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<li id="toc-The_need_for_puddling" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#The_need_for_puddling"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.1</span> <span>The need for puddling</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-The_need_for_puddling-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Invention" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Invention"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.2</span> <span>Invention</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Invention-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Process" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Process"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2</span> <span>Process</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Process-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Puddled_steel" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Puddled_steel"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3</span> <span>Puddled steel</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Puddled_steel-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Puddling_furnace" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Puddling_furnace"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> <span>Puddling furnace</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Puddling_furnace-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>See also</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Footnotes" 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href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pudlovna" title="Pudlovna – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="Pudlovna" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="Czech" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Čeština</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-da mw-list-item"><a href="https://da.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pudling" title="Pudling – Danish" lang="da" hreflang="da" data-title="Pudling" data-language-autonym="Dansk" data-language-local-name="Danish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Dansk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Puddelverfahren" title="Puddelverfahren – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Puddelverfahren" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Deutsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-et mw-list-item"><a href="https://et.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pudeldamine" title="Pudeldamine – Estonian" lang="et" hreflang="et" data-title="Pudeldamine" data-language-autonym="Eesti" data-language-local-name="Estonian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Eesti</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pudelaci%C3%B3n" title="Pudelación – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Pudelación" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Español</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr badge-Q17437796 badge-featuredarticle mw-list-item" title="featured article badge"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Puddlage" title="Puddlage – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Puddlage" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Français</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ga mw-list-item"><a href="https://ga.wikipedia.org/wiki/Suaitheadh_(iarann)" title="Suaitheadh (iarann) – Irish" lang="ga" hreflang="ga" data-title="Suaitheadh (iarann)" data-language-autonym="Gaeilge" data-language-local-name="Irish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Gaeilge</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Puddellaggio" title="Puddellaggio – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Puddellaggio" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Italiano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hu mw-list-item"><a href="https://hu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kavar%C3%B3_ac%C3%A9lgy%C3%A1rt%C3%A1s" title="Kavaró acélgyártás – Hungarian" lang="hu" hreflang="hu" data-title="Kavaró acélgyártás" data-language-autonym="Magyar" data-language-local-name="Hungarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Magyar</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl badge-Q70894304 mw-list-item" title=""><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Puddelen" title="Puddelen – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Puddelen" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Nederlands</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E6%94%AA%E6%8B%8C%E7%B2%BE%E9%8C%AC%E6%B3%95" title="攪拌精錬法 – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="攪拌精錬法" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>日本語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-no mw-list-item"><a href="https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Puddelprosess" title="Puddelprosess – Norwegian Bokmål" lang="nb" hreflang="nb" data-title="Puddelprosess" data-language-autonym="Norsk bokmål" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Bokmål" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk bokmål</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pudlingowanie" title="Pudlingowanie – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="Pudlingowanie" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Polish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Polski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9F%D1%83%D0%B4%D0%BB%D0%B8%D0%BD%D0%B3%D0%BE%D0%B2%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%B8%D0%B5" title="Пудлингование – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Пудлингование" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Русский</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sk mw-list-item"><a href="https://sk.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pudlovanie" title="Pudlovanie – Slovak" lang="sk" hreflang="sk" data-title="Pudlovanie" data-language-autonym="Slovenčina" data-language-local-name="Slovak" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Slovenčina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fi mw-list-item"><a href="https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Putlaus" title="Putlaus – Finnish" lang="fi" hreflang="fi" data-title="Putlaus" data-language-autonym="Suomi" data-language-local-name="Finnish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Suomi</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sv mw-list-item"><a href="https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Puddelprocess" title="Puddelprocess – Swedish" lang="sv" hreflang="sv" data-title="Puddelprocess" data-language-autonym="Svenska" data-language-local-name="Swedish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Svenska</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tr mw-list-item"><a href="https://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Puddling_(metalurji)" title="Puddling (metalurji) – Turkish" lang="tr" hreflang="tr" data-title="Puddling (metalurji)" data-language-autonym="Türkçe" data-language-local-name="Turkish" 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data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">This article is about an obsolete method for purifying pig iron. For other uses, see <a href="/wiki/Puddle_(disambiguation)" class="mw-disambig" title="Puddle (disambiguation)">Puddle (disambiguation)</a>.</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Puddling_furnace.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/51/Puddling_furnace.jpg/250px-Puddling_furnace.jpg" decoding="async" width="250" height="247" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/51/Puddling_furnace.jpg/375px-Puddling_furnace.