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class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#U.S._Sentencing_Commission_(2010–2014)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3 U.S. Sentencing Commission (2010–2014) </div> </a> <ul id="toc-U.S._Sentencing_Commission_(2010–2014)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-District_Court_(2013–2021)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#District_Court_(2013–2021)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4 District Court (2013–2021) </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-District_Court_(2013–2021)-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle District Court (2013–2021) subsection </button> <ul id="toc-District_Court_(2013–2021)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Selected_rulings" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Selected_rulings"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.1 Selected rulings </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Selected_rulings-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-U.S._Court_of_Appeals_(2021–2022)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#U.S._Court_of_Appeals_(2021–2022)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5 U.S. Court of Appeals (2021–2022) </div> </a> <ul id="toc-U.S._Court_of_Appeals_(2021–2022)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Nomination_to_the_Supreme_Court" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Nomination_to_the_Supreme_Court"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6 Nomination to the Supreme Court </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Nomination_to_the_Supreme_Court-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-U.S._Supreme_Court_(2022–present)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#U.S._Supreme_Court_(2022–present)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7 U.S. Supreme Court (2022–present) </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-U.S._Supreme_Court_(2022–present)-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle U.S. Supreme Court (2022–present) subsection </button> <ul id="toc-U.S._Supreme_Court_(2022–present)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Labor_disputes" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Labor_disputes"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7.1 Labor disputes </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Labor_disputes-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Affirmative_action" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Affirmative_action"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7.2 Affirmative action </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Affirmative_action-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Judicial_philosophy" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Judicial_philosophy"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7.3 Judicial philosophy </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Judicial_philosophy-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Personal_life" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Personal_life"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 8 Personal life </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Personal_life-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Personal life subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Personal_life-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Affiliations" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Affiliations"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 8.1 Affiliations </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Affiliations-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Selected_works" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Selected_works"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 9 Selected works </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Selected_works-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 10 See also </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Notes" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Notes"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 11 Notes </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Notes-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 12 References </div> </a> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Additional_sources" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Additional_sources"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 13 Additional sources </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Additional_sources-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 14 External links </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" > Toggle the table of contents </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading">Ketanji Brown Jackson</h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. Available in 35 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-35" aria-hidden="true" > 35 languages </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%83%D9%8A%D8%AA%D8%A7%D9%86%D8%AC%D9%8A_%D8%A8%D8%B1%D8%A7%D9%88%D9%86_%D8%AC%D8%A7%D9%83%D8%B3%D9%88%D9%86" title="كيتانجي براون جاكسون – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="كيتانجي براون جاكسون" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target">العربية</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ketanji_Brown_Jackson" title="Ketanji Brown Jackson – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Ketanji Brown Jackson" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target">Català</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs mw-list-item"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ketanji_Brown_Jacksonov%C3%A1" title="Ketanji Brown Jacksonová – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="Ketanji Brown Jacksonová" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="Czech" class="interlanguage-link-target">Čeština</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-da mw-list-item"><a href="https://da.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ketanji_Brown_Jackson" title="Ketanji Brown Jackson – Danish" lang="da" hreflang="da" data-title="Ketanji Brown Jackson" data-language-autonym="Dansk" data-language-local-name="Danish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Dansk</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ketanji_Brown_Jackson" title="Ketanji Brown Jackson – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Ketanji Brown Jackson" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target">Deutsch</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-el mw-list-item"><a href="https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%9A%CE%B5%CF%84%CE%AC%CE%BD%CF%84%CE%B6%CE%B9_%CE%9C%CF%80%CF%81%CE%AC%CE%BF%CF%85%CE%BD_%CE%A4%CE%B6%CE%AC%CE%BA%CF%83%CE%BF%CE%BD" title="Κετάντζι Μπράουν Τζάκσον – Greek" lang="el" hreflang="el" data-title="Κετάντζι Μπράουν Τζάκσον" data-language-autonym="Ελληνικά" data-language-local-name="Greek" class="interlanguage-link-target">Ελληνικά</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ketanji_Brown_Jackson" title="Ketanji Brown Jackson – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Ketanji Brown Jackson" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Español</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eu mw-list-item"><a href="https://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ketanji_Brown_Jackson" title="Ketanji Brown Jackson – Basque" lang="eu" hreflang="eu" data-title="Ketanji Brown Jackson" data-language-autonym="Euskara" data-language-local-name="Basque" class="interlanguage-link-target">Euskara</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%DA%A9%D8%AA%D8%A7%D9%86%D8%AC%DB%8C_%D8%A8%D8%B1%D8%A7%D9%88%D9%86_%D8%AC%DA%A9%D8%B3%D9%86" title="کتانجی براون جکسن – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="کتانجی براون جکسن" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target">فارسی</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ketanji_Brown_Jackson" title="Ketanji Brown Jackson – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Ketanji Brown Jackson" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target">Français</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ga mw-list-item"><a href="https://ga.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ketanji_Brown_Jackson" title="Ketanji Brown Jackson – Irish" lang="ga" hreflang="ga" data-title="Ketanji Brown Jackson" data-language-autonym="Gaeilge" data-language-local-name="Irish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Gaeilge</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EC%BB%A4%ED%83%84%EC%A7%80_%EB%B8%8C%EB%9D%BC%EC%9A%B4_%EC%9E%AD%EC%8A%A8" title="커탄지 브라운 잭슨 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="커탄지 브라운 잭슨" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target">한국어</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hy mw-list-item"><a href="https://hy.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D5%94%D5%A5%D5%A9%D5%A1%D5%B6%D5%BB%D5%AB_%D4%B2%D6%80%D5%A1%D5%B8%D6%82%D5%B6_%D5%8B%D5%A5%D6%84%D5%BD%D5%B8%D5%B6" title="Քեթանջի Բրաուն Ջեքսոն – Armenian" lang="hy" hreflang="hy" data-title="Քեթանջի Բրաուն Ջեքսոն" data-language-autonym="Հայերեն" data-language-local-name="Armenian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Հայերեն</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-is mw-list-item"><a href="https://is.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ketanji_Brown_Jackson" title="Ketanji Brown Jackson – Icelandic" lang="is" hreflang="is" data-title="Ketanji Brown Jackson" data-language-autonym="Íslenska" data-language-local-name="Icelandic" class="interlanguage-link-target">Íslenska</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ketanji_Brown_Jackson" title="Ketanji Brown Jackson – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Ketanji Brown Jackson" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Italiano</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he mw-list-item"><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%A7%D7%98%D7%A0%D7%92%27%D7%99_%D7%91%D7%A8%D7%90%D7%95%D7%9F_%D7%92%27%D7%A7%D7%A1%D7%95%D7%9F" title="קטנג'י בראון ג'קסון – Hebrew" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="קטנג'י בראון ג'קסון" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="Hebrew" class="interlanguage-link-target">עברית</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lt mw-list-item"><a href="https://lt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ketanji_Brown_Jackson" title="Ketanji Brown Jackson – Lithuanian" lang="lt" hreflang="lt" data-title="Ketanji Brown Jackson" data-language-autonym="Lietuvių" data-language-local-name="Lithuanian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Lietuvių</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hu mw-list-item"><a href="https://hu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ketanji_Brown_Jackson" title="Ketanji Brown Jackson – Hungarian" lang="hu" hreflang="hu" data-title="Ketanji Brown Jackson" data-language-autonym="Magyar" data-language-local-name="Hungarian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Magyar</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mr mw-list-item"><a href="https://mr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%95%E0%A5%87%E0%A4%9F%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%A8%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%9C%E0%A5%80_%E0%A4%AC%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%89%E0%A4%A8_%E0%A4%9C%E0%A5%85%E0%A4%95%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B8%E0%A4%A8" title="केटान्जी ब्राउन जॅक्सन – Marathi" lang="mr" hreflang="mr" data-title="केटान्जी ब्राउन जॅक्सन" data-language-autonym="मराठी" data-language-local-name="Marathi" class="interlanguage-link-target">मराठी</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-arz mw-list-item"><a href="https://arz.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%83%D9%8A%D8%AA%D8%A7%D9%86%DA%86%D9%89_%D8%A8%D8%B1%D9%88%D9%86_%DA%86%D8%A7%D9%83%D8%B3%D9%88%D9%86" title="كيتانچى برون چاكسون – Egyptian Arabic" lang="arz" hreflang="arz" data-title="كيتانچى برون چاكسون" data-language-autonym="مصرى" data-language-local-name="Egyptian Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target">مصرى</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ketanji_Brown_Jackson" title="Ketanji Brown Jackson – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Ketanji Brown Jackson" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target">Nederlands</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E3%82%B1%E3%82%BF%E3%83%B3%E3%82%B8%E3%83%BB%E3%83%96%E3%83%A9%E3%82%A6%E3%83%B3%E3%83%BB%E3%82%B8%E3%83%A3%E3%82%AF%E3%82%BD%E3%83%B3" title="ケタンジ・ブラウン・ジャクソン – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="ケタンジ・ブラウン・ジャクソン" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target">日本語</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-no mw-list-item"><a href="https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ketanji_Brown_Jackson" title="Ketanji Brown Jackson – Norwegian Bokmål" lang="nb" hreflang="nb" data-title="Ketanji Brown Jackson" data-language-autonym="Norsk bokmål" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Bokmål" class="interlanguage-link-target">Norsk bokmål</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pnb mw-list-item"><a href="https://pnb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%DA%A9%DB%8C%D8%AA%D9%86%D8%AC%DB%8C_%D8%A8%D8%B1%D8%A7%D8%A4%D9%86_%D8%AC%DB%8C%DA%A9%D8%B3%D9%86" title="کیتنجی براؤن جیکسن – Western Punjabi" lang="pnb" hreflang="pnb" data-title="کیتنجی براؤن جیکسن" data-language-autonym="پنجابی" data-language-local-name="Western Punjabi" class="interlanguage-link-target">پنجابی</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ketanji_Brown_Jackson" title="Ketanji Brown Jackson – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="Ketanji Brown Jackson" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Polish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Polski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ketanji_Brown_Jackson" title="Ketanji Brown Jackson – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Ketanji Brown Jackson" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Português</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%94%D0%B6%D0%B5%D0%BA%D1%81%D0%BE%D0%BD,_%D0%9A%D0%B5%D1%82%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%B4%D0%B6%D0%B8_%D0%91%D1%80%D0%B0%D1%83%D0%BD" title="Джексон, Кетанджи Браун – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Джексон, Кетанджи Браун" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Русский</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-simple mw-list-item"><a href="https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ketanji_Brown_Jackson" title="Ketanji Brown Jackson – Simple English" lang="en-simple" hreflang="en-simple" data-title="Ketanji Brown Jackson" data-language-autonym="Simple English" data-language-local-name="Simple English" class="interlanguage-link-target">Simple English</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ckb mw-list-item"><a href="https://ckb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%DA%A9%DB%8E%D8%AA%D8%A7%D9%86%D8%AC%DB%8C_%D8%A8%D8%B1%D8%A7%D9%88%D9%86_%D8%AC%D8%A7%DA%A9%D8%B3%D9%86" title="کێتانجی براون جاکسن – Central Kurdish" lang="ckb" hreflang="ckb" data-title="کێتانجی براون جاکسن" data-language-autonym="کوردی" data-language-local-name="Central Kurdish" class="interlanguage-link-target">کوردی</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fi mw-list-item"><a href="https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ketanji_Brown_Jackson" title="Ketanji Brown Jackson – Finnish" lang="fi" hreflang="fi" data-title="Ketanji Brown Jackson" data-language-autonym="Suomi" data-language-local-name="Finnish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Suomi</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sv mw-list-item"><a href="https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ketanji_Brown_Jackson" title="Ketanji Brown Jackson – Swedish" lang="sv" hreflang="sv" data-title="Ketanji Brown Jackson" data-language-autonym="Svenska" data-language-local-name="Swedish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Svenska</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uk mw-list-item"><a href="https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9A%D0%B5%D1%82%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%B4%D0%B6%D1%96_%D0%91%D1%80%D0%B0%D1%83%D0%BD_%D0%94%D0%B6%D0%B5%D0%BA%D1%81%D0%BE%D0%BD" title="Кетанджі Браун Джексон – Ukrainian" lang="uk" hreflang="uk" data-title="Кетанджі Браун Джексон" data-language-autonym="Українська" data-language-local-name="Ukrainian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Українська</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ur mw-list-item"><a href="https://ur.wikipedia.org/wiki/%DA%A9%DB%8C%D9%B9%D8%A7%D9%86_%D8%AC%DB%8C_%D8%A8%D8%B1%D8%A7%D8%A4%D9%86_%D8%AC%DB%8C%DA%A9%D8%B3%D9%86" title="کیٹان جی براؤن جیکسن – Urdu" lang="ur" hreflang="ur" data-title="کیٹان جی براؤن جیکسن" data-language-autonym="اردو" data-language-local-name="Urdu" 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(born 1970)</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1257001546">.mw-parser-output .infobox-subbox{padding:0;border:none;margin:-3px;width:auto;min-width:100%;font-size:100%;clear:none;float:none;background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .infobox-3cols-child{margin:auto}.mw-parser-output .infobox .navbar{font-size:100%}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data:not(.notheme)>div:not(.notheme)[style]{background:#1f1f23!important;color:#f8f9fa}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data:not(.notheme) div:not(.notheme){background:#1f1f23!important;color:#f8f9fa}}@media(min-width:640px){body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table{display:table!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table>caption{display:table-caption!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table>tbody{display:table-row-group}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table tr{display:table-row!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table th,body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table td{padding-left:inherit;padding-right:inherit}}</style><table class="infobox vcard"><tbody><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-above" style="font-size: 100%;"><div class="fn" style="font-size:125%;">Ketanji Brown Jackson</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-image"><a href="/wiki/File:KB_Jackson_(4x5_cropped).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="Official portrait of Associate Justice of the Supreme Court Ketanji Brown Jackson" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7e/KB_Jackson_%284x5_cropped%29.jpg/220px-KB_Jackson_%284x5_cropped%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="275" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7e/KB_Jackson_%284x5_cropped%29.jpg/330px-KB_Jackson_%284x5_cropped%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7e/KB_Jackson_%284x5_cropped%29.jpg/440px-KB_Jackson_%284x5_cropped%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2203" data-file-height="2752" /></a><div class="infobox-caption" style="line-height:normal;padding-top:0.2em;">Official portrait, 2022</div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1257001546"></td></tr><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header" style="color: #202122; background:lavender;line-height:normal;padding:0.2em;"><a href="/wiki/Associate_Justice_of_the_Supreme_Court_of_the_United_States" title="Associate Justice of the Supreme Court of the United States">Associate Justice of the Supreme Court of the United States</a></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data" style="border-bottom:none"><div class="skin-nightmode-reset-color" style="width:100%; margin:0; color: black; background-color: lavender"><a href="/wiki/Incumbent" title="Incumbent">Incumbent</a></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data" style="border-bottom:none">Assumed office June 30, 2022</td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1257001546"></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="text-align:left">Nominated by</th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Joe_Biden" title="Joe Biden">Joe Biden</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="text-align:left">Preceded by</th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Stephen_Breyer" title="Stephen Breyer">Stephen Breyer</a></td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1257001546"></tr><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header" style="color: #202122; background:lavender;line-height:normal;padding:0.2em;">Judge of the <a href="/wiki/United_States_Court_of_Appeals_for_the_District_of_Columbia_Circuit" title="United States Court of Appeals for the District of Columbia Circuit">United States Court of Appeals for the District of Columbia Circuit</a></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data" style="border-bottom:none">In office June 17, 2021 – June 29, 2022</td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1257001546"></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="text-align:left">Nominated by</th><td class="infobox-data">Joe Biden</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="text-align:left">Preceded by</th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Merrick_Garland" title="Merrick Garland">Merrick Garland</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="text-align:left">Succeeded by</th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Florence_Y._Pan" title="Florence Y. Pan">Florence Y. Pan</a></td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1257001546"></tr><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header" style="color: #202122; background:lavender;line-height:normal;padding:0.2em;">Judge of the <a href="/wiki/United_States_District_Court_for_the_District_of_Columbia" title="United States District Court for the District of Columbia">United States District Court for the District of Columbia</a></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data" style="border-bottom:none">In office March 26, 2013 – June 17, 2021</td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1257001546"></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="text-align:left">Nominated by</th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Barack_Obama" title="Barack Obama">Barack Obama</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="text-align:left">Preceded by</th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Henry_H._Kennedy_Jr." title="Henry H. Kennedy Jr.">Henry H. Kennedy Jr.</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="text-align:left">Succeeded by</th><td class="infobox-data">Florence Y. Pan</td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1257001546"></tr><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header" style="color: #202122; background:lavender;line-height:normal;padding:0.2em;">Vice Chair of the <a href="/wiki/United_States_Sentencing_Commission" title="United States Sentencing Commission">United States Sentencing Commission</a></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data" style="border-bottom:none">In office February 12, 2010 – December 2014</td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1257001546"></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="text-align:left">President</th><td class="infobox-data">Barack Obama</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="text-align:left">Preceded by</th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Rub%C3%A9n_Castillo_(judge)" title="Rubén Castillo (judge)">Rubén Castillo</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="text-align:left">Succeeded by</th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/L._Felipe_Restrepo" title="L. Felipe Restrepo">L. Felipe Restrepo</a></td></tr><tr style="display:none"><td colspan="2"> </td></tr><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header" style="color: #202122; background:lavender">Personal details</th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Born</th><td class="infobox-data"><div style="display:inline" class="nickname">Ketanji Onyika Brown</div> (1970-09-14) September 14, 1970 (age 54) <a href="/wiki/Washington,_D.C." title="Washington, D.C.">Washington, D.C.</a>, U.S.</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Spouse</th><td class="infobox-data"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1151524712">.mw-parser-output .marriage-line-margin2px{line-height:0;margin-bottom:-2px}.mw-parser-output .marriage-line-margin3px{line-height:0;margin-bottom:-3px}.mw-parser-output .marriage-display-ws{display:inline;white-space:nowrap}</style> <div class="marriage-display-ws"><div style="display:inline-block;line-height:normal;">Patrick Jackson</div> <div style="display:inline-block;"></div>(<abbr title="married">m.</abbr> 1996)</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Children</th><td class="infobox-data">2</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Relatives</th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Calvin_Ross" title="Calvin Ross">Calvin Ross</a> (uncle)</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Education</th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Harvard_University" title="Harvard University">Harvard University</a> (<a href="/wiki/Bachelor_of_Arts" title="Bachelor of Arts">BA</a>, <a href="/wiki/Juris_Doctor" title="Juris Doctor">JD</a>)</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Signature</th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/File:Ketanji_Brown_Jackson_signature.svg" class="mw-file-description" title="Ketanji Brown Jackson's signature"><img alt="Cursive signature in ink" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1e/Ketanji_Brown_Jackson_signature.svg/128px-Ketanji_Brown_Jackson_signature.svg.png" decoding="async" width="128" height="30" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1e/Ketanji_Brown_Jackson_signature.svg/192px-Ketanji_Brown_Jackson_signature.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1e/Ketanji_Brown_Jackson_signature.svg/256px-Ketanji_Brown_Jackson_signature.