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subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Two_major_distinctions-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Standard_SV-clauses" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Standard_SV-clauses"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.1</span> <span>Standard SV-clauses</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Standard_SV-clauses-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Verb_first_clauses" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Verb_first_clauses"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.2</span> <span>Verb first clauses</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Verb_first_clauses-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Wh-clauses" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Wh-clauses"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.3</span> <span><i>Wh</i>-clauses</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Wh-clauses-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Relative_clauses" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Relative_clauses"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.4</span> <span>Relative clauses</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Relative_clauses-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Clauses_according_to_semantic_predicate-argument_function" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Clauses_according_to_semantic_predicate-argument_function"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2</span> <span>Clauses according to semantic predicate-argument function</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Clauses_according_to_semantic_predicate-argument_function-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Clauses according to semantic predicate-argument function subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Clauses_according_to_semantic_predicate-argument_function-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Argument_clauses" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Argument_clauses"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.1</span> <span>Argument clauses</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Argument_clauses-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Adjunct_clauses" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Adjunct_clauses"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.2</span> <span>Adjunct clauses</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Adjunct_clauses-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Predicative_clauses" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Predicative_clauses"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.3</span> <span>Predicative clauses</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Predicative_clauses-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Representing_clauses" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Representing_clauses"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3</span> <span>Representing clauses</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Representing_clauses-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Clauses_vs_phrases" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Clauses_vs_phrases"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> <span>Clauses vs phrases</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Clauses_vs_phrases-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Non-finite_clauses" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Non-finite_clauses"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>Non-finite clauses</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Non-finite_clauses-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Non-finite clauses subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Non-finite_clauses-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Gerund_clauses" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Gerund_clauses"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.1</span> <span>Gerund clauses</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Gerund_clauses-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-to-infinitive_clauses" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#to-infinitive_clauses"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.2</span> <span><i>to</i>-infinitive clauses</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-to-infinitive_clauses-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Small_clauses" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Small_clauses"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.3</span> <span>Small clauses</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Small_clauses-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6</span> <span>See also</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Notes" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Notes"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7</span> <span>Notes</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Notes-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8</span> <span>References</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" 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Available in 39 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-39" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-language-progressive mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-language-progressive"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">39 languages</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%85%D8%B1%D9%83%D8%A8_%D8%A5%D8%B3%D9%86%D8%A7%D8%AF%D9%8A" title="مركب إسنادي – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="مركب إسنادي" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>العربية</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-min-nan mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh-min-nan.wikipedia.org/wiki/B%C3%BBn-chat" title="Bûn-chat – Minnan" lang="nan" hreflang="nan" data-title="Bûn-chat" data-language-autonym="閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gú" data-language-local-name="Minnan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gú</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-br mw-list-item"><a href="https://br.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lavarenn" title="Lavarenn – Breton" lang="br" hreflang="br" data-title="Lavarenn" data-language-autonym="Brezhoneg" data-language-local-name="Breton" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Brezhoneg</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cy mw-list-item"><a href="https://cy.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cymal_(gramadeg)" title="Cymal (gramadeg) – Welsh" lang="cy" hreflang="cy" data-title="Cymal (gramadeg)" data-language-autonym="Cymraeg" data-language-local-name="Welsh" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Cymraeg</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Teilsatz" title="Teilsatz – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Teilsatz" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Deutsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-et mw-list-item"><a href="https://et.wikipedia.org/wiki/Osalause" title="Osalause – Estonian" lang="et" hreflang="et" data-title="Osalause" data-language-autonym="Eesti" data-language-local-name="Estonian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Eesti</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eo mw-list-item"><a href="https://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Propozicio" title="Propozicio – Esperanto" lang="eo" hreflang="eo" data-title="Propozicio" data-language-autonym="Esperanto" data-language-local-name="Esperanto" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Esperanto</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A8%D9%86%D8%AF_(%D8%B2%D8%A8%D8%A7%D9%86%E2%80%8C%D8%B4%D9%86%D8%A7%D8%B3%DB%8C)" title="بند (زبان‌شناسی) – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="بند (زبان‌شناسی)" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>فارسی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Proposition_(grammaire)" title="Proposition (grammaire) – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Proposition (grammaire)" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Français</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gd mw-list-item"><a href="https://gd.