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here. For an argument problematic for any reason, see <a href="/wiki/Fallacy" title="Fallacy">Fallacy</a>.</div><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1251242444">.mw-parser-output .ambox{border:1px solid #a2a9b1;border-left:10px solid #36c;background-color:#fbfbfb;box-sizing:border-box}.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+style+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+style+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+link+.ambox{margin-top:-1px}html body.mediawiki .mw-parser-output .ambox.mbox-small-left{margin:4px 1em 4px 0;overflow:hidden;width:238px;border-collapse:collapse;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em}.mw-parser-output .ambox-speedy{border-left:10px solid #b32424;background-color:#fee7e6}.mw-parser-output .ambox-delete{border-left:10px solid #b32424}.mw-parser-output .ambox-content{border-left:10px solid #f28500}.mw-parser-output .ambox-style{border-left:10px solid #fc3}.mw-parser-output .ambox-move{border-left:10px solid #9932cc}.mw-parser-output .ambox-protection{border-left:10px solid #a2a9b1}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-text{border:none;padding:0.25em 0.5em;width:100%}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-image{border:none;padding:2px 0 2px 0.5em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-imageright{border:none;padding:2px 0.5em 2px 0;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-empty-cell{border:none;padding:0;width:1px}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-image-div{width:52px}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .ambox{margin:0 10%}}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .ambox{display:none!important}}</style><table class="box-Confusing plainlinks metadata ambox ambox-style ambox-confusing" role="presentation"><tbody><tr><td class="mbox-image"><div class="mbox-image-div"><span typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/f/f2/Edit-clear.svg/40px-Edit-clear.svg.png" decoding="async" width="40" height="40" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/f/f2/Edit-clear.svg/60px-Edit-clear.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/f/f2/Edit-clear.svg/80px-Edit-clear.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="48" data-file-height="48" /></span></span></div></td><td class="mbox-text"><div class="mbox-text-span">This article <b>may be <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Vagueness" title="Wikipedia:Vagueness">confusing or unclear</a> to readers</b>. In particular, it has a too complicated lead which could be simplified.<span class="hide-when-compact"> Please help <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Please_clarify" title="Wikipedia:Please clarify">clarify the article</a>. There is a discussion about this on <a href="/wiki/Talk:Formal_fallacy#Complicated_Lead" title="Talk:Formal fallacy">Talk:Formal fallacy § Complicated Lead</a>.</span> <span class="date-container"><i>(<span class="date">March 2021</span>)</i></span><span class="hide-when-compact"><i> (<small><a href="/wiki/Help:Maintenance_template_removal" title="Help:Maintenance template removal">Learn how and when to remove this message</a></small>)</i></span></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div class="shortdescription nomobile noexcerpt noprint searchaux" style="display:none">Faulty deductive reasoning due to a logical flaw</div> <p>In <a href="/wiki/Logic" title="Logic">logic</a> and <a href="/wiki/Philosophical_logic" title="Philosophical logic">philosophy</a>, a <b>formal fallacy</b><sup id="cite_ref-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>a<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> is a pattern of <a href="/wiki/Reason" title="Reason">reasoning</a> rendered <a href="/wiki/Validity_(logic)" title="Validity (logic)">invalid</a> by a flaw in its logical structure. <a href="/wiki/Propositional_calculus" title="Propositional calculus">Propositional logic</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-GenslerAZ_3-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-GenslerAZ-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> for example, is concerned with the meanings of sentences and the relationships between them. It focuses on the role of logical operators, called propositional connectives, in determining whether a sentence is true. An error in the sequence will result in a <a href="/wiki/Deductive" class="mw-redirect" title="Deductive">deductive</a> <a href="/wiki/Argument" title="Argument">argument</a> that is invalid. The argument itself could have true <a href="/wiki/Premise" title="Premise">premises</a>, but still have a false <a href="/wiki/Logical_consequence" title="Logical consequence">conclusion</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Thus, a formal fallacy is a <a href="/wiki/Fallacy" title="Fallacy">fallacy</a> in which deduction goes wrong, and is no longer a <a href="/wiki/Logic" title="Logic">logical</a> process. This may not affect the truth of the conclusion, since validity and truth are separate in formal logic. </p><p>While a logical argument is a <i>non sequitur</i> if, and only if, it is invalid, the term "non sequitur" typically refers to those types of invalid arguments which do not constitute formal fallacies covered by particular terms (e.g., <a href="/wiki/Affirming_the_consequent" title="Affirming the consequent">affirming the consequent</a>). In other words, in practice, "non sequitur" refers to an unnamed formal fallacy. </p><p>A special case is a <a href="/wiki/Mathematical_fallacy" title="Mathematical fallacy">mathematical fallacy</a>, an intentionally invalid <a href="/wiki/Mathematical_proof" title="Mathematical proof">mathematical proof</a>, often with the error subtle and somehow concealed. Mathematical fallacies are typically crafted and exhibited for educational purposes, usually taking the form of spurious proofs of obvious <a href="/wiki/Contradiction" title="Contradiction">contradictions</a>. </p><p>A formal fallacy is contrasted with an <a href="/wiki/Informal_fallacy" title="Informal fallacy">informal fallacy</a> which may have a valid <a href="/wiki/Logical_form" title="Logical form">logical form</a> and yet be <a href="/wiki/Soundness" title="Soundness">unsound</a> because one or more <a href="/wiki/Premise" title="Premise">premises</a> are false. A formal fallacy, however, may have a true premise, but a false conclusion. The term 'logical fallacy' is sometimes used in everyday conversation, and refers to a formal fallacy. </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Common_examples">Common examples</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Formal_fallacy&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Common examples"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/List_of_fallacies" title="List of fallacies">List of fallacies</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1251242444"><table class="box-More_citations_needed_section plainlinks metadata ambox ambox-content ambox-Refimprove" role="presentation"><tbody><tr><td class="mbox-image"><div class="mbox-image-div"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Question_book-new.