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="302" data-file-height="71" /></a></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1235681985">.mw-parser-output .side-box{margin:4px 0;box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #aaa;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em;background-color:var(--background-color-interactive-subtle,#f8f9fa);display:flow-root}.mw-parser-output .side-box-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{padding:0.25em 0.9em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-image{padding:2px 0 2px 0.9em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-imageright{padding:2px 0.9em 2px 0;text-align:center}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .side-box-flex{display:flex;align-items:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{flex:1;min-width:0}}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .side-box{width:238px}.mw-parser-output .side-box-right{clear:right;float:right;margin-left:1em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-left{margin-right:1em}}</style><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1096940132">.mw-parser-output .listen .side-box-text{line-height:1.1em}.mw-parser-output .listen-plain{border:none;background:transparent}.mw-parser-output .listen-embedded{width:100%;margin:0;border-width:1px 0 0 0;background:transparent}.mw-parser-output .listen-header{padding:2px}.mw-parser-output .listen-embedded .listen-header{padding:2px 0}.mw-parser-output .listen-file-header{padding:4px 0}.mw-parser-output .listen .description{padding-top:2px}.mw-parser-output .listen .mw-tmh-player{max-width:100%}@media(max-width:719px){.mw-parser-output .listen{clear:both}}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .listen:not(.listen-noimage){width:320px}.mw-parser-output .listen-left{overflow:visible;float:left}.mw-parser-output .listen-center{float:none;margin-left:auto;margin-right:auto}}</style><div class="side-box side-box-left listen noprint listen-embedded listen-noimage listen-center"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1126788409">.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul{line-height:inherit;list-style:none;margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol li,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul li{margin-bottom:0}</style> <div class="side-box-flex"> <div class="side-box-text plainlist"><div class="haudio"> <div class="listen-file-header"><a href="/wiki/File:Ketanji_Brown_Jackson_delivers_the_opinion_of_the_Court_in_Lac_du_Flambeau_Band_of_Lake_Superior_Chippewa_Indians_v._Coughlin.ogg" title="File:Ketanji Brown Jackson delivers the opinion of the Court in Lac du Flambeau Band of Lake Superior Chippewa Indians v. Coughlin.ogg">Ketanji Brown Jackson's voice</a></div> <div><audio id="mwe_player_0" controls="" preload="none" data-mw-tmh="" class="mw-file-element" width="215" style="width:215px;" data-durationhint="269" data-mwtitle="Ketanji_Brown_Jackson_delivers_the_opinion_of_the_Court_in_Lac_du_Flambeau_Band_of_Lake_Superior_Chippewa_Indians_v._Coughlin.ogg" data-mwprovider="wikimediacommons"><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/a6/Ketanji_Brown_Jackson_delivers_the_opinion_of_the_Court_in_Lac_du_Flambeau_Band_of_Lake_Superior_Chippewa_Indians_v._Coughlin.ogg" type="audio/ogg; codecs="vorbis"" data-width="0" data-height="0" /><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/a/a6/Ketanji_Brown_Jackson_delivers_the_opinion_of_the_Court_in_Lac_du_Flambeau_Band_of_Lake_Superior_Chippewa_Indians_v._Coughlin.ogg/Ketanji_Brown_Jackson_delivers_the_opinion_of_the_Court_in_Lac_du_Flambeau_Band_of_Lake_Superior_Chippewa_Indians_v._Coughlin.ogg.mp3" type="audio/mpeg" data-transcodekey="mp3" data-width="0" data-height="0" /></audio></div> <div class="description">Ketanji Brown Jackson delivers the opinion of the Court in <a href="/wiki/Lac_du_Flambeau_Band_of_Lake_Superior_Chippewa_Indians_v._Coughlin" title="Lac du Flambeau Band of Lake Superior Chippewa Indians v. Coughlin">Lac du Flambeau Band of Lake Superior Chippewa Indians v. Coughlin</a> Recorded June 15, 2023</div></div></div></div> </div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-below" style="border-top: 1px solid right;"><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1129693374">.mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul{margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt,.mw-parser-output .hlist li{margin:0;display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul ul{display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist .mw-empty-li{display:none}.mw-parser-output .hlist dt::after{content:": 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a{color:var(--color-progressive)!important}}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .sidebar{display:none!important}}</style><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239334494">@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output div:not(.notheme)>.tmp-color,html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output p>.tmp-color,html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output table:not(.notheme) .tmp-color{color:inherit!important}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output div:not(.notheme)>.tmp-color,html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output p>.tmp-color,html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output table:not(.notheme) .tmp-color{color:inherit!important}}</style><table class="sidebar sidebar-collapse nomobile nowraplinks" style="border: 4px double #3333FF; border-spacing:0.2em 0;color: var(--color-base, #000);"><tbody><tr><td class="sidebar-pretitle">This article is part of <a href="/wiki/Category:Liberalism_in_the_United_States" title="Category:Liberalism in the United States">a series</a> on</td></tr><tr><th class="sidebar-title-with-pretitle" style="background:#3333FF; padding-top:0.25em; font-size:160%; font-weight:normal; color:white; line-height:1em"><a href="/wiki/Liberalism_in_the_United_States" title="Liberalism in the United States">Liberalism in the United States</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-image"><a href="/wiki/File:Greater_coat_of_arms_of_the_United_States.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5b/Greater_coat_of_arms_of_the_United_States.svg/90px-Greater_coat_of_arms_of_the_United_States.svg.png" decoding="async" width="90" height="95" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5b/Greater_coat_of_arms_of_the_United_States.svg/135px-Greater_coat_of_arms_of_the_United_States.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5b/Greater_coat_of_arms_of_the_United_States.svg/180px-Greater_coat_of_arms_of_the_United_States.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="451" data-file-height="476" /></a></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="border-top:1px solid #3333FF; text-align:center;color: var(--color-base)">Schools</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Classical_liberalism#United_States" title="Classical liberalism">Classical</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conservative_liberalism#United_States" title="Conservative liberalism">Conservative</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Economic_liberalism" title="Economic liberalism">Economic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Modern_liberalism_in_the_United_States" title="Modern liberalism in the United States">Modern/Social</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Libertarianism_in_the_United_States" title="Libertarianism in the United States">Neoclassical</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Progressivism_in_the_United_States" title="Progressivism in the United States">Progressive</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Third_Way" title="Third Way">Third Way</a></li></ul> </div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="border-top:1px solid #3333FF; text-align:center;color: var(--color-base)">Principles</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Civil_rights" class="mw-redirect" title="Civil rights">Civil rights</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Due_process" title="Due process">Due process</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Economic_freedom" title="Economic freedom">Economic freedom</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Economic_progressivism" title="Economic progressivism">Economic progressivism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Egalitarianism" title="Egalitarianism">Egalitarianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Equal_opportunity" title="Equal opportunity">Equal opportunity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmentalism" title="Environmentalism">Environmentalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fiscal_conservatism" title="Fiscal conservatism">Fiscal conservatism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Freedom_of_the_press" title="Freedom of the press">Freedom of the press</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Freedom_of_religion" title="Freedom of religion">Freedom of religion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Freedom_of_speech" title="Freedom of speech">Freedom of speech</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Free_market" title="Free market">Free market</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Harm_Principle" class="mw-redirect" title="Harm Principle">Harm Principle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liberal_individualism" class="mw-redirect" title="Liberal individualism">Individualism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liberal_internationalism" title="Liberal internationalism">Internationalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Legal_egalitarianism" class="mw-redirect" title="Legal egalitarianism">Legal egalitarianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mixed_economy" title="Mixed economy">Mixed economy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Republicanism" title="Republicanism">Republicanism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rule_of_law" title="Rule of law">Rule of law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Separation_of_church_and_state" title="Separation of church and state">Separation of church and state</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_democracy" title="Social democracy">Social democracy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_equality" title="Social equality">Social equality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_justice" title="Social justice">Social justice</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_welfare" class="mw-redirect" title="Social welfare">Social welfare</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Unalienable_rights" class="mw-redirect" title="Unalienable rights">Unalienable rights</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Welfare_state" title="Welfare state">Welfare state</a></li></ul> </div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="border-top:1px solid #3333FF; text-align:center;color: var(--color-base)">History</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/American_Revolutionary_War" title="American Revolutionary War">American Revolutionary War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Civil_rights_movement" title="Civil rights movement">Civil rights movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fair_Deal" title="Fair Deal">Fair Deal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gilded_Age" title="Gilded Age">Gilded Age</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Great_Society" title="Great Society">Great Society</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jacksonian_democracy" title="Jacksonian democracy">Jacksonian democracy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jeffersonian_democracy" title="Jeffersonian democracy">Jeffersonian democracy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liberal_Republican_Party_(United_States)" title="Liberal Republican Party (United States)">Liberal Republicans</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/New_Deal" title="New Deal">New Deal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/New_Deal_coalition" title="New Deal coalition">New Deal coalition</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Progressive_Era" title="Progressive Era">Progressive Era</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Third_Way" title="Third Way">Third Way</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Young_America_movement" title="Young America movement">Young America movement</a></li></ul> </div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="border-top:1px solid #3333FF; text-align:center;color: var(--color-base)">Intellectuals</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Edith_Abbott" title="Edith Abbott">Abbott</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jane_Addams" title="Jane Addams">Addams</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rachel_Carson" title="Rachel Carson">Carson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Henry_Steele_Commager" title="Henry Steele Commager">Commager</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Dewey" title="John Dewey">Dewey</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Frederick_Douglass" title="Frederick Douglass">Douglass</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ronald_Dworkin" title="Ronald Dworkin">Dworkin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ralph_Waldo_Emerson" title="Ralph Waldo Emerson">Emerson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Frank" title="Thomas Frank">Frank (Thomas)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Benjamin_Franklin" title="Benjamin Franklin">Franklin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Betty_Friedan" title="Betty Friedan">Friedan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Milton_Friedman" title="Milton Friedman">Friedman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Kenneth_Galbraith" title="John Kenneth Galbraith">Galbraith</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_Lloyd_Garrison" title="William Lloyd Garrison">Garrison</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Richard_Hofstadter" title="Richard Hofstadter">Hofstadter</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robert_G._Ingersoll" title="Robert G. Ingersoll">Ingersoll</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Patricia_Ireland" title="Patricia Ireland">Ireland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Jefferson" title="Thomas Jefferson">Jefferson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Coretta_Scott_King" title="Coretta Scott King">King (Coretta)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Martin_Luther_King_Jr." title="Martin Luther King Jr.">King (Martin)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rachel_Maddow" title="Rachel Maddow">Maddow</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eugene_McCarthy" title="Eugene McCarthy">McCarthy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/George_McGovern" title="George McGovern">McGovern</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lucretia_Mott" title="Lucretia Mott">Mott</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pauli_Murray" title="Pauli Murray">Murray</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robert_Nozick" title="Robert Nozick">Nozick</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Martha_Nussbaum" title="Martha Nussbaum">Nussbaum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Paine" title="Thomas Paine">Paine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Steven_Pinker" title="Steven Pinker">Pinker</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Rawls" title="John Rawls">Rawls</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Richard_Rorty" title="Richard Rorty">Rorty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Benjamin_Rush" title="Benjamin Rush">Rush</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arthur_M._Schlesinger_Jr." title="Arthur M. Schlesinger Jr.">Schlesinger</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Al_Sharpton" title="Al Sharpton">Sharpton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/B._F._Skinner" title="B. F. Skinner">Skinner</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stephen_Edward_Smith" title="Stephen Edward Smith">Smith</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Susan_Sontag" title="Susan Sontag">Sontag</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Elizabeth_Cady_Stanton" title="Elizabeth Cady Stanton">Stanton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gloria_Steinem" title="Gloria Steinem">Steinem</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_Graham_Sumner" title="William Graham Sumner">Sumner</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lionel_Trilling" title="Lionel Trilling">Trilling</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_Monroe_Trotter" title="William Monroe Trotter">Trotter</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Henry_David_Thoreau" title="Henry David Thoreau">Thoreau</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sojourner_Truth" title="Sojourner Truth">Truth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gore_Vidal" title="Gore Vidal">Vidal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lester_Frank_Ward" title="Lester Frank Ward">Ward</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ida_B._Wells" title="Ida B. Wells">Wells</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paul_Wellstone" title="Paul Wellstone">Wellstone</a></li></ul> </div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="border-top:1px solid #3333FF; text-align:center;color: var(--color-base)">Politicians</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bella_Abzug" title="Bella Abzug">Abzug</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stacey_Abrams" title="Stacey Abrams">Abrams</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Adams" title="John Adams"> Adams</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pete_Aguilar" title="Pete Aguilar">Aguilar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Susan_B._Anthony" title="Susan B. Anthony">Anthony</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ella_Baker" title="Ella Baker">Baker</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joe_Biden" title="Joe Biden">Biden</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jerry_Brown" title="Jerry Brown">Brown</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_Jennings_Bryan" title="William Jennings Bryan">Bryan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pete_Buttigieg" title="Pete Buttigieg">Buttigieg</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jimmy_Carter" title="Jimmy Carter">Carter</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cesar_Chavez" title="Cesar Chavez">Chavez</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shirley_Chisholm" title="Shirley Chisholm">Chisholm</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Katherine_Clark" title="Katherine Clark">Clark</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Henry_Clay" title="Henry Clay">Clay</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bill_Clinton" title="Bill Clinton">Clinton (Bill)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hillary_Clinton" title="Hillary Clinton">Clinton (Hillary)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jim_Clyburn" title="Jim Clyburn">Clyburn</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Andrew_Cuomo" title="Andrew Cuomo">Cuomo (Andrew)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mario_Cuomo" title="Mario Cuomo">Cuomo (Mario)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Howard_Dean" title="Howard Dean">Dean</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Michael_Dukakis" title="Michael Dukakis">Dukakis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_Farmer" title="James Farmer">Farmer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Barney_Frank" title="Barney Frank">Frank (Barney)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ira_Glasser" title="Ira Glasser">Glasser</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Samuel_Gompers" title="Samuel Gompers">Gompers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Al_Gore" title="Al Gore">Gore</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fannie_Lou_Hamer" title="Fannie Lou Hamer">Hamer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kamala_Harris" title="Kamala Harris">Harris</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arthur_Garfield_Hays" title="Arthur Garfield Hays">Hays</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Steny_Hoyer" title="Steny Hoyer">Hoyer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dolores_Huerta" title="Dolores Huerta">Huerta</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hubert_Humphrey" title="Hubert Humphrey">Humphrey</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Andrew_Jackson" title="Andrew Jackson">Jackson (Andrew)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jesse_Jackson" title="Jesse Jackson">Jackson (Jesse)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jacob_K._Javits" class="mw-redirect" title="Jacob K. Javits">Javits</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Jefferson" title="Thomas Jefferson">Jefferson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lyndon_B._Johnson" title="Lyndon B. Johnson">Johnson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Barbara_Jordan" title="Barbara Jordan">Jordan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Estes_Kefauver" title="Estes Kefauver">Kefauver</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_F._Kennedy" title="John F. Kennedy">Kennedy (John)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joseph_P._Kennedy_Sr." title="Joseph P. Kennedy Sr.">Kennedy (Joseph)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robert_F._Kennedy" title="Robert F. Kennedy">Kennedy (Robert)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Kerry" title="John Kerry">Kerry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Coretta_Scott_King" title="Coretta Scott King">King (Coretta)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Martin_Luther_King_Jr." title="Martin Luther King Jr.">King (Martin)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Adam_Kinzinger" title="Adam Kinzinger">Kinzinger</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robert_M._La_Follette" title="Robert M. La Follette">La Follette</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fiorello_La_Guardia" title="Fiorello La Guardia">La Guardia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Lewis" title="John Lewis">Lewis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abraham_Lincoln" title="Abraham Lincoln">Lincoln</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Lindsay" title="John Lindsay">Lindsay</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_Madison" title="James Madison">Madison</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ed_Markey" title="Ed Markey">Markey</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eugene_McCarthy" title="Eugene McCarthy">McCarthy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/George_McGovern" title="George McGovern">McGovern</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Harvey_Milk" title="Harvey Milk">Milk</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Walter_Mondale" title="Walter Mondale">Mondale</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chris_Murphy" title="Chris Murphy">Murphy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Patty_Murray" title="Patty Murray">Murray</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gaylord_Nelson" title="Gaylord Nelson">Nelson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gavin_Newsom" title="Gavin Newsom">Newsom</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tip_O%27Neill" title="Tip O'Neill">O'Neill</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Barack_Obama" title="Barack Obama">Obama</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alexandria_Ocasio-Cortez" title="Alexandria Ocasio-Cortez">Ocasio-Cortez</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Adam_Clayton_Powell_Jr." title="Adam Clayton Powell Jr.">Powell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/A._Philip_Randolph" title="A. Philip Randolph">Randolph</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Harry_Reid" title="Harry Reid">Reid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Walter_Reuther" title="Walter Reuther">Reuther</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nelson_Rockefeller" title="Nelson Rockefeller">Rockefeller</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eleanor_Roosevelt" title="Eleanor Roosevelt">Roosevelt (Eleanor)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Franklin_D._Roosevelt" title="Franklin D. Roosevelt">Roosevelt (Franklin)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theodore_Roosevelt" title="Theodore Roosevelt">Roosevelt (Theodore)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Benjamin_Rush" title="Benjamin Rush">Rush</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bernie_Sanders" title="Bernie Sanders">Sanders</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chuck_Schumer" title="Chuck Schumer">Schumer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sargent_Shriver" title="Sargent Shriver">Shriver</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Al_Smith" title="Al Smith">Smith</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Adlai_Stevenson_II" title="Adlai Stevenson II">Stevenson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Harry_S._Truman" title="Harry S. Truman">Truman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Martin_Van_Buren" title="Martin Van Buren">Van Buren</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Henry_A._Wallace" title="Henry A. Wallace">Wallace</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tim_Walz" title="Tim Walz">Walz</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Elizabeth_Warren" title="Elizabeth Warren">Warren</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paul_Wellstone" title="Paul Wellstone">Wellstone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ralph_Yarborough" title="Ralph Yarborough">Yarborough</a></li></ul> </div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="border-top:1px solid #3333FF; text-align:center;color: var(--color-base)">Commentators</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Destiny_(streamer)" title="Destiny (streamer)">Bonnell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jamelle_Bouie" title="Jamelle Bouie">Bouie</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_Carville" title="James