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cl%C3%A0s_(gr%C3%A0mar)" title="Clàs (gràmar) – Scottish Gaelic" lang="gd" hreflang="gd" data-title="Clàs (gràmar)" data-language-autonym="Gàidhlig" data-language-local-name="Scottish Gaelic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Gàidhlig</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gan mw-list-item"><a href="https://gan.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E5%AD%90%E5%8F%A5" title="子句 – Gan" lang="gan" hreflang="gan" data-title="子句" data-language-autonym="贛語" data-language-local-name="Gan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>贛語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EC%A0%88_(%EC%96%B8%EC%96%B4%ED%95%99)" title="절 (언어학) – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="절 (언어학)" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>한국어</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Klausa" title="Klausa – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Klausa" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Indonesia</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-is mw-list-item"><a href="https://is.wikipedia.org/wiki/Setning_(setningafr%C3%A6%C3%B0i)" title="Setning (setningafræði) – Icelandic" lang="is" hreflang="is" data-title="Setning (setningafræði)" data-language-autonym="Íslenska" data-language-local-name="Icelandic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Íslenska</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Proposizione_(linguistica)" title="Proposizione (linguistica) – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Proposizione (linguistica)" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Italiano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he mw-list-item"><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%90%D7%99%D7%91%D7%A8_(%D7%AA%D7%97%D7%91%D7%99%D7%A8)" title="איבר (תחביר) – Hebrew" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="איבר (תחביר)" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="Hebrew" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>עברית</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-jv mw-list-item"><a href="https://jv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Klausa" title="Klausa – Javanese" lang="jv" hreflang="jv" data-title="Klausa" data-language-autonym="Jawa" data-language-local-name="Javanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Jawa</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sw mw-list-item"><a href="https://sw.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tungo_kishazi" title="Tungo kishazi – Swahili" lang="sw" hreflang="sw" data-title="Tungo kishazi" data-language-autonym="Kiswahili" data-language-local-name="Swahili" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Kiswahili</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-la mw-list-item"><a href="https://la.wikipedia.org/wiki/Clausa_(grammatica)" title="Clausa (grammatica) – Latin" lang="la" hreflang="la" data-title="Clausa (grammatica)" data-language-autonym="Latina" data-language-local-name="Latin" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Latina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lfn mw-list-item"><a href="https://lfn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Proposa_(gramatica)" title="Proposa (gramatica) – Lingua Franca Nova" lang="lfn" hreflang="lfn" data-title="Proposa (gramatica)" data-language-autonym="Lingua Franca Nova" data-language-local-name="Lingua Franca Nova" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Lingua Franca Nova</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mk mw-list-item"><a href="https://mk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%94%D0%B5%D0%BB-%D1%80%D0%B5%D1%87%D0%B5%D0%BD%D0%B8%D1%86%D0%B0" title="Дел-реченица – Macedonian" lang="mk" hreflang="mk" data-title="Дел-реченица" data-language-autonym="Македонски" data-language-local-name="Macedonian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Македонски</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mg mw-list-item"><a href="https://mg.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fehezankevitra_(fitsipiteny)" title="Fehezankevitra (fitsipiteny) – Malagasy" lang="mg" hreflang="mg" data-title="Fehezankevitra (fitsipiteny)" data-language-autonym="Malagasy" data-language-local-name="Malagasy" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Malagasy</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ms mw-list-item"><a href="https://ms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Klausa" title="Klausa – Malay" lang="ms" hreflang="ms" data-title="Klausa" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Melayu" data-language-local-name="Malay" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Melayu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E7%AF%80_(%E6%96%87%E6%B3%95)" title="節 (文法) – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="節 (文法)" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>日本語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pa mw-list-item"><a href="https://pa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A8%89%E0%A8%AA%E0%A8%B5%E0%A8%BE%E0%A8%95" title="ਉਪਵਾਕ – Punjabi" lang="pa" hreflang="pa" data-title="ਉਪਵਾਕ" data-language-autonym="ਪੰਜਾਬੀ" data-language-local-name="Punjabi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ਪੰਜਾਬੀ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pnb mw-list-item"><a href="https://pnb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%88%D8%A7%DA%A9" title="واک – Western Punjabi" lang="pnb" hreflang="pnb" data-title="واک" data-language-autonym="پنجابی" data-language-local-name="Western Punjabi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>پنجابی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ora%C3%A7%C3%A3o_(gram%C3%A1tica)" title="Oração (gramática) – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Oração (gramática)" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Português</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ro mw-list-item"><a href="https://ro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Propozi%C8%9Bie_gramatical%C4%83" title="Propoziție gramaticală – Romanian" lang="ro" hreflang="ro" data-title="Propoziție gramaticală" data-language-autonym="Română" data-language-local-name="Romanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Română</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9A%D0%BB%D0%B0%D1%83%D0%B7%D0%B0" title="Клауза – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Клауза" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Русский</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-simple mw-list-item"><a href="https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Clause" title="Clause – Simple English" lang="en-simple" hreflang="en-simple" data-title="Clause" data-language-autonym="Simple English" data-language-local-name="Simple English" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Simple English</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sl mw-list-item"><a href="https://sl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stavek" title="Stavek – Slovenian" lang="sl" hreflang="sl" data-title="Stavek" data-language-autonym="Slovenščina" data-language-local-name="Slovenian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Slovenščina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fi mw-list-item"><a href="https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lause" title="Lause – Finnish" lang="fi" hreflang="fi" data-title="Lause" data-language-autonym="Suomi" data-language-local-name="Finnish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Suomi</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sv mw-list-item"><a href="https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sats_(lingvistik)" title="Sats (lingvistik) – Swedish" lang="sv" hreflang="sv" data-title="Sats (lingvistik)" data-language-autonym="Svenska" data-language-local-name="Swedish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Svenska</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tl mw-list-item"><a href="https://tl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sugnay" title="Sugnay – Tagalog" lang="tl" hreflang="tl" data-title="Sugnay" data-language-autonym="Tagalog" data-language-local-name="Tagalog" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Tagalog</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ta mw-list-item"><a href="https://ta.