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/5/51/Puddling_furnace.jpg 2x" data-file-width="450" data-file-height="444" /></a><figcaption>Schematic drawing of a puddling furnace</figcaption></figure> <p><b>Puddling</b> is the process of converting <a href="/wiki/Pig_iron" title="Pig iron">pig iron</a> to bar (wrought) iron in a coal fired <a href="/wiki/Reverberatory_furnace" title="Reverberatory furnace">reverberatory furnace</a>. It was developed in England during the 1780s. The molten pig iron was stirred in a reverberatory furnace, in an <a href="/wiki/Redox" title="Redox">oxidizing</a> environment to burn the carbon, resulting in <a href="/wiki/Wrought_iron" title="Wrought iron">wrought iron</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FE.Kiel_1-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FE.Kiel-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It was one of the most important processes for making the first appreciable volumes of valuable and useful <a href="/wiki/Wrought_iron" title="Wrought iron">bar iron</a> (malleable wrought iron) without the use of <a href="/wiki/Charcoal" title="Charcoal">charcoal</a>. Eventually, the furnace would be used to make small quantities of specialty <a href="/wiki/Steel" title="Steel">steels</a>. </p><p>Though it was not the first process to produce bar iron without charcoal, puddling was by far the most successful, and replaced the earlier <a href="/wiki/Potting_and_stamping" title="Potting and stamping">potting and stamping</a> processes, as well as the much older charcoal <a href="/wiki/Finery_forge" title="Finery forge">finery</a> and <a href="/wiki/Bloomery" title="Bloomery">bloomery</a> processes. This enabled a great expansion of iron production to take place in Great Britain, and shortly afterwards, in North America. That expansion constitutes the beginnings of the <a href="/wiki/Industrial_Revolution" title="Industrial Revolution">Industrial Revolution</a> so far as the iron industry is concerned. Most 19th century applications of <a href="/wiki/Wrought_iron" title="Wrought iron">wrought iron</a>, including the <a href="/wiki/Eiffel_Tower" title="Eiffel Tower">Eiffel Tower</a>, bridges, and the original framework of the <a href="/wiki/Statue_of_Liberty" title="Statue of Liberty">Statue of Liberty</a>, used puddled iron. </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="History">History</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Puddling_(metallurgy)&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: History"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Modern puddling was one of several processes developed in the second half of the 18th century in Great Britain for producing <a href="/wiki/Bar_iron" class="mw-redirect" title="Bar iron">bar iron</a> from <a href="/wiki/Pig_iron" title="Pig iron">pig iron</a> without the use of charcoal. It gradually replaced the earlier charcoal-fueled process, conducted in a <a href="/wiki/Finery_forge" title="Finery forge">finery forge</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="The_need_for_puddling">The need for puddling</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Puddling_(metallurgy)&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: The need for puddling"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Pig iron contains much free <a href="/wiki/Carbon" title="Carbon">carbon</a> and is <a href="/wiki/Brittleness" title="Brittleness">brittle</a>. Before it can be used, and before it can be worked by a <a href="/wiki/Blacksmith" title="Blacksmith">blacksmith</a>, it must be converted to a more malleable form as bar iron, the early stage of <a href="/wiki/Wrought_iron" title="Wrought iron">wrought iron</a>. </p><p><a href="/wiki/Abraham_Darby_I" title="Abraham Darby I">Abraham Darby</a>'s successful use of <a href="/wiki/Coke_(fuel)" title="Coke (fuel)">coke</a> for his <a href="/wiki/Blast_furnace" title="Blast furnace">blast furnace</a> at <a href="/wiki/Coalbrookdale" title="Coalbrookdale">Coalbrookdale</a> in 1709<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESchubert195899_2-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESchubert195899-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> reduced the price of iron, but this coke-fuelled pig iron was not initially accepted as it could not be converted to bar iron by the existing methods.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESchubert1958100_3-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESchubert1958100-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Sulfide_(organic)" class="mw-redirect" title="Sulfide (organic)">Sulfur</a> impurities from the coke made it '<a href="/wiki/Red_short" class="mw-redirect" title="Red short">red short</a>', or brittle when heated, and so the finery process was unworkable for it. It was not until around 1750, when steam powered blowing increased furnace temperatures enough to allow sufficient lime to be added to remove the <a href="/wiki/Sulfur" title="Sulfur">sulfur</a>, that coke pig iron began to be adopted.<sup id="cite_ref-Tylecote_1992_4-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Tylecote_1992-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Also, better processes were developed to refine it.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESchubert1958100_3-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESchubert1958100-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Invention">Invention</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Puddling_(metallurgy)&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Invention"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Abraham_Darby_II" title="Abraham Darby II">Abraham Darby II</a>, son of the blast furnace innovator, managed to convert pig iron to bar iron in 1749, but no details are known of his process.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESchubert1958106_5-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESchubert1958106-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The <a href="/wiki/Cranage_brothers" class="mw-redirect" title="Cranage brothers">Cranage brothers</a>, also working alongside the <a href="/wiki/River_Severn" title="River Severn">River Severn</a>, allegedly achieved this experimentally by using a coal-fired <a href="/wiki/Reverbatory_furnace" class="mw-redirect" title="Reverbatory furnace">reverbatory furnace</a>, in which the iron and the sulphurous coal could be kept separate but it was never used commercially.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESchubert1958106_5-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESchubert1958106-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> They were the first to hypothesise that iron could be converted from pig iron to bar iron by the action of heat alone. Although they were unaware of the necessary effects of the <a href="/wiki/Allotropes_of_oxygen" title="Allotropes of oxygen">oxygen</a> supplied by the <a href="/wiki/Atmosphere_of_Earth" title="Atmosphere of Earth">air</a>, they had at least abandoned the previous misapprehension that mixture with materials from the fuel were needed. Their experiments were successful and they were granted patent Nº851 in 1766, but no commercial adoption seems to have been made of their process. </p><p>In 1783, <a href="/wiki/Peter_Onions" title="Peter Onions">Peter Onions</a> at <a href="/wiki/Dowlais_Ironworks" title="Dowlais Ironworks">Dowlais</a> constructed a larger reverbatory furnace.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESchubert1958106_5-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESchubert1958106-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> He began successful commercial puddling with this and was granted patent Nº1370. The furnace was improved by <a href="/wiki/Henry_Cort" title="Henry Cort">Henry Cort</a> at <a href="/wiki/Fontley" class="mw-redirect" title="Fontley">Fontley</a> in Hampshire in 1783–84 and patented in 1784. Cort added dampers to the chimney, avoiding some of the risk of overheating and 'burning' the iron.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESchubert1958106_5-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESchubert1958106-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Cort's process consisted of stirring molten pig iron in a reverberatory furnace in an <a href="/wiki/Redox" title="Redox">oxidising</a> atmosphere, thus decarburising it. When the iron "came to nature", that is, to a pasty consistency, it was gathered into a puddled ball, <a href="/wiki/Shingling" title="Shingling">shingled</a>, and rolled (as described below). This application of grooved rollers to the <a href="/wiki/Rolling_mill" class="mw-redirect" title="Rolling mill">rolling mill</a>, to roll narrow bars, was also Cort's adoption of existing rolling mills on the Continent.