v. United States, 533 U.S. 262 (2001). </li> <li id="cite_note-127"><a href="#cite_ref-127">^</a> Lauren E. Rosenblatt, Note, Removing the Eleventh Amendment Barrier: Defending Indian Land Title Against State Encroachment After Idaho v. Coeur d'Alene Tribe, 78 Tex. L. Rev. 719 (2000). </li> <li id="cite_note-128"><a href="#cite_ref-128">^</a> Blatchford v. Native Vill. of Noatak, 501 U.S. 775 (1991). </li> <li id="cite_note-129"><a href="#cite_ref-129">^</a> Timpanogos Tribe v. Conway, 286 F.3d 1195 (10th Cir. 2002). </li> <li id="cite_note-130"><a href="#cite_ref-130">^</a> Western Mohegan Tribe and Nation v. Orange County, 395 F.3d 18 (2d Cir. 2004). </li> <li id="cite_note-131"><a href="#cite_ref-131">^</a> 28 U.S.C. § 1362. </li> <li id="cite_note-132"><a href="#cite_ref-132">^</a> Ysleta Del Sur Pueblo v. Laney, 199 F.3d 281 (5th Cir. 2000). </li> <li id="cite_note-133"><a href="#cite_ref-133">^</a> Seminole Tribe of Fl. v. Florida, 517 U.S. 44 (1996). </li> <li id="cite_note-134"><a href="#cite_ref-134">^</a> Alden v. Maine, 527 U.S. 706 (1999). </li> <li id="cite_note-135"><a href="#cite_ref-135">^</a> United States v. Minnesota, 270 U.S. 181 (1926). </li> <li id="cite_note-136"><a href="#cite_ref-136">^</a> Arizona v. California, 460 U.S. 605 (1983). </li> <li id="cite_note-oneida2010-137">^ <a href="#cite_ref-oneida2010_137-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-oneida2010_137-1">b</a> Oneida Indian Nation of N.Y. v. County of Oneida, 617 F.3d 114 (2d Cir. 2010). </li> <li id="cite_note-138"><a href="#cite_ref-138">^</a> South Carolina v. Catawba Indian Tribe, Inc., 476 U.S. 498 (1986). </li> <li id="cite_note-139"><a href="#cite_ref-139">^</a> Spirit Lake Tribe v. North Dakota, 262 F.3d 732 (8th Cir. 2001). </li> <li id="cite_note-140"><a href="#cite_ref-140">^</a> Francis v. Francis, 203 U.S. 233 (1907) . </li> <li id="cite_note-141"><a href="#cite_ref-141">^</a> Ewert v. Bluejacket, 259 U.S. 129 (1922). </li> <li id="cite_note-142"><a href="#cite_ref-142">^</a> City of Sherrill v. Oneida Indian Nation of N.Y., 544 U.S. 197 (2005). </li> <li id="cite_note-143"><a href="#cite_ref-143">^</a> Cayuga Indian Nation of N.Y. v. Pataki, 413 F.3d 266 (2d Cir. 2005). </li> <li id="cite_note-144"><a href="#cite_ref-144">^</a> 2006 WL 285801. </li> <li id="cite_note-145"><a href="#cite_ref-145">^</a> 547 U.S. 1128 (2006). </li> <li id="cite_note-146"><a href="#cite_ref-146">^</a> Kathryn E. Fort, The New Laches: Creating Title where None Existed, 16 Geo. Mason L. Rev. 357 (2009); Patrick W. Wandres, Indian Land Claims, Sherrill and the Impending Legacy of the Doctrine of Laches, 31 Am. Indian L. Rev. 131 (2006). </li> <li id="cite_note-147"><a href="#cite_ref-147">^</a> Ottawa Tribe of Oklahoma v. Logan, 577 F.3d 634 (6th Cir. 2009). </li> <li id="cite_note-148"><a href="#cite_ref-148">^</a> Yankton Sioux Tribe v. Podhradsky, 606 F.3d 985 (8th Cir. 2008). </li> <li id="cite_note-149"><a href="#cite_ref-149">^</a> Osage Nation v. Irby, 597 F.3d 1117 (10th Cir. 2010). </li> <li id="cite_note-150"><a href="#cite_ref-150">^</a> Shawnee Tribe v. United States, 423 F.3d 1204 (10th Cir. 2005). </li> <li id="cite_note-151"><a href="#cite_ref-151">^</a> Carcieri v. Norton, 423 F.3d 45 (1st Cir. 2005), reheard en banc, 497 F.3d 15 (1st Cir. 2007). </li> <li id="cite_note-152"><a href="#cite_ref-152">^</a> 129 S.Ct. 1058 (2009). </li> <li id="cite_note-153"><a href="#cite_ref-153">^</a> Saginaw Chippewa Indian Tribe of Michigan v. Granholm, 2008 WL 4808823 (E.D. Mich. 2008). </li> <li id="cite_note-154"><a href="#cite_ref-154">^</a> Paiute-Shoshone Indians of Bishop Community of Bishop Colony, California v. City of Los Angeles, 2007 WL 521403 (E.D. Cal. 2007). </li> <li id="cite_note-155"><a href="#cite_ref-155">^</a> New Jersey Sand Hill Band of Lenape & Cherokee Indians v. Corzine, 2010 WL 2674565 (D. N.J. 2010). </li> <li id="cite_note-156"><a href="#cite_ref-156">^</a> In re Schugg, 384 B.R. 263 (D. Ariz. 2008). </li> <li id="cite_note-157"><a href="#cite_ref-157">^</a> Pelt v. Utah, 611 F.Supp.2d 1267 (D. Utah 2009). </li> <li id="cite_note-158"><a href="#cite_ref-158">^</a> Ottawa Tribe of Oklahoma v. Ohio Dept. of Natural Resources, 541 F.Supp.2d 971 (N.D. Ohio 2008). </li> <li id="cite_note-159"><a href="#cite_ref-159">^</a> Sioux Tribe v. U. S., 205 Ct.Cl. 148 (1974). </li> <li id="cite_note-160"><a href="#cite_ref-160">^</a> Bruce S. Flushman & Joe Barbieri, Aboriginal Title: The Special Case of California, 17 Pac. L.J. 391, 426 (1986) ("The effect of the establishment of a reservation on aboriginal title in ambiguous."). </li> <li id="cite_note-161"><a href="#cite_ref-161">^</a> Oregon Dept. of Fish and Wildlife v. Klamath Indian Tribe, 473 U.S. 753 (1985). </li> <li id="cite_note-162"><a href="#cite_ref-162">^</a> U.S. v. Romaine, 255 F. 253 (9th Cir. 1919). </li> <li id="cite_note-163"><a href="#cite_ref-163">^</a> Ward v. Race Horse, 163 U.S. 504 (1896). </li> <li id="cite_note-164"><a href="#cite_ref-164">^</a> Minnesota v. Mille Lacs Band of Chippewa Indians, 526 U.S. 172 (1999); <a href="/wiki/Menominee_Tribe_of_Indians_v._U.S." class="mw-redirect" title="Menominee Tribe of Indians v. U.S.">Menominee Tribe of Indians v. U.S.