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%AE%89%E0%AE%9F%E0%AF%8D%E0%AE%95%E0%AF%82%E0%AE%B1%E0%AF%81" title="உட்கூறு – Tamil" lang="ta" hreflang="ta" data-title="உட்கூறு" data-language-autonym="தமிழ்" data-language-local-name="Tamil" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>தமிழ்</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tr mw-list-item"><a href="https://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yan_c%C3%BCmlecik" title="Yan cümlecik – Turkish" lang="tr" hreflang="tr" data-title="Yan cümlecik" data-language-autonym="Türkçe" data-language-local-name="Turkish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Türkçe</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-wa mw-list-item"><a href="https://wa.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fr%C3%A5zlete" title="Fråzlete – Walloon" lang="wa" hreflang="wa" data-title="Fråzlete" data-language-autonym="Walon" data-language-local-name="Walloon" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Walon</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-yue mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh-yue.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E5%AD%90%E5%8F%A5" title="子句 – Cantonese" lang="yue" hreflang="yue" data-title="子句" data-language-autonym="粵語" data-language-local-name="Cantonese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>粵語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E4%BB%8E%E5%8F%A5" title="从句 – Chinese" lang="zh" hreflang="zh" data-title="从句" data-language-autonym="中文" data-language-local-name="Chinese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>中文</span></a></li> </ul> <div class="after-portlet after-portlet-lang"><span class="wb-langlinks-edit wb-langlinks-link"><a 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div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">For other uses, see <a href="/wiki/Clause_(disambiguation)" class="mw-disambig" title="Clause (disambiguation)">Clause (disambiguation)</a>.</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1251242444">.mw-parser-output .ambox{border:1px solid #a2a9b1;border-left:10px solid #36c;background-color:#fbfbfb;box-sizing:border-box}.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+style+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+style+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+link+.ambox{margin-top:-1px}html body.mediawiki .mw-parser-output .ambox.mbox-small-left{margin:4px 1em 4px 0;overflow:hidden;width:238px;border-collapse:collapse;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em}.mw-parser-output .ambox-speedy{border-left:10px solid #b32424;background-color:#fee7e6}.mw-parser-output .ambox-delete{border-left:10px solid #b32424}.mw-parser-output .ambox-content{border-left:10px solid #f28500}.mw-parser-output .ambox-style{border-left:10px solid #fc3}.mw-parser-output .ambox-move{border-left:10px solid #9932cc}.mw-parser-output .ambox-protection{border-left:10px solid #a2a9b1}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-text{border:none;padding:0.25em 0.5em;width:100%}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-image{border:none;padding:2px 0 2px 0.5em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-imageright{border:none;padding:2px 0.5em 2px 0;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-empty-cell{border:none;padding:0;width:1px}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-image-div{width:52px}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .ambox{margin:0 10%}}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .ambox{display:none!important}}</style><table class="box-Missing_information plainlinks metadata ambox ambox-content" role="presentation"><tbody><tr><td class="mbox-image"><div class="mbox-image-div"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Wiki_letter_w.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/6/6c/Wiki_letter_w.svg/44px-Wiki_letter_w.svg.png" decoding="async" width="44" height="44" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/6/6c/Wiki_letter_w.svg/66px-Wiki_letter_w.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/6/6c/Wiki_letter_w.svg/88px-Wiki_letter_w.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="44" data-file-height="44" /></a></span></div></td><td class="mbox-text"><div class="mbox-text-span">This article <b>is missing information</b> about clauses in non-English languages.<span class="hide-when-compact"> Please expand the article to include this information. Further details may exist on the <a href="/wiki/Talk:Clause" title="Talk:Clause">talk page</a>.</span> <span class="date-container"><i>(<span class="date">November 2013</span>)</i></span></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <p>In <a href="/wiki/Language" title="Language">language</a>, a <b>clause</b> is a <a href="/wiki/Constituent_(linguistics)" title="Constituent (linguistics)">constituent</a> or <a href="/wiki/Phrase_(grammar)" class="mw-redirect" title="Phrase (grammar)">phrase</a> that comprises a semantic <a href="/wiki/Predicand" title="Predicand">predicand</a> (expressed or not) and a semantic <a href="/wiki/Predicate_(grammar)" title="Predicate (grammar)">predicate</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> A typical clause consists of a <a href="/wiki/Subject_(grammar)" title="Subject (grammar)">subject</a> and a syntactic <a href="/wiki/Predicate_(grammar)" title="Predicate (grammar)">predicate</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> the latter typically a <a href="/wiki/Verb_phrase" title="Verb phrase">verb phrase</a> composed of a <a href="/wiki/Verb" title="Verb">verb</a> with or without any <a href="/wiki/Object_(grammar)" title="Object (grammar)">objects</a> and other <a href="/wiki/Grammatical_modifier" title="Grammatical modifier">modifiers</a>. However, the subject is sometimes unexpressed if it is easily deductable from the context, especially in <a href="/wiki/Null-subject_language" title="Null-subject language">null-subject language</a> but also in other languages, including instances of the <a href="/wiki/Imperative_mood" title="Imperative mood">imperative mood</a> in <a href="/wiki/English_grammar" title="English grammar">English</a>. </p><p>A complete <a href="/wiki/Simple_sentence" class="mw-redirect" title="Simple sentence">simple sentence</a> contains a single clause with a <a href="/wiki/Finite_verb" title="Finite verb">finite verb</a>. <a href="/wiki/Complex_sentence" class="mw-redirect" title="Complex sentence">Complex sentences</a> contain at least one clause subordinated (<a href="/wiki/Dependent_clause" title="Dependent clause"><i>dependent</i></a>) to an <i><a href="/wiki/Independent_clause" title="Independent clause">independent clause</a></i> (one that could stand alone as a simple sentence), which may be co-ordinated with other independents with or without dependents. Some dependent clauses are <a href="/wiki/Non-finite_clause" title="Non-finite clause">non-finite</a>, i.e. does not contain any element/verb marking a specific tense. </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Two_major_distinctions">Two major distinctions</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Clause&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Two major distinctions"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>A primary division for the discussion of clauses is the distinction between <b>independent clauses</b> and <b>dependent clauses</b>.