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESchubert1958105–106_6-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESchubert1958105–106-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Cort's efforts to license this process were unsuccessful as it only worked with <a href="/wiki/Charcoal" title="Charcoal">charcoal</a> smelted pig iron. Modifications were made by Richard Crawshay at his <a href="/wiki/Ironworks" title="Ironworks">ironworks</a> at <a href="/wiki/Cyfarthfa_Ironworks" title="Cyfarthfa Ironworks">Cyfarthfa</a> in Merthyr Tydfil, which incorporated an initial refining process developed at their neighbours at Dowlais. </p><p>Ninety years after Cort's invention, an American labor newspaper recalled the advantages of his system: </p> <blockquote><p> "When iron is simply melted and run into any mold, its texture is granular, and it is so brittle as to be quite unreliable for any use requiring much <a href="/wiki/Tensile_strength" class="mw-redirect" title="Tensile strength">tensile strength</a>. The process of puddling consisted in stirring the molten iron run out in a puddle, and had the effect of so changing its anotomic arrangement as to render the process of rolling more efficacious."<sup id="cite_ref-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></p></blockquote> <p>Cort's process (as patented) only worked for white <a href="/wiki/Cast_iron" title="Cast iron">cast iron</a>, not <a href="/wiki/Gray_iron" title="Gray iron">grey cast iron</a>, which was the usual feedstock for forges of the period. This problem was resolved probably at <a href="/wiki/Merthyr_Tydfil" title="Merthyr Tydfil">Merthyr Tydfil</a> by combining puddling with one element of a slightly earlier process. This involved another kind of hearth known as a 'refinery' or 'running out fire'.<sup id="cite_ref-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The pig iron was melted in this and run out into a trough. The slag separated, and floated on the molten iron, and was removed by lowering a dam at the end of the trough. The effect of this process was to <a href="/wiki/Silicon" title="Silicon">desiliconise</a> the metal, leaving a white brittle metal, known as 'finers metal'. This was the ideal material to charge to the puddling furnace. This version of the process was known as 'dry puddling' and continued in use in some places as late as 1890. </p><p>An additional development in refining gray iron was known as 'wet puddling', also known as 'boiling' or 'pig boiling'. This was invented by a puddler named <a href="/wiki/Joseph_Hall_(metallurgist)" title="Joseph Hall (metallurgist)">Joseph Hall</a> at <a href="/wiki/Tipton" title="Tipton">Tipton</a>. He began adding <a href="/wiki/Scrap_iron" class="mw-redirect" title="Scrap iron">scrap iron</a> to the charge. Later, he tried adding iron <a href="/wiki/Fouling" title="Fouling">scale</a> (in effect, <a href="/wiki/Iron_oxide" title="Iron oxide">iron oxides</a> such as <a href="/wiki/Iron(II)_oxide" title="Iron(II) oxide">FeO</a>, <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1123817410">.mw-parser-output .template-chem2-su{display:inline-block;font-size:80%;line-height:1;vertical-align:-0.35em}.mw-parser-output .template-chem2-su>span{display:block;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output sub.template-chem2-sub{font-size:80%;vertical-align:-0.35em}.mw-parser-output sup.template-chem2-sup{font-size:80%;vertical-align:0.65em}</style><span class="chemf nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Iron(III)_oxide" title="Iron(III) oxide">Fe<sub class="template-chem2-sub">2</sub>O<sub class="template-chem2-sub">3</sub></a></span>, or <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1123817410"><span class="chemf nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Magnetite" title="Magnetite">Fe<sub class="template-chem2-sub">3</sub>O<sub class="template-chem2-sub">4</sub></a></span>). The result was spectacular in that the furnace boiled violently, producing <a href="/wiki/Carbon_monoxide" title="Carbon monoxide">carbon monoxide</a> bubbles. This was due to a <a href="/wiki/Chemical_reaction" title="Chemical reaction">chemical reaction</a> between the <a href="/wiki/Iron_oxide" title="Iron oxide">iron oxides</a> in the scale and the <a href="/wiki/Carbon" title="Carbon">carbon</a> dissolved in the pig iron: <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1123817410"><span class="chemf nowrap">C + Fe<sub class="template-chem2-sub">2</sub>O<sub class="template-chem2-sub">3</sub> → CO + 2 FeO</span>. To his surprise, the resultant puddle ball produced good iron. </p><p>One big problem with puddling was that up to 15% of the iron was drawn off with the slag because sand was used for the bed. Hall substituted roasted tap cinder for the bed, which cut this waste to 8%, declining to 5% by the end of the century.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELandes196933_9-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELandes196933-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Hall subsequently became a partner in establishing the Bloomfield Iron Works at Tipton in 1830, the firm becoming Bradley, Barrows and Hall from 1834. This is the version of the process most commonly used in the mid to late 19th century. Wet puddling had the advantage that it was much more efficient than dry puddling (or any earlier process). The best yield of iron achievable from dry puddling is one ton of iron from 1.3 tons of pig iron (a yield of 77%), but the yield from wet puddling was nearly 100%. </p><p>The production of <a href="/wiki/Mild_steel" class="mw-redirect" title="Mild steel">mild steel</a> in the puddling furnace was achieved circa 1850<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (July 2022)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> in <a href="/wiki/Westfalen" class="mw-redirect" title="Westfalen">Westphalia</a>, Germany and was patented in Great Britain on behalf of Lohage, Bremme and Lehrkind. It worked only with pig iron made from certain kinds of ore. The cast iron had to be melted quickly and the slag to be rich in <a href="/wiki/Manganese" title="Manganese">manganese</a>. When the metal came to nature, it had to be removed quickly and shingled before further <a href="/wiki/Decarburization" title="Decarburization">decarburization</a> occurred. The process was taken up at the <a href="/wiki/Low_Moor_Ironworks" title="Low Moor Ironworks">Low Moor Ironworks</a> at <a href="/wiki/Bradford" title="Bradford">Bradford</a> in <a href="/wiki/Yorkshire" title="Yorkshire">Yorkshire</a> (<a href="/wiki/England" title="England">England</a>) in 1851 and in the <a href="/wiki/Loire" title="Loire">Loire</a> valley in <a href="/wiki/France" title="France">France</a> in 1855. It was widely used. </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/w/index.php?title=File:Production_fonte_fer_acier_France_G-B.svg&lang=en" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a7/Production_fonte_fer_acier_France_G-B.svg/350px-Production_fonte_fer_acier_France_G-B.svg.png" decoding="async" width="350" height="225" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a7/Production_fonte_fer_acier_France_G-B.svg/525px-Production_fonte_fer_acier_France_G-B.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a7/Production_fonte_fer_acier_France_G-B.svg/700px-Production_fonte_fer_acier_France_G-B.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1225" data-file-height="788" /></a><figcaption>Evolution of the production of wrough (puddled) iron, pig iron and steel in Great-Britain and France. The transition between each metal can be noticed on these graphics, for both countries.</figcaption></figure> <p>The puddling process began to be displaced with the introduction of the <a href="/wiki/Bessemer_process" title="Bessemer process">Bessemer process</a>, which produced steel. This could be converted into wrought iron using the <a href="/wiki/Wrought_Iron#Aston_process" class="mw-redirect" title="Wrought Iron">Aston process</a> for a fraction of the cost and time. For comparison, an average size charge for a puddling furnace was 800–900 lb (360–410 kg)<sup id="cite_ref-mi_10-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-mi-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> while a Bessemer converter charge was <span class="nowrap">15 <a href="/wiki/Short_ton" title="Short ton">short tons</a></span> (13,600 kg). The puddling process could not be scaled up, being limited by the amount that the puddler could handle. It could only be expanded by building more furnaces. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Process">Process</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Puddling_(metallurgy)&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Process"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Puddling_furnace_ext_captions.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bf/Puddling_furnace_ext_captions.png/170px-Puddling_furnace_ext_captions.png" decoding="async" width="170" height="256" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bf/Puddling_furnace_ext_captions.png/255px-Puddling_furnace_ext_captions.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/b/bf/Puddling_furnace_ext_captions.png 2x" data-file-width="289" data-file-height="435" /></a><figcaption>Exterior view of a single puddling furnace. A. Damper; B. Work door</figcaption></figure> <p>The process begins by preparing the puddling furnace. This involves bringing the furnace to a low temperature and then <i>fettling</i> it. Fettling is the process of painting the grate and walls around it with iron oxides, typically <a href="/wiki/Hematite" title="Hematite">hematite</a>;<sup id="cite_ref-em_11-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-em-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> this acts as a protective coating keeping the melted metal from burning through the furnace. Sometimes finely pounded cinder was used instead of hematite. In this case the furnace must be heated for 4–5 hours to melt the cinder and then cooled before charging. </p><p>Either white cast iron or <a href="/wiki/Refined_iron" class="mw-redirect" title="Refined iron">refined iron</a> is then placed in hearth of the furnace, a process known as <i>charging</i>. For wet puddling, scrap iron and/or iron oxide is also charged. This mixture is then heated until the top melts, allowing for the oxides to begin mixing; this usually takes 30 minutes. This mixture is subjected to a strong current of air and stirred by long bars with hooks on one end, called <i>puddling bars</i> or <i>rabbles</i>,<sup id="cite_ref-mi_10-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-mi-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-12" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> through doors in the furnace.<sup id="cite_ref-Ty_13-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Ty-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This helps the iron-III (the <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1123817410"><span class="chemf nowrap">Fe<sup>3+</sup></span> species acting as an <a href="/wiki/Oxidizing_agent" title="Oxidizing agent">oxidiser</a>) from the oxides to react with impurities in the pig iron, notably <a href="/wiki/Silicon" title="Silicon">silicon</a>, manganese (to form slag) and to some degree <a href="/wiki/Sulfur" title="Sulfur">sulfur</a> and <a href="/wiki/Phosphorus" title="Phosphorus">phosphorus</a>, which form gases that escape with the exhaust of the furnace. </p><p>More fuel is then added and the temperature is raised. The iron completely melts and the carbon starts to burn off. When wet puddling, the formation of <a href="/wiki/Carbon_monoxide" title="Carbon monoxide">carbon monoxide</a> (CO) and <a href="/wiki/Carbon_dioxide" title="Carbon dioxide">carbon dioxide</a> (CO<sub style="font-size: 80%;vertical-align: -0.35em">2</sub>) due to reactions with the added iron oxide will cause bubbles to form that cause the mass to appear to boil. This process causes the <a href="/wiki/Slag" title="Slag">slag</a> to puff up on top, giving the rabbler a visual indication of the progress of the combustion. As the carbon burns off, the melting temperature of the mixture rises from 1,150 to 1,540 °C (2,100 to 2,800 °F),<sup id="cite_ref-etw_14-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-etw-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-15" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> so the furnace has to be continually fed during this process. The <a href="/wiki/Melting_point" title="Melting point">melting point</a> increases since the carbon atoms within the mixture act as a solute in solution which lowers the melting point of the iron mixture (like road salt on ice). </p><p>Working as a two-man crew, a puddler and helper could produce about 1500 kg of iron in a 12-hour shift.<sup id="cite_ref-McNeil1990_16-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-McNeil1990-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The strenuous labour, heat and fumes caused puddlers to have a very short life expectancy, with most dying in their 30s.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELandes1969218_17-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELandes1969218-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Puddling was never able to be automated because the puddler had to sense when the balls had "come to nature". </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Puddled_steel">Puddled steel</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Puddling_(metallurgy)&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Puddled steel"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1251242444">.mw-parser-output .ambox{border:1px solid #a2a9b1;border-left:10px solid #36c;background-color:#fbfbfb;box-sizing:border-box}.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+style+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+style+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+link+.ambox{margin-top:-1px}html body.mediawiki .mw-parser-output .ambox.mbox-small-left{margin:4px 1em 4px 0;overflow:hidden;width:238px;border-collapse:collapse;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em}.mw-parser-output .ambox-speedy{border-left:10px solid #b32424;background-color:#fee7e6}.mw-parser-output .ambox-delete{border-left:10px solid #b32424}.mw-parser-output .ambox-content{border-left:10px solid #f28500}.mw-parser-output .ambox-style{border-left:10px solid #fc3}.mw-parser-output .ambox-move{border-left:10px solid #9932cc}.mw-parser-output .ambox-protection{border-left:10px solid #a2a9b1}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-text{border:none;padding:0.25em 0.5em;width:100%}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-image{border:none;padding:2px 0 2px 0.5em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-imageright{border:none;padding:2px 0.5em 2px 0;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-empty-cell{border:none;padding:0;width:1px}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-image-div{width:52px}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .ambox{margin:0 10%}}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .ambox{display:none!important}}</style><table class="box-Expand_section plainlinks metadata ambox mbox-small-left ambox-content" role="presentation"><tbody><tr><td class="mbox-image"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Wiki_letter_w_cropped.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="[icon]" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1c/Wiki_letter_w_cropped.svg/20px-Wiki_letter_w_cropped.svg.png" decoding="async" width="20" height="14" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1c/Wiki_letter_w_cropped.svg/30px-Wiki_letter_w_cropped.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1c/Wiki_letter_w_cropped.svg/40px-Wiki_letter_w_cropped.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="44" data-file-height="31" /></a></span></td><td class="mbox-text"><div class="mbox-text-span">This section <b>needs expansion</b>. You can help by <a class="external text" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Puddling_(metallurgy)&action=edit&section=">adding to it</a>. <span class="date-container"><i>(<span class="date">August 2022</span>)</i></span></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <p>In the late 1840s, the German chemist <a href="/w/index.php?title=Franz_Anton_Lohage&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Franz Anton Lohage (page does not exist)">Franz Anton Lohage</a><span class="noprint" style="font-size:85%; font-style: normal;"> [<a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Franz_Anton_Lohage" class="extiw" title="de:Franz Anton Lohage">de</a>]</span> developed a modification of the puddling process to produce not <a href="/wiki/Iron" title="Iron">iron</a> but <a href="/wiki/Steel" title="Steel">steel</a> at the <a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hasper_H%C3%BCtte" class="extiw" title="de:Hasper Hütte">Haspe Iron Works</a> <a href="/wiki/Hagen-Haspe" title="Hagen-Haspe">in Hagen</a>; it was subsequently commercialized in Germany, France and the UK in the 1850s, and puddled steel was the main raw material for <a href="/wiki/Krupp" title="Krupp">Krupp</a> cast steel even in the 1870s.