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/50px-Question_book-new.svg.png" decoding="async" width="50" height="39" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/75px-Question_book-new.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/100px-Question_book-new.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="399" /></a></span></div></td><td class="mbox-text"><div class="mbox-text-span">This section <b>needs additional citations for <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Verifiability" title="Wikipedia:Verifiability">verification</a></b>.<span class="hide-when-compact"> Please help <a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Formal_fallacy" title="Special:EditPage/Formal fallacy">improve this article</a> by <a href="/wiki/Help:Referencing_for_beginners" title="Help:Referencing for beginners">adding citations to reliable sources</a> in this section. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed.</span> <span class="date-container"><i>(<span class="date">May 2010</span>)</i></span><span class="hide-when-compact"><i> (<small><a href="/wiki/Help:Maintenance_template_removal" title="Help:Maintenance template removal">Learn how and when to remove this message</a></small>)</i></span></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <p>"Some of your key evidence is missing, incomplete, or even faked! That proves I'm right!"<sup id="cite_ref-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>"The vet can't find any reasonable explanation for why my dog died. See! See! That proves that you poisoned him! There’s no other logical explanation!"<sup id="cite_ref-DossJr.2014_6-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-DossJr.2014-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Logical_fallacy.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0d/Logical_fallacy.svg/250px-Logical_fallacy.svg.png" decoding="async" width="250" height="159" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0d/Logical_fallacy.svg/375px-Logical_fallacy.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0d/Logical_fallacy.svg/500px-Logical_fallacy.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="545" data-file-height="347" /></a><figcaption>A <a href="/wiki/Euler_diagram" title="Euler diagram">Euler diagram</a> illustrating a fallacy:<br /> Statement 1: Most of the green is touching the red.<br /> Statement 2: Most of the red is touching the blue.<br /> Logical fallacy: Since most of the green is touching red, and most of the red is touching blue, most of the green must be touching blue. This, however, is a false statement.</figcaption></figure> <p>In the strictest sense, a logical fallacy is the incorrect application of a valid logical principle or an application of a nonexistent principle: </p> <ol><li>Most Rimnars are Jornars.</li> <li>Most Jornars are Dimnars.</li> <li>Therefore, most Rimnars are Dimnars.</li></ol> <p>This is fallacious. </p><p>Indeed, there is no logical principle that states: </p> <ol><li>For some x, P(x).</li> <li>For some x, Q(x).</li> <li>Therefore, for some x, P(x) and Q(x).</li></ol> <p>An easy way to show the above inference as invalid is by using <a href="/wiki/Venn_diagrams" class="mw-redirect" title="Venn diagrams">Venn diagrams</a>. In logical parlance, the inference is invalid, since under at least one interpretation of the predicates it is not validity preserving. </p><p>People often have difficulty applying the rules of logic. For example, a person may say the following <a href="/wiki/Syllogism" title="Syllogism">syllogism</a> is valid, when in fact it is not: </p> <ol><li>All <a href="/wiki/Bird" title="Bird">birds</a> have beaks.</li> <li>That creature has a beak.</li> <li>Therefore, that creature is a bird.</li></ol> <p>"That creature" may well be a bird, but the <a href="/wiki/Consequent" title="Consequent">conclusion</a> does not follow from the premises. Certain other animals also have beaks, for example: an <a href="/wiki/Octopus" title="Octopus">octopus</a> and a <a href="/wiki/Squid" title="Squid">squid</a> both have beaks, some <a href="/wiki/Turtles" class="mw-redirect" title="Turtles">turtles</a> and <a href="/wiki/Cetaceans" class="mw-redirect" title="Cetaceans">cetaceans</a> have beaks. Errors of this type occur because people reverse a premise.<sup id="cite_ref-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In this case, "All birds have beaks" is converted to "All beaked animals are birds." The reversed premise is plausible because few people are aware of any instances of <i>beaked creatures</i> besides birds—but this premise is not the one that was given. In this way, the deductive fallacy is formed by points that may individually appear logical, but when placed together are shown to be incorrect. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Non_sequitur_in_everyday_speech">Non sequitur in everyday speech</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Formal_fallacy&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Non sequitur in everyday speech"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Non_sequitur_(literary_device)" title="Non sequitur (literary device)">Non sequitur (literary device)</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Derailment_(thought_disorder)" title="Derailment (thought disorder)">Derailment (thought disorder)</a></div> <p>In everyday speech, a non sequitur is a statement in which the final part is totally unrelated to the first part, for example: </p> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1244412712">.mw-parser-output .templatequote{overflow:hidden;margin:1em 0;padding:0 32px}.mw-parser-output .templatequotecite{line-height:1.5em;text-align:left;margin-top:0}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .templatequotecite{padding-left:1.6em}}</style><blockquote class="templatequote"><p>Life is life and fun is fun, but it's all so quiet when the goldfish die.