<sup id="cite_ref-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> An independent clause can stand alone, i.e. it can constitute a complete sentence by itself. A dependent clause, by contrast, relies on an independent clause's presence to be efficiently utilizable. </p><p>A second significant distinction concerns the difference between finite and non-finite clauses. A finite clause contains a structurally central <a href="/wiki/Finite_verb" title="Finite verb">finite verb</a>, whereas the structurally central word of a non-finite clause is often a <a href="/wiki/Non-finite_verb" class="mw-redirect" title="Non-finite verb">non-finite verb</a>. Traditional grammar focuses on finite clauses, the awareness of non-finite clauses having arisen much later in connection with the modern study of syntax. The discussion here also focuses on finite clauses, although some aspects of non-finite clauses are considered further below. </p><p>Clauses can be classified according to a distinctive trait that is a prominent characteristic of their syntactic form. The position of the finite verb is one major trait used for classification, and the appearance of a specific type of focusing word (e.g. <a href="/w/index.php?title=%27Wh%27-word&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="'Wh'-word (page does not exist)">'Wh'-word</a>) is another. These two criteria overlap to an extent, which means that often no single aspect of syntactic form is always decisive in deciding how the clause functions. There are, however, strong tendencies. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Standard_SV-clauses">Standard SV-clauses</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Clause&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Standard SV-clauses"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Standard SV-clauses (subject-verb) are the norm in English. They are usually declarative (as opposed to exclamative, imperative, or interrogative); they express information neutrally, e.g. </p> <dl><dd><dl><dd>The pig has not yet been fed. –  Declarative clause, standard SV order</dd> <dd>I've been hungry for two hours. –  Declarative clause, standard SV order</dd> <dd>...that I've been hungry for two hours. –  Declarative clause, standard SV order, but functioning as a subordinate clause due to the appearance of the <a href="/wiki/Subordinator_(grammar)" class="mw-redirect" title="Subordinator (grammar)">subordinator</a> <i>that</i></dd></dl></dd></dl> <p>Declarative clauses like these are by far the most frequently occurring type of clause in any language. They can be viewed as basic, with other clause types being derived from them. Standard SV-clauses can also be interrogative or exclamative, however, given the appropriate intonation <a href="/wiki/Contour_(linguistics)" title="Contour (linguistics)">contour</a> and/or the appearance of a question word, e.g. </p> <dl><dd><dl><dd>a. The pig has not yet been fed? –  Rising intonation on <i>fed</i> makes the clause a <a href="/wiki/Yes%E2%80%93no_question" title="Yes–no question">yes/no question</a>.</dd></dl></dd></dl> <dl><dd><dl><dd>b. The pig has not yet been fed! –  Spoken forcefully, this clause is exclamative.</dd></dl></dd></dl> <dl><dd><dl><dd>c. You've been hungry for how long? –  Appearance of interrogative word <i>how</i> and rising intonation make the clause a constituent question</dd></dl></dd></dl> <p>Examples like these demonstrate that how a clause functions cannot be known based entirely on a single distinctive syntactic criterion. SV-clauses are usually declarative, but intonation and/or the appearance of a question word can render them interrogative or exclamative. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Verb_first_clauses">Verb first clauses</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Clause&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Verb first clauses"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Verb first clauses in English usually play one of three roles: 1. They express a yes/no-question via <a href="/wiki/Subject%E2%80%93auxiliary_inversion" title="Subject–auxiliary inversion">subject–auxiliary inversion</a>, 2. they express a condition as an embedded clause, or 3. they express a command via imperative mood, e.g. </p> <dl><dd><dl><dd>a. He <b>must</b> stop laughing. –  Standard declarative SV-clause (verb second order)</dd> <dd>b. <b>Should</b> he stop laughing? –  Yes/no-question expressed by verb first order</dd> <dd>c. <b>Had</b> he stopped laughing, ... –  Condition expressed by verb first order</dd> <dd>d. <b>Stop</b> laughing! –  Imperative formed with verb first order</dd></dl></dd></dl> <dl><dd><dl><dd>a. They <b>have</b> done the job. –  Standard declarative SV-clause (verb second order)</dd> <dd>b. <b>Have</b> they done the job? –  Yes/no-question expressed by verb first order</dd> <dd>c. <b>Had</b> they done the job, ... –  Condition expressed by verb first order</dd> <dd>d. <b>Do</b> the job! –  Imperative formed with verb first order</dd></dl></dd></dl> <p>Most verb first clauses are independent clauses. Verb first conditional clauses, however, must be classified as embedded clauses because they cannot stand alone. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Wh-clauses"><i>Wh</i>-clauses</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Clause&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Wh-clauses"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In <a href="/wiki/English_language" title="English language">English</a>, <i>Wh</i>-clauses contain a <i>wh</i>-word. <i>Wh</i>-words often serve to help express a constituent question. They are also prevalent, though, as relative pronouns, in which case they serve to introduce a relative clause and are not part of a question. The <i>wh</i>-word focuses a particular constituent, and most of the time, it appears in clause-initial position. The following examples illustrate standard interrogative <i>wh</i>-clauses. The b-sentences are direct questions (independent clauses), and the c-sentences contain the corresponding indirect questions (embedded clauses): </p> <dl><dd><dl><dd>a. Sam likes the meat. –  Standard declarative SV-clause</dd> <dd>b. <b>Who</b> likes the meat? –  Matrix interrogative <i>wh</i>-clause focusing on the subject</dd> <dd>c. They asked <u><b>who</b> likes the meat</u>. –  Embedded interrogative <i>wh</i>-clause focusing on the subject</dd></dl></dd></dl> <dl><dd><dl><dd>a. Larry sent Susan to the store. –  Standard declarative SV-clause</dd> <dd>b. <b>Whom</b> did Larry send to the store? –  Matrix interrogative <i>wh</i>-clause focusing on the object, subject-auxiliary inversion present</dd> <dd>c. We know <u><b>whom</b> Larry sent to the store</u>. –  Embedded <i>wh</i>-clause focusing on the object, subject-auxiliary inversion absent</dd></dl></dd></dl> <dl><dd><dl><dd>a. Larry sent Susan to the store. –  Standard declarative SV-clause</dd> <dd>b. <b>Where</b> did Larry send Susan? –  Matrix interrogative <i>wh</i>-clause focusing on the oblique object, subject-auxiliary inversion present</dd> <dd>c. Someone is wondering <u><b>where</b> Larry sent Susan</u>. –  Embedded <i>wh</i>-clause focusing on the oblique object, subject-auxiliary inversion