<sup id="cite_ref-18" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Before the development of the basic refractory lining (with <a href="/wiki/Magnesium_oxide" title="Magnesium oxide">magnesium oxide</a>, MgO) and the wide-scale adoption of the <a href="/wiki/Gilchrist%E2%80%93Thomas_process" title="Gilchrist–Thomas process">Gilchrist–Thomas process</a> ca. 1880 it complemented acidic <a href="/wiki/Bessemer_converter" class="mw-redirect" title="Bessemer converter">Bessemer converters</a> (with a refractory material made of <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1123817410"><span class="chemf nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Silica" class="mw-redirect" title="Silica">SiO<sub class="template-chem2-sub">2</sub></a></span>) and open hearths because unlike them, the puddling furnace could utilize phosphorous ores abundant in Continental Europe.<sup id="cite_ref-19" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Puddling_furnace">Puddling furnace</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Puddling_(metallurgy)&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Puddling furnace"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Puddling_furnace_int_captions.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/99/Puddling_furnace_int_captions.png/250px-Puddling_furnace_int_captions.png" decoding="async" width="250" height="253" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/99/Puddling_furnace_int_captions.png/375px-Puddling_furnace_int_captions.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/99/Puddling_furnace_int_captions.png/500px-Puddling_furnace_int_captions.png 2x" data-file-width="578" data-file-height="585" /></a><figcaption>Vertical and horizontal cross-sections of a single puddling furnace. A. Fireplace grate; B. Firebricks; C. Cross binders; D. Fireplace; E. Work door; F. Hearth; G. Cast iron retaining plates; H. Bridge wall</figcaption></figure> <p>The <b>puddling furnace</b> is a metalmaking technology used to create <a href="/wiki/Wrought_iron" title="Wrought iron">wrought iron</a> or steel from the <a href="/wiki/Pig_iron" title="Pig iron">pig iron</a> produced in a <a href="/wiki/Blast_furnace" title="Blast furnace">blast furnace</a>. The furnace is constructed to pull the hot air over the iron without the fuel coming into direct contact with the iron, a system generally known as a <a href="/wiki/Reverberatory_furnace" title="Reverberatory furnace">reverberatory furnace</a> or <a href="/wiki/Open_hearth_furnace" class="mw-redirect" title="Open hearth furnace">open hearth furnace</a>. The major advantage of this system is keeping the impurities of the fuel separated from the charge. </p> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Double_puddling_furnace.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4d/Double_puddling_furnace.png/250px-Double_puddling_furnace.png" decoding="async" width="250" height="107" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4d/Double_puddling_furnace.png/375px-Double_puddling_furnace.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4d/Double_puddling_furnace.png/500px-Double_puddling_furnace.png 2x" data-file-width="551" data-file-height="235" /></a><figcaption>Double puddling furnace layout</figcaption></figure> <p>The hearth is where the iron is charged, melted and puddled. The hearth's shape is usually elliptical; 1.5–1.8 m (4.9–5.9 ft) in length and 1–1.2 m (3.3–3.9 ft) wide. If the furnace is designed to puddle white iron then the hearth depth is never more than 50 cm (20 in). If the furnace is designed to boil gray iron then the average hearth depth is 50–75 cm (20–30 in). Due to the great heat required to melt the charge the grate had to be cooled, lest it melt with the charge. This was done by running a constant flow of cool air on it, or by throwing water on the bottom of the grate. </p><p>The fireplace, where the fuel is burned, used a cast iron grate which varied in size depending on the fuel used. If bituminous <a href="/wiki/Coal" title="Coal">coal</a> is used then an average grate size is 60 cm × 90 cm (2.0 ft × 3.0 ft) and is loaded with 25–30 cm (9.8–11.8 in) of coal. If <a href="/wiki/Anthracite" title="Anthracite">anthracite</a> coal is used then the grate is 1.5 m × 1.2 m (4.9 ft × 3.9 ft) and is loaded with 50–75 cm (20–30 in) of coal. </p><p>A double puddling furnace is similar to a single puddling furnace, with the major difference being there are two work doors allowing two puddlers to work the furnace at the same time. The biggest advantage of this setup is that it produces twice as much wrought iron. It is also more economical and fuel efficient compared to a single furnace. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Puddling_(metallurgy)&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239009302">.mw-parser-output .portalbox{padding:0;margin:0.5em 0;display:table;box-sizing:border-box;max-width:175px;list-style:none}.mw-parser-output .portalborder{border:1px solid var(--border-color-base,#a2a9b1);padding:0.1em;background:var(--background-color-neutral-subtle,#f8f9fa)}.mw-parser-output .portalbox-entry{display:table-row;font-size:85%;line-height:110%;height:1.9em;font-style:italic;font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output .portalbox-image{display:table-cell;padding:0.2em;vertical-align:middle;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output 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screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-FE.Kiel-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FE.Kiel_1-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://web.archive.org/web/20230522021129/https://www.tf.uni-kiel.de/matwis/amat/iss/kap_a/illustr/sa_2_1a.html">"Smelting Science - 1. Furnaces"</a>. <i>www.tf.uni-kiel.de</i>. Faculty of Engineering-Kiel University. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.tf.uni-kiel.de/matwis/amat/iss/kap_a/illustr/sa_2_1a.html">the original</a> on May 22, 2023<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2 August</span> 2024</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=www.tf.uni-kiel.de&rft.atitle=Smelting+Science+-+1.+Furnaces&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.tf.uni-kiel.de%2Fmatwis%2Famat%2Fiss%2Fkap_a%2Fillustr%2Fsa_2_1a.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APuddling+%28metallurgy%29" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESchubert195899-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESchubert195899_2-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFSchubert1958">Schubert (1958)</a>, p. 99.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESchubert1958100-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESchubert1958100_3-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESchubert1958100_3-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFSchubert1958">Schubert (1958)</a>, p. 100.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Tylecote_1992-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Tylecote_1992_4-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFTylecote1992" class="citation book cs1">Tylecote, R. F. (1992). <i>A History of Metallurgy, Second Edition</i>. London: Maney Publishing, for the Institute of Materials. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0901462886" title="Special:BookSources/978-0901462886"><bdi>978-0901462886</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+History+of+Metallurgy%2C+Second+Edition&rft.place=London&rft.pub=Maney+Publishing%2C+for+the+Institute+of+Materials&rft.date=1992&rft.isbn=978-0901462886&rft.aulast=Tylecote&rft.aufirst=R.+F.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APuddling+%28metallurgy%29" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESchubert1958106-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESchubert1958106_5-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESchubert1958106_5-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESchubert1958106_5-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESchubert1958106_5-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFSchubert1958">Schubert (1958)</a>, p. 106.