</p><div class="templatequotecite">— <cite><i><a href="/wiki/West_with_the_Night" title="West with the Night">West with the Night</a></i>, Beryl Markham<sup id="cite_ref-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></cite></div></blockquote> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Formal_fallacy&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1266661725">.mw-parser-output .portalbox{padding:0;margin:0.5em 0;display:table;box-sizing:border-box;max-width:175px;list-style:none}.mw-parser-output .portalborder{border:1px solid var(--border-color-base,#a2a9b1);padding:0.1em;background:var(--background-color-neutral-subtle,#f8f9fa)}.mw-parser-output .portalbox-entry{display:table-row;font-size:85%;line-height:110%;height:1.9em;font-style:italic;font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output .portalbox-image{display:table-cell;padding:0.2em;vertical-align:middle;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .portalbox-link{display:table-cell;padding:0.2em 0.2em 0.2em 0.3em;vertical-align:middle}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .portalleft{margin:0.5em 1em 0.5em 0}.mw-parser-output .portalright{clear:right;float:right;margin:0.5em 0 0.5em 1em}}</style><ul role="navigation" aria-label="Portals" class="noprint portalbox portalborder portalright"> <li class="portalbox-entry"><span class="portalbox-image"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cd/Socrates.png/18px-Socrates.png" decoding="async" width="18" height="28" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cd/Socrates.png/27px-Socrates.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cd/Socrates.png/36px-Socrates.png 2x" data-file-width="326" data-file-height="500" /></span></span></span><span class="portalbox-link"><a href="/wiki/Portal:Philosophy" title="Portal:Philosophy">Philosophy portal</a></span></li><li class="portalbox-entry"><span class="portalbox-image"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6c/Psi2.svg/28px-Psi2.svg.png" decoding="async" width="28" height="28" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6c/Psi2.svg/42px-Psi2.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6c/Psi2.svg/56px-Psi2.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="100" data-file-height="100" /></span></span></span><span class="portalbox-link"><a href="/wiki/Portal:Psychology" title="Portal:Psychology">Psychology portal</a></span></li></ul> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1184024115">.mw-parser-output .div-col{margin-top:0.3em;column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .div-col-small{font-size:90%}.mw-parser-output .div-col-rules{column-rule:1px solid #aaa}.mw-parser-output .div-col dl,.mw-parser-output .div-col ol,.mw-parser-output .div-col ul{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .div-col li,.mw-parser-output .div-col dd{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}</style><div class="div-col"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_fallacies" title="List of fallacies">List of fallacies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Apophasis" title="Apophasis">Apophasis</a> – Stating something by saying the opposite</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cognitive_bias" title="Cognitive bias">Cognitive bias</a> – Systematic pattern of deviation from norm or rationality in judgment</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Demagogue" title="Demagogue">Demagogue</a> – Politician or orator who panders to fears and emotions of the public</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fallacies_of_definition" title="Fallacies of definition">Fallacies of definition</a> – Ways in which a term may be poorly defined</li> <li><a href="/wiki/False_statement" title="False statement">False statement</a> – Statement contradicted by facts and reality</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mathematical_fallacy" title="Mathematical fallacy">Mathematical fallacy</a>, also known as Invalid proof – Certain type of mistaken proof</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Modus_tollens" title="Modus tollens"><i>Modus tollens</i></a> – Rule of logical inference</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paradox" title="Paradox">Paradox</a> – Logically self-contradictory statement</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Relevance_logic" title="Relevance logic">Relevance logic</a> – mathematical logic system that imposes certain restrictions on implication<span style="display:none" class="category-wikidata-fallback-annotation">Pages displaying wikidata descriptions as a fallback</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scientific_misconceptions" title="Scientific misconceptions">Scientific misconceptions</a> – False beliefs about science</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sophist" title="Sophist">Sophist</a> – Teachers of 5th century BC Greece</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Soundness" title="Soundness">Soundness</a> – Term in logic and deductive reasoning</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Subverted_support" title="Subverted support">Subverted support</a> – Logical fallacy of explanation</li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Notes">Notes</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Formal_fallacy&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Notes"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist reflist-lower-alpha"> <div class="mw-references-wrap"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-2">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Also known as a <b>deductive fallacy</b>, <b>logical fallacy</b>, or a <b>non sequitur</b> (<span class="rt-commentedText nowrap"><span class="IPA nopopups noexcerpt" lang="en-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Help:IPA/English" title="Help:IPA/English">/<span style="border-bottom:1px dotted"><span title="/ˌ/: secondary stress follows">ˌ</span><span title="'n' in 'nigh'">n</span><span title="/ɒ/: 'o' in 'body'">ɒ</span><span title="'n' in 'nigh'">n</span></span><span class="wrap"> </span><span style="border-bottom:1px dotted"><span title="/ˈ/: primary stress follows">ˈ</span><span title="'s' in 'sigh'">s</span><span title="/ɛ/: 'e' in 'dress'">ɛ</span><span title="'k' in 'kind'">k</span><span title="'w' in 'wind'">w</span><span title="/ɪ/: 'i' in 'kit'">ɪ</span><span title="'t' in 'tie'">t</span><span title="/ər/: 'er' in 'letter'">ər</span></span>/</a></span></span>; <a href="/wiki/Latin_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Latin language">Latin</a> for 'it does not follow').