</a>, 391 U.S. 404 (1968); Lac Courte Oreilles Band of Lake Superior Chippewa Indians v. Voigt, 700 F.2d 341 (7th Cir. 1983). But see In re Wilson, 634 P.2d 363 (Cal. 1983). </li> <li id="cite_note-165"><a href="#cite_ref-165">^</a> Red Lake Band of Chippewa Indians v. State of Minn., 614 F.2d 1161 (8th Cir. 1980). </li> <li id="cite_note-166"><a href="#cite_ref-166">^</a> Confederated Tribes of Chehalis Indian Reservation v. State of Wash., 96 F.3d 334 (9th Cir. 1996). </li> </ol></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Aboriginal_title_in_the_United_States&action=edit&section=43" title="Edit section: References">edit</a>]</div> <ul><li><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r920966791">.mw-parser-output span.smallcaps{font-variant:small-caps}.mw-parser-output span.smallcaps-smaller{font-size:85%}</style>Stuart Banner, How the Indians Lost Their Land: Law and Power on the Frontier (2005).</li> <li>Nancy Carol Carter, Race and Power Politics as Aspects of Federal Guardianship over American Indians: Land-Related Cases, 1887–1924, 4 <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r920966791">Am. Indian L. Rev. 197 (1976).</li> <li>Robert N. Clinton & Margaret Tobey Hotopp, Judicial Enforcement of the Federal Restraints on Alienation of Indian Land: The Origins of the Eastern Land Claims, 31 <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r920966791">Me. L. Rev. 17 (1979)</li> <li>Gus P. Coldebella & Mark S. Puzella, The Landowner Defendants in Indian Land Claims: Hostages to History, 37 <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r920966791">New Eng. L. Rev. 585 (2003).</li> <li>George P. Generas, Jr & Karen Gantt, This Land is Your Land, This Land is My Land: Indian Land Claims, 28 <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r920966791">J. Land Resources & Envtl. L. 1 (2008).</li> <li>Nell Jessup Newton, Indian Claims in the Courts of the Conqueror, 41 <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r920966791">Am. Indian L. Rev. 753 (1992).</li> <li>Wenona T. Singel & Matthew L.M. Fletcher, Power, Authority & Tribal Property, 41 <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r920966791">Tulsa L. Rev. 21 (2005).</li> <li>Tim Vollmann, A Survey of Eastern Indian Land Claims: 1970–1979, 31 <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r920966791">Me. L. Rev. 5 (1979).</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Further_reading">Further reading</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Aboriginal_title_in_the_United_States&action=edit&section=44" title="Edit section: Further reading">edit</a>]</div> <ul><li>Russel L. Barsh, Indian Land Claims Policy in the United States, 58 <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r920966791">N.D. L. Rev. 7 (1982).</li></ul> <div class="navbox-styles"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1129693374">.mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul{margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt,.mw-parser-output .hlist li{margin:0;display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul ul{display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist .mw-empty-li{display:none}.mw-parser-output .hlist dt::after{content:": "}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li::after{content:" · ";font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output .hlist 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style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Aboriginal title in the United States</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Statutes</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:7em"><a href="/wiki/Aboriginal_title_statutes_in_the_Thirteen_Colonies" title="Aboriginal title statutes in the Thirteen Colonies">Colonial era</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Charter_of_Freedoms_and_Exemptions" title="Charter of Freedoms and Exemptions">Charter of Freedoms and Exemptions</a> (1629 New Netherland)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Royal_Proclamation_of_1763" title="Royal Proclamation of 1763">Royal Proclamation of 1763</a> (British North America)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Confederation_Congress_Proclamation_of_1783" title="Confederation Congress Proclamation of 1783">Confederation Congress Proclamation of 1783</a></li></ul> </div></td><td class="noviewer navbox-image" rowspan="2" style="width:1px;padding:0 0 0 2px"><div><a href="/wiki/File:Treaty_of_Penn_with_Indians_by_Benjamin_West.