Carville">Carville</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jonathan_Chait" title="Jonathan Chait">Chait</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ta-Nehisi_Coates" title="Ta-Nehisi Coates">Coates</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stephen_Colbert" title="Stephen Colbert">Colbert</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Herbert_Croly" title="Herbert Croly">Croly</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maureen_Dowd" title="Maureen Dowd">Dowd</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Friedman" title="Thomas Friedman">Friedman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roxane_Gay" title="Roxane Gay">Gay</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Michelle_Goldberg" title="Michelle Goldberg">Goldberg</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chris_Hayes" title="Chris Hayes">Hayes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Irving_Howe" title="Irving Howe">Howe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arianna_Huffington" title="Arianna Huffington">Huffington</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jimmy_Kimmel" title="Jimmy Kimmel">Kimmel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ezra_Klein" title="Ezra Klein">Klein (Ezra)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Naomi_Klein" title="Naomi Klein">Klein (Naomi)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paul_Krugman" title="Paul Krugman">Krugman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rachel_Maddow" title="Rachel Maddow">Maddow</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bill_Maher" title="Bill Maher">Maher</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Josh_Marshall" title="Josh Marshall">Marshall</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Seth_Meyers" title="Seth Meyers">Meyers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tim_Miller_(political_strategist)" title="Tim Miller (political strategist)">Miller</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bill_Moyers" title="Bill Moyers">Moyers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trevor_Noah" title="Trevor Noah">Noah</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Oliver" title="John Oliver">Oliver</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lydia_Polgreen" title="Lydia Polgreen">Polgreen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jon_Stewart" title="Jon Stewart">Stewart</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Andrew_Sullivan" title="Andrew Sullivan">Sullivan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cenk_Uygur" title="Cenk Uygur">Uygur</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Matt_Yglesias" class="mw-redirect" title="Matt Yglesias">Yglesias</a></li></ul> </div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="border-top:1px solid #3333FF; text-align:center;color: var(--color-base)">Jurists</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Harry_Blackmun" title="Harry Blackmun">Blackmun</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Louis_Brandeis" title="Louis Brandeis">Brandeis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_J._Brennan_Jr." title="William J. Brennan Jr.">Brennan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stephen_Breyer" title="Stephen Breyer">Breyer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Benjamin_N._Cardozo" title="Benjamin N. Cardozo">Cardozo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Clarence_Darrow" title="Clarence Darrow">Darrow</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_O._Douglas" title="William O. Douglas">Douglas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ronald_Dworkin" title="Ronald Dworkin">Dworkin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ruth_Bader_Ginsburg" title="Ruth Bader Ginsburg">Ginsburg</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Marshall_Harlan" title="John Marshall Harlan">Harlan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charles_Hamilton_Houston" title="Charles Hamilton Houston">Houston</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">K. B. Jackson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Elena_Kagan" title="Elena Kagan">Kagan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thurgood_Marshall" title="Thurgood Marshall">Marshall</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sonia_Sotomayor" title="Sonia Sotomayor">Sotomayor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/David_Souter" title="David Souter">Souter</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Paul_Stevens" title="John Paul Stevens">Stevens</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Laurence_Tribe" title="Laurence Tribe">Tribe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Earl_Warren" title="Earl Warren">Warren</a></li></ul> </div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="border-top:1px solid #3333FF; text-align:center;color: var(--color-base)">Parties</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Administration_party" title="Anti-Administration party">Anti-Federalist Party</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Democratic_Party_(United_States)" title="Democratic Party (United States)">Democratic Party</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Democratic-Republican_Party" title="Democratic-Republican Party">Democratic-Republican Party</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liberal_Republican_Party_(United_States)" title="Liberal Republican Party (United States)">Liberal Republican Party</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Democratic_Party_(United_States)" title="National Democratic Party (United States)">National Democratic Party</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/People%27s_Party_(United_States)" title="People's Party (United States)">People's Party</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Progressive_Party_(United_States,_1912)" class="mw-redirect" title="Progressive Party (United States, 1912)">Progressive Party</a> (1912)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Progressive_Party_(United_States,_1924%E2%80%931934)" title="Progressive Party (United States, 1924–1934)">Progressive Party</a> (1924)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Progressive_Party_(United_States,_1948)" class="mw-redirect" title="Progressive Party (United States, 1948)">Progressive Party</a> (1948)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Republican_Party_(United_States)" title="History of the Republican Party (United States)">Republican Party</a> (historically, factions) <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Black-and-tan_faction" title="Black-and-tan faction">Black-and-tans</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Half-Breeds_(politics)" title="Half-Breeds (politics)">Half-Breeds</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Radical_Republicans" title="Radical Republicans">Radical Republicans</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rockefeller_Republicans" class="mw-redirect" title="Rockefeller Republicans">Rockefeller Republicans</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roosevelt_Republicans" class="mw-redirect" title="Roosevelt Republicans">Roosevelt Republicans</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Moderate_Republicans_(Reconstruction_era)" title="Moderate Republicans (Reconstruction era)">Moderate Republicans</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mugwumps" title="Mugwumps">Mugwumps</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dorr_Rebellion" title="Dorr Rebellion">Rhode Island Suffrage Party</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Whig_Party_(United_States)" title="Whig Party (United States)">Whig Party (factions)</a></li></ul> </div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="border-top:1px solid #3333FF; text-align:center;color: var(--color-base)">Think tanks</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Center_for_American_Progress" title="Center for American Progress">Center for American Progress</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Center_for_Budget_and_Policy_Priorities" class="mw-redirect" title="Center for Budget and Policy Priorities">Center for Budget and Policy Priorities</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roosevelt_Institute" title="Roosevelt Institute">Roosevelt Institute</a></li></ul> </div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="border-top:1px solid #3333FF; text-align:center;color: var(--color-base)">Other organizations</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/AFL%E2%80%93CIO" class="mw-redirect" title="AFL–CIO">AFL–CIO</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/American_Civil_Liberties_Union" title="American Civil Liberties Union">American Civil Liberties Union</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/American_Constitution_Society" title="American Constitution Society">American Constitution Society</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/American_Humanist_Association" title="American Humanist Association">American Humanist Association</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Americans_United_for_Separation_of_Church_and_State" title="Americans United for Separation of Church and State">Americans United for Separation of Church and State</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Brennan_Center_For_Justice" class="mw-redirect" title="Brennan Center For Justice">Brennan Center For Justice</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Equal_Justice_Works" title="Equal Justice Works">Equal Justice Works</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/NAACP" title="NAACP">NAACP</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Organization_for_Women" title="National Organization for Women">National Organization for Women</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/People_for_the_American_Way" title="People for the American Way">People for the American Way</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/NARAL" class="mw-redirect" title="NARAL">NARAL</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Southern_Christian_Leadership_Conference" title="Southern Christian Leadership Conference">Southern Christian Leadership Conference</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Southern_Center_for_Human_Rights" title="Southern Center for Human Rights">Southern Center for Human Rights</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/SNCC" class="mw-redirect" title="SNCC">SNCC</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Urban_League" title="National Urban League">National Urban League</a></li></ul> </div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="border-top:1px solid #3333FF; text-align:center;color: var(--color-base)">Media</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/The_American_Prospect" title="The American Prospect">The American Prospect</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Atlantic" title="The Atlantic">The Atlantic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/CNN" title="CNN">CNN</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/HuffPost" title="HuffPost">HuffPost</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mother_Jones_(magazine)" title="Mother Jones (magazine)">Mother Jones</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/MSNBC" title="MSNBC">MSNBC</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Nation" title="The Nation">The Nation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_New_Republic" title="The New Republic">The New Republic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_New_York_Times" title="The New York Times">The New York Times</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Problem_with_Jon_Stewart" title="The Problem with Jon Stewart">The Problem with Jon Stewart</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rolling_Stone" title="Rolling Stone">Rolling Stone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Salon_(website)" class="mw-redirect" title="Salon (website)">Salon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sojourners" title="Sojourners">Sojourners</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Talking_Points_Memo" title="Talking Points Memo">Talking Points Memo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/ThinkProgress" title="ThinkProgress">ThinkProgress</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Washington_Post" title="The Washington Post">The Washington Post</a></li></ul> </div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="border-top:1px solid #3333FF; text-align:center;color: var(--color-base)">See also</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Political_views_of_American_academics" title="Political views of American academics">Liberal bias in academia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Media_bias_in_the_United_States" title="Media bias in the United States">Liberal bias in the media</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Liberal_Imagination" title="The Liberal Imagination">The Liberal Imagination</a> (1950)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Modern_liberalism_in_the_United_States" title="Modern liberalism in the United States">Modern liberalism in the United States</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/American_Left" title="American Left">American Left</a></li></ul> </div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-below plainlist" style="padding-bottom:0.22em; border-top:1px solid #AAA; border-bottom:1px solid #AAA"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/File:Yellow_flag_waving.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="icon" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1b/Yellow_flag_waving.svg/15px-Yellow_flag_waving.svg.png" decoding="async" width="15" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1b/Yellow_flag_waving.svg/22px-Yellow_flag_waving.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1b/Yellow_flag_waving.svg/30px-Yellow_flag_waving.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="249" data-file-height="268" /></a> <a href="/wiki/Portal:Liberalism" title="Portal:Liberalism">Liberalism portal</a></li> <li><img alt="flag" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/a/a4/Flag_of_the_United_States.svg/16px-Flag_of_the_United_States.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="8" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/a/a4/Flag_of_the_United_States.svg/24px-Flag_of_the_United_States.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/a/a4/Flag_of_the_United_States.svg/32px-Flag_of_the_United_States.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1235" data-file-height="650" /> <a href="/wiki/Portal:United_States" title="Portal:United States">United States portal</a></li></ul></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-navbar"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239400231">.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar ul{display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::before{margin-right:-0.125em;content:"[ "}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::after{margin-left:-0.125em;content:" ]"}.mw-parser-output .navbar li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .navbar a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini abbr{font-variant:small-caps;border-bottom:none;text-decoration:none;cursor:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-full{font-size:114%;margin:0 7em}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-mini{font-size:114%;margin:0 4em}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}}</style><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Liberalism_US" title="Template:Liberalism US"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Liberalism_US" title="Template talk:Liberalism US"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Liberalism_US" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Liberalism US"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table> Ketanji Onyika Brown Jackson (née Brown; <a href="/wiki/Help:IPA/English" title="Help:IPA/English">/kəˈtɑːndʒi/</a> <a href="/wiki/Help:Pronunciation_respelling_key" title="Help:Pronunciation respelling key">kə-TAHN-jee</a>; born September 14, 1970) is an American lawyer and jurist who is an <a href="/wiki/Associate_justice_of_the_Supreme_Court_of_the_United_States" class="mw-redirect" title="Associate justice of the Supreme Court of the United States">associate justice of the Supreme Court of the United States</a>. Jackson <a href="/wiki/Ketanji_Brown_Jackson_Supreme_Court_nomination" title="Ketanji Brown Jackson Supreme Court nomination">was nominated</a> to the <a href="/wiki/Supreme_Court_of_the_United_States" title="Supreme Court of the United States">Supreme Court</a> by President <a href="/wiki/Joe_Biden" title="Joe Biden">Joe Biden</a> on February 25, 2022, and confirmed by the <a href="/wiki/United_States_Senate" title="United States Senate">U.S. Senate</a> and sworn into office that same year.<a href="#cite_note-1">[1]</a><a href="#cite_note-2">[2]</a> She is the first <a href="/wiki/Black_Americans" class="mw-redirect" title="Black Americans">black woman</a> and the first former <a href="/wiki/Federal_public_defender" title="Federal public defender">federal public defender</a> to serve on the Supreme Court. Jackson was born in <a href="/wiki/Washington,_D.C." title="Washington, D.C.">Washington, D.C.</a>, and raised in <a href="/wiki/Miami" title="Miami">Miami</a>, Florida. She received her undergraduate and legal education at <a href="/wiki/Harvard_University" title="Harvard University">Harvard University</a>, where she served as an editor of the <a href="/wiki/Harvard_Law_Review" title="Harvard Law Review">Harvard Law Review</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Law_clerk" title="Law clerk">clerked</a> for Justice <a href="/wiki/Stephen_Breyer" title="Stephen Breyer">Stephen Breyer</a>, whose seat she later assumed on the Supreme Court.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBowlesHoppsStrickland202256-3">[3]</a> From 2010 to 2014, Jackson was the vice chairwoman of the <a href="/wiki/United_States_Sentencing_Commission" title="United States Sentencing Commission">United States Sentencing Commission</a>. In 2013, she was appointed by President <a href="/wiki/Barack_Obama" title="Barack Obama">Barack Obama</a> to serve as a district judge for the <a href="/wiki/United_States_District_Court_for_the_District_of_Columbia" title="United States District Court for the District of Columbia">United States District Court for the District of Columbia</a>. President Joe Biden elevated her to the <a href="/wiki/United_States_Court_of_Appeals_for_the_District_of_Columbia_Circuit" title="United States Court of Appeals for the District of Columbia Circuit">United States Court of Appeals for the District of Columbia Circuit</a> in 2021, where she served until 2022. Jackson served as a <a href="/wiki/Harvard_Board_of_Overseers" title="Harvard Board of Overseers">Harvard Board of Overseers</a> member from 2016 to 2022. <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Early_life_and_education">Early life and education</h2></div> Jackson was born on September 14, 1970, in <a href="/wiki/Washington,_D.C." title="Washington, D.C.">Washington, D.C.</a>,<a href="#cite_note-4">[4]</a> to parents who were both teachers and had been educated at <a href="/wiki/Historically_black_colleges_and_universities" title="Historically black colleges and universities">historically black colleges and universities</a>.<a href="#cite_note-:1-5">[5]</a> Her father, Johnny Brown, graduated from the <a href="/wiki/University_of_Miami_School_of_Law" title="University of Miami School of Law">University of Miami School of Law</a> and became chief attorney for the <a href="/wiki/Miami-Dade_County_Public_Schools" title="Miami-Dade County Public Schools">Miami-Dade County School Board</a>.<a href="#cite_note-6">[6]</a> Her mother, Ellery, was the <a href="/wiki/School_principal" class="mw-redirect" title="School principal">school principal</a> at the <a href="/wiki/New_World_School_of_the_Arts" title="New World School of the Arts">New World School of the Arts</a> in Miami.<a href="#cite_note-7">[7]</a> One of her uncles, <a href="/wiki/Calvin_Ross" title="Calvin Ross">Calvin Ross</a>, served as the <a href="/wiki/Chief_of_police" title="Chief of police">police chief</a> of the <a href="/wiki/Miami_Police_Department" title="Miami Police Department">Miami Police Department</a>.<a href="#cite_note-nyt-8">[8]</a><a href="#cite_note-9">[9]</a><a href="#cite_note-10">[10]</a> Jackson grew up in <a href="/wiki/Miami" title="Miami">Miami</a> and attended <a href="/wiki/Miami_Palmetto_Senior_High_School" title="Miami Palmetto Senior High School">Miami Palmetto Senior High School</a>.<a href="#cite_note-SenateQuestionnaire-11">[11]</a> She distinguished herself as a champion debater,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBowlesHoppsStrickland202255-12">[12]</a> winning the national <a href="/wiki/Public_speaking" title="Public speaking">oratory</a> title at the <a href="/wiki/National_Catholic_Forensic_League" title="National Catholic Forensic League">National Catholic Forensic League</a> championships in <a href="/wiki/New_Orleans" title="New Orleans">New Orleans</a> during her senior year.<a href="#cite_note-13">[13]</a> She has recalled her experience with <a href="/wiki/Public_debate" title="Public debate">high school debate</a> as one "that I can say without hesitation was the one activity that best prepared me for future success in law and in life."<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBradleyRoland202221-14">[14]</a> In 1988, Jackson graduated from Palmetto as senior class president.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBowlesHoppsStrickland202255-12">[12]</a><a href="#cite_note-15">[15]</a> In her <a href="/wiki/Yearbook#United_States" title="Yearbook">high school yearbook</a>, she was quoted as saying that she wanted "to go into law and eventually have a judicial appointment".<a href="#cite_note-16">[16]</a> After high school, Jackson matriculated at <a href="/wiki/Harvard_University" title="Harvard University">Harvard University</a> to study <a href="/wiki/Political_science" title="Political science">government</a>, having applied despite her guidance counselor's advice to set her sights lower.<a href="#cite_note-17">[17]</a> She took classes in drama and performed <a href="/wiki/Improv_comedy" class="mw-redirect" title="Improv comedy">improv comedy</a>, forming a diverse friend group.<a href="#cite_note-18">[18]</a><a href="#cite_note-:3-19">[19]</a> As a member of the Black Students Association, she led protests against a student who <a href="/wiki/Modern_display_of_the_Confederate_battle_flag" title="Modern display of the Confederate battle flag">displayed a Confederate flag</a> from his dormitory window and protested the lack of full-time professors in the Afro-American Studies Department. While a freshman, Jackson enrolled in <a href="/wiki/Michael_Sandel" title="Michael Sandel">Michael Sandel</a>'s course Justice, which she has called a major influence during her undergraduate years.<a href="#cite_note-:3-19">[19]</a> She graduated from Harvard in 1992 with a <a href="/wiki/Bachelor_of_Arts" title="Bachelor of Arts">Bachelor of Arts</a>, <a href="/wiki/Latin_honors#United_States" title="Latin honors">magna cum laude</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEThe_Journal_of_Blacks_in_Higher_Education200545-20">[20]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBowlesHoppsStrickland202255-12">[12]</a> Her senior thesis was titled "The Hand of Oppression: Plea Bargaining Processes and the Coercion of Criminal Defendants".<a href="#cite_note-21">[21]</a> From 1992 to 1993, Jackson worked as a staff reporter and researcher for <a href="/wiki/Time_(magazine)" title="Time (magazine)">Time</a> magazine.<a href="#cite_note-:4-22">[22]</a> She then attended <a href="/wiki/Harvard_Law_School" title="Harvard Law School">Harvard Law School</a>, where she was a supervising editor of the <a href="/wiki/Harvard_Law_Review" title="Harvard Law Review">Harvard Law Review</a>, graduating in 1996 with a <a href="/wiki/Juris_Doctor" title="Juris Doctor">Juris Doctor</a>, cum laude.<a href="#cite_note-23">[23]</a><a href="#cite_note-24">[24]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Early_career">Early career</h2></div> After law school, Jackson served as a <a href="/wiki/Law_clerk" title="Law clerk">law clerk</a> to Judge <a href="/wiki/Patti_B._Saris" title="Patti B. Saris">Patti B. Saris</a> of the <a href="/wiki/United_States_District_Court_for_the_District_of_Massachusetts" title="United States District Court for the District of Massachusetts">United States District Court for the District of Massachusetts</a> from 1996 to 1997,<a href="#cite_note-:4-22">[22]</a> then to Judge <a href="/wiki/Bruce_M._Selya" title="Bruce M. Selya">Bruce M. Selya</a> of the <a href="/wiki/United_States_Court_of_Appeals_for_the_First_Circuit" title="United States Court of Appeals for the First Circuit">United States Court of Appeals for the First Circuit</a> from 1997 to 1998.<a href="#cite_note-25">[25]</a> She spent a year in private practice at the Washington, D.C., law firm of Miller Cassidy Larroca & Lewin (now part of <a href="/wiki/Baker_Botts" title="Baker Botts">Baker Botts</a>), then clerked for Justice <a href="/wiki/Stephen_Breyer" title="Stephen Breyer">Stephen Breyer</a> from 1999 to 2000.<a href="#cite_note-SenateQuestionnaire-11">[11]</a><a href="#cite_note-fjc.gov-26">[26]</a> Jackson returned to private legal practice at the law firm of <a href="/wiki/Goodwin_Procter" title="Goodwin Procter">Goodwin Procter</a> from 2000 to 2002, then under <a href="/wiki/Kenneth_Feinberg" title="Kenneth Feinberg">Kenneth Feinberg</a> at the law firm now called Feinberg & Rozen LLP from 2002 to 2003.<a href="#cite_note-27">[27]</a><a href="#cite_note-KetanjiCommission-28">[28]</a> From 2003 to 2005, she was an assistant special counsel to the <a href="/wiki/United_States_Sentencing_Commission" title="United States Sentencing Commission">United States Sentencing Commission</a>.<a href="#cite_note-29">[29]</a> From 2005 to 2007, Jackson was an assistant <a href="/wiki/Federal_public_defender" title="Federal public defender">federal public defender</a> in Washington, D.C., where she handled cases before the <a href="/wiki/United_States_Court_of_Appeals_for_the_District_of_Columbia_Circuit" title="United States Court of Appeals for the District of Columbia Circuit">United States Court of Appeals for the District of Columbia Circuit</a>.