absent</dd></dl></dd></dl> <p>One important aspect of matrix <i>wh</i>-clauses is that <a href="/wiki/Subject-auxiliary_inversion" class="mw-redirect" title="Subject-auxiliary inversion">subject-auxiliary inversion</a> is obligatory when something other than the subject is focused. When it is the subject (or something embedded in the subject) that is focused, however, subject-auxiliary inversion does not occur. </p> <dl><dd><dl><dd>a. <b>Who</b> called you? –  Subject focused, no subject-auxiliary inversion</dd> <dd>b. <b>Whom</b> did you call? –  Object focused, subject-auxiliary inversion occurs</dd></dl></dd></dl> <p>Another important aspect of <i>wh</i>-clauses concerns the absence of subject-auxiliary inversion in embedded clauses, as illustrated in the c-examples just produced. Subject-auxiliary inversion is obligatory in matrix clauses when something other than the subject is focused, but it never occurs in embedded clauses regardless of the constituent that is focused. A systematic distinction in word order emerges across matrix <i>wh</i>-clauses, which can have VS order, and embedded <i>wh</i>-clauses, which always maintain SV order, e.g. </p> <dl><dd><dl><dd>a. <b>Why</b> are they doing that? –  Subject-auxiliary inversion results in VS order in matrix <i>wh</i>-clause.</dd> <dd>b. They told us <u><b>why</b> they are doing that</u>. –  Subject-auxiliary inversion is absent in embedded <i>wh</i>-clause.</dd> <dd>c. *They told us <u><b>why</b> are they doing that</u>. –  Subject-auxiliary inversion is blocked in embedded <i>wh</i>-clause.</dd></dl></dd></dl> <dl><dd><dl><dd>a. <b>Whom</b> is he trying to avoid? –  Subject-auxiliary inversion results in VS order in matrix <i>wh</i>-clause.</dd> <dd>b. We know <u><b>whom</b> he is trying to avoid</u>. –  Subject-auxiliary inversion is absent in embedded <i>wh-</i>clause.</dd> <dd>c. *We know <u><b>whom</b> is he trying to avoid</u>. –  Subject-auxiliary inversion is blocked in embedded <i>wh</i>-clause.</dd></dl></dd></dl> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Relative_clauses">Relative clauses</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Clause&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Relative clauses"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Relative_clause" title="Relative clause">Relative clause</a>. See also <a href="/wiki/English_relative_clauses" title="English relative clauses">English relative clauses</a>.</div> <p><a href="/wiki/Relative_clause" title="Relative clause">Relative clauses</a> are a mixed group. In English they can be standard SV-clauses if they are introduced by <i>that</i> or lack a relative pronoun entirely, or they can be <i>wh</i>-clauses if they are introduced by a <a href="/wiki/Wh-word" class="mw-redirect" title="Wh-word"><i>wh</i>-word</a> that serves as a <a href="/wiki/Relative_pronoun" title="Relative pronoun">relative pronoun</a>. </p><p><br /> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Clauses_according_to_semantic_predicate-argument_function">Clauses according to semantic predicate-argument function</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Clause&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Clauses according to semantic predicate-argument function"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Embedded clauses can be categorized according to their syntactic function in terms of predicate-argument structures. They can function as <a href="/wiki/Argument_(linguistics)" title="Argument (linguistics)">arguments</a>, as <a href="/wiki/Adjunct_(linguistics)" class="mw-redirect" title="Adjunct (linguistics)">adjuncts</a>, or as <a href="/wiki/Predicative_expression" title="Predicative expression">predicative expressions</a>. That is, embedded clauses can be an argument of a predicate, an adjunct on a predicate, or (part of) the predicate itself. The predicate in question is usually the predicate of an independent clause, but embedding of predicates is also frequent. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Argument_clauses">Argument clauses</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Clause&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Argument clauses"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>A clause that functions as the argument of a given predicate is known as an <i>argument clause</i>. Argument clauses can appear as subjects, as objects, and as obliques. They can also modify a noun predicate, in which case they are known as <i><a href="/wiki/Content_clause" title="Content clause">content clauses</a></i>. </p> <dl><dd><dl><dd><u>That they actually helped</u> was really appreciated. –  SV-clause functioning as the subject argument</dd> <dd>They mentioned <u>that they had actually helped</u>. –  SV-clause functioning as the object argument</dd></dl></dd></dl> <dl><dd><dl><dd><u>What he said</u> was ridiculous. –  <i>Wh</i>-clause functioning as the subject argument</dd> <dd>We know <u><b>what</b> he said</u>. –  <i>Wh</i>-clause functioning as an object argument</dd> <dd>He talked about <u><b>what</b> he had said</u>. –  <i>Wh</i>-clause functioning as an oblique object argument</dd></dl></dd></dl> <p>The following examples illustrate argument clauses that provide the content of a noun. Such argument clauses are content clauses: </p> <dl><dd><dl><dd>a. the claim <u>that he was going to change it</u> –  Argument clause that provides the content of a noun (i.e. content clause)</dd> <dd>b. the claim <u>that he expressed</u> –  Adjunct clause (relative clause) that modifies a noun</dd></dl></dd></dl> <dl><dd><dl><dd>a. the idea <u>that we should alter the law</u> –  Argument clause that provides the content of a noun (i.e. content clause)</dd> <dd>b. the idea <u>that came up</u> –  Adjunct clause (relative clause) that modifies a noun</dd></dl></dd></dl> <p>The content clauses like these in the a-sentences are arguments. Relative clauses introduced by the relative pronoun <i>that</i> as in the b-clauses here have an outward appearance that is closely similar to that of content clauses. The relative clauses are adjuncts, however, not arguments. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Adjunct_clauses">Adjunct clauses</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Clause&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Adjunct clauses"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Adjunct clauses are embedded clauses that modify an entire predicate-argument structure. All clause types (SV-, verb first, <i>wh-</i>) can function as adjuncts, although the stereotypical adjunct clause is SV and introduced by a subordinator (i.e. <a href="/wiki/Subordinate_conjunction" class="mw-redirect" title="Subordinate conjunction">subordinate conjunction</a>, e.g. <i>after</i>, <i>because</i>, <i>before</i>, <i>now</i>, etc.), e.g. </p> <dl><dd><dl><dd>a. Fred arrived <u>before you did</u>. –  Adjunct clause modifying matrix clause</dd> <dd>b. <u>After Fred arrived</u>, the party started. –  Adjunct clause modifying matrix clause</dd> <dd>c. Susan skipped the meal <u>because she is fasting</u>. –  Adjunct clause modifying matrix clause</dd></dl></dd></dl> <p>These adjunct clauses modify the entire matrix clause. Thus <i>before you did</i> in the first example modifies the matrix clause <i>Fred arrived</i>. Adjunct clauses can also modify a nominal predicate. The typical instance of this type of adjunct is a relative clause, e.g. </p> <dl><dd><dl><dd>a. We like the music <u>that you brought</u>. –  Relative clause functioning as an adjunct that modifies the noun <i>music</i></dd> <dd>b. The people <u><b>who</b> brought music</u> were singing loudly. –  Relative clause functioning as an adjunct that modifies the noun <i>people</i></dd> <dd>c. They are waiting for some food <u>that will not come</u>. –  Relative clause functioning as an adjunct that modifies the noun <i>food</i></dd></dl></dd></dl> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Predicative_clauses">Predicative