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/15/Treaty_of_Penn_with_Indians_by_Benjamin_West.jpg/150px-Treaty_of_Penn_with_Indians_by_Benjamin_West.jpg" decoding="async" width="150" height="104" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/15/Treaty_of_Penn_with_Indians_by_Benjamin_West.jpg/225px-Treaty_of_Penn_with_Indians_by_Benjamin_West.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/15/Treaty_of_Penn_with_Indians_by_Benjamin_West.jpg/300px-Treaty_of_Penn_with_Indians_by_Benjamin_West.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1150" data-file-height="800" /></a></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:7em">United States</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Northwest_Ordinance" title="Northwest Ordinance">Northwest Ordinance</a> (1787)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nonintercourse_Act" title="Nonintercourse Act">Nonintercourse Act</a> (1790, 1793, 1796, 1799, 1802, and 1834)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indian_Removal_Act" title="Indian Removal Act">Removal Act</a> (1830)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dawes_Act" title="Dawes Act">Dawes Act</a> (1887)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Diminishment" title="Diminishment">Diminishment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Curtis_Act_of_1898" title="Curtis Act of 1898">Curtis Act of 1898</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indian_Reorganization_Act" title="Indian Reorganization Act">Reorganization Act</a> (1934)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indian_Claims_Commission" title="Indian Claims Commission">Indian Claims Commission Act</a> (1946)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indian_Land_Claims_Settlements" title="Indian Land Claims Settlements">Indian Land Claims Settlements</a> (1978–2006)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indian_Claims_Limitations_Act" title="Indian Claims Limitations Act">Indian Claims Limitations Act</a> (1982)</li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Precedents</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Aboriginal_title_in_the_Marshall_Court" title="Aboriginal title in the Marshall Court">Marshall Court</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Johnson_v._McIntosh" title="Johnson v. McIntosh">Johnson v. McIntosh</a> (1823)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cherokee_Nation_v._Georgia" title="Cherokee Nation v. Georgia">Cherokee Nation v. Georgia</a> (1831)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Aboriginal_title_in_the_Taney_Court" title="Aboriginal title in the Taney Court">Taney Court</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Fellows_v._Blacksmith" title="Fellows v. Blacksmith">Fellows v. Blacksmith</a> (1857)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/New_York_ex_rel._Cutler_v._Dibble" title="New York ex rel. Cutler v. Dibble">New York ex rel. Cutler v. Dibble</a> (1858)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">1890—1950</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Seneca_Nation_of_Indians_v._Christy" title="Seneca Nation of Indians v. Christy">Seneca Nation of Indians v. Christy</a> (1896)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_v._Santa_Fe_Pacific_Railroad_Co." title="United States v. Santa Fe Pacific Railroad Co.">United States v. Santa Fe Pacific Railroad Co.</a> (1941)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Warren Court</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Tee-Hit-Ton_Indians_v._United_States" title="Tee-Hit-Ton Indians v. United States">Tee-Hit-Ton Indians v. United States</a> (1955)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Federal_Power_Commission_v._Tuscarora_Indian_Nation" title="Federal Power Commission v. Tuscarora Indian Nation">Federal Power Commission v. Tuscarora Indian Nation</a> (1960)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Burger Court</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Oneida_Indian_Nation_of_New_York_v._County_of_Oneida" title="Oneida Indian Nation of New York v. County of Oneida">Oneida Indian Nation of New York v. County of Oneida</a> (1974)</li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Wilson_v._Omaha_Indian_Tribe&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Wilson v. Omaha Indian Tribe (page does not exist)">Wilson v. Omaha Indian Tribe</a> (1979)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/County_of_Oneida_v._Oneida_Indian_Nation_of_New_York_State" title="County of Oneida v. Oneida Indian Nation of New York State">County of Oneida v. Oneida Indian Nation of New York State</a> (1985)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/South_Carolina_v._Catawba_Indian_Tribe,_Inc." title="South Carolina