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subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Modern_neuroscience-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Molecular_and_cellular_neuroscience" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Molecular_and_cellular_neuroscience"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.1 Molecular and cellular neuroscience </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Molecular_and_cellular_neuroscience-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Neural_circuits_and_systems" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Neural_circuits_and_systems"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.2 Neural circuits and systems </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Neural_circuits_and_systems-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Cognitive_and_behavioral_neuroscience" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Cognitive_and_behavioral_neuroscience"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.3 Cognitive and behavioral neuroscience </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Cognitive_and_behavioral_neuroscience-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Computational_neuroscience" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Computational_neuroscience"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.4 Computational neuroscience </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Computational_neuroscience-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Neuroscience_and_medicine" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Neuroscience_and_medicine"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.5 Neuroscience and medicine </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Neuroscience_and_medicine-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Clinical_neuroscience" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Clinical_neuroscience"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.5.1 Clinical neuroscience </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Clinical_neuroscience-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Translational_research" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Translational_research"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.5.2 Translational research </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Translational_research-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Major_branches" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Major_branches"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3 Major branches </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Major_branches-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Careers_in_neuroscience[94]" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Careers_in_neuroscience[94]"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4 Careers in neuroscience[94] </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Careers_in_neuroscience[94]-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Careers in neuroscience[94] subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Careers_in_neuroscience[94]-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Bachelor's_Level" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Bachelor's_Level"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.1 Bachelor's Level </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Bachelor's_Level-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Master's_Level" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Master's_Level"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.2 Master's Level </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Master's_Level-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Advanced_Degree" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Advanced_Degree"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.3 Advanced Degree </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Advanced_Degree-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Neuroscience_organizations" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Neuroscience_organizations"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5 Neuroscience organizations </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Neuroscience_organizations-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Neuroscience organizations subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Neuroscience_organizations-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Public_education_and_outreach" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Public_education_and_outreach"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.1 Public education and outreach </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Public_education_and_outreach-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Engineering_applications_of_neuroscience" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Engineering_applications_of_neuroscience"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6 Engineering applications of neuroscience </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Engineering_applications_of_neuroscience-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Engineering applications of neuroscience subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Engineering_applications_of_neuroscience-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Neuromorphic_computer_chips" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Neuromorphic_computer_chips"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6.1 Neuromorphic computer chips </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Neuromorphic_computer_chips-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Nobel_prizes_related_to_neuroscience" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Nobel_prizes_related_to_neuroscience"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7 Nobel prizes related to neuroscience </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Nobel_prizes_related_to_neuroscience-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 8 See also </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 9 References </div> </a> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Further_reading" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Further_reading"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 10 Further reading </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Further_reading-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 11 External links </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" > Toggle the table of contents </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading">Neuroscience</h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. Available in 74 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-74" aria-hidden="true" > 74 languages </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-af mw-list-item"><a href="https://af.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neurowetenskap" title="Neurowetenskap – Afrikaans" lang="af" hreflang="af" data-title="Neurowetenskap" data-language-autonym="Afrikaans" data-language-local-name="Afrikaans" class="interlanguage-link-target">Afrikaans</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-anp mw-list-item"><a href="https://anp.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%A4%E0%A4%82%E0%A4%A4%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%95%E0%A4%BE_%E0%A4%B5%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%9C%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%9E%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%A8" title="तंत्रिका विज्ञान – Angika" lang="anp" hreflang="anp" data-title="तंत्रिका विज्ञान" data-language-autonym="अंगिका" data-language-local-name="Angika" class="interlanguage-link-target">अंगिका</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B9%D9%84%D9%88%D9%85_%D8%B9%D8%B5%D8%A8%D9%8A%D8%A9" title="علوم عصبية – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="علوم عصبية" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target">العربية</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ast mw-list-item"><a href="https://ast.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neurociencia" title="Neurociencia – Asturian" lang="ast" hreflang="ast" data-title="Neurociencia" data-language-autonym="Asturianu" data-language-local-name="Asturian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Asturianu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-az mw-list-item"><a href="https://az.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neyroelm" title="Neyroelm – Azerbaijani" lang="az" hreflang="az" data-title="Neyroelm" data-language-autonym="Azərbaycanca" data-language-local-name="Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target">Azərbaycanca</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bn mw-list-item"><a href="https://bn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A6%B8%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%A8%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%AF%E0%A6%BC%E0%A7%81%E0%A6%AC%E0%A6%BF%E0%A6%9C%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%9E%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%A8" title="স্নায়ুবিজ্ঞান – Bangla" lang="bn" hreflang="bn" data-title="স্নায়ুবিজ্ঞান" data-language-autonym="বাংলা" data-language-local-name="Bangla" class="interlanguage-link-target">বাংলা</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-min-nan mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh-min-nan.wikipedia.org/wiki/S%C3%AEn-keng-kho-ha%CC%8Dk" title="Sîn-keng-kho-ha̍k – Minnan" lang="nan" hreflang="nan" data-title="Sîn-keng-kho-ha̍k" data-language-autonym="閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gú" data-language-local-name="Minnan" class="interlanguage-link-target">閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gú</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bg mw-list-item"><a href="https://bg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9D%D0%B5%D0%B2%D1%80%D0%BE%D0%BD%D0%B0%D1%83%D0%BA%D0%B0" title="Невронаука – Bulgarian" lang="bg" hreflang="bg" data-title="Невронаука" data-language-autonym="Български" data-language-local-name="Bulgarian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Български</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bs mw-list-item"><a href="https://bs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neuronauka" title="Neuronauka – Bosnian" lang="bs" hreflang="bs" data-title="Neuronauka" data-language-autonym="Bosanski" data-language-local-name="Bosnian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Bosanski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neuroci%C3%A8ncia" title="Neurociència – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Neurociència" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target">Català</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs mw-list-item"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neurov%C4%9Bda" title="Neurověda – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="Neurověda" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="Czech" class="interlanguage-link-target">Čeština</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cy mw-list-item"><a href="https://cy.wikipedia.org/wiki/Niwrowyddoniaeth" title="Niwrowyddoniaeth – Welsh" lang="cy" hreflang="cy" data-title="Niwrowyddoniaeth" data-language-autonym="Cymraeg" data-language-local-name="Welsh" class="interlanguage-link-target">Cymraeg</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-da mw-list-item"><a href="https://da.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neurovidenskab" title="Neurovidenskab – Danish" lang="da" hreflang="da" data-title="Neurovidenskab" data-language-autonym="Dansk" data-language-local-name="Danish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Dansk</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neurowissenschaften" title="Neurowissenschaften – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Neurowissenschaften" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target">Deutsch</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-et mw-list-item"><a href="https://et.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neuroteadus" title="Neuroteadus – Estonian" lang="et" hreflang="et" data-title="Neuroteadus" data-language-autonym="Eesti" data-language-local-name="Estonian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Eesti</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-el mw-list-item"><a href="https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%9D%CE%B5%CF%85%CF%81%CE%BF%CE%B5%CF%80%CE%B9%CF%83%CF%84%CE%AE%CE%BC%CE%B7" title="Νευροεπιστήμη – Greek" lang="el" hreflang="el" data-title="Νευροεπιστήμη" data-language-autonym="Ελληνικά" data-language-local-name="Greek" class="interlanguage-link-target">Ελληνικά</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neurociencia" title="Neurociencia – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Neurociencia" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Español</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eo mw-list-item"><a href="https://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ne%C5%ADroscienco" title="Neŭroscienco – Esperanto" lang="eo" hreflang="eo" data-title="Neŭroscienco" data-language-autonym="Esperanto" data-language-local-name="Esperanto" class="interlanguage-link-target">Esperanto</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eu mw-list-item"><a href="https://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neurozientzia" title="Neurozientzia – Basque" lang="eu" hreflang="eu" data-title="Neurozientzia" data-language-autonym="Euskara" data-language-local-name="Basque" class="interlanguage-link-target">Euskara</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B9%D9%84%D9%88%D9%85_%D8%A7%D8%B9%D8%B5%D8%A7%D8%A8" title="علوم اعصاب – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="علوم اعصاب" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target">فارسی</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neurosciences" title="Neurosciences – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Neurosciences" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target">Français</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gl mw-list-item"><a href="https://gl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neurociencia" title="Neurociencia – Galician" lang="gl" hreflang="gl" data-title="Neurociencia" data-language-autonym="Galego" data-language-local-name="Galician" class="interlanguage-link-target">Galego</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EC%8B%A0%EA%B2%BD%EA%B3%BC%ED%95%99" title="신경과학 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="신경과학" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target">한국어</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hy mw-list-item"><a href="https://hy.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D5%86%D5%A5%D5%B5%D6%80%D5%B8%D5%A3%D5%AB%D5%BF%D5%B8%D6%82%D5%A9%D5%B5%D5%B8%D6%82%D5%B6%D5%B6%D5%A5%D6%80" title="Նեյրոգիտություններ – Armenian" lang="hy" hreflang="hy" data-title="Նեյրոգիտություններ" data-language-autonym="Հայերեն" data-language-local-name="Armenian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Հայերեն</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hi mw-list-item"><a href="https://hi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%A4%E0%A4%82%E0%A4%A4%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%95%E0%A4%BE_%E0%A4%B5%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%9C%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%9E%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%A8" title="तंत्रिका विज्ञान – Hindi" lang="hi" hreflang="hi" data-title="तंत्रिका विज्ञान" data-language-autonym="हिन्दी" data-language-local-name="Hindi" class="interlanguage-link-target">हिन्दी</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hr mw-list-item"><a href="https://hr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neuroznanost" title="Neuroznanost – Croatian" lang="hr" hreflang="hr" data-title="Neuroznanost" data-language-autonym="Hrvatski" data-language-local-name="Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Hrvatski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-io mw-list-item"><a href="https://io.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neurocienco" title="Neurocienco – Ido" lang="io" hreflang="io" data-title="Neurocienco" data-language-autonym="Ido" data-language-local-name="Ido" class="interlanguage-link-target">Ido</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bpy mw-list-item"><a href="https://bpy.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A6%B8%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%A8%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%AF%E0%A6%BC%E0%A7%81%E0%A6%AC%E0%A6%BF%E0%A6%9C%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%9E%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%A8" title="স্নায়ুবিজ্ঞান – Bishnupriya" lang="bpy" hreflang="bpy" data-title="স্নায়ুবিজ্ঞান" data-language-autonym="বিষ্ণুপ্রিয়া মণিপুরী" data-language-local-name="Bishnupriya" class="interlanguage-link-target">বিষ্ণুপ্রিয়া মণিপুরী</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ilmu_saraf" title="Ilmu saraf – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Ilmu saraf" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Bahasa Indonesia</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-is mw-list-item"><a href="https://is.wikipedia.org/wiki/Taugav%C3%ADsindi" title="Taugavísindi – Icelandic" lang="is" hreflang="is" data-title="Taugavísindi" data-language-autonym="Íslenska" data-language-local-name="Icelandic" class="interlanguage-link-target">Íslenska</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neuroscienze" title="Neuroscienze – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Neuroscienze" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Italiano</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he mw-list-item"><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%9E%D7%93%D7%A2%D7%99_%D7%94%D7%9E%D7%95%D7%97" title="מדעי המוח – Hebrew" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="מדעי המוח" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="Hebrew" class="interlanguage-link-target">עברית</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kbp mw-list-item"><a href="https://kbp.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hola_wondu_l%C9%9B%C9%A3t%CA%8A_t%CA%8Am%C9%A9y%C9%9B" title="Hola wondu lɛɣtʊ tʊmɩyɛ – Kabiye" lang="kbp" hreflang="kbp" data-title="Hola wondu lɛɣtʊ tʊmɩyɛ" data-language-autonym="Kabɩyɛ" data-language-local-name="Kabiye" class="interlanguage-link-target">Kabɩyɛ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ka mw-list-item"><a href="https://ka.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%9C%E1%83%94%E1%83%98%E1%83%A0%E1%83%9D%E1%83%9B%E1%83%94%E1%83%AA%E1%83%9C%E1%83%98%E1%83%94%E1%83%A0%E1%83%94%E1%83%91%E1%83%90" title="ნეირომეცნიერება – Georgian" lang="ka" hreflang="ka" data-title="ნეირომეცნიერება" data-language-autonym="ქართული" data-language-local-name="Georgian" class="interlanguage-link-target">ქართული</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kk mw-list-item"><a href="https://kk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9D%D0%B5%D0%B9%D1%80%D0%BE%D2%93%D1%8B%D0%BB%D1%8B%D0%BC" title="Нейроғылым – Kazakh" lang="kk" hreflang="kk" data-title="Нейроғылым" data-language-autonym="Қазақша" data-language-local-name="Kazakh" class="interlanguage-link-target">Қазақша</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-la mw-list-item"><a href="https://la.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neuroscientia" title="Neuroscientia – Latin" lang="la" hreflang="la" data-title="Neuroscientia" data-language-autonym="Latina" data-language-local-name="Latin" class="interlanguage-link-target">Latina</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lv mw-list-item"><a href="https://lv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neirozin%C4%81tne" title="Neirozinātne – Latvian" lang="lv" hreflang="lv" data-title="Neirozinātne" data-language-autonym="Latviešu" data-language-local-name="Latvian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Latviešu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lt mw-list-item"><a href="https://lt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neuromokslai" title="Neuromokslai – Lithuanian" lang="lt" hreflang="lt" data-title="Neuromokslai" data-language-autonym="Lietuvių" data-language-local-name="Lithuanian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Lietuvių</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-li mw-list-item"><a href="https://li.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neuroweitesjap" title="Neuroweitesjap – Limburgish" lang="li" hreflang="li" data-title="Neuroweitesjap" data-language-autonym="Limburgs" data-language-local-name="Limburgish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Limburgs</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lfn mw-list-item"><a href="https://lfn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neurosiensa" title="Neurosiensa – Lingua Franca Nova" lang="lfn" hreflang="lfn" data-title="Neurosiensa" data-language-autonym="Lingua Franca Nova" data-language-local-name="Lingua Franca Nova" class="interlanguage-link-target">Lingua Franca Nova</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hu mw-list-item"><a href="https://hu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Idegtudom%C3%A1ny" title="Idegtudomány – Hungarian" lang="hu" hreflang="hu" data-title="Idegtudomány" data-language-autonym="Magyar" data-language-local-name="Hungarian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Magyar</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mk mw-list-item"><a href="https://mk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9D%D0%B5%D0%B2%D1%80%D0%BE%D0%BD%D0%B0%D1%83%D0%BA%D0%B0" title="Невронаука – Macedonian" lang="mk" hreflang="mk" data-title="Невронаука" data-language-autonym="Македонски" data-language-local-name="Macedonian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Македонски</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ml mw-list-item"><a href="https://ml.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B4%A8%E0%B5%8D%E0%B4%AF%E0%B5%82%E0%B4%B1%E0%B5%8B%E0%B4%B8%E0%B4%AF%E0%B5%BB%E0%B4%B8%E0%B5%8D" title="ന്യൂറോസയൻസ് – Malayalam" lang="ml" hreflang="ml" data-title="ന്യൂറോസയൻസ്" data-language-autonym="മലയാളം" data-language-local-name="Malayalam" class="interlanguage-link-target">മലയാളം</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ms mw-list-item"><a href="https://ms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neurosains" title="Neurosains – Malay" lang="ms" hreflang="ms" data-title="Neurosains" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Melayu" data-language-local-name="Malay" class="interlanguage-link-target">Bahasa Melayu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neurowetenschap" title="Neurowetenschap – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Neurowetenschap" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target">Nederlands</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E7%A5%9E%E7%B5%8C%E7%A7%91%E5%AD%A6" title="神経科学 – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="神経科学" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target">日本語</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-frr mw-list-item"><a href="https://frr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neurowedenskap" title="Neurowedenskap – Northern Frisian" lang="frr" hreflang="frr" data-title="Neurowedenskap" data-language-autonym="Nordfriisk" data-language-local-name="Northern Frisian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Nordfriisk</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-no mw-list-item"><a href="https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nevrovitenskap" title="Nevrovitenskap – Norwegian Bokmål" lang="nb" hreflang="nb" data-title="Nevrovitenskap" data-language-autonym="Norsk bokmål" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Bokmål" class="interlanguage-link-target">Norsk bokmål</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-oc mw-list-item"><a href="https://oc.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neurosci%C3%A9ncia" title="Neurosciéncia – Occitan" lang="oc" hreflang="oc" data-title="Neurosciéncia" data-language-autonym="Occitan" data-language-local-name="Occitan" class="interlanguage-link-target">Occitan</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pa mw-list-item"><a href="https://pa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A8%A4%E0%A9%B0%E0%A8%A4%E0%A9%82_%E0%A8%B5%E0%A8%BF%E0%A8%97%E0%A8%BF%E0%A8%86%E0%A8%A8" title="ਤੰਤੂ ਵਿਗਿਆਨ – Punjabi" lang="pa" hreflang="pa" data-title="ਤੰਤੂ ਵਿਗਿਆਨ" data-language-autonym="ਪੰਜਾਬੀ" data-language-local-name="Punjabi" class="interlanguage-link-target">ਪੰਜਾਬੀ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pap mw-list-item"><a href="https://pap.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neurociencia" title="Neurociencia – Papiamento" lang="pap" hreflang="pap" data-title="Neurociencia" data-language-autonym="Papiamentu" data-language-local-name="Papiamento" class="interlanguage-link-target">Papiamentu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ps mw-list-item"><a href="https://ps.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B9%D8%B5%D8%A8%D9%8A_%D8%B9%D9%84%D9%88%D9%85" title="عصبي علوم – Pashto" lang="ps" hreflang="ps" data-title="عصبي علوم" data-language-autonym="پښتو" data-language-local-name="Pashto" class="interlanguage-link-target">پښتو</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neuronauka" title="Neuronauka – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="Neuronauka" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Polish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Polski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neuroci%C3%AAncia" title="Neurociência – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Neurociência" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Português</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ro mw-list-item"><a href="https://ro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neuro%C8%99tiin%C8%9Be" title="Neuroștiințe – Romanian" lang="ro" hreflang="ro" data-title="Neuroștiințe" data-language-autonym="Română" data-language-local-name="Romanian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Română</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9D%D0%B5%D0%B9%D1%80%D0%BE%D0%BD%D0%B0%D1%83%D0%BA%D0%B8" title="Нейронауки – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Нейронауки" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Русский</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sq mw-list-item"><a href="https://sq.