<a href="#cite_note-30">[30]</a> A review by <a href="/wiki/The_Washington_Post" title="The Washington Post">The Washington Post</a> of cases Jackson handled during her time as a public defender showed that "she won uncommon victories against the government that shortened or erased lengthy prison terms".<a href="#cite_note-potential-31">[31]</a> From 2007 to 2010, Jackson was an appellate specialist in private practice at the law firm of <a href="/wiki/Morrison_%26_Foerster" title="Morrison & Foerster">Morrison & Foerster</a>.<a href="#cite_note-KetanjiCommission-28">[28]</a><a href="#cite_note-fjc.gov-26">[26]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="U.S._Sentencing_Commission_(2010–2014)">U.S. Sentencing Commission (2010–2014)</h2></div> On July 23, 2009, President Obama nominated Jackson as vice chair of the <a href="/wiki/United_States_Sentencing_Commission" title="United States Sentencing Commission">United States Sentencing Commission</a>.<a href="#cite_note-32">[32]</a><a href="#cite_note-vicechair-33">[33]</a> The <a href="/wiki/United_States_Senate_Committee_on_the_Judiciary" title="United States Senate Committee on the Judiciary">Senate Judiciary Committee</a> favorably reported her nomination by <a href="/wiki/Voice_vote" title="Voice vote">voice vote</a> on November 5, 2009. The <a href="/wiki/United_States_Senate" title="United States Senate">Senate</a> confirmed her nomination by voice vote on February 11, 2010.<a href="#cite_note-34">[34]</a> She succeeded <a href="/wiki/Michael_E._Horowitz" title="Michael E. Horowitz">Michael E. Horowitz</a>, who had served from 2003 until 2009. Jackson served on the Sentencing Commission until 2014.<a href="#cite_note-35">[35]</a><a href="#cite_note-fjc.gov-26">[26]</a> During her time on the commission, it retroactively amended the sentencing guidelines to reduce the guideline range for <a href="/wiki/Crack_cocaine" title="Crack cocaine">crack cocaine</a> offenses,<a href="#cite_note-first_slate-36">[36]</a> and enacted the "drugs minus two" amendment, which implemented a two offense-level reduction for drug crimes.<a href="#cite_note-37">[37]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="District_Court_(2013–2021)">District Court (2013–2021)</h2></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Ketanji_Brown_Jackson_(robe_photo).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d1/Ketanji_Brown_Jackson_%28robe_photo%29.jpg/170px-Ketanji_Brown_Jackson_%28robe_photo%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="238" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d1/Ketanji_Brown_Jackson_%28robe_photo%29.jpg/255px-Ketanji_Brown_Jackson_%28robe_photo%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d1/Ketanji_Brown_Jackson_%28robe_photo%29.jpg/340px-Ketanji_Brown_Jackson_%28robe_photo%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1701" data-file-height="2382" /></a><figcaption>Jackson on the bench of the U.S. District Court for the District of Columbia (pictured in 2019)</figcaption></figure> On September 20, 2012, Obama nominated Jackson to serve as a <a href="/wiki/United_States_federal_judge" title="United States federal judge">United States district judge</a> for the <a href="/wiki/United_States_District_Court_for_the_District_of_Columbia" title="United States District Court for the District of Columbia">District of Columbia</a> to the seat vacated by retiring judge <a href="/wiki/Henry_H._Kennedy_Jr." title="Henry H. Kennedy Jr.">Henry H. Kennedy Jr.</a><a href="#cite_note-38">[38]</a> Republican U.S. Representative <a href="/wiki/Paul_Ryan" title="Paul Ryan">Paul Ryan</a>, a relative by marriage, introduced Jackson at her December 2012 confirmation hearing and said, "Our politics may differ, but my praise for Ketanji's intellect, for her character, for her integrity, it is unequivocal."<a href="#cite_note-nyt-8">[8]</a> On February 14, 2013, the <a href="/wiki/United_States_Senate_Committee_on_the_Judiciary" title="United States Senate Committee on the Judiciary">Senate Judiciary Committee</a> favorably reported her nomination by <a href="/wiki/Voice_vote" title="Voice vote">voice vote</a>.<a href="#cite_note-39">[39]</a> She was confirmed by the Senate by voice vote on March 22, received her commission on March 26,<a href="#cite_note-fjc.gov-26">[26]</a> and was sworn in by Justice Breyer in May.<a href="#cite_note-40">[40]</a> Her service as a district judge ended on June 17, 2021, when she was elevated to the court of appeals.<a href="#cite_note-fjc.gov-26">[26]</a> During her time on the district court, Jackson wrote multiple decisions adverse to the positions of the <a href="/wiki/First_presidency_of_Donald_Trump" title="First presidency of Donald Trump">Trump administration</a>. In her opinion ordering Trump's former White House counsel <a href="/wiki/Don_McGahn" title="Don McGahn">Don McGahn</a> to comply with a legislative subpoena, she wrote that "presidents are not kings".<a href="#cite_note-41">[41]</a> Jackson handled a number of challenges to executive agency actions that raised questions of <a href="/wiki/Administrative_law" title="Administrative law">administrative law</a>. She also issued rulings in several cases that gained particular political attention.<a href="#cite_note-42">[42]</a> Bloomberg Law reported in spring 2021 that conservative activists were pointing to certain decisions by Jackson that had been reversed on appeal as a "potential blemish on her record".<a href="#cite_note-:0-43">[43]</a> In 2019, Jackson ruled that provisions in three Trump executive orders conflicted with federal employee rights to collective bargaining. Her decision was reversed unanimously by the D.C. Circuit. The D.C. Circuit also reversed another 2019 decision, involving a challenge to a Department of Homeland Security decision to expand the agency's definition of which non-citizens can be deported. <a href="/wiki/Alliance_for_Justice" title="Alliance for Justice">Alliance for Justice</a> President <a href="/wiki/Nan_Aron" title="Nan Aron">Nan Aron</a> defended Jackson's record, saying she "has written nearly 600 opinions and been reversed less than twelve times".<a href="#cite_note-:0-43">[43]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Selected_rulings">Selected rulings</h3></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Ketanji_Brown_Jackson_2020_(cropped).jpeg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/35/Ketanji_Brown_Jackson_2020_%28cropped%29.jpeg/170px-Ketanji_Brown_Jackson_2020_%28cropped%29.jpeg" decoding="async" width="170" height="228" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/35/Ketanji_Brown_Jackson_2020_%28cropped%29.jpeg/255px-Ketanji_Brown_Jackson_2020_%28cropped%29.jpeg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/35/Ketanji_Brown_Jackson_2020_%28cropped%29.jpeg/340px-Ketanji_Brown_Jackson_2020_%28cropped%29.jpeg 2x" data-file-width="2558" data-file-height="3429" /></a><figcaption>Jackson in 2020</figcaption></figure> In American Meat Institute v. U.S. Department of Agriculture (2013), Jackson rejected the <a href="/wiki/Meat_packing_industry" class="mw-redirect" title="Meat packing industry">meat packing industry</a>'s request for a preliminary injunction to block a <a href="/wiki/United_States_Department_of_Agriculture" title="United States Department of Agriculture">United States Department of Agriculture</a> rule requiring them to identify animals' <a href="/wiki/Country_of_origin" title="Country of origin">country of origin</a>. Jackson found that the rule likely did not violate the <a href="/wiki/First_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="First Amendment to the United States Constitution">First Amendment</a>.<a href="#cite_note-44">[44]</a><a href="#cite_note-45">[45]</a> In Depomed v. Department of Health and Human Services (2014), Jackson ruled that the <a href="/wiki/Food_and_Drug_Administration" title="Food and Drug Administration">Food and Drug Administration</a> (FDA) had violated the <a href="/wiki/Administrative_Procedure_Act_(United_States)" class="mw-redirect" title="Administrative Procedure Act (United States)">Administrative Procedure Act</a> when it failed to grant pharmaceutical company <a href="/wiki/Depomed" class="mw-redirect" title="Depomed">Depomed</a> market exclusivity for its <a href="/wiki/Orphan_drug" title="Orphan drug">orphan drug</a> <a href="/wiki/Gralise" class="mw-redirect" title="Gralise">Gralise</a>. She concluded that the <a href="/wiki/Orphan_Drug_Act_of_1983" title="Orphan Drug Act of 1983">Orphan Drug Act</a> required the FDA to grant Gralise exclusivity.<a href="#cite_note-46">[46]</a> In Pierce v. District of Columbia (2015), Jackson ruled that the <a href="/wiki/District_of_Columbia_Department_of_Corrections" title="District of Columbia Department of Corrections">D.C. Department of Corrections</a> violated the rights of a deaf inmate under the <a href="/wiki/Americans_with_Disabilities_Act_of_1990" title="Americans with Disabilities Act of 1990">Americans with Disabilities Act</a> because jail officials failed to provide the inmate with <a href="/wiki/Reasonable_accommodations" class="mw-redirect" title="Reasonable accommodations">reasonable accommodations</a>, or to assess his need for reasonable accommodations, during his detention in 2012. She held that "the District's willful blindness regarding" Pierce's need for accommodation and its half-hearted attempt to provide Pierce with a random assortment of auxiliary aids—and only after he specifically requested them—fell far short of what the law requires."<a href="#cite_note-47">[47]</a> In April and June 2018, Jackson presided over two cases challenging the <a href="/wiki/United_States_Department_of_Health_and_Human_Services" title="United States Department of Health and Human Services">Department of Health and Human Services</a>' decision to terminate grants for teen pregnancy prevention programs two years early.<a href="#cite_note-48">[48]</a> She ruled that the decision to terminate the grants early without explanation was arbitrary and capricious.<a href="#cite_note-49">[49]</a> In American Federation of Government Employees, AFL-CIO v. Trump (2018), Jackson invalidated provisions of three <a href="/wiki/Executive_orders" class="mw-redirect" title="Executive orders">executive orders</a> that would have limited the time federal employee <a href="/wiki/Trade_union" title="Trade union">labor union</a> officials could spend with union members, the issues that unions could bargain over in negotiations, and the rights of disciplined workers to appeal disciplinary actions. She ruled that the executive orders violated the right of federal employees to <a href="/wiki/Collectively_bargain" class="mw-redirect" title="Collectively bargain">collectively bargain</a>, as guaranteed by the <a href="/wiki/Federal_Service_Labor-Management_Relations_Statute" title="Federal Service Labor-Management Relations Statute">Federal Service Labor-Management Relations Statute</a>.<a href="#cite_note-50">[50]</a> The D.C. Circuit vacated this ruling on jurisdictional grounds in 2019.<a href="#cite_note-51">[51]</a><a href="#cite_note-Ballotpedia-52">[52]</a> In 2018, Jackson dismissed 40 <a href="/wiki/Wrongful_death" class="mw-redirect" title="Wrongful death">wrongful death</a> and product liability lawsuits stemming from the disappearance of <a href="/wiki/Malaysia_Airlines_Flight_370" title="Malaysia Airlines Flight 370">Malaysia Airlines Flight 370</a>, which had been combined into a single <a href="/wiki/Multidistrict_litigation" title="Multidistrict litigation">multidistrict litigation</a>. She held that under the doctrine of <a href="/wiki/Forum_non_conveniens" title="Forum non conveniens">forum non conveniens</a>, the suits should be brought in <a href="/wiki/Malaysia" title="Malaysia">Malaysia</a>, not the U.S. The D.C. Circuit affirmed this ruling in 2020.<a href="#cite_note-53">[53]</a><a href="#cite_note-54">[54]</a><a href="#cite_note-55">[55]</a><a href="#cite_note-56">[56]</a> In 2019, in Center for Biological Diversity v. McAleenan, Jackson held that Congress had, through the <a href="/wiki/Illegal_Immigration_Reform_and_Immigrant_Responsibility_Act" class="mw-redirect" title="Illegal Immigration Reform and Immigrant Responsibility Act">Illegal Immigration Reform and Immigrant Responsibility Act</a>, <a href="/wiki/Jurisdiction_stripping" title="Jurisdiction stripping">stripped federal courts of jurisdiction</a> to hear non-constitutional challenges to the <a href="/wiki/United_States_Secretary_of_Homeland_Security" title="United States Secretary of Homeland Security">United States Secretary of Homeland Security</a>'s decision to waive certain environmental requirements to facilitate construction of a <a href="/wiki/Mexico%E2%80%93United_States_barrier" class="mw-redirect" title="Mexico–United States barrier">border wall</a> on the <a href="/wiki/Mexico%E2%80%93United_States_border" title="Mexico–United States border">United States and Mexico border</a>.<a href="#cite_note-57">[57]</a> In 2019, Jackson issued a preliminary injunction in Make The Road New York v. McAleenan, blocking a Trump administration rule that would have expanded <a href="/wiki/Expedited_removal" title="Expedited removal">expedited removal</a> ("fast-track" deportations) without immigration court hearings for <a href="/wiki/Undocumented_immigrants" class="mw-redirect" title="Undocumented immigrants">undocumented immigrants</a>.<a href="#cite_note-58">[58]</a> She found that the U.S. Department of Homeland Security had violated the <a href="/wiki/Administrative_Procedure_Act_(United_States)" class="mw-redirect" title="Administrative Procedure Act (United States)">Administrative Procedure Act</a> (APA) because its decision was arbitrary and capricious and the agency did not seek public comment before issuing the rule.<a href="#cite_note-59">[59]</a> In a 2–1 ruling in 2020, the <a href="/wiki/United_States_Court_of_Appeals_for_the_District_of_Columbia_Circuit" title="United States Court of Appeals for the District of Columbia Circuit">D.C. Circuit</a> reversed the entry of the preliminary injunction, ruling that the <a href="/wiki/Illegal_Immigration_Reform_and_Immigrant_Responsibility_Act_of_1996" title="Illegal Immigration Reform and Immigrant Responsibility Act of 1996">IIRIRA</a> (by committing the matter to the executive branch's "sole and unreviewable discretion") precluded APA review of the decision.<a href="#cite_note-60">[60]</a> In 2019, Jackson issued a ruling in <a href="/wiki/In_re:_Don_McGahn" title="In re: Don McGahn">Committee on the Judiciary of the U.S. House of Representatives v. McGahn</a>, in which the <a href="/wiki/United_States_House_Committee_on_the_Judiciary" title="United States House Committee on the Judiciary">House Committee on the Judiciary</a> sued former <a href="/wiki/White_House_Counsel" title="White House Counsel">White House Counsel</a> <a href="/wiki/Don_McGahn" title="Don McGahn">Don McGahn</a> to compel him to comply with the <a href="/wiki/Subpoena" title="Subpoena">subpoena</a> to appear at an <a href="/wiki/Impeachment_inquiry_against_Donald_Trump" class="mw-redirect" title="Impeachment inquiry against Donald Trump">impeachment inquiry</a> hearing on issues of alleged <a href="/wiki/Obstruction_of_justice" class="mw-redirect" title="Obstruction of justice">obstruction of justice</a> by the Trump administration. McGahn declined to comply with the subpoena after President <a href="/wiki/Donald_Trump" title="Donald Trump">Donald Trump</a>, relying on a legal theory of executive testimonial immunity, ordered McGahn not to testify. In a lengthy opinion, Jackson ruled in favor of the House Committee and held that senior-level presidential aides "who have been subpoenaed for testimony by an authorized committee of Congress must appear for testimony in response to that subpoena" even if the president orders them not to do so.<a href="#cite_note-61">[61]</a> Jackson rejected the administration's assertion of executive testimonial immunity by holding that "with respect to senior-level presidential aides, absolute immunity from compelled congressional process simply does not exist".<a href="#cite_note-autogenerated1-62">[62]</a> According to her, that conclusion was "inescapable precisely because compulsory appearance by dint of a subpoena is a legal construct, not a political one, and per the Constitution, no one is above the law."<a href="#cite_note-autogenerated1-62">[62]</a><a href="#cite_note-63">[63]</a><a href="#cite_note-64">[64]</a> Jackson's use of the phrase "presidents are not kings" gained popular attention in subsequent media reporting on the ruling.<a href="#cite_note-65">[65]</a><a href="#cite_note-66">[66]</a><a href="#cite_note-67">[67]</a><a href="#cite_note-68">[68]</a> Noting that she took four months to resolve the case, including writing a 120-page opinion, <a href="/wiki/The_Washington_Post" title="The Washington Post">The Washington Post</a> wrote: "That slow pace contributed to helping Mr. Trump run out the clock on the congressional oversight effort before the 2020 election."<a href="#cite_note-nyt-8">[8]</a> The ruling was appealed by the <a href="/wiki/United_States_Department_of_Justice" title="United States Department of Justice">United States Department of Justice</a>,<a href="#cite_note-69">[69]</a> and the D.C. Circuit affirmed part of Jackson's decision in August 2020.<a href="#cite_note-70">[70]</a> While the case remained pending, on June 4, 2021, McGahn testified behind closed doors under an agreement reached with the Biden administration.<a href="#cite_note-71">[71]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="U.S._Court_of_Appeals_(2021–2022)">U.S. Court of Appeals (2021–2022)</h2></div> <figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:KBJ_with_Breyer.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6d/KBJ_with_Breyer.png/171px-KBJ_with_Breyer.png" decoding="async" width="171" height="179" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6d/KBJ_with_Breyer.png/257px-KBJ_with_Breyer.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6d/KBJ_with_Breyer.png/343px-KBJ_with_Breyer.png 2x" data-file-width="620" data-file-height="648" /></a><figcaption>Judge Jackson with Justice <a href="/wiki/Stephen_Breyer" title="Stephen Breyer">Stephen Breyer</a></figcaption></figure>On March 30, 2021, President Biden announced his intention to nominate Jackson as a <a href="/wiki/United_States_federal_judge" title="United States federal judge">United States circuit judge</a> for the <a href="/wiki/United_States_Court_of_Appeals_for_the_District_of_Columbia_Circuit" title="United States Court of Appeals for the District of Columbia Circuit">District of Columbia Circuit</a>.<a href="#cite_note-WHBio-72">[72]</a> On April 19, 2021, her nomination was sent to the Senate. Biden nominated Jackson to the seat vacated by Judge <a href="/wiki/Merrick_Garland" title="Merrick Garland">Merrick Garland</a>, who had stepped down to become <a href="/wiki/United_States_Attorney_General" title="United States Attorney General">U.S. Attorney General</a>.<a href="#cite_note-73">[73]</a> The <a href="/wiki/American_Bar_Association" title="American Bar Association">American Bar Association</a> appraised Jackson as "well qualified with no recusals or abstentions".<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBowlesHoppsStrickland202251-74">[74]</a> On April 28, 2021, a hearing on her nomination was held before the Senate Judiciary Committee.<a href="#cite_note-75">[75]</a> During her confirmation hearing, Jackson was questioned about several of her rulings against the Trump administration.<a href="#cite_note-76">[76]</a> On May 20, Jackson's nomination was reported out of committee by a 13–9 vote.<a href="#cite_note-77">[77]</a> On June 8, Majority Leader <a href="/wiki/Chuck_Schumer" title="Chuck Schumer">Chuck Schumer</a> filed <a href="/wiki/Cloture" title="Cloture">cloture</a> on her nomination. On June 10, the Senate invoked cloture on her nomination by a 52–46 vote.<a href="#cite_note-78">[78]</a> On June 14, her nomination was confirmed by a 53–44 vote. Republican senators <a href="/wiki/Susan_Collins" title="Susan Collins">Susan Collins</a>, <a href="/wiki/Lindsey_Graham" title="Lindsey Graham">Lindsey Graham</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Lisa_Murkowski" title="Lisa Murkowski">Lisa Murkowski</a> joined all 50 Democrats in voting to confirm Jackson.<a href="#cite_note-79">[79]</a> She received her judicial commission on June 17, 2021.<a href="#cite_note-80">[80]</a> On September 28, 2022, Jackson was assigned as the circuit justice for the <a href="/wiki/United_States_Court_of_Appeals_for_the_First_Circuit" title="United States Court of Appeals for the First Circuit">First Circuit</a>.<a href="#cite_note-81">[81]</a> Her service as a circuit judge ended on June 29, 2022, the day before she was sworn in as an <a href="/wiki/Associate_Justice" class="mw-redirect" title="Associate Justice">Associate Justice</a> of the <a href="/wiki/United_States_Supreme_Court" class="mw-redirect" title="United States Supreme Court">United States Supreme Court</a>.<a href="#cite_note-fjc.gov-26">[26]</a> During her time on the Circuit Court Jackson authored two majority opinions, American Federation of Government Employees v. FLRA and Wye Oak Technology, Inc. v. Republic of Iraq.<a href="#cite_note-82">[82]</a> In American Federation of Government Employees, her first written opinion for the court of appeals, Jackson, joined by the rest of the panel, wrote that a 2020 <a href="/wiki/Federal_Labor_Relations_Authority" title="Federal Labor Relations Authority">FLRA</a> law change which permitted collective bargaining negotiations with unions only when the negotiated working condition changes constituted a "substantial impact", stood in violation with U.S. Code 5 § 706.<a href="#cite_note-83">[83]</a> In her opinion, Jackson rejected arguments that the <a href="/wiki/De_minimis" title="De minimis">de minimis</a> standard was both 'unpredictable' in its application and inconsistent with federal labor law.<a href="#cite_note-FLRA-84">[84]</a><a href="#cite_note-85">[85]</a> In addition, Jackson argued that the replacement standard failed to be affirmatively more successful when compared to the de minimis standard as there was no comparative analysis between the two and could therefore not be justifiably replaceable.<a href="#cite_note-FLRA-84">[84]</a> Concluding her opinion, Jackson went on to write: "The cursory policy statement that the FLRA issued to justify its choice to abandon thirty-five years of precedent promoting and applying the de minimis standard and to adopt the previously rejected substantial-impact test is arbitrary and capricious,".<a href="#cite_note-86">[86]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Nomination_to_the_Supreme_Court">Nomination to the Supreme Court</h2></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Ketanji_Brown_Jackson_Supreme_Court_nomination" title="Ketanji Brown Jackson Supreme Court nomination">Ketanji Brown Jackson Supreme Court nomination</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:P20220225CS-1404_(51988932003).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/60/P20220225CS-1404_%2851988932003%29.jpg/220px-P20220225CS-1404_%2851988932003%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="147" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/60/P20220225CS-1404_%2851988932003%29.jpg/330px-P20220225CS-1404_%2851988932003%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/60/P20220225CS-1404_%2851988932003%29.jpg/440px-P20220225CS-1404_%2851988932003%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3000" data-file-height="2000" /></a><figcaption>Jackson delivers remarks on her nomination in the <a href="/wiki/Grand_Foyer" class="mw-redirect" title="Grand Foyer">Grand Foyer</a> of the White House (February 25, 2022)</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Justice_Jackson_being_sworn_in_by_Justice_Breyer.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d7/Justice_Jackson_being_sworn_in_by_Justice_Breyer.jpg/220px-Justice_Jackson_being_sworn_in_by_Justice_Breyer.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="181" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d7/Justice_Jackson_being_sworn_in_by_Justice_Breyer.jpg/330px-Justice_Jackson_being_sworn_in_by_Justice_Breyer.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d7/Justice_Jackson_being_sworn_in_by_Justice_Breyer.jpg/440px-Justice_Jackson_being_sworn_in_by_Justice_Breyer.jpg 2x" data-file-width="600" data-file-height="494" /></a><figcaption>Justice Breyer administering the Judicial Oath to Jackson (June 30, 2022)</figcaption></figure> In early 2016, <a href="/wiki/Presidency_of_Barack_Obama" title="Presidency of Barack Obama">Obama administration</a> officials vetted Jackson as a potential nominee to the <a href="/wiki/Supreme_Court_of_the_United_States" title="Supreme Court of the United States">Supreme Court of the United States</a> to fill the vacancy left by the death of Justice <a href="/wiki/Antonin_Scalia" title="Antonin Scalia">Antonin Scalia</a>.<a href="#cite_note-87">[87]</a><a href="#cite_note-88">[88]</a><a href="#cite_note-89">[89]</a> Jackson was one of five candidates interviewed as a potential nominee.<a href="#cite_note-90">[90]</a> In early 2022, news outlets speculated that Biden would nominate Jackson to the U.S. Supreme Court to fill the seat vacated by Justice Breyer.<a href="#cite_note-kapur-91">[91]</a><a href="#cite_note-92">[92]</a><a href="#cite_note-93">[93]</a><a href="#cite_note-94">[94]</a> Biden pledged during the <a href="/wiki/2020_United_States_presidential_election" title="2020 United States presidential election">2020 United States presidential election</a> campaign to appoint a black woman to the court should a vacancy occur.<a href="#cite_note-kapur-91">[91]</a> Jackson's appointment to the <a href="/wiki/United_States_Court_of_Appeals_for_the_District_of_Columbia_Circuit" title="United States Court of Appeals for the District of Columbia Circuit">D.C. Circuit</a>, considered the second-most influential federal court, was viewed as preparation for a potential promotion to the Supreme Court.<a href="#cite_note-95">[95]</a> Jackson's potential nomination to the Supreme Court was supported by civil rights and liberal advocacy organizations.<a href="#cite_note-wapo2-96">[96]</a> Her potential nomination was opposed by Republican Party leaders and senators.<a href="#cite_note-:02-97">[97]</a><a href="#cite_note-:12-98">[98]</a><a href="#cite_note-:2-99">[99]</a> The Washington Post wrote that Jackson's experience as a public defender "has endeared her to the more liberal base of the Democratic Party".