v. Catawba Indian Tribe, Inc.">South Carolina v. Catawba Indian Tribe</a> (1986)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Rehnquist Court</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Idaho_v._Coeur_d%27Alene_Tribe_of_Idaho" title="Idaho v. Coeur d'Alene Tribe of Idaho">Idaho v. Coeur d'Alene Tribe of Idaho</a> (1997)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Idaho_v._United_States" title="Idaho v. United States">Idaho v. United States</a> (2001)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/City_of_Sherrill_v._Oneida_Indian_Nation_of_New_York" title="City of Sherrill v. Oneida Indian Nation of New York">City of Sherrill v. Oneida Indian Nation of New York</a> (2005)</li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">By state</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Alaska_Native_Claims_Settlement_Act" title="Alaska Native Claims Settlement Act">Alaska</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aboriginal_title_in_California" title="Aboriginal title in California">California</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Indigenous_land_rights_in_Hawaii" title="Category:Indigenous land rights in Hawaii">Hawaii</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indian_removals_in_Indiana" title="Indian removals in Indiana">Indiana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aboriginal_title_in_Louisiana" title="Aboriginal title in Louisiana">Louisiana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joint_Tribal_Council_of_the_Passamaquoddy_Tribe_v._Morton" title="Joint Tribal Council of the Passamaquoddy Tribe v. Morton">Maine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Native_American_tribes_in_Michigan" title="Category:Native American tribes in Michigan">Michigan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aboriginal_title_in_New_Mexico" title="Aboriginal title in New Mexico">New Mexico</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aboriginal_title_in_New_York" title="Aboriginal title in New York">New York</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Former_Indian_reservations_in_Oklahoma" title="Former Indian reservations in Oklahoma">Oklahoma</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Narragansett_land_claim" title="Narragansett land claim">Rhode Island</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/State_v._Elliott" title="State v. Elliott">Vermont</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Compare</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Indigenous_land_rights" title="Indigenous land rights">Indigenous land rights</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aboriginal_title" title="Aboriginal title">Aboriginal title</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Native_title_in_Australia" title="Native title in Australia">in Australia</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tribal_sovereignty_in_the_United_States" title="Tribal sovereignty in the United States">Tribal sovereignty in the United States</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_federally_recognized_tribes_in_the_contiguous_United_States" title="List of federally recognized tribes in the contiguous United States">List of federally recognized tribes</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_federal_recognition_of_Native_Hawaiians" title="United States federal recognition of Native Hawaiians">Federal recognition of Native Hawaiians</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Legal_status_of_Hawaii" title="Legal status of Hawaii">Legal status of Hawaii</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Rights_of_Native_Americans_in_the_United_States" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2" style="background:#F0E68C;"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Native_American_rights" title="Template:Native American rights"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Native_American_rights" title="Template talk:Native American rights"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Native_American_rights" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Native American rights"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Rights_of_Native_Americans_in_the_United_States" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Native_American_civil_rights" title="Native American civil rights">Rights</a> of <a href="/wiki/Native_Americans_in_the_United_States" title="Native Americans in the United States">Native Americans in the United States</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background:#F0E68C;;width:1%">Case law</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Johnson_v._McIntosh" title="Johnson v. McIntosh">Johnson v. McIntosh</a> (1823)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cherokee_Nation_v._Georgia" title="Cherokee