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neuroshkenca" title="Neuroshkenca – Albanian" lang="sq" hreflang="sq" data-title="Neuroshkenca" data-language-autonym="Shqip" data-language-local-name="Albanian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Shqip</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-simple mw-list-item"><a href="https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neuroscience" title="Neuroscience – Simple English" lang="en-simple" hreflang="en-simple" data-title="Neuroscience" data-language-autonym="Simple English" data-language-local-name="Simple English" class="interlanguage-link-target">Simple English</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ckb mw-list-item"><a href="https://ckb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B2%D8%A7%D9%86%D8%B3%D8%AA%DB%8C_%D8%AF%DB%95%D9%85%D8%A7%D8%B1%DB%8C" title="زانستی دەماری – Central Kurdish" lang="ckb" hreflang="ckb" data-title="زانستی دەماری" data-language-autonym="کوردی" data-language-local-name="Central Kurdish" class="interlanguage-link-target">کوردی</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sr mw-list-item"><a href="https://sr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9D%D0%B5%D1%83%D1%80%D0%BE%D0%BD%D0%B0%D1%83%D0%BA%D0%B5" title="Неуронауке – Serbian" lang="sr" hreflang="sr" data-title="Неуронауке" data-language-autonym="Српски / srpski" data-language-local-name="Serbian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Српски / srpski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sh mw-list-item"><a href="https://sh.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neuronauka" title="Neuronauka – Serbo-Croatian" lang="sh" hreflang="sh" data-title="Neuronauka" data-language-autonym="Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски" data-language-local-name="Serbo-Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fi mw-list-item"><a href="https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neurotiede" title="Neurotiede – Finnish" lang="fi" hreflang="fi" data-title="Neurotiede" data-language-autonym="Suomi" data-language-local-name="Finnish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Suomi</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sv mw-list-item"><a href="https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neurovetenskap" title="Neurovetenskap – Swedish" lang="sv" hreflang="sv" data-title="Neurovetenskap" data-language-autonym="Svenska" data-language-local-name="Swedish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Svenska</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tl mw-list-item"><a href="https://tl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neurosiyensiya" title="Neurosiyensiya – Tagalog" lang="tl" hreflang="tl" data-title="Neurosiyensiya" data-language-autonym="Tagalog" data-language-local-name="Tagalog" class="interlanguage-link-target">Tagalog</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ta mw-list-item"><a href="https://ta.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%AE%A8%E0%AE%B0%E0%AE%AE%E0%AF%8D%E0%AE%AA%E0%AE%A3%E0%AF%81%E0%AE%B5%E0%AE%BF%E0%AE%AF%E0%AE%B2%E0%AF%8D" title="நரம்பணுவியல் – Tamil" lang="ta" hreflang="ta" data-title="நரம்பணுவியல்" data-language-autonym="தமிழ்" data-language-local-name="Tamil" class="interlanguage-link-target">தமிழ்</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-th mw-list-item"><a href="https://th.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B8%9B%E0%B8%A3%E0%B8%B0%E0%B8%AA%E0%B8%B2%E0%B8%97%E0%B8%A7%E0%B8%B4%E0%B8%97%E0%B8%A2%E0%B8%B2%E0%B8%A8%E0%B8%B2%E0%B8%AA%E0%B8%95%E0%B8%A3%E0%B9%8C" title="ประสาทวิทยาศาสตร์ – Thai" lang="th" hreflang="th" data-title="ประสาทวิทยาศาสตร์" data-language-autonym="ไทย" data-language-local-name="Thai" class="interlanguage-link-target">ไทย</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tr mw-list-item"><a href="https://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/N%C3%B6robilim" title="Nörobilim – Turkish" lang="tr" hreflang="tr" data-title="Nörobilim" data-language-autonym="Türkçe" data-language-local-name="Turkish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Türkçe</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uk mw-list-item"><a href="https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9D%D0%B5%D0%B9%D1%80%D0%BE%D0%BD%D0%B0%D1%83%D0%BA%D0%B0" title="Нейронаука – Ukrainian" lang="uk" hreflang="uk" data-title="Нейронаука" data-language-autonym="Українська" data-language-local-name="Ukrainian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Українська</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ur mw-list-item"><a href="https://ur.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B9%D9%84%D9%85_%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%A7%D8%B9%D8%B5%D8%A7%D8%A8" title="علم الاعصاب – Urdu" lang="ur" hreflang="ur" data-title="علم الاعصاب" data-language-autonym="اردو" data-language-local-name="Urdu" class="interlanguage-link-target">اردو</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vi mw-list-item"><a href="https://vi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Khoa_h%E1%BB%8Dc_th%E1%BA%A7n_kinh" title="Khoa học thần kinh – Vietnamese" lang="vi" hreflang="vi" data-title="Khoa học thần kinh" data-language-autonym="Tiếng Việt" data-language-local-name="Vietnamese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Tiếng Việt</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-war mw-list-item"><a href="https://war.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neurosyensya" title="Neurosyensya – Waray" lang="war" hreflang="war" data-title="Neurosyensya" data-language-autonym="Winaray" data-language-local-name="Waray" class="interlanguage-link-target">Winaray</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-wuu mw-list-item"><a href="https://wuu.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E7%A5%9E%E7%BB%8F%E7%A7%91%E5%AD%A6" title="神经科学 – Wu" lang="wuu" hreflang="wuu" data-title="神经科学" data-language-autonym="吴语" data-language-local-name="Wu" class="interlanguage-link-target">吴语</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-yue mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh-yue.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E7%A5%9E%E7%B6%93%E7%A7%91%E5%AD%B8" title="神經科學 – Cantonese" lang="yue" hreflang="yue" data-title="神經科學" data-language-autonym="粵語" data-language-local-name="Cantonese" class="interlanguage-link-target">粵語</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E7%A5%9E%E7%BB%8F%E7%A7%91%E5%AD%A6" title="神经科学 – Chinese" lang="zh" hreflang="zh" data-title="神经科学" data-language-autonym="中文" data-language-local-name="Chinese" 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searchaux" style="display:none"> Scientific study of the nervous system</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">For the journal, see <a href="/wiki/Neuroscience_(journal)" title="Neuroscience (journal)">Neuroscience (journal)</a>.</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">"Brain science" redirects here. For other aspects of brain science, see <a href="/wiki/Cognitive_science" title="Cognitive science">cognitive science</a>, <a href="/wiki/Cognitive_psychology" title="Cognitive psychology">cognitive psychology</a>, <a href="/wiki/Neurology" title="Neurology">neurology</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Neuropsychology" title="Neuropsychology">neuropsychology</a>.</div> <figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:PurkinjeCell.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/15/PurkinjeCell.jpg/260px-PurkinjeCell.jpg" decoding="async" width="260" height="304" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/15/PurkinjeCell.jpg/390px-PurkinjeCell.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/15/PurkinjeCell.jpg/520px-PurkinjeCell.jpg 2x" data-file-width="611" data-file-height="715" /></a><figcaption>Drawing by <a href="/wiki/Santiago_Ram%C3%B3n_y_Cajal" title="Santiago Ramón y Cajal">Santiago Ramón y Cajal</a> (1899) of <a href="/wiki/Neuron" title="Neuron">neurons</a> in the pigeon cerebellum</figcaption></figure> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1129693374">.mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul{margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt,.mw-parser-output .hlist li{margin:0;display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul ul{display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist .mw-empty-li{display:none}.mw-parser-output .hlist dt::after{content:": "}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist 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href="/wiki/Category:Biology" title="Category:Biology">Category</a></li></ul></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-navbar"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239400231">.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar ul{display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::before{margin-right:-0.125em;content:"[ "}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::after{margin-left:-0.125em;content:" ]"}.mw-parser-output .navbar li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .navbar a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini abbr{font-variant:small-caps;border-bottom:none;text-decoration:none;cursor:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-full{font-size:114%;margin:0 7em}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-mini{font-size:114%;margin:0 4em}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}}</style><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:TopicTOC-Biology" title="Template:TopicTOC-Biology"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:TopicTOC-Biology" title="Template talk:TopicTOC-Biology"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:TopicTOC-Biology" title="Special:EditPage/Template:TopicTOC-Biology"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table> Neuroscience is the <a href="/wiki/Science" title="Science">scientific study</a> of the <a href="/wiki/Nervous_system" title="Nervous system">nervous system</a> (the <a href="/wiki/Brain" title="Brain">brain</a>, <a href="/wiki/Spinal_cord" title="Spinal cord">spinal cord</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Peripheral_nervous_system" title="Peripheral nervous system">peripheral nervous system</a>), its functions, and its disorders.<a href="#cite_note-Merriam-1">[1]</a><a href="#cite_note-DANA-2">[2]</a><a href="#cite_note-KCL-3">[3]</a> It is a <a href="/wiki/Multidisciplinary_approach" class="mw-redirect" title="Multidisciplinary approach">multidisciplinary</a> science that combines <a href="/wiki/Physiology" title="Physiology">physiology</a>, <a href="/wiki/Anatomy" title="Anatomy">anatomy</a>, <a href="/wiki/Molecular_biology" title="Molecular biology">molecular biology</a>, <a href="/wiki/Developmental_biology" title="Developmental biology">developmental biology</a>, <a href="/wiki/Cytology" class="mw-redirect" title="Cytology">cytology</a>, <a href="/wiki/Psychology" title="Psychology">psychology</a>, <a href="/wiki/Physics" title="Physics">physics</a>, <a href="/wiki/Computer_science" title="Computer science">computer science</a>, <a href="/wiki/Chemistry" title="Chemistry">chemistry</a>, <a href="/wiki/Medicine" title="Medicine">medicine</a>, <a href="/wiki/Statistics" title="Statistics">statistics</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Mathematical_Modeling" class="mw-redirect" title="Mathematical Modeling">mathematical modeling</a> to understand the fundamental and emergent properties of <a href="/wiki/Neuron" title="Neuron">neurons</a>, <a href="/wiki/Glia" title="Glia">glia</a> and <a href="/wiki/Neural_circuit" title="Neural circuit">neural circuits</a>.<a href="#cite_note-4">[4]</a><a href="#cite_note-5">[5]</a><a href="#cite_note-6">[6]</a><a href="#cite_note-7">[7]</a><a href="#cite_note-8">[8]</a> The understanding of the biological basis of <a href="/wiki/Learning" title="Learning">learning</a>, <a href="/wiki/Memory" title="Memory">memory</a>, <a href="/wiki/Behavior" title="Behavior">behavior</a>, <a href="/wiki/Perception" title="Perception">perception</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Consciousness" title="Consciousness">consciousness</a> has been described by <a href="/wiki/Eric_Kandel" title="Eric Kandel">Eric Kandel</a> as the "epic challenge" of the <a href="/wiki/Biology" title="Biology">biological sciences</a>.<a href="#cite_note-9">[9]</a> The scope of neuroscience has broadened over time to include different approaches used to study the nervous system at different scales. The techniques used by <a href="/wiki/Neuroscientist" title="Neuroscientist">neuroscientists</a> have expanded enormously, from molecular and <a href="/wiki/Cell_biology" title="Cell biology">cellular</a> studies of individual neurons to <a href="/wiki/Neuroimaging" title="Neuroimaging">imaging</a> of <a href="/wiki/Sensory_neuron" title="Sensory neuron">sensory</a>, <a href="/wiki/Motor_neuron" title="Motor neuron">motor</a> and <a href="/wiki/Cognition" title="Cognition">cognitive</a> tasks in the brain. <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="History">History</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Neuroscience&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: History">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/History_of_neuroscience" title="History of neuroscience">History of neuroscience</a></div> <figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Gray739.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/96/Gray739.png/250px-Gray739.png" decoding="async" width="250" height="190" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/96/Gray739.png/375px-Gray739.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/9/96/Gray739.png 2x" data-file-width="500" data-file-height="379" /></a><figcaption>Illustration from <a href="/wiki/Gray%27s_Anatomy" title="Gray's Anatomy">Gray's Anatomy</a> (1918) of a lateral view of the <a href="/wiki/Human_brain" title="Human brain">human brain</a>, featuring the <a href="/wiki/Hippocampus" title="Hippocampus">hippocampus</a> among other neuroanatomical features</figcaption></figure> The earliest study of the nervous system dates to <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Egypt" title="Ancient Egypt">ancient Egypt</a>. <a href="/wiki/Trepanation" class="mw-redirect" title="Trepanation">Trepanation</a>, the surgical practice of either drilling or scraping a hole into the <a href="/wiki/Skull" title="Skull">skull</a> for the purpose of curing head injuries or <a href="/wiki/Mental_illness" class="mw-redirect" title="Mental illness">mental disorders</a>, or relieving cranial pressure, was first recorded during the <a href="/wiki/Neolithic" title="Neolithic">Neolithic</a> period. Manuscripts dating to <a href="/wiki/1700_BC" class="mw-redirect" title="1700 BC">1700 BC</a> indicate that the <a href="/wiki/Egyptians" title="Egyptians">Egyptians</a> had some knowledge about symptoms of <a href="/wiki/Brain_damage" class="mw-redirect" title="Brain damage">brain damage</a>.<a href="#cite_note-10">[10]</a> Early views on the function of the brain regarded it to be a "cranial stuffing" of sorts. In <a href="/wiki/Egypt" title="Egypt">Egypt</a>, from the late <a href="/wiki/Middle_Kingdom_of_Egypt" title="Middle Kingdom of Egypt">Middle Kingdom</a> onwards, the brain was regularly removed in preparation for <a href="/wiki/Mummy" title="Mummy">mummification</a>. It was believed at the time that the <a href="/wiki/Heart" title="Heart">heart</a> was the seat of intelligence. According to <a href="/wiki/Herodotus" title="Herodotus">Herodotus</a>, the first step of mummification was to "take a crooked piece of iron, and with it draw out the brain through the nostrils, thus getting rid of a portion, while the <a href="/wiki/Skull" title="Skull">skull</a> is cleared of the rest by rinsing with drugs."<a href="#cite_note-11">[11]</a> The view that the heart was the source of consciousness was not challenged until the time of the <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greek_medicine" title="Ancient Greek medicine">Greek</a> physician <a href="/wiki/Hippocrates" title="Hippocrates">Hippocrates</a>. He believed that the brain was not only involved with sensation—since most specialized organs (e.g., eyes, ears, tongue) are located in the head near the brain—but was also the seat of intelligence.<a href="#cite_note-12">[12]</a> <a href="/wiki/Plato" title="Plato">Plato</a> also speculated that the brain was the seat of the rational part of the soul.<a href="#cite_note-13">[13]</a> <a href="/wiki/Aristotle" title="Aristotle">Aristotle</a>, however, believed the heart was the center of intelligence and that the brain regulated the amount of heat from the heart.<a href="#cite_note-Stanley2001-14">[14]</a> This view was generally accepted until the <a href="/wiki/Medicine_in_ancient_Rome" title="Medicine in ancient Rome">Roman</a> physician <a href="/wiki/Galen" title="Galen">Galen</a>, a follower of Hippocrates and physician to <a href="/wiki/Gladiator" title="Gladiator">Roman gladiators</a>, observed that his patients lost their mental faculties when they had sustained damage to their brains.<a href="#cite_note-15">[15]</a> <a href="/wiki/Abu_al-Qasim_al-Zahrawi" class="mw-redirect" title="Abu al-Qasim al-Zahrawi">Abulcasis</a>, <a href="/wiki/Averroes" title="Averroes">Averroes</a>, <a href="/wiki/Avicenna" title="Avicenna">Avicenna</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ibn_Zuhr" title="Ibn Zuhr">Avenzoar</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Maimonides" title="Maimonides">Maimonides</a>, active in the Medieval Muslim world, described a number of medical problems related to the brain. In <a href="/wiki/Renaissance" title="Renaissance">Renaissance Europe</a>, <a href="/wiki/Vesalius" class="mw-redirect" title="Vesalius">Vesalius</a> (1514–1564), <a href="/wiki/Ren%C3%A9_Descartes" title="René Descartes">René Descartes</a> (1596–1650), <a href="/wiki/Thomas_Willis" title="Thomas Willis">Thomas Willis</a> (1621–1675) and <a href="/wiki/Jan_Swammerdam" title="Jan Swammerdam">Jan Swammerdam</a> (1637–1680) also made several contributions to neuroscience. <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:GolgiStainedPyramidalCell.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6d/GolgiStainedPyramidalCell.jpg/220px-GolgiStainedPyramidalCell.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="146" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6d/GolgiStainedPyramidalCell.jpg/330px-GolgiStainedPyramidalCell.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/6d/GolgiStainedPyramidalCell.jpg 2x" data-file-width="409" data-file-height="272" /></a><figcaption>The <a href="/wiki/Golgi%27s_method" title="Golgi's method">Golgi stain</a> first allowed for the visualization of individual neurons.</figcaption></figure> <a href="/wiki/Luigi_Galvani" title="Luigi Galvani">Luigi Galvani</a>'s pioneering work in the late 1700s set the stage for studying the <a href="/wiki/Cell_excitability" class="mw-redirect" title="Cell excitability">electrical excitability</a> of muscles and neurons. In 1843 <a href="/wiki/Emil_du_Bois-Reymond" title="Emil du Bois-Reymond">Emil du Bois-Reymond</a> demonstrated the electrical nature of the nerve signal,<a href="#cite_note-16">[16]</a> whose speed <a href="/wiki/Hermann_von_Helmholtz" title="Hermann von Helmholtz">Hermann von Helmholtz</a> proceeded to measure,<a href="#cite_note-17">[17]</a> and in 1875 <a href="/wiki/Richard_Caton" title="Richard Caton">Richard Caton</a> found electrical phenomena in the cerebral hemispheres of rabbits and monkeys.<a href="#cite_note-18">[18]</a> <a href="/wiki/Adolf_Beck_(physiologist)" title="Adolf Beck (physiologist)">Adolf Beck</a> published in 1890 similar observations of spontaneous electrical activity of the brain of rabbits and dogs.<a href="#cite_note-Adolf_Beck_pioneer-19">[19]</a> Studies of the brain became more sophisticated after the invention of the <a href="/wiki/Microscope" title="Microscope">microscope</a> and the development of a <a href="/wiki/Staining" title="Staining">staining procedure</a> by <a href="/wiki/Camillo_Golgi" title="Camillo Golgi">Camillo Golgi</a> during the late 1890s. The procedure used a <a href="/wiki/Silver_chromate" title="Silver chromate">silver chromate</a> salt to reveal the intricate structures of individual <a href="/wiki/Neuron" title="Neuron">neurons</a>. His technique was used by <a href="/wiki/Santiago_Ram%C3%B3n_y_Cajal" title="Santiago Ramón y Cajal">Santiago Ramón y Cajal</a> and led to the formation of the <a href="/wiki/Neuron_doctrine" title="Neuron doctrine">neuron doctrine</a>, the hypothesis that the functional unit of the brain is the neuron.<a href="#cite_note-20">[20]</a> Golgi and Ramón y Cajal shared the <a href="/wiki/Nobel_Prize_in_Physiology_or_Medicine" title="Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine">Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine</a> in 1906 for their extensive observations, descriptions, and categorizations of neurons throughout the brain. In parallel with this research, in 1815 <a href="/wiki/Jean_Pierre_Flourens" title="Jean Pierre Flourens">Jean Pierre Flourens</a> induced localized lesions of the brain in living animals to observe their effects on motricity, sensibility and behavior. Work with brain-damaged patients by <a href="/wiki/Marc_Dax" title="Marc Dax">Marc Dax</a> in 1836 and <a href="/wiki/Paul_Broca" title="Paul Broca">Paul Broca</a> in 1865 suggested that certain regions of the brain were responsible for certain functions. At the time, these findings were seen as a confirmation of <a href="/wiki/Franz_Joseph_Gall" title="Franz Joseph Gall">Franz Joseph Gall</a>'s theory that language was localized and that certain <a href="/wiki/Mental_process" class="mw-redirect" title="Mental process">psychological functions</a> were localized in specific areas of the <a href="/wiki/Cerebral_cortex" title="Cerebral cortex">cerebral cortex</a>.<a href="#cite_note-21">[21]</a><a href="#cite_note-22">[22]</a> The <a href="/wiki/Functional_specialization_(brain)" title="Functional specialization (brain)">localization of function</a> hypothesis was supported by observations of <a href="/wiki/Epilepsy" title="Epilepsy">epileptic</a> patients conducted by <a href="/wiki/John_Hughlings_Jackson" title="John Hughlings Jackson">John Hughlings Jackson</a>, who correctly inferred the organization of the <a href="/wiki/Motor_cortex" title="Motor cortex">motor cortex</a> by watching the progression of seizures through the body. <a href="/wiki/Carl_Wernicke" title="Carl Wernicke">Carl Wernicke</a> further developed the theory of the specialization of specific brain structures in language comprehension and production. Modern research through <a href="/wiki/History_of_neuroimaging" title="History of neuroimaging">neuroimaging</a> techniques, still uses the <a href="/wiki/Brodmann_areas" class="mw-redirect" title="Brodmann areas">Brodmann</a> <a href="/wiki/Cytoarchitectonics_of_the_cerebral_cortex" class="mw-redirect" title="Cytoarchitectonics of the cerebral cortex">cerebral cytoarchitectonic map</a> (referring to the study of <a href="/wiki/Organelle" title="Organelle">cell structure</a>) anatomical definitions from this era in continuing to show that distinct areas of the cortex are activated in the execution of specific tasks.<a href="#cite_note-23">[23]</a> During the 20th century, neuroscience began to be recognized as a distinct academic discipline in its own right, rather than as studies of the nervous system within other disciplines. <a href="/wiki/Eric_Kandel" title="Eric Kandel">Eric Kandel</a> and collaborators have cited <a href="/wiki/David_Rioch" title="David Rioch">David Rioch</a>, <a href="/wiki/Francis_O._Schmitt" title="Francis O. Schmitt">Francis O. Schmitt</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Stephen_Kuffler" title="Stephen Kuffler">Stephen Kuffler</a> as having played critical roles in establishing the field.<a href="#cite_note-Rioch-24">[24]</a> Rioch originated the integration of basic anatomical and physiological research with clinical psychiatry at the <a href="/wiki/Walter_Reed_Army_Institute_of_Research" title="Walter Reed Army Institute of Research">Walter Reed Army Institute of Research</a>, starting in the 1950s. During the same period, Schmitt established a neuroscience research program within the Biology Department at the <a href="/wiki/Massachusetts_Institute_of_Technology" title="Massachusetts Institute of Technology">Massachusetts Institute of Technology</a>, bringing together biology, chemistry, physics, and mathematics. The first freestanding neuroscience department (then called Psychobiology) was founded in 1964 at the University of California, Irvine by <a href="/wiki/James_McGaugh" title="James McGaugh">James L. McGaugh</a>.<a href="#cite_note-25">[25]</a> This was followed by the <a href="/wiki/Department_of_Neurobiology,_Harvard_Medical_School" title="Department of Neurobiology, Harvard Medical School">Department of Neurobiology</a> at <a href="/wiki/Harvard_Medical_School" title="Harvard Medical School">Harvard Medical School</a>, which was founded in 1966 by Stephen Kuffler.<a href="#cite_note-26">[26]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Sensory_and_motor_homunculi.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0a/Sensory_and_motor_homunculi.jpg/330px-Sensory_and_motor_homunculi.jpg" decoding="async" width="330" height="248" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0a/Sensory_and_motor_homunculi.jpg/495px-Sensory_and_motor_homunculi.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0a/Sensory_and_motor_homunculi.jpg/660px-Sensory_and_motor_homunculi.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2048" data-file-height="1536" /></a><figcaption>3-D sensory and motor homunculus models at the <a href="/wiki/Natural_History_Museum,_London" title="Natural History Museum, London">Natural History Museum, London</a></figcaption></figure> In the process of treating <a href="/wiki/Epilepsy" title="Epilepsy">epilepsy</a>, <a href="/wiki/Wilder_Penfield" title="Wilder Penfield">Wilder Penfield</a> produced maps of the location of various functions (motor, sensory, memory, vision) in the brain.<a href="#cite_note-27">[27]</a><a href="#cite_note-28">[28]</a> He summarized his findings in a 1950 book called The Cerebral Cortex of Man.<a href="#cite_note-29">[29]</a> Wilder Penfield and his co-investigators Edwin Boldrey and Theodore Rasmussen are considered to be the originators of the <a href="/wiki/Cortical_homunculus" title="Cortical homunculus">cortical homunculus</a>.<a href="#cite_note-30">[30]</a> The understanding of neurons and of nervous system function became increasingly precise and molecular during the 20th century. For example, in 1952, <a href="/wiki/Alan_Lloyd_Hodgkin" class="mw-redirect" title="Alan Lloyd Hodgkin">Alan Lloyd Hodgkin</a> and <a href="/wiki/Andrew_Huxley" title="Andrew Huxley">Andrew Huxley</a> presented a <a href="/wiki/Mathematical_model" title="Mathematical model">mathematical model</a> for the transmission of electrical signals in neurons of the giant axon of a squid, which they called "<a href="/wiki/Action_potentials" class="mw-redirect" title="Action potentials">action potentials</a>", and how they are initiated and propagated, known as the <a href="/wiki/Hodgkin%E2%80%93Huxley_model" title="Hodgkin–Huxley model">Hodgkin–Huxley model</a>. In 1961–1962, Richard FitzHugh and J. Nagumo simplified Hodgkin–Huxley, in what is called the <a href="/wiki/FitzHugh%E2%80%93Nagumo_model" title="FitzHugh–Nagumo model">FitzHugh–Nagumo model</a>. In 1962, <a href="/wiki/Bernard_Katz" title="Bernard Katz">Bernard Katz</a> modeled <a href="/wiki/Neurotransmission" title="Neurotransmission">neurotransmission</a> across the space between neurons known as <a href="/wiki/Synapses" class="mw-redirect" title="Synapses">synapses</a>. Beginning in 1966, Eric Kandel and collaborators examined biochemical changes in neurons associated with learning and memory storage in <a href="/wiki/Aplysia" title="Aplysia">Aplysia</a>. In 1981 Catherine Morris and Harold Lecar combined these models in the <a href="/wiki/Morris%E2%80%93Lecar_model" title="Morris–Lecar model">Morris–Lecar model</a>. Such increasingly quantitative work gave rise to numerous <a href="/wiki/Biological_neuron_model" title="Biological neuron model">biological neuron models</a> and <a href="/wiki/Models_of_neural_computation" title="Models of neural computation">models of neural computation</a>. As a result of the increasing interest about the nervous system, several prominent neuroscience organizations have been formed to provide a forum to all neuroscientists during the 20th century. For example, the <a href="/wiki/International_Brain_Research_Organization" title="International Brain Research Organization">International Brain Research Organization</a> was founded in 1961,<a href="#cite_note-31">[31]</a> the <a href="/wiki/International_Society_for_Neurochemistry" title="International Society for Neurochemistry">International Society for Neurochemistry</a> in 1963,<a href="#cite_note-32">[32]</a> the <a href="/wiki/European_Brain_and_Behaviour_Society" title="European Brain and Behaviour Society">European Brain and Behaviour Society</a> in 1968,<a href="#cite_note-33">[33]</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Society_for_Neuroscience" title="Society for Neuroscience">Society for Neuroscience</a> in 1969.