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESchubert1958105–106-6"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESchubert1958105–106_6-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFSchubert1958">Schubert (1958)</a>, pp. 105–106.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-7"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-7">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">"The Puddling of Iron," <i>The Workingman's Advocate</i> [Chicago], vol. 9, no. 9 (January 25, 1873), pg. 1.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-8"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-8">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Referred to as a "finery" and "run-out fire" by Overman, but not to be confused with the finery in the finery forge.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTELandes196933-9"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELandes196933_9-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFLandes1969">Landes (1969)</a>, p. 33.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-mi-10"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-mi_10-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-mi_10-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFOverman1854" class="citation book cs1">Overman, Fredrick (1854). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/manufactureiron00overgoog"><i>The Manufacture of Iron, in All Its Various Branches</i></a>. Philadelphia: H. C. Baird. pp. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/manufactureiron00overgoog/page/n267">267</a>, 268, 287, 283, 344.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Manufacture+of+Iron%2C+in+All+Its+Various+Branches&rft.place=Philadelphia&rft.pages=267%2C+268%2C+287%2C+283%2C+344&rft.pub=H.+C.+Baird&rft.date=1854&rft.aulast=Overman&rft.aufirst=Fredrick&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fmanufactureiron00overgoog&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APuddling+%28metallurgy%29" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-em-11"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-em_11-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRajput2000" class="citation book cs1">Rajput, R.K. (2000). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=6yr-NMgM6HQC"><i>Engineering Materials</i></a>. S. Chand. p. 223. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/81-219-1960-6" title="Special:BookSources/81-219-1960-6"><bdi>81-219-1960-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Engineering+Materials&rft.pages=223&rft.pub=S.+Chand&rft.date=2000&rft.isbn=81-219-1960-6&rft.aulast=Rajput&rft.aufirst=R.K.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D6yr-NMgM6HQC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APuddling+%28metallurgy%29" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-12"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-12">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">W. K. V. Gale, <i>The Iron and Steel Industry: a Dictionary of Terms</i> (David and Charles, Newton Abbot 1971), 165.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Ty-13"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Ty_13-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">R. F. Tylecote, 'Iron in the Industrial Revolution' in R. F. Tylecote, <i>The Industrial Revolution in Metals</i> (Institute of Metals, London 1991), 236-40.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-etw-14"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-etw_14-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSmith1984" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Carroll_Smith" title="Carroll Smith">Smith, Carroll</a> (1984). <i>Engineer to Win</i>. MotorBooks / MBI Publishing Company. pp. 53–54. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-87938-186-8" title="Special:BookSources/0-87938-186-8"><bdi>0-87938-186-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Engineer+to+Win&rft.pages=53-54&rft.pub=MotorBooks+%2F+MBI+Publishing+Company&rft.date=1984&rft.isbn=0-87938-186-8&rft.aulast=Smith&rft.aufirst=Carroll&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APuddling+%28metallurgy%29" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-15"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-15">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">W. K. V. Gale, <i>The British Iron and Steel Industry</i> (David and Charles, Newton Abbot, 1967), 70–79.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-McNeil1990-16"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-McNeil1990_16-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMcNeil1990" class="citation book cs1">McNeil, Ian (1990). <span class="id-lock-registration" title="Free registration required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/isbn_9780415147927"><i>An Encyclopedia of the History of Technology</i></a></span>. London: Routledge. p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/isbn_9780415147927/page/165">165</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0415147921" title="Special:BookSources/0415147921"><bdi>0415147921</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=An+Encyclopedia+of+the+History+of+Technology&rft.place=London&rft.pages=165&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=1990&rft.isbn=0415147921&rft.aulast=McNeil&rft.aufirst=Ian&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fisbn_9780415147927&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APuddling+%28metallurgy%29" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTELandes1969218-17"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELandes1969218_17-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFLandes1969">Landes (1969)</a>, p. 218.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-18"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-18">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.gracesguide.co.uk/Puddled_Steel">"Puddled Steel – Graces Guide"</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Puddled+Steel+%E2%80%93+Graces+Guide&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.gracesguide.co.uk%2FPuddled_Steel&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APuddling+%28metallurgy%29" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-19"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-19">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://etheses.whiterose.ac.uk/14433/3/237901_vol.2.pdf">'The Development of the Early Steelmaking Processes – An Essay in the History of Technology' by Kenneth Charles Barraclough. Thesis submitted to the University of Sheffield for the Degree of Doctor of Philosophy, May 1981</a></span> </li> </ol></div></div> <dl><dt>Sources</dt></dl> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLandes1969" class="citation book cs1">Landes, David. S. (1969). <i>The Unbound Prometheus: Technological Change and Industrial Development in Western Europe from 1750 to the Present</i>. Cambridge, New York: Press Syndicate of the University of Cambridge. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-521-09418-6" title="Special:BookSources/0-521-09418-6"><bdi>0-521-09418-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Unbound+Prometheus%3A+Technological+Change+and+Industrial+Development+in+Western+Europe+from+1750+to+the+Present&rft.place=Cambridge%2C+New+York&rft.pub=Press+Syndicate+of+the+University+of+Cambridge&rft.date=1969&rft.isbn=0-521-09418-6&rft.aulast=Landes&rft.aufirst=David.+S.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APuddling+%28metallurgy%29" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSchubert1958" class="citation book cs1">Schubert, H.R. (1958). <i>Extraction and Production of Metals: Iron and Steel</i>. A History of Technology IV: The Industrial Revolution. Oxford University press.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Extraction+and+Production+of+Metals%3A+Iron+and+Steel&rft.series=A+History+of+Technology+IV%3A+The+Industrial+Revolution&rft.pub=Oxford+University+press&rft.date=1958&rft.aulast=Schubert&rft.aufirst=H.R.