Nation v. Georgia">Cherokee Nation v. Georgia</a> (1831)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Worcester_v._Georgia" title="Worcester v. Georgia">Worcester v. Georgia</a> (1832)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fellows_v._Blacksmith" title="Fellows v. Blacksmith">Fellows v. Blacksmith</a> (1857)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/New_York_ex_rel._Cutler_v._Dibble" title="New York ex rel. Cutler v. Dibble">New York ex rel. Cutler v. Dibble</a> (1858)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Standing_Bear_v._Crook" class="mw-redirect" title="Standing Bear v. Crook">Standing Bear v. Crook</a> (D. Neb. 1879)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ex_parte_Crow_Dog" title="Ex parte Crow Dog">Ex parte Crow Dog</a> (1883)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Elk_v._Wilkins" title="Elk v. Wilkins">Elk v. Wilkins</a> (1884)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Seneca_Nation_of_Indians_v._Christy" title="Seneca Nation of Indians v. Christy">Seneca Nation of Indians v. Christy</a> (1896)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Talton_v._Mayes" title="Talton v. Mayes">Talton v. Mayes</a> (1896)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lone_Wolf_v._Hitchcock" title="Lone Wolf v. Hitchcock">Lone Wolf v. Hitchcock</a> (1903)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_v._Santa_Fe_Pacific_Railroad_Co." title="United States v. Santa Fe Pacific Railroad Co.">United States v. Santa Fe Pacific Railroad Co.</a> (1941)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tee-Hit-Ton_Indians_v._United_States" title="Tee-Hit-Ton Indians v. United States">Tee-Hit-Ton Indians v. United States</a> (1955)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Williams_v._Lee" title="Williams v. Lee">Williams v. Lee</a> (1959)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Federal_Power_Commission_v._Tuscarora_Indian_Nation" title="Federal Power Commission v. Tuscarora Indian Nation">Federal Power Commission v. Tuscarora Indian Nation</a> (1960)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Menominee_Tribe_v._United_States" title="Menominee Tribe v. United States">Menominee Tribe v. United States</a> (1968)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/McClanahan_v._Arizona_State_Tax_Commission" title="McClanahan v. Arizona State Tax Commission">McClanahan v. Arizona State Tax Commission</a> (1973)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oneida_Indian_Nation_of_New_York_v._County_of_Oneida" title="Oneida Indian Nation of New York v. County of Oneida">Oneida Indian Nation of New York v. County of Oneida</a> (1974)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bryan_v._Itasca_County" title="Bryan v. Itasca County">Bryan v. Itasca County</a> (1976)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_v._Antelope" title="United States v. Antelope">United States v. Antelope</a> (1977)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Santa_Clara_Pueblo_v._Martinez" title="Santa Clara Pueblo v. Martinez">Santa Clara Pueblo v. Martinez</a> (1978)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Merrion_v._Jicarilla_Apache_Tribe" title="Merrion v. Jicarilla Apache Tribe">Merrion v. Jicarilla Apache Tribe</a> (1982)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Solem_v._Bartlett" title="Solem v. Bartlett">Solem v. Bartlett</a> (1984)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/County_of_Oneida_v._Oneida_Indian_Nation_of_New_York_State" title="County of Oneida v. Oneida Indian Nation of New York State">County of Oneida v. Oneida Indian Nation of New York State</a> (1985)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/South_Carolina_v._Catawba_Indian_Tribe,_Inc." title="South Carolina v. Catawba Indian Tribe, Inc.">South Carolina v. Catawba Indian Tribe, Inc.</a> (1986)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hodel_v._Irving" title="Hodel v. Irving">Hodel v. Irving</a> (1987)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mississippi_Band_of_Choctaw_Indians_v._Holyfield" title="Mississippi Band of Choctaw Indians v. Holyfield">Mississippi Band of Choctaw Indians v. Holyfield</a> (1989)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Duro_v._Reina" title="Duro v. Reina">Duro v. Reina</a> (1990)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/South_Dakota_v._Bourland" title="South Dakota v. Bourland">South Dakota v. Bourland</a> (1993)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Idaho_v._Coeur_d%27Alene_Tribe_of_Idaho" title="Idaho v. Coeur d'Alene Tribe of Idaho">Idaho v. Coeur d'Alene Tribe of Idaho</a> (1997)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Idaho_v._United_States" title="Idaho v. United States">Idaho v. United States</a> (2001)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_v._Lara" title="United