<a href="#cite_note-34">[34]</a> Recently, the application of neuroscience research results has also given rise to <a href="/wiki/Applied_science" title="Applied science">applied disciplines</a> as <a href="/wiki/Neuroeconomics" title="Neuroeconomics">neuroeconomics</a>,<a href="#cite_note-35">[35]</a> <a href="/wiki/Educational_neuroscience" title="Educational neuroscience">neuroeducation</a>,<a href="#cite_note-36">[36]</a> <a href="/wiki/Neuroethics" title="Neuroethics">neuroethics</a>,<a href="#cite_note-37">[37]</a> and <a href="/wiki/Neurolaw" title="Neurolaw">neurolaw</a>.<a href="#cite_note-38">[38]</a> Over time, brain research has gone through philosophical, experimental, and theoretical phases, with work on neural implants and brain simulation predicted to be important in the future.<a href="#cite_note-39">[39]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Modern_neuroscience">Modern neuroscience</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Neuroscience&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Modern neuroscience">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Outline_of_neuroscience" title="Outline of neuroscience">Outline of neuroscience</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Nervous_system_diagram-en.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5b/Nervous_system_diagram-en.svg/290px-Nervous_system_diagram-en.svg.png" decoding="async" width="290" height="322" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5b/Nervous_system_diagram-en.svg/435px-Nervous_system_diagram-en.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5b/Nervous_system_diagram-en.svg/580px-Nervous_system_diagram-en.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="541" data-file-height="601" /></a><figcaption>Human nervous system</figcaption></figure> The <a href="/wiki/Scientific_method" title="Scientific method">scientific study</a> of the nervous system increased significantly during the second half of the twentieth century, principally due to advances in <a href="/wiki/Molecular_biology" title="Molecular biology">molecular biology</a>, <a href="/wiki/Electrophysiology" title="Electrophysiology">electrophysiology</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Computational_neuroscience" title="Computational neuroscience">computational neuroscience</a>. This has allowed neuroscientists to study the <a href="/wiki/Nervous_system" title="Nervous system">nervous system</a> in all its aspects: how it is structured, how it works, how it develops, how it malfunctions, and how it can be changed. For example, it has become possible to understand, in much detail, the complex processes occurring within a single <a href="/wiki/Neuron" title="Neuron">neuron</a>. Neurons are cells specialized for communication. They are able to communicate with neurons and other cell types through specialized junctions called <a href="/wiki/Synapse" title="Synapse">synapses</a>, at which electrical or electrochemical signals can be transmitted from one cell to another. Many neurons extrude a long thin filament of <a href="/wiki/Axoplasm" title="Axoplasm">axoplasm</a> called an <a href="/wiki/Axon" title="Axon">axon</a>, which may extend to distant parts of the body and are capable of rapidly carrying electrical signals, influencing the activity of other neurons, muscles, or glands at their termination points. A nervous system emerges from the assemblage of neurons that are connected to each other in <a href="/wiki/Neural_circuit" title="Neural circuit">neural circuits</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Neural_network_(biology)" title="Neural network (biology)">networks</a>. The vertebrate nervous system can be split into two parts: the <a href="/wiki/Central_nervous_system" title="Central nervous system">central nervous system</a> (defined as the <a href="/wiki/Brain" title="Brain">brain</a> and <a href="/wiki/Spinal_cord" title="Spinal cord">spinal cord</a>), and the <a href="/wiki/Peripheral_nervous_system" title="Peripheral nervous system">peripheral nervous system</a>. In many species—including all vertebrates—the nervous system is the most <a href="/wiki/Complex_system" title="Complex system">complex organ system</a> in the body, with most of the complexity residing in the brain. The <a href="/wiki/Human_brain" title="Human brain">human brain</a> alone contains around one hundred billion neurons and one hundred trillion synapses; it consists of thousands of distinguishable substructures, connected to each other in synaptic networks whose intricacies have only begun to be unraveled. At least one out of three of the approximately 20,000 genes belonging to the human genome is expressed mainly in the brain.<a href="#cite_note-40">[40]</a> Due to the high degree of <a href="/wiki/Neuroplasticity" title="Neuroplasticity">plasticity</a> of the human brain, the structure of its synapses and their resulting functions change throughout life.<a href="#cite_note-41">[41]</a> Making sense of the nervous system's dynamic complexity is a formidable research challenge. Ultimately, neuroscientists would like to understand every aspect of the nervous system, including how it works, how it develops, how it malfunctions, and how it can be altered or repaired. Analysis of the nervous system is therefore performed at multiple levels, ranging from the molecular and cellular levels to the systems and cognitive levels. The specific topics that form the main focus of research change over time, driven by an ever-expanding base of knowledge and the availability of increasingly sophisticated technical methods. Improvements in technology have been the primary drivers of progress. Developments in <a href="/wiki/Electron_microscopy" class="mw-redirect" title="Electron microscopy">electron microscopy</a>, <a href="/wiki/Computer_science" title="Computer science">computer science</a>, <a href="/wiki/Electronics" title="Electronics">electronics</a>, <a href="/wiki/Functional_neuroimaging" title="Functional neuroimaging">functional neuroimaging</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Genetics" title="Genetics">genetics</a> and <a href="/wiki/Genomics" title="Genomics">genomics</a> have all been major drivers of progress. Advances in the classification of <a href="/wiki/Brain_cell" title="Brain cell">brain cells</a> have been enabled by electrophysiological recording, <a href="/wiki/Single-cell_sequencing" title="Single-cell sequencing">single-cell genetic sequencing</a>, and high-quality microscopy, which have combined into a single method pipeline called <a href="/wiki/Patch-sequencing" title="Patch-sequencing">patch-sequencing</a> in which all three methods are simultaneously applied using miniature tools.<a href="#cite_note-42">[42]</a> The efficiency of this method and the large amounts of data that is generated has allowed researchers to make some general conclusions about cell types; for example that the human and mouse brain have different versions of fundamentally the same cell types.<a href="#cite_note-43">[43]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Molecular_and_cellular_neuroscience">Molecular and cellular neuroscience</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Neuroscience&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Molecular and cellular neuroscience">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Molecular_neuroscience" title="Molecular neuroscience">Molecular neuroscience</a> and <a href="/wiki/Cellular_neuroscience" title="Cellular neuroscience">Cellular neuroscience</a></div><figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Neuron_colored.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4b/Neuron_colored.jpg/200px-Neuron_colored.jpg" decoding="async" width="200" height="234" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4b/Neuron_colored.jpg/300px-Neuron_colored.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4b/Neuron_colored.jpg/400px-Neuron_colored.jpg 2x" data-file-width="864" data-file-height="1013" /></a><figcaption>Photograph of a <a href="/wiki/Staining" title="Staining">stained neuron</a> in a chicken embryo</figcaption></figure> Basic questions addressed in <a href="/wiki/Molecular_neuroscience" title="Molecular neuroscience">molecular neuroscience</a> include the mechanisms by which neurons express and respond to molecular signals and how <a href="/wiki/Axon" title="Axon">axons</a> form complex connectivity patterns. At this level, tools from <a href="/wiki/Molecular_biology" title="Molecular biology">molecular biology</a> and <a href="/wiki/Genetics" title="Genetics">genetics</a> are used to understand how neurons develop and how genetic changes affect biological functions.<a href="#cite_note-44">[44]</a> The <a href="/wiki/Morphology_(biology)" title="Morphology (biology)">morphology</a>, molecular identity, and physiological characteristics of neurons and how they relate to different types of behavior are also of considerable interest.<a href="#cite_note-45">[45]</a> Questions addressed in <a href="/wiki/Cellular_neuroscience" title="Cellular neuroscience">cellular neuroscience</a> include the mechanisms of how neurons process <a href="/wiki/Cell_signaling" title="Cell signaling">signals</a> physiologically and electrochemically. These questions include how signals are processed by neurites and somas and how <a href="/wiki/Neurotransmitter" title="Neurotransmitter">neurotransmitters</a> and electrical signals are used to process information in a neuron. Neurites are thin extensions from a neuronal <a href="/wiki/Perikaryon" class="mw-redirect" title="Perikaryon">cell body</a>, consisting of <a href="/wiki/Dendrite" title="Dendrite">dendrites</a> (specialized to receive synaptic inputs from other neurons) and <a href="/wiki/Axon" title="Axon">axons</a> (specialized to conduct nerve impulses called <a href="/wiki/Action_potential" title="Action potential">action potentials</a>). Somas are the cell bodies of the neurons and contain the nucleus.<a href="#cite_note-46">[46]</a> Another major area of cellular neuroscience is the investigation of the <a href="/wiki/Development_of_the_nervous_system" title="Development of the nervous system">development of the nervous system</a>.<a href="#cite_note-47">[47]</a> Questions include the <a href="/wiki/Regional_specification" class="mw-redirect" title="Regional specification">patterning and regionalization</a> of the nervous system, axonal and dendritic development, <a href="/wiki/Growth_factor" title="Growth factor">trophic interactions</a>, <a href="/wiki/Synaptogenesis" title="Synaptogenesis">synapse formation</a> and the implication of <a href="/wiki/Fractone" title="Fractone">fractones</a> in <a href="/wiki/Neural_stem_cell" title="Neural stem cell">neural stem cells</a>,<a href="#cite_note-48">[48]</a><a href="#cite_note-49">[49]</a> <a href="/wiki/Cellular_differentiation" title="Cellular differentiation">differentiation</a> of neurons and glia (<a href="/wiki/Neurogenesis" title="Neurogenesis">neurogenesis</a> and <a href="/wiki/Gliogenesis" title="Gliogenesis">gliogenesis</a>), and <a href="/wiki/Neuronal_migration" class="mw-redirect" title="Neuronal migration">neuronal migration</a>.<a href="#cite_note-50">[50]</a> <a href="/wiki/Computational_neurogenetic_modeling" title="Computational neurogenetic modeling">Computational neurogenetic modeling</a> is concerned with the development of dynamic neuronal models for modeling brain functions with respect to genes and dynamic interactions between genes, on the cellular level (Computational Neurogenetic Modeling (CNGM) can also be used to model neural systems).<a href="#cite_note-51">[51]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Neural_circuits_and_systems">Neural circuits and systems</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Neuroscience&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Neural circuits and systems">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Neural_circuit" title="Neural circuit">Neural circuit</a> and <a href="/wiki/Systems_neuroscience" title="Systems neuroscience">Systems neuroscience</a></div><figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Leg_Neural_Network.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/39/Leg_Neural_Network.jpg/220px-Leg_Neural_Network.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="146" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/39/Leg_Neural_Network.jpg/330px-Leg_Neural_Network.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/39/Leg_Neural_Network.jpg/440px-Leg_Neural_Network.jpg 2x" data-file-width="837" data-file-height="556" /></a><figcaption>Proposed organization of motor-semantic neural circuits for action language comprehension. Adapted from Shebani et al. (2013).</figcaption></figure> <a href="/wiki/Systems_neuroscience" title="Systems neuroscience">Systems neuroscience</a> research centers on the structural and functional architecture of the developing human brain, and the functions of <a href="/wiki/Large-scale_brain_network" title="Large-scale brain network">large-scale brain networks</a>, or functionally-connected systems within the brain. Alongside brain development, systems neuroscience also focuses on how the structure and function of the brain enables or restricts the processing of sensory information, using learned <a href="/wiki/Mental_model" title="Mental model">mental models</a> of the world, to motivate behavior. Questions in systems neuroscience include how <a href="/wiki/Neural_circuit" title="Neural circuit">neural circuits</a> are formed and used anatomically and physiologically to produce functions such as <a href="/wiki/Reflex" title="Reflex">reflexes</a>, <a href="/wiki/Multisensory_integration" title="Multisensory integration">multisensory integration</a>, <a href="/wiki/Motor_coordination" title="Motor coordination">motor coordination</a>, <a href="/wiki/Circadian_rhythm" title="Circadian rhythm">circadian rhythms</a>, <a href="/wiki/Emotion" title="Emotion">emotional responses</a>, <a href="/wiki/Learning" title="Learning">learning</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Memory" title="Memory">memory</a>.<a href="#cite_note-52">[52]</a> In other words, this area of research studies how connections are made and morphed in the brain, and the effect it has on human sensation, movement, attention, inhibitory control, decision-making, reasoning, memory formation, reward, and emotion regulation.<a href="#cite_note-53">[53]</a> Specific areas of interest for the field include observations of how the structure of neural circuits effect skill acquisition, how specialized regions of the brain develop and change (<a href="/wiki/Neuroplasticity" title="Neuroplasticity">neuroplasticity</a>), and the development of brain atlases, or wiring diagrams of individual developing brains.<a href="#cite_note-54">[54]</a> The related fields of <a href="/wiki/Neuroethology" title="Neuroethology">neuroethology</a> and <a href="/wiki/Neuropsychology" title="Neuropsychology">neuropsychology</a> address the question of how neural substrates underlie specific <a href="/wiki/Ethology" title="Ethology">animal</a> and <a href="/wiki/Human_behavior" title="Human behavior">human</a> behaviors.<a href="#cite_note-55">[55]</a> <a href="/wiki/Neuroendocrinology" title="Neuroendocrinology">Neuroendocrinology</a> and <a href="/wiki/Psychoneuroimmunology" title="Psychoneuroimmunology">psychoneuroimmunology</a> examine interactions between the nervous system and the <a href="/wiki/Endocrinology" title="Endocrinology">endocrine</a> and <a href="/wiki/Immunology" title="Immunology">immune</a> systems, respectively.<a href="#cite_note-56">[56]</a> Despite many advancements, the way that networks of neurons perform complex <a href="/wiki/Cognition" title="Cognition">cognitive processes</a> and behaviors is still poorly understood.<a href="#cite_note-57">[57]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Cognitive_and_behavioral_neuroscience">Cognitive and behavioral neuroscience</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Neuroscience&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Cognitive and behavioral neuroscience">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Behavioral_neuroscience" title="Behavioral neuroscience">Behavioral neuroscience</a> and <a href="/wiki/Cognitive_neuroscience" title="Cognitive neuroscience">Cognitive neuroscience</a></div> <a href="/wiki/Cognitive_neuroscience" title="Cognitive neuroscience">Cognitive neuroscience</a> addresses the questions of how <a href="/wiki/Mental_process" class="mw-redirect" title="Mental process">psychological functions</a> are produced by <a href="/wiki/Biological_neural_network" class="mw-redirect" title="Biological neural network">neural circuitry</a>. The emergence of powerful new measurement techniques such as <a href="/wiki/Neuroimaging" title="Neuroimaging">neuroimaging</a> (e.g., <a href="/wiki/FMRI" class="mw-redirect" title="FMRI">fMRI</a>, <a href="/wiki/Positron_emission_tomography" title="Positron emission tomography">PET</a>, <a href="/wiki/SPECT" class="mw-redirect" title="SPECT">SPECT</a>), <a href="/wiki/Electroencephalography" title="Electroencephalography">EEG</a>, <a href="/wiki/Magnetoencephalography" title="Magnetoencephalography">MEG</a>, <a href="/wiki/Electrophysiology" title="Electrophysiology">electrophysiology</a>, <a href="/wiki/Optogenetics" title="Optogenetics">optogenetics</a> and <a href="/wiki/Human_genome" title="Human genome">human genetic analysis</a> combined with sophisticated <a href="/wiki/Experimental_techniques" class="mw-redirect" title="Experimental techniques">experimental techniques</a> from <a href="/wiki/Cognitive_psychology" title="Cognitive psychology">cognitive psychology</a> allows <a href="/wiki/Neuroscientist" title="Neuroscientist">neuroscientists</a> and <a href="/wiki/Psychologist" title="Psychologist">psychologists</a> to address abstract questions such as how cognition and emotion are mapped to specific neural substrates. Although many studies still hold a reductionist stance looking for the neurobiological basis of cognitive phenomena, recent research shows that there is an interesting interplay between neuroscientific findings and conceptual research, soliciting and integrating both perspectives. For example, neuroscience research on empathy solicited an interesting interdisciplinary debate involving philosophy, psychology and psychopathology.<a href="#cite_note-58">[58]</a> Moreover, the neuroscientific identification of multiple memory systems related to different brain areas has challenged the idea of <a href="/wiki/Memory" title="Memory">memory</a> as a literal reproduction of the past, supporting a view of memory as a generative, constructive and dynamic process.<a href="#cite_note-59">[59]</a> Neuroscience is also allied with the <a href="/wiki/Social_sciences" class="mw-redirect" title="Social sciences">social</a> and <a href="/wiki/Behavioral_sciences" class="mw-redirect" title="Behavioral sciences">behavioral sciences</a>, as well as with nascent interdisciplinary fields. Examples of such alliances include <a href="/wiki/Neuroeconomics" title="Neuroeconomics">neuroeconomics</a>, <a href="/wiki/Decision_theory" title="Decision theory">decision theory</a>, <a href="/wiki/Social_neuroscience" title="Social neuroscience">social neuroscience</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Neuromarketing" title="Neuromarketing">neuromarketing</a> to address complex questions about interactions of the brain with its environment. A study into consumer responses for example uses EEG to investigate neural correlates associated with <a href="/wiki/Transportation_theory_(psychology)" title="Transportation theory (psychology)">narrative transportation</a> into stories about <a href="/wiki/Efficient_energy_use" title="Efficient energy use">energy efficiency</a>.<a href="#cite_note-60">[60]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Computational_neuroscience">Computational neuroscience</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Neuroscience&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Computational neuroscience">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Computational_neuroscience" title="Computational neuroscience">Computational neuroscience</a></div> Questions in computational neuroscience can span a wide range of levels of traditional analysis, such as <a href="/wiki/Developmental_neuroscience" class="mw-redirect" title="Developmental neuroscience">development</a>, <a href="/wiki/Neuroanatomy" title="Neuroanatomy">structure</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Cognitive_neuroscience" title="Cognitive neuroscience">cognitive functions</a> of the brain. Research in this field utilizes <a href="/wiki/Mathematical_models" class="mw-redirect" title="Mathematical models">mathematical models</a>, theoretical analysis, and <a href="/wiki/Computer_simulation" title="Computer simulation">computer simulation</a> to describe and verify biologically plausible neurons and nervous systems. For example, <a href="/wiki/Biological_neuron_models" class="mw-redirect" title="Biological neuron models">biological neuron models</a> are mathematical descriptions of spiking neurons which can be used to describe both the behavior of single neurons as well as the dynamics of <a href="/wiki/Neural_networks_(biology)" class="mw-redirect" title="Neural networks (biology)">neural networks</a>. Computational neuroscience is often referred to as theoretical neuroscience. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Neuroscience_and_medicine">Neuroscience and medicine</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Neuroscience&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Neuroscience and medicine">edit</a>]</div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Clinical_neuroscience">Clinical neuroscience</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Neuroscience&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Clinical neuroscience">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Clinical_neuroscience" title="Clinical neuroscience">Clinical neuroscience</a></div> Neurology, psychiatry, neurosurgery, psychosurgery, anesthesiology and <a href="/wiki/Pain_medicine" class="mw-redirect" title="Pain medicine">pain medicine</a>, neuropathology, <a href="/wiki/Neuroradiology" title="Neuroradiology">neuroradiology</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ophthalmology" title="Ophthalmology">ophthalmology</a>, <a href="/wiki/Otolaryngology" class="mw-redirect" title="Otolaryngology">otolaryngology</a>, <a href="/wiki/Clinical_neurophysiology" title="Clinical neurophysiology">clinical neurophysiology</a>, <a href="/wiki/Addiction_medicine" title="Addiction medicine">addiction medicine</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Sleep_medicine" title="Sleep medicine">sleep medicine</a> are some medical specialties that specifically address the diseases of the nervous system. These terms also refer to clinical disciplines involving diagnosis and treatment of these diseases.<a href="#cite_note-61">[61]</a> <a href="/wiki/Neurology" title="Neurology">Neurology</a> works with diseases of the central and peripheral nervous systems, such as <a href="/wiki/Amyotrophic_lateral_sclerosis" class="mw-redirect" title="Amyotrophic lateral sclerosis">amyotrophic lateral sclerosis</a> (ALS) and <a href="/wiki/Stroke" title="Stroke">stroke</a>, and their medical treatment. <a href="/wiki/Psychiatry" title="Psychiatry">Psychiatry</a> focuses on <a href="/wiki/Affect_(psychology)" title="Affect (psychology)">affective</a>, behavioral, <a href="/wiki/Cognition" title="Cognition">cognitive</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Perception" title="Perception">perceptual</a> disorders. <a href="/wiki/Anesthesiology" title="Anesthesiology">Anesthesiology</a> focuses on perception of pain, and pharmacologic alteration of consciousness. <a href="/wiki/Neuropathology" title="Neuropathology">Neuropathology</a> focuses upon the classification and underlying pathogenic mechanisms of central and peripheral nervous system and muscle diseases, with an emphasis on morphologic, microscopic, and chemically observable alterations. <a href="/wiki/Neurosurgery" title="Neurosurgery">Neurosurgery</a> and <a href="/wiki/Psychosurgery" title="Psychosurgery">psychosurgery</a> work primarily with surgical treatment of diseases of the central and peripheral nervous systems.<a href="#cite_note-62">[62]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Translational_research">Translational research</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Neuroscience&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Translational research">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Translational_research" title="Translational research">Translational research</a> and <a href="/wiki/Translational_neuroscience" title="Translational neuroscience">Translational neuroscience</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Parasagittal_MRI_of_human_head_in_patient_with_benign_familial_macrocephaly_prior_to_brain_injury_(ANIMATED).gif" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/56/Parasagittal_MRI_of_human_head_in_patient_with_benign_familial_macrocephaly_prior_to_brain_injury_%28ANIMATED%29.gif/220px-Parasagittal_MRI_of_human_head_in_patient_with_benign_familial_macrocephaly_prior_to_brain_injury_%28ANIMATED%29.gif" decoding="async" width="220" height="220" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/5/56/Parasagittal_MRI_of_human_head_in_patient_with_benign_familial_macrocephaly_prior_to_brain_injury_%28ANIMATED%29.gif 1.5x" data-file-width="256" data-file-height="256" /></a><figcaption>An <a href="/wiki/MRI" class="mw-redirect" title="MRI">MRI</a> of a male's head showing <a href="/wiki/Macrocephaly#Benign_or_familial_macrocephaly" title="Macrocephaly">benign familial macrocephaly</a> (head circumference > 60 cm)</figcaption></figure> Recently, the boundaries between various specialties have blurred, as they are all influenced by <a href="/wiki/Basic_research" title="Basic research">basic research</a> in neuroscience. For example, <a href="/wiki/Brain_imaging" class="mw-redirect" title="Brain imaging">brain imaging</a> enables objective biological insight into mental illnesses, which can lead to faster diagnosis, more accurate prognosis, and improved monitoring of patient progress over time.