<a href="#cite_note-100">[100]</a> While her supporters have touted her history as a public defender as an asset, during her 2021 confirmation hearing, Republicans tried to cast it as a liability.<a href="#cite_note-potential-31">[31]</a> On February 25, 2022, Biden announced that Jackson was his nominee to be an associate justice of the Supreme Court.<a href="#cite_note-announce-101">[101]</a> Her nomination was sent to the Senate on February 28.<a href="#cite_note-102">[102]</a> Her confirmation hearing before the <a href="/wiki/United_States_Senate_Committee_on_the_Judiciary" title="United States Senate Committee on the Judiciary">Senate Judiciary Committee</a> was held on March 21.<a href="#cite_note-103">[103]</a> After the Judiciary Committee deadlocked on her nomination by an 11–11 vote, the Senate discharged the committee from further consideration of her nomination by a 53–47 vote.<a href="#cite_note-104">[104]</a><a href="#cite_note-105">[105]</a><a href="#cite_note-106">[106]</a><a href="#cite_note-107">[107]</a> The next day, the Senate proceeded to the consideration of her nomination by a 53–47 vote,<a href="#cite_note-108">[108]</a> and Majority Leader <a href="/wiki/Chuck_Schumer" title="Chuck Schumer">Chuck Schumer</a> then filed cloture on her nomination.<a href="#cite_note-109">[109]</a> On April 7, the Senate invoked cloture on her nomination by a 53–47 vote.<a href="#cite_note-110">[110]</a><a href="#cite_note-111">[111]</a> Later that day, she was confirmed by the same margin.<a href="#cite_note-112">[112]</a> Republicans <a href="/wiki/Mitt_Romney" title="Mitt Romney">Mitt Romney</a>, <a href="/wiki/Lisa_Murkowski" title="Lisa Murkowski">Lisa Murkowski</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Susan_Collins" title="Susan Collins">Susan Collins</a> joined all Democrats in confirming Jackson to the Supreme Court.<a href="#cite_note-113">[113]</a> She received her judicial commission as an associate justice on April 8.<a href="#cite_note-fjc.gov-26">[26]</a> She was sworn in and became an associate justice at noon on June 30, 2022, when Breyer's retirement went into effect.<a href="#cite_note-114">[114]</a><a href="#cite_note-115">[115]</a><a href="#cite_note-116">[116]</a><a href="#cite_note-117">[117]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="U.S._Supreme_Court_(2022–present)">U.S. Supreme Court (2022–present)</h2></div> The Supreme Court released its final merit opinions on the morning of June 30, 2022. At noon, Breyer officially retired and Jackson was sworn in, becoming the first Black woman<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBradleyRoland202221-14">[14]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBowlesHoppsStrickland202255-12">[12]</a> and the first former <a href="/wiki/Federal_public_defender" title="Federal public defender">federal public defender</a> to serve on the Supreme Court.<a href="#cite_note-118">[118]</a><a href="#cite_note-119">[119]</a><a href="#cite_note-120">[120]</a><a href="#cite_note-121">[121]</a> On July 21, Jackson voted on her first Supreme Court case, joining the dissent in a 5–4 decision refusing to block a district court ruling that prevented the Biden administration from setting new enforcement priorities for immigrants entering the U.S. or living in the country illegally.<a href="#cite_note-122">[122]</a> She participated in her first oral argument as an associate justice on October 3, in <a href="/wiki/Sackett_v._Environmental_Protection_Agency_(2023)" title="Sackett v. Environmental Protection Agency (2023)">Sackett v. Environmental Protection Agency</a>.<a href="#cite_note-123">[123]</a> On November 7 she wrote her first opinion, a two-page dissent from a denial of review in the case of a death row inmate in Chinn v. Shoop; the opinion was joined by Justice Sotomayor.<a href="#cite_note-124">[124]</a> Two contributors to <a href="/wiki/SCOTUSBlog" class="mw-redirect" title="SCOTUSBlog">SCOTUSBlog</a> noted that, since joining the Court at the beginning of the 2022 term, Jackson was the most active participant in oral arguments, speaking an average of 1,350 words per argument, while the eight other justices each spoke on average fewer than 1,000.<a href="#cite_note-125">[125]</a> On February 28, 2023, Jackson authored her first majority opinion for a unanimous court in <a href="/wiki/Delaware_v._Pennsylvania" title="Delaware v. Pennsylvania">Delaware v. Pennsylvania</a>, which involved how unclaimed money from <a href="/wiki/MoneyGram" title="MoneyGram">MoneyGrams</a> are distributed among individual states.<a href="#cite_note-126">[126]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Labor_disputes">Labor disputes</h3></div> On June 1, 2023, Jackson wrote the sole dissenting opinion in <a href="/wiki/Glacier_Northwest,_Inc._v._Teamsters" title="Glacier Northwest, Inc. v. Teamsters">Glacier Northwest, Inc. v. Teamsters</a>, concerning the power of employers to sue labor unions regarding the destruction of employer property following a <a href="/wiki/Strike_action" title="Strike action">strike</a>.<a href="#cite_note-127">[127]</a> In her opinion, she argued that further deference to the <a href="/wiki/National_Labor_Relations_Board" title="National Labor Relations Board">National Labor Relations Board</a> was justified given the precedent of cases such as <a href="/wiki/San_Diego_Building_Trades_Council_v._Garmon" title="San Diego Building Trades Council v. Garmon">San Diego Building Trades Council v. Garmon</a> that stipulate that the <a href="/wiki/National_Labor_Relations_Act" class="mw-redirect" title="National Labor Relations Act">NLRA</a> preempts state law when the two conflict.<a href="#cite_note-128">[128]</a><a href="#cite_note-129">[129]</a> Jackson further contended that the majority opinion failed "Congress's intent with respect to the Board's primary role in adjudicating labor disputes", with its deference to state actions risking "erosion of the right to strike".<a href="#cite_note-130">[130]</a> In her conclusion, she emphasized these points, writing: "Workers are not indentured servants, bound to continue laboring until any planned work stoppage would be as painless as possible for their master. They are employees whose collective and peaceful decision to withhold their labor is protected by the NLRA even if economic injury results".<a href="#cite_note-131">[131]</a> On June 13, 2024, Jackson wrote an opinion, concurring in part and dissenting in part, in <a href="/wiki/Starbucks_Corporation_v._McKinney" class="mw-redirect" title="Starbucks Corporation v. McKinney">Starbucks Corporation v. McKinney</a>.<a href="#cite_note-132">[132]</a> In it, she agreed that the case should be reheard in the lower courts using the four criteria tests of <a href="/wiki/Winter_v._Natural_Resources_Defense_Council" title="Winter v. Natural Resources Defense Council">Winter v. Natural Resources Defense Council</a>, but argued that the majority failed to follow the NLRA's directives of court deference to NLRB authority in labor disputes.<a href="#cite_note-133">[133]</a><a href="#cite_note-134">[134]</a> Arguing that the court was failing to issue proper deference to the NLRB, Jackson wrote, "I am loath to bless this aggrandizement of judicial power where Congress has so plainly limited the discretion of the courts, and where it so clearly intends for the expert agency it has created to make the primary determinations".<a href="#cite_note-135">[135]</a><a href="#cite_note-136">[136]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Affirmative_action">Affirmative action</h3></div> Jackson dissented from the Supreme Court's ruling in <a href="/wiki/Students_for_Fair_Admissions_v._University_of_North_Carolina" class="mw-redirect" title="Students for Fair Admissions v. University of North Carolina">Students for Fair Admissions v. University of North Carolina</a>, the companion case to <a href="/wiki/Students_for_Fair_Admissions_v._President_and_Fellows_of_Harvard_College" class="mw-redirect" title="Students for Fair Admissions v. President and Fellows of Harvard College">Students for Fair Admissions v. President and Fellows of Harvard College</a>, which limited the use of racial preferences in university admissions.<a href="#cite_note-137">[137]</a> In her dissent, Jackson emphasized the relationship between <a href="/wiki/Black_Americans" class="mw-redirect" title="Black Americans">Black Americans</a> and the U.S. government, writing, "Our country has never been colorblind", and associating <a href="/wiki/Affirmative_action" title="Affirmative action">affirmative action</a> as a corrective marker in reconciliation.<a href="#cite_note-138">[138]</a><a href="#cite_note-139">[139]</a> In doing so, she expressed opposition to the majority's usage of the <a href="/wiki/Equal_Protection_Clause" title="Equal Protection Clause">Equal Protection Clause</a>, writing, "To impose this result in that Clause’s name when it requires no such thing, and to thereby obstruct our collective progress toward the full realization of the Clause’s promise, is truly a tragedy for us all".<a href="#cite_note-140">[140]</a><a href="#cite_note-141">[141]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Judicial_philosophy">Judicial philosophy</h3></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Judge_Ketanji_Brown_Jackson_-_Wikimedia_Commons.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/44/Judge_Ketanji_Brown_Jackson_-_Wikimedia_Commons.jpg/220px-Judge_Ketanji_Brown_Jackson_-_Wikimedia_Commons.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="150" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/44/Judge_Ketanji_Brown_Jackson_-_Wikimedia_Commons.jpg/330px-Judge_Ketanji_Brown_Jackson_-_Wikimedia_Commons.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/44/Judge_Ketanji_Brown_Jackson_-_Wikimedia_Commons.jpg/440px-Judge_Ketanji_Brown_Jackson_-_Wikimedia_Commons.jpg 2x" data-file-width="5831" data-file-height="3968" /></a><figcaption>Judge Jackson at the James B. Parsons Legacy Dinner on February 24, 2020</figcaption></figure> Jackson has said she does not have a particular judicial philosophy,<a href="#cite_note-brookings-142">[142]</a> but rather has a perspective on legal analysis or a "judicial methodology".<a href="#cite_note-143">[143]</a><a href="#cite_note-Harvard-144">[144]</a> Though she has not embraced the label, Jackson has expressed that she sees value in <a href="/wiki/Originalism" title="Originalism">originalism</a>, saying the "Constitution is fixed in its meaning", and has explicitly criticized <a href="/wiki/Living_constitutionalism" class="mw-redirect" title="Living constitutionalism">living constitutionalism</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Harvard-144">[144]</a> In January 2022, The New York Times reported that Jackson had "not yet written a body of appeals court opinions expressing a legal philosophy" because she had joined the U.S. Court of Appeals for the D.C. Circuit in the summer of 2021. However, The Times said, Jackson's earlier rulings "comported with those of a liberal-leaning judge", including her opinions blocking various Trump administration actions.<a href="#cite_note-nyt-8">[8]</a> Additionally, a review of over 500 of her judicial opinions indicated that she would likely be as liberal as Breyer, the justice she replaced.<a href="#cite_note-145">[145]</a> According to Sahil Kapur, writing for <a href="/wiki/NBC_News" title="NBC News">NBC News</a>, "Jackson fits well with the Democratic Party and the progressive movement's agenda" due to her relative youth, background as a public defender, and history of labor-friendly rulings.<a href="#cite_note-146">[146]</a> <a href="/wiki/Politico" title="Politico">Politico</a> reported that "Jackson is popular with liberal legal activists looking to replace Breyer with a justice willing to engage in ideological combat with the court's conservatives."<a href="#cite_note-147">[147]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Personal_life">Personal life</h2></div> In 1996, Jackson married surgeon Patrick Graves Jackson, whom she met at Harvard College.<a href="#cite_note-148">[148]</a> He is a descendant of <a href="/wiki/Continental_Congress" title="Continental Congress">Continental Congress</a> delegate <a href="/wiki/Jonathan_Jackson_(Massachusetts_politician)" title="Jonathan Jackson (Massachusetts politician)">Jonathan Jackson</a><a href="#cite_note-Marshals-149">[149]</a> and is related to U.S. Supreme Court Justice <a href="/wiki/Oliver_Wendell_Holmes_Jr." title="Oliver Wendell Holmes Jr.">Oliver Wendell Holmes Jr.</a><a href="#cite_note-150">[150]</a> The couple have two daughters.<a href="#cite_note-Mizelle_Stracqualursi-151">[151]</a><a href="#cite_note-152">[152]</a><a href="#cite_note-Goldstein2016-153">[153]</a> Jackson is a <a href="/wiki/Non-denominational_Protestant" class="mw-redirect" title="Non-denominational Protestant">non-denominational Protestant</a>.<a href="#cite_note-154">[154]</a> In a 2017 speech, she said, "I am fairly certain that if you traced my family lineage back past my grandparents—who were raised in Georgia, by the way—you would find that my ancestors were slaves on both sides."<a href="#cite_note-155">[155]</a> Jackson's paternal ancestry can be traced to <a href="/wiki/Houston_County,_Georgia" title="Houston County, Georgia">Houston County</a>, Georgia,<a href="#cite_note-156">[156]</a> while her maternal ancestry can be traced to <a href="/wiki/Calhoun_County,_Georgia" title="Calhoun County, Georgia">Calhoun County</a>, Georgia.<a href="#cite_note-157">[157]</a> Through her marriage, Jackson is related to former <a href="/wiki/Speaker_of_the_United_States_House_of_Representatives" title="Speaker of the United States House of Representatives">Speaker of the House</a> <a href="/wiki/Paul_Ryan" title="Paul Ryan">Paul Ryan</a>.<a href="#cite_note-wapo2022-02-25-158">[158]</a><a href="#cite_note-159">[a]</a> In 1989, while Jackson was an undergraduate at Harvard, her uncle Thomas Brown Jr. was sentenced to life in prison for a <a href="/wiki/Three-strikes_law" title="Three-strikes law">nonviolent cocaine conviction</a> after <a href="/wiki/Drug_Enforcement_Administration" title="Drug Enforcement Administration">federal agents</a> found 14 kilograms of cocaine wrapped in duct tape. Years later, Jackson persuaded a law firm to take his case <a href="/wiki/Pro_bono" title="Pro bono">pro bono</a>, and President <a href="/wiki/Barack_Obama" title="Barack Obama">Barack Obama</a> eventually <a href="/wiki/Commutation_(law)" title="Commutation (law)">commuted</a> his sentence.<a href="#cite_note-wapo2-96">[96]</a><a href="#cite_note-160">[159]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Affiliations">Affiliations</h3></div> Jackson is a member of the <a href="/wiki/Judicial_Conference_of_the_United_States" title="Judicial Conference of the United States">Judicial Conference Committee on Defender Services</a> and the Council of the <a href="/wiki/American_Law_Institute" title="American Law Institute">American Law Institute</a>. She previously served as a member of the <a href="/wiki/Harvard_Board_of_Overseers" title="Harvard Board of Overseers">Harvard Board of Overseers</a><a href="#cite_note-161">[160]</a> and on the <a href="/wiki/Georgetown_Day_School" title="Georgetown Day School">Georgetown Day School</a> Board of Trustees<a href="#cite_note-162">[161]</a> and the U.S. Supreme Court Fellows Commission.<a href="#cite_note-163">[162]</a> From 2010 to 2011, she served on the advisory board of <a href="/wiki/Montrose_Christian_School" title="Montrose Christian School">Montrose Christian School</a>, a <a href="/wiki/Southern_Baptist_Convention" title="Southern Baptist Convention">Baptist</a> school.<a href="#cite_note-164">[163]</a> Jackson has served as a judge in several mock trials with the <a href="/wiki/Shakespeare_Theatre_Company" title="Shakespeare Theatre Company">Shakespeare Theatre Company</a><a href="#cite_note-165">[164]</a><a href="#cite_note-166">[165]</a><a href="#cite_note-167">[166]</a> and for the Historical Society of the District of Columbia's Mock Court Program.<a href="#cite_note-168">[167]</a> In 2018, she presided over a mock trial hosted by <a href="/wiki/Drexel_University" title="Drexel University">Drexel University</a>'s <a href="/wiki/Thomas_R._Kline_School_of_Law" title="Thomas R. Kline School of Law">Thomas R. Kline School of Law</a> "to determine if Vice President <a href="/wiki/Aaron_Burr" title="Aaron Burr">Aaron Burr</a> was guilty of murdering" <a href="/wiki/Alexander_Hamilton" title="Alexander Hamilton">Alexander Hamilton</a>.<a href="#cite_note-169">[168]</a> In 2017, Jackson presented at the <a href="/wiki/University_of_Georgia_School_of_Law" title="University of Georgia School of Law">University of Georgia School of Law</a>'s 35th Edith House Lecture.<a href="#cite_note-170">[169]</a> In 2018, she was a panelist at the <a href="/wiki/National_Constitution_Center" title="National Constitution Center">National Constitution Center</a>'s town hall on Alexander Hamilton's legacy.<a href="#cite_note-171">[170]</a> In 2020, Jackson gave the <a href="/wiki/Martin_Luther_King_Jr._Day" title="Martin Luther King Jr. Day">Martin Luther King Jr. Day</a> lecture at the <a href="/wiki/University_of_Michigan_Law_School" title="University of Michigan Law School">University of Michigan Law School</a><a href="#cite_note-172">[171]</a> and was honored at the <a href="/wiki/University_of_Chicago_Law_School" title="University of Chicago Law School">University of Chicago Law School</a>'s third annual Judge <a href="/wiki/James_Benton_Parsons" title="James Benton Parsons">James B. Parsons</a> Legacy Dinner, hosted by the school's Black Law Students Association.<a href="#cite_note-173">[172]</a> In 2022, she received the <a href="/wiki/Academy_of_Achievement" title="Academy of Achievement">Academy of Achievement</a>'s Golden Plate Award, presented by Awards Council members Justice <a href="/wiki/Amy_Coney_Barrett" title="Amy Coney Barrett">Amy Coney Barrett</a> and retired Justice <a href="/wiki/Anthony_Kennedy" title="Anthony Kennedy">Anthony Kennedy</a>.<a href="#cite_note-174">[173]</a><a href="#cite_note-175">[174]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Selected_works">Selected works</h2></div> <ul><li><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite id="CITEREFRecent_Case1995" class="citation journal cs1">Recent Case (1995). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/1341863">"Racketeer Influenced and Corrupt Organizations Act (RICO) – Scope of Liability after Reves v. Ernst & Young"</a>. <a href="/wiki/Harvard_Law_Review" title="Harvard Law Review">Harvard Law Review</a>. 108 (6): 1405–1410. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2307%2F1341863">10.2307/1341863</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/1341863">1341863</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Harvard+Law+Review&rft.atitle=Racketeer+Influenced+and+Corrupt+Organizations+Act+%28RICO%29+%E2%80%93+Scope+of+Liability+after+Reves+v.+Ernst+%26+Young&rft.volume=108&rft.issue=6&rft.pages=1405-1410&rft.date=1995&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2307%2F1341863&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F1341863%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.au=Recent+Case&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F1341863&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKetanji+Brown+Jackson" class="Z3988"><a href="#cite_note-SenateQuestionnaire-11">[11]</a><a href="#cite_note-Anonymous-176">[b]</a></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFNote1996" class="citation journal cs1">Note (1996). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/1342027">"Prevention versus Punishment: Toward a Principled Distinction in the Restraint of Released Sex Offenders"</a>. <a href="/wiki/Harvard_Law_Review" title="Harvard Law Review">Harvard Law Review</a>. 109 (7): 1711–1728. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2307%2F1342027">10.2307/1342027</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/1342027">1342027</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:247656074">247656074</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Harvard+Law+Review&rft.atitle=Prevention+versus+Punishment%3A+Toward+a+Principled+Distinction+in+the+Restraint+of+Released+Sex+Offenders&rft.volume=109&rft.issue=7&rft.pages=1711-1728&rft.date=1996&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A247656074%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F1342027%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2307%2F1342027&rft.au=Note&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F1342027&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKetanji+Brown+Jackson" class="Z3988"><a href="#cite_note-SenateQuestionnaire-11">[11]</a><a href="#cite_note-Anonymous-176">[b]</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lovely_One_(memoir)" title="Lovely One (memoir)">Lovely One</a> (2024). <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJackson2024" class="citation book cs1">Jackson, Ketanji Brown (September 3, 2024). Lovely One: A Memoir (First hardcover ed.). New York: Random House. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780593729908" title="Special:BookSources/9780593729908"><bdi>9780593729908</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/1452735147">1452735147</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Lovely+One%3A+A+Memoir&rft.place=New+York&rft.edition=First+hardcover&rft.pub=Random+House&rft.date=2024-09-03&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F1452735147&rft.isbn=9780593729908&rft.aulast=Jackson&rft.aufirst=Ketanji+Brown&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKetanji+Brown+Jackson" class="Z3988"></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239009302">.mw-parser-output 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href="/wiki/List_of_law_clerks_of_the_Supreme_Court_of_the_United_States_(Seat_2)" title="List of law clerks of the Supreme Court of the United States (Seat 2)">List of law clerks of the Supreme Court of the United States (Seat 2)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_United_States_Supreme_Court_justices_by_time_in_office" title="List of United States Supreme Court justices by time in office">List of United States Supreme Court justices by time in office</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Notes">Notes</h2></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist reflist-lower-alpha"> <div class="mw-references-wrap"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-159"><a href="#cite_ref-159">^</a> Her husband's twin brother (i.e. her brother-in-law) is married to Ryan's wife's sister (i.e. his sister-in-law). </li> <li id="cite_note-Anonymous-176">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Anonymous_176-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Anonymous_176-1">b</a> The <a href="/wiki/Harvard_Law_Review" title="Harvard Law Review">Harvard Law Review</a> publishes its student contributions as "notes" without stating the author's name as part of a policy reflecting "the fact that many members of the Review besides the author make a contribution to each published piece." <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://harvardlawreview.org/about/">About the Harvard Law Review"</a>, accessed April 9, 2022. </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239543626"><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-1"><a href="#cite_ref-1">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJalonickSherman2022" class="citation web cs1">Jalonick, Mary Clare; Sherman, Mark (April 7, 2022). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://apnews.com/article/ketanji-brown-jackson-supreme-court-confirmation-f39263cdbb0c59c8a20a48edf9b6786e">"Jackson confirmed as first Black female high court justice"</a>. Associated Press. Retrieved April 7, 2022.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Associated+Press&rft.atitle=Jackson+confirmed+as+first+Black+female+high+court+justice&rft.date=2022-04-07&rft.aulast=Jalonick&rft.aufirst=Mary+Clare&rft.au=Sherman%2C+Mark&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapnews.com%2Farticle%2Fketanji-brown-jackson-supreme-court-confirmation-f39263cdbb0c59c8a20a48edf9b6786e&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKetanji+Brown+Jackson" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-2"><a href="#cite_ref-2">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHurleyChungCowan2022" class="citation news cs1">Hurley, Lawrence; Chung, Andrew; Cowan, Richard (April 7, 2022). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.reuters.com/world/us/senate-set-confirm-jackson-first-black-woman-us-supreme-court-2022-04-07/">"Senate confirms Jackson as first Black woman on U.S. Supreme Court"</a>. 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Retrieved July 1, 2023.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Supreme+Court+Historical+Society&rft.atitle=The+Current+Court%3A+Justice+Ketanji+Brown+Jackson&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fsupremecourthistory.org%2Fsupreme-court-justices%2Fassociate-justice-ketanji-brown-jackson%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKetanji+Brown+Jackson" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-:1-5"><a href="#cite_ref-:1_5-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMarimow2021" class="citation news cs1">Marimow, Ann E. (April 30, 2021). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.washingtonpost.com/local/legal-issues/ketanji-brown-jackson-biden-dc-circuit/2021/04/29/c0bd2f0c-a761-11eb-8d25-7b30e74923ea_story.html">"Biden's court pick Ketanji Brown Jackson has navigated a path few Black women have"</a>. The Washington Post. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0190-8286">0190-8286</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210430174107/https://www.washingtonpost.com/local/legal-issues/ketanji-brown-jackson-biden-dc-circuit/2021/04/29/c0bd2f0c-a761-11eb-8d25-7b30e74923ea_story.html">Archived</a> from the original on April 30, 2021. Retrieved April 30, 2021.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Washington+Post&rft.atitle=Biden%27s+court+pick+Ketanji+Brown+Jackson+has+navigated+a+path+few+Black+women+have&rft.date=2021-04-30&rft.issn=0190-8286&rft.aulast=Marimow&rft.aufirst=Ann+E.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.washingtonpost.com%2Flocal%2Flegal-issues%2Fketanji-brown-jackson-biden-dc-circuit%2F2021%2F04%2F29%2Fc0bd2f0c-a761-11eb-8d25-7b30e74923ea_story.