<sup id="cite_ref-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></span> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Formal_fallacy&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239543626"><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-1">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite id="CITEREFBarker2003" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Stephen_Francis_Barker" class="mw-redirect" title="Stephen Francis Barker">Barker, Stephen F.</a> (2003) [1965]. "Chapter 6: Fallacies". <i>The Elements of Logic</i> (6th ed.). New York, NY: <a href="/wiki/McGraw_Hill_Education" title="McGraw Hill Education">McGraw-Hill</a>. pp. <span class="nowrap">160–</span>169. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-07-283235-5" title="Special:BookSources/0-07-283235-5"><bdi>0-07-283235-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Chapter+6%3A+Fallacies&rft.btitle=The+Elements+of+Logic&rft.place=New+York%2C+NY&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E160-%3C%2Fspan%3E169&rft.edition=6th&rft.pub=McGraw-Hill&rft.date=2003&rft.isbn=0-07-283235-5&rft.aulast=Barker&rft.aufirst=Stephen+F.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFormal+fallacy" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-GenslerAZ-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-GenslerAZ_3-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGensler2010" class="citation book cs1">Gensler, Harry J. (2010). <i>The A to Z of Logic</i>. <a href="/wiki/Rowman_%26_Littlefield" title="Rowman & Littlefield">Rowman & Littlefield</a>. p. 74. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780810875968" title="Special:BookSources/9780810875968"><bdi>9780810875968</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+A+to+Z+of+Logic&rft.pages=74&rft.pub=Rowman+%26+Littlefield&rft.date=2010&rft.isbn=9780810875968&rft.aulast=Gensler&rft.aufirst=Harry+J.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFormal+fallacy" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-4">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLabossiere1995" class="citation web cs1">Labossiere, Michael (1995). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://nizkor.org/features/fallacies">"Description of Fallacies"</a>. <a href="/wiki/Nizkor_Project" title="Nizkor Project">Nizkor Project</a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2008-09-09</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Description+of+Fallacies&rft.pub=Nizkor+Project&rft.date=1995&rft.aulast=Labossiere&rft.aufirst=Michael&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fnizkor.org%2Ffeatures%2Ffallacies&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFormal+fallacy" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-5">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://utminers.utep.edu/omwilliamson/ENGL1311/fallacies.htm">"Master List of Logical Fallacies"</a>. <i>utminers.utep.edu</i>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=utminers.utep.edu&rft.atitle=Master+List+of+Logical+Fallacies&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Futminers.utep.edu%2Fomwilliamson%2FENGL1311%2Ffallacies.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFormal+fallacy" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-DossJr.2014-6"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-DossJr.2014_6-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDaniel_Adrian_DossWilliam_H._Glover_Jr.Rebecca_A._GozaMichael_Wigginton_Jr.2014" class="citation book cs1">Daniel Adrian Doss; William H. Glover Jr.; Rebecca A. Goza; Michael Wigginton Jr. (17 October 2014). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=qqrNBQAAQBAJ&pg=PA66"><i>The Foundations of Communication in Criminal Justice Systems</i></a>. CRC Press. p. 66. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4822-3660-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-4822-3660-6"><bdi>978-1-4822-3660-6</bdi></a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">21 May</span> 2016</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Foundations+of+Communication+in+Criminal+Justice+Systems&rft.pages=66&rft.pub=CRC+Press&rft.date=2014-10-17&rft.isbn=978-1-4822-3660-6&rft.au=Daniel+Adrian+Doss&rft.au=William+H.+Glover+Jr.&rft.au=Rebecca+A.+Goza&rft.au=Michael+Wigginton+Jr.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DqqrNBQAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPA66&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFormal+fallacy" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-7"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-7">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWadeCarol_Tavris1990" class="citation book cs1">Wade, Carole; Carol Tavris (1990). <span class="id-lock-registration" title="Free registration required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/psychology00wade/page/287">"Eight"</a></span>. In Donna DeBenedictis (ed.). <i>Psychology</i>. Laura Pearson (2 ed.). New York: Harper and Row. pp. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/psychology00wade/page/287">287–288</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-06-046869-6" title="Special:BookSources/0-06-046869-6"><bdi>0-06-046869-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Eight&rft.btitle=Psychology&rft.place=New+York&rft.pages=287-288&rft.edition=2&rft.pub=Harper+and+Row&rft.date=1990&rft.isbn=0-06-046869-6&rft.aulast=Wade&rft.aufirst=Carole&rft.au=Carol+Tavris&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fpsychology00wade%2Fpage%2F287&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFormal+fallacy" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-8"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-8">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Quoted in <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHindes2005" class="citation book cs1">Hindes, Steve (2005). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=h2HHJeVTrU8C&pg=PA86"><i>Think for Yourself!: an Essay on Cutting through the Babble, the Bias, and the Hype</i></a>. Fulcrum Publishing. p. 86. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/1-55591-539-6" title="Special:BookSources/1-55591-539-6"><bdi>1-55591-539-6</bdi></a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2011-10-04</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Think+for+Yourself%21%3A+an+Essay+on+Cutting+through+the+Babble%2C+the+Bias%2C+and+the+Hype&rft.pages=86&rft.pub=Fulcrum+Publishing&rft.date=2005&rft.isbn=1-55591-539-6&rft.aulast=Hindes&rft.aufirst=Steve&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Dh2HHJeVTrU8C%26pg%3DPA86&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFormal+fallacy" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> </ol></div></div> <dl><dt>Bibliography</dt></dl> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239549316">.mw-parser-output .refbegin{margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul{margin-left:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{margin-left:0;padding-left:3.2em;text-indent:-3.2em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul,.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul li{list-style:none}@media(max-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{padding-left:1.6em;text-indent:-1.6em}}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns ul{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .refbegin{font-size:90%}}</style><div class="refbegin" style=""> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Aristotle" title="Aristotle">Aristotle</a>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20061004164921/http://etext.library.adelaide.edu.au/a/aristotle/sophistical/">On Sophistical Refutations</a>, <i>De Sophistici Elenchi</i>.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_of_Ockham" title="William of Ockham">William of Ockham</a>, <i>Summa of Logic</i> (ca. 1323) Part III.4.</li> <li>John Buridan, <i>Summulae de dialectica</i> Book VII.</li> <li>Francis Bacon, the doctrine of the idols in <i>Novum Organum Scientiarum</i>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://fly.hiwaay.net/%7Epaul/bacon/organum/aphorisms1.html">Aphorisms concerning The Interpretation of Nature and the Kingdom of Man, XXIIIff</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20200214120354/http://fly.hiwaay.net/~paul/bacon/organum/aphorisms1.html">Archived</a> 2020-02-14 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>.</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/10731/10731-8.txt">The Art of Controversy</a> | <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://coolhaus.de/art-of-controversy/"><i>Die Kunst, Recht zu behalten – The Art Of Controversy</i> (bilingual)</a>, by <a href="/wiki/Arthur_Schopenhauer" title="Arthur Schopenhauer">Arthur Schopenhauer</a></li> <li>John Stuart Mill, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.la.utexas.edu/research/poltheory/mill/sol/">A System of Logic – Raciocinative and Inductive</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.la.utexas.edu/research/poltheory/mill/sol/sol.b05.c07.html">Book 5, Chapter 7, Fallacies of Confusion</a>.</li> <li>C. L. Hamblin, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.ditext.com/hamblin/fallacies.html"><i>Fallacies</i></a>. Methuen London, 1970.</li> <li>Fearnside, W. Ward and William B. Holther, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.ditext.com/fearnside/fallacy.html">Fallacy: The Counterfeit of Argument</a>, 1959.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vincent_F._Hendricks" title="Vincent F. Hendricks">Vincent F. Hendricks</a>, <i>Thought 2 Talk: A Crash Course in Reflection and Expression</i>, New York: Automatic Press / VIP, 2005, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/87-991013-7-8" title="Special:BookSources/87-991013-7-8">87-991013-7-8</a></li> <li>D. H. Fischer, <i>Historians' Fallacies: Toward a Logic of Historical Thought</i>, Harper Torchbooks, 1970.</li> <li>Douglas N. Walton, <i>Informal logic: A handbook for critical argumentation</i>. Cambridge University Press, 1989.</li> <li>F. H. van Eemeren and R. Grootendorst, <i>Argumentation, Communication and Fallacies: A Pragma-Dialectical Perspective</i>, Lawrence Erlbaum and Associates, 1992.</li> <li>Warburton Nigel, <i>Thinking from A to Z</i>, Routledge 1998.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carl_Sagan" title="Carl Sagan">Sagan, Carl</a>, <i><a href="/wiki/The_Demon-Haunted_World" title="The Demon-Haunted World">The Demon-Haunted World: Science As a Candle in the Dark</a></i>. <a href="/wiki/Ballantine_Books" title="Ballantine Books">Ballantine Books</a>, March 1997 <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-345-40946-9" title="Special:BookSources/0-345-40946-9">0-345-40946-9</a>, 480 pp. 1996 hardback edition: <a href="/wiki/Random_House" title="Random House">Random House</a>, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-394-53512-X" title="Special:BookSources/0-394-53512-X">0-394-53512-X</a></li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Formal_fallacy&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: External links"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1235681985">.mw-parser-output .side-box{margin:4px 0;box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #aaa;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em;background-color:var(--background-color-interactive-subtle,#f8f9fa);display:flow-root}.mw-parser-output .side-box-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{padding:0.25em 0.9em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-image{padding:2px 0 2px 0.9em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output 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.navbox{display:none!important}}</style></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Common_fallacies_(list)222" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239400231">.