<a href="#cite_note-63">[63]</a> <a href="/wiki/Integrative_neuroscience" title="Integrative neuroscience">Integrative neuroscience</a> describes the effort to combine models and information from multiple levels of research to develop a coherent model of the nervous system. For example, brain imaging coupled with physiological numerical models and theories of fundamental mechanisms may shed light on psychiatric disorders.<a href="#cite_note-gordon2003-64">[64]</a> Another important area of translational research is <a href="/wiki/Brain%E2%80%93computer_interface" title="Brain–computer interface">brain–computer interfaces</a> (BCIs), or machines that are able to communicate and influence the brain. They are currently being researched for their potential to repair neural systems and restore certain cognitive functions.<a href="#cite_note-65">[65]</a> However, some ethical considerations have to be dealt with before they are accepted.<a href="#cite_note-66">[66]</a><a href="#cite_note-67">[67]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Major_branches">Major branches</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Neuroscience&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Major branches">edit</a>]</div> Modern neuroscience education and research activities can be very roughly categorized into the following major branches, based on the subject and scale of the system in examination as well as distinct experimental or curricular approaches. Individual neuroscientists, however, often work on questions that span several distinct subfields. <div style="clear:right;" class=""></div> <table class="wikitable"> <caption>List of the major branches of neuroscience </caption> <tbody><tr> <th>Branch</th> <th>Description </th></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Affective_neuroscience" title="Affective neuroscience">Affective neuroscience</a> </td> <td>Affective neuroscience is the study of the neural mechanisms involved in emotion, typically through experimentation on animal models.<a href="#cite_note-68">[68]</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Behavioral_neuroscience" title="Behavioral neuroscience">Behavioral neuroscience</a> </td> <td>Behavioral neuroscience (also known as biological psychology, physiological psychology, biopsychology, or psychobiology) is the application of the principles of biology to the study of genetic, physiological, and developmental mechanisms of behavior in humans and non-human animals.<a href="#cite_note-69">[69]</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Cellular_neuroscience" title="Cellular neuroscience">Cellular neuroscience</a> </td> <td>Cellular neuroscience is the study of neurons at a cellular level including morphology and physiological properties.<a href="#cite_note-70">[70]</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Clinical_neuroscience" title="Clinical neuroscience">Clinical neuroscience</a> </td> <td>The <a href="/wiki/Scientific_method" title="Scientific method">scientific study</a> of the biological mechanisms that underlie the disorders and diseases of the <a href="/wiki/Nervous_system" title="Nervous system">nervous system</a>.<a href="#cite_note-georgetown1-71">[71]</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Cognitive_neuroscience" title="Cognitive neuroscience">Cognitive neuroscience</a> </td> <td>Cognitive neuroscience is the study of the biological mechanisms underlying cognition.<a href="#cite_note-georgetown1-71">[71]</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Computational_neuroscience" title="Computational neuroscience">Computational neuroscience</a> </td> <td>Computational neuroscience is the theoretical study of the nervous system.<a href="#cite_note-72">[72]</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Cultural_neuroscience" title="Cultural neuroscience">Cultural neuroscience</a> </td> <td>Cultural neuroscience is the study of how cultural values, practices and beliefs shape and are shaped by the mind, brain and genes across multiple timescales.<a href="#cite_note-73">[73]</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Developmental_neuroscience" class="mw-redirect" title="Developmental neuroscience">Developmental neuroscience</a> </td> <td>Developmental neuroscience studies the processes that generate, shape, and reshape the nervous system and seeks to describe the cellular basis of neural development to address underlying mechanisms.<a href="#cite_note-74">[74]</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Evolutionary_neuroscience" title="Evolutionary neuroscience">Evolutionary neuroscience</a> </td> <td>Evolutionary neuroscience studies the evolution of nervous systems.<a href="#cite_note-75">[75]</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Molecular_neuroscience" title="Molecular neuroscience">Molecular neuroscience</a> </td> <td>Molecular neuroscience studies the nervous system with molecular biology, molecular genetics, protein chemistry, and related methodologies.<a href="#cite_note-76">[76]</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Nanoneuroscience" title="Nanoneuroscience">Nanoneuroscience</a> </td> <td>An interdisciplinary field that integrates nanotechnology and neuroscience.<a href="#cite_note-77">[77]</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Neural_engineering" title="Neural engineering">Neural engineering</a> </td> <td>Neural engineering uses engineering techniques to interact with, understand, repair, replace, or enhance neural systems.<a href="#cite_note-78">[78]</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Neuroanatomy" title="Neuroanatomy">Neuroanatomy</a> </td> <td>Neuroanatomy is the study of the <a href="/wiki/Anatomy" title="Anatomy">anatomy</a> of <a href="/wiki/Nervous_system" title="Nervous system">nervous systems</a>.<a href="#cite_note-79">[79]</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Neurochemistry" title="Neurochemistry">Neurochemistry</a> </td> <td>Neurochemistry is the study of how <a href="/wiki/Neurochemical" title="Neurochemical">neurochemicals</a> interact and influence the function of neurons.<a href="#cite_note-80">[80]</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Neuroethology" title="Neuroethology">Neuroethology</a> </td> <td>Neuroethology is the study of the neural basis of non-human animals behavior. </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Neurogastronomy" title="Neurogastronomy">Neurogastronomy</a> </td> <td>Neurogastronomy is the study of flavor and how it affects sensation, cognition, and memory.<a href="#cite_note-81">[81]</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Neurogenetics" title="Neurogenetics">Neurogenetics</a> </td> <td>Neurogenetics is the study of the genetical basis of the development and function of the <a href="/wiki/Nervous_system" title="Nervous system">nervous system</a>.<a href="#cite_note-82">[82]</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Neuroimaging" title="Neuroimaging">Neuroimaging</a> </td> <td>Neuroimaging includes the use of various techniques to either directly or indirectly image the structure and function of the brain.<a href="#cite_note-83">[83]</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Neuroimmunology" title="Neuroimmunology">Neuroimmunology</a> </td> <td>Neuroimmunology is concerned with the interactions between the nervous and the immune system.<a href="#cite_note-84">[84]</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Neuroinformatics" title="Neuroinformatics">Neuroinformatics</a> </td> <td>Neuroinformatics is a discipline within bioinformatics that conducts the organization of neuroscience data and application of computational models and analytical tools.<a href="#cite_note-85">[85]</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Neurolinguistics" title="Neurolinguistics">Neurolinguistics</a> </td> <td>Neurolinguistics is the study of the neural mechanisms in the human brain that control the comprehension, production, and acquisition of language.<a href="#cite_note-86">[86]</a><a href="#cite_note-georgetown1-71">[71]</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Neuro-ophthalmology" title="Neuro-ophthalmology">Neuro-ophthalmology</a> </td> <td>Neuro-ophthalmology is an academically oriented subspecialty that merges the fields of neurology and ophthalmology, often dealing with complex systemic diseases that have manifestations in the visual system. </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Neurophysics" title="Neurophysics">Neurophysics</a> </td> <td>Neurophysics is the branch of biophysics dealing with the development and use of physical methods to gain information about the nervous system.<a href="#cite_note-87">[87]</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Neurophysiology" title="Neurophysiology">Neurophysiology</a> </td> <td>Neurophysiology is the study of the structure and function of the nervous system, generally using physiological techniques that include measurement and stimulation with electrodes or optically with ion- or voltage-sensitive dyes or light-sensitive channels.<a href="#cite_note-88">[88]</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Neuropsychology" title="Neuropsychology">Neuropsychology</a> </td> <td>Neuropsychology is a discipline that resides under the umbrellas of both psychology and neuroscience, and is involved in activities in the arenas of both basic science and applied science. In psychology, it is most closely associated with <a href="/wiki/Biopsychology" class="mw-redirect" title="Biopsychology">biopsychology</a>, <a href="/wiki/Clinical_psychology" title="Clinical psychology">clinical psychology</a>, <a href="/wiki/Cognitive_psychology" title="Cognitive psychology">cognitive psychology</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Developmental_psychology" title="Developmental psychology">developmental psychology</a>. In neuroscience, it is most closely associated with the cognitive, behavioral, social, and affective neuroscience areas. In the applied and medical domain, it is related to neurology and psychiatry.<a href="#cite_note-89">[89]</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Neuropsychopharmacology" title="Neuropsychopharmacology">Neuropsychopharmacology</a> </td> <td>Neuropsychopharmacology, an interdisciplinary science related to <a href="/wiki/Psychopharmacology" title="Psychopharmacology">psychopharmacology</a> and fundamental neuroscience, is the study of the neural mechanisms that drugs act upon to influence behavior.<a href="#cite_note-90">[90]</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Optogenetics" title="Optogenetics">Optogenetics</a> </td> <td>Optogenetics is a biological technique to control the activity of neurons or other cell types with light. </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Paleoneurobiology" title="Paleoneurobiology">Paleoneurobiology</a> </td> <td>Paleoneurobiology is a field that combines techniques used in paleontology and archeology to study brain evolution, especially that of the human brain.<a href="#cite_note-91">[91]</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Social_neuroscience" title="Social neuroscience">Social neuroscience</a> </td> <td>Social neuroscience is an interdisciplinary field devoted to understanding how biological systems implement social processes and behavior, and to using biological concepts and methods to inform and refine theories of social processes and behavior.<a href="#cite_note-92">[92]</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Systems_neuroscience" title="Systems neuroscience">Systems neuroscience</a> </td> <td>Systems neuroscience is the study of the function of neural circuits and systems.<a href="#cite_note-93">[93]</a> </td></tr></tbody></table> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Careers_in_neuroscience[94]">Careers in neuroscience<a href="#cite_note-94">[94]</a></h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Neuroscience&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Careers in neuroscience[94]">edit</a>]</div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Bachelor's_Level">Bachelor's Level</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Neuroscience&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Bachelor's Level">edit</a>]</div> <table class="wikitable"> <tbody><tr> <td>Pharmaceutical Sales </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Assisted_living" title="Assisted living">Residential Counselor</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td>Laboratory Technician </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Regulatory_affairs" title="Regulatory affairs">Regulatory Affairs Specialist</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td>Psychometrist* </td> <td>Medical Technician* </td></tr> <tr> <td>Science Writer </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Clinical_research_associate" title="Clinical research associate">Clinical Research Assistant</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td>Science Advocacy </td> <td>Special Education Assistant </td></tr> <tr> <td>Nonprofit Work </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Unlicensed_assistive_personnel" title="Unlicensed assistive personnel">Patient Care Assistant</a>* </td></tr> <tr> <td>Health Educator </td> <td>Orthotic and Prosthetic Technician* </td></tr> <tr> <td>EEG Technologist* </td> <td>Lab Animal Care Technician </td></tr> <tr> <td>Medical and Healthcare Manager </td> <td>Sales Engineer </td></tr> <tr> <td>Forensic Science Technician </td> <td>Law Enforcement </td></tr> <tr> <td>Pharmacy Technician* </td> <td>Natural Sciences Manager </td></tr> <tr> <td>Public Policy </td> <td>Advertising/Marketing </td></tr></tbody></table> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Master's_Level">Master's Level</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Neuroscience&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: Master's Level">edit</a>]</div> <table class="wikitable"> <tbody><tr> <td>Nurse Practitioner </td> <td>Neuroimaging Technician </td></tr> <tr> <td>Physician's Assistant </td> <td>Teacher </td></tr> <tr> <td>Genetic Counselor </td> <td>Epidemiology </td></tr> <tr> <td>Occupational Therapist </td> <td>Biostatistician </td></tr> <tr> <td>Orthotist/Prosthetist </td> <td>Speech-Language Pathologist </td></tr> <tr> <td>Neural Engineer </td> <td>Public Health </td></tr></tbody></table> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Advanced_Degree">Advanced Degree</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Neuroscience&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: Advanced Degree">edit</a>]</div> <table class="wikitable"> <tbody><tr> <td>Medicine (MD, DO) </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Sensory_analysis" title="Sensory analysis">Food Scientist</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td>Research Scientist </td> <td>Pharmacist </td></tr> <tr> <td>Dentist </td> <td>Veterinarian </td></tr> <tr> <td>Physical Therapist </td> <td>Audiologist </td></tr> <tr> <td>Optometrist </td> <td>Lawyer </td></tr> <tr> <td>Clinical Psychologist </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Professor" title="Professor">Professor</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Clinical_neuropsychology" title="Clinical neuropsychology">Neuropsychologist</a> </td> <td>Chiropractor </td></tr></tbody></table> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Neuroscience_organizations">Neuroscience organizations</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Neuroscience&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: Neuroscience organizations">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Category:Neuroscience_organizations" title="Category:Neuroscience organizations">Category:Neuroscience organizations</a></div> The largest professional neuroscience organization is the <a href="/wiki/Society_for_Neuroscience" title="Society for Neuroscience">Society for Neuroscience</a> (SFN), which is based in the United States but includes many members from other countries. Since its founding in 1969 the SFN has grown steadily: as of 2010 it recorded 40,290 members from 83 countries.<a href="#cite_note-95">[95]</a> Annual meetings, held each year in a different American city, draw attendance from researchers, postdoctoral fellows, graduate students, and undergraduates, as well as educational institutions, funding agencies, publishers, and hundreds of businesses that supply products used in research. Other major organizations devoted to neuroscience include the <a href="/wiki/International_Brain_Research_Organization" title="International Brain Research Organization">International Brain Research Organization</a> (IBRO), which holds its meetings in a country from a different part of the world each year, and the <a href="/wiki/Federation_of_European_Neuroscience_Societies" title="Federation of European Neuroscience Societies">Federation of European Neuroscience Societies</a> (FENS), which holds a meeting in a different European city every two years. FENS comprises a set of 32 national-level organizations, including the <a href="/wiki/British_Neuroscience_Association" title="British Neuroscience Association">British Neuroscience Association</a>, the German Neuroscience Society (Neurowissenschaftliche Gesellschaft), and the French Société des Neurosciences.<a href="#cite_note-96">[96]</a> The first National Honor Society in Neuroscience, <a href="/wiki/Nu_Rho_Psi" title="Nu Rho Psi">Nu Rho Psi</a>, was founded in 2006. Numerous youth neuroscience societies which support undergraduates, graduates and early career researchers also exist, such as Simply Neuroscience<a href="#cite_note-97">[97]</a> and Project Encephalon.<a href="#cite_note-98">[98]</a> In 2013, the <a href="/wiki/BRAIN_Initiative" title="BRAIN Initiative">BRAIN Initiative</a> was announced in the US. The International Brain Initiative<a href="#cite_note-99">[99]</a> was created in 2017,<a href="#cite_note-100">[100]</a> currently integrated by more than seven national-level brain research initiatives (US, <a href="/wiki/Human_Brain_Project" title="Human Brain Project">Europe</a>, <a href="/wiki/Allen_Institute_for_Brain_Science" title="Allen Institute for Brain Science">Allen Institute</a>, <a href="/wiki/Brain/MINDS" title="Brain/MINDS">Japan</a>, <a href="/wiki/China_Brain_Project" title="China Brain Project">China</a>, Australia,<a href="#cite_note-101">[101]</a> Canada,<a href="#cite_note-102">[102]</a> Korea,<a href="#cite_note-103">[103]</a> and Israel<a href="#cite_note-104">[104]</a>)<a href="#cite_note-105">[105]</a> spanning four continents. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Public_education_and_outreach">Public education and outreach</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Neuroscience&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: Public education and outreach">edit</a>]</div> In addition to conducting traditional research in laboratory settings, neuroscientists have also been involved in the <a href="/wiki/Public_awareness_of_science" title="Public awareness of science">promotion of awareness and knowledge</a> about the nervous system among the general public and government officials. Such promotions have been done by both individual neuroscientists and large organizations. For example, individual neuroscientists have promoted neuroscience education among young students by organizing the <a href="/wiki/International_Brain_Bee" title="International Brain Bee">International Brain Bee</a>, which is an academic competition for high school or secondary school students worldwide.<a href="#cite_note-106">[106]</a> In the United States, large organizations such as the Society for Neuroscience have promoted neuroscience education by developing a primer called Brain Facts,<a href="#cite_note-107">[107]</a> collaborating with public school teachers to develop Neuroscience Core Concepts for K-12 teachers and students,<a href="#cite_note-108">[108]</a> and cosponsoring a campaign with the <a href="/wiki/Dana_Foundation" title="Dana Foundation">Dana Foundation</a> called Brain Awareness Week to increase public awareness about the progress and benefits of brain research.<a href="#cite_note-109">[109]</a> In Canada, the Canadian Institutes of Health Research's (CIHR) Canadian National Brain Bee is held annually at <a href="/wiki/McMaster_University" title="McMaster University">McMaster University</a>.<a href="#cite_note-110">[110]</a> Neuroscience educators formed a Faculty for Undergraduate Neuroscience (FUN) in 1992 to share best practices and provide travel awards for undergraduates presenting at Society for Neuroscience meetings.<a href="#cite_note-111">[111]</a> Neuroscientists have also collaborated with other education experts to study and refine educational techniques to optimize learning among students, an emerging field called <a href="/wiki/Educational_neuroscience" title="Educational neuroscience">educational neuroscience</a>.<a href="#cite_note-112">[112]</a> Federal agencies in the United States, such as the <a href="/wiki/National_Institute_of_Health" class="mw-redirect" title="National Institute of Health">National Institute of Health</a> (NIH)<a href="#cite_note-113">[113]</a> and <a href="/wiki/National_Science_Foundation" title="National Science Foundation">National Science Foundation</a> (NSF),<a href="#cite_note-114">[114]</a> have also funded research that pertains to best practices in teaching and learning of neuroscience concepts. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Engineering_applications_of_neuroscience">Engineering applications of neuroscience</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Neuroscience&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: Engineering applications of neuroscience">edit</a>]</div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Neuromorphic_computer_chips">Neuromorphic computer chips</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Neuroscience&action=edit&section=18" title="Edit section: Neuromorphic computer chips">edit</a>]</div> <a href="/wiki/Neuromorphic_engineering" class="mw-redirect" title="Neuromorphic engineering">Neuromorphic engineering</a> is a branch of neuroscience that deals with creating functional <a href="/wiki/Physical_model" class="mw-redirect" title="Physical model">physical models</a> of neurons for the purposes of useful computation. The emergent computational properties of neuromorphic computers are fundamentally different from conventional computers in the sense that they are <a href="/wiki/Complex_system" title="Complex system">complex systems</a>, and that the computational components are interrelated with no central processor.<a href="#cite_note-115">[115]</a> One example of such a computer is the <a href="/wiki/SpiNNaker" title="SpiNNaker">SpiNNaker</a> supercomputer.<a href="#cite_note-Calimera-116">[116]</a> Sensors can also be made smart with neuromorphic technology. An example of this is the <a href="/wiki/Event_Camera" class="mw-redirect" title="Event Camera">Event Camera</a>'s BrainScaleS (brain-inspired Multiscale Computation in Neuromorphic Hybrid Systems), a hybrid analog neuromorphic supercomputer located at Heidelberg University in Germany. It was developed as part of the <a href="/wiki/Human_Brain_Project" title="Human Brain Project">Human Brain Project</a>'s neuromorphic computing platform and is the complement to the SpiNNaker supercomputer, which is based on digital technology. The architecture used in BrainScaleS mimics biological neurons and their connections on a physical level; additionally, since the components are made of silicon, these model neurons operate on average 864 times (24 hours of real time is 100 seconds in the machine simulation) that of their biological counterparts.<a href="#cite_note-117">[117]</a> Recent advances in <a href="/wiki/Neuromorphic" class="mw-redirect" title="Neuromorphic">neuromorphic</a> microchip technology have led a group of scientists to create an artificial neuron that can replace real neurons in diseases.<a href="#cite_note-118">[118]</a><a href="#cite_note-119">[119]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Nobel_prizes_related_to_neuroscience">Nobel prizes related to neuroscience</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Neuroscience&action=edit&section=19" title="Edit section: Nobel prizes related to neuroscience">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/List_of_biology_awards#Neuroscience" title="List of biology awards">List of neuroscience awards</a></div> <table class="wikitable plainrowheaders sortable"> <tbody><tr> <th scope="col">Year </th> <th scope="col">Prize field </th> <th scope="col" class="unsortable">Image </th> <th scope="col">Laureate </th> <th scope="col">Lifetime </th> <th scope="col" style="width: 100pt;">Country </th> <th scope="col" class="unsortable">Rationale </th> <th scope="col" class="unsortable">Ref. </th></tr> <tr> <td>1904 </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Nobel_Prize_in_Physiology_or_Medicine" title="Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine">Physiology</a> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/File:Ivan_Pavlov_nobel.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2a/Ivan_Pavlov_nobel.jpg/75px-Ivan_Pavlov_nobel.jpg" decoding="async" width="75" height="106" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2a/Ivan_Pavlov_nobel.jpg/113px-Ivan_Pavlov_nobel.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2a/Ivan_Pavlov_nobel.jpg/150px-Ivan_Pavlov_nobel.jpg 2x" data-file-width="280" data-file-height="396" /></a> </td> <td scope="row" data-sort-value="Pavlov, Ivan"><a href="/wiki/Ivan_Pavlov" title="Ivan Pavlov">Ivan Petrovich Pavlov</a> </td> <td>1849–1936 </td> <td>Russian Empire </td> <td>"in recognition of his work on the physiology of digestion, through which knowledge on vital aspects of the subject has been transformed and enlarged" </td> <td><a href="#cite_note-nobel-1904-120">[120]</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td rowspan="2">1906 </td> <td rowspan="2"><a href="/wiki/Nobel_Prize_in_Physiology_or_Medicine" title="Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine">Physiology</a> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/File:Camillo_Golgi_nobel.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/57/Camillo_Golgi_nobel.jpg/75px-Camillo_Golgi_nobel.jpg" decoding="async" width="75" height="106" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/57/Camillo_Golgi_nobel.jpg/113px-Camillo_Golgi_nobel.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/57/Camillo_Golgi_nobel.jpg/150px-Camillo_Golgi_nobel.jpg 2x" data-file-width="280" data-file-height="396" /></a> </td> <td scope="row" data-sort-value="Golgi, Camilo"><a href="/wiki/Camillo_Golgi" title="Camillo Golgi">Camillo Golgi</a> </td> <td>1843–1926 </td> <td>Kingdom of Italy </td> <td rowspan="2">"in recognition of their work on the structure of the nervous system" </td> <td rowspan="2"><a href="#cite_note-nobel-1906-121">[121]</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/File:Santiago_Ram%C3%B3n_y_Cajal_(1852-1934)_portrait_(restored).