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKetanji+Brown+Jackson" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-6"><a href="#cite_ref-6">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation news cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.politico.com/news/2022/03/21/kentaji-brown-jackson-opening-statement-supreme-court-00018980">"Read Ketanji Brown Jackson's opening statement for her Supreme Court hearings"</a>. <a href="/wiki/Politico" title="Politico">Politico</a>. 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Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.miamiherald.com/news/local/community/miami-dade/article257749578.html#storylink=cpy">the original</a> on February 2, 2022. 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The New York Times. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20220201204008/https://www.nytimes.com/2022/01/30/us/politics/supreme-court-ketanji-brown-jackson.html">Archived</a> from the original on February 1, 2022. 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Journal of Health Care Finance (published October 3, 2022). <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2139%2Fssrn.4063023">10.2139/ssrn.4063023</a>. <a href="/wiki/SSRN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="SSRN (identifier)">SSRN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=4242313">4242313</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+Health+Care+Finance&rft.atitle=Ketanji+Brown+Jackson%3A+Legal+Philosophy+of+a+Rookie+Supreme+Court+Justice&rft.date=2022&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fpapers.ssrn.com%2Fsol3%2Fpapers.cfm%3Fabstract_id%3D4242313%23id-name%3DSSRN&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2139%2Fssrn.4063023&rft.aulast=Braun&rft.aufirst=Julie+A.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKetanji+Brown+Jackson" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPhillips2022" class="citation journal cs1">Phillips, James Cleith (September 27, 2022) [27 March 2022 (posted)]. "The Linguistic Style of Judge Ketanji Brown Jackson". <a href="/wiki/Penn_State_Law_Review" title="Penn State Law Review">Penn State Law Review</a>. 127 (1). <a href="/wiki/SSRN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="SSRN (identifier)">SSRN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=4063023">4063023</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Penn+State+Law+Review&rft.atitle=The+Linguistic+Style+of+Judge+Ketanji+Brown+Jackson&rft.volume=127&rft.issue=1&rft.date=2022-09-27&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fpapers.ssrn.com%2Fsol3%2Fpapers.cfm%3Fabstract_id%3D4063023%23id-name%3DSSRN&rft.aulast=Phillips&rft.aufirst=James+Cleith&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKetanji+Brown+Jackson" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBradleyRoland2022" class="citation journal cs1">Bradley, Christy; Roland, James (Summer 2022). "Critical Thinkers for a Critical Time: Debate as a Foundation for Youth Civic Engagement". <a href="/wiki/National_Civic_Review" class="mw-redirect" title="National Civic Review">National Civic Review</a>. 111 (2): 14–22. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/48680128">48680128</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=National+Civic+Review&rft.atitle=Critical+Thinkers+for+a+Critical+Time%3A+Debate+as+a+Foundation+for+Youth+Civic+Engagement&rft.ssn=summer&rft.volume=111&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=14-22&rft.date=2022&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F48680128%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.aulast=Bradley&rft.aufirst=Christy&rft.au=Roland%2C+James&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKetanji+Brown+Jackson" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBowlesHoppsStrickland2022" class="citation journal cs1">Bowles, Dorcas Davis; Hopps, June Gary; Strickland, Christopher (Summer 2022). "Two Firsts: A Brief Glimpse into the Lives of the First Woman-Sandra Day O'Connor and the First Black Woman- Ketanji Brown Jackson to Serve on the Supreme Court of the United States". <a href="/wiki/Phylon" title="Phylon">Phylon</a>. 59 (1). <a href="/wiki/Clark_Atlanta_University" title="Clark Atlanta University">Clark Atlanta University</a>: 49–70. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/27150914">27150914</a>.</cite><span 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.side-box-abovebelow>b{display:block}.mw-parser-output .sister-box .side-box-text>ul{border-top:1px solid #aaa;padding:0.75em 0;width:217px;margin:0 auto}.mw-parser-output .sister-box .side-box-text>ul>li{min-height:31px}.mw-parser-output .sister-logo{display:inline-block;width:31px;line-height:31px;vertical-align:middle;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .sister-link{display:inline-block;margin-left:4px;width:182px;vertical-align:middle}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox{display:none!important}}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox img[src*="Wiktionary-logo-v2.svg"]{background-color:white}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox img[src*="Wiktionary-logo-v2.svg"]{background-color:white}}</style><div role="navigation" aria-labelledby="sister-projects" class="side-box metadata side-box-right sister-box sistersitebox plainlinks"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"> <div class="side-box-abovebelow"> Ketanji Brown Jackson at Wikipedia's <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Wikimedia_sister_projects" title="Wikipedia:Wikimedia sister projects">sister projects</a></div> <div class="side-box-flex"> <div class="side-box-text plainlist"><ul><li><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/20px-Commons-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="20" height="27" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/30px-Commons-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/40px-Commons-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="1376" /><a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Ketanji_Brown_Jackson" class="extiw" title="c:Category:Ketanji Brown Jackson">Media</a> from Commons</li><li><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Wikiquote-logo.svg/23px-Wikiquote-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="27" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Wikiquote-logo.svg/35px-Wikiquote-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Wikiquote-logo.svg/46px-Wikiquote-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="300" data-file-height="355" /><a href="https://en.wikiquote.org/wiki/Ketanji_Brown_Jackson" class="extiw" title="q:Ketanji Brown Jackson">Quotations</a> from Wikiquote</li><li><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg/26px-Wikisource-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="26" height="27" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg/39px-Wikisource-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg/51px-Wikisource-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="410" data-file-height="430" /><a href="https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Author:Ketanji_Brown_Jackson" class="extiw" title="s:Author:Ketanji Brown Jackson">Texts</a> from Wikisource</li><li><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/Wikidata-logo.svg/27px-Wikidata-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="27" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/Wikidata-logo.svg/41px-Wikidata-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/Wikidata-logo.svg/54px-Wikidata-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1050" data-file-height="590" /><a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q6395324" class="extiw" title="d:Q6395324">Data</a> from Wikidata</li></ul></div></div> </div> <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.fjc.gov/node/1394151">Ketanji Brown Jackson</a> at the <a href="/wiki/Biographical_Directory_of_Federal_Judges" title="Biographical Directory of Federal Judges">Biographical Directory of Federal Judges</a>, a publication of the <a href="/wiki/Federal_Judicial_Center" title="Federal Judicial Center">Federal Judicial Center</a>.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Whitehouse.gov" title="Whitehouse.gov">whitehouse.gov</a>: <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.whitehouse.gov/kbj/">Portrait</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ballotpedia.org/Ketanji_Brown_Jackson">Ketanji Brown Jackson</a> at <a href="/wiki/Ballotpedia" title="Ballotpedia">Ballotpedia</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.c-span.org/person/?9278169">Appearances</a> on <a href="/wiki/C-SPAN" title="C-SPAN">C-SPAN</a></li></ul> <table class="wikitable succession-box noprint" style="margin:0.5em auto; font-size:small;clear:both;"> <tbody><tr> <th colspan="3" style="border-top: 5px solid #DDCEF2;">Legal offices </th></tr> <tr style="text-align:center;"> <td style="width:30%;" rowspan="1">Preceded by<div style="font-weight: bold"><a href="/wiki/Henry_H._Kennedy_Jr." title="Henry H. Kennedy Jr.">Henry H. Kennedy Jr.</a></div> </td> <td style="width: 40%; text-align: center;" rowspan="1"> Judge of the <a href="/wiki/United_States_District_Court_for_the_District_of_Columbia" title="United States District Court for the District of Columbia">United States District Court for the District of Columbia</a> 2013–2021 </td> <td style="width: 30%; text-align: center;" rowspan="2">Succeeded by<div style="font-weight: bold"><a href="/wiki/Florence_Y._Pan" title="Florence Y. Pan">Florence Y. Pan</a></div> </td></tr> <tr style="text-align:center;"> <td style="width:30%;" rowspan="1">Preceded by<div style="font-weight: bold"><a href="/wiki/Merrick_Garland" title="Merrick Garland">Merrick Garland</a></div> </td> <td style="width: 40%; text-align: center;" rowspan="1"> Judge of the <a href="/wiki/United_States_Court_of_Appeals_for_the_District_of_Columbia_Circuit" title="United States Court of Appeals for the District of Columbia Circuit">United States Court of Appeals for the District of Columbia Circuit</a> 2021–2022 </td></tr> <tr style="text-align:center;"> <td style="width:30%;" rowspan="1">Preceded by<div style="font-weight: bold"><a href="/wiki/Stephen_Breyer" title="Stephen Breyer">Stephen Breyer</a></div> </td> <td style="width: 40%; text-align: center;" rowspan="1"> <a href="/wiki/Associate_Justice_of_the_Supreme_Court_of_the_United_States" title="Associate Justice of the Supreme Court of the United States">Associate Justice of the Supreme Court of the United States</a> 2022–present </td> <td style="width: 30%; text-align: center;" rowspan="1">Incumbent </td></tr> <tr> <th colspan="3" style="border-top: 5px solid #cfc;"><a href="/wiki/United_States_order_of_precedence" title="United States order of precedence">U.S. order of precedence</a> (ceremonial) </th></tr> <tr style="text-align:center;"> <td style="width:30%;" rowspan="2">Preceded by<div style="font-weight: bold"><a href="/wiki/Amy_Coney_Barrett" title="Amy Coney Barrett">Amy Coney Barrett</a></div>as Associate Justice of the Supreme Court </td> <td style="width: 40%; text-align: center;" rowspan="2"> <a href="/wiki/United_States_order_of_precedence" title="United States order of precedence">Order of precedence of the United States</a> as Associate Justice of the Supreme Court </td> <td style="width: 30%; text-align: center;" rowspan="1">Succeeded by<div style="font-weight: bold">Senior Chief Justices of the Supreme Court None living</div> </td></tr> <tr> <td style="width: 30%; text-align: center;" rowspan="1">Succeeded by<div style="font-weight: bold">Otherwise <a href="/wiki/Anthony_Kennedy" title="Anthony Kennedy">Anthony Kennedy</a></div>as Senior Associate Justice of the Supreme Court </td></tr> </tbody></table> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236075235">.mw-parser-output .navbox{box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #a2a9b1;width:100%;clear:both;font-size:88%;text-align:center;padding:1px;margin:1em auto 0}.mw-parser-output .navbox .navbox{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .navbox+.navbox,.mw-parser-output .navbox+.navbox-styles+.navbox{margin-top:-1px}.mw-parser-output .navbox-inner,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup{width:100%}.mw-parser-output .navbox-group,.mw-parser-output .navbox-title,.mw-parser-output .navbox-abovebelow{padding:0.25em 1em;line-height:1.5em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output 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class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:SCOTUS_Justices" title="Template:SCOTUS Justices"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:SCOTUS_Justices" title="Template talk:SCOTUS Justices"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:SCOTUS_Justices" title="Special:EditPage/Template:SCOTUS Justices"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Justices_of_the_Supreme_Court_of_the_United_States" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Justices of the <a href="/wiki/Supreme_Court_of_the_United_States" title="Supreme Court of the United States">Supreme Court of the United States</a></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd flatlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="3"><div id="Chief_justices" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Chief_Justice_of_the_United_States" title="Chief Justice of the United States">Chief justices</a></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0;text-align:left;"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><div class="div-col" style="column-width: 22em;"> <ol><li><a href="/wiki/John_Jay" title="John Jay">John Jay</a> (<a href="/wiki/Jay_Court" title="Jay Court">1789–1795</a>, <a href="/wiki/List_of_United_States_Supreme_Court_cases_by_the_Jay_Court" class="mw-redirect" title="List of United States Supreme Court cases by the Jay Court">cases</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Rutledge" title="John Rutledge">John Rutledge</a> (<a href="/wiki/Rutledge_Court" title="Rutledge Court">1795</a>, <a href="/wiki/List_of_United_States_Supreme_Court_cases_by_the_Rutledge_Court" class="mw-redirect" title="List of United States Supreme Court cases by the Rutledge Court">cases</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oliver_Ellsworth" title="Oliver Ellsworth">Oliver Ellsworth</a> (<a href="/wiki/Ellsworth_Court" title="Ellsworth Court">1796–1800</a>, <a href="/wiki/List_of_United_States_Supreme_Court_cases_by_the_Ellsworth_Court" class="mw-redirect" title="List of United States Supreme Court cases by the Ellsworth Court">cases</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Marshall" title="John Marshall">John Marshall</a> (<a href="/wiki/Marshall_Court" title="Marshall Court">1801–1835</a>, <a href="/wiki/List_of_United_States_Supreme_Court_cases_by_the_Marshall_Court" title="List of United States Supreme Court cases by the Marshall Court">cases</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roger_B._Taney" title="Roger B. Taney">Roger B. Taney</a> (<a href="/wiki/Taney_Court" title="Taney Court">1836–1864</a>, <a href="/wiki/List_of_United_States_Supreme_Court_cases_by_the_Taney_Court" title="List of United States Supreme Court cases by the Taney Court">cases</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Salmon_P._Chase" title="Salmon P. Chase">Salmon P. Chase</a> (<a href="/wiki/Chase_Court" title="Chase Court">1864–1873</a>, <a href="/wiki/List_of_United_States_Supreme_Court_cases_by_the_Chase_Court" title="List of United States Supreme Court cases by the Chase Court">cases</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Morrison_Waite" title="Morrison Waite">Morrison Waite</a> (<a href="/wiki/Waite_Court" title="Waite Court">1874–1888</a>, <a href="/wiki/List_of_United_States_Supreme_Court_cases_by_the_Waite_Court" title="List of United States Supreme Court cases by the Waite Court">cases</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Melville_Fuller" title="Melville Fuller">Melville Fuller</a> (<a href="/wiki/Fuller_Court" title="Fuller Court">1888–1910</a>, <a href="/wiki/List_of_United_States_Supreme_Court_cases_by_the_Fuller_Court" title="List of United States Supreme Court cases by the Fuller Court">cases</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Edward_Douglass_White" title="Edward Douglass White">Edward Douglass White</a> (<a href="/wiki/White_Court_(justices)" title="White Court (justices)">1910–1921</a>, <a href="/wiki/List_of_United_States_Supreme_Court_cases_by_the_White_Court" title="List of United States Supreme Court cases by the White Court">cases</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_Howard_Taft" title="William Howard Taft">William Howard Taft</a> (<a href="/wiki/Taft_Court" title="Taft Court">1921–1930</a>, <a href="/wiki/List_of_United_States_Supreme_Court_cases_by_the_Taft_Court" title="List of United States Supreme Court cases by the Taft Court">cases</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charles_Evans_Hughes" title="Charles Evans Hughes">Charles Evans Hughes</a> (<a href="/wiki/Hughes_Court" title="Hughes Court">1930–1941</a>, <a href="/wiki/List_of_United_States_Supreme_Court_cases_by_the_Hughes_Court" title="List of United States Supreme Court cases by the Hughes Court">cases</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Harlan_F._Stone" title="Harlan F. Stone">Harlan F. Stone</a> (<a href="/wiki/Stone_Court" title="Stone Court">1941–1946</a>, <a href="/wiki/List_of_United_States_Supreme_Court_cases_by_the_Stone_Court" title="List of United States Supreme Court cases by the Stone Court">cases</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fred_M._Vinson" title="Fred M. Vinson">Fred M. Vinson</a> (<a href="/wiki/Vinson_Court" title="Vinson Court">1946–1953</a>, <a href="/wiki/List_of_United_States_Supreme_Court_cases_by_the_Vinson_Court" title="List of United States Supreme Court cases by the Vinson Court">cases</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Earl_Warren" title="Earl Warren">Earl Warren</a> (<a href="/wiki/Warren_Court" title="Warren Court">1953–1969</a>, <a href="/wiki/List_of_United_States_Supreme_Court_cases_by_the_Warren_Court" title="List of United States Supreme Court cases by the Warren Court">cases</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Warren_E._Burger" title="Warren E. Burger">Warren E. Burger</a> (<a href="/wiki/Burger_Court" title="Burger Court">1969–1986</a>, <a href="/wiki/List_of_United_States_Supreme_Court_cases_by_the_Burger_Court" title="List of United States Supreme Court cases by the Burger Court">cases</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_Rehnquist" title="William Rehnquist">William Rehnquist</a> (<a href="/wiki/Rehnquist_Court" title="Rehnquist Court">1986–2005</a>, <a href="/wiki/List_of_United_States_Supreme_Court_cases_by_the_Rehnquist_Court" title="List of United States Supreme Court cases by the Rehnquist Court">cases</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Roberts" title="John Roberts">John Roberts</a> (<a href="/wiki/Roberts_Court" title="Roberts Court">2005–present</a>, <a href="/wiki/List_of_United_States_Supreme_Court_cases_by_the_Roberts_Court" title="List of United States Supreme Court cases by the Roberts Court">cases</a>)</li></ol> </div></div></td><td class="noviewer navbox-image" rowspan="1" style="width:1px;padding:0 0 0 2px"><div><figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Seal_of_the_United_States_Supreme_Court.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f3/Seal_of_the_United_States_Supreme_Court.svg/80px-Seal_of_the_United_States_Supreme_Court.svg.png" decoding="async" width="80" height="80" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f3/Seal_of_the_United_States_Supreme_Court.svg/120px-Seal_of_the_United_States_Supreme_Court.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f3/Seal_of_the_United_States_Supreme_Court.svg/160px-Seal_of_the_United_States_Supreme_Court.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="720" data-file-height="720" /></a><figcaption></figcaption></figure></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd flatlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="3"><div id="Associate_justices" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Associate_Justice_of_the_Supreme_Court_of_the_United_States" title="Associate Justice of the Supreme Court of the United States">Associate justices</a></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0;text-align:left;"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><div class="div-col" style="column-width: 16em;"> <ol><li><a href="/wiki/John_Rutledge" title="John Rutledge">J. Rutledge</a>* (1790–1791)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_Cushing" title="William Cushing">Cushing</a> (1790–1810)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_Wilson_(Founding_Father)" title="James Wilson (Founding Father)">Wilson</a> (1789–1798)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Blair_Jr." title="John Blair Jr.">Blair</a> (1790–1795)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_Iredell" title="James Iredell">Iredell</a> (1790–1799)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Johnson_(judge)" title="Thomas Johnson (judge)">T. Johnson</a> (1792–1793)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_Paterson_(judge)" title="William Paterson (judge)">Paterson</a> (1793–1806)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Samuel_Chase" title="Samuel Chase">S. Chase</a> (1796–1811)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bushrod_Washington" title="Bushrod Washington">Washington</a> (1798–1829)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alfred_Moore" title="Alfred Moore">Moore</a> (1800–1804)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_Johnson_(judge)" title="William Johnson (judge)">W. Johnson</a> (1804–1834)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Henry_Brockholst_Livingston" title="Henry Brockholst Livingston">Livingston</a> (1807–1823)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Todd" title="Thomas Todd">Todd</a> (1807–1826)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gabriel_Duvall" title="Gabriel Duvall">Duvall</a> (1811–1835)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joseph_Story" title="Joseph Story">Story</a> (1812–1845)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Smith_Thompson" title="Smith Thompson">Thompson</a> (1823–1843)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robert_Trimble" title="Robert Trimble">Trimble</a> (1826–1828)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_McLean" title="John McLean">McLean</a> (1829–1861)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Henry_Baldwin_(judge)" title="Henry Baldwin (judge)">Baldwin</a> (1830–1844)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_Moore_Wayne" class="mw-redirect" title="James Moore Wayne">Wayne</a> (1835–1867)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philip_P._Barbour" title="Philip P. Barbour">Barbour</a> (1836–1841)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Catron" title="John Catron">Catron</a> (1837–1865)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_McKinley" title="John McKinley">McKinley</a> (1838–1852)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peter_V._Daniel" title="Peter V. Daniel">Daniel</a> (1842–1860)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Samuel_Nelson" title="Samuel Nelson">Nelson</a> (1845–1872)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Levi_Woodbury" title="Levi Woodbury">Woodbury</a> (1845–1851)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robert_Cooper_Grier" title="Robert Cooper Grier">Grier</a> (1846–1870)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Benjamin_Robbins_Curtis" title="Benjamin Robbins Curtis">Curtis</a> (1851–1857)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Archibald_Campbell" title="John Archibald Campbell">Campbell</a> (1853–1861)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nathan_Clifford" title="Nathan Clifford">Clifford</a> (1858–1881)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Noah_Haynes_Swayne" title="Noah Haynes Swayne">Swayne</a> (1862–1881)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Samuel_Freeman_Miller" title="Samuel Freeman Miller">Miller</a> (1862–1890)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/David_Davis_(Supreme_Court_justice)" title="David Davis (Supreme Court justice)">Davis</a> (1862–1877)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stephen_Johnson_Field" title="Stephen Johnson Field">Field</a> (1863–1897)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_Strong_(Pennsylvania_judge)" class="mw-redirect" title="William Strong (Pennsylvania judge)">Strong</a> (1870–1880)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joseph_P._Bradley" title="Joseph P. Bradley">Bradley</a> (1870–1892)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ward_Hunt" title="Ward Hunt">Hunt</a> (1873–1882)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Marshall_Harlan" title="John Marshall Harlan">J. M. Harlan</a> (1877–1911)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_Burnham_Woods" title="William Burnham Woods">Woods</a> (1881–1887)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stanley_Matthews_(judge)" title="Stanley Matthews (judge)">Matthews</a> (1881–1889)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Horace_Gray" title="Horace Gray">Gray</a> (1882–1902)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Samuel_Blatchford" title="Samuel Blatchford">Blatchford</a> (1882–1893)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lucius_Quintus_Cincinnatus_Lamar" title="Lucius Quintus Cincinnatus Lamar">L. Lamar</a> (1888–1893)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/David_J._Brewer" title="David J. Brewer">Brewer</a> (1890–1910)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Henry_Billings_Brown" title="Henry Billings Brown">Brown</a> (1891–1906)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/George_Shiras_Jr." title="George Shiras Jr.">Shiras</a> (1892–1903)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Howell_E._Jackson" title="Howell E. Jackson">H. Jackson</a> (1893–1895)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Edward_Douglass_White" title="Edward Douglass White">E. White</a>* (1894–1910)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rufus_W._Peckham" title="Rufus W. Peckham">Peckham</a> (1896–1909)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joseph_McKenna" title="Joseph McKenna">McKenna</a> (1898–1925)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oliver_Wendell_Holmes_Jr." title="Oliver Wendell Holmes Jr.">Holmes</a> (1902–1932)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_R._Day" title="William R. Day">Day</a> (1903–1922)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_Henry_Moody" title="William