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar ul{display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::before{margin-right:-0.125em;content:"[ "}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::after{margin-left:-0.125em;content:" ]"}.mw-parser-output .navbar li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .navbar a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini abbr{font-variant:small-caps;border-bottom:none;text-decoration:none;cursor:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-full{font-size:114%;margin:0 7em}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-mini{font-size:114%;margin:0 4em}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}}</style><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Fallacies" title="Template:Fallacies"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Fallacies" title="Template talk:Fallacies"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Fallacies" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Fallacies"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Common_fallacies_(list)222" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Common <a href="/wiki/Fallacy" title="Fallacy">fallacies</a> (<a href="/wiki/List_of_fallacies" title="List of fallacies">list</a>)</div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Formal</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">In <a href="/wiki/Propositional_calculus" title="Propositional calculus">propositional logic</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Affirming_a_disjunct" title="Affirming a disjunct">Affirming a disjunct</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Affirming_the_consequent" title="Affirming the consequent">Affirming the consequent</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Denying_the_antecedent" title="Denying the antecedent">Denying the antecedent</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Argument_from_fallacy" title="Argument from fallacy">Argument from fallacy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Masked-man_fallacy" title="Masked-man fallacy">Masked man</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mathematical_fallacy" title="Mathematical fallacy">Mathematical fallacy</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">In <a href="/wiki/Quantifier_(logic)" title="Quantifier (logic)">quantificational logic</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Existential_fallacy" title="Existential fallacy">Existential</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Affirming_the_consequent" title="Affirming the consequent">Illicit conversion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Proof_by_example" title="Proof by example">Proof by example</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quantifier_shift" title="Quantifier shift">Quantifier shift</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Syllogistic_fallacy" class="mw-redirect" title="Syllogistic fallacy">Syllogistic fallacy</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Affirmative_conclusion_from_a_negative_premise" title="Affirmative conclusion from a negative premise">Affirmative conclusion from a negative premise</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Negative_conclusion_from_affirmative_premises" title="Negative conclusion from affirmative premises">Negative conclusion from affirmative premises</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fallacy_of_exclusive_premises" title="Fallacy of exclusive premises">Exclusive premises</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Existential_fallacy" title="Existential fallacy">Existential</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Modal_scope_fallacy" class="mw-redirect" title="Modal scope fallacy">Necessity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fallacy_of_four_terms" title="Fallacy of four terms">Four terms</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Illicit_major" title="Illicit major">Illicit major</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Illicit_minor" title="Illicit minor">Illicit minor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fallacy_of_the_undistributed_middle" title="Fallacy of the undistributed middle">Undistributed middle</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Informal_fallacy" title="Informal fallacy">Informal</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Equivocation</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Equivocation" title="Equivocation">Equivocation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/False_equivalence" title="False equivalence">False equivalence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/False_attribution" title="False attribution">False attribution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quoting_out_of_context" title="Quoting out of context">Quoting out of context</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Loki%27s_Wager" class="mw-redirect" title="Loki's Wager">Loki's Wager</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/No_true_Scotsman" title="No true Scotsman">No true Scotsman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reification_(fallacy)" title="Reification (fallacy)">Reification</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Question-begging</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Circular_reasoning" title="Circular reasoning">Circular reasoning</a> / <a href="/wiki/Begging_the_question" title="Begging the question">Begging the question</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Loaded_language" title="Loaded language">Loaded language</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Leading_question" title="Leading question">Leading question</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Double-barreled_question" title="Double-barreled question">Compound question</a> / <a href="/wiki/Loaded_question" title="Loaded question">Loaded question</a> / <a href="/wiki/Complex_question" title="Complex question">Complex question</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/No_true_Scotsman" title="No true Scotsman">No true Scotsman</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Correlative-based_fallacies" title="Correlative-based fallacies">Correlative-based</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/False_dilemma" title="False dilemma">False dilemma</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Nirvana_fallacy" title="Nirvana