States v. Lara">United States v. Lara</a> (2004)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/City_of_Sherrill_v._Oneida_Indian_Nation_of_New_York" title="City of Sherrill v. Oneida Indian Nation of New York">City of Sherrill v. Oneida Indian Nation of New York</a> (2005)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cobell_v._Salazar" title="Cobell v. Salazar">Cobell v. Salazar</a> (D.C. Cir. 2009)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Adoptive_Couple_v._Baby_Girl" title="Adoptive Couple v. Baby Girl">Adoptive Couple v. Baby Girl</a> (2013)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sharp_v._Murphy" title="Sharp v. Murphy">Sharp v. Murphy</a> and <a href="/wiki/McGirt_v._Oklahoma" title="McGirt v. Oklahoma">McGirt v. Oklahoma</a> (2020)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oklahoma_v._Castro-Huerta" title="Oklahoma v. Castro-Huerta">Oklahoma v. Castro-Huerta</a> (2022)</li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_United_States_Supreme_Court_cases_involving_Indian_tribes" title="List of United States Supreme Court cases involving Indian tribes">List of United States Supreme Court cases involving Indian tribes</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background:#F0E68C;;width:1%">Legislation</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Blood_quantum_laws" title="Blood quantum laws">Blood quantum laws</a> (1705 onwards)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nonintercourse_Act" title="Nonintercourse Act">Nonintercourse Act</a> (1790,1793,1796,1799,1802,1834)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Civilization_Fund_Act" title="Civilization Fund Act">Civilization Act</a> (1819)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indian_Removal_Act" title="Indian Removal Act">Indian Removal Act</a> (1830)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dawes_Act" title="Dawes Act">Dawes Act</a> (1887)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Curtis_Act_of_1898" title="Curtis Act of 1898">Curtis Act</a> (1898)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Burke_Act" title="Burke Act">Burke Act</a> (1906)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indian_Citizenship_Act" title="Indian Citizenship Act">Indian Citizenship Act</a> (1924)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indian_Reorganization_Act" title="Indian Reorganization Act">Indian Reorganization Act</a> (1934)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indian_arts_and_crafts_laws" title="Indian arts and crafts laws">Indian arts and crafts laws</a> (1935–2019)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oklahoma_Indian_Welfare_Act" title="Oklahoma Indian Welfare Act">Oklahoma Indian Welfare Act</a> (1936)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nationality_Act_of_1940" title="Nationality Act of 1940">Nationality Act</a> (1940)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Public_Law_280" title="Public Law 280">Public Law 280</a> (1953)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indian_Relocation_Act_of_1956" title="Indian Relocation Act of 1956">Indian Relocation Act</a> (1956)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Civil_Rights_Act_of_1968" title="Civil Rights Act of 1968">Indian Civil Rights Act</a> (1968)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alaska_Native_Claims_Settlement_Act" title="Alaska Native Claims Settlement Act">Alaska Native Claims Settlement Act</a> (1971)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indian_Self-Determination_and_Education_Assistance_Act_of_1975" title="Indian Self-Determination and Education Assistance Act of 1975">Indian Self-Determination and Education Assistance Act</a> (1975)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/American_Indian_Religious_Freedom_Act" title="American Indian Religious Freedom Act">American Indian Religious Freedom Act</a> (1978)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indian_Child_Welfare_Act" title="Indian Child Welfare Act">Indian Child Welfare Act</a> (1978)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Diminishment" title="Diminishment">Diminishment</a> (1984)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indian_Gaming_Regulatory_Act" title="Indian Gaming Regulatory Act">Indian Gaming Regulatory Act</a> (1988)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Native_American_Languages_Act_of_1990" title="Native American Languages Act of 1990">Native American Languages Act</a> (1990)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Native_American_Graves_Protection_and_Repatriation_Act" title="Native American Graves Protection and Repatriation Act">Native American Graves Protection and Repatriation Act</a> (1990)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indian_Arts_and_Crafts_Act_of_1990" title="Indian