clauses</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Clause&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Predicative clauses"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>An embedded clause can also function as a <a href="/wiki/Predicative_expression" title="Predicative expression">predicative expression</a>. That is, it can form (part of) the predicate of a greater clause. </p> <dl><dd><dl><dd>a. That was <u><b>when</b> they laughed</u>. –  Predicative SV-clause, i.e. a clause that functions as (part of) the main predicate</dd> <dd>b. He became <u><b>what</b> he always wanted to be</u>. –  Predicative <i>wh</i>-clause, i.e. <i>wh</i>-clause that functions as (part of) the main predicate</dd></dl></dd></dl> <p>These predicative clauses are functioning just like other predicative expressions, e.g. predicative adjectives (<i>That was <u>good</u></i>) and predicative nominals (<i>That was <u>the truth</u></i>). They form the matrix predicate together with the <a href="/wiki/Copula_(linguistics)" title="Copula (linguistics)">copula</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Representing_clauses">Representing clauses</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Clause&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Representing clauses"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Some of the distinctions presented above are represented in syntax trees. These trees make the difference between main and subordinate clauses very clear, and they also illustrate well the difference between argument and adjunct clauses. The following <a href="/wiki/Dependency_grammar" title="Dependency grammar">dependency grammar</a> trees show that embedded clauses are dependent on an element in the independent clause, often on a verb:<sup id="cite_ref-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <dl><dd><dl><dd><span class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Clause_trees_1%27.png" class="mw-file-description" title="Clause trees 1'"><img alt="Clause trees 1'" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/66/Clause_trees_1%27.png" decoding="async" width="893" height="177" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="893" data-file-height="177" /></a></span></dd></dl></dd></dl> <p>The independent clause comprises the entire trees in both instances, whereas the embedded clauses constitute arguments of the respective independent clauses: the embedded <i>wh</i>-clause <i>what we want</i> is the object argument of the predicate <i>know</i>; the embedded clause <i>that he is gaining</i> is the subject argument of the predicate <i>is motivating</i>. Both of these argument clauses are dependent on the verb of the matrix clause. The following trees identify adjunct clauses using an arrow dependency edge: </p> <dl><dd><dl><dd><span class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Clause_trees_2.png" class="mw-file-description" title="Clause trees 2"><img alt="Clause trees 2" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/16/Clause_trees_2.png" decoding="async" width="893" height="211" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="893" data-file-height="211" /></a></span></dd></dl></dd></dl> <p>These two embedded clauses are adjunct clauses because they provide circumstantial information that modifies a superordinate expression. The first is a dependent of the main verb of the matrix clause and the second is a dependent of the object noun. The arrow dependency edges identify them as adjuncts. The arrow points away from the adjunct towards it <a href="/wiki/Government_(linguistics)" title="Government (linguistics)">governor</a> to indicate that semantic <a href="/wiki/Selection_(linguistics)" title="Selection (linguistics)">selection</a> is running counter to the direction of the syntactic dependency; the adjunct is selecting its governor. The next four trees illustrate the distinction mentioned above between matrix <i>wh</i>-clauses and embedded <i>wh</i>-clauses </p> <dl><dd><dl><dd><span class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Clause_trees_3%27.png" class="mw-file-description" title="Clause trees 3'"><img alt="Clause trees 3'" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/b/ba/Clause_trees_3%27.png" decoding="async" width="773" height="433" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="773" data-file-height="433" /></a></span></dd></dl></dd></dl> <p>The embedded <i>wh</i>-clause is an object argument each time. The position of the <i>wh</i>-word across the matrix clauses (a-trees) and the embedded clauses (b-trees) captures the difference in word order. Matrix <i>wh</i>-clauses have <a href="/wiki/V2_word_order" title="V2 word order">V2 word order</a>, whereas embedded wh-clauses have (what amounts to) V3 word order. In the matrix clauses, the <i>wh</i>-word is a dependent of the finite verb, whereas it is the head over the finite verb in the embedded <i>wh</i>-clauses. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Clauses_vs_phrases">Clauses vs phrases</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Clause&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Clauses vs phrases"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>There has been confusion about the distinction between clauses and <a href="/wiki/Phrase" title="Phrase">phrases</a>. This confusion is due in part to how these concepts are employed in the <a href="/wiki/Phrase_structure_grammar" title="Phrase structure grammar">phrase structure grammars</a> of the Chomskyan tradition. In the 1970s, Chomskyan grammars began labeling many clauses as CPs (i.e. complementizer phrases) or as IPs (i.e. inflection phrases), and then later as TPs (i.e. tense phrases), etc. The choice of labels was influenced by the theory-internal desire to use the labels consistently. The <a href="/wiki/X-bar_theory" title="X-bar theory">X-bar schema</a> acknowledged at least three projection levels for every lexical head: a minimal projection (e.g. N, V, P, etc.), an intermediate projection (e.g. N', V', P', etc.), and a phrase level projection (e.g. NP, VP, PP, etc.). Extending this convention to the clausal categories occurred in the interest of the consistent use of labels. </p><p>This use of labels should not, however, be confused with the actual status of the syntactic units to which the labels are attached. A more traditional understanding of clauses and phrases maintains that phrases are not clauses, and clauses are not phrases. There is a progression in the size and status of syntactic units: <i>words < phrases < clauses</i>. The characteristic trait of clauses, i.e. the presence of a subject and a (finite) verb, is absent from phrases. Clauses can be, however, embedded inside phrases. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Non-finite_clauses">Non-finite clauses</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Clause&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Non-finite clauses"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Non-finite_clause" title="Non-finite clause">Non-finite clause</a></div> <p>The central word of a non-finite clause is usually a <a href="/wiki/Non-finite_verb" class="mw-redirect" title="Non-finite verb">non-finite verb</a> (as opposed to a <a href="/wiki/Finite_verb" title="Finite verb">finite verb</a>). There are various types of non-finite clauses that can be acknowledged based in part on the type of non-finite verb at hand. <a href="/wiki/Gerund" title="Gerund">Gerunds</a> are widely acknowledged to constitute non-finite clauses, and some modern grammars also judge many <i>to</i>-infinitives to be the structural locus of non-finite clauses. Finally, some modern grammars also acknowledge so-called <a href="/wiki/Small_clause" title="Small clause">small clauses</a>, which often lack a verb altogether. It should be apparent that non-finite clauses are (by and large) embedded clauses. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Gerund_clauses">Gerund clauses</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Clause&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: Gerund clauses"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The underlined words in the following examples are considered non-finite clauses, e.g. </p> <dl><dd><dl><dd>a. <u>Bill stopping the project</u> was a big disappointment. –  Non-finite gerund clause</dd> <dd>b. Bill's stopping of the project was a big disappointment. –  Gerund with noun status</dd></dl></dd></dl> <dl><dd><dl><dd>a. We've heard about <u>Susan attempting a solution</u>. –  Non-finite gerund clause</dd> <dd>b. We've heard about Susan's attempting of a solution. –  Gerund with noun status</dd></dl></dd></dl> <dl><dd><dl><dd>a. They mentioned <u>him cheating on the test</u>. –  Non-finite gerund clause</dd> <dd>b. They mentioned his cheating on the test. –  Gerund with noun status</dd></dl></dd></dl> <p>Each of the gerunds in the a-sentences (<i>stopping</i>, <i>attempting</i>, and <i>cheating</i>) constitutes a non-finite clause. The subject-predicate relationship that has long been taken as the defining trait of clauses is fully present in the a-sentences. The fact that the b-sentences are also acceptable illustrates the enigmatic behavior of gerunds. They seem to straddle two syntactic categories: they can function as non-finite verbs or as nouns. When they function as nouns as in the b-sentences, it is debatable whether they constitute clauses, since nouns are not generally taken to be constitutive of clauses. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="to-infinitive_clauses"><i>to</i>-infinitive clauses</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Clause&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: to-infinitive clauses"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Some modern theories of syntax take many <i>to</i>-infinitives to be constitutive of non-finite clauses.<sup id="cite_ref-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This stance is supported by the clear predicate status of many <i>to</i>-infinitives. It is challenged, however, by the fact that <i>to</i>-infinitives do not take an overt subject, e.g. </p> <dl><dd><dl><dd>a. She refuses <u>to consider the issue</u>.</dd> <dd>a. He attempted <u>to explain his concerns</u>.</dd></dl></dd></dl> <p>The <i>to</i>-infinitives <i>to consider</i> and <i>to explain</i> clearly qualify as predicates (because they can be negated). They do not, however, take overt subjects. The subjects <i>she</i> and <i>he</i> are dependents of the matrix verbs <i>refuses</i> and <i>attempted</i>, respectively, not of the <i>to</i>-infinitives. Data like these are often addressed in terms of <a href="/wiki/Control_(linguistics)" title="Control (linguistics)">control</a>. The matrix predicates <i>refuses</i> and <i>attempted</i> are control verbs; they control the embedded predicates <i>consider</i> and <i>explain</i>, which means they determine which of their arguments serves as the subject argument of the embedded predicate. Some theories of syntax posit the null subject <a href="/wiki/PRO_(linguistics)" title="PRO (linguistics)">PRO</a> (i.e. pronoun) to help address the facts of control constructions, e.g. </p> <dl><dd><dl><dd>b. She refuses <u>PRO to consider the issue</u>.</dd> <dd>b. He attempted <u>PRO to explain his concerns</u>.</dd></dl></dd></dl> <p>With the presence of PRO as a null subject, <i>to</i>-infinitives can be construed as complete clauses, since both subject and predicate are present. </p><p>PRO-theory is particular to one tradition in the study of syntax and grammar (<a href="/wiki/Government_and_Binding_Theory" class="mw-redirect" title="Government and Binding Theory">Government and Binding Theory</a>, <a href="/wiki/Minimalist_Program" class="mw-redirect" title="Minimalist Program">Minimalist Program</a>). Other theories of syntax and grammar (e.g. <a href="/wiki/Head-Driven_Phrase_Structure_Grammar" class="mw-redirect" title="Head-Driven Phrase Structure Grammar">Head-Driven Phrase Structure Grammar</a>, <a href="/wiki/Construction_Grammar" class="mw-redirect" title="Construction Grammar">Construction Grammar</a>, <a href="/wiki/Dependency_grammar" title="Dependency grammar">dependency grammar</a>) reject the presence of null elements such as PRO, which means they are likely to reject the stance that <i>to</i>-infinitives constitute clauses. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Small_clauses">Small clauses</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Clause&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: Small clauses"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Another type of construction that some schools of syntax and grammar view as non-finite clauses is the so-called <a href="/wiki/Small_clause" title="Small clause">small clause</a>. A typical small clause consists of a noun phrase and a predicative expression,<sup id="cite_ref-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> e.g. </p> <dl><dd><dl><dd>We consider <u>that a joke</u>. –  Small clause with the predicative noun phrase <i>a joke</i></dd> <dd>Something made <u>him angry</u>. –  Small clause with the predicative adjective <i>angry</i></dd> <dd>She wants <u>us to stay</u>. –  Small clause with the predicative non-finite <i>to</i>-infinitive <i>to stay</i></dd></dl></dd></dl> <p>The subject-predicate relationship is clearly present in the underlined strings. The expression on the right is a predication over the noun phrase immediately to its left. While the subject-predicate relationship is indisputably present, the underlined strings do not behave as single <a href="/wiki/Constituent_(linguistics)" title="Constituent (linguistics)">constituents</a>, a fact that undermines their status as clauses. Hence one can debate whether the underlined strings in these examples should qualify as clauses. The layered structures of the chomskyan tradition are again likely to view the underlined strings as clauses, whereas the schools of syntax that posit flatter structures are likely to reject clause status for them. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Clause&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Adverbial_clause" title="Adverbial clause">Adverbial clause</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Balancing_and_deranking" title="Balancing and deranking">Balancing and deranking</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dependent_clause" title="Dependent clause">Dependent clause</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phrase" title="Phrase">Phrase</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Relative_clause" title="Relative clause">Relative clause</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sentence_(linguistics)" title="Sentence (linguistics)">Sentence (linguistics)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/T-unit" title="T-unit">T-unit</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thematic_equative" title="Thematic equative">Thematic equative</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Notes">Notes</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Clause&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: Notes"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist reflist-columns references-column-width" style="column-width: 30em;"> <ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-1">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://glossary.sil.org/term/clause">"Clause"</a>. 10 February 2017.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Clause&rft.date=2017-02-10&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fglossary.sil.org%2Fterm%2Fclause&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AClause" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-2">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">For a definition of the clause that emphasizes the subject-predicate relationship, see Radford (2004327f.).