fallacy">Perfect solution</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Denying_the_correlative" title="Denying the correlative">Denying the correlative</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Suppressed_correlative" title="Suppressed correlative">Suppressed correlative</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Fallacies_of_illicit_transference" title="Fallacies of illicit transference">Illicit transference</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Fallacy_of_composition" title="Fallacy of composition">Composition</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fallacy_of_division" title="Fallacy of division">Division</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecological_fallacy" title="Ecological fallacy">Ecological</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><i><a href="/wiki/Secundum_quid" title="Secundum quid">Secundum quid</a></i></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Accident_(fallacy)" title="Accident (fallacy)">Accident</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Converse_accident" title="Converse accident">Converse accident</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Faulty_generalization" title="Faulty generalization">Faulty generalization</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anecdotal_evidence" title="Anecdotal evidence">Anecdotal evidence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sampling_bias" title="Sampling bias">Sampling bias</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cherry_picking" title="Cherry picking">Cherry picking</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/McNamara_fallacy" title="McNamara fallacy">McNamara</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Base_rate_fallacy" title="Base rate fallacy">Base rate</a> / <a href="/wiki/Conjunction_fallacy" title="Conjunction fallacy">Conjunction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Double_counting_(fallacy)" title="Double counting (fallacy)">Double counting</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Argument_from_analogy" title="Argument from analogy">False analogy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slothful_induction" title="Slothful induction">Slothful induction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Overwhelming_exception" title="Overwhelming exception">Overwhelming exception</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Ambiguity" title="Ambiguity">Ambiguity</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Fallacy_of_accent" title="Fallacy of accent">Accent</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/False_precision" title="False precision">False precision</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Moving_the_goalposts" title="Moving the goalposts">Moving the goalposts</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quoting_out_of_context" title="Quoting out of context">Quoting out of context</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slippery_slope" title="Slippery slope">Slippery slope</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sorites_paradox" title="Sorites paradox">Sorites paradox</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Syntactic_ambiguity" title="Syntactic ambiguity">Syntactic ambiguity</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Questionable_cause" title="Questionable cause">Questionable cause</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Animistic_fallacy" title="Animistic fallacy">Animistic</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Furtive_fallacy" title="Furtive fallacy">Furtive</a></li></ul></li> <li>Correlation implies causation <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Correlation_does_not_imply_causation" title="Correlation does not imply causation">Cum hoc</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Post_hoc_ergo_propter_hoc" title="Post hoc ergo propter hoc">Post hoc</a></i></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gambler%27s_fallacy" title="Gambler's fallacy">Gambler's</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Inverse_gambler%27s_fallacy" title="Inverse gambler's fallacy">Inverse</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Regression_fallacy" title="Regression fallacy">Regression</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fallacy_of_the_single_cause" title="Fallacy of the single cause">Single cause</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slippery_slope" title="Slippery slope">Slippery slope</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Texas_sharpshooter_fallacy" title="Texas sharpshooter fallacy">Texas sharpshooter</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Appeals</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Appeal_to_the_law" title="Appeal to the law">Law/Legality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Appeal_to_the_stone" title="Appeal to the stone">Stone</a> / <a href="/wiki/Proof_by_assertion" title="Proof by assertion">Proof by assertion</a></li></ul> </div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Appeal_to_consequences" title="Appeal to consequences">Consequences</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Argumentum_ad_baculum" title="Argumentum ad baculum">Argumentum ad baculum</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wishful_thinking" title="Wishful thinking">Wishful thinking</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Appeal_to_emotion" title="Appeal to emotion">Emotion</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Think_of_the_children" title="Think of the children">Children</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Appeal_to_fear" title="Appeal to fear">Fear</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Appeal_to_flattery" title="Appeal to flattery">Flattery</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Appeal_to_novelty" title="Appeal to novelty">Novelty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Appeal_to_pity" title="Appeal to pity">Pity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Appeal_to_ridicule" title="Appeal to ridicule">Ridicule</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/In-group_favoritism" title="In-group favoritism">In-group favoritism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Invented_here" title="Invented here">Invented here</a> / <a