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/ba/Santiago_Ram%C3%B3n_y_Cajal_%281852-1934%29_portrait_%28restored%29.jpg/75px-Santiago_Ram%C3%B3n_y_Cajal_%281852-1934%29_portrait_%28restored%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="75" height="102" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/ba/Santiago_Ram%C3%B3n_y_Cajal_%281852-1934%29_portrait_%28restored%29.jpg/113px-Santiago_Ram%C3%B3n_y_Cajal_%281852-1934%29_portrait_%28restored%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/ba/Santiago_Ram%C3%B3n_y_Cajal_%281852-1934%29_portrait_%28restored%29.jpg/150px-Santiago_Ram%C3%B3n_y_Cajal_%281852-1934%29_portrait_%28restored%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1748" data-file-height="2376" /></a> </td> <td scope="row" data-sort-value="Ramón y Cajal, Santiago"><a href="/wiki/Santiago_Ram%C3%B3n_y_Cajal" title="Santiago Ramón y Cajal">Santiago Ramón y Cajal</a> </td> <td>1852–1934 </td> <td>Restoration (Spain) </td></tr> <tr> <td>1911 </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Nobel_Prize_in_Physiology_or_Medicine" title="Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine">Physiology</a> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/File:Allvar_Gullstrand_02.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/63/Allvar_Gullstrand_02.jpg/75px-Allvar_Gullstrand_02.jpg" decoding="async" width="75" height="93" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/63/Allvar_Gullstrand_02.jpg/113px-Allvar_Gullstrand_02.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/63/Allvar_Gullstrand_02.jpg/150px-Allvar_Gullstrand_02.jpg 2x" data-file-width="342" data-file-height="424" /></a> </td> <td scope="row" data-sort-value="Gullstrand, Allvar"><a href="/wiki/Allvar_Gullstrand" title="Allvar Gullstrand">Allvar Gullstrand</a> </td> <td>1862– 1930 </td> <td>Sweden </td> <td>"for his work on the dioptrics of the eye" </td> <td><a href="#cite_note-122">[122]</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td>1914 </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Nobel_Prize_in_Physiology_or_Medicine" title="Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine">Physiology</a> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/File:Robert_Barany.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/61/Robert_Barany.jpg/75px-Robert_Barany.jpg" decoding="async" width="75" height="108" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/61/Robert_Barany.jpg/113px-Robert_Barany.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/61/Robert_Barany.jpg/150px-Robert_Barany.jpg 2x" data-file-width="960" data-file-height="1382" /></a> </td> <td scope="row" data-sort-value="Bárány, Robert"><a href="/wiki/Robert_B%C3%A1r%C3%A1ny" title="Robert Bárány">Robert Bárány</a> </td> <td>1876–1936 </td> <td>Austria-Hungary </td> <td>"for his work on the physiology and pathology of the vestibular apparatus" </td> <td><a href="#cite_note-nobel-1914-123">[123]</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td rowspan="2">1932 </td> <td rowspan="2"><a href="/wiki/Nobel_Prize_in_Physiology_or_Medicine" title="Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine">Physiology</a> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/File:Prof._Charles_Scott_Sherrington.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a6/Prof._Charles_Scott_Sherrington.jpg/75px-Prof._Charles_Scott_Sherrington.jpg" decoding="async" width="75" height="104" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a6/Prof._Charles_Scott_Sherrington.jpg/113px-Prof._Charles_Scott_Sherrington.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a6/Prof._Charles_Scott_Sherrington.jpg/150px-Prof._Charles_Scott_Sherrington.jpg 2x" data-file-width="668" data-file-height="930" /></a> </td> <td scope="row" data-sort-value="Sherrington, Charles"><a href="/wiki/Charles_Scott_Sherrington" title="Charles Scott Sherrington">Charles Scott Sherrington</a> </td> <td>1857–1952 </td> <td>United Kingdom </td> <td rowspan="2">"for their discoveries regarding the functions of neurons" </td> <td rowspan="2"><a href="#cite_note-nobel-1932-124">[124]</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/File:Edgar_Douglas_Adrian_nobel.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/51/Edgar_Douglas_Adrian_nobel.jpg/75px-Edgar_Douglas_Adrian_nobel.jpg" decoding="async" width="75" height="106" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/51/Edgar_Douglas_Adrian_nobel.jpg/113px-Edgar_Douglas_Adrian_nobel.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/51/Edgar_Douglas_Adrian_nobel.jpg/150px-Edgar_Douglas_Adrian_nobel.jpg 2x" data-file-width="280" data-file-height="396" /></a> </td> <td scope="row" data-sort-value="Adrian, Edgar"><a href="/wiki/Edgar_Adrian,_1st_Baron_Adrian" class="mw-redirect" title="Edgar Adrian, 1st Baron Adrian">Edgar Douglas Adrian</a> </td> <td>1889–1977 </td> <td>United Kingdom </td></tr> <tr> <td rowspan="2">1936 </td> <td rowspan="2"><a href="/wiki/Nobel_Prize_in_Physiology_or_Medicine" title="Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine">Physiology</a> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/File:Henry_Dale_nobel.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/86/Henry_Dale_nobel.jpg/75px-Henry_Dale_nobel.jpg" decoding="async" width="75" height="106" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/86/Henry_Dale_nobel.jpg/113px-Henry_Dale_nobel.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/86/Henry_Dale_nobel.jpg/150px-Henry_Dale_nobel.jpg 2x" data-file-width="280" data-file-height="396" /></a> </td> <td scope="row" data-sort-value="Dale, Henry"><a href="/wiki/Henry_Hallett_Dale" title="Henry Hallett Dale">Henry Hallett Dale</a> </td> <td>1875–1968 </td> <td>United Kingdom </td> <td rowspan="2">"for their discoveries relating to chemical transmission of nerve impulses" </td> <td rowspan="2"><a href="#cite_note-nobel-1936-125">[125]</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/File:Otto_Loewi_nobel.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/99/Otto_Loewi_nobel.jpg/75px-Otto_Loewi_nobel.jpg" decoding="async" width="75" height="106" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/99/Otto_Loewi_nobel.jpg/113px-Otto_Loewi_nobel.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/99/Otto_Loewi_nobel.jpg/150px-Otto_Loewi_nobel.jpg 2x" data-file-width="280" data-file-height="396" /></a> </td> <td scope="row" data-sort-value="Loewi, Otto"><a href="/wiki/Otto_Loewi" title="Otto Loewi">Otto Loewi</a> </td> <td>1873–1961 </td> <td>Austria Germany </td></tr> <tr> <td>1938 </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Nobel_Prize_in_Physiology_or_Medicine" title="Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine">Physiology</a> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/File:Corneille_Heymans_nobel.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4d/Corneille_Heymans_nobel.jpg/75px-Corneille_Heymans_nobel.jpg" decoding="async" width="75" height="106" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4d/Corneille_Heymans_nobel.jpg/113px-Corneille_Heymans_nobel.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4d/Corneille_Heymans_nobel.jpg/150px-Corneille_Heymans_nobel.jpg 2x" data-file-width="280" data-file-height="396" /></a> </td> <td scope="row" data-sort-value="Heymans, Corneille"><a href="/wiki/Corneille_Heymans" title="Corneille Heymans">Corneille Jean François Heymans</a> </td> <td>1892–1968 </td> <td>Belgium </td> <td>"for the discovery of the role played by the <a href="/wiki/Paranasal_sinuses" title="Paranasal sinuses">sinus</a> and <a href="/wiki/Aorta" title="Aorta">aortic mechanisms</a> in the regulation of <a href="/wiki/Respiration_(physiology)" title="Respiration (physiology)">respiration</a>" </td> <td><a href="#cite_note-nobel-1938-126">[126]</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td rowspan="2">1944 </td> <td rowspan="2"><a href="/wiki/Nobel_Prize_in_Physiology_or_Medicine" title="Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine">Physiology</a> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/File:Joseph_Erlanger_nobel.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b5/Joseph_Erlanger_nobel.jpg/75px-Joseph_Erlanger_nobel.jpg" decoding="async" width="75" height="106" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b5/Joseph_Erlanger_nobel.jpg/113px-Joseph_Erlanger_nobel.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b5/Joseph_Erlanger_nobel.jpg/150px-Joseph_Erlanger_nobel.jpg 2x" data-file-width="280" data-file-height="396" /></a> </td> <td scope="row" data-sort-value="Erlanger, Joseph"><a href="/wiki/Joseph_Erlanger" title="Joseph Erlanger">Joseph Erlanger</a> </td> <td>1874–1965 </td> <td>United States </td> <td rowspan="2">"for their discoveries relating to the highly differentiated functions of single nerve fibres" </td> <td rowspan="2"><a href="#cite_note-nobel-1944-127">[127]</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/File:Herbert_Spencer_Gasser_nobel.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a3/Herbert_Spencer_Gasser_nobel.jpg/75px-Herbert_Spencer_Gasser_nobel.jpg" decoding="async" width="75" height="106" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a3/Herbert_Spencer_Gasser_nobel.jpg/113px-Herbert_Spencer_Gasser_nobel.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a3/Herbert_Spencer_Gasser_nobel.jpg/150px-Herbert_Spencer_Gasser_nobel.jpg 2x" data-file-width="280" data-file-height="396" /></a> </td> <td scope="row" data-sort-value="Gasser, Herbert"><a href="/wiki/Herbert_Spencer_Gasser" title="Herbert Spencer Gasser">Herbert Spencer Gasser</a> </td> <td>1888–1963 </td> <td>United States </td></tr> <tr> <td rowspan="2">1949 </td> <td rowspan="2"><a href="/wiki/Nobel_Prize_in_Physiology_or_Medicine" title="Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine">Physiology</a> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/File:Walter_Hess.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cb/Walter_Hess.jpg/75px-Walter_Hess.jpg" decoding="async" width="75" height="106" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cb/Walter_Hess.jpg/113px-Walter_Hess.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cb/Walter_Hess.jpg/150px-Walter_Hess.jpg 2x" data-file-width="280" data-file-height="396" /></a> </td> <td scope="row" data-sort-value="Hess, Walter"><a href="/wiki/Walter_Rudolf_Hess" title="Walter Rudolf Hess">Walter Rudolf Hess</a> </td> <td>1881–1973 </td> <td>Switzerland </td> <td>"for his discovery of the functional organization of the interbrain as a coordinator of the activities of the internal organs" </td> <td><a href="#cite_note-nobel-1949-128">[128]</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/File:Moniz.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c2/Moniz.jpg/75px-Moniz.jpg" decoding="async" width="75" height="105" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c2/Moniz.jpg/113px-Moniz.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c2/Moniz.jpg/150px-Moniz.jpg 2x" data-file-width="638" data-file-height="891" /></a> </td> <td scope="row" data-sort-value="Moniz, António"><a href="/wiki/Ant%C3%B3nio_Egas_Moniz" title="António Egas Moniz">António Caetano Egas Moniz</a> </td> <td>1874–1955 </td> <td>Portugal </td> <td>"for his discovery of the therapeutic value of leucotomy in certain psychoses" </td> <td><a href="#cite_note-nobel-1949-128">[128]</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td>1955 </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Nobel_Prize_in_Chemistry" title="Nobel Prize in Chemistry">Chemistry</a> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/File:Vincent_du_Vigneaud.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/87/Vincent_du_Vigneaud.jpg/75px-Vincent_du_Vigneaud.jpg" decoding="async" width="75" height="102" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/87/Vincent_du_Vigneaud.jpg/113px-Vincent_du_Vigneaud.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/87/Vincent_du_Vigneaud.jpg/150px-Vincent_du_Vigneaud.jpg 2x" data-file-width="220" data-file-height="300" /></a> </td> <td scope="row" data-sort-value="Du Vigneaud, Vincent"><a href="/wiki/Vincent_du_Vigneaud" title="Vincent du Vigneaud">Vincent du Vigneaud</a> </td> <td>1901–1978 </td> <td>United States </td> <td>"for his work on biochemically important sulphur compounds, especially for the first synthesis of a <a href="/wiki/Oxytocin" title="Oxytocin">polypeptide hormone</a>" (Oxytocin) </td> <td><a href="#cite_note-129">[129]</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td>1957 </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Nobel_Prize_in_Physiology_or_Medicine" title="Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine">Physiology</a> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/File:Daniel_Bovet_nobel.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b5/Daniel_Bovet_nobel.jpg/75px-Daniel_Bovet_nobel.jpg" decoding="async" width="75" height="106" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b5/Daniel_Bovet_nobel.jpg/113px-Daniel_Bovet_nobel.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b5/Daniel_Bovet_nobel.jpg/150px-Daniel_Bovet_nobel.jpg 2x" data-file-width="280" data-file-height="396" /></a> </td> <td scope="row" data-sort-value="Bovet, Daniel"><a href="/wiki/Daniel_Bovet" title="Daniel Bovet">Daniel Bovet</a> </td> <td>1907–1992 </td> <td>Italy </td> <td>"for his discoveries relating to synthetic compounds that inhibit the action of certain body substances, and especially their action on the vascular system and the skeletal muscles" </td> <td><a href="#cite_note-nobel-1957-130">[130]</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td>1961 </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Nobel_Prize_in_Physiology_or_Medicine" title="Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine">Physiology</a> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/File:Georg_von_B%C3%A9k%C3%A9sy_nobel.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/9f/Georg_von_B%C3%A9k%C3%A9sy_nobel.jpg/75px-Georg_von_B%C3%A9k%C3%A9sy_nobel.jpg" decoding="async" width="75" height="106" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/9f/Georg_von_B%C3%A9k%C3%A9sy_nobel.jpg/113px-Georg_von_B%C3%A9k%C3%A9sy_nobel.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/9f/Georg_von_B%C3%A9k%C3%A9sy_nobel.jpg/150px-Georg_von_B%C3%A9k%C3%A9sy_nobel.jpg 2x" data-file-width="280" data-file-height="396" /></a> </td> <td scope="row" data-sort-value="von Békésy, Georg"><a href="/wiki/Georg_von_B%C3%A9k%C3%A9sy" title="Georg von Békésy">Georg von Békésy</a> </td> <td>1899–1972 </td> <td>United States </td> <td>"for his discoveries of the physical mechanism of stimulation within the cochlea" </td> <td><a href="#cite_note-nobel-1961-131">[131]</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td rowspan="3">1963 </td> <td rowspan="3"><a href="/wiki/Nobel_Prize_in_Physiology_or_Medicine" title="Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine">Physiology</a> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/File:Sir_John_Eccles_Wellcome_L0026812.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/27/Sir_John_Eccles_Wellcome_L0026812.jpg/75px-Sir_John_Eccles_Wellcome_L0026812.jpg" decoding="async" width="75" height="95" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/27/Sir_John_Eccles_Wellcome_L0026812.jpg/113px-Sir_John_Eccles_Wellcome_L0026812.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/27/Sir_John_Eccles_Wellcome_L0026812.jpg/150px-Sir_John_Eccles_Wellcome_L0026812.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3675" data-file-height="4672" /></a> </td> <td scope="row" data-sort-value="Eccles, John"><a href="/wiki/John_Eccles_(neurophysiologist)" title="John Eccles (neurophysiologist)">John Carew Eccles</a> </td> <td>1903–1997 </td> <td>Australia </td> <td rowspan="3">"for their discoveries concerning the ionic mechanisms involved in excitation and inhibition in the peripheral and central portions of the nerve cell membrane" </td> <td rowspan="3"><a href="#cite_note-nobel-1963-132">[132]</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/File:Alan_Lloyd_Hodgkin_nobel.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/07/Alan_Lloyd_Hodgkin_nobel.jpg/75px-Alan_Lloyd_Hodgkin_nobel.jpg" decoding="async" width="75" height="106" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/07/Alan_Lloyd_Hodgkin_nobel.jpg/113px-Alan_Lloyd_Hodgkin_nobel.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/07/Alan_Lloyd_Hodgkin_nobel.jpg/150px-Alan_Lloyd_Hodgkin_nobel.jpg 2x" data-file-width="280" data-file-height="396" /></a> </td> <td scope="row" data-sort-value="Hodkin, Alan"><a href="/wiki/Alan_Lloyd_Hodgkin" class="mw-redirect" title="Alan Lloyd Hodgkin">Alan Lloyd Hodgkin</a> </td> <td>1914–1998 </td> <td>United Kingdom </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/File:Andrew_Fielding_Huxley_nobel.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c7/Andrew_Fielding_Huxley_nobel.jpg/75px-Andrew_Fielding_Huxley_nobel.jpg" decoding="async" width="75" height="106" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c7/Andrew_Fielding_Huxley_nobel.jpg/113px-Andrew_Fielding_Huxley_nobel.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c7/Andrew_Fielding_Huxley_nobel.jpg/150px-Andrew_Fielding_Huxley_nobel.jpg 2x" data-file-width="280" data-file-height="396" /></a> </td> <td scope="row" data-sort-value="Huxley, Andrew"><a href="/wiki/Andrew_Huxley" title="Andrew Huxley">Andrew Fielding Huxley</a> </td> <td>1917–2012 </td> <td>United Kingdom </td></tr> <tr> <td rowspan="3">1967 </td> <td rowspan="3"><a href="/wiki/Nobel_Prize_in_Physiology_or_Medicine" title="Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine">Physiology</a> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/File:Ragnar_Granit2.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d3/Ragnar_Granit2.jpg/75px-Ragnar_Granit2.jpg" decoding="async" width="75" height="106" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d3/Ragnar_Granit2.jpg/113px-Ragnar_Granit2.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d3/Ragnar_Granit2.jpg/150px-Ragnar_Granit2.jpg 2x" data-file-width="280" data-file-height="396" /></a> </td> <td scope="row" data-sort-value="Granit, Ragnar"><a href="/wiki/Ragnar_Granit" title="Ragnar Granit">Ragnar Granit</a> </td> <td>1900–1991 </td> <td>Finland Sweden </td> <td rowspan="3">"for their discoveries concerning the primary physiological and chemical visual processes in the eye" </td> <td rowspan="3"><a href="#cite_note-nobel-1967-133">[133]</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/File:Haldan_Keffer_Hartline_nobel.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/65/Haldan_Keffer_Hartline_nobel.jpg/75px-Haldan_Keffer_Hartline_nobel.jpg" decoding="async" width="75" height="106" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/65/Haldan_Keffer_Hartline_nobel.jpg/113px-Haldan_Keffer_Hartline_nobel.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/65/Haldan_Keffer_Hartline_nobel.jpg/150px-Haldan_Keffer_Hartline_nobel.jpg 2x" data-file-width="280" data-file-height="396" /></a> </td> <td scope="row" data-sort-value="Hartline, Haldan"><a href="/wiki/Haldan_Keffer_Hartline" title="Haldan Keffer Hartline">Haldan Keffer Hartline</a> </td> <td>1903–1983 </td> <td>United States </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/File:George_Wald_nobel.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/70/George_Wald_nobel.jpg/75px-George_Wald_nobel.jpg" decoding="async" width="75" height="106" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/70/George_Wald_nobel.jpg/113px-George_Wald_nobel.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/70/George_Wald_nobel.jpg/150px-George_Wald_nobel.jpg 2x" data-file-width="280" data-file-height="396" /></a> </td> <td scope="row" data-sort-value="Wald, George"><a href="/wiki/George_Wald" title="George Wald">George Wald</a> </td> <td>1906–1997 </td> <td>United States </td></tr> <tr> <td rowspan="3">1970 </td> <td rowspan="3"><a href="/wiki/Nobel_Prize_in_Physiology_or_Medicine" title="Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine">Physiology</a> </td> <td> </td> <td scope="row" data-sort-value="Axelrod"><a href="/wiki/Julius_Axelrod" title="Julius Axelrod">Julius Axelrod</a> </td> <td>1912–2004 </td> <td>United States </td> <td rowspan="3">"for their discoveries concerning the humoral <a href="/wiki/Neurotransmitter" title="Neurotransmitter">transmittors in the nerve terminals</a> and the mechanism for their storage, release and inactivation" </td> <td rowspan="3"><a href="#cite_note-nobel-1963-132">[132]</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/File:Ulf_von_Euler.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bc/Ulf_von_Euler.jpg/75px-Ulf_von_Euler.jpg" decoding="async" width="75" height="109" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bc/Ulf_von_Euler.jpg/113px-Ulf_von_Euler.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bc/Ulf_von_Euler.jpg/150px-Ulf_von_Euler.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2160" data-file-height="3135" /></a> </td> <td scope="row" data-sort-value="von Euler"><a href="/wiki/Ulf_von_Euler" title="Ulf von Euler">Ulf von Euler</a> </td> <td>1905–1983 </td> <td>Sweden </td></tr> <tr> <td> </td> <td scope="row" data-sort-value="Katz"><a href="/wiki/Bernard_Katz" title="Bernard Katz">Bernard Katz</a> </td> <td>1911–2003 </td> <td>United Kingdom </td></tr> <tr> <td rowspan="3">1973 </td> <td rowspan="3"><a href="/wiki/Nobel_Prize_in_Physiology_or_Medicine" title="Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine">Physiology</a> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/File:Karl_von_Frisch_-_Atelier_Veritas,_c._1926.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e9/Karl_von_Frisch_-_Atelier_Veritas%2C_c._1926.jpg/75px-Karl_von_Frisch_-_Atelier_Veritas%2C_c._1926.jpg" decoding="async" width="75" height="119" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e9/Karl_von_Frisch_-_Atelier_Veritas%2C_c._1926.jpg/113px-Karl_von_Frisch_-_Atelier_Veritas%2C_c._1926.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e9/Karl_von_Frisch_-_Atelier_Veritas%2C_c._1926.jpg/150px-Karl_von_Frisch_-_Atelier_Veritas%2C_c._1926.jpg 2x" data-file-width="689" data-file-height="1091" /></a> </td> <td scope="row" data-sort-value="von Frisch, Karl"><a href="/wiki/Karl_von_Frisch" title="Karl von Frisch">Karl von Frisch</a> </td> <td>1886–1982 </td> <td>Austria </td> <td rowspan="3">"for their discoveries concerning organization and elicitation of individual and social behaviour patterns" </td> <td rowspan="3"><a href="#cite_note-nobel-1973-134">[134]</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/File:Konrad_Lorenz.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a1/Konrad_Lorenz.JPG/75px-Konrad_Lorenz.JPG" decoding="async" width="75" height="82" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a1/Konrad_Lorenz.JPG/113px-Konrad_Lorenz.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a1/Konrad_Lorenz.JPG/150px-Konrad_Lorenz.JPG 2x" data-file-width="507" data-file-height="557" /></a> </td> <td scope="row" data-sort-value="Lorenz, Konrad"><a href="/wiki/Konrad_Lorenz" title="Konrad Lorenz">Konrad Lorenz</a> </td> <td>1903–1989 </td> <td>Austria </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/File:Nikolaas_Tinbergen_1978.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/84/Nikolaas_Tinbergen_1978.jpg/75px-Nikolaas_Tinbergen_1978.jpg" decoding="async" width="75" height="89" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/84/Nikolaas_Tinbergen_1978.jpg/113px-Nikolaas_Tinbergen_1978.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/84/Nikolaas_Tinbergen_1978.jpg/150px-Nikolaas_Tinbergen_1978.jpg 2x" data-file-width="470" data-file-height="559" /></a> </td> <td scope="row" data-sort-value="Tinbergen, Nikolaas"><a href="/wiki/Nikolaas_Tinbergen" title="Nikolaas Tinbergen">Nikolaas Tinbergen</a> </td> <td>1907–1988 </td> <td>Netherlands </td></tr> <tr> <td rowspan="2">1977 </td> <td rowspan="2"><a href="/wiki/Nobel_Prize_in_Physiology_or_Medicine" title="Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine">Physiology</a> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/File:Roger_Guillemin.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ab/Roger_Guillemin.jpg/75px-Roger_Guillemin.jpg" decoding="async" width="75" height="96" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ab/Roger_Guillemin.jpg/113px-Roger_Guillemin.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ab/Roger_Guillemin.jpg/150px-Roger_Guillemin.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2152" data-file-height="2744" /></a> </td> <td scope="row" data-sort-value="Guillemin"><a href="/wiki/Roger_Guillemin" title="Roger Guillemin">Roger Guillemin</a> </td> <td>1924–2024 </td> <td>France </td> <td rowspan="2">"for their discoveries concerning the <a href="/wiki/Peptide_hormone" title="Peptide hormone">peptide hormone</a> production of the <a href="/wiki/Brain" title="Brain">brain</a>" </td> <td rowspan="2"><a href="#cite_note-nobel-1977-135">[135]</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/File:Andrew_Schally_portrait.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/25/Andrew_Schally_portrait.jpg/75px-Andrew_Schally_portrait.jpg" decoding="async" width="75" height="98" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/25/Andrew_Schally_portrait.jpg/113px-Andrew_Schally_portrait.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/25/Andrew_Schally_portrait.jpg/150px-Andrew_Schally_portrait.jpg 2x" data-file-width="400" data-file-height="523" /></a> </td> <td scope="row" data-sort-value="Schally"><a href="/wiki/Andrew_Schally" title="Andrew Schally">Andrew V. Schally</a> </td> <td>1926– </td> <td>Poland </td></tr> <tr> <td rowspan="3">1981 </td> <td rowspan="3"><a href="/wiki/Nobel_Prize_in_Physiology_or_Medicine" title="Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine">Physiology</a> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/File:Roger_Wolcott_Sperry.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e0/Roger_Wolcott_Sperry.jpg/74px-Roger_Wolcott_Sperry.jpg" decoding="async" width="74" height="98" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e0/Roger_Wolcott_Sperry.jpg/111px-Roger_Wolcott_Sperry.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e0/Roger_Wolcott_Sperry.jpg/149px-Roger_Wolcott_Sperry.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2244" data-file-height="2956" /></a> </td> <td scope="row" data-sort-value="Sperry"><a href="/wiki/Roger_Wolcott_Sperry" title="Roger Wolcott Sperry">Roger W. Sperry</a> </td> <td>1913–1994 </td> <td>United States </td> <td>"for his discoveries concerning the functional specialization of the <a href="/wiki/Cerebral_hemisphere" title="Cerebral hemisphere">cerebral hemispheres</a>" </td> <td><a href="#cite_note-nobel-1967-133">[133]</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/File:DHUBEL.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/47/DHUBEL.jpg/75px-DHUBEL.jpg" decoding="async" width="75" height="108" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/47/DHUBEL.jpg/113px-DHUBEL.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/47/DHUBEL.jpg/150px-DHUBEL.jpg 2x" data-file-width="440" data-file-height="634" /></a> </td> <td scope="row" data-sort-value="Hubel"><a href="/wiki/David_H._Hubel" title="David H. Hubel">David H. Hubel</a> </td> <td>1926–2013 </td> <td>Canada </td> <td rowspan="2">"for their discoveries concerning information processing in the <a href="/wiki/Visual_system" title="Visual system">visual system</a>" </td> <td rowspan="2"><a href="#cite_note-nobel-1967-133">[133]</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/File:Torsten_Wiesel-7Nov2006.