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APuddling+%28metallurgy%29" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Further_reading">Further reading</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Puddling_(metallurgy)&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Further reading"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1235681985">.mw-parser-output .side-box{margin:4px 0;box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #aaa;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em;background-color:var(--background-color-interactive-subtle,#f8f9fa);display:flow-root}.mw-parser-output .side-box-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{padding:0.25em 0.9em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-image{padding:2px 0 2px 0.9em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-imageright{padding:2px 0.9em 2px 0;text-align:center}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .side-box-flex{display:flex;align-items:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{flex:1;min-width:0}}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .side-box{width:238px}.mw-parser-output .side-box-right{clear:right;float:right;margin-left:1em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-left{margin-right:1em}}</style><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1237033735">@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox{display:none!important}}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox img[src*="Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg"]{background-color:white}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox img[src*="Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg"]{background-color:white}}</style><div class="side-box side-box-right plainlinks sistersitebox"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1126788409">.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul{line-height:inherit;list-style:none;margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol li,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul li{margin-bottom:0}</style> <div class="side-box-flex"> <div class="side-box-image"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg/38px-Wikisource-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="38" height="40" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg/57px-Wikisource-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg/76px-Wikisource-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="410" data-file-height="430" /></span></span></div> <div class="side-box-text plainlist"><a href="/wiki/Wikisource" title="Wikisource">Wikisource</a> has original text related to this article: <div style="margin-left: 10px;"><b><a href="https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Special:Search/Puddling_(metallurgy)" class="extiw" title="wikisource:Special:Search/Puddling (metallurgy)">Puddling (metallurgy)</a></b></div></div></div> </div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1235681985"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1237033735"><div class="side-box side-box-right plainlinks sistersitebox"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"> <div class="side-box-flex"> <div class="side-box-image"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/30px-Commons-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="30" height="40" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/45px-Commons-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/59px-Commons-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="1376" /></span></span></div> <div class="side-box-text plainlist">Wikimedia Commons has media related to <span style="font-weight: bold; font-style: italic;"><a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Puddling_furnaces" class="extiw" title="commons:Category:Puddling furnaces">Puddling furnaces</a></span>.</div></div> </div> <ul><li>W. K. V. Gale, <i>Iron and Steel</i> (Longmans, London 1969), 55ff.</li> <li>W. K. V. Gale, <i>The British Iron and Steel Industry: a technical history</i> (David & Charles, Newton Abbot 1967), 62–66.</li> <li>R. A. Mott, 'Dry and Wet Puddling' <i>Trans. Newcomen Soc.</i> 49 (1977–78), 153–58.</li> <li>R. A. Mott (ed. P. Singer), <i>Henry Cort: the great finer</i> (The Metals Society, London 1983).</li> <li>K. Barraclough, <i>Steelmaking: 1850–1900</i> (Institute of Materials, London 1990), 27–35.</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFOverman1854" class="citation book cs1">Overman, Fredrick (1854). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/manufactureiron00overgoog"><i>The Manufacture of Iron, in All Its Various Branches</i></a>. Philadelphia: H. C. Baird. pp. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/manufactureiron00overgoog/page/n259">259</a>–302.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Manufacture+of+Iron%2C+in+All+Its+Various+Branches&rft.place=Philadelphia&rft.pages=259-302&rft.pub=H.+C.+Baird&rft.date=1854&rft.aulast=Overman&rft.aufirst=Fredrick&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fmanufactureiron00overgoog&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APuddling+%28metallurgy%29" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.academia.edu/334374/Extra_Special_Best_Best_Black_Country_iron_puddling_and_wrought_iron_manufacture_in_the_nineteenth_century">Paul Belford's paper</a> on <a href="/wiki/N._Hingley_%26_Sons_Ltd" title="N. Hingley & Sons Ltd">N. Hingley & Sons Ltd</a></li> <li><i>The Iron Puddler: My Life in the Rolling Mills and What Came of It</i>. by <a href="/wiki/James_J._Davis" title="James J. Davis">James J. Davis</a>. New York: Grosset and Dunlap, 1922. (ghostwritten by C. L. Edson)</li></ul> <div class="navbox-styles"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1129693374">.mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul{margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt,.mw-parser-output .hlist li{margin:0;display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul ul{display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist .mw-empty-li{display:none}.mw-parser-output .hlist dt::after{content:": "}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li::after{content:" · ";font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output .hlist 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rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239400231">.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar ul{display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::before{margin-right:-0.125em;content:"[ "}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::after{margin-left:-0.125em;content:" ]"}.mw-parser-output .navbar li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .navbar a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini abbr{font-variant:small-caps;border-bottom:none;text-decoration:none;cursor:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-full{font-size:114%;margin:0 7em}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-mini{font-size:114%;margin:0 4em}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}}</style><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Iron_and_steel_production" title="Template:Iron and steel production"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Iron_and_steel_production" title="Template talk:Iron and steel production"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Iron_and_steel_production" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Iron and steel production"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Iron_and_steel_production" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Iron" title="Iron">Iron</a> and <a href="/wiki/Steel" title="Steel">steel</a> production</div></th></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="3"><div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ferrous_metallurgy" title="Ferrous metallurgy">History of ferrous metallurgy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_steel_producers" title="List of steel producers">List of steel producers</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Iron production<br />(<a href="/wiki/Ironworks" title="Ironworks">Ironworks</a>)</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Smelting" title="Smelting">Smelting</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bloomery" title="Bloomery">Bloomery</a> (produces <a href="/wiki/Direct_reduced_iron" title="Direct reduced iron">sponge iron</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Blast_furnace" title="Blast furnace">Blast furnace</a> (produces <a