href="/wiki/Not_invented_here" title="Not invented here">Not invented here</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Island_mentality" title="Island mentality">Island mentality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Appeal_to_loyalty" title="Appeal to loyalty">Loyalty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Parade_of_horribles" title="Parade of horribles">Parade of horribles</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Appeal_to_spite" class="mw-redirect" title="Appeal to spite">Spite</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Flag-waving" title="Flag-waving">Stirring symbols</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wisdom_of_repugnance" title="Wisdom of repugnance">Wisdom of repugnance</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Genetic_fallacy" title="Genetic fallacy">Genetic fallacy</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th id="Ad_hominem18" scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><i><a href="/wiki/Ad_hominem" title="Ad hominem">Ad hominem</a></i></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Appeal_to_motive" title="Appeal to motive">Appeal to motive</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Association_fallacy" title="Association fallacy">Association</a> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Reductio_ad_Hitlerum" title="Reductio ad Hitlerum">Reductio ad Hitlerum</a></i> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Godwin%27s_law" title="Godwin's law">Godwin's law</a></li></ul></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Red-baiting" title="Red-baiting">Reductio ad Stalinum</a></i></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bulverism" title="Bulverism">Bulverism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Poisoning_the_well" title="Poisoning the well">Poisoning the well</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tone_policing" title="Tone policing">Tone</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Tu_quoque" title="Tu quoque">Tu quoque</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Whataboutism" title="Whataboutism">Whataboutism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Argument_from_authority" title="Argument from authority">Authority</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Appeal_to_accomplishment" title="Appeal to accomplishment">Accomplishment</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Ipse_dixit" title="Ipse dixit">Ipse dixit</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Argumentum_ad_lazarum" title="Argumentum ad lazarum">Poverty</a> / <a href="/wiki/Argumentum_ad_crumenam" title="Argumentum ad crumenam">Wealth</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Etymological_fallacy" title="Etymological fallacy">Etymology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Appeal_to_nature" title="Appeal to nature">Nature</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Appeal_to_tradition" title="Appeal to tradition">Tradition</a> / <a href="/wiki/Appeal_to_novelty" title="Appeal to novelty">Novelty</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Chronological_snobbery" title="Chronological snobbery">Chronological snobbery</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Other <a href="/wiki/Fallacy_of_relevance" class="mw-redirect" title="Fallacy of relevance">fallacies<br /> of relevance</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th id="Arguments13" scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Argument" title="Argument">Arguments</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Ad_nauseam" title="Ad nauseam">Ad nauseam</a></i> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Sealioning" title="Sealioning">Sealioning</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Argument_from_anecdote" title="Argument from anecdote">Argument from anecdote</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Argument_from_silence" title="Argument from silence">Argument from silence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Argument_to_moderation" title="Argument to moderation">Argument to moderation</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Argumentum_ad_populum" title="Argumentum ad populum">Argumentum ad populum</a></i></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Clich%C3%A9" title="Cliché">Cliché</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Four_Great_Errors" title="The Four Great Errors">The Four Great Errors</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/I%27m_entitled_to_my_opinion" title="I'm entitled to my opinion">I'm entitled to my opinion</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Irrelevant_conclusion" title="Irrelevant conclusion">Ignoratio elenchi</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Invincible_ignorance_fallacy" title="Invincible ignorance fallacy">Invincible ignorance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Moralistic_fallacy" title="Moralistic fallacy">Moralistic</a> / <a href="/wiki/Naturalistic_fallacy" title="Naturalistic fallacy">Naturalistic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Motte-and-bailey_fallacy" title="Motte-and-bailey fallacy">Motte-and-bailey fallacy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Psychologist%27s_fallacy" title="Psychologist's fallacy">Psychologist's fallacy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rationalization_(psychology)" title="Rationalization (psychology)">Rationalization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Red_herring" title="Red herring">Red herring</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Two_wrongs_make_a_right" class="mw-redirect" title="Two wrongs make a right">Two wrongs make a right</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Special_pleading" title="Special pleading">Special pleading</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Straw_man" title="Straw man">Straw man</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Category"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/23px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/31px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Category:Fallacies" title="Category:Fallacies">Category</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div>    </div><noscript><img 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