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7d/Torsten_Wiesel-7Nov2006.jpg/75px-Torsten_Wiesel-7Nov2006.jpg" decoding="async" width="75" height="108" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7d/Torsten_Wiesel-7Nov2006.jpg/112px-Torsten_Wiesel-7Nov2006.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7d/Torsten_Wiesel-7Nov2006.jpg/150px-Torsten_Wiesel-7Nov2006.jpg 2x" data-file-width="710" data-file-height="1024" /></a> </td> <td scope="row" data-sort-value="Wiesel"><a href="/wiki/Torsten_Wiesel" title="Torsten Wiesel">Torsten N. Wiesel</a> </td> <td>1924– </td> <td>Sweden </td></tr> <tr> <td rowspan="2">1986 </td> <td rowspan="2"><a href="/wiki/Nobel_Prize_in_Physiology_or_Medicine" title="Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine">Physiology</a> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/File:Stanley_Cohen-Biochemist.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/51/Stanley_Cohen-Biochemist.jpg/75px-Stanley_Cohen-Biochemist.jpg" decoding="async" width="75" height="101" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/51/Stanley_Cohen-Biochemist.jpg/113px-Stanley_Cohen-Biochemist.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/5/51/Stanley_Cohen-Biochemist.jpg 2x" data-file-width="147" data-file-height="197" /></a> </td> <td scope="row" data-sort-value="Cohen"><a href="/wiki/Stanley_Cohen_(biochemist)" title="Stanley Cohen (biochemist)">Stanley Cohen</a> </td> <td>1922–2020 </td> <td>United States </td> <td rowspan="2">"for their discoveries of <a href="/wiki/Growth_factor" title="Growth factor">growth factors</a>" </td> <td rowspan="2"><a href="#cite_note-nobel-1986-136">[136]</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/File:Rita_Levi_Montalcini.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/92/Rita_Levi_Montalcini.jpg/75px-Rita_Levi_Montalcini.jpg" decoding="async" width="75" height="100" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/92/Rita_Levi_Montalcini.jpg/113px-Rita_Levi_Montalcini.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/92/Rita_Levi_Montalcini.jpg/150px-Rita_Levi_Montalcini.jpg 2x" data-file-width="428" data-file-height="571" /></a> </td> <td scope="row" data-sort-value="Levi-Montalcini"><a href="/wiki/Rita_Levi-Montalcini" title="Rita Levi-Montalcini">Rita Levi-Montalcini</a> </td> <td>1909–2012 </td> <td>Italy </td></tr> <tr> <td>1997 </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Nobel_Prize_in_Physiology_or_Medicine" title="Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine">Physiology</a> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/File:Prusiner_1.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a2/Prusiner_1.JPG/75px-Prusiner_1.JPG" decoding="async" width="75" height="56" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a2/Prusiner_1.JPG/113px-Prusiner_1.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a2/Prusiner_1.JPG/150px-Prusiner_1.JPG 2x" data-file-width="1280" data-file-height="960" /></a> </td> <td scope="row" data-sort-value="Prusiner, Stanley"><a href="/wiki/Stanley_B._Prusiner" title="Stanley B. Prusiner">Stanley B. Prusiner</a> </td> <td>1942– </td> <td>United States </td> <td>"for his discovery of <a href="/wiki/Prion" title="Prion">Prions</a> - a new biological principle of infection" </td> <td><a href="#cite_note-nobel-1997-137">[137]</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td>1997 </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Nobel_Prize_in_Chemistry" title="Nobel Prize in Chemistry">Chemistry</a> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/File:Skou2008crop.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Skou2008crop.jpg/75px-Skou2008crop.jpg" decoding="async" width="75" height="95" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Skou2008crop.jpg/113px-Skou2008crop.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Skou2008crop.jpg/150px-Skou2008crop.jpg 2x" data-file-width="236" data-file-height="298" /></a> </td> <td scope="row" data-sort-value="Skou, Jens"><a href="/wiki/Jens_Christian_Skou" title="Jens Christian Skou">Jens C. Skou</a> </td> <td>1918–2018 </td> <td>Denmark </td> <td>"for the first discovery of an ion-transporting enzyme, Na+, K+ -ATPase" </td> <td><a href="#cite_note-n1997-138">[138]</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td rowspan="3">2000 </td> <td rowspan="3"><a href="/wiki/Nobel_Prize_in_Physiology_or_Medicine" title="Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine">Physiology</a> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/File:Arvid_Carlsson_2011a.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6e/Arvid_Carlsson_2011a.jpg/75px-Arvid_Carlsson_2011a.jpg" decoding="async" width="75" height="58" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6e/Arvid_Carlsson_2011a.jpg/113px-Arvid_Carlsson_2011a.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6e/Arvid_Carlsson_2011a.jpg/150px-Arvid_Carlsson_2011a.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3641" data-file-height="2823" /></a> </td> <td scope="row" data-sort-value="Carlsson"><a href="/wiki/Arvid_Carlsson" title="Arvid Carlsson">Arvid Carlsson</a> </td> <td>1923–2018 </td> <td>Sweden </td> <td rowspan="3">"for their discoveries concerning <a href="/wiki/Signal_transduction" title="Signal transduction">signal transduction</a> in the <a href="/wiki/Nervous_system" title="Nervous system">nervous system</a>" </td> <td rowspan="3"><a href="#cite_note-nobel-2000-139">[139]</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/File:Paul_Greengard.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/dd/Paul_Greengard.jpg/75px-Paul_Greengard.jpg" decoding="async" width="75" height="86" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/dd/Paul_Greengard.jpg/113px-Paul_Greengard.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/dd/Paul_Greengard.jpg/150px-Paul_Greengard.jpg 2x" data-file-width="241" data-file-height="275" /></a> </td> <td scope="row" data-sort-value="Greengard"><a href="/wiki/Paul_Greengard" title="Paul Greengard">Paul Greengard</a> </td> <td>1925–2019 </td> <td>United States </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/File:Eric_Kandel_by_aquaris3.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f4/Eric_Kandel_by_aquaris3.jpg/75px-Eric_Kandel_by_aquaris3.jpg" decoding="async" width="75" height="56" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f4/Eric_Kandel_by_aquaris3.jpg/113px-Eric_Kandel_by_aquaris3.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f4/Eric_Kandel_by_aquaris3.jpg/150px-Eric_Kandel_by_aquaris3.jpg 2x" data-file-width="800" data-file-height="599" /></a> </td> <td scope="row" data-sort-value="Kandel"><a href="/wiki/Eric_Kandel" title="Eric Kandel">Eric R. Kandel</a> </td> <td>1929– </td> <td>United States </td></tr> <tr> <td>2003 </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Nobel_Prize_in_Chemistry" title="Nobel Prize in Chemistry">Chemistry</a> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/File:Roderick_MacKinnon,_M.D..jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Roderick MacKinnon"><img alt="Roderick MacKinnon" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/df/Roderick_MacKinnon%2C_M.D..jpg/75px-Roderick_MacKinnon%2C_M.D..jpg" decoding="async" width="75" height="61" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/df/Roderick_MacKinnon%2C_M.D..jpg/113px-Roderick_MacKinnon%2C_M.D..jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/df/Roderick_MacKinnon%2C_M.D..jpg/150px-Roderick_MacKinnon%2C_M.D..jpg 2x" data-file-width="846" data-file-height="685" /></a> </td> <td scope="row" data-sort-value="MacKinnon, Roderick"><a href="/wiki/Roderick_MacKinnon" title="Roderick MacKinnon">Roderick MacKinnon</a> </td> <td>1956– </td> <td>United States </td> <td>"for discoveries concerning channels in cell membranes [...] for structural and mechanistic studies of ion channels" </td> <td><a href="#cite_note-nobel-2003-140">[140]</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td rowspan="2">2004 </td> <td rowspan="2"><a href="/wiki/Nobel_Prize_in_Physiology_or_Medicine" title="Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine">Physiology</a> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/File:Richard_Axel.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3a/Richard_Axel.jpg/75px-Richard_Axel.jpg" decoding="async" width="75" height="93" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3a/Richard_Axel.jpg/113px-Richard_Axel.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3a/Richard_Axel.jpg/150px-Richard_Axel.jpg 2x" data-file-width="383" data-file-height="477" /></a> </td> <td scope="row" data-sort-value="Axel"><a href="/wiki/Richard_Axel" title="Richard Axel">Richard Axel</a> </td> <td>1946– </td> <td>United States </td> <td rowspan="2">"for their discoveries of <a href="/wiki/Odorant_receptor" class="mw-redirect" title="Odorant receptor">odorant receptors</a> and the organization of the <a href="/wiki/Olfactory_system" title="Olfactory system">olfactory system</a>" </td> <td rowspan="2"><a href="#cite_note-nobel-2004-141">[141]</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/File:LindaBuck_cropped_1.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1f/LindaBuck_cropped_1.jpg/75px-LindaBuck_cropped_1.jpg" decoding="async" width="75" height="113" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1f/LindaBuck_cropped_1.jpg/113px-LindaBuck_cropped_1.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1f/LindaBuck_cropped_1.jpg/150px-LindaBuck_cropped_1.jpg 2x" data-file-width="400" data-file-height="600" /></a> </td> <td scope="row" data-sort-value="Buck"><a href="/wiki/Linda_B._Buck" title="Linda B. Buck">Linda B. Buck</a> </td> <td>1947– </td> <td>United States </td></tr> <tr> <td rowspan="2">2012 </td> <td rowspan="2"><a href="/wiki/Nobel_Prize_in_Chemistry" title="Nobel Prize in Chemistry">Chemistry</a> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/File:Lefkowitz3.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8e/Lefkowitz3.jpg/75px-Lefkowitz3.jpg" decoding="async" width="75" height="101" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8e/Lefkowitz3.jpg/113px-Lefkowitz3.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8e/Lefkowitz3.jpg/150px-Lefkowitz3.jpg 2x" data-file-width="167" data-file-height="226" /></a> </td> <td scope="row" data-sort-value="Lefkowitz"><a href="/wiki/Robert_Lefkowitz" title="Robert Lefkowitz">Robert Lefkowitz</a> </td> <td>1943– </td> <td>United States </td> <td rowspan="2">"for studies of <a href="/wiki/G_protein-coupled_receptor" title="G protein-coupled receptor">G-protein-coupled receptors</a>"" </td> <td rowspan="2"><a href="#cite_note-nobel-2012-142">[142]</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/File:Brian_Kobilka_(649437151).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f2/Brian_Kobilka_%28649437151%29.jpg/75px-Brian_Kobilka_%28649437151%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="75" height="111" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f2/Brian_Kobilka_%28649437151%29.jpg/113px-Brian_Kobilka_%28649437151%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f2/Brian_Kobilka_%28649437151%29.jpg/150px-Brian_Kobilka_%28649437151%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2168" data-file-height="3197" /></a> </td> <td scope="row" data-sort-value="Kobilka"><a href="/wiki/Brian_Kobilka" title="Brian Kobilka">Brian Kobilka</a> </td> <td>1955– </td> <td>United States </td></tr> <tr> <td rowspan="3">2014 </td> <td rowspan="3"><a href="/wiki/Nobel_Prize_in_Physiology_or_Medicine" title="Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine">Physiology</a> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/File:John_O%27Keefe_(neuroscientist)_2014b.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f6/John_O%27Keefe_%28neuroscientist%29_2014b.jpg/75px-John_O%27Keefe_%28neuroscientist%29_2014b.jpg" decoding="async" width="75" height="93" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f6/John_O%27Keefe_%28neuroscientist%29_2014b.jpg/113px-John_O%27Keefe_%28neuroscientist%29_2014b.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f6/John_O%27Keefe_%28neuroscientist%29_2014b.jpg/150px-John_O%27Keefe_%28neuroscientist%29_2014b.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1440" data-file-height="1792" /></a> </td> <td scope="row" data-sort-value="O'Keefe, John"><a href="/wiki/John_O%27Keefe_(neuroscientist)" title="John O'Keefe (neuroscientist)">John O'Keefe</a> </td> <td>1939– </td> <td>United States United Kingdom </td> <td rowspan="3">"for their discoveries of <a href="/wiki/Place_cell" title="Place cell">place</a> and <a href="/wiki/Grid_cell" title="Grid cell">grid</a> cells that constitute a positioning system in the brain" </td> <td rowspan="3"><a href="#cite_note-nobel-2014-143">[143]</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/File:May-Britt_Moser_2014.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e9/May-Britt_Moser_2014.jpg/75px-May-Britt_Moser_2014.jpg" decoding="async" width="75" height="85" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e9/May-Britt_Moser_2014.jpg/113px-May-Britt_Moser_2014.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e9/May-Britt_Moser_2014.jpg/150px-May-Britt_Moser_2014.jpg 2x" data-file-width="973" data-file-height="1101" /></a> </td> <td scope="row" data-sort-value="Moser, May-Britt"><a href="/wiki/May-Britt_Moser" title="May-Britt Moser">May-Britt Moser</a> </td> <td>1963– </td> <td>Norway </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/File:Edvard_Moser.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e7/Edvard_Moser.jpg/75px-Edvard_Moser.jpg" decoding="async" width="75" height="72" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e7/Edvard_Moser.jpg/113px-Edvard_Moser.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e7/Edvard_Moser.jpg/150px-Edvard_Moser.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1148" data-file-height="1105" /></a> </td> <td scope="row" data-sort-value="Moser, Edvard"><a href="/wiki/Edvard_I._Moser" class="mw-redirect" title="Edvard I. Moser">Edvard I. Moser</a> </td> <td>1962– </td> <td>Norway </td></tr> <tr> <td rowspan="3">2017 </td> <td rowspan="3"><a href="/wiki/Nobel_Prize_in_Physiology_or_Medicine" title="Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine">Physiology</a> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/File:Jeffrey_C._Hall_EM1B8737_(38162359274).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5d/Jeffrey_C._Hall_EM1B8737_%2838162359274%29.jpg/75px-Jeffrey_C._Hall_EM1B8737_%2838162359274%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="75" height="75" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5d/Jeffrey_C._Hall_EM1B8737_%2838162359274%29.jpg/113px-Jeffrey_C._Hall_EM1B8737_%2838162359274%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5d/Jeffrey_C._Hall_EM1B8737_%2838162359274%29.jpg/150px-Jeffrey_C._Hall_EM1B8737_%2838162359274%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3029" data-file-height="3029" /></a> </td> <td scope="row" data-sort-value="Hall, Jeffrey C"><a href="/wiki/Jeffrey_C._Hall" title="Jeffrey C. Hall">Jeffrey C. Hall</a> </td> <td>1939– </td> <td>United States </td> <td rowspan="3">"for their discoveries of molecular mechanisms controlling the <a href="/wiki/Circadian_rhythm" title="Circadian rhythm">circadian rhythm</a>" </td> <td rowspan="3"><a href="#cite_note-nobel-2017-144">[144]</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/File:Michael_Rosbash_EM1B8756_(38847326642).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5a/Michael_Rosbash_EM1B8756_%2838847326642%29.jpg/75px-Michael_Rosbash_EM1B8756_%2838847326642%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="75" height="94" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5a/Michael_Rosbash_EM1B8756_%2838847326642%29.jpg/113px-Michael_Rosbash_EM1B8756_%2838847326642%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5a/Michael_Rosbash_EM1B8756_%2838847326642%29.jpg/150px-Michael_Rosbash_EM1B8756_%2838847326642%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2493" data-file-height="3116" /></a> </td> <td scope="row" data-sort-value="Rosbash, Michael"><a href="/wiki/Michael_Rosbash" title="Michael Rosbash">Michael Rosbash</a> </td> <td>1944– </td> <td>United States </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/File:Michael_W._Young_D81_4345_(38162439194).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/04/Michael_W._Young_D81_4345_%2838162439194%29.jpg/75px-Michael_W._Young_D81_4345_%2838162439194%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="75" height="94" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/04/Michael_W._Young_D81_4345_%2838162439194%29.jpg/113px-Michael_W._Young_D81_4345_%2838162439194%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/04/Michael_W._Young_D81_4345_%2838162439194%29.jpg/150px-Michael_W._Young_D81_4345_%2838162439194%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2727" data-file-height="3409" /></a> </td> <td scope="row" data-sort-value="Young, Michael"><a href="/wiki/Michael_W._Young" title="Michael W. Young">Michael W. Young</a> </td> <td>1949– </td> <td>United States </td></tr> <tr> <td rowspan="2">2021 </td> <td rowspan="2"><a href="/wiki/Nobel_Prize_in_Physiology_or_Medicine" title="Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine">Physiology</a> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/File:Davidjuliuswithsnake.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/13/Davidjuliuswithsnake.jpg/75px-Davidjuliuswithsnake.jpg" decoding="async" width="75" height="133" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/13/Davidjuliuswithsnake.jpg/113px-Davidjuliuswithsnake.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/13/Davidjuliuswithsnake.jpg/150px-Davidjuliuswithsnake.jpg 2x" data-file-width="720" data-file-height="1280" /></a> </td> <td scope="row" data-sort-value="Julius"><a href="/wiki/David_Julius" title="David Julius">David Julius</a> </td> <td>1955– </td> <td>United States </td> <td rowspan="2">"for their discoveries of receptors for temperature and touch" </td> <td rowspan="2"><a href="#cite_note-nobel-2021-145">[145]</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/File:Ardem_Patapoutian_at_Scripps_in_2022_03.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e9/Ardem_Patapoutian_at_Scripps_in_2022_03.jpg/75px-Ardem_Patapoutian_at_Scripps_in_2022_03.jpg" decoding="async" width="75" height="56" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e9/Ardem_Patapoutian_at_Scripps_in_2022_03.jpg/113px-Ardem_Patapoutian_at_Scripps_in_2022_03.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e9/Ardem_Patapoutian_at_Scripps_in_2022_03.jpg/150px-Ardem_Patapoutian_at_Scripps_in_2022_03.jpg 2x" data-file-width="10822" data-file-height="8116" /></a> </td> <td scope="row" data-sort-value="Patapoutian"><a href="/wiki/Ardem_Patapoutian" title="Ardem Patapoutian">Ardem Patapoutian</a> </td> <td>1967– </td> <td>Lebanon United States </td></tr> <tr> <td rowspan="2">2024 </td> <td rowspan="2"><a href="/wiki/Nobel_Prize_in_Physics" title="Nobel Prize in Physics">Physics</a> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/File:John_Hopfield_2016.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1e/John_Hopfield_2016.jpg/75px-John_Hopfield_2016.jpg" decoding="async" width="75" height="101" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1e/John_Hopfield_2016.jpg/113px-John_Hopfield_2016.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1e/John_Hopfield_2016.jpg/150px-John_Hopfield_2016.jpg 2x" data-file-width="389" data-file-height="524" /></a> </td> <td scope="row" data-sort-value="Hopfield"><a href="/wiki/John_Hopfield" title="John Hopfield">John Hopfield</a> </td> <td>1933– </td> <td>United States </td> <td rowspan="2">“for foundational discoveries and inventions that enable <a href="/wiki/Machine_learning" title="Machine learning">machine learning</a> with <a href="/wiki/Artificial_neural_networks" class="mw-redirect" title="Artificial neural networks">artificial neural networks</a>” </td> <td rowspan="2"><a href="#cite_note-nobel-2024-146">[146]</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/File:Geoffrey_Hinton_at_Collision_2024_in_Toronto_(cropped).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d9/Geoffrey_Hinton_at_Collision_2024_in_Toronto_%28cropped%29.jpg/75px-Geoffrey_Hinton_at_Collision_2024_in_Toronto_%28cropped%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="75" height="89" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d9/Geoffrey_Hinton_at_Collision_2024_in_Toronto_%28cropped%29.jpg/113px-Geoffrey_Hinton_at_Collision_2024_in_Toronto_%28cropped%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d9/Geoffrey_Hinton_at_Collision_2024_in_Toronto_%28cropped%29.jpg/150px-Geoffrey_Hinton_at_Collision_2024_in_Toronto_%28cropped%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3968" data-file-height="4688" /></a> </td> <td scope="row" data-sort-value="Hinton"><a href="/wiki/Geoffrey_Hinton" title="Geoffrey Hinton">Geoffrey Hinton</a> </td> <td>1947– </td> <td>United Kingdom </td></tr></tbody></table> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Neuroscience&action=edit&section=20" title="Edit section: See also">edit</a>]</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1184024115">.mw-parser-output .div-col{margin-top:0.3em;column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .div-col-small{font-size:90%}.mw-parser-output .div-col-rules{column-rule:1px solid #aaa}.mw-parser-output .div-col dl,.mw-parser-output .div-col ol,.mw-parser-output .div-col ul{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .div-col li,.mw-parser-output .div-col dd{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}</style><div class="div-col" style="column-width: 30em;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_neuroscience_databases" title="List of neuroscience databases">List of neuroscience databases</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_neuroscience_journals" title="List of neuroscience journals">List of neuroscience journals</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_neuroscientists" title="List of neuroscientists">List of neuroscientists</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neurosemiotics" title="Neurosemiotics">Neurosemiotics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Outline_of_brain_mapping" title="Outline of brain mapping">Outline of brain mapping</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Outline_of_the_human_brain" title="Outline of the human brain">Outline of the human brain</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_regions_in_the_human_brain" title="List of regions in the human brain">List of regions in the human brain</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gut%E2%80%93brain_axis" title="Gut–brain axis">Gut–brain axis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Connectomics" title="Connectomics">Connectomics</a></li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Neuroscience&action=edit&section=21" title="Edit section: References">edit</a>]</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist reflist-columns references-column-width" style="column-width: 30em;"> <ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-Merriam-1"><a href="#cite_ref-Merriam_1-0">^</a> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.merriam-webster.com/medlineplus/neuroscience">"Neuroscience"</a>. 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Overall perspective. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0071390118" title="Special:BookSources/978-0071390118"><bdi>978-0071390118</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Principles+of+Neural+Science%2C+Fifth+Edition&rft.pages=I.+Overall+perspective&rft.pub=McGraw-Hill+Education&rft.date=2012&rft.isbn=978-0071390118&rft.aulast=Kandel&rft.aufirst=Eric+R.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANeuroscience" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-5"><a href="#cite_ref-5">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAyd2000" class="citation book cs1">Ayd, Frank J. 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Lippincott, Williams & Wilkins. p. 688. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0781724685" title="Special:BookSources/978-0781724685"><bdi>978-0781724685</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Lexicon+of+Psychiatry%2C+Neurology+and+the+Neurosciences&rft.pages=688&rft.pub=Lippincott%2C+Williams+%26+Wilkins&rft.date=2000&rft.isbn=978-0781724685&rft.aulast=Ayd&rft.aufirst=Frank+J.+Jr.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Dea_QVG2BFy8C%26q%3Dneuroscience%2Bmultidisciplinary%26pg%3DPA688&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANeuroscience" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-6"><a href="#cite_ref-6">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFShulman2013" class="citation book cs1">Shulman, Robert G. 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Oxford University Press. p. 59. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780199838721" title="Special:BookSources/9780199838721"><bdi>9780199838721</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Neuroscience%3A+A+Multidisciplinary%2C+Multilevel+Field&rft.btitle=Brain+Imaging%3A+What+it+Can+%28and+Cannot%29+Tell+Us+About+Consciousness&rft.pages=59&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2013&rft.isbn=9780199838721&rft.aulast=Shulman&rft.aufirst=Robert+G.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DxfSVcBL7CSMC%26q%3Dneuroscience%2Bmultidisciplinary%26pg%3DPA59&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANeuroscience" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-7"><a href="#cite_ref-7">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFOgawaOka2013" class="citation book cs1">Ogawa, Hiroto; Oka, Kotaro (2013). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=3CK4BAAAQBAJ&q=neuroscience+multidisciplinary&pg=PR5">Methods in Neuroethological Research</a>. 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Retrieved 28 July 2007.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=The+Nobel+Prize+in+Physiology+or+Medicine+1906&rft.pub=Nobel+Foundation&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.nobelprize.org%2Fnobel_prizes%2Fmedicine%2Flaureates%2F1906%2Findex.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANeuroscience" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-122"><a href="#cite_ref-122">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.nobelprize.org/prizes/medicine/1911/summary/">"The Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine 1911"</a>. NobelPrize.org. 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Retrieved 28 July 2007.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=The+Nobel+Prize+in+Physiology+or+Medicine+1914&rft.pub=Nobel+Foundation&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.nobelprize.org%2Fnobel_prizes%2Fmedicine%2Flaureates%2F1914%2Findex.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANeuroscience" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-nobel-1932-124"><a href="#cite_ref-nobel-1932_124-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/medicine/laureates/1932/index.html">"The Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine 1932"</a>. Nobel Foundation. Retrieved 28 July 2007.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=The+Nobel+Prize+in+Physiology+or+Medicine+1932&rft.pub=Nobel+Foundation&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.nobelprize.org%2Fnobel_prizes%2Fmedicine%2Flaureates%2F1932%2Findex.