Arts and Crafts Act of 1990">Indian Arts and Crafts Act</a> (1990)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cherokee_Nation_Truth_in_Advertising_for_Native_Art" title="Cherokee Nation Truth in Advertising for Native Art">Cherokee Nation Truth in Advertising for Native Art</a> (2008)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background:#F0E68C;;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Native_American_recognition_in_the_United_States" title="Native American recognition in the United States">Federal</a> and <a href="/wiki/State-recognized_tribes_in_the_United_States" title="State-recognized tribes in the United States">State recognition</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/United_States_federal_recognition_of_Native_Hawaiians" title="United States federal recognition of Native Hawaiians">Federal recognition of Native Hawaiians</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Legal_status_of_Hawaii" title="Legal status of Hawaii">Legal status of Hawaii</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_federally_recognized_tribes_in_the_contiguous_United_States" title="List of federally recognized tribes in the contiguous United States">Federally recognized tribes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/State-recognized_tribes_in_the_United_States" title="State-recognized tribes in the United States">State recognized tribes</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background:#F0E68C;;width:1%">Related</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Aboriginal title</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bureau_of_Indian_Affairs" title="Bureau of Indian Affairs">Bureau of Indian Affairs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cherokee_Commission" title="Cherokee Commission">Cherokee Commission</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dawes_Rolls" title="Dawes Rolls">Dawes Rolls</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Declaration_on_the_Rights_of_Indigenous_Peoples" title="Declaration on the Rights of Indigenous Peoples">Declaration on the Rights of Indigenous Peoples</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eagle_feather_law" title="Eagle feather law">Eagle feather law</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Eagle-bone_whistle" title="Eagle-bone whistle">Eagle-bone whistle</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hunting_license" title="Hunting license">Hunting license</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/In_the_Courts_of_the_Conqueror" title="In the Courts of the Conqueror">In the Courts of the Conqueror</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indian_reservation" title="Indian reservation">Indian reservations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Long_Walk_of_the_Navajo" title="Long Walk of the Navajo">Long Walk of the Navajo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Indian_Gaming_Commission" title="National Indian Gaming Commission">National Indian Gaming Commission</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Native_American_civil_rights" title="Native American civil rights">Native American civil rights</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Native_American_gaming" title="Native American gaming">Native American gaming</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Native_American_Rights_Fund" title="Native American Rights Fund">Native American Rights Fund</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Recognition_of_Native_American_sacred_sites_in_the_United_States" title="Recognition of Native American sacred sites in the United States">Recognition of sacred sites</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Seminole_Wars" title="Seminole Wars">Seminole Wars</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Survivance" title="Survivance">Survivance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trail_of_Tears" title="Trail of Tears">Trail of Tears</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Treaty_rights" title="Treaty rights">Treaty rights</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tribal_sovereignty_in_the_United_States" title="Tribal sovereignty in the United States">Tribal sovereignty</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Native_American_self-determination" title="Native American self-determination">Self-determination</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_Congressional_Joint_Special_Committee_on_Conditions_of_Indian_Tribes" title="United States Congressional Joint Special Committee on Conditions of Indian Tribes">United States Congressional Joint Special Committee on Conditions of Indian Tribes</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div>    </div><noscript><img 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