</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-3">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Most basic discussions of the clause emphasize the distinction between main and subordinate clauses. See for instance Crystal (1997:62).</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-4">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Numerous dependency grammar trees like the ones produced here can be found, for instance, in Osborne and Groß (2012).</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-5">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">For an example of a grammar that acknowledges non-finite <i>to</i>-infinitive clauses, see Radford (2004:23).</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-6"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-6">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">For the basic characteristics of small clauses, see Crystal (1997:62).</span> </li> </ol></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Clause&action=edit&section=18" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1235681985">.mw-parser-output .side-box{margin:4px 0;box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #aaa;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em;background-color:var(--background-color-interactive-subtle,#f8f9fa);display:flow-root}.mw-parser-output .side-box-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{padding:0.25em 0.9em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-image{padding:2px 0 2px 0.9em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-imageright{padding:2px 0.9em 2px 0;text-align:center}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .side-box-flex{display:flex;align-items:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{flex:1;min-width:0}}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .side-box{width:238px}.mw-parser-output .side-box-right{clear:right;float:right;margin-left:1em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-left{margin-right:1em}}</style><div class="side-box metadata side-box-right"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1126788409">.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul{line-height:inherit;list-style:none;margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol li,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul li{margin-bottom:0}</style> <div class="side-box-abovebelow"> <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:The_Wikipedia_Library" title="Wikipedia:The Wikipedia Library">Library resources</a> about <br /> <b>Clause</b> <hr /></div> <div class="side-box-flex"> <div class="side-box-text plainlist"><ul><li><a class="external text" href="https://ftl.toolforge.org/cgi-bin/ftl?st=wp&su=Clause">Resources in your library</a></li> </ul></div></div> </div> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDavid_Crystal2011" class="citation book cs1">David Crystal (23 September 2011). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=3ZPQVuSgDAkC&q=Clause"><i>A Dictionary of Linguistics and Phonetics</i></a>. <a href="/wiki/John_Wiley_%26_Sons" class="mw-redirect" title="John Wiley & Sons">John Wiley & Sons</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4443-5675-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-4443-5675-5"><bdi>978-1-4443-5675-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+Dictionary+of+Linguistics+and+Phonetics&rft.pub=John+Wiley+%26+Sons&rft.date=2011-09-23&rft.isbn=978-1-4443-5675-5&rft.au=David+Crystal&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D3ZPQVuSgDAkC%26q%3DClause&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AClause" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://glossary.sil.org/term/clause">"Glossary of Linguistic Terms: Clause"</a>. <i>glossary.sil.org</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">11 October</span> 2023</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=glossary.sil.org&rft.atitle=Glossary+of+Linguistic+Terms%3A+Clause&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fglossary.sil.org%2Fterm%2Fclause&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AClause" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li>Kroeger, Paul R. (2005). <i>Analysing Grammar: An Introduction</i>. Cambridge. UK: <a href="/wiki/Cambridge_University_Press" title="Cambridge University Press">Cambridge University Press</a>.</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFTimothy_OsborneThomas_Gross2012" class="citation journal cs1">Timothy Osborne; Thomas Gross (2012). "Constructions are catenae: Construction Grammar meets Dependency Grammar". <i>Cognitive Linguistics</i>. <b>23</b> (1): 163–214. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1515%2Fcog-2012-0006">10.1515/cog-2012-0006</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Cognitive+Linguistics&rft.atitle=Constructions+are+catenae%3A+Construction+Grammar+meets+Dependency+Grammar&rft.volume=23&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=163-214&rft.date=2012&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1515%2Fcog-2012-0006&rft.au=Timothy+Osborne&rft.au=Thomas+Gross&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AClause" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Andrew_Radford_(linguist)" title="Andrew Radford (linguist)">Radford, Andrew</a> (2004). <i>English syntax: An introduction</i>. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press.</li></ul>    </div><noscript><img src="https://login.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:CentralAutoLogin/start?type=1x1" alt="" width="1" height="1" style="border: none; position: absolute;"></noscript> <div class="printfooter" data-nosnippet="">Retrieved from "<a dir="ltr" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Clause&oldid=1246211050">https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Clause&oldid=1246211050</a>"</div></div> <div id="catlinks" class="catlinks" data-mw="interface"><div id="mw-normal-catlinks" class="mw-normal-catlinks"><a href="/wiki/Help:Category" title="Help:Category">Categories</a>: <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Syntactic_entities" title="Category:Syntactic entities">Syntactic entities</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Clauses" title="Category:Clauses">Clauses</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Syntactic_categories" title="Category:Syntactic categories">Syntactic categories</a></li></ul></div><div id="mw-hidden-catlinks" class="mw-hidden-catlinks mw-hidden-cats-hidden">Hidden categories: <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Articles_with_short_description" title="Category:Articles with short description">Articles with short description</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Short_description_matches_Wikidata" title="Category:Short description matches Wikidata">Short description matches Wikidata</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Articles_to_be_expanded_from_November_2013" title="Category:Articles to be expanded from November 2013">Articles to be expanded from November 2013</a></li></ul></div></div> </div> </main> </div> <div class="mw-footer-container"> <footer id="footer" class="mw-footer" > <ul id="footer-info"> <li id="footer-info-lastmod"> This page was last edited on 17 September 2024, at 15:48<span class="anonymous-show"> (UTC)</span>.</li> <li id="footer-info-copyright">Text is available under the <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Text_of_the_Creative_Commons_Attribution-ShareAlike_4.0_International_License" title="Wikipedia:Text of the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 International License">Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 License</a>; additional terms may apply. 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