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANeuroscience" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-nobel-1936-125"><a href="#cite_ref-nobel-1936_125-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/medicine/laureates/1936/index.html">"The Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine 1936"</a>. Nobel Foundation. Retrieved 28 July 2007.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=The+Nobel+Prize+in+Physiology+or+Medicine+1936&rft.pub=Nobel+Foundation&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.nobelprize.org%2Fnobel_prizes%2Fmedicine%2Flaureates%2F1936%2Findex.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANeuroscience" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-nobel-1938-126"><a href="#cite_ref-nobel-1938_126-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/medicine/laureates/1938/index.html">"The Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine 1938"</a>. Nobel Foundation. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20070930042256/http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/medicine/laureates/1938/index.html">Archived</a> from the original on 30 September 2007. Retrieved 28 July 2007.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=The+Nobel+Prize+in+Physiology+or+Medicine+1938&rft.pub=Nobel+Foundation&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.nobelprize.org%2Fnobel_prizes%2Fmedicine%2Flaureates%2F1938%2Findex.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANeuroscience" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-nobel-1944-127"><a href="#cite_ref-nobel-1944_127-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/medicine/laureates/1944/index.html">"The Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine 1944"</a>. Nobel Foundation. Retrieved 28 July 2007.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=The+Nobel+Prize+in+Physiology+or+Medicine+1944&rft.pub=Nobel+Foundation&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.nobelprize.org%2Fnobel_prizes%2Fmedicine%2Flaureates%2F1944%2Findex.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANeuroscience" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-nobel-1949-128">^ <a href="#cite_ref-nobel-1949_128-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-nobel-1949_128-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/medicine/laureates/1949/index.html">"The Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine 1949"</a>. Nobel Foundation. Retrieved 28 July 2007.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=The+Nobel+Prize+in+Physiology+or+Medicine+1949&rft.pub=Nobel+Foundation&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.nobelprize.org%2Fnobel_prizes%2Fmedicine%2Flaureates%2F1949%2Findex.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANeuroscience" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-129"><a href="#cite_ref-129">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/chemistry/laureates/1955/index.html">"The Nobel Prize in Chemistry 1955"</a>. Nobelprize.org. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20081225083324/http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/chemistry/laureates/1955/index.html">Archived</a> from the original on 25 December 2008. Retrieved 6 October 2008.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=The+Nobel+Prize+in+Chemistry+1955&rft.pub=Nobelprize.org&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fnobelprize.org%2Fnobel_prizes%2Fchemistry%2Flaureates%2F1955%2Findex.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANeuroscience" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-nobel-1957-130"><a href="#cite_ref-nobel-1957_130-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/medicine/laureates/1957/index.html">"The Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine 1957"</a>. Nobel Foundation. Retrieved 28 July 2007.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=The+Nobel+Prize+in+Physiology+or+Medicine+1957&rft.pub=Nobel+Foundation&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.nobelprize.org%2Fnobel_prizes%2Fmedicine%2Flaureates%2F1957%2Findex.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANeuroscience" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-nobel-1961-131"><a href="#cite_ref-nobel-1961_131-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/medicine/laureates/1961/index.html">"The Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine 1961"</a>. Nobel Foundation. Retrieved 28 July 2007.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=The+Nobel+Prize+in+Physiology+or+Medicine+1961&rft.pub=Nobel+Foundation&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.nobelprize.org%2Fnobel_prizes%2Fmedicine%2Flaureates%2F1961%2Findex.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANeuroscience" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-nobel-1963-132">^ <a href="#cite_ref-nobel-1963_132-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-nobel-1963_132-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/medicine/laureates/1970/index.html">"The Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine 1970"</a>. Nobel Foundation.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=The+Nobel+Prize+in+Physiology+or+Medicine+1970&rft.pub=Nobel+Foundation&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.nobelprize.org%2Fnobel_prizes%2Fmedicine%2Flaureates%2F1970%2Findex.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANeuroscience" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-nobel-1967-133">^ <a href="#cite_ref-nobel-1967_133-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-nobel-1967_133-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-nobel-1967_133-2">c</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.nobelprize.org/prizes/medicine/1981/summary/">"The Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine 1981"</a>. Nobel Foundation.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=The+Nobel+Prize+in+Physiology+or+Medicine+1981&rft.pub=Nobel+Foundation&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.nobelprize.org%2Fprizes%2Fmedicine%2F1981%2Fsummary%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANeuroscience" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-nobel-1973-134"><a href="#cite_ref-nobel-1973_134-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/medicine/laureates/1973/index.html">"The Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine 1973"</a>. Nobel Foundation. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20070819023653/http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/medicine/laureates/1973/index.html">Archived</a> from the original on 19 August 2007. Retrieved 28 July 2007.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=The+Nobel+Prize+in+Physiology+or+Medicine+1973&rft.pub=Nobel+Foundation&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.nobelprize.org%2Fnobel_prizes%2Fmedicine%2Flaureates%2F1973%2Findex.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANeuroscience" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-nobel-1977-135"><a href="#cite_ref-nobel-1977_135-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/medicine/laureates/1977/index.html">"The Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine 1977"</a>. Nobel Foundation. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20140203080133/http://www.nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/medicine/laureates/1977/index.html">Archived</a> from the original on 3 February 2014. 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Retrieved 28 July 2007.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=The+Nobel+Prize+in+Physiology+or+Medicine+1997&rft.pub=Nobel+Foundation&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.nobelprize.org%2Fnobel_prizes%2Fmedicine%2Flaureates%2F1997%2Findex.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANeuroscience" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-n1997-138"><a href="#cite_ref-n1997_138-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.nobelprize.org/prizes/chemistry/1997/skou/biographical/">"The Nobel Prize in Chemistry 1997"</a>. Nobel Foundation. Retrieved 1 July 2019.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=The+Nobel+Prize+in+Chemistry+1997&rft.pub=Nobel+Foundation&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.nobelprize.org%2Fprizes%2Fchemistry%2F1997%2Fskou%2Fbiographical%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANeuroscience" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-nobel-2000-139"><a href="#cite_ref-nobel-2000_139-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/medicine/laureates/2000/index.html">"The Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine 2000"</a>. Nobel Foundation. Retrieved 28 July 2007.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=The+Nobel+Prize+in+Physiology+or+Medicine+2000&rft.pub=Nobel+Foundation&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.nobelprize.org%2Fnobel_prizes%2Fmedicine%2Flaureates%2F2000%2Findex.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANeuroscience" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-nobel-2003-140"><a href="#cite_ref-nobel-2003_140-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.nobelprize.org/prizes/chemistry/2003/mackinnon/biographical/">"The Nobel Prize in Chemistry 2003"</a>. Nobel Foundation. Retrieved 4 April 2019.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=The+Nobel+Prize+in+Chemistry+2003&rft.pub=Nobel+Foundation&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.nobelprize.org%2Fprizes%2Fchemistry%2F2003%2Fmackinnon%2Fbiographical%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANeuroscience" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-nobel-2004-141"><a href="#cite_ref-nobel-2004_141-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/medicine/laureates/2004/index.html">"The Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine 2004"</a>. Nobel Foundation. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20070819024142/http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/medicine/laureates/2004/index.html">Archived</a> from the original on 19 August 2007. Retrieved 28 January 2020.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=The+Nobel+Prize+in+Physiology+or+Medicine+2004&rft.pub=Nobel+Foundation&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.nobelprize.org%2Fnobel_prizes%2Fmedicine%2Flaureates%2F2004%2Findex.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANeuroscience" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-nobel-2012-142"><a href="#cite_ref-nobel-2012_142-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/chemistry/laureates/2012/index.html">"The Nobel Prize in Chemistry 2012"</a>. Nobel Foundation. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20121013000137/http://www.nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/chemistry/laureates/2012/index.html">Archived</a> from the original on 13 October 2012. Retrieved 13 October 2012.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=The+Nobel+Prize+in+Chemistry+2012&rft.pub=Nobel+Foundation&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fnobelprize.org%2Fnobel_prizes%2Fchemistry%2Flaureates%2F2012%2Findex.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANeuroscience" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-nobel-2014-143"><a href="#cite_ref-nobel-2014_143-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/medicine/laureates/2014/index.html">"The Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine 2014"</a>. Nobel Foundation. 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Retrieved 9 October 2024.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=The+Nobel+Prize+in+Physiology+or+Medicine+2024&rft.pub=Nobel+Foundation&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.nobelprize.org%2Fprizes%2Fphysics%2F2024%2Fpress-release%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANeuroscience" class="Z3988"> </li> </ol></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Further_reading">Further reading</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Neuroscience&action=edit&section=22" title="Edit section: Further reading">edit</a>]</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239549316">.mw-parser-output .refbegin{margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul{margin-left:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{margin-left:0;padding-left:3.2em;text-indent:-3.2em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul,.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul li{list-style:none}@media(max-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{padding-left:1.6em;text-indent:-1.6em}}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns ul{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .refbegin{font-size:90%}}</style><div class="refbegin refbegin-columns references-column-width" style="column-width: 30em"> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBearB._W._ConnorsM._A._Paradiso2006" class="citation book cs1">Bear, M. F.; B. W. Connors; M. A. Paradiso (2006). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/neuroscienceexpl00mark">Neuroscience: Exploring the Brain</a> (3rd ed.). Philadelphia: Lippincott. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7817-6003-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-7817-6003-4"><bdi>978-0-7817-6003-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Neuroscience%3A+Exploring+the+Brain&rft.place=Philadelphia&rft.edition=3rd&rft.pub=Lippincott&rft.date=2006&rft.isbn=978-0-7817-6003-4&rft.aulast=Bear&rft.aufirst=M.+F.&rft.au=B.+W.+Connors&rft.au=M.+A.+Paradiso&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fneuroscienceexpl00mark&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANeuroscience" class="Z3988"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBinder,_Marc_D.Hirokawa,_NobutakaWindhorst,_Uwe2009" class="citation book cs1">Binder, Marc D.; Hirokawa, Nobutaka; Windhorst, Uwe, eds. (2009). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.springer.com/biomed/neuroscience/book/978-3-540-23735-8">Encyclopedia of Neuroscience</a>. Springer. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3-540-23735-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-3-540-23735-8"><bdi>978-3-540-23735-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Encyclopedia+of+Neuroscience&rft.pub=Springer&rft.date=2009&rft.isbn=978-3-540-23735-8&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.springer.com%2Fbiomed%2Fneuroscience%2Fbook%2F978-3-540-23735-8&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANeuroscience" class="Z3988"></li> <li class="mw-empty-elt"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKandelSchwartz_JHJessell_TM2012" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Eric_R._Kandel" class="mw-redirect" title="Eric R. Kandel">Kandel, ER</a>; Schwartz JH; Jessell TM (2012). <a href="/wiki/Principles_of_Neural_Science" title="Principles of Neural Science">Principles of Neural Science</a> (5th ed.). New York: McGraw-Hill. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8385-7701-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8385-7701-1"><bdi>978-0-8385-7701-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Principles+of+Neural+Science&rft.place=New+York&rft.edition=5th&rft.pub=McGraw-Hill&rft.date=2012&rft.isbn=978-0-8385-7701-1&rft.aulast=Kandel&rft.aufirst=ER&rft.au=Schwartz+JH&rft.au=Jessell+TM&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANeuroscience" class="Z3988"></li> <li>Squire, L. et al. (2012). Fundamental Neuroscience, 4th edition. <a href="/wiki/Academic_Press" title="Academic Press">Academic Press</a>; <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-12-660303-0" title="Special:BookSources/0-12-660303-0">0-12-660303-0</a></li> <li>Byrne and Roberts (2004). From Molecules to Networks. Academic Press; <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-12-148660-5" title="Special:BookSources/0-12-148660-5">0-12-148660-5</a></li> <li>Sanes, Reh, Harris (2005). Development of the Nervous System, 2nd edition. Academic Press; <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-12-618621-9" title="Special:BookSources/0-12-618621-9">0-12-618621-9</a></li> <li>Siegel et al. (2005). Basic Neurochemistry, 7th edition. Academic Press; <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-12-088397-X" title="Special:BookSources/0-12-088397-X">0-12-088397-X</a></li> <li>Rieke, F. et al. (1999). Spikes: Exploring the Neural Code. <a href="/wiki/The_MIT_Press" class="mw-redirect" title="The MIT Press">The MIT Press</a>; Reprint edition <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-262-68108-0" title="Special:BookSources/0-262-68108-0">0-262-68108-0</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Search&db=books&doptcmdl=GenBookHL&term=The+Cellular+Components+of+the+Nervous+System+AND+neurosci%5Bbook%5D+AND+231002%5Buid%5D&rid=neurosci.">section.47 Neuroscience</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20221212181526/https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books?cmd=Search&doptcmdl=GenBookHL&term=The+Cellular+Components+of+the+Nervous+System+AND+neurosci%5Bbook%5D+AND+231002%5Buid%5D&rid=neurosci.">Archived</a> 2022-12-12 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> 2nd ed. Dale Purves, George J. Augustine, David Fitzpatrick, Lawrence C. Katz, Anthony-Samuel LaMantia, James O. McNamara, S. Mark Williams. Published by Sinauer Associates, Inc., 2001.</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Search&db=books&doptcmdl=GenBookHL&term=Characteristics+of+the+Neuron+AND+bnchm%5Bbook%5D+AND+160014%5Buid%5D&rid=bnchm.">section.18 Basic Neurochemistry: Molecular, Cellular, and Medical Aspects</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20221212181525/https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books?cmd=Search&doptcmdl=GenBookHL&term=Characteristics+of+the+Neuron+AND+bnchm%5Bbook%5D+AND+160014%5Buid%5D&rid=bnchm.">Archived</a> 2022-12-12 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> 6th ed. by George J. Siegel, Bernard W. Agranoff, R. Wayne Albers, Stephen K. Fisher, Michael D. Uhler, editors. Published by Lippincott, Williams & Wilkins, 1999.</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAndreasen2004" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Nancy_C._Andreasen" class="mw-redirect" title="Nancy C. Andreasen">Andreasen, Nancy C.</a> (March 4, 2004). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/bravenewbraincon00andr">Brave New Brain: Conquering Mental Illness in the Era of the Genome</a>. Oxford University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-514509-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-514509-0"><bdi>978-0-19-514509-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Brave+New+Brain%3A+Conquering+Mental+Illness+in+the+Era+of+the+Genome&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2004-03-04&rft.isbn=978-0-19-514509-0&rft.aulast=Andreasen&rft.aufirst=Nancy+C.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fbravenewbraincon00andr&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANeuroscience" class="Z3988"></li> <li>Damasio, A. R. (1994). Descartes' Error: Emotion, Reason, and the Human Brain. New York, <a href="/wiki/Avon_(publishers)" class="mw-redirect" title="Avon (publishers)">Avon Books</a>. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-399-13894-3" title="Special:BookSources/0-399-13894-3">0-399-13894-3</a> (Hardcover) <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-380-72647-5" title="Special:BookSources/0-380-72647-5">0-380-72647-5</a> (Paperback)</li> <li>Gardner, H. (1976). The Shattered Mind: The Person After Brain Damage. New York, <a href="/wiki/Random_House" title="Random House">Vintage Books</a>, 1976 <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-394-71946-8" title="Special:BookSources/0-394-71946-8">0-394-71946-8</a></li> <li>Goldstein, K. (2000). The Organism. New York, Zone Books. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-942299-96-5" title="Special:BookSources/0-942299-96-5">0-942299-96-5</a> (Hardcover) <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-942299-97-3" title="Special:BookSources/0-942299-97-3">0-942299-97-3</a> (Paperback)</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLauwereyns2010" class="citation book cs1">Lauwereyns, Jan (February 2010). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://mitp-content-server.mit.edu:18180/books/content/sectbyfn?collid=books_pres_0&id=7980&fn=9780262123105_sch_0001.pdf">The Anatomy of Bias: How Neural Circuits Weigh the Options</a> (PDF). Cambridge, Massachusetts: The MIT Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-262-12310-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-262-12310-5"><bdi>978-0-262-12310-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Anatomy+of+Bias%3A+How+Neural+Circuits+Weigh+the+Options&rft.place=Cambridge%2C+Massachusetts&rft.pub=The+MIT+Press&rft.date=2010-02&rft.isbn=978-0-262-12310-5&rft.aulast=Lauwereyns&rft.aufirst=Jan&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fmitp-content-server.mit.edu%3A18180%2Fbooks%2Fcontent%2Fsectbyfn%3Fcollid%3Dbooks_pres_0%26id%3D7980%26fn%3D9780262123105_sch_0001.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANeuroscience" class="Z3988"></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Subhash_Kak" title="Subhash Kak">Subhash Kak</a>, The Architecture of Knowledge: Quantum Mechanics, Neuroscience, Computers and Consciousness, Motilal Banarsidass, 2004, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/81-87586-12-5" title="Special:BookSources/81-87586-12-5">81-87586-12-5</a></li> <li>Llinas R. (2001). <a href="/wiki/I_of_the_vortex:_from_neurons_to_self" class="mw-redirect" title="I of the vortex: from neurons to self">I of the vortex: from neurons to self</a> MIT Press. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-262-12233-2" title="Special:BookSources/0-262-12233-2">0-262-12233-2</a> (Hardcover) <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-262-62163-0" title="Special:BookSources/0-262-62163-0">0-262-62163-0</a> (Paperback)</li> <li>Luria, A. R. (1997). The Man with a Shattered World: The History of a Brain Wound. <a href="/wiki/Cambridge,_Massachusetts" title="Cambridge, Massachusetts">Cambridge, Massachusetts</a>, <a href="/wiki/Harvard_University_Press" title="Harvard University Press">Harvard University Press</a>. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-224-00792-0" title="Special:BookSources/0-224-00792-0">0-224-00792-0</a> (Hardcover) <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-674-54625-3" title="Special:BookSources/0-674-54625-3">0-674-54625-3</a> (Paperback)</li> <li>Luria, A. R. (1998). The Mind of a Mnemonist: A Little Book About A Vast Memory. New York, <a href="/wiki/Basic_Books" title="Basic Books">Basic Books</a>, Inc. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-674-57622-5" title="Special:BookSources/0-674-57622-5">0-674-57622-5</a></li> <li>Medina, J. (2008). Brain Rules: 12 Principles for Surviving and Thriving at Work, Home, and School. Seattle, Pear Press. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-9797777-0-4" title="Special:BookSources/0-9797777-0-4">0-9797777-0-4</a> (Hardcover with DVD)</li> <li>Pinker, S. (1999). How the Mind Works. <a href="/wiki/W._W._Norton" class="mw-redirect" title="W. W. Norton">W. W. Norton</a> & Company. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-393-31848-6" title="Special:BookSources/0-393-31848-6">0-393-31848-6</a></li> <li>Pinker, S. (2002). The Blank Slate: The Modern Denial of Human Nature. Viking Adult. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-670-03151-8" title="Special:BookSources/0-670-03151-8">0-670-03151-8</a></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRobinson2009" class="citation book cs1">Robinson, D. L. (2009). Brain, Mind and Behaviour: A New Perspective on Human Nature (2nd ed.). Dundalk, Ireland: Pontoon Publications. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-9561812-0-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-9561812-0-6"><bdi>978-0-9561812-0-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Brain%2C+Mind+and+Behaviour%3A+A+New+Perspective+on+Human+Nature&rft.place=Dundalk%2C+Ireland&rft.edition=2nd&rft.pub=Pontoon+Publications&rft.date=2009&rft.isbn=978-0-9561812-0-6&rft.aulast=Robinson&rft.aufirst=D.+L.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANeuroscience" class="Z3988"></li> <li>Penrose, R., Hameroff, S. R., Kak, S., & Tao, L. (2011). Consciousness and the universe: Quantum physics, evolution, brain & mind. Cambridge, MA: Cosmology Science Publishers.</li> <li>Ramachandran, V. S. (1998). <a href="/wiki/Phantoms_in_the_Brain" title="Phantoms in the Brain">Phantoms in the Brain</a>. New York, HarperCollins. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-688-15247-3" title="Special:BookSources/0-688-15247-3">0-688-15247-3</a> (Paperback)</li> <li>Rose, S. (2006). 21st Century Brain: Explaining, Mending & Manipulating the Mind <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-09-942977-2" title="Special:BookSources/0-09-942977-2">0-09-942977-2</a> (Paperback)</li> <li>Sacks, O. <a href="/wiki/The_Man_Who_Mistook_His_Wife_for_a_Hat" title="The Man Who Mistook His Wife for a Hat">The Man Who Mistook His Wife for a Hat</a>. Summit Books <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-671-55471-9" title="Special:BookSources/0-671-55471-9">0-671-55471-9</a> (Hardcover) <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-06-097079-0" title="Special:BookSources/0-06-097079-0">0-06-097079-0</a> (Paperback)</li> <li>Sacks, O. (1990). Awakenings. New York, Vintage Books. (See also <a href="/wiki/Oliver_Sacks" title="Oliver Sacks">Oliver Sacks</a>) <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-671-64834-9" title="Special:BookSources/0-671-64834-9">0-671-64834-9</a> (Hardcover) <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-06-097368-4" title="Special:BookSources/0-06-097368-4">0-06-097368-4</a> (Paperback)</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.scholarpedia.org/article/Encyclopedia:Neuroscience">Encyclopedia:Neuroscience</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20200222104731/http://www.scholarpedia.org/article/Encyclopedia:Neuroscience">Archived</a> 2020-02-22 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> <a href="/wiki/Scholarpedia" title="Scholarpedia">Scholarpedia</a> Expert articles</li> <li>Sternberg, E. (2007) Are You a Machine? The Brain, the Mind and What it Means to be Human. Amherst, New York: Prometheus Books.</li> <li>Churchland, P. S. (2011) <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.themontrealreview.com/2009/What-neuroscience-tells-us-about-morality.php">Braintrust: What Neuroscience Tells Us about Morality</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20201112034251/http://www.themontrealreview.com/2009/What-neuroscience-tells-us-about-morality.php">Archived</a> 2020-11-12 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>. Princeton University Press. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-691-13703-X" title="Special:BookSources/0-691-13703-X">0-691-13703-X</a></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSelvin2014" class="citation journal cs1">Selvin, Paul (2014). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://spie.org/x106518.xml">"Hot Topics presentation: New Small Quantum Dots for Neuroscience"</a>. SPIE Newsroom. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1117%2F2.3201403.17">10.1117/2.3201403.17</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=SPIE+Newsroom&rft.atitle=Hot+Topics+presentation%3A+New+Small+Quantum+Dots+for+Neuroscience&rft.date=2014&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1117%2F2.3201403.17&rft.aulast=Selvin&rft.aufirst=Paul&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fspie.org%2Fx106518.xml&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANeuroscience" class="Z3988"></li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Neuroscience&action=edit&section=23" title="Edit section: External links">edit</a>]</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1235681985">.mw-parser-output .side-box{margin:4px 0;box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid 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data-file-width="626" data-file-height="512" /></div> <div class="side-box-text plainlist">Wikiversity has learning resources about <a href="https://en.wikiversity.org/wiki/Topic:_Neuroscience" class="extiw" title="v:Topic: Neuroscience">Topic: Neuroscience</a></div></div> </div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1235681985"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1237033735"><div class="side-box side-box-right plainlinks sistersitebox"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"> <div class="side-box-flex"> <div class="side-box-image"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/df/Wikibooks-logo-en-noslogan.svg/40px-Wikibooks-logo-en-noslogan.svg.png" decoding="async" width="40" height="40" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/df/Wikibooks-logo-en-noslogan.svg/60px-Wikibooks-logo-en-noslogan.svg.png 1.5x, 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srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/99/Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg/60px-Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/99/Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg/80px-Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="512" /></div> <div class="side-box-text plainlist">Look up <a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/neuroscience" class="extiw" title="wiktionary:neuroscience">neuroscience</a> in Wiktionary, the free dictionary.</div></div> </div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1235681985"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1237033735"><div class="side-box side-box-right plainlinks sistersitebox"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"> <div class="side-box-flex"> <div class="side-box-image"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/30px-Commons-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="30" height="40" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/45px-Commons-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/59px-Commons-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="1376" /></div> <div class="side-box-text plainlist">Wikimedia Commons has media related to <a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Neuroscience" class="extiw" title="commons:Category:Neuroscience">neuroscience</a>.</div></div> </div> <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.bbc.co.uk/programmes/b00fbd26">Neuroscience</a> on <a href="/wiki/In_Our_Time_(radio_series)" title="In Our Time (radio series)">In Our Time</a> at the <a href="/wiki/BBC" title="BBC">BBC</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20070125124755/http://www.neuinfo.org/">Neuroscience Information Framework (NIF)</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.asneurochem.org/">American Society for Neurochemistry</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.bna.org.uk/">British Neuroscience Association (BNA)</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.fens.org/">Federation of European Neuroscience Societies</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://nba.uth.tmc.edu/neuroscience/">Neuroscience Online (electronic neuroscience textbook)</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.hhmi.org/biointeractive/neuroscience/lectures.html">HHMI Neuroscience lecture series - Making Your Mind: Molecules, Motion, and Memory</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20130624074247/http://www.hhmi.org/biointeractive/neuroscience/lectures.html">Archived</a> 2013-06-24 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.neurosciences.asso.fr/">Société des Neurosciences</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://faculty.washington.edu/chudler/neurok.html">Neuroscience For Kids</a></li></ul> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236075235">.mw-parser-output .navbox{box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #a2a9b1;width:100%;clear:both;font-size:88%;text-align:center;padding:1px;margin:1em auto 0}.mw-parser-output .navbox .navbox{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .navbox+.navbox,.mw-parser-output .navbox+.navbox-styles+.navbox{margin-top:-1px}.mw-parser-output .navbox-inner,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup{width:100%}.mw-parser-output .navbox-group,.mw-parser-output .navbox-title,.mw-parser-output .navbox-abovebelow{padding:0.25em 1em;line-height:1.5em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output 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.hlist td ol,.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td ul,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist ul{padding:0.125em 0}.mw-parser-output .navbox .navbar{display:block;font-size:100%}.mw-parser-output .navbox-title .navbar{float:left;text-align:left;margin-right:0.5em}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .navbox-image img{max-width:none!important}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .navbox{display:none!important}}</style></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Neuroscience" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="3"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Neuroscience" title="Template:Neuroscience"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Neuroscience" title="Template talk:Neuroscience"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Neuroscience" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Neuroscience"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Neuroscience" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Neuroscience</a></div></th></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="3"><div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Outline_of_neuroscience" title="Outline of neuroscience">Outline</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_neuroscience" title="History of neuroscience">History</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Basic_research" title="Basic research">Basic science</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Behavioral_epigenetics" title="Behavioral epigenetics">Behavioral epigenetics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Behavioural_genetics" title="Behavioural genetics">Behavioral genetics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Brain_mapping" title="Brain mapping">Brain mapping</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Brain-reading" title="Brain-reading">Brain-reading</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cellular_neuroscience" title="Cellular neuroscience">Cellular neuroscience</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Computational_neuroscience" title="Computational neuroscience">Computational neuroscience</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Connectomics" title="Connectomics">Connectomics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Imaging_genetics" title="Imaging genetics">Imaging genetics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Integrative_neuroscience" title="Integrative neuroscience">Integrative neuroscience</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Molecular_neuroscience" title="Molecular neuroscience">Molecular neuroscience</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neural_decoding" title="Neural decoding">Neural decoding</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neural_engineering" title="Neural engineering">Neural engineering</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neuroanatomy" title="Neuroanatomy">Neuroanatomy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neurobiology" class="mw-redirect" title="Neurobiology">Neurobiology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neurochemistry" title="Neurochemistry">Neurochemistry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neuroendocrinology" title="Neuroendocrinology">Neuroendocrinology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neurogenetics" title="Neurogenetics">Neurogenetics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neuroinformatics" title="Neuroinformatics">Neuroinformatics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neurometrics" title="Neurometrics">Neurometrics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neuromorphology" title="Neuromorphology">Neuromorphology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neurophysics" title="Neurophysics">Neurophysics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neurophysiology" title="Neurophysiology">Neurophysiology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Systems_neuroscience" title="Systems neuroscience">Systems neuroscience</a></li></ul> </div></td><td class="noviewer navbox-image" rowspan="5" style="width:1px;padding:0 0 0 2px"><div><a href="/wiki/File:Gray739.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/96/Gray739.png/130px-Gray739.png" decoding="async" width="130" height="99" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/96/Gray739.png/195px-Gray739.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/96/Gray739.png/260px-Gray739.png 2x" data-file-width="500" data-file-height="379" /></a></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Clinical_neuroscience" title="Clinical neuroscience">Clinical neuroscience</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Behavioral_neurology" title="Behavioral neurology">Behavioral neurology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Clinical_neurophysiology" title="Clinical neurophysiology">Clinical neurophysiology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Epileptology" class="mw-redirect" title="Epileptology">Epileptology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neurocardiology" title="Neurocardiology">Neurocardiology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neuroepidemiology" title="Neuroepidemiology">Neuroepidemiology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Enteric_nervous_system#Function" title="Enteric nervous system">Neurogastroenterology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neuroimmunology" title="Neuroimmunology">Neuroimmunology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neurointensive_care" title="Neurointensive care">Neurointensive care</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neurology" title="Neurology">Neurology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neuro-oncology" title="Neuro-oncology">Neuro-oncology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neuro-ophthalmology" title="Neuro-ophthalmology">Neuro-ophthalmology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neuropathology" title="Neuropathology">Neuropathology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neuropharmacology" title="Neuropharmacology">Neuropharmacology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neuroprosthetics" title="Neuroprosthetics">Neuroprosthetics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neuropsychiatry" title="Neuropsychiatry">Neuropsychiatry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neuroradiology" title="Neuroradiology">Neuroradiology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neurorehabilitation" title="Neurorehabilitation">Neurorehabilitation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neurosurgery" title="Neurosurgery">Neurosurgery</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neurotology" title="Neurotology">Neurotology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neurovirology" title="Neurovirology">Neurovirology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nutritional_neuroscience" title="Nutritional neuroscience">Nutritional neuroscience</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Psychiatry" title="Psychiatry">Psychiatry</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Cognitive_neuroscience" title="Cognitive neuroscience">Cognitive neuroscience</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Affective_neuroscience" title="Affective neuroscience">Affective neuroscience</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Behavioral_neuroscience" title="Behavioral neuroscience">Behavioral neuroscience</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chronobiology" title="Chronobiology">Chronobiology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Molecular_cellular_cognition" title="Molecular cellular cognition">Molecular cellular cognition</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Motor_control" title="Motor control">Motor control</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neurolinguistics" title="Neurolinguistics">Neurolinguistics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neuropsychology" title="Neuropsychology">Neuropsychology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sensory_neuroscience" title="Sensory neuroscience">Sensory neuroscience</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_cognitive_neuroscience" title="Social cognitive neuroscience">Social cognitive neuroscience</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Interdisciplinary fields</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Consumer_neuroscience" title="Consumer neuroscience">Consumer neuroscience</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cultural_neuroscience" title="Cultural neuroscience">Cultural neuroscience</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Educational_neuroscience" title="Educational neuroscience">Educational neuroscience</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolutionary_neuroscience" title="Evolutionary neuroscience">Evolutionary neuroscience</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Global_neurosurgery" title="Global neurosurgery">Global neurosurgery</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neuroanthropology" title="Neuroanthropology">Neuroanthropology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neural_engineering" title="Neural engineering">Neural engineering</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neurotechnology" title="Neurotechnology">Neurobiotics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neurocriminology" title="Neurocriminology">Neurocriminology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neuroeconomics" title="Neuroeconomics">Neuroeconomics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neuroepistemology" title="Neuroepistemology">Neuroepistemology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neuroesthetics" title="Neuroesthetics">Neuroesthetics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neuroethics" title="Neuroethics">Neuroethics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neuroethology" title="Neuroethology">Neuroethology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neurohistory" title="Neurohistory">Neurohistory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neurolaw" title="Neurolaw">Neurolaw</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neuromarketing" title="Neuromarketing">Neuromarketing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neuromorphic_engineering" class="mw-redirect" title="Neuromorphic engineering">Neuromorphic engineering</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neurophenomenology" title="Neurophenomenology">Neurophenomenology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neurophilosophy" title="Neurophilosophy">Neurophilosophy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neuropolitics" title="Neuropolitics">Neuropolitics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neurorobotics" title="Neurorobotics">Neurorobotics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neuroscience_of_religion" title="Neuroscience of religion">Neurotheology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paleoneurobiology" title="Paleoneurobiology">Paleoneurobiology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_neuroscience" title="Social neuroscience">Social neuroscience</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Concepts</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Brain%E2%80%93computer_interface" title="Brain–computer interface">Brain–computer interface</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Development_of_the_nervous_system" title="Development of the nervous system">Development of the nervous system</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Artificial_neural_network" class="mw-redirect" title="Artificial neural network">Neural network (artificial)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neural_circuit" title="Neural circuit">Neural network (biological)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Detection_theory" title="Detection theory">Detection theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Intraoperative_neurophysiological_monitoring" title="Intraoperative neurophysiological monitoring">Intraoperative neurophysiological monitoring</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neurochip" title="Neurochip">Neurochip</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neurodegenerative_disease" title="Neurodegenerative disease">Neurodegenerative disease</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neurodevelopmental_disorder" title="Neurodevelopmental disorder">Neurodevelopmental disorder</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neurodiversity" title="Neurodiversity">Neurodiversity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neurogenesis" title="Neurogenesis">Neurogenesis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neuroimaging" title="Neuroimaging">Neuroimaging</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neuroimmune_system" title="Neuroimmune system">Neuroimmune system</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neuromanagement" title="Neuromanagement">Neuromanagement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neuromodulation" title="Neuromodulation">Neuromodulation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neuroplasticity" title="Neuroplasticity">Neuroplasticity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neurotechnology" title="Neurotechnology">Neurotechnology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neurotoxin" title="Neurotoxin">Neurotoxin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neural_basis_of_self" title="Neural basis of self">Self-awareness</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow hlist" colspan="3"><div> <ul><li><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/23px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/31px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /> <a href="/wiki/Category:Neuroscience" title="Category:Neuroscience">Category</a></li> <li><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/12px-Commons-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="12" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/18px-Commons-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/24px-Commons-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="1376" /> <a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Neuroscience" class="extiw" title="commons:Category:Neuroscience">Commons</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Nervous_system" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Nervous_system" title="Template:Nervous system"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Nervous_system" title="Template talk:Nervous system"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Nervous_system" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Nervous system"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Nervous_system" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Nervous_system" title="Nervous system">Nervous system</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Central_nervous_system" title="Central nervous system">Central nervous system</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Meninges" title="Meninges">Meninges</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spinal_cord" title="Spinal cord">Spinal cord</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Brain" title="Brain">Brain</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hindbrain" title="Hindbrain">Hindbrain</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Medulla_oblongata" title="Medulla oblongata">Medulla</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pons" title="Pons">Pons</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cerebellum" title="Cerebellum">Cerebellum</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Midbrain" title="Midbrain">Midbrain</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Forebrain" title="Forebrain">Forebrain</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Diencephalon" title="Diencephalon">Diencephalon</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Retina" title="Retina">Retina</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Optic_nerve" title="Optic nerve">Optic nerve</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cerebrum" title="Cerebrum">Cerebrum</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Limbic_system" title="Limbic system">Limbic system</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Peripheral_nervous_system" title="Peripheral nervous system">Peripheral nervous system</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Somatic_nervous_system" title="Somatic nervous system">Somatic</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Sensory_nerve" title="Sensory nerve">Sensory nerve</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Motor_nerve" title="Motor nerve">Motor nerve</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cranial_nerves" title="Cranial nerves">Cranial nerves</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spinal_nerve" title="Spinal nerve">Spinal nerve</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Autonomic_nervous_system" title="Autonomic nervous system">Autonomic</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Sympathetic_nervous_system" title="Sympathetic nervous system">Sympathetic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Parasympathetic_nervous_system" title="Parasympathetic nervous system">Parasympathetic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Enteric_nervous_system" title="Enteric nervous system">Enteric</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Branches_of_biology" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Branches_of_biology" title="Template:Branches of biology"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Branches_of_biology" title="Template talk:Branches of biology"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Branches_of_biology" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Branches of biology"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Branches_of_biology" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Outline_of_biology#Branches" title="Outline of biology">Branches of biology</a></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Abiogenesis" title="Abiogenesis">Abiogenesis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aerobiology" title="Aerobiology">Aerobiology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Agronomy" title="Agronomy">Agronomy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Agrostology" title="Agrostology">Agrostology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anatomy" title="Anatomy">Anatomy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Astrobiology" title="Astrobiology">Astrobiology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bacteriology" title="Bacteriology">Bacteriology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biochemistry" title="Biochemistry">Biochemistry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biogeography" title="Biogeography">Biogeography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biogeology" title="Biogeology">Biogeology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bioinformatics" title="Bioinformatics">Bioinformatics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biological_engineering" title="Biological engineering">Biological engineering</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biomechanics" title="Biomechanics">Biomechanics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biophysics" title="Biophysics">Biophysics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biosemiotics" title="Biosemiotics">Biosemiotics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biostatistics" title="Biostatistics">Biostatistics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biotechnology" title="Biotechnology">Biotechnology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Botany" title="Botany">Botany</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cell_biology" title="Cell biology">Cell biology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cellular_microbiology" title="Cellular microbiology">Cellular microbiology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chemical_biology" title="Chemical biology">Chemical biology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chronobiology" title="Chronobiology">Chronobiology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cognitive_biology" title="Cognitive biology">Cognitive biology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Computational_biology" title="Computational biology">Computational biology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conservation_biology" title="Conservation biology">Conservation biology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cryobiology" title="Cryobiology">Cryobiology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cytogenetics" title="Cytogenetics">Cytogenetics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dendrology" title="Dendrology">Dendrology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Developmental_biology" title="Developmental biology">Developmental biology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecological_genetics" title="Ecological genetics">Ecological genetics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecology" title="Ecology">Ecology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Embryology" title="Embryology">Embryology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Epidemiology" title="Epidemiology">Epidemiology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Epigenetics" title="Epigenetics">Epigenetics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolutionary_biology" title="Evolutionary biology">Evolutionary biology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Freshwater_biology" title="Freshwater biology">Freshwater biology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Generative_biology" 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