href="/wiki/Pig_iron" title="Pig iron">pig iron</a>) <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cold_blast" title="Cold blast">Cold blast</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hot_blast" title="Hot blast">Hot blast</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anthracite_iron" title="Anthracite iron">Anthracite iron</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Direct_reduced_iron" title="Direct reduced iron">Direct reduced iron</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Secondary</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Wrought_iron" title="Wrought iron">Wrought iron</a> (via <a href="/wiki/Finery_forge" title="Finery forge">Finery forge</a> or <a href="/wiki/Reverberatory_furnace" title="Reverberatory furnace">Reverberatory</a> <a class="mw-selflink selflink">Puddling</a> <a href="/wiki/Industrial_furnace" title="Industrial furnace">Furnace</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cast_iron" title="Cast iron">Cast iron</a> (via <a href="/wiki/Cupola_furnace" title="Cupola furnace">Cupola furnace</a> or <a href="/wiki/Induction_furnace" title="Induction furnace">Induction furnace</a>)</li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td><td class="noviewer navbox-image" rowspan="4" style="width:1px;padding:0 0 0 2px"><div><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Fotothek_df_n-08_0000320.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f8/Fotothek_df_n-08_0000320.jpg/120px-Fotothek_df_n-08_0000320.jpg" decoding="async" width="120" height="120" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f8/Fotothek_df_n-08_0000320.jpg/180px-Fotothek_df_n-08_0000320.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f8/Fotothek_df_n-08_0000320.jpg/240px-Fotothek_df_n-08_0000320.jpg 2x" data-file-width="779" data-file-height="778" /></a></span></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Steelmaking" title="Steelmaking">Steelmaking</a><br />(<a href="/wiki/Steel_mill" title="Steel mill">Steel mill</a>)</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Primary (Pre-1850)</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Pattern_welding" title="Pattern welding">Pattern welding</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crucible_steel" title="Crucible steel">Crucible steel</a> (<a href="/wiki/Damascus_steel" title="Damascus steel">Damascus steel</a>, <a href="/wiki/Wootz_steel" title="Wootz steel">Wootz steel</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tatara_(furnace)" title="Tatara (furnace)">Tatara furnace</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cementation_process" title="Cementation process">Cementation process</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Primary (Post-1850)</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bessemer_process" title="Bessemer process">Bessemer process</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Open_hearth_furnace" class="mw-redirect" title="Open hearth furnace">Open hearth furnace</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Electric_arc_furnace" title="Electric arc furnace">Electric arc furnace</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Basic_oxygen_steelmaking" title="Basic oxygen steelmaking">Basic oxygen process</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Secondary</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Electro-slag_remelting" title="Electro-slag remelting">Electro-slag remelting</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vacuum_arc_remelting" title="Vacuum arc remelting">Vacuum arc remelting</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Argon_oxygen_decarburization" title="Argon oxygen decarburization">Argon oxygen decarburization</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Heat_treating" title="Heat treating">Heat treatment</a> methods</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Annealing_(metallurgy)" class="mw-redirect" title="Annealing (metallurgy)">Annealing</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Low_hydrogen_annealing" title="Low hydrogen annealing">Low hydrogen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Annealing_by_short_circuit" title="Annealing by short circuit">Short circuit</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Hardening_(metallurgy)" title="Hardening (metallurgy)">Hardening</a> / <br /><a href="/wiki/Case-hardening" title="Case-hardening">Case-hardening</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ausforming" title="Ausforming">Ausforming</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Boriding" title="Boriding">Boriding</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carbonitriding" title="Carbonitriding">Carbonitriding</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carburizing" title="Carburizing">Carburizing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cryogenic_hardening" title="Cryogenic hardening">Cryogenic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ferritic_nitrocarburizing" title="Ferritic nitrocarburizing">Ferritic nitrocarburizing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Induction_hardening" title="Induction hardening">Induction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nitriding" title="Nitriding">Nitriding</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Precipitation_hardening" title="Precipitation hardening">Precipitation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quench_polish_quench" title="Quench polish quench">Quench polish quench</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Tempering_(metallurgy)" title="Tempering (metallurgy)">Tempering</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Austempering" title="Austempering">Austempering</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Martempering" title="Martempering">Martempering</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cryogenic_treatment" title="Cryogenic treatment">Cryogenic treatment</a> (<a href="/wiki/Cryogenic_deburring" class="mw-redirect" title="Cryogenic deburring">Deburring</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cryogenic_deflashing" title="Cryogenic deflashing">Deflashing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cryogenic_hardening" title="Cryogenic hardening">Hardening</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Differential_heat_treatment" title="Differential heat treatment">Differential heat treatment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Decarburization" title="Decarburization">Decarburization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Forming_gas" title="Forming gas">Forming gas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Post_weld_heat_treatment" title="Post weld heat treatment">Post weld heat treatment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quenching" title="Quenching">Quenching</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Superplastic_forming" title="Superplastic forming">Superplastic forming</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/List_of_countries_by_steel_production" title="List of countries by steel production">Production by country</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Steel_industry_in_Bangladesh" title="Steel industry in Bangladesh">Bangladesh</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Steel_industry_in_China" title="Steel industry in China">China</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iron_and_steel_industry_in_India" title="Iron and steel industry in India">India</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Steel_industry_in_Italy" title="Steel industry in Italy">Italy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Steel_industry_in_Luxembourg" title="Steel industry in Luxembourg">Luxembourg</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Steel_industry_in_Nigeria" title="Steel industry in Nigeria">Nigeria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iron_and_steel_industry_in_the_United_States" title="Iron and steel industry in the United States">United States</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox authority-control" aria-label="Navbox" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Help:Authority_control" title="Help:Authority control">Authority control databases</a>: National <span class="mw-valign-text-top noprint" typeof="mw:File/Frameless"><a 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