Henry Moody">Moody</a> (1906–1910)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Horace_Harmon_Lurton" title="Horace Harmon Lurton">Lurton</a> (1910–1914)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charles_Evans_Hughes" title="Charles Evans Hughes">Hughes</a>* (1910–1916)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Willis_Van_Devanter" title="Willis Van Devanter">Van Devanter</a> (1911–1937)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joseph_Rucker_Lamar" title="Joseph Rucker Lamar">J. Lamar</a> (1911–1916)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mahlon_Pitney" title="Mahlon Pitney">Pitney</a> (1912–1922)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_Clark_McReynolds" title="James Clark McReynolds">McReynolds</a> (1914–1941)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Louis_Brandeis" title="Louis Brandeis">Brandeis</a> (1916–1939)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Hessin_Clarke" title="John Hessin Clarke">Clarke</a> (1916–1922)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/George_Sutherland" title="George Sutherland">Sutherland</a> (1922–1938)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pierce_Butler_(judge)" title="Pierce Butler (judge)">Butler</a> (1923–1939)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Edward_Terry_Sanford" title="Edward Terry Sanford">Sanford</a> (1923–1930)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Harlan_F._Stone" title="Harlan F. Stone">Stone</a>* (1925–1941)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Owen_Roberts" title="Owen Roberts">O. Roberts</a> (1930–1945)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Benjamin_N._Cardozo" title="Benjamin N. Cardozo">Cardozo</a> (1932–1938)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hugo_Black" title="Hugo Black">Black</a> (1937–1971)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stanley_Forman_Reed" title="Stanley Forman Reed">Reed</a> (1938–1957)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Felix_Frankfurter" title="Felix Frankfurter">Frankfurter</a> (1939–1962)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_O._Douglas" title="William O. Douglas">Douglas</a> (1939–1975)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Frank_Murphy" title="Frank Murphy">Murphy</a> (1940–1949)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_F._Byrnes" title="James F. Byrnes">Byrnes</a> (1941–1942)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robert_H._Jackson" title="Robert H. Jackson">R. Jackson</a> (1941–1954)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wiley_Rutledge" title="Wiley Rutledge">W. Rutledge</a> (1943–1949)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Harold_H._Burton" title="Harold H. Burton">Burton</a> (1945–1958)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tom_C._Clark" title="Tom C. Clark">Clark</a> (1949–1967)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sherman_Minton" title="Sherman Minton">Minton</a> (1949–1956)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Marshall_Harlan_II" title="John Marshall Harlan II">J. M. Harlan II</a> (1955–1971)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_J._Brennan_Jr." title="William J. Brennan Jr.">Brennan</a> (1956–1990)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charles_Evans_Whittaker" title="Charles Evans Whittaker">Whittaker</a> (1957–1962)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Potter_Stewart" title="Potter Stewart">Stewart</a> (1958–1981)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Byron_White" title="Byron White">B. White</a> (1962–1993)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arthur_Goldberg" title="Arthur Goldberg">Goldberg</a> (1962–1965)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abe_Fortas" title="Abe Fortas">Fortas</a> (1965–1969)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thurgood_Marshall" title="Thurgood Marshall">T. Marshall</a> (1967–1991)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Harry_Blackmun" title="Harry Blackmun">Blackmun</a> (1970–1994)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lewis_F._Powell_Jr." title="Lewis F. Powell Jr.">Powell</a> (1972–1987)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_Rehnquist" title="William Rehnquist">Rehnquist</a>* (1972–1986)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Paul_Stevens" title="John Paul Stevens">Stevens</a> (1975–2010)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sandra_Day_O%27Connor" title="Sandra Day O'Connor">O'Connor</a> (1981–2006)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Antonin_Scalia" title="Antonin Scalia">Scalia</a> (1986–2016)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anthony_Kennedy" title="Anthony Kennedy">Kennedy</a> (1988–2018)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/David_Souter" title="David Souter">Souter</a> (1990–2009)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Clarence_Thomas" title="Clarence Thomas">Thomas</a> (1991–present)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ruth_Bader_Ginsburg" title="Ruth Bader Ginsburg">Ginsburg</a> (1993–2020)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stephen_Breyer" title="Stephen Breyer">Breyer</a> (1994–2022)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Samuel_Alito" title="Samuel Alito">Alito</a> (2006–present)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sonia_Sotomayor" title="Sonia Sotomayor">Sotomayor</a> (2009–present)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Elena_Kagan" title="Elena Kagan">Kagan</a> (2010–present)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neil_Gorsuch" title="Neil Gorsuch">Gorsuch</a> (2017–present)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Brett_Kavanaugh" title="Brett Kavanaugh">Kavanaugh</a> (2018–present)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Amy_Coney_Barrett" title="Amy Coney Barrett">Barrett</a> (2020–present)</li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">K. Jackson</a> (2022–present)</li></ol> </div> <div style="text-align: center;">*Also served as Chief Justice of the United States</div></div></td><td class="noviewer navbox-image" rowspan="1" style="width:1px;padding:0 0 0 2px"><div><figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Seal_of_the_United_States_Supreme_Court.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f3/Seal_of_the_United_States_Supreme_Court.svg/80px-Seal_of_the_United_States_Supreme_Court.svg.png" decoding="async" width="80" height="80" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f3/Seal_of_the_United_States_Supreme_Court.svg/120px-Seal_of_the_United_States_Supreme_Court.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f3/Seal_of_the_United_States_Supreme_Court.svg/160px-Seal_of_the_United_States_Supreme_Court.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="720" data-file-height="720" /></a><figcaption></figcaption></figure></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="African_Americans" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2" style="background: #d1eaeb;"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:African_American_topics" title="Template:African American topics"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:African_American_topics" title="Template talk:African American topics"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:African_American_topics" title="Special:EditPage/Template:African American topics"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="African_Americans" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/African_Americans" title="African Americans">African Americans</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #d1eaeb;;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/African-American_history" title="African-American history">History</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_African-American_history" title="Timeline of African-American history">Timeline</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abolitionism_in_the_United_States" title="Abolitionism in the United States">Abolitionism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_American_founding_fathers_of_the_United_States" title="African American founding fathers of the United States">African American founding fathers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Afrocentrism" title="Afrocentrism">Afrocentrism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/American_Civil_War" title="American Civil War">American Civil War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Atlantic_slave_trade" title="Atlantic slave trade">Atlantic slave trade</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Black_Codes_(United_States)" title="Black Codes (United States)">Black Codes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Black_cowboys" title="Black cowboys">Black cowboys</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Black_genocide" class="mw-redirect" title="Black genocide">Black genocide</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Black_Lives_Matter" title="Black Lives Matter">Black Lives Matter</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Brown_v._Board_of_Education" title="Brown v. Board of Education">Brown v. Board of Education</a> (1954)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Children_of_the_plantation" title="Children of the plantation">Children of the plantation</a></li> <li>Civil Rights Acts <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Civil_Rights_Act_of_1964" title="Civil Rights Act of 1964">1964</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Voting_Rights_Act_of_1965" title="Voting Rights Act of 1965">Voting Rights Act of 1965</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Civil_Rights_Act_of_1968" title="Civil Rights Act of 1968">1968</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Civil_rights_movement_(1865%E2%80%931896)" title="Civil rights movement (1865–1896)">Civil rights movement 1865–1896</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Civil_rights_movement_(1896%E2%80%931954)" title="Civil rights movement (1896–1954)">Civil right movement 1896–1954</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Civil_rights_movement" title="Civil rights movement">Civil rights movement 1954–1968</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Montgomery_bus_boycott" title="Montgomery bus boycott">Montgomery bus boycott</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Browder_v._Gayle" title="Browder v. Gayle">Browder v. Gayle</a> (1956)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sit-in_movement" title="Sit-in movement">Sit-in movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Freedom_Riders" title="Freedom Riders">Freedom Riders</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Birmingham_campaign" title="Birmingham campaign">Birmingham movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/March_on_Washington_for_Jobs_and_Freedom" title="March on Washington for Jobs and Freedom">March on Washington</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Freedom_Summer" title="Freedom Summer">Freedom Summer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Selma_to_Montgomery_marches" title="Selma to Montgomery marches">Selma to Montgomery marches</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chicago_Freedom_Movement" title="Chicago Freedom Movement">Chicago Freedom Movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Post%E2%80%93civil_rights_era_in_African-American_history" title="Post–civil rights era in African-American history">Post–civil rights era</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cornerstone_Speech" title="Cornerstone Speech">Cornerstone Speech</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Impact_of_the_COVID-19_pandemic_on_African_communities" class="mw-redirect" title="Impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on African communities">COVID-19 impact</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dred_Scott_v._Sandford" title="Dred Scott v. Sandford">Dred Scott v. Sandford</a> (1857)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Free_Negro" title="Free Negro">Free Negro</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Free_people_of_color" title="Free people of color">Free people of color</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/George_Floyd_protests" title="George Floyd protests">George Floyd protests</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Great_Migration_(African_American)" title="Great Migration (African American)">Great Migration</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Second_Great_Migration_(African_American)" title="Second Great Migration (African American)">Second</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/New_Great_Migration" title="New Great Migration">New</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Exodusters" title="Exodusters">Exodusters</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/First_inauguration_of_Barack_Obama" title="First inauguration of Barack Obama">Inauguration of Barack Obama 2009</a> / <a href="/wiki/Second_inauguration_of_Barack_Obama" title="Second inauguration of Barack Obama">Inauguration of Barack Obama 2013</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jim_Crow_laws" title="Jim Crow laws">Jim Crow laws</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lynching_in_the_United_States" title="Lynching in the United States">Lynching</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Military_history_of_African_Americans" title="Military history of African Americans">Military history</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Million_Man_March" title="Million Man March">Million Man March</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nadir_of_American_race_relations" title="Nadir of American race relations">Nadir of American race relations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Negro_Motorist_Green_Book" title="The Negro Motorist Green Book">The Negro Motorist Green Book</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Partus_sequitur_ventrem" title="Partus sequitur ventrem">Partus sequitur ventrem</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plantation_complexes_in_the_Southern_United_States" title="Plantation complexes in the Southern United States">Plantations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plessy_v._Ferguson" title="Plessy v. Ferguson">Plessy v. Ferguson</a> (1896)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reconstruction_Amendments" title="Reconstruction Amendments">Reconstruction Amendments</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reconstruction_era" title="Reconstruction era">Reconstruction era</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Redlining" title="Redlining">Redlining</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Separate_but_equal" title="Separate but equal">Separate but equal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Silent_Parade" title="Silent Parade">Silent Parade</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_the_United_States" title="Slavery in the United States">Slavery</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Treatment_of_slaves_in_the_United_States" title="Treatment of slaves in the United States">Treatment of slaves</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tulsa_race_massacre" title="Tulsa race massacre">Tulsa race massacre</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Underground_Railroad" title="Underground Railroad">Underground Railroad</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African-American_women%27s_suffrage_movement" title="African-American women's suffrage movement">Women's suffrage movement</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #d1eaeb;;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/African-American_culture" title="African-American culture">Culture</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Afrofuturism" title="Afrofuturism">Afrofuturism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African-American_art" title="African-American art">Art</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Black_mecca" title="Black mecca">Black mecca</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Black-owned_business" title="Black-owned business">Businesses</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African-American_dance" title="African-American dance">Dance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African-American_family_structure" title="African-American family structure">Family structure</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Black_film" title="Black film">Film</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African-American_folktales" title="African-American folktales">Folktales</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African-American_hair" title="African-American hair">Hair</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Harlem_Renaissance" title="Harlem Renaissance">Harlem Renaissance</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/New_Negro" title="New Negro">New Negro</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hoodoo_(spirituality)" title="Hoodoo (spirituality)">Hoodoo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Juneteenth" title="Juneteenth">Juneteenth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kwanzaa" title="Kwanzaa">Kwanzaa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African-American_LGBT_community" class="mw-redirect" title="African-American LGBT community">LGBT community</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African-American_literature" title="African-American literature">Literature</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African-American_music" title="African-American music">Music</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African-American_musical_theater" title="African-American musical theater">Musical theater</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African-American_names" title="African-American names">Names</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lift_Every_Voice_and_Sing" title="Lift Every Voice and Sing">Negro National Anthem</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African-American_neighborhood" title="African-American neighborhood">Neighborhoods</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_American_newspapers" title="African American newspapers">Newspapers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Soul_food" title="Soul food">Soul food</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stereotypes_of_African_Americans" title="Stereotypes of African Americans">Stereotypes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African-American_middle_class" title="African-American middle class">Middle class</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African-American_upper_class" title="African-American upper class">Upper class</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #d1eaeb;;width:1%">Notable people</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ralph_Abernathy" title="Ralph Abernathy">Ralph Abernathy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maya_Angelou" title="Maya Angelou">Maya Angelou</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crispus_Attucks" title="Crispus Attucks">Crispus Attucks</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_Baldwin" title="James Baldwin">James Baldwin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_Bevel" title="James Bevel">James Bevel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Julian_Bond" title="Julian Bond">Julian Bond</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Amelia_Boynton_Robinson" title="Amelia Boynton Robinson">Amelia Boynton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_Bradley_(former_slave)" title="James Bradley (former slave)">James Bradley</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carol_Moseley_Braun" title="Carol Moseley Braun">Carol Moseley Braun</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Edward_Brooke" title="Edward Brooke">Edward Brooke</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Blanche_Bruce" title="Blanche Bruce">Blanche Bruce</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ralph_Bunche" title="Ralph Bunche">Ralph Bunche</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/George_Washington_Carver" title="George Washington Carver">George Washington Carver</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shirley_Chisholm" title="Shirley Chisholm">Shirley Chisholm</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Claudette_Colvin" title="Claudette Colvin">Claudette Colvin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Frederick_Douglass" title="Frederick Douglass">Frederick Douglass</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/W._E._B._Du_Bois" title="W. E. B. Du Bois">W. E. B. Du Bois</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Medgar_Evers" title="Medgar Evers">Medgar Evers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_Farmer" title="James Farmer">James Farmer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Henry_Highland_Garnet" title="Henry Highland Garnet">Henry Highland Garnet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marcus_Garvey" title="Marcus Garvey">Marcus Garvey</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fred_Gray_(attorney)" title="Fred Gray (attorney)">Fred Gray</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fannie_Lou_Hamer" title="Fannie Lou Hamer">Fannie Lou Hamer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kamala_Harris" title="Kamala Harris">Kamala Harris</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jimi_Hendrix" title="Jimi Hendrix">Jimi Hendrix</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jesse_Jackson" title="Jesse Jackson">Jesse Jackson</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Ketanji Brown Jackson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Michael_Jackson" title="Michael Jackson">Michael Jackson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Harriet_Jacobs" title="Harriet Jacobs">Harriet Jacobs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Barbara_Jordan" title="Barbara Jordan">Barbara Jordan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Coretta_Scott_King" title="Coretta Scott King">Coretta Scott King</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Martin_Luther_King_Jr." title="Martin Luther King Jr.">Martin Luther King Jr.</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bernard_Lafayette" title="Bernard Lafayette">Bernard Lafayette</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_Lawson_(activist)" title="James Lawson (activist)">James Lawson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lead_Belly" title="Lead Belly">Huddie Ledbetter</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Lewis" title="John Lewis">John Lewis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joseph_Lowery" title="Joseph Lowery">Joseph Lowery</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Malcolm_X" title="Malcolm X">Malcolm X</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thurgood_Marshall" title="Thurgood Marshall">Thurgood Marshall</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Toni_Morrison" title="Toni Morrison">Toni Morrison</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bob_Moses_(activist)" title="Bob Moses (activist)">Bob Moses</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Diane_Nash" title="Diane Nash">Diane Nash</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Barack_Obama" title="Barack Obama">Barack Obama</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Michelle_Obama" title="Michelle Obama">Michelle Obama</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rosa_Parks" title="Rosa Parks">Rosa Parks</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Adam_Clayton_Powell_Jr." title="Adam Clayton Powell Jr.">Adam Clayton Powell Jr.</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Colin_Powell" title="Colin Powell">Colin Powell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gabriel_Prosser" class="mw-redirect" title="Gabriel Prosser">Gabriel Prosser</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joseph_Rainey" title="Joseph Rainey">Joseph Rainey</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/A._Philip_Randolph" title="A. Philip Randolph">A. Philip Randolph</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hiram_R._Revels" title="Hiram R. Revels">Hiram Revels</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paul_Robeson" title="Paul Robeson">Paul Robeson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Al_Sharpton" title="Al Sharpton">Al Sharpton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fred_Shuttlesworth" title="Fred Shuttlesworth">Fred Shuttlesworth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Clarence_Thomas" title="Clarence Thomas">Clarence Thomas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Emmett_Till" title="Emmett Till">Emmett Till</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sojourner_Truth" title="Sojourner Truth">Sojourner Truth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Harriet_Tubman" title="Harriet Tubman">Harriet Tubman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nat_Turner%27s_slave_rebellion" class="mw-redirect" title="Nat Turner's slave rebellion">Nat Turner</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Denmark_Vesey" title="Denmark Vesey">Denmark Vesey</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/C._T._Vivian" title="C. T. Vivian">C. T. Vivian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/David_Walker_(abolitionist)" title="David Walker (abolitionist)">David Walker</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Booker_T._Washington" title="Booker T. Washington">Booker T. Washington</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ida_B._Wells" title="Ida B. Wells">Ida B. Wells</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roy_Wilkins" title="Roy Wilkins">Roy Wilkins</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oprah_Winfrey" title="Oprah Winfrey">Oprah Winfrey</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Andrew_Young" title="Andrew Young">Andrew Young</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Whitney_Young" title="Whitney Young">Whitney Young</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #d1eaeb;;width:1%">Education, science and technology</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Black_studies" title="Black studies">Black studies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Black_school" class="mw-redirect" title="Black school">Black schools</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historically_black_colleges_and_universities" title="Historically black colleges and universities">Historically black colleges and universities</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_African-American_inventors_and_scientists" title="List of African-American inventors and scientists">Inventors and scientists</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_museums_focused_on_African_Americans" title="List of museums focused on African Americans">Museums</a></li> <li>Women <ul><li><a href="/wiki/African-American_women_in_computer_science" title="African-American women in computer science">in computer science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_African-American_women_in_medicine" title="List of African-American women in medicine">in medicine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_African-American_women_in_STEM_fields" title="List of African-American women in STEM fields">in STEM fields</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #d1eaeb;;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Religion_of_Black_Americans" title="Religion of Black Americans">Religion</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/African-American_Jews" title="African-American Jews">African-American Jews</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African-American_Muslims" title="African-American Muslims">Islam</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/American_Society_of_Muslims" title="American Society of Muslims">American Society of Muslims</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nation_of_Islam" title="Nation of Islam">Nation of Islam</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Black_church" title="Black church">Black church</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Azusa_Street_Revival" title="Azusa Street Revival">Azusa Street Revival</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Black_Hebrew_Israelites" title="Black Hebrew Israelites">Black Hebrew Israelites</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Black_theology" title="Black theology">Black theology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Doctrine_of_Father_Divine" class="mw-redirect" title="Doctrine of Father Divine">Doctrine of Father Divine</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #d1eaeb;;width:1%">Political movements</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Black_anarchism" title="Black anarchism">Anarchism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Back-to-Africa_movement" title="Back-to-Africa movement">Back-to-Africa movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Black_power" title="Black power">Black power</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Black_power_movement" title="Black power movement">Movement</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Black_capitalism" title="Black capitalism">Capitalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Black_conservatism" title="Black conservatism">Conservatism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African-American_leftism" title="African-American leftism">Leftism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pan-Africanism" title="Pan-Africanism">Pan-Africanism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Black_populism" title="Black populism">Populism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Raised_fist" title="Raised fist">Raised fist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African-American_self-determination" title="African-American self-determination">Self-determination</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Black_nationalism" title="Black nationalism">Nationalism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African-American_socialism" title="African-American socialism">Socialism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #d1eaeb;;width:1%"><div style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0;">Civic and economic groups</div></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Association_for_the_Study_of_African_American_Life_and_History" title="Association for the Study of African American Life and History">Association for the Study of African American Life and History (ASALH)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Black_Panther_Party" title="Black Panther Party">Black Panther Party</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Congress_of_Racial_Equality" title="Congress of Racial Equality">Congress of Racial Equality (CORE)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/NAACP" title="NAACP">National Association for the Advancement of Colored People (NAACP)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nashville_Student_Movement" title="Nashville Student Movement">Nashville Student Movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Black_Chamber_of_Commerce" title="National Black Chamber of Commerce">National Black Chamber of Commerce (NBCC)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Council_of_Negro_Women" title="National Council of Negro Women">National Council of Negro Women (NCNW)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Pan-Hellenic_Council" title="National Pan-Hellenic Council">National Pan-Hellenic Council (NPHC)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Urban_League" title="National Urban League">National Urban League (NUL)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Southern_Christian_Leadership_Conference" title="Southern Christian Leadership Conference">Southern Christian Leadership Conference (SCLC)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Student_Nonviolent_Coordinating_Committee" title="Student Nonviolent Coordinating Committee">Student Nonviolent Coordinating Committee (SNCC)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thurgood_Marshall_College_Fund" title="Thurgood Marshall College Fund">Thurgood Marshall College Fund</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/UNCF" title="UNCF">United Negro College Fund (UNCF)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Universal_Negro_Improvement_Association_and_African_Communities_League" title="Universal Negro Improvement Association and African Communities League">Universal Negro Improvement Association and African Communities League (UNIA-ACL)</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #d1eaeb;;width:1%">Sports</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Negro_league_baseball" title="Negro league baseball">Negro league baseball</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Baseball_color_line" title="Baseball color line">Baseball color line</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Black_players_in_professional_American_football" title="Black players in professional American football">Black players in professional American football</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_black_starting_NFL_quarterbacks" title="List of black starting NFL quarterbacks">Black NFL quarterbacks</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Black_players_in_ice_hockey" title="Black players in ice hockey">Black players in ice hockey</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Muhammad_Ali" title="Muhammad Ali">Muhammad Ali</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arthur_Ashe" title="Arthur Ashe">Arthur Ashe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jack_Johnson_(boxer)" title="Jack Johnson (boxer)">Jack Johnson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joe_Louis" title="Joe Louis">Joe Louis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jesse_Owens" title="Jesse Owens">Jesse Owens</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jackie_Robinson" title="Jackie Robinson">Jackie Robinson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Serena_Williams" title="Serena Williams">Serena Williams</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><div style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0;">Athletic associations and conferences</div></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Central_Intercollegiate_Athletic_Association" title="Central Intercollegiate Athletic Association">Central (CIAA)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mid-Eastern_Athletic_Conference" title="Mid-Eastern Athletic Conference">Mid-Eastern (MEAC)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Southern_Intercollegiate_Athletic_Conference" title="Southern Intercollegiate Athletic Conference">Southern (SIAC)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Southwestern_Athletic_Conference" title="Southwestern Athletic Conference">Southwestern (SWAC)</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #d1eaeb;;width:1%">Ethnic subdivisions</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li>By African descent <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Fula_Americans" title="Fula Americans">Fula</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gullah" title="Gullah">Gullah</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Igbo_Americans" title="Igbo Americans">Igbo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yoruba_Americans" title="Yoruba Americans">Yoruba</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alabama_Creole_people" title="Alabama Creole people">Alabama Creole</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Black_Indians_in_the_United_States" title="Black Indians in the United States">Black Indians</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Black_Seminoles" title="Black Seminoles">Black Seminoles</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cherokee_freedmen_controversy" title="Cherokee freedmen controversy">Cherokee freedmen controversy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Choctaw_freedmen" title="Choctaw freedmen">Choctaw freedmen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Creek_Freedmen" title="Creek Freedmen">Creek Freedmen</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Black_Southerners" title="Black Southerners">Black Southerners</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Blaxican" title="Blaxican">Blaxicans</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Great_Dismal_Swamp_maroons" title="Great Dismal Swamp maroons">Great Dismal Swamp maroons</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Louisiana_Creole_people" title="Louisiana Creole people">Louisiana Creole</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Creoles_of_color" title="Creoles of color">of color</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Melungeon" title="Melungeon">Melungeon</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #d1eaeb;;width:1%">Demographics</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/African-American_neighborhood" title="African-American neighborhood">Neighborhoods</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_African-American_neighborhoods" title="List of African-American neighborhoods">list</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_U.S._cities_with_large_Black_populations" title="List of U.S. cities with large Black populations">U.S. cities with large populations</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_U.S._communities_with_African-American_majority_populations_in_2000" title="List of U.S. communities with African-American majority populations in 2000">2000 majorities</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_U.S._communities_with_African-American_majority_populations_in_2010" title="List of U.S. communities with African-American majority populations in 2010">2010 majorities</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_U.S._metropolitan_areas_with_large_African-American_populations" title="List of U.S. metropolitan areas with large African-American populations">Metropolitan areas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_U.S._states_and_territories_by_African-American_population" title="List of U.S. states and territories by African-American population">States and territories</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #d1eaeb;;width:1%">Languages</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Afro-Seminole_Creole" title="Afro-Seminole Creole">Afro-Seminole Creole</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/American_Sign_Language" title="American Sign Language">American Sign</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Black_American_Sign_Language" title="Black American Sign Language">Black American Sign</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/English_language" title="English language">English</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/American_English" title="American English">American English</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African-American_English" title="African-American English">African-American English</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/African-American_Vernacular_English" title="African-American Vernacular English">African-American Vernacular English</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African-American_Vernacular_English_and_social_context" title="African-American Vernacular English and social context">social context</a></li></ul></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gullah_language" title="Gullah language">Gullah</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Louisiana_Creole" title="Louisiana Creole">Louisiana Creole</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #d1eaeb;;width:1%">By state/city</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/African_Americans_in_Alabama" title="African Americans in Alabama">Alabama</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_Americans_in_Arkansas" title="African Americans in Arkansas">Arkansas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_Americans_in_California" title="African Americans in California">California</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_African_Americans_in_Los_Angeles" title="History of African Americans in Los Angeles">Los Angeles</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_Americans_in_San_Francisco" title="African Americans in San Francisco">San Francisco</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_Americans_in_Cleveland" class="mw-redirect" title="African Americans in Cleveland">Cleveland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_Americans_in_Florida" title="African Americans in Florida">Florida</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_African_Americans_in_Jacksonville" title="History of African Americans in Jacksonville">Jacksonville</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Tallahassee,_Florida#Black_history" title="History of Tallahassee, Florida">Tallahassee</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_Americans_in_Georgia" title="African Americans in Georgia">Georgia</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/African_Americans_in_Atlanta" title="African Americans in Atlanta">Atlanta</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Africans_in_Hawaii" title="Africans in Hawaii">Hawaii</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_Americans_in_Illinois" title="African Americans in Illinois">Illinois</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_African_Americans_in_Chicago" title="History of African Americans in Chicago">Chicago</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_Americans_in_Indiana" class="mw-redirect" title="African Americans in Indiana">Indiana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_Americans_in_Iowa" class="mw-redirect" title="African Americans in Iowa">Iowa</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/African_Americans_in_Davenport,_Iowa" title="African Americans in Davenport, Iowa">Davenport</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_African_Americans_in_Kansas" class="mw-redirect" title="History of African Americans in Kansas">Kansas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_African_Americans_in_Kentucky" title="History of African Americans in Kentucky">Kentucky</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/African-American_neighborhoods_in_Lexington,_Kentucky" title="African-American neighborhoods in Lexington, Kentucky">Lexington</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_Americans_in_Louisiana" title="African Americans in Louisiana">Louisiana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_Americans_in_Maryland" title="African Americans in Maryland">Maryland</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_African_Americans_in_Baltimore" title="History of African Americans in Baltimore">Baltimore</a></li></ul></li> <li>Massachusetts <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_African_Americans_in_Boston" title="History of African Americans in Boston">Boston</a></li></ul></li> <li>Michigan <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_African_Americans_in_Detroit" title="History of African Americans in Detroit">Detroit</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_Americans_in_Mississippi" title="African Americans in Mississippi">Mississippi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_American_history_of_Nebraska" class="mw-redirect" title="African American history of Nebraska">Nebraska</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/African_Americans_in_Omaha,_Nebraska" title="African Americans in Omaha, Nebraska">Omaha</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_Americans_in_New_Jersey" title="African Americans in New Jersey">New Jersey</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_Americans_in_New_York" class="mw-redirect" title="African Americans in New York">New York</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/African_Americans_in_New_York_City" title="African Americans in New York City">New York City</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_Americans_in_North_Carolina" title="African Americans in North Carolina">North Carolina</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_Americans_in_Ohio" title="African Americans in Ohio">Ohio</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_Americans_in_Oklahoma" title="African Americans in Oklahoma">Oklahoma</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_Americans_in_Oregon" title="African Americans in Oregon">Oregon</a></li> <li>Pennsylvania <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_African_Americans_in_Philadelphia" title="History of African Americans in Philadelphia">Philadelphia</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Afro%E2%80%93Puerto_Ricans" title="Afro–Puerto Ricans">Puerto Rico</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_Americans_in_South_Carolina" title="African Americans in South Carolina">South Carolina</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_Americans_in_South_Dakota" title="African Americans in South Dakota">South Dakota</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_Americans_in_Tennessee" title="African Americans in Tennessee">Tennessee</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_African_Americans_in_Texas" title="History of African Americans in Texas">Texas</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_African_Americans_in_Austin" title="History of African Americans in Austin">Austin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_African_Americans_in_Dallas%E2%80%93Fort_Worth" title="History of African Americans in Dallas–Fort Worth">Dallas–Fort Worth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_African_Americans_in_Houston" title="History of African Americans in Houston">Houston</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_African_Americans_in_San_Antonio" title="History of African Americans in San Antonio">San Antonio</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_African_Americans_in_Utah" title="History of African Americans in Utah">Utah</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_Americans_in_Virginia" title="African Americans in Virginia">Virginia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_Americans_in_West_Virginia" title="African Americans in West Virginia">West Virginia</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #d1eaeb;;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/African-American_diaspora" title="African-American diaspora">Diaspora</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/African_Americans_in_Africa" title="African Americans in Africa">Africa</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Gambian_Creole_people" title="Gambian Creole people">Gambia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_Americans_in_Ghana" title="African Americans in Ghana">Ghana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Americo-Liberian_people" title="Americo-Liberian people">Liberia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sierra_Leone_Creole_people" title="Sierra Leone Creole people">Sierra Leone</a></li></ul></li> <li>America <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Black_Nova_Scotians" title="Black Nova Scotians">Canada</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Saman%C3%A1_Americans" title="Samaná Americans">Dominican Republic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Haitian_emigration" title="Haitian emigration">Haiti</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mascogos" title="Mascogos">Mexico</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Merikins" title="Merikins">Trinidad and Tobago</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_Americans_in_Israel" title="African Americans in Israel">Israel</a></li> <li>Europe <ul><li><a href="/wiki/African_Americans_in_France" title="African Americans in France">France</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #d1eaeb;;width:1%">Lists</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Lists_of_African_Americans" title="Lists of African Americans">African Americans</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_African-American_activists" title="List of African-American activists">Activists</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_African-American_actors" title="List of African-American actors">Actors</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_African-American_astronauts" title="List of African-American astronauts">Astronauts</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Black_billionaires" title="Black billionaires">Billionaires</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_African_American_journalists" title="List of African American journalists">Journalists</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_African-American_jurists" class="mw-redirect" title="List of African-American jurists">Jurists</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_African-American_mathematicians" title="List of African-American mathematicians">Mathematicians</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_African-American_Republicans" title="List of African-American Republicans">Republicans</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_African-American_singers" title="List of African-American singers">Singers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_African_American_sportspeople" title="List of African American sportspeople">Sportspeople</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spingarn_Medal" title="Spingarn Medal">Spingarn Medal winners</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_African-American_United_States_Cabinet_members" title="List of African-American United States Cabinet members">US cabinet members</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_African-American_United_States_representatives" title="List of African-American United States representatives">US representatives</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_African-American_United_States_senators" title="List of African-American United States senators">US senators</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_African-American_visual_artists" title="List of African-American visual artists">Visual artists</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_African-American_writers" title="List of African-American writers">Writers</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_African-American_firsts" class="mw-redirect" title="List of African-American firsts">African-American firsts</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_first_African-American_mayors" title="List of first African-American mayors">Mayors</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_African-American_sports_firsts" title="List of African-American sports firsts">Sports firsts</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_African-American_U.S._state_firsts" title="List of African-American U.S. state firsts">US state firsts</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_African-American_historic_places" title="List of African-American historic places">Historic places</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Index_of_articles_related_to_African_Americans" title="Index of articles related to African Americans">Index of related articles</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_landmark_African-American_legislation" title="List of landmark African-American legislation">Landmark African-American legislation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_lynching_victims_in_the_United_States" title="List of lynching victims in the United States">Lynching victims</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_monuments_to_African_Americans" title="List of monuments to African Americans">Monuments</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_African-American_neighborhoods" title="List of African-American neighborhoods">Neighborhoods</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_topics_related_to_the_African_diaspora" title="List of topics related to the African diaspora">Topics related to the African diaspora</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2" style="background: #d1eaeb;;font-weight:bold;"><div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Category:African-American_society" title="Category:African-American society">Category</a></li> <li><img alt="flag" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/a/a4/Flag_of_the_United_States.svg/32px-Flag_of_the_United_States.svg.png" decoding="async" width="32" height="17" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/a/a4/Flag_of_